Ludwing Mies van der Rohe, works of Michelangelo

History of Architecture Semester 6 Final Term Paper

Ammani Nair A/2022/2008

Bhavika Aggarwal A/2004/2008

Varun Bajaj A/2014/2008

Medici Chapel +

Laurentian Library, Florence

Capitol Complex,

Rome

The Medici Family  Known as the House of Medici or Casa di Medici  Political dynasty, banking family and later royal house  Originally from the Tuscan countryside, eventually based in Florence  Found the Medici Bank, the largest in Europe during the 15th century  The Medici produced four Popes of the Catholic Church and in 1531 the family became hereditary Dukes of Florence.

… And their contributions…

Giovanni de' Medici, founder of the Medici bank.

 The art and architecture encouraged by the Medici’s belonged to High renaissance and Mannerism styles.  Some salient examples of architectural work patronized by the Medici family are:  Basilica of San Lorenzo by Brunelleschi  Medici Chapel (I) by Michelangelo  Laurentian library by Michelangelo  Some art works of Leonardo Da Vinci  Palazzo Medici Coat of Arms

San Lorenzo Complex, Florence The San Lorenzo complex came into being at the onset of the 15th century , during the renaissance. The following buildings form a significant part of the complex:

 The San Lorenzo Basilica (Old Sacristy)  Sagrestia Nuova  Cappella dei Principi  Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

Areal View of San Lorenzo

San Lorenzo Complex

Map of the Old city of Florence

Medici Chapel (S) The Medici chapel refers to 2 buildings, both of which are a part of the San Lorenzo Complex in Florence:

 Sagrestia Nuova, the "New Sacristy", designed

by Michelangelo (1520)

Sagrestia Nuova

 Cappella dei Principi, the "Chapel of the Princes“ (16th and 17th Century) The one by Michelangelo is more significant, with relation to the other buildings in the complex as well, and thus, it shall be discussed in greater detail in the following slides.

Capella dei Principi

Sagrestia Nuova [ Medici Chapel ]

By Michelangelo (1520 onwards) Background  After the death of 2 important members of the Medici Family, Giuliano duca di Nemours and Lorenzo duca d'Urbino, it was decided that there was not enough space for the graves to be placed in the ‘old sacristy’ built by Brunelleschi  The ultimate design was by Michelangelo (1520-'34) that was grafted on a previous system designed by Laurentian Giuliani da Sangallo (1491) and was compl eted in the current arrangement, by Vasari.

The dome from inside

Sagrestia Nuova

Sagrestia Nuova [ Medici Chapel ]

By Michelangelo (1520 onwards)

Form + Plan  The form is that of a simple cube surmounted by a dome  Plan is similar to the ‘old sacristy’, with a square base and a purse on the west side in the ratio 1 : 3  Two service rooms on either side of the apse  Covered by a dome with a lantern.

Plan of complex

Placement of Graves

Plan of the Medici Chapels

 Idea 1: graves provided at the corners against the walls  Idea 2: Central Kiosk with four graves  Idea 3: A four fronted bow in the center  Idea 4 (Final): 2 single graves on opposite sides and a double grave on the other façade.

Sagrestia Nuova [ Medici Chapel ]

By Michelangelo (1520 onwards)

Architectural Character + innovations  Starting from the same plan in the Sacristy of Brunelleschi , Michelangelo divided the space into more complex forms, covering the walls with floors at different levels, with full freedom.  Cut out the classic elements such as arches, columns, balustrades and cornices, marble hours in stone , but arranged in completely new shapes and patterns harmoniously.  The rounded, coffered dome was the first of its kind, the dome of St. Peter which was designed by Michelangelo, 30 years after the Sacristy, is in the same style.  The inner lining of the coffered dome is reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome.

Section Plan

Sagrestia Nuova [ Medici Chapel ]

By Michelangelo (1520 onwards) Sculpture

The theme is "time consuming the whole," a profound reflection on human life and then eternity.  Recessed into the two side walls are the monumental tombs , with three sculptures each.  Allegory of Time , which symbolize the triumph of the Medici family on the passing of time. The four Allegories are lying on the graves at the foot of the Dukes.  Michelangelo sculpted the 2 dukes sitting in two niches above their graves, facing each other, both dressed as Roman generals. These sculptures, meticulous in detail, are idealized and not duplicate the actual features, but they have a strong psychological connect.  Both statues look towards the wall of the chapel where Michelangelo created and placed ‘Madonna and Child’.  The female figures have masculine traits, such as shoulders or hips large muscles.

Madonna & Child

Grave

Day

Aurora

Night

Twilight

Cappella dei Principi

By Matteo Negetti (1604)

Plan of the complex

Background  Began as a mausoleum of the Medici family as a symbol of the power of the dynasty.  After the competition, which saw the project of Matthew Nigetti prevail, the building was conducted from 1605 to 1640  Work came to a steep decline, until, in 1740, under the last representative of the Medici, Anna Maria Luisa, the brothers Ferdinand and Joseph Ruggieri made significant changes to Nigetti’s works by creating an opening on each side of the chapel.  Surface treatment and embellishment work went on till 1874

Opulence from the inside

Inside View of windows

The dome of the ‘Chapel of Princes’

Capelle [ Medici Chapel ] Form + Plan ď ą Primarily, an octagonal chamber with a marble-ribbed roof which ends in a lantern, much like Brunelleschi's dome nearby. ď ą Six grand sarcophagi are empty; the Medici remains are interred in the crypt below

The Crypt

The Crypt (underground) Reflected Ceiling Plan

An octagon covered by sturdy vaults resting on squat and strong in stone pilasters, which are alternately inserted, underscored by profiling in stone.

Ground floor Plan

Capelle [ Medici Chapel ] Architectural Character  Unlike the New Sacristy and the Laurentian Library, this structure was extremely opulent, following the Baroque style, breaking away from the lightness and purity of the other two.  Main vault is inlaid with a decorative mosaic of polychrome marbles and pietre dure (inlay of semiprecious stones, an craft which flourished under the medicis) serving as a gaudy backdrop for the tombs.  Assembled jig-sawn fragments of specimen stones form the designs of the revetment that entirely cover the walls  The surface of the Chapel is, in fact, connected to the wall structure with a system of metal hangers that create a gap of varying thickness.

This led to deterioration and had to be restored.

Plan of the Medici Chapels

Pietra Dura

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards)

Background  Built in a cloister of the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence, under the patronage of the Medici pope, Clement VII  built to emphasize that the Medici family were no longer mere merchants but members of intelligent and ecclesiastical society.  famous as a repository of more than 11,000 manuscripts and 4,500 early printed books  The library is renowned for the architecture planned and built by Michelangelo Buonarroti and is an example of Mannerism

San Lorenzo

Plan of the complex

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards)

Form + Plan  The basic plan is a simple long rectangular room with reading areas on either side of a central aisle, very much like the nave of a chapel.  double height Quattro cento cloister was to remain unchanged by the addition of the library.

Because of this, certain features of Michelangelo’s plan such as the length and width were already laid out. Therefore walls were built on already pre-existing walls and cloisters.  The staircase connecting the reading room to the vestibule is a key feature of the plan  Because the walls were built on pre-existing walls, recessing the columns into the walls was a structural necessity, thus leading to a very unique style and pattern.

Sectional 3D view

Plan of the library

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards)

Vestibule   



The Ricetto, is almost a square in plan, 19.50 m. long, 20.30 m. wide, and 14.6 m. tall (31 by 34 by 44 feet).

Built above existing monastic quarters on the east range of the cloister, with an entrance from the upper level of the cloisters.

Clerestory windows were incorporated into the west wall with the artificial adornment of pediments and kneeling columns.

Blank tapering windows framed in peitra serena, (a grey sandstone) circumscribe the interior of the vestibule, separated by paired columns set into the wall Lit by windows in bays that are articulated by pilasters corresponding to the beams of the ceiling, with a tall constricted vestibule and a staircase, it is associated with Mannerism style of architecture.

Vestibule with Mannerist features

19.5 m



20.3 m Plan of Vestibule

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards) Staircase The plan of the stairs changed dramatically in the design stage.  Idea 1: In 1524, two flights of stairs were placed against the side walls and formed a bridge in front of the reading room door.  Idea 2: In 1525, stairway was moved to the middle of the vestibule.  Idea 3: Finally, Ammannati interpreted Michelangelo’s ideas using a small clay model, scanty material, and Michelangelo’s instructions., thus arriving at the present form

 The staircase leads up to the reading room and takes up half of the floor of the vestibule.  As the stairway descends, it divides into three flights.  The treads of the center flights are convex and vary in width, while the outer flights are straight.  The three lowest steps of the central flight are wider and higher than the others, almost like concentric oval slabs.

The staircase

Geometrical Floor pattern, using Pietra Serena

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards)

Reading Room   

 

The reading room is 46.20 m. long, 10.50 m. wide, and 8.4 m. high (152 by 35 by 28 feet).

There are two blocks of seats separated by a centre aisle with the backs of each serving as desks for the benches behind them.

The desks are lit by the evenly spaced windows along the wall. The windows are framed as pilasters and the system of bays they form articulate the layout of the ceiling and floor.

Because the reading room was built upon an existing story, Michelangelo had to reduce the weight of the reading-room walls by recessing columns into the wall.

Beneath the current wooden floor of the library in the Reading Room is a series of 15 rectangular red and white terra cotta floor panels. These panels, measuring 8 foot-6-inches (2.6 m) on a side, when viewed in sequence demonstrate basic principles of geometry and are awe-inspiring.

Reading Room

Isometric view of Library

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana

By Michelangelo (1523 onwards)

Architectural Character + Innovations 

Recessing columns into the walls made the walls look like taut skin stretched between vertical supports. This caused the room to appear as if it mimics the human body, which at the time of the Italian renaissance was believed to be the ideal form.  The columns of the building also appear to be supported on corbels so that the weight seems to be carried on weak elements creating a sense of tension and constrained energy.  The dynamic sculpture of the staircase appears to pour forth from the upper level like lava and compress the floor space of the vestibule which adds a dynamic quality to the space  In sharp contrast to the vestibule and staircase, the reading room’s evenly spaced windows set between pilasters in the side walls is amplified by natural light and gives it a serene, quiet, and restful appearance. .

Current state of Library

Internal Elevation of Vestibule

Capitoline Complex, Rome It is a platue on the highest of the seven hills of Rome, the Capitoline Hill. It is also referred to as the “Campidoglio” in Italian  Historic and religious center of ancient Rome but today is the center of Rome’s municipal government  Michelangelo designed the present but a few ancient ground-level ruins still remain  The Capitoline hill now consists of a flight of steps which leads to the square on top of the hill; on one side of the square is the Palazzo dei Conservatori, on the other, the Capitoline Museum. In the center of the square is the ancient equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

View of Campidoglio

509 B.C

753 B.C

history Rome was founded on the Palatine Hill by Romulus, the first king of Romen. The city soon encompassed Capitoline Hill.

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus was built and became the most important temple in ancient Rome. It was destroyed three times by fire and was last rebuilt by the emperor Domitian.

View of Capitol Hill in Ancient Rome

Other temples built were the Temple of Juno Moneta and the Temple of Virtus .

79 B.C

The complex also consisted of an asylum, which was like a prison and the arx or citadel.

On the hill was the Tabularium, built and used as the empire's main archive.

The hill, and the temple of Jupiter in particular were the symbols of Rome as Caput Mundi, capital of the world.

A. Temple of Jupiter B.Tabularium C. Temple Of Juno D. Roman Forum

1000’s

Became center of the civic government of Rome and scene of movements of urban resistance. Lead to the development of the square

1536 1538

Marcus Aurelius statue was moved to the Capitoline from the Lateran square, which was not originally in Michelangelo’s design

1546

Construction of the Piazza di Campidoglio (the square) started Michelangelo died but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was completed by this time

1940

1600’s

Pope Paul III Farnese asked Michelangelo to design a new square, and redesign the buildings surrounding the square for the visit of Charles V, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

1546

Political center and several palaces were built on the hill.

View of Capitol Hill before 1900’s

The project was finished except for the paving design, which finished three centuries later Benito Mussolini ordered the paving completed to Michelangelo's design

Birds Eye View of Present day Capitol Complex

Michelangelo’s Design He reversed the classical orientation of the Capitoline to face away from the Roman Forum and instead in the direction of Papal Rome and the St. Peter’s Basilica.

His design interventions were:  Redesigned the adjacent Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the Roman senate.  A design for the square, including an intriguing ground pattern.  Besigns of a new façade for the Palazzo dei Conservatori.  A new building, the Palazzo Nuovo, to be built just opposite the Palazzo dei Conservatori.  A monumental staircase, the Cordonata, leading from the bottom of the hill to the new square.

The Cordonata piazza and the central palazzo are the first urban introduction of the "cult of the axis" that was to occupy Italian garden plans Top View of Medieval Capitoline Hill

Cordonata The long staircase to the Piazza del Campidoglio is known as the Cordonata. It is next to the older and much steeper stairs leading to the Aracoeli is a titular basilica  It is adorned with black basalt statues of Egyptian lions at the foot and  It is a wide ramped stair, gradually ascending the hill to reach the piazza  It signifies Campidoglio turning its back on the Roman Forum that it had once commanded.  It was built to be wide enough for horse riders to ascend the hill without dismounting.

Stairway leading to Aracoeli and complex

Balustrate The balustrade punctuated by sculptures atop the giant pilasters. The two massive ancient statues of Castor and Pollux which decorate the balustrades stand at the top of the stairs.

The Cordonata

The Balustrate

Piazza del Campidoglio The piazza del Campidoglio is a symbol of power and is the centre of the city. This square overlooks the city of Rome.  There were a few problems while designing this space:  The space was a trapezoid, and so the facades did not face each other squarely  The whole site was sloped towards the

 Michelangelo solved this with the paving:

Skewed Piazza Design

 His apparent oval in the paving is actually eggshaped, narrower at one.  The paving is perfectly level, around its perimeter, low steps arise and die away into the paving as the slope requires.

 It was engraved by Étienne Dupérac in 1568.  The pattern is an interlaced twelve-pointed star which makes a reference to the constellations, revolving around this space called Caput mundi, the "head of the world.“  This paving design was opposed by the popes, due to its non-Christian subtext and so was only finished in 1940 Finished Piazza

Marcus Aurelius Statue The equestrian Statue in the middle of the piazza is of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.     

Statue of Marcus Aurelius

Capitoline Wolf

The original is now kept in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

The one now standing in the Piazza is a replica It is made of bronze and stands 3.5 m tall.

The overall theme is one of power and divine grandeur Marcus Aurelius, the emperor is over life-size and is holding out his hand in a gesture signifying mercy towards a fallen enemy portraying the Emperor as victorious and all-conquering.  However, shown without weapons or armor, he seems to be a bringer of peace, for that is how he saw himself and his reign.

The Capitoline Wolf is a bronze sculpture of a shewolf suckling the twin infants, Romulus and Remus.

The Capitoline Wolf has been housed since 1471 in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

According to legend, the twins were cast into the Tiber River and were rescued by a she-wolf who cared for them until a herdsman, Faustulus, found and raised them.

Statue of She-Wolf suckling Romulus and Remus

Pallazo The Palazzo Senatorio, the Palazzo Nuovo and the Palazzo dei Conservatori define the limits of the plateau of capitoline hill.  The Palazzo Senatorio with a facade that is attributed to Rainaldi and Della Porta stands on the historcal site of the Tabularium.  Both the Palazzo Nuovo and the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which face each other across the square, were designed as twins by Michelangelo and built respectively by Girolamo Rainaldi and Giacomo della Porta (after 1563).  The divergence of the two palaces facing each other creates a widening perspective  The sole arched motif in the entire Campidoglio design is the segmental pediments over their windows, which give a slight spring to the completely angular vertical-horizontal balance of the design.

Render of Capitoline Hill

Schematic Drawing

Palazzo Senatorio

The Palazzo Senatorio means "Senatorial Palace“ and was built as a fortress in the 11th century on top of the ancient Tabularium and rebuilt again in the 13th and 14th century.  It now houses the Roman city hall.  Its current facade was designed by Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi.  It is distinguished by its converging, double ramp flights of stairs, designed by Michelangelo and before he died.  Its bell tower was designed by Martino Longhi the Elder and built between 1578 and 1582.  Peperino blocks from the Tabularium were re-used in the left side of the palace and a corner of the bell tower.  The fountain in front of the staircase features the river gods of the Tiber and the Nile as well as Dea Roma (Minerva).

Elevation of Palazzo Senatoria

Plan of Palazzo Senatoria

3D of Palazzo Senatoria

Palazzo dei Conservatori The Palazzo dei Conservatori meaning "Palace of the Conservators“ was built in the Middle Ages as a local magistrate on top of the temple of Jupiter  The facade was updated by Michelangelo in the 1530s and again later numerous times.  The first use of a giant order that spanned two storeys  A range of Corinthian pilasters and subsidiary Ionic columns flanking the ground-floor loggia (an Italian veranda) openings and the second-floor windows.  Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino, which now serves as an annex to it was built between 1576-1583

Elevation of Palazzo Dei Conservatori

Palazzo Nuovo The Palazzo Nuovo meaning "New Palace", was constructed in 1603, finished in 1654, and open to the public in 1734. It is now used as part of the Capitoline Museum  It was built to close off the piazza symmetrically and cover up the tower of the Aracoeli.  Its facade duplicates to that of Palazzo dei Conservatori.

Plan of Palazzo Dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo

Both of Michelangelo' s palaces are characterised by an architectural layout sustained by large Corinthian pilasters, and are crowned by an attic with a balustrade supporting large statues.

Ludwig Mies

1886, Aachen- 1969, Chicago

van der

Rohe

structural minimalism and integrity + precision of detail + a strict sense of proportion

pioneering

Modernist architect Author of the phrases:

“Less

Is More” “God is in the details” “Skin-and-Bones architecture” greatly influenced the

development of

American cities Introduced advanced

structural techniques defined modern

architecture by

emphasizing

style

open space revealing the industrial materials used in construction reinventing the form of buildings

Geometric Form  Rigidly geometrical, cubic or box like  Very clean form  Marked by only horizontal and vertical lines

Celebrate structure  20th

century Modern materials and methods  Exposed structure: integrity  No ornamentation

architecture

Elegance of material

Free flowing spaces

 Concrete frames with curtain walls of brick/ glass  Modern materials: industrial steel, framed glass  Used marble, onyx, chrome, bronze, and travertine

 Minimal walls  Open, unhindered spaces: open plan  Glass curtain walls: filter rather than barrier  Blurred inside/outside boundary

1886

Born Maria Michael Ludwig Mies in Aachen, Germany

1907-1911

1907

Riehl House Mies' first building classical German style with austere stucco exterior and pronounced roof that emphasizes the idea of shelter

Mies joins the staff at Peter Behrens' atelier Bookbinder, visual artist, graphic designer and architect, Peter’s firm also included Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier

1921

Joins the Deutscher Workerbund German association of artists, architects, designers, and industrialists important in the development of modern architecture

Friedrichstrasse Glass Skyscraper on Prismatic Plan

plan

charcoal sketch

office building

 Completion entry  20-storey steel skeleton, encased in glass; then a radical concept  Triangular shape of the site suggested the prismatic form of the ground floor plan  Experiment in material and form, reflection and transparency  Glass surfaces are set at angles so as to fit the outline of the plan and thus produce a play of light reflections

elevation study

1919-1921

The

Barcelona

Pavilion

ď ą United sophisticated materials with a fluid open plan ď ą Replaced walls and windows with temporary partitions, inviting the exterior into the house

Site plan

Barcelona chair

1928-1929

pavilion

plan

1928-1930

Tugendhat House

ď ą Composition of luxurious spaces that flow effortlessly between inside and outside ď ą No traditional rooms, spaces could be changed to suit needs

Garden plan

Entrance level plan

Second floor plan

Lateral cross section

elevation

section

Charcoal sketch

elevation

1946-47

1938

1930-33

Serves as last Director of Bauahaus Emphasis on form and function rather than politics Focused the curriculum on architecture and interior design with greater intensity such that all other subjects, like fine arts, fell by the wayside

Mies emigrates to the United States heads the Armour Institute (now Illinois Institute of Technology)

Perlstein Hall Expression of structure, modular organization, construction detailing Uses the grid to organize the interior into three zones: outer, inner and circulatory.

1949

The Promontory Apartments Mies' first high-rise building First tall building to exhibit its construction materials: concrete, beams and columns Most units had a view of Lake Michigan

1946-51

Farnsworth House

ď ą Two parallel planes held in suspension ď ą Transparent house + covered terrace + an open deck

plan

elevations

sections

“Glass houses” Mies’ first steel and glass high-rises Revolutionary structure Elegance based on order and clarity rather than opulence

S.R. Crown Hall

1968

“Home for ideas and adventures” Low rise and columnar steel frame Mies’ first major success in creating a clear-span structure

Neue Nationalgalerie

1969

1950-56

1948-51

860-880 Lake Shore Apartments

Dies

Column free exhibition space Floating roof integrated outside and inside

At the age of 83, in Chicago

1954-1958

The Seagram Building In collaboration with Philip Johnson who did the interior design and custom made details of the structure.  39 storeys  160m/ 516 feet  Planned for the

Seagram's Distillery

Company  International Modern Style  Mies’ largest work  Very regular: measurements in the

building are based on repetitions of 55.5 inches  Elegant and precise  ‘Urban sophistication’ which is “monumental in its simplicity”  Said to be a masterpiece of skyscraper design  Much of this was possible only because of the financial abilities of the client

FACADE  Very regular and precise  Repeating grid pattern

 Steel framework

designed the exterior skin to mimic steel slabs running horizontally between each floor

 Use of luxurious materials

 Originally, Mies wanted

steel frame exposed  But American fire regulations require steel to be coated in a fireproof material  Mies’ solution highlights the selective display of the function or nonfunction of architectural elements →illusionism →in a sense structural fiction rather then honest expression

bronze I-beams attached to the mullions emphasizes the vertical rise dark bronze-tinted glass panels reduce sun load within. Windows designed to be floor to ceiling, with no sills or interior ledges, possible because of new low profile AC units blinds that work in only three positions: up, down, or halfway in between

relation to the overall site Building is placed to the rear of the site. At the front is a granitepaved public plaza: Enhanced by two reflecting pools and marble benches  Becomes a plinth: a podium for the building to stand on and be seen from  Pedestrian space widely regarded as one of the most successful in New York.  Expensive aesthetic and symbolic gesture in the dense urban environment which surrounds it.  The outside plaza flows inside the double height ground floor lobby. 

view of the plaza from the lobby

The Built/ Unbuilt tower

low building plaza

low building

tower

plaza

The site Core to the rear of the building, out of sight.

Open double height ground floor.

The plaza flows inside.

30feet

90 feet

The built occupies only about 52% of the site. The rest is an elevated public plaza. up

Bibliography Books A History of Architecture by Sir Bannister Fletcher 20th Edition, CBS Publishers, 1996 Architecture of the Italian Renaissance by Peter Murray Harry N. Abrams Inc Publishers, 1971 Bhavika’s Book

Web Sites www.wikipedia.org www.sbap-fi.beniculturali.it www.uffizi.firenze.it www.firenzemusei.it www.emis.de www.pietradure.com www,flickr.com www.google.com

BIBLIOGRAPHY Books

 Architecture: A World History; Daniel Borden, Jerzy Elzanowski, Joni Taylor, and Stephanie Tuerk; Harry N. Abrams Inc.; 2008 The World’s Greatest Architecture: Past and Present; D.M. Field; Regency House Publishing Ltd.; 2005 Mies Van Der Rohe; P.C. Johnson, Plantin Press, New York, 1953  A History of Architecture by Sir Bannister Fletcher  20th Edition, CBS Publishers, 1996  Architecture of the Italian Renaissance by Peter Murray  Harry N. Abrams Inc Publishers, 1971  Source book of American architecture; George Everard Kidder Smith  Inside the Apple: A Streetwise…..

Websites            

www.wikipedia.org www.sbap-fi.beniculturali.it www.uffizi.firenze.it www.firenzemusei.it www.emis.de www.pietradure.com www,flickr.com Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003 The Seagram Building, New York City: www.slepny.lefora.com Mies van der Rohe : http://www.designboom.com/portrait/mies.html Mies van der Rohe Society: http://www.miessociety.org/ New York Architecture Images- THE SEAGRAM BUILDING: