UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA DE EL SALVADOR
Education school
“REACHES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY PROPOSED IN THE ENGLISH PROGRAMS OF JUNIOR HIGH, COMPLEJO EDUCATIVO SOTERO LAINEZ, MUNICIPIO DE SENSUNTEPEQUE, DEPARTAMENTO DE CABAÑAS, 2006.”
RESEARCHERS: VERONICA DEL CARMEN VASQUEZ hernandez JENNIFER CAROLINA BONILLA JUAN ANTONIO RAMIREZ PAZ
ACADEMIC ADVISOR: LIC. IRMA CARBALLO HERNANDEZ
San Salvador, el salvador, 2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I 1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Page Introduction 1.1. General and specific objectives----------------------------------------------------------11 1.2. Antecedents of the problem--------------------------------------------------------------12 1.3. Statement of the problem-----------------------------------------------------------------12 - 15 1.4. Justification---------------------------------------------------------------------------------16 1.5. Reaches and limitations-------------------------------------------------------------------17 1.6. Type of research---------------------------------------------------------------------------18 1.7. Sum up of concepts and categories to be used-----------------------------------------18 - 23 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. THEORETICAL- METHODOLOGICAL BASE 2.1. Origin of the constructivism-------------------------------------------------------------23 - 24 2.2. Pioneers of the constructivism----------------------------------------------------------24 - 27 2.3. New perspectives to the constructivist learning theory------------------------------27 - 38 2.4. What is Constructivism? ----------------------------------------------------------------38 - 40 2.4.1. Types of constructivism---------------------------------------------------------------41 - 42 2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom-----------------------------------------------------42 - 43 2.4.3. The constructivist teacher-------------------------------------------------------------43 - 44 2.4.4. The Constructivist teacher’s role-----------------------------------------------------44 - 45 2.4.5. Student’s role---------------------------------------------------------------------------45 2.5. Constructivist Methodology------------------------------------------------------------46 2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology---------------------------------------------46 - 47 2.6. Didactic principles in the teaching of the English Language----------------------47 - 54 2.7. Characteristics of the pedagogical constructivism-----------------------------------54 - 55 2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK METHODOLOGY 2.8.1. Population sample--------------------------------------------------------------------56
2.8.2. Methods, techniques, instruments and procedures-------------------------------56 - 58
2.9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE RESEARCH 2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High---------------------------------58 - 59 2.9.2. Analysis of the seventh grade Program------------------------------------------60 - 125 2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High-------------126 2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs---------------------------------------127 - 128 2.9.5. Programs in the practice----------------------------------------------------------129 2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice---------------------------------------------129 - 132 2.9.7. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the authors’ ones) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------133 – 135
CHAPTER III 3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK 3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH-------------------136 - 142 3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE------------------------------------------------142 3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS --142 3.4. CHRONOGRAM-----------------------------------------------------------------------143 3.5. RESOURCES---------------------------------------------------------------------------144 3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT-------------144 - 147 3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCES-------------------------------------------147 - 152 3.8. ATTACHMENTS 3.8.1. Checklist for the Constructivist teacher’s role-----------------------------------154 - 155 3.8.2. Checklist for the Constructivist student’s role-----------------------------------156 3.8.3. Interview------------------------------------------------------------------------------157 3.8.4. Questionnaire------------------------------------------------------------------------158 3.8.5. Checklist to observe methods used during the class in progress--------------159
3.8.6. Observation’s results----------------------------------------------------------------160 - 166 3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal----------------------------------------------------------167 - 181
CHAPTER I
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
INTRODUCTION The new ways of teaching English language in El Salvador have the nucleus in the Constructivist Approach as a result of the most recent Educative Reform (1989 -1999), which carried among other changes the renovation of English study programs for Junior High; suggesting to the teachers and students a ground-breaking methodology called “Constructivist” with the aim to offer a more efficient teaching – learning process.
The programs were provided by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in 1998, to the public schools. By 1999, these started up looking for the improvement of the national Education in English, allowing teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich student’s development.
This research is titled “Reaches and limitations of the constructivist methodology proposed in the English programs of Junior High, “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez,” Municipio de Sensuntepeque, Departamento de Cabañas, 2006.”
The goal of this work was to find out whether the suggested methodology by the Ministry of Education was being applied, and which the results were after eight years of the proposal. It is a preliminary plan about what it is actually happening with the application of the methodology mentioned above in the national educational system.
This research contains in its first chapter: general and specific objectives, antecedents of the problematic situation, justification, reaches and limitations, type of research, as well as a sum up of concepts and categories to be used. The second chapter contains an explanation about the Constructivism origin until its entrance to the educative field, also, the steps followed in order to develop the research, the most important elements registered and found in the workfield as well as the researchers’ theoretical definitions. The third chapter contains the following: the description of the subjects of the research, the data gathering procedure, specification of the technique for the data analysis, resources, preliminary table of contents on final report, general and used references and attachments as well.
1.1. GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
GENERAL OBJECTIVE To analyze the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs of Junior High.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES To determine reaches and limitations of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs of Junior High.
To contrast the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English program of Junior High with the ones used by the English teachers at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez.”
To design a basic practical proposal about Constructivist Methodology to advice the teacher depending on the results of the research.
1.2 ANTECEDENTS OF THE PROBLEM There are no facts of another research similar to this one carried out before. Therefore, this study is just setting the groundwork for future studies related to this topic. Besides it will provide information about the current situation related to the Constructivism in Teaching English Language.
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Historical development of the English Programs through the Educative Reform.
Through Salvadorean history, many educative reforms have been carried out. These have responded to political, social and economical influences which have led to the Educative quality improvement. Many changes have emerged in the educative field, in the last Educative Reform (1989-1999) all the English study programs were redesigned and redefined, conceiving them as “a set of theoretical-practical reflections, as a set of actions of learning that the teacher and the student develop during a specific period of time to reach objectives and precise goals in a specific level and science field.”1
To get a better understanding about the progression of the English programs of Junior High through the Educational Reform it is presented a brief description since 1945 until now.
English Language in Junior High Level
The English Language as official subject in the Salvadorean Educational system goes back to the structural Educative Reform of 1945, when the elementary level was changed in two
1
MINED. Reforma Educativa en Marcha Do. MINED. El Salvador. 1994 – 1999. p. 130.
levels, elementary (1º -6º ), Junior High (7º-9º called Plan Básico), and High School which comprised from seventh to twelfth grade, now includes from 10° - 12° grade.
For a long time, there were no important changes in education. However in 1968, under the presidency of General Fidel Sanchez Hernandez,
2
a significant educational reform was
promoted by Lic. Walter Beneke, who was Minister of education at the time. He authorized the publication and implementation of the new study programs for all levels.
Related to the English language, the Administrative Unit of Technical- Pedagogical Services designed the new English study programs, and didactic guides were printed to teachers. Moreover, a systematical transmission of educative television started for seventh grade. Channels 8 and 10 of Educational Television were inaugurated and the televised classes were presented as a great valuable resource to enhance the teacher’s activities in the classroom.3
For almost two decades fundamental movements were not made in the national educational system. It is until 1991, when the Ministry of Education was conscious of the urgency to update not just the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language but to do a renewal of the whole educational system. Supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), through the Central America Peace Scholarships (CAPS) for English teachers in public school. They were involved in designing and developing a new study program that would improve the teaching – learning process.
2
MINED. Reforma Educativa en marcha - un vistazo al pasado de la Educación en El Salvador- documento I. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1995. P. 42. 3 Escamilla, Luís. Reformas Educativas – Historias contemporáneas de la Educación Formal en El Salvador. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1981. pp. 202-204.
By 1993, the first edition of the English study Programs was designed by Salvadorean teachers trained in the United States and it was presented with acceptable results. Thus, in 1994, complete valid English programs for Junior High were approved. These were called “Programas piloto” that is to say; that the programs were putting to proof to name them official programs. However, new trends in the Educative field in the Salvadorean society brought to an end this process. And new dispositions in the designing of the English Programs were considered.
Constructivism in the Junior High Programs
The post-war conditions and the process of peace of the country led to adopt a new Educative philosophy. In this way “at the beginning of 1994, enters to the educative specter the Constructivism, which is in the new curricular instruments.” 4
In 1996, the Ministry of Education accepted recommendations from the National Commission for Science and Development; it was decided to restructure the new study programs which presented unit and coherence between Junior High and High School levels because “both comprise the same stage of knowledge development as well as affective and social aspects of the students.”5 As a result, in 1998, the ministry of Education presented a well designed English program based on the Constructivist Approach, which was focused in an anthropological, humanist and socially committed vision. “The ideas of this new curricular approach arrived from Spain and emerged from Piaget´s and Vigotsky´s theories,
4
Picardo, Joao, Oscar Carlos. Realidades Educativas - Teoría y praxis contemporánea. Ed. INFORP- UES, El Salvador. 2000. p.114. 5 MINED. Programas de estudio de ingles – Tercer ciclo de Educación Básica. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1998. P. 5.
obviously with respective adjustments and adaptation to the Salvadorean sociocultural circumstances.”6 The final edition of the English study programs has been in the teachers’ hands in every public school since 1998. At the present time, it is considered that these are giving back positive results. With this in mind the following questions emerge:
Are the English teachers taking into account the methodological suggestions of the English programs of Junior High according to the constructivist approach?
Which are the benefits and limitations of the constructivist methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education in the Junior High programs?
6
Pérez, Castro Abigail. En: Reforma de la historia y la historia de la reforma educativa en marcha de El Salvador (Borrador). Ed. MINED s.f. p. 33.
1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH In 1994, the Constructivist Approach is taken as philosophy in the teaching – learning process by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in El Salvador to respond to the Salvadorean students’ needs and the globalization phenomenon. As a result the English study programs of Junior High, as well as the other ones to be developed at this level were restructured suggesting an innovative methodology which stimulates the analysis, application, critic thinking, and meaningful learning.
In order to have a vision of the effectiveness and impact produced by this Constructivist Methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in the current English programs of Junior High in El Salvador, it is necessary to develop a research with the purpose to observe and determine the benefits reached by the Constructivist Approach as well as its limitations. In this way, contribute with the national educational system showing the outcomes of the Constructivist Methodology suggested by the Ministry of Education (MINED) at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez” in Sensuntepeque city. In this sense, it is expected the final results become a good contribution for students, professors at Pedagogical University and the school in which the research took place.
1.5. REACHES AND LIMITATIONS
REACHES - The researchers got to state communication with the Principal of the school and the Junior High English teachers; and got the gap to carry out the practical part of the research.
- To persuade the English teacher to allow the researchers to stay in his classes and observe.
-The researchers established good communication with the students and the teacher who were vital elements in this research.
-The researchers observed English teacher’s role as well as the students one.
LIMITATIONS -The reluctance the teachers in charge of the English language teaching in Junior High showed toward the researchers.
-Lack of cooperation of one of the two English teachers who did not accept the presence of the researchers in his classes. This became a difficulty because he was in charge of all the ninth grades in the morning shift. Therefore, the work group had to make an effort to visit the school not just in the morning shift but also in the afternoon shift as well. Due to, in the afternoon shift there was a ninth grade in which there was a teacher in charge the same who gave the researchers the opportunity to observe his classes in the morning shift.
1.6. TYPE OF RESEARCH This research is an exploratory and descriptive one. It is exploratory because, there is no evidence about similar studies to this one. Therefore, the outcomes become essential for new researches. It is descriptive because it allows arranging the results of observed behaviors, characteristics, factors, procedures, and other variables of the phenomenon and facts.
1.7. SUM UP OF THE CONCEPTS AND CATEGORIES TO BE USED Constructivism “Basically it is the idea that maintains that the individual in the cognitive and social aspects of the behavior as well as in the effective ones, is neither merely a product of the environment nor a simple result of his internal dispositions, but a proper construction which is generated day by day as result of the interaction between those factors. Consequently, according to the Constructivist position, the knowledge is not a faithful copy of the reality, but a construction of the human being. Which instruments do the people use to carry out those constructions? Essentially, with the schemes that they already have, that is to say, what they already constructed in their own relation with the environment.”7
In light of the above and other definitions, Constructivism is a theory suggesting that students learn by constructing their own knowledge, especially through hands-on exploration. It emphasizes that the context in which an idea is presented, as well as
7
Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El Constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002. P. 2.
student’s attitude and behavior, affects learning. Students learn by incorporating new information into what they already know. Constructivism is derived from the Piaget and Vigotsky’s ideas about learning and their followers such as Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel, and Howard Gardner, among others.
Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought processes could be subdivided into distinct model of reasoning. While Piaget related each model to a specific period of childhood development (Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operations, and Formal operations). Bruner’s model of human development is a “combination of enactive skills (manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills (visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and symbolic skills (abstract reasoning).” 8
The Russian Lev. S. Vigotsky is also important to Constructivism. He focussed on the roles that society played in the development of an individual. Proximal Development Zone (PDZ) is an important concept of Vigotsky‘s theory, he defined it as a term which refers to “the distance between the level of understanding of a problem (or task) that is possible to reach when a learner works by himself or herself and the level that can reach with the help of a more expert peer i.e. a teacher.” 9 People learn as they go beyond their own knowledge but only within a range that is within their grasp given and what knowledge and skills they bring to a task.
8
Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teóricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y Piaget. Ed. CONAFE. México. 2002. pp. 17-18. 9
Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003. P. 26.
David Ausubel developed a theory of Meaningful Learning; he thought that meaning was not something that resides in the text and outside the learner. He said that meaning occurs when learners actively interpret their experiences using certain internal, cognitive operations. If Ausubel had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, he would say this: “The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly" 10 Howard Gardner claims that all human beings have Multiple Intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He believes each individual has eight intelligences: “Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence, Mathematical-Logical Intelligence,
Visual-Spatial
Intelligence,
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intelligence,
Musical
Intelligence, Interpersonal Intelligence, Intrapersonal Intelligence, and Naturalist Intelligence.”11 Types of Constructivism it is considered that there exist three types of constructivism: “a) philosophical or epistemological, that has inspired the empiric work of psychological type, and at the same time, it has been restrained by this; b) the one which contains the conclusions derived from evolutionary psychological researches or cognitive about the knowledge acquisition ( Psychological) and; c) the one of the implications of the mentioned researches to the educative activity and the researches about the conditions in which are learned and taught the new knowledge (Pedagogical).”12
10
Pérez Córdoba, Op Cit., p. 27.
11
Campbell, Linda. en: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel. Argentina. 2000. pp. 12- 13. 12
FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998. p. 12.
The Pedagogical Constructivism “propitiates that the student thinks in an autonomous way and understand significantly his or her world.”13 The pedagogical constructivism has given to educators an innovative methodology that allows the student to become doer of his or her knowledge.
The Constructivism was assumed methodologically in the most recent study programs in El Salvador offering the teachers and students new ways to teach and to learn, changing in focus of instruction from the transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a traditional curriculum, a teacher transmits information to students who passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings. “A Program is a systematized organization of the objectives, contents and activities of a determined discipline that teachers and students have to develop in teaching learning process.”14 The core of any program in El Salvador is the Constructivist Approach that is why the new methodology proposed an endeavor act in response to different needs of the learners. “Constructivist Methodology starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to proposals in which the learner reacts rather than acts go after than construct. For the same
Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de Enseñanza – Aprendizaje. Ed. Trillas México. 2002. P. 16. 14 Saavedra R, Manuel S. Diccionario de Pedagogía. Ed. Pax. México. 2003. P.136. 13
reason, fit to this idea all those methodologies based on the group activity of the students and the teacher, it found its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone.” 15
Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners. The learning in all subject areas involves inventing and constructing new ideas. The constructivist theory is incorporated into the curriculum, and advocates that teachers create environments in which children can construct their own understandings. The Constructivist Approach is used to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate, and reason. A Constructivist Approach frees teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich students’ development in these areas. For that reasons, the teacher’s role in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of information giver to that of knowledge facilitator, guide, and learner. “As a facilitator, the teacher provides the rich environments and learning experiences needed for collaborative study. “16
Understanding the role of the teacher in the constructivist classroom provides a useful vantage point from which to grasp how the theory impacts on practice. Student’s role: it is expected that the students interact with the classmates more than with the teacher. They must constantly be listening, observing and performing the teacher’s methodological suggestions. “They should be active performers of their own learning, following the Constructivist Philosophy, which is founded on the premise that, by reflecting
15
Zabala, Antoni. En: Constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Grao. Colombia. 1999. P. 151.
16
Delgado Amaya, Master Didier. Revista Matices Pedagógicos. Ed. INFORP – UES. El Salvador. pp. 8-9.
on their own experiences, they construct their own understanding of the world they live in.”17 The core of a Constructivist teaching – learning process is that learner’s participation is vital in the construction of new knowledge. And must be propitiated by open questions and the effort to use oral expression, promoting the dialogue and the group work, it must be considered the student’s opinion, regarding to the student socialization process of sharing knowledge, experiences, ideas, etc., listening and talking.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2. THEORETICAL – METHODOLOGICAL BASE
2.1. Origin of the Constructivism The Constructivism idea is not new. The concept has roots in classical antiquity going back to Socrates’ dialogues with his followers, in which he asked direct questions that led his students to realize by themselves the weaknesses in their thinking. 18 The Socratic Dialogue is still an important tool in the way Constructivist educators assess their students’ learning and plan new learning experiences.
As a philosophy of learning, Constructivism can be traced at least to the eighteenth century in the work of the Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that “humans can 17 18
Revista matices Pedagógicos. Ídem. Ferrater, Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España. 2002. p. 472.
only clearly understand what they have constructed by themselves.” 19 Many others worked with this idea, but the first major contemporaries to develop a clear idea of applied Constructivism into classrooms and childhood development were John Dewey and Jean Piaget. They developed theories on childhood development and education, what we now call Progressive Education, which led to the evolution of Constructivism.
2.2. Pioneers of the Constructivism
At the end of the1960 decade, it had been imposed in the psychology field, and also in the pedagogic and didactics ones, a series of approaches that coincide into point out the human development and learning as the result of internal reconstruction processes. The development and learning theories, like those of Dewey, Piaget, Vigotsky, Bruner, Ausubel and Gardner have been taken into account to provide instruments of analysis and reflection about the practice, on how to learn and how to teach.
2.2.1. John Dewey
As already indicated, many psychologists worked on the theory of Constructivism, but John Dewey was one of the first major contemporaries to develop this theory. According to him, “Education depended on action.
20
For Dewey, mind is a means of transforming,
reorganizing and, reshaping accepted meanings and values, as a means of attending to the lived situations of life.” Dewey stressed the importance of having a student’s knowledge grow from experience. Knowledge and ideas came only from a situation where learners had to draw them out of experiences that had meaning and importance to them. These 19 20
Ferrater, Mora, José. Op Cit., p. 516. Luzuriaga, Lorenzo. Antología Pedagógica. Ed. Lozada. Argentina. 1956. p. 172.
situations, according to Dewey, have to occur in a social environment, where students could come together to analyze materials and to create a community of learners who built their knowledge together.
2.2.2. Jean Piaget
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that child builds cognitive structures in other words, mental maps, schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment. Piaget further attested that a child’s cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities. Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them. The four stages are: Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old) Behaviors that occur at birth and are necessary and instrumental for later cognitive development. Child thought involve see, listen, move, touch etc.
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) the ability to internally represent event(s).The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) the child evolves logical thought processes that can be applied to concrete problems. As physical experience accumulates; the child starts to
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) the ability to solve all classes of problems, which can be solved through logical operations. By this point, the child’s cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning. 21
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium. 22 During all development stages, the child experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily or is assimilated into the child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental equilibrium. If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child creates more and more adequate cognitive structures.
Piaget was mainly concerned with children’s developing understanding of the world, so for him (and for children) accommodation is not more problematic than assimilation. That does not necessarily hold as we grow older. We have ways of understanding our world which work for us, as relatively successful adults. There is no problem in assimilating new information and ideas which fit with this world-view, but we find it increasingly difficult to accommodate to new material. 21
Labinowicz, Ed. Introducción a Piaget - Pensamiento- Aprendizaje- enseñanza. Ed. Colegio Americano. México. 1986. p. 60. 22
Labinowicz. Op Cit., 607.
Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another. He also concluded that “the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.”23 The implications of this theory and how he applied them have shaped the foundation for constructivist education.
Piaget’s Constructivism is based on his view of the psychological development of children. In short, in his educational thoughts, Piaget called for teachers to understand the steps in the development of the child’s mind. The fundamental basis of learning, he believed, was discovery: “To understand it is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition.” 24 To reach an understanding of basic phenomena, according to Piaget, children have to go through stages in which they accept ideas they may later see as not truthful. In autonomous activity, children must discover relationships and ideas in classroom situations that involve activities of interest.
2.3. New perspectives to the Constructivist learning theory and practice
Among the educators, philosophers, psychologist, who have added new perspectives to Constructivist learning theory and practice, are Lev Vigotsky, Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel and Howard Gardner.
23
González, Eugenio. Psicología de la Educación y del desarrollo en la Edad Escola. Ed. CCS. España. 2004. p. 45. 24 Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teoricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y Piaget. Ed. CONAFE. México. 2002. p. 22.
2.3.1. Vigotsky’s sociocultural theory
The Russian Lev. S. Vigotsky is also important to Constructivism, pioneering theorist in psychology who focussed on the roles that society played in the development of an individual. He believed that children learn concepts from their everyday notions and adult concepts. He says that students learn through interacting with their peers, teacher, and their contextual setting.
The social world of a learner includes the people that directly affect that person, including friends, students, administrators, the pedagogical help (teachers), the curricular contents and participants in all forms of activity. This takes into account the social nature of both the local processes in collaborative learning and in the discussion of wider social collaboration in a given subject. Vigotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning emphasizes that “human intelligence originates in our society or culture, and individual cognitive gain occurs first through interpersonal (interaction with social environment) than intrapersonal (internalization).”25
Another aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain distance which he calls the “Proximal Development Zone” (PDZ). Vigotsky defined PDZ as a term which refers to “a level of understanding that is possible when a learner engages in a task with the help of a more expert peer i.e. a teacher.”
26
People learn as they are stretched beyond their own knowledge but only within a range that
25
Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. p. 67.
26
Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003. p. 26.
is within their grasp given what knowledge and skills they bring to a task. Vigotsky´s view, peer interaction, scaffolding, and modeling are important ways to facilitate individual cognitive growth and knowledge acquisition. PDZ can be composed by different levels of individuals’ knowledge (students and teachers), and can also include artifacts such as books, computer tools, and scientific equipments. The purpose of PDZ is to support intentional learning.
Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory proposes that teachers provide supports for students to move beyond what they are capable of accomplishing on their own. This scaffolding occurs to take students through the Proximal Development Zone. The amount of scaffolding provided is reduced as students become more independent within a learning context. Vigotsky’s theory is very similar to Piaget’s assumptions about how children learn, but Vigotsky places more emphasis on the social context of learning and the teacher’s role. Also, in Piaget’s theory, the teacher plays a limited role whereas in Vygotsky’s theory the teacher plays a very important role in learning.
2.3.2. Jerome Bruner
Along with the previous psychologists mentioned, Jerome Bruner also had a big influence on the theory of Constructivism. “Bruner’s major ideas were that learning was an active, social process in which students constructs new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. And that the individuals construct their reality, or world through the
representation of their own experiences. The aim of the education is to help people in the development and construction of a world.”27
Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought processes could be subdivided into three distinct modes of reasoning. While Piaget related each mode to a specific period of childhood development, Bruner saw each mode as dominant during each developmental phase, but present and accessible in the individual’s whole life, using whatever mode to solve problems.
According to Bruner there are three ways to represent the knowledge Bruner’s model of knowledge representation is a combination of enactive skills (manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills (visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and symbolic skills (abstract reasoning). Enactive representation (Piaget’s sensorimotor stage) “consists in the motor answers; the ways to manipulate the environment, like to ride a bicycle tie a knot etc.” 28 In their very early years, young children rely extensively upon enactive modes to learn. As a child learns to roll over, sit up or walk, they are learning to do so through their own actions. While this mode is present in people of all ages it is more dominant when a person is young. An example of this dominance is the way a young person can often learn to play a musical instrument more quickly than an older person.
27
CONAFE. Op Cit., pp. 13 - 14.
28
CONAFE. Op Cit., pp. 15-16
Iconic representation (Piaget’s preoperational stage) is the mental images without movement; children acquire the capacity to think about objects which are not present. Normally becomes dominant during the next stage of childhood years. Child replaces the action for an image or a spatial scheme. Later usually around adolescence the symbolic representation (Piaget’s formal operation stage) of learning becomes most dominant. Students can understand and work with concepts that are abstract. “In this case the notable systems are the language and the mathematical notations.”29 The individual expresses his experiences in linguistics terms, thus, logics and abstracts.
Bruner proposes the convergence of the three steps to know something, for that reason Bruner’s feelings were that “the curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that students continually build upon what they already know.”30 In which the students understand that the fundamental structure of a subject ascends to superior levels, but can turn to topics already studied, to deepen about them and turn over to enlarge them.
It might look at it as a spiral. When students continuously reflect on their experiences, they find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One of the teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process.
29 30
CONAFE. Idem. p.16. Bruner, Jerome. Desarrollo Cognitivo. Ediciones Morata. España. pp. 2001-17.
“A constant theme in Bruner’s work is that education is a process of discovery.” 31 Discovery means to get by ourselves the knowledge. As a structural theorist, Bruner believes that information or knowledge is most effectively gained by personal discovery, and then classified inactively, iconically or symbolically. Bruner advocated that if students were allowed to pursue concepts on their own they would gain a better understanding. Within the education system, a teacher would then engage students in active dialogue and guide them when necessary so that students would progressively build their own knowledge base, rather than be taught. New information would be classified and understood based on knowledge already gained.
Assumptions: Bruner states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: “1) Predisposition towards learning; 2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner; 3) the most effective sequences in which to present material and; 4) the effort for learning.”32
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.
Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 31
32
CONAFE, Op Cit., 17. Arancibia, Violeta. en: Psicología de la Educación. Ed. Alfaomega. México. 1999. p. 80.
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). 33
2.3.3. David Paul Ausubel and the Meaningful learning theory
David Ausubel is a cognitive psychologist who studied learning theory. Ausubel is credited with the learning theory of Advanced Organizers and the Meaningful Learning.
The Advanced Organizers theory is easily applicable to second language acquisition, but transcends a singular application, to application across educational domains. Advanced Organizer involves the use of “introductory materials with a high level of generality that introduces new material and facilitate learning by providing an “anchoring idea” to which the new idea can be attached.”34 Cognitive theorists believe that it is essential to relate new knowledge to existing information learned. Teachers can facilitate learning by organizing information presented so that new concepts are easily relatable to concepts already learned. Examples of devices that may be used include: pictures, titles of stories, reviews of previously learned concepts, short video segments, a paradigm, a grammar rule, etc.
An Advanced Organizer could be as simply a device or a mental learning aid to help learners to get an idea on the new information. According to Ausubel, the advanced
33
CONAFE. Ídem., p. 16 González, Eugenio. En: Psicologia de la Educación y de Desarrollo en la edad escolar. Ed. CCS. España. p. 668. 34
organizer is a means of preparing the learner’s cognitive structure for the learning experience about to take place.
David Ausubel contrasted Meaningful Learning from rote learning. Ausubel believes that meaningful learning is crucial for classroom instruction. He calls “Meaningful Learning to the possibility to state substantive links and non arbitraries between what has to be learned (new content) and what is already know, that is, what is in the cognitive structure of the individual who learns ,That is to say, his or her prior knowledge.”35 Ausubel has made his emphasis on the active nature of reception learning. The distinction between rote and meaningful learning is an important one, and too often educators fail to make reception learning as meaningful as possible.
Meaningful Learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge is fully understood by the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts (stored in brain). In the other hand, rote learning is where the student memorizes something without full understanding and he does not know how the new information relates to his other stored knowledge.
Ausubel highlighted the importance that has to determine what the students know to connect new content and procedures to those which students are already familiar and have meaning for them.
35
Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Impresora Obando. Costa Rica. 2002. p. 73.
If Ausubel had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, he would say this: “The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly"36
2.3.4. Howard Gardner and the Multiple Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education, as well as Co-Director of Harvard Project Zero. He claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He defined the first seven intelligences in “Frames of Mind” (1983), eventually, he had added another one. Now he believes each individual has eight intelligences. These are:
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words
2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns
3. Musical Intelligence: ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully.
36
Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002. p. 27.
5. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly
6. Interpersonal Intelligence: capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes
8. Naturalist Intelligence: ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature.37
Teachers have always known that their students have different strengths. In the language teaching field, some of these differences among students have been attributed to students’ having different learning or cognitive styles. Teachers who recognize the multiple intelligences of their students acknowledge that students bring with them specific and unique strengths, which are often not taken into account in the classroom situations.
If it is accepted that different intelligences predominate in different people, it suggests that the same learning task may not be appropriate for all our students. We cannot assume that all children understand something in the same way. Further, children may need different experiences to advance to different levels of understanding. For these reasons, Gardner’s theory leads to the conclusion that each individual is different to another. Those differences must be taken into consideration in the teaching- learning process to comprehend that the 37 Campbell,
Linda. En: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel. Argentina. 2000. pp. 12- 13.
way students learn and organize the knowledge, has rhythms, styles and peculiar abilities. If it were no so, the education fails. “John Dewey the great pedagogue of the twentieth century advices that the education fails pretending to standardize the capacity of thinking of the students or to plan the same intellectual skill to resolve any problem, since each thematic require of specific ability of different thought.”38
Critics to the multiple intelligences theory Multiple intelligences theory is well-known acknowledged for its use for educational purposes. However, there are people who point out some shortcomings.
Critics of multiple intelligence theory maintain that Gardner’s work isn’t groundbreaking that what he calls “intelligences’ taxonomy” have little differences with regard to other list that educators and cognitive psychologists have always acknowledged. 39 Some critics wonder if the number of “intelligences” will continue to increase. Gardner claims that “it would be impossible to guarantee a definitive list of intelligences. The most important is to identify which are present in each student to strength them.”
40
Flores Ochoa, Rafael. Evaluación Pedagógica y Cognición, Ed, Mc Graw – Hill Interamericana, Colombia, 1999, 20. 39 Solano Alpizar, Op Cit., 89. 40 Ruiz Ayala, Nubia Consuelo. Desarrollo de potencialidades y Competencias. Ed. Prolibros. Colombia. p. 67. 38
These opposing theorists believe that “notions such as bodily-kinesthetic or musical ability represent individual aptitude or talent rather than intelligence.”
41
Critics also believe that
this theory lacks the strictness and precision of a real science.
Multiple Intelligence theory states that one’s culture plays an important role in determining the strengths and weaknesses of one’s intelligences. Critics counter that “intelligence is revealed when an individual must confront an unfamiliar task in an unfamiliar environment.”42
Widespread adoption of multiple intelligence pedagogy would make it difficult to compare and classify students’ skills and abilities across classrooms.
Educators faced with large class groups and lack of resources sees multiple intelligence theory as utopian.
2.4. What is Constructivism?
Constructivist epistemology is obviously difficult to label. Depending on what is reading, it may get a somewhat different interpretation. Nonetheless, many writers, educators and researchers appear to have come to an agreement about how this constructivist epistemology should affect educational practice and learning. It is an important consideration if is taken into account the large and increasing volume of literature and
41 42
Bladillo Gallego, Rómulo. Competencias Cognoscitivas. Ed. Magisterio. Colombia. 1999. pp. 70- 71. Bladillo Gallego. Op Cit., p. 72
numerous discussions about this new theory of learning. The following constructivist authors consider what constructivism means for learning. According to Mario Carretero the Constructivism “Basically is the idea that maintain that the individual in the cognitive and socials aspects of the behavior as well as in the effective ones, is not merely a product of the environment nor a simple result of his internal dispositions, but a proper construction which is generated day by day as result of the interaction between those factors. Consequently, according to the constructivist position, the knowledge is not a faithful copy of the reality, but a construction of the human being. Which instruments do the people use to carry out those constructions? Essentially, with the schemes that they already have, that is to say, what they already constructed in their relation with the environment.”43 Hein maintains, “Constructivism is a philosophy that refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge by themselves and each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning as he or she learns. In other words, students construct their knowledge based on the existing schemata and beliefs.” (Hein, 1991) 44
According to the Ministry of Education (MINED) “Constructivism can be conceived as a set of articulated principles from where it is possible to diagnose, establish judgments, and take fundamental decisions about learning. 45
43
Pérez Córdoba. Op Cit., p. 2. WWW.MINED.gob.sv 45 MINED. Programas de Escuelas Modelos. El Salvador. 1998. p. 33. 44
It has become in the conceptual frame to comprehend the teaching – learning process and make possible to solve many of the obstacles and difficulties that the teacher confronts in the classroom everyday. The adoption of the Constructivist Approach in the educational field lead to a vision of learning vision as a process to great extent, of individual character, in which the students construct their knowledge through personal experience.
“Constructivism Approach is not an original educative conception but the influence of diverse educative approaches, and particularly, the cognitive learning theories.”46
Its
principles are the learning theories derived from childhood development psychology and genetic psychology. The collateral results in the educative field are not direct derivations from these theories, but emerge when starting from these it pretends to construct an educative model. That is to say, “the Constructivist conception of the learning educative processes is not a pure and simple transposition to the educative field or a catalogue of principles taken out from a set of development and learning Constructivist theories.”47 The purpose of this approach is to analyze, to explain and comprehend the scholar teaching learning process; for this it nurtures from the mentioned theories.
Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de enseñanza – Aprendizaje. Ed. Trillas México. 2002. p. 92. 46
47
Grupo Océano. Manual de la Educación. Ed. Océano España. ISBN: 84-494-1617-5. p. 918.
2.4.1. Types of Constructivism It is considered that there exist three types of constructivism: “a) philosophical or epistemological, that has inspired the empiric work of psychological type, and at the same time, it has been restrained by this; b) the one which contains the conclusions derived from evolutionary psychological researches or cognitive about the knowledge acquisition (Psychological) and; c) the one of the implications of the mentioned researches to the educative activity and the researches about the conditions in which are learned and taught the new knowledge (Pedagogical).” 48 In this framework, in the philosophical constructivism it makes reference to the way the human being acquires knowledge, at the same time the pedagogical constructivism raises that the real human learning is a construction of each student who gets to modify his or her mental structure and reach a most important level of diversity, complexity and integration.
Pedagogical Constructivism propitiates that the student thinks in an autonomous way and understand significantly his or her world. The school must promote the student cognitive development according to the needs and conditions of him. The teacher must structure interesting and meaningfully experiences that support the mentioned development. “The most important is not the learning of a topic but the development and guarantee of the mental structures to know and to learn. It is a question of not to memorize topics but to get involved in a dynamic process of knowledge and learning that develop the cognitive skills
48
FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998. p. 12.
through discovery models and problem resolution. The education aim is to generate comprehension, thought autonomy and consequently, creative human beings.”49
2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom
According to the Constructivist position, scholar learning is an active process from the student’s point of view, in which this constructs, modifies, enhances and diversifies his or her knowledge schemes with regard to the different scholar contents, starting from the meaning that this can attribute to those contents and to the proper fact of learning them. This perspective of learning presents an alternative view of what is regarded as knowledge, suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or understanding the world. “On the other hand, teaching is a help to the learning process.”50 This help is necessary in the construction of a Meaningful Learning.
In the classroom, the Constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students’ preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.
A Constructivist teacher and a constructivist classroom exhibit a number of discernable qualities markedly different from a traditional or direct instruction classroom. A 49
Díaz, Suárez. Op Cit., p.16
50
Onrubia Javier. En: El Constructivism en el Aula. Ed. Grao. Bogotá. 1999. p.101.
constructivist teacher is able to flexibly and creatively incorporate ongoing experiences in the classroom into the negotiation and construction of lessons with small groups and individuals. The environment is democratic, the activities are interactive and student centered, and the students are empowered by a teacher who operates as a facilitator or consultant etc.
Constructivist classrooms are structured so that learners are immersed in experiences within which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection. Teachers need to recognize how people use their own experiences, prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal environments to construct knowledge and meaning. The goal is to produce a democratic classroom environment that provides meaningful learning experiences for autonomous learners.
The democratic and interactive process of a Constructivist classroom allows students to be active and autonomous learners. Using Constructivist strategies, teachers are more effective. They are able to promote communication and create flexibility so that the needs of all students can be met. The learning relationship in a Constructivist classroom is mutually beneficial to both students and teachers.
2.4.3 The constructivist teacher Teachers are individuals who are often drawn into teaching by a love for kids. Constructivist teachers develop skills and abilities to empower students and to make them feel competent and significant.
To be a Constructivist teacher requires intelligence, creativity, patience, responsiveness, and the ability to live with ambiguity permitting one to spontaneously abandon a plan in order to accommodate specific individual or classroom situations. And while the job of being a Constructivist teacher is demanding, its value is evident in the impact on students’ learning and personal development. 2.4.4. The Constructivist teacher’s role
The role of the teacher in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of information giver to that of facilitator, guide, and learner. As a facilitator, the teacher provides the rich environment and learning experiences needed for collaborative study. The teacher is also required to act as a guide a role that incorporates mediation, modeling, and coaching. Often the teacher also is a co-learner and co-investigator with the students. The role of the teacher spins to a more collaborative position. She or he acts as facilitator – providing resources and reacting to the demands made by the tasks and the students. Without doubt, understanding the role of the teacher in the Constructivist classroom provides a useful advantage point from which to grasp how the theory impacts on practice.
All of these psychologists, who had major influences on the theory of Constructivism, point out that the teacher is a very vital part of the theory. A constructivist teacher sets up problems and monitors students’ exploration, guides the direction of student inquiry and promotes new patterns of thinking. It is up to the teacher to facilitate the Constructivist learning process. The structure of the learning environment should promote opportunities and events that encourage and support the process of understanding. Classes can take unexpected turns as students are given the autonomy to direct their own explorations. From
this point of view a constructivist teacher elaborates a guide for the class but is the rhythm of this which would determine its end. It is through negotiation that decisions are made throughout the unit development.
2.4.5. Student’s role
One important student role is that of explorer. Interaction with the physical world and with other people allows students to discover concepts and apply skills. Students are then encouraged to reflect upon their discoveries, which is essential for the student as a cognitive apprentice. Apprenticeship takes place when students observe and apply the thinking processes used by practitioners. Students also become teachers themselves by integrating what they’ve learned. Hence, they become producers of knowledge, capable of making significant contributions to the world’s knowledge. In this process, it is expected that the students interact with the classmates more than with the teacher. They must constantly be listening, observing and performing the teacher’s methodological suggestions. They should be active performers of their own learning, following the Constructivist philosophy, which is founded on the premise that, by reflecting on their own experiences, they construct their own understanding of the world they live in. The core of a Constructivist teaching – learning process is that participation is vital in the construction of new knowledge. And must be propitiated by open questions and the effort to use the oral expression, promoting the dialogue and the group work, it must
be
considered the student’s opinion and regard as the student socialization process sharing, listening and dialoguing.
2.5. CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY “The attention to the diversity is the didactic principle per excellence of the Constructivism, since make allusion that the learners construct their learning according to their own rhythm.”51 In this sense, “the Constructivist conception does not impose a specific methodology; its essence is opposing to homogenizer approaches of the teaching, since, it starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to proposals in which the learner reacts rather than acts, goes after than constructs. For the same reason, to this idea fits all those methodologies based on the group activity of the students and the teacher, this found its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone.”52
There is no one single teaching methodology that is called “Constructivist” For example, constructivist teaching is not limited to discovery learning nor does it necessarily imply that lecturing cannot be part of constructivist teaching. It only implies the need to diagnose what is already in the student’s mind (usually used to initiate instruction) and that the focus is on student learning rather than teacher teaching.
2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology
Times before, the methodology was characterized by memorization and repetition, since students were considered as recipient of knowledge which had to be filled. Now, in the new trends in education students and teachers count on a Constructivist Approach from where is
51
Joao, Oscar Picardo. Educación y Realidad - Introducción a la filosofía del aprendizaje. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002. p. 98. 52
Zabala, Antoni. en: Constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Grao. Colombia. 1999. p. 151.
possible to choose what will enhance the students development, through a Constructivist Methodology whose aim is “to form individual discoverers and constructors of knowledge, attitudes and values; to form individuals who think, who reflect, who learn to learn, to be and to live together, to get that the learners break with the safety that gives the dependence, to live freely the discovery experience every day and every moment, that they can fly by themselves; to respond to the school which is intended in our time, where the children neither make the same, nor learn the same, where is talking about the culture diversity, about integration of the diverse; to humanize the pedagogy being
human educators,
dialoguers, and tolerant.”53
The Constructivist Methodology helps to construct the knowledge with emphasis in the present and the future; reaching long-term and short- term goals like to develop the capacity to learn to learn and to think, to get it, it is necessary specialized and trained teachers on the constructivist practice according to the subject to be taught.
2.6. Didactic Constructivist principles in teaching English Language
The Constructivist principles are to be applied in general way to any subject. Nonetheless, in the English Language Teaching from a Constructivist view it is necessary to take into consideration the following principles:
53
Fernández Santos, Agustín. en: I Congreso pedagógico ALFA: Creando nuevas formas de Enseñar y Aprender. Ed. Montañas de Fuego. El Salvador .2002. p. 69.
a) Attention to the diversity It involves the personal multiplicity and cultural of the students, as well as the interests variety and needs. Also must take into consideration to the teacher’s personal and professional diversity and to the curricular conditionings and institutional of the teaching.
b) Verbal interaction The classes have to support the verbal interaction between teacher and learners and among students. These interactions make the dual function of construct the didactic process and are used as practice of linguistics activities, which will be carried out outside the classroom.
c) Coherent and integral activities The class communication must allow incorporating all the activities in coherent action with the teaching and learning process, and enhance the directions of these activities shared by teacher and students.
d) Cooperation and participation The learners’ cooperation and participation is essential to learn to communicate in oral and written way in English. An excessive competitive environment or one that do not foster the self-assurance among the students and restrains their participation, which will diminish, at the same time the opportunities to express themselves orally.
e) Practice and error To take the risk to get wrong is necessary so the learner could experiment with the English Language. Thus, it is appropriate encouraging learner to overcome their linguistic capacity level, without fear to be criticized or censured.
Considering that learning is a process of constructing meaningful representations, of making sense of one’s experiential world. In this process, students’ errors are seen in a positive light and as a means of gaining insight into how they are organizing their experiential world.
f) Use of the mother tongue The student’s mother tongue in the class must be considered as a positive element upon it is constructed the communicative competence in English.
g) Linguistic contents The linguistic contents of the communicative teaching of the English Language must involve 1) oral interaction among the speakers. 2) the expression and oral comprehension of more extensive discourse rather than the short interchange. 3) the capacity to express written way 4) the transactional and literary written comprehension text. h) Learning program The program or syllabus must be wide enough to ease that the students to get to know with the cultural aspects necessary to understand English; that is to say, it must start from the knowledge that the native speakers share, which are referents to give sense to many habitual expression used.
i) Elements of integration of the mother culture The learning program must include the necessary linguistic elements in such a way that the English Learner can explain components of his or her culture to English native speaker.
j) Elements of integration of the culture in which is learned The task and activities must allow comprehending the different ways to understand the reality and the lived experience and reflect about them.
k) Grammatical competence The attention to the English forms must be the objective of some task in the classroom. This practice, professionally well established, it has not been abolished for any scientific research. However, it is appropriate to value the available information about methods, factors and stages of the grammatical acquisition.
l) Use of the text The social dimension of the meaning of the English Language requires that the fragment contributions must not be presented in isolated, but connected in a text as a part of a performance based in linguistic uses. That is to say, the text should be organized taking into account the prior contents to connect them with the new ones.
m) Variety and gradation of the difficulty of text It is required to use variety authentic texts. The difficulty of these will be marked for the linguistic level required by the learner and, by the nature of the task to get with them.
n) Projects and tasks To respond to the discursive dimension, the program must be related to performances (Projects or task) which in occasions can have as objective the attention to the English Language, but most of the cases will be essays based in real situations that will be experimented outside the classroom. In these activities English must be an important component. What the student learned in the classroom must transcend to students real life. Constructivist learning is transferable. In Constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can take to other learning settings.
o) Attention to the unpredictable phase of the language The discursive dimension of the English Language involves something unpredictable that the teachers as well as the students must count on. The class activities have to help the students to face the unpredictable phase of the communication through unfilled information; real or fictitious of an opposed interest as usually are made in simulations; open answers to questions in writing; readings with linguistic difficulty levels and varied thematic; and writing demand in the English Language, without the topics neither the linguistic complexity have been a systematic studied object. Teacher must be careful about the topic selections to be presented to the learners, because if they are not according to the student’s interests and needs, learning would fail.
p) Use of generated dialogue It is essential that the English teachers regard the generated discussion in the classroom among students and the teacher, not just as a significant input, but a coherent performance
that the teaching has as main goal. The dialogue allows integrating the discursive contributions useful as a guide to modify the pedagogic interventions, which almost always must consider several of the four linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
Social discourse helps students to change or reinforce their ideas. If they have the chance to present what they think and listen of others’ ideas, students can construct a personal knowledge based on what they understand. Only when they feel comfortable enough to express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue occur.
q) The observation and mediation The teacher should act determining the classroom activities, pointing leading their development, explaining what is essential to carry them out, supporting the students’ efforts to communicate orally or in writing in English, taking into account the learners’ suggestions and encouraging their initiatives development. Finally, the teacher must be patient, supervise the work group, what the students do and act as an observer of his or her class and not to impede learning through his or her teaching.
r) Attention to the students’ personality In the interaction and in the developed activities in the classroom it must be taken into account the following: 1) students’ feelings and emotions 2) the curiosity and enthusiasm about the same. 3) Their development stage. 4) Their self-esteem and personal outstanding characteristics.
s) Development of the autonomy Student autonomy is accepted and encouraged. By respecting students’ ideas and encouraging independent thinking, teachers help students attain their own intellectual identity. Students who frame questions and issues and then go about analyzing and answering them take responsibility for their own learning and become problem solvers. A central objective of the English teaching must be to develop the learning autonomy. To achieve it are necessary all the work activities go depending on: 1) encourage the reflection about the English Language; 2) encourage students to make decisions and autonomous development of learning activities; 3) use the Lexicographic, bibliographic and basic computational resources; 4) develop the learning cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies. The school should determine the resources that support the autonomy in learning; the efficient library availability; the easy access to centres of resources for learning (in Spanish CRA) and to compensate the short time of the English practice. This is a way to pay attention to the expectative diversity, needs and students learning styles.
t) Continual evaluation The evaluation must take part of the teaching learning process and its application in a continual way. It will take into account the levels reached as well as the process carried out for that, and developing the autoevaluation capacity and the posterior decision making. 54
The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by
54
Grupo OcĂŠano. Op Cit., pp.552- 555.
the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not presented in a hierarchical order.
2.7. Characteristics of the Pedagogical Constructivism:
Emphasizes learning and not teaching
Encourages and accepts learner’s autonomy and initiative
Sees learners as individual of will and purpose
Considers learning as a systematic process
Encourages learner inquiry
Nurtures learners natural curiosity
Takes the learner's mental model into account
Emphasizes performance and understanding when assessing learning
Makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, classify, create and analyze.
Considers how the student learns
Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher
supports co-operative learning
Involves learners in real world situations
Emphasizes the context in which learning takes place
Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner
Inquires about students understandings of concepts before sharing their own understandings
Encourage learners to investigate outside and inside the classroom.
Allows the teacher to attend the students’ diversity
Support the verbal interaction
Let the students express themselves orally
Encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level
Allows considering the mother tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language.
Allows the students to express by themselves in writing. Allows facing the unpredictable phase of the language.
Foster to generate discussion among the students and teacher
Encourages the reflection about the English Language.
Encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development of learning activities.
Correct answers and errors are considered as worth steps to get the knowledge.
2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK METHODOLOGY This research aimed to find out the reaches and limitations of the constructivist methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education in the programs of Junior High. For that reason, it was necessary to select a public school as a sample of the Salvadorean National Educational System. In this case, it was decided to work at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez” in Sensuntepeque, Cabañas because two of the researchers live there, and have the access to that school and also know the neighborhood.
2.8.1. Population Sample At the school was taken the Junior High level. The number of total students was about 273 in the afternoon and morning shifts. The students who participated in the project were 95 distributed in this way: in seventh grade section “c” 35 students; in eighth grade section “b” 37 students; in ninth grade section “d” 23 students. The project spanned two weeks from August 14 to August 30, 2006.
2.8.2. Methods, Techniques, Instrument and Procedures
Methods
The methods used for this study were the experimental and scientific, as significant elements to analyze an object from the reality, its present and future relation with the social changes especially in the educative field; moreover, was used the inductive and deductive method to get to conclusions after the gathering information process and develop the data analysis and tabulating procedure.
Techniques
To carry out this research two techniques were put into practice documentary and work field. The first one consisted on a survey about the principal contribution from the constructivist theories to the Educative field and its entrance as an Educative philosophy in the Salvadorean territory. This information made possible to get reliable criteria to develop the different stages of the study. The second one was the direct observation in which the researchers observed three grades of Junior High (7° “C”, 8° “B” and 9° “D”) since they were the research sample.
Instruments
The instruments used to develop this study were two checklists, a thirty questions checklist for the observation of the teacher’s role, sixteen questions checklists for the students’ role. Both checklist have four choices to answer, these were always, sometimes, rarely and not visible. Also was held an oral interview with the teacher to get information about the use of the English programs in the teaching - learning process. It was also designed a seven question questionnaire for the students with three choices to answer, they were mucho, poco, and nada this was to get an idea how they felt about their preferences for the English subject, usefulness, as well as the class methodology. It is necessary to mention that this instrument was structured and administered in Spanish to guarantee the truthfulness of the information. Moreover, a chart with the methods and their respective techniques was elaborated to observe which were used by the teacher, since in the methodological suggestions of the English programs for Junior High can be developed most of them (See attachments).
Procedure
At the beginning, information about the problem at a literary level was gotten for which different libraries were visited by the researchers also bibliographical cards were elaborated. The school selected was visited to talk with the principal and the English teachers. They were asked for their permission to develop the project. Simultaneously to let them know its purpose. At the same time were being analyzed the methodological suggestions proposed in the English Programs of Junior High considering the Constructivist
characteristics and principles. At the same time, were determined achievements and limitations within the programs (7°, 8°, and 9° grades).
Since the aim of this work has been to highlight if the integration of constructivist characteristics into the practice of teaching and learning of the English language. The work began with the analysis of the English programs for Junior High and through the bibliographic and literary gathering about the theories related to the topic, was possible to get reliable criteria to the whole editing and the field development. Through this information and analysis, a summary of characteristics of constructivist learning and teaching emerged. The summary of characteristics was used to compile a constructivist checklist. The checklist was then used to observe the way in which Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior High is accommodated in educational practice at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez”.
In the observation process the researchers observed the English class from the beginning to the end every day during two weeks. This allows realizing about the process that the teacher developed during the class in progress.
2.9 THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE RESEARCH
2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High
The English programs for Junior High are the core of this research. For that reason was necessary to analyze them to determine reaches and limitations of the methodological
suggestions proposed by the Ministry of Education (MINED) then to contrast them with the real practice at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez�.
The following charts present the analysis of the English Program for seventh grade. The analysis for eighth and ninth grade can be appreciated in the CD room annexed to this work.
2.9.2. PROGRAM ANALYSIS SEVENTH GRADE PROGRAM UNIT ONE: GETTING TO KNOW THE WORLD CONTENTS
1. From San Vicente to San Salvador
METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS BY MINED The following methodological suggestions have been taken literally from the English study program for 7th grade to avoid misunderstandings of any loose translation. Texto sugerido Hi! My name is Julián, I’m from San Vicente. I’m a mechanic. I have a friend in San Salvador. His name is Manuel. He is a teacher. Manuel has a big family. I have three brothers and one sister. My brothers are high school students and my sister is a secretary.
METHODS
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It emphasizes the context in which learning takes place
(Authentic materials)
--The use of an introductory material (the text) helps to provide an anchoring idea to which the new idea can be attached.
1. Comenzar presentando un mapa del mundo para situar a Julián en el Salvador. La idea es que Julián se presente a los ciudadanos del mundo desde San Vicente.
Vocabulary: • •
some members of the family Some occupations
2. Preguntar si los estudiantes conocen otro idioma que se hable en el mundo. Señalar en el mapa los países donde se hable los idiomas que van mencionando.
-- A text based on the students’ real environment. Its content can be transferred to real situations. based
-- It considers students’ previous knowledge
Principle: language is learned most effectively when it is used as a means to convey informational content of interest to the students.
-- It encourages students to use previous knowledge.
Content approach
–
Language
-- It lets inquire on students’ previous knowledge.
3. Iniciar con la audición de la grabación, preguntando a los alumnos si reconocen algunas palabras y que creen qué está diciendo Julián.
(Tape recording students conversation)
--It encourages students to use previous knowledge of the language. -- It promotes students’ autonomy.
4. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la grabación. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.
Note: it is supposed that in this technique the students must produce what they are going to listen to. However, it is considered that in this level students do not have that ability developed, and instead can be used a dialogue or reading performed by the teacher or the one that he or she considers to be used. Community Language Learning
Community Learning Functions: •
Identifying
giving information
personal
Grammar: • •
To have in affirmative To be in affirmative 5. Realiza el siguiente ejercicio de lectura comprensiva. El estudiante deberá llenar los espacios en los círculos con la información adecuada del texto. Occupation _______
________
-- It emphasizes students’ autonomy. -- It lets consider errors and correct answers as necessary steps in the knowledge acquisition.
(Reflective listening)
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It can develop learner’s autonomy and promote kills of self reliance. -- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
________ Occupation
-- It emphasizes individual learning.
______________
(Fill in the blanks)
friend Family
Julian
-- It could be used to help the students to face the unpredictable phase of the language.
______________ Occupation
_______________ 6. A partir de este ejercicio, ampliar el vocabulario con los miembros de la familia más cercana y algunas ocupaciones y profesiones más comunes en su comunidad.
Content – based instruction approach
Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support.
7. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con la forma afirmativa de los verbos Be y Have. Se debe dar tiempo al estudiante para que asimile los conceptos que se presentan en los cuadros. Luego se realizarán los siguientes ejercicios:
The Grammar Translation Method
Se deduce la forma que debe usar, de entre las siguientes: ‘re, ‘s,’m, it, we, you. Después de terminar el ejercicio, el estudiante deberá escribir las frases en su cuaderno.
(Fill in the blanks)
I ______
_________ ‘re
from San Vicente. from El Salvador.
-- Adding vocabulary or new information ease the construction of previous knowledge.
-- It demonstrates the teacher – led introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for themselves with teacher’s help.
-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that teachers can use to ease learning by organizing information presented so that the new concepts can be easily related with concepts already learned. -- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students’ multiple intelligences. -- It Promotes the construction of previous knowledge.
______ She It ______
‘s
a mechanic.
_________ ‘s
a secretary. a big family.
‘re
from El Salvador.
You
‘re
students.
______
‘re
students.
En este ejercicio, además de escribir el pronombre personal, el estudiante deducirá la forma verbal correspondiente para he, she, it. Completar con frases originales. Después de terminar el ejercicio, el estudiante deberá escribir las oraciones en su cuaderno.
I ____
__________ have
Grammar Method
Translation
-- It encourages students to work by themselves on how language forms are constructed.
-- It encourages students’ autonomy.
(Fill in the blanks)
-- It helps the students to face the unpredictable phase of the language.
a big family
___
__________
They
__________
--------------------------------------------------------------------He
three friends
-- It lets students reflect on their own learning.
____ ____
?
_________ _________
8. Hacer también un ejercicio de personalización con el objeto de internalizar el aprendizaje. Puede usar este texto:
Grammar Method
Translation
(Fill in the blanks) My name is________________________. _______________.
I’m
-- It lets construct new knowledge on students´ previous one.
-- It stimulates students to learn from real situations.
a
___________ from ________________. I____________________a sister. We___________students. My sister is a_______________ and my mother __________ a secretary.
--It stimulates a real encounter.
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place
Diálogo sugerido 2. Where are you from?
Marcia: What´s your name? Juan:
Community Language Learning.
Juan
--It lets students inquire on previous knowledge and also constructs new ones about the English language.
Marcia: Hi! Juan. My name is Marcia. I’m from Honduras, where are you from? Juan: Morazan Marcia: Are you a student?
-- It constructs the new knowledge on student’s´ previous one.
(Tape recorded student conversation)
Juan: No, I’m a carpenter. Are you a student?
-- It inquires on student’s previous knowledge. -- It constructs previous knowledge of the language-
Marcia: yes, I’m a language student.
Vocabulary: • •
some nationalities some occupations
Functions: •
1. Iniciar con la audición del diálogo, pidiendo que identifiquen de donde es cada personaje y cuál es su ocupación. 2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la grabación. Los estudiantes siguen en silencio.
asking and giving personal information
Community Language Learning
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
(Reflective listening)
3. Hacer un ejercicio de repetición en coro después de escuchar cada frase, con el objeto de que imiten la pronunciación.
Audiomethod:
lingual
(Repetition drill)
-- It considers the way students learn. --It lets students inquire on previous knowledge and also constructs new ones about the English language. -- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
Grammar: •
“to be” in affirmative and interrogative form
4. Realizar el siguiente ejercicio de lectura comprensiva utilizando estas preguntas: What’s his name? ________________________________________________
-- It encourages students to use previous knowledge. The Grammar Translation Method.
What’s her name? _______________________________________________ Where’s Francisco from? _______________________________________________
(Comprehension questions)
-- It encourages student to understand meaning and use of the language.
Where’s Marcia from? _______________________________________________ What’s Francisco? _______________________________________________ -- It constructs on student’s previous knowledge.
What’s Marcia? ______________________________________________
5. Presentar el cuadro de la gramática con la forma interrogativa del verbo be. Dar tiempo para que el estudiante la internalice. The Grammar Translation Method.
Questions
-- Grammar rule is used as a tool in the construction of new knowledge based on the prior ones. -- It promotes students’ autonomy.
Singular
am I -- It emphasizes students’ initiative. Are you Is he/she/it
a doctor?
(Deductive application of the rule)
-- It encourages students understand new language form.
to
Plural
are we Are you
from El Salvador?
Are they 6. Presentar oraciones divididas en segmentos, para que los estudiantes las ordenen correctamente.
-- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students´ different multiple intelligences.
?teacher a he is
from she Guatemala ? is
Park in you the? are
she sister is ¿ your
Communicative Language Learning.
Parents are they? your
from where you? are
(Scrambled sentences)
7. Tomar uno o varios personajes conocidos por los estudiantes, como Thalía por ejemplo, para que al final adivinen de quién se trata. __________
__________ a girl? Yes, she is.
__________
__________Brazil? No, she isn’t
__________
__________
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It Emphasizes students’ underlying knowledge. -- It encourages students understand meaning and use.
to
-- It shows teacher-led introduction to enable students to work things out by themselves with the teacher’s help.
(Fill in the blanks) __________Mexico? Yes, she is. -- It emphasizes students’ initiative. _________
__________ a writer? No, she isn’t.
_________
__________ a singer? Yes, she is. -- It can develop students’ autonomy.
_________ __________ name ___________? Yes, she is. 8. El ejercicio anterior puede hacerse en forma oral también. Un estudiante pasa al frente de la clase pensando en un personaje conocido para que toda la clase haga preguntas. Se puede también dividir la clase en dos grupos, para ver quién adivina primero el nombre del personaje.
-- It emphasizes individual learning as well as cooperative learning.
Desuggestopedia
(Choose
a
new
-- Verbalization is a means of internalizing and represent what has
identity)
been already learned. -- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It helps students face the unpredictable phase of the language.
3. Our neighbor
Texto sugerido -- It considers the student’s social context.
A village family Pedro and his family are from a village in the mountains of Guatemala. He has a brother and a sister. Their names are Tomas and Metzi. Tomas is 12 years old and Metzi is 14. Their father is a farmer, his name is José, and their mother is a rural farmworker. her name is Xela. The family isn’t rich and they have a small house in the village. They have some animals: Pedro has 10 chicks and Tomas has a horse and a cow. They attend classes in the morning. They are in the field in the afternoon.
Communicative Language Teaching. (Authentic materials)
-- It encourages the students to use prior knowledge.
1. Iniciar con la audición del texto, pidiendo que identifiquen nombres, ocupaciones y miembros de la familia. Vocabulary: • • •
members of the family some adjectives occupations
Functions: •
2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar el cassette. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.
asking and giving personal information
-- It constructs on students’ previous knowledge Community Language Learning (Reflective listening)
3. Leer en voz alta, profesor y estudiantes, imitando la pronunciación de la grabación.
-- It promotes the construction of new knowledge of the language based on previous ones as students approach to comprehension.
The Audio - Lingual Method (Repetition drill)
-- It helps students get new elements to understand the language.
-- It helps to construct new knowledge on the basis of the previous ones.
Grammar: • • •
possessive adjectives “ To have” in affirmative “to be” in affirmative, negative and interrogative
4. Hacer un ejercicio de selección múltiple, según el texto, subrayando la oración adecuada. Pedro is 13.
a. this family has a small house.
b. Pedro isn’t rich
b. Their house is in the city
c. Pedro is a teacher
c. Pedro has a horse
(Antonyms/synonyms) Note: other exercises that ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible.
a. the children attend classes in the afternoon. b. The children are in the field in the afternoon.
The Grammar Translation Method
-- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students’ multiple intelligences.
-- It helps the students to face the unpredictable phase of the language.
--Correct answer and errors can be considered as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition.
c. Pedro has two brothers.
a. Pedro and his family are from El Salvador. b. Tomas is 14 and his sister is12.
(Reading comprehension questions)
-- It explores students’ strengths and weaknesses in learning.
c .Tomas has a horse and a cow.
a. Pedro is a mechanic b. His father is a rural farm worker. c. His mother is a. teacher. 5. En este ejercicio, completar las preguntas así como las respuestas
-- Correct answers and errors can be considered as worth steps in the
con la ayuda del texto. Where ____
knowledge acquisition.
____ from? They are from Guatemala
Grammar Translation Method
How old ____ Metzi? She is __________
--It helps students to understand something, rather than challenging them to give right answers.
(Fill in the blanks)
-- It helps students rather than frighten them.
Grammar Translation Method
-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool to construct previous knowledge.
What´s ____ father? He´s a ___________ Where are _____ in the afternoon? They’re in ___________________ 6. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con la forma negativa del verbo auxiliar “to be” y los adjetivos posesivos. Dar tiempo para que el estudiante se familiarice con los contenidos que se presentan en los cuadros.
Deductive application of the rule)
7. Luego que el estudiante ha internalizado los conceptos, hacer los siguientes ejercicios: -- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students’ multiple intelligences.
De acuerdo con su información personal, el estudiante deberá llenar los espacios en blanco. My name ______Otto. My name is ____________
Grammar Translation Method
I ______ 10 years old. I’m _______. My father ______an astronaut. He ___
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
__________________. (Fill in the blanks)
My mother ______ a movie star. She _____ ____________. My teacher’s ________ from Mexico. They ______ _________ El Salvador. We ____ from Canada. We _______ from _______________________.
-- Correct answers and errors can be considered as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition.
Que los estudiantes completen estas oraciones. - ____________name’s Kate.
-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.
- Name’s Steve.
- It’s ________________birthday today - Kate is _________ girlfriend. 8. En esta etapa, hacer un ejercicio de la siguiente manera: cada estudiante deberá describir en su cuaderno a un compañero y una compañera. Si la escuela es mixta, que describa amigos o parientes.
Grammar Translation Method (Composition)
Luego que lean su descripción a toda la clase. Deberán usar los adjetivos posesivos. 4.Friends from abroad
-- It encourages learners’ autonomy. -- It emphasizes learning.
cooperative
-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing. -- It constructs on students’ previous knowledge.
Texto sugerido April 16, 1998 Communicative Language Teaching.
Dear Marielos, My name is Ali. I’m 14 and I’m from Morocco. I have black hair, brow eyes and dark skin. I’m tall and strong: I’m a student in 7 th grade. My school isn’t very big. My favorite singers are Madonna and John Secada. They‘re great! My favorite color is blue and my favorite animals are cats. I have two cats; their names are Abu and Toufik. They eyes are big and green. What are you favorite things? Love, Ali 1. Iniciar con la audición del texto, solicitando que los estudiantes identifiquen el mayor número de palabras.
-- It takes into account the students’ social context. -- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context. --It Considers the students´ interests.
(Authentic materials)
-- It constructs new knowledge on the basis of previous ones.
Vocabulary: • • •
some parts of the body adjectives of quality names
Functions: • •
describing people expressing preferences
Grammar translation method 2. Escuchar el texto una segunda vez e, inmediatamente, hacer preguntas como: What color is his hair?, Who is his favorite singer? etc.
(Reading questions)
comprehension
3. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la grabación. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio. Preguntar donde está Marruecos y que idioma hablan allí.
Communicative Learning
Language
( Reflective listening)
4. Pedir a los estudiantes que elaboren una ficha con el perfil (datos)de Alí , su persona y de uno de sus compañeros, de la siguiente manera: Nota: Recordar que al escribir inglés, se coloca primero el mes, luego el día en números seguido de coma y por último, el año.
-- It considers students´ learning styles.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
students´
-- It constructs on students’ previous knowledge. -- It explores students’ strengths and weaknesses in learning. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning as well as individual.
Grammar translation method
(Fill in the blanks)
-- It considers the way he student learns.
Profile Name: Alí Country: __________________________________ Age:______________________________________ Favorite singers:___________________________
-- It demonstrates the teacherled introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for themselves with teacher’s help.
Favorite color:_____________________________
Grammar:
• adjectives of quality
Favorite animals:__________________________ 5. Aprovechando la información que cada estudiante ha dado acerca de sí mismo, reunir por grupos aquellos que tienen preferencias por determinado color. Pedir que los estudiantes digan oraciones tales como: “Our favorite color is_________”. “Our favorite animal is______” y Our favorite singer is _______”. Los estudiantes también pueden escribir oraciones en sus cuadernos. 6. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con el uso de los adjetivos. Dar tiempo para que el estudiante se familiarice con los contenidos que se presentan.
Community Learning
Language
-It promotes independence.
learners’
(Small task group) -- It constructs on students’ previous knowledge.
The Grammar Method
Translation
Adjectives (Deductive application of the rule)
- We use adjectives to describe people and things.
--It emphasizes on cooperative learning.
-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that teachers can use to ease learning by organizing information presented so that the new concepts can be easily related with concepts already learned. -- It Promotes the construction of previous knowledge.
Here are some examples: old, small, big, rich, dark. Look at the sentences Ali has black hair
He’s tall
This singer is great -- It encourages students to understand new language forms.
My horse is small
- the form of adjectives: A rich man
a great singer
a small -- It explores students’ strengths
and weaknesses in learning.
house - an adjective comes before a noun: Adjective + noun I have a beautiful cat -An adjective comes after the verb “to be” To be + adjective They are strong 7. Después de internalizar los contenidos de los cuadros, pedir a los estudiantes que subrayen todos los adjetivos que están en el texto.
Grammar Translation Method (Antonyms/synonyms) Note: other exercises that ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible.
-- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students’ multiple intelligences. -- It encourages learner to use what has learned.
8. Presentar oraciones divididas en preguntas para que los estudiantes las ordenen correctamente. Strong are students the singer a
José Luis Perales great is
Has hair my sister black
House the small are
Eyes have blue I
teachers my nice are.
The Communicative Language Teaching.
-- It considers the student’s variety of learning styles. -- It can autonomy.
(Scrambled sentences)
develop
students’
5. Citizens of the world
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
Diálogo sugerido: (se supone que están mirando fotos) Paco: Look, Mónica, who’s this?
Communicative Language Teaching
Mónica: This is Bono, he’s a singer. He’s fantastic and he’s from Ireland.
-- It constructs on student’s previous knowledge.
Paco: And who’s she? (Authentic materials) Mónica: Oh, that’s the famous tennis player -- It encourages students’ to use previous knowledge.
Paco: where is she from? Mónica: She’s Spanish, her name’s Arantxa Sánchez. Look, this is an excellent soccer player. What’s name?
-- It constructs previous knowledge. Paco: He´s Patrick Kluivert, he’s from Great Britain. Mónica: well, what about this? -- It stimulates a real life encounter. Paco: This is Gabriel Garcia Márquez. He´s Colombian and he ´s a famous writer. -- It demonstrates the teacher – led introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for themselves with teacher’s help.
Mónica: and look at Tom Hanks. He’s a terrific actor. Paco: I agree!!
Vocabulary: • •
countries and nationalities occupations
1. Iniciar con la audición del diálogo, pidiendo que identifiquen adjetivos, nacionalidades y profesiones. 2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escucharlo. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.
Community Language Learning (Reflective listening)
-- It encourage learners to reflect on the language it self.
Functions: asking and giving personal information
3. Hacer un ejercicio de repetición (en coro) después de escuchar cada frase, con el objeto que imiten la pronunciación.
-- It makes possible the whole class interaction. The Audio-Lingual Method (Repetition drill)
Grammar: • •
adjectives of quality verb to be: whquestions
this, that, these, those
4. Hacer un ejercicio escrito de lectura comprensiva, utilizando la información del diálogo.
-- It helps students to get new elements to understand the language. -- It considers students´ learning styles.
The Grammar Translation Method Where’s Bono from? _____________________ (Reading comprehension questions) Where’s Arantxa Sánchez from? She’s from__________ -- It encourages students’ autonomy.
Is Patrick Kluivert from Spain? No, he _____________ He´s from ___________ Where is García Márquez from? __________________
-It emphasizes understanding
Is Tom Hanks a teacher? No, _____________________
students
He’s ___________________
5. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con los adjetivos demostrativos: this, that, these, those. Dar tiempo para que los estudiantes se familiaricen con los contenidos que se presentan en los cuadros.
Grammar Translation Method
(Deductive application of the rule)
-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that teachers can use to ease learning by organizing information presented so that the new concepts can be easily related with concepts already learned.
Demonstratives Singular This house
plural these houses
-- It Promotes the construction of previous knowledge.
That house
those houses -- It encourages students understand new language forms.
to
We use this, that, these, and those with nouns This school is big Those children are noisy - It can develop student’s autonomy. We use this and these for things that are near and that and those for things that are not near. This is a tree. These are balloons 6. Realizar un ejercicio de complementación con oraciones como las siguientes:
-- It helps students to face the unpredictable phase of the language. The Grammar Translation Method
_________________ clouds are white -- It lets students to reflect on the language itself.
_________________ plane is big _________________ students are good. (Fill in the blanks) _________________English lesson is interesting. _________________ teacher is nice.
-- It constructs on students previous knowledge.
_________________ trees are tall.
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
_________________ shoes are old. ( de ellos) 7. Write nationalities in four groups according to their endings:
-- It considers the way students learn.
Americ ___ Span___ Japan____ Canad___
Grammar Translation Method -- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
Mex___ Chin ___ Brit ___ Germ ___ Brazil ____ Portugu ____ -ish
- an
-ian
- ese
____
_____
_____
_____
____
_____
_____
_____
(Fill in the blanks)
-- It constructs on learners’ previous knowledge.
-- It emphasizes individual learning. ____ _____ _____ _____ 8. Se puede hacer el siguiente ejercicio:
Grammar Translation Method
Country or nationality? Write one word from each pair: Brazil
France
Brazilian French Spain
Japan Japanese
Mexico
-- It considers how the students learn. (Fill in the blanks) -- It can learning.
Mexican
emphasize
individual
The USA
Spanish America 9. Con objetos de los estudiantes, se les puede pedir que hagan diálogos similares a estos en forma escrita; si es posible, lo pueden hacer en forma oral.
The Audio-Lingual Method
A: Is ____________your pen?
(Complete the dialogue)
-- It considers the students´ learning styles.
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy. B: NO, that ____________My pen _________My pen A: Are ________________your glasses? -- It emphasizes individual learning. B: yes they are. Thank you
UNIT TWO: WHAT AROUND US CONTENTS
METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS BY MINED 1. Pedir a los estudiantes que describan por escrito lo que hay en su casa, usando there is y there are. Tomar en cuenta también algunos utensilios eléctricos.
1. At home
Vocabulary: •
rooms objects house
in
and a
Functions: •
describing places
Grammar: • • • • •
verbs to have, to be adjectives of quality there is/ are affirmative and interrogative forms imperative
2. Con esta información hacer que los estudiantes la intercambien en forma oral y que hagan preguntas usando is there y are there.
METHODS The Grammar Translation Method (Composition)
The Direct Method
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY -- It lets to construct new knowledge on previous ones. -- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, realworld context. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- It uses verbalization as a means of internalize and represent what the student has learned.
(Conversation practice) -- It encourages cooperative learning.
3. Presentar una lista de adjetivos que describan espacios y objetos del hogar para que los estudiantes escriban oraciones con ellos.
4. Pedir a los estudiantes que describan lo que hay en su cuarto o en los demás espacios de la casa, por ejemplo la cocina, utilizando el verbo have. Con esta información, hacer que los estudiantes reporten por escrito y en forma oral lo que su compañero diga que tiene en su cuarto o casa.
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It makes possible the construction of previous knowledge.
(Use words in sentences)
-- It emphasizes student’s autonomy. -- It demonstrates the teacher – led introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for themselves with teacher’s help. -- It lets students engage in real world situations.
The Direct Method ( Paragraph writing)
-- It provides learners the opportunity to construct knowledge and understanding from authentic experience. -- It encourages individual learning as well as cooperative learning.
-- It emphasizes the writing as well as the oral expression.
sentences
5. Llevar al aula una caja (mediana) cerrada para que los estudiantes adivinen que hay dentro utilizando la formas there is, there are.
Communicative Language Teaching.
-- It encourages learner autonomy and initiative. -- It constructs on learners’ experience.
(Authentic materials) 6. Pedir que los estudiantes escriban un párrafo pequeño expresando sus preferencias, por ejemplo: My favorite room in the house is my bedroom… 7. Explicar como funciona una grabadora de cassettes.
8. Solicitar que los/las estudiantes visiten un supermercado para que copien las etiquetas de productos que están en inglés, que las traduzcan y las presenten a la clase. Lo mismo puede hacer con medicinas y con ropa. 9. Presentar a los estudiantes artículos como un frasco de medicina, etc. Leer lo que dice en las etiquetas para que deduzcan en que lugar se deben guardar.
The Direct Method
-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.
( Paragraph writing)
-- It considers how the students learn.
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It makes possible the construction of new knowledge.
(Authentic materials) Communicative Language Teaching
-- It stimulates a real life situation. --It provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience.
(Authentic materials) Communicative Language teaching
--It provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience.
(Authentic materials) -- It emphasizes a real life situation.
Where are you going to put these things- below the kitchen, sink in a locked cabinet, or on a big shelf? 10. Solicitar para la siguiente clase que los estudiantes elaboren un reloj.
Communicative Language Teaching (Authentic materials)
-- It emphasizes learner’s autonomy.
2. At school
1. Pedir a los estudiantes que hagan un horario con sus actividades más importantes dentro y fuera de la escuela, por ejemplo:
-- It stimulates a real life situation.
7:00 a.m. Breakfast
-- It provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience.
8:00 a.m. social studies
The Grammar Translation Method
9:00 a. m. Math exam
(Using words in sentences)
10:00 a.m. Recess -- It considers how the students learn. 10: 30 a.m. English class
Posteriormente pedirles que escriban oraciones: “I have breakfast at 7:00 am”. Si el alumno pide se le pueden proporcionar algunos verbos como: eat, study, play, wake up. Hay que recordar que es más importante que el alumno sepa solamente unos pocos verbos, pero que los pueda ocupar correctamente.
-- Emphasizes students’ previous knowledge.
-- It stimulates the learners’ autonomy and initiative.
Vocabulary: • • •
school subjects numbers and hours days of the week
2. Que los estudiantes hagan un pequeño cuestionario y se pregunten entre ellos acerca de sus preferecias: What is your favorite subject/What are your three favorite subject’… favorite day(s) of the week, favorite time of the day. Se les puede pedir que escriban en sus cuadernos lo que sus compañeros respondieron.
• •
asking and giving information about. school subjects and days of the week. telling time
Grammar: • • • •
verb to have preposition of time imperative sentences numbers(1-100)
3. Computers
(Conversation practice) -- It emphasizes individual as well as cooperative learning. -- It lets learners to engage in dialogue with peers.
Communicative Teaching.
Functions: •
-- It considers how the students learn.
The Direct Method
Language
3. Con el reloj de cartulina hacer que los estudiantes se pregunten la hora entre ellos. Ejemplo: What time is it? It´s_______.
4. Para repasar los números que se pregunten entre ellos la edad, la edad de sus padres, hermanos(as), amigos. Ejemplo: I am ____ years old.
-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs. -- It encourages cooperative learning. -- It stimulates a real life encounter.
(Authentic materials)
-- It helps students face the unpredictable phase of the communication.
The Direct Method
--It emphasizes learning.
cooperative
(Conversation practice) -- It stimulates a real life encounter. --It encourages the students to overcome their linguistic level.
1. Comenzar dándoles a los alumnos algunos comandos a través del Total Physical Response (TPR): stand up, open your book, close the windows.
Total Physical Response (Using commands to direct behavior)
-- Correct answer and errors can be considered as worth step to get the knowledge. -- It constructs previous knowledge.
2. Que el alumno se de cuenta de cuantas palabras conoce en inglés que se utilizan en español.
Vocabulary: •
computer language
Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous experience.
3. Hacer un ejercicio de vocabulario, pidiéndole a los estudiantes que identifiquen las partes de la computadora.
Functions: •
giving commands
4. Hacer un ejercicio donde el estudiante tiene que poner las instrucciones con el dibujo que corresponde.
Grammar: •
Content - based instruction approach
imperative form
Communicative Teaching
Language
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language. -- It emphasizes in the construction previous knowledge.
(Authentic materials)
-- It stimulates a real life encounter.
Total Physical Response
--It lets students reflect on the language itself.
(Using commands to direct behavior) 5. Proporcionar a los estudiantes una serie de instrucciones sencillas, por escrito, para que las sigan; ejemplo:
-- It encourages students to understand new language forms. -- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Total Physical Response
-- It emphasizes individual as well as cooperative learning. -- It considers the students´ learning styles.
(Action sequence) -- It stimulates a real life encounter.
-Open your book
-write your name 1. Pedir a los estudiantes que enumeren los lugares que hay en la ciudad y que los escriban en la pizarra.
4. At the park
Vocabulary: •
things
- write the date, etc.
in
the
2. Si hay un parque en su comunidad, que los estudiantes describan por escrito lo que hay en él. Solicitar a algunos estudiantes que lean en voz alta sus
Total Physical Response
-- It lets students to reflect on learning. -- It considers the context in which learning is taking place.
(Using commands to direct behavior) The Grammar Translation Method
-- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It takes into account the place in which learning is taking place.
(Composition)
-- It encourages students to work by
park
Functions: •
describing places
Grammar: • •
•
there is/are affirmative, interrogative, negative
themselves how language forms are constructed.
listas.
3. Escribir preguntas en la pizarra con “is there” y “are there” e incluir vocabulario como: a swing (columpio), a slide (deslizadero), a seesaw (sube y baja), trees, statues, flowers, benches, snacks stand, para que los estudiantes las escriban en sus cuadernos y las contesten.
The Grammar Method
4. Partir de un texto que tenga la ilustración de un parque y luego presentar un párrafo en el que haya información errónea. El ejercicio consiste en que el estudiante subraye las frases que no concuerdan con la ilustración. Por ejemplo, si en el dibujo hay tres bancas, el párrafo puede tener una frase así: there are four benches in the park, entonces el estudiante lo subrayará.
The Grammar Method
prepositions of place 5. Con el texto del parque, explicar el uso de las preposiciones de lugar y hacer que los estudiantes las subrayen.
6. Pedir a los (las estudiantes que usen las preposiciones de la lectura para describir los espacios y objetos de su casa. Por ejemplo: the bathroom is between two bedrooms.
7. Pedir a lo/las estudiantes que expliquen como se usa un teléfono público. Usar comparativos.
Translation
--Adding vocabulary or new information ease the construction of prior knowledge.
( Use words in sentences)
Translation
-- It demonstrates the teacher – led introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for themselves with teacher’s help. -- It encourages students to work by themselves how language forms are constructed.
(Antonyms/synonyms) Note: other exercises that ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible. The Grammar Method
Translation
(Deductive application of the rule) The Grammar Translation Method
--It constructs on learners’ previous knowledge. -- It emphasizes individual learning.
--It emphasizes on students’ previous knowledge to construct the new ones.
-- It encourages students to work by themselves on how language forms are constructed.
( Use words in sentences)
Communicative Teaching.
Language
(Authentic materials)
--It lets the students to put into practice what they have learned. -- It emphasizes on students’ performance and understanding. -- Verbalization is used a means of
internalize and represent what has been already learned.
8. Preparar una lectura en la que se incluyan preposiciones; luego, dárselas a los estudiantes para que ellos al leerlas vayan haciendo un dibujo.
The Grammar Method
Translation
-- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It promotes learning autonomy. -- It stimulates students’ creativity.
(Antonyms/synonyms)
5.In the street
1. Pedir a los estudiantes enumeren en inglés los establecimientos comerciales que hay en su comunidad. Escribirlos en la pizarra.
2. Preguntar que otros lugares pueden encontrarse en una ciudad o pueblo.
Vocabulary: •
different names of stores and products
Functions: •
asking places
Grammar: •
there is/are
about
3. Presentar una lámina de una calle con distintos establecimientos para que los estudiantes describan por escrito su ubicación, usando las preposiciones ya conocidas. 4. Escribir la frase where´s the _________? En la pizarra para que los estudiantes hagan preguntas por escrito y que también las respondan con las
Note: other exercises that ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible. Content. –based instruction approach
-- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development in learning activities.
-- It emphasizes the context in which learning is taking place.
Principle: the subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes Content – based instruction approach
-- It makes use of students’ previous knowledge.
Principle: Teaching should build on students’ previous knowledge.
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative.
Communicative Teaching
Language
(Authentic materials)
-- It makes use of students’ previous knowledge
-- It helps students face the unpredictable phase of the language. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It makes use of students’ previous knowledge.
The
Grammar
Translation
• •
affirmative, negative, interrogative. preposition of place
preposiciones conocidas.
Method
-- It encourages students to understand new language forms.
( Use words in sentences) -- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
5. Preguntar: is there a (nombre de negocio) in (nombre de la comunidad), para que los estudiantes contesten yes, there is o No, there isn´t.
The Direct Method
-- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
( Conversation practice) -- It promotes learners’ autonomy.
Hacer preguntas en plural también.
6. Con la lámina ilustrativa, hacer un ejercicio de falso y verdadero (true and false)
The Audio - Lingual Method
-- It encourages students express themselves orally -- It considers the way student learns.
(Question- and answer drill) -- Correct answers and errors can be considered as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition. -- It can encourage students to reflect on their own learning.
7. Que los estudiantes redacten un párrafo con there is y there are y las preposiciones conocidas con los lugares de la comunidad.
The Direct Method ( Paragraph writing)
-- It emphasizes performance and understanding. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- It promotes learners’ autonomy.
UNIT THREE: HAVING FUN
CONTENTS 1. At home
Vocabulary: • •
verbs of action greetings
Functions: • • •
greeting and introducing people describing actions asking and giving personal information
Grammar: • •
present continuous affirmative form
METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS BY MINED 1. Acercarse a un estudiante y decir “Hi, my name is________. I´m your teacher”. Hacer esto varias veces; una vez los estudiantes comprendan, hacer que ellos se presenten individualmente, diciendo: “Hi, my name is ____. I’m a student”. 2. Hacer un ejercicio en cadena: Hi, my name is_________this is_______. (nombre del estudiante próximo).
3. Escribir en la pizarra nombres de países y nacionalidades para que los alumnos escojan una y por turno digan “Hello, I´m from (nombre del país), What´s my name?”Para que toda la clase adivine el nombre. Explicar que deberán adoptar personajes que sean conocidos por todos. 4. Hacer grupos de tres y, con la misma nacionalidad que han adoptado, que se presenten usando los nombres de los países, nacionalidad y los nombres de personajes famosos.
METHODS The Audio – Lingual Method
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY -- It allows the teacher interact with the whole class.
(Chain drill) -- It makes possible the construction of previous knowledge. The Audio – Lingual Method
-- It emphasizes whole class activity. -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
(Chain drill)
Desuggestopedia
-- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- Verbalization is a means of internalization and represent what has been already learned.
( Choose a new identity)
-- It stimulates a real life encounter. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
Community Language Learning
-- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
( Small task groups) -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
5. Explicar, por medio de una línea de tiempo, el uso del presente progresivo. Escribir oraciones sencillas en la pizarra.
The Grammar Translation Method.(Deductive application of the rule)
-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that teachers can use to ease learning by organizing information presented so that the new concepts can easily be related to concepts already learned. -- It Promotes the construction of previous knowledge.
6. Usar dibujos esquemáticos o recortes de revistas para que los estudiantes escuchen y escriban en su cuaderno oraciones en el presente progresivo.
Communicative Language Teaching.
-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.
(Authentic materials)
-- It considers the way students learn. -- It encourages students to understand new language forms. -- It Promotes the construction of previous knowledge.
7. A través de un cuadro gramatical, explicar como se forma el presente progresivo. The Grammar Translation Method
-- It considers the way students learn. (Deductive application of the rule)
8. Solicitar que cada estudiante dibuje lo que su familia esta haciendo en esos momentos y que escriban un párrafo describiendo las distintas actividades en presente progresivo.
The Direct Method
-- It helps the students get new elements to understand the language. -- It considers the way the student learns.
(Paragraph writing) -- It encourages students to work by themselves how language forms are constructed. -- It promotes learners’ autonomy. -- It encourages the students to express by themselves in writing.
2. At the fair
Vocabulary: • verbs of action • some nouns
Functions: • asking and giving information about an action in progress. Grammar: • present continuous: • affirmative, negative and interrogative forms.
Communicative Language Teaching. 1. Presentar la lámina de un parque para que entre todos los estudiantes construyan un párrafo describiendo lo que las personas están haciendo. Escribirlas oraciones en la pizarra hasta formar el párrafo.
(Authentic materials)
2. Presentar un cuadro de la gramática en el que se explique la formación del presente progresivo: oraciones afirmativas y negativas.
Grammar Translation Method
3. Con una lámina alusiva ala feria, hacer un ejercicio de completar, en el que los estudiantes escriban los verbos en la forma del presente progresivo. Por ejemplo: I (match)____________the fair from my window 4. Con la misma lámina de la feria, señalar personajes y preguntar, por ejemplo: Is she looking at the snakes?
-- It makes use of students’ previous knowledge. -- It promotes the whole class interaction. -- It lets construct on students previous knowledge.
(Deductive application of the rule)
Grammar Translation Method
(fill in the blanks)
The Audio- Lingual Method (Question and answer drills)
--It lets the students to get new elements to understand the language. --It helps the students to face the unpredictable phase of the language. -- It considers the way students learn. -- It encourages learners’ autonomy. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- It lets consider errors and correct answers as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition.
Elaborar varias preguntas y solicitar a los estudiantes que las escriban en sus cuadernos.
5. Presentar un cuadro esquemático con la forma interrogativa del presente progresivo.
--It eases the learners to express by themselves in writing.
Grammar Translation Method
6. Escribir en tarjetas verbos en infinitivo, y repartirlas entre
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It eases the construction of previous knowledge of the language.
-- It lets the students to get new
los estudiantes para que ellos usen el verbo en una oración afirmativa. Inmediatamente después, organizar un ejercicio en cadena, así:
elements to understand the language. ( Deductive application of the rule)
Estudiante A: I’m reading a book He’s writing a letter
-- It lets the whole class participation. The Audio- Lingual Method
Estudiante B: I’m writing a letter
(Chain drill)
He’s eating an orange Estudiante C: I’m She’s cleaning her house.
eating
--It promotes the verbal interaction among students and teacher.
an
-- It lets consider errors and correct answers as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition.
orange -- It helps the students to overcome their linguistic level.
7. Solicitar a los estudiantes pasar al frente para que hagan mímica de actividades, a fin de que los demás adivinen la actividad usando el presente progresivo.
8. Como un proyecto de la unidad, solicitar que por equipos elaboren una lámina grande de la feria de su comunidad y que también la describan utilizando las formas estudiadas en esta lección.
Silent way
--It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It encourages learners’ autonomy.
( Teacher’s silence)
-- It considers the way student learns.
Communicative Teaching
Language
-- It Promotes the whole class interaction. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It promotes students’ autonomy.
(Authentic materials) -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
5. Invite al payaso del pueblo (si lo hay) o a un mimo para que visite el 3.A circus school
Vocabulary: •
verbs of action
Functions: • •
expressing ability describing actions
Grammar: •
•
can: affirmative, negative and interrogative forms present continuous
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It engages students in real learning
Content – based instruction approach
-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.
Principle: Teaching should build on students’ previous knowledge.
-- It inquires on students’ previous knowledge.
2. Explicar que todas las personas que allí trabajan tienen una función específica dentro del circo, lo cual es importante.
Desuggestopedia
-- It constructs on learners’ previous knowledge. -- It constructs previous knowledge.
(Positive sugestión)
-- It encourages learners to inquire.
3. Preguntar quienes pueden hacer algún tipo de acrobacia (andar en zancos, malabarismo, hacer trucos, etc.).Esta es la oportunidad para introducir el vocabulario pertinente.
Content – based instruction approach
-- It promotes learners’ autonomy. -- It promotes students’ initiative.
Principle: teaching should build on students’ previous knowledge.
-- It encourages students understand new language forms.
4. Explicar que en otros países existen escuelas para que los niños puedan aprender lo relacionado con el circo.
Desuggestopedia
-- It involves learners in real world situations.
1. Preguntar quienes han ido a un circo recientemente. Pedir que enumeren en inglés lo que vieron. Escribir las palabras en la pizarra.
to
(Positive suggestion)
-- It considers the way students learn.
aula, para que los estudiantes le hagan preguntas, y les enseñe como hacer trucos y cómo maquillarse.
(Authentic materials)
6. Presentar un cuadro de la gramática del uso de can en afirmativo, negativo e interrogativo.
The Grammar Translation Method
situations. -- It promotes learners’ autonomy. -- It considers the way students learn. --It eases to construct previous knowledge.
(Deductive application of the rule) -- It helps the students get new elements to understand.
7. Mostrar dibujos esquemáticos con actividades propias de un circo para que los estudiantes escriban después oraciones usando el presente progresivo, por ejemplo:”He’s jumping a rope”. Posteriormente, pueden leer las oraciones en voz alta.
Communicative Language Teaching
8. Con las mismas laminas que se usan en la sugerencia 7, o con fotos, que los estudiantes las describan usando el auxiliar can; por ejemplo,
Communicative Language Teaching.
” He can walk on stilts”. 9. Solicitar a cada estudiante que escriba un párrafo describiendo todo lo que él o ella puede hacer, utilizando el vocabulario del circo y otras habilidades.
(Authentic materials)
-- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to consider the students´ multiple intelligences.
-- It encourages students understand new language form.
to
(Authentic materials) -- It emphasizes performance and understanding. The Direct Method
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
(Paragraph writing) -- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.
10. Como un proyecto al final de la lección, se puede simular un circo en su clase.
Desuggestopedia
-- It engages students in real learning situations.
(Creative adaptation) -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
4. Meeting a star
Vocabulary: •
idiomatic expressions: of course, really, etc.
Functions: •
•
asking and giving personal information asking for permission
1. Preguntar a los estudiantes como creen que son los artistas de cine. Pedir que den todos sus opiniones. Hacer hincapié en que son personas tal como todos los demás. 2. Preguntar si saben donde está Hollywood y que si han visto el programa de la entrega del Oscar a los mejores actores y actrices.
Content – based instruction approach
-- It lets students face the unpredictable phase of the language. -- It considers the students beliefs.
Principle: Teaching should build on students’ previous knowledge. Content – based approach
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: Teaching should be built on student’s previous knowledge.
-- It involves the students in real world situations.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
-- It considers students’ interests. 3. Solicitar los nombres de sus actores y actrices preferidos para introducir el texto sugerido en esta lección.
Content – based instruction approach Principle: learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content within the context of authentic material and tasks.
-- It considers the students beliefs. -- It encourages learner’s autonomy and initiative.
Grammar: • •
“WH” questions can expressing ability and asking permission.
4. Explicar el uso de can para solicitar permiso, dar ejemplos. Inmediatamente solicitar que los estudiantes escriban en su cuaderno oraciones utilizando can en ambas formas, para expresar habilidades y para pedir permiso.
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It encourages students understand new language form.
(Deductive application rule)
-- It helps the students get new elements to understand the language.
of the
to
-- It considers different students´ learning styles. -- It considers the way the students learn.
5. Hacer el siguiente ejercicio: The Grammar Translation Method Look at these questions and answers
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
Questions words (Fill in the blanks) What is your name?___________ David
Where are you from? _____________Mexico
-- It can encourage students to reflect on their own learning.
How are you? ________________ I’m fine. Who’s he? ___________________Cristian Santos How old is she? _______________she’s twenty Why is she here? ______________ She’s on vacation. -- It emphasizes individual learning.
Match questions words and what they refer to
1________________what?
a) age
2_______________where?
b) a person or people
3. ______________who?
c) a reason or motive
4. _____________ why?
d) conditions or descriptions
5. _____________how?
e) places or locations
6. ___________ how old? f) things names or ideas 6. Formar parejas de estudiantes para que se hagan preguntas usando palabras interrogativas.
-- It encourage students to reflect on their own learning.
Community Language Learning
-- It encourages learning.
(Small group tasks)
-- It promotes learners’ autonomy. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy and promote skills of self reliance and investigation over teacher’s dependence.
7. Hacer un ejercicio de complementación similar a este: Complete these sentences. Use can or can’t + one of these verbs: come, find, bear, see, speak.
The Direct Method
I’m sorry but we______ _____ to your party next Saturday
(Fill in the blanks exercises)
cooperative
-- It can encourage students to reflect on their own learning.
She has a good job because she ________speak three languages. -- It emphasizes individual learning. You are speaking very quickly. I ____ ____ you. I like hotel room. You ____ _____the mountains from the Windows. 8. Pedir a los estudiantes que para la próxima clase traigan una postal en blanco o fotos de periódico o revistas.
-- It helps students face the unpredictable phase of the language. Communicative Language Teaching (Authentic materials)
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative.
5. On vacation
Vocabulary: • •
activities places
1. Solicitar a los estudiantes que expresen lo que hacen los salvadoreños en vacaciones, incluyéndose ellos mismos. Escribir algún vocabulario mínimo en inglés.
Content – based instruction approach
- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: Teaching should build on students’ previous knowledge.
-- It considers the students beliefs.
2. Con las postales que los estudiantes traigan, solicitar que las describan por escrito en inglés, utilizando adjetivos en sus oraciones.
The Grammar Translation Method ( Use words in sentences)
-- It constructs on previous knowledge. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy. -- It lets students reflect on the language itself. -- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.
Functions: • • •
expressing preferences describing actions expressing ability
Grammar: • • •
adjectives of quality present continuous can expressing ability
3. Escoger, de entre las postales que los estudiantes tienen, aquellas en las que ilustren actividades. Solicitar que los estudiantes expresen oralmente (utilizar el presente progresivo) oraciones y que luego las escriban en su cuaderno.
4. Utilizando las postales, buscar aquellas que se presten para que el estudiante exprese oraciones con can. Por ejemplo: “I can go to the beach”; “I can swim in the lake”. 5. Una vez los estudiantes han expresado sus oraciones en forma afirmativa, en parejas que se hagan preguntas con el auxiliar CAN.
The Audio - Lingual Method
-- Verbalization is used as a way to represent the acquired knowledge.
(Multiple - slot substitution drill) -- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It encourages learner autonomy and initiative.
The Audio - Lingual Method
-- It emphasizes the writing and orally expression. -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
(Multiple - slot substitution drill) -- It lets the students themselves orally.
express
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It encourages cooperative learning.
(Question and answer exercises)
-- It lets the students reflect on the language itself.
UNIT FOUR: STRENGTHENING OUR BODY CONTENTS
SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY MINED
1. Physical exercise
1. Comenzar la clase con un ejercicio de respiración y relajamiento.
Vocabulary:
2. Elaborar una ilustración grande del cuerpo humano para que los estudiantes ubiquen los nombres de las distintas partes.
• •
parts of the body actions
Functions: •
giving commands
METHODS
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY -- It considers the way the students learn.
Desuggestopedia (Positive suggestion) Contentbased instruction approach
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy. Principle: Learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content within the context of authentic material.
3. Cuando el estudiante domine los nombres de las partes del cuerpo, puede hace el ejercicio de “Simon says”.ejemplo, Stand up please
--It inquires on previous knowledge.
--It lets construct previous knowledge.
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy. Total Physical Response (Using commands behavior)
to
direct
Stand on one foot
-- Correct answers and errors can be considered as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition. -- It stimulates a real life situation.
Raise your left arm, etc.
Grammar: • •
imperative form object pronouns (me; him, her)
La diversión está en que el estudiante debe pedir que vuelvan a sus posiciones iniciales para continuar con otras indicaciones. 4.Solicitar que varios estudiantes, uno a la vez, pasen al frente y dirijan un ejercicio de Total Physical Reponse (TPR) similar al que se hizo de “Simon says”
-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.
-- It lets students reflect on the language itself.
Total Physical Response (Using commands behavior)
to
direct -- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development in learning activities.
5. Elaborar un cuerpo humano en grande y luego recortar las distintas partes (puede funcionar mejor en franelografo).Este ejercicio puede ser muy divertido porque se trata de que el estudiante de las indicaciones.
-- It promotes learners autonomy and initiative.
Total Physical Response
-- It can encourage students to reflect on their own learning.
(Role reversal)
-- It emphasizes understanding.
Total Physical Response
7. Solicitar que los estudiantes escriban un juego de instrucciones para realizar un ejercicio físico sencillo y que no se haya hecho en clase.
Total Physical Response
--It makes possible students creativity.
(Role reversal)
-- It emphasizes performance understanding. -- It stimulates a real life situation.
Total Physical Response
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
9. Al finalizar esta clase solicitar que para la próxima los estudiantes traigan recortes de actividades deportivas. 1. Preguntar “ What animals do you like?” y escribir en la pizarra todas las respuestas que den los estudiantes así: I like _________luego
(Using commands behavior)
to
and
-- It can show much the students enjoy what they are learning. -- It stimulates a real life situation.
6. Escribir en la pizarra instrucciones en inglés para operar aparatos electrodomésticos. Hacer preguntas con relación a ellas.
8. En parejas los estudiantes pueden sentarse de espaldas uno del otro, y con un juego de instrucciones que se ha preparado con anticipación, uno de los estudiantes sigue las indicaciones que le vaya leyendo el otro. Pueden ser las indicaciones para dibujar una casa (esquema) por ejemplo.
2. I like sports
performance
direct
(Using commands behavior)
to
direct
Communicative Teaching
Language
-- It allows the teachers engage in dialogue with students.
and
-- It can engage the student in dialogue with peers.
-- It develops learners’ autonomy.
(Authentic Materials) The Direct Method
-- It promotes learners’ initiative and autonomy. -- It can encourage learners’ initiative.
(Question and answer exercises)
--
It
emphasizes
performance
and
preguntar “What sport do you like?” y hacer lo mismo.
Vocabulary: •
sports
Functions: • •
expressing preferences likes/ dislikes
Grammar: •
simple present affirmative
2. Introducir frases preposicionales de tiempo: in the morning, on Sundays, on Saturday. Luego, hacer que los estudiantes usen verbos que ya conocen para producir oraciones usando esas frases preposicionales; ejemplo: I help my father in the afternoon. Deberán escribir estas oraciones en sus cuadernos. 3. Con ilustraciones de actividades distintas los estudiantes deberán construir oraciones usando “like”, “play” y otros verbos.
understanding.
The Grammar Method
Translation
(Deductive application of the rule) The Grammar method
translation
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
-- It allows the students reflect on the language itself.
(Using words in sentences)
-- It considers students´ learning styles.
4. Introducir adverbios de tiempo: usually y sometimes, explicando su posición en la oración para que luego los estudiantes escriban oraciones en sus cuadernos usando los días de la semana, los adverbios y los verbos que hasta hoy han practicado.
The Grammar Method
-- It builds knowledge.
5. Presentar un cuadro del uso de los verbos en presente, haciendo énfasis en el morfema de la tercera persona.
The Grammar Method
Translation
(Deductive application of the rule) Translation
(Deductive application of the rule) 6. Hacer un ejercicio de complementación para que los estudiantes practiquen el presente de los verbos. Lograr que puedan usar la tercera persona sin ningún problema.
on
learners’
previous
-- It constructs previous knowledge. -- It inquires on previous knowledge. --It constructs previous knowledge. -- It encourages students to understand new language form. -- It encourages learners’ autonomy.
(Fill in the blanks)
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It allows the students reflect on the language itself.
7. Proporcionar a los estudiantes un texto en el que se use He o She, con el objeto de practicar la 3a persona.
8. Solicitar que los estudiantes elaboren un horario de sus actividades semanales e invitar a un estudiante a que pase al frente y explique lo que hace.
3. Life of a tennis star
Vocabulary: • • •
actions meals times
1. Hablar sobre los deportistas más famosos del país o de la comunidad para producir oraciones usando “can”, “play”, “like”, etc. 2. Invitar a un deportista que presente cualidades positivas entre los jóvenes para que lo entrevisten. Con base en la entrevista, que los estudiantes elaboren un horario de las actividades del entrevistado.
(Antonyms/synonyms)
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Note: other exercises that ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible. Task-based instruction approach
-- It encourages student to understand new language form.
(An opinion gap)
-- It involves the students in real world situations.
Content- based approach
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
Principle: Teaching should build on students previous knowledge. Communicative Language Teaching
-- It promotes learner’s autonomy.
-- It inquires on prior knowledge. -- It can encourage learners’ autonomy and initiative.
(Authentic Materials) -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
-- It lets considering the mother
Functions: •
describing daily routines
3. Iniciar la construcción de un párrafo con las actividades diarias que realiza el deportista entrevistado o uno de los estudiantes que mejor haya elaborado su rutina.
The Direct Method
tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language. -- It promotes the whole class interaction.
(Paragraph writing) -- It emphasizes learners’ autonomy. -- It emphasizes the help that a student can give to another.
Grammar: •
simple present
4. Escribir una calendarización de las horas del día comenzando con la hora en que los estudiantes se levantan. Que cada estudiante individualmente escriba las actividades que realiza en cada una de esas horas.
5. En equipos de dos estudiantes, que intercambien información sobre su horario diario.
6. Que los estudiantes escriban un párrafo sobre sus actividades diarias y que también incluyan terceras personas, miembros de su familia.
7. Solicitar que los estudiantes describan lo que les gusta comer, Para que elaboren pequeños menús.
Task- based instruction approach
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: The teacher breaks down into smaller steps the logical thinking processes necessary to complete the task. The demand on thinking made by activity should be just above the level which learners can meet without help. Task based- instruction approach
-- It constructs knowledge.
Principle: Students have input into the design and the way that they carry out the task. This gives them more opportunity for authentic and meaningful interaction. The Grammar Translation Method
-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.
(Composition)
-- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing.
Communicative Language Teaching (Authentic materials)
on
previous
-- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
-- It encourages leaners’ autonomy.
-- It encourages the students to use what they have learned. -- It stimulates a real life situation. --It makes creativity.
possible
students´
4. A healthy life
-- It stimulates a real life encounter.
Diálogo sugerido A: Hi, Margarita how are you?
B: fine thanks. How are you? A: Not bad, wow you really look great How do you keep fit? B. Oh that’s easy. I get enough sleep, I eat good food and I do exercises. A: Ah… How long do you sleep?
-- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context. Communicative Teaching
Language
B: I usually sleep eight hours. (Authentic Materials) A: Do you practice any sport? B: Sure, I play basketball in the school team and I’m learning to play soccer.
-- It considers the context in which learning is taking place.
A: How do you get so much energy? B: Well, I watch my diet. I have a big breakfast; I eat a lot of fruit and vegetables. A: Now, I understand. Maybe I need more vegetables and fruits. My skin is dry, and looks at your skin! B: Do you want to come with me? I’m going to play volleyball now. A: O.K. let’s go
--It encourages the students to overcome their linguistic level.
1. Hacer que todos los estudiantes circulen y que hagan entrevistas a distintos estudiantes en el grado haciendo el ejercicio: find someone who likes…” se puede hacer preguntas como: Find someone who likes soccer. Find someone who plays tennis…
Vocabulary: • •
actions food
Después de haber hecho por lo menos una pregunta a cada estudiante, solicitar que un estudiante reporte sobre lo encontrado. 2. Usando un cuadro con los cinco grupos de alimentos, hacer preguntas para que los estudiantes respondan con sus preferencias alimenticias.
3. Presentar láminas con distintos alimentos para que los estudiantes elaboren oraciones con los mismos y así practiquen las tres formas del presente simple.
Functions: •
asking and giving informatio n about likes, dislikes and activities.
4. Escribir en la pizarra algunas palabras interrogativas con wh- y presentar modelos de preguntas con las mismas. Por ejemplo: When do you eat fruit? How much milk do you drink? Where do you practice sports? Solicitar que los estudiantes escriban por lo menos cinco preguntas, que entrevisten a uno de sus compañeros y que escriban las respuestas.
Task basedapproach
instruction
Principle: Students have input into the design and the way that they carry out the task. This gives them more opportunity for authentic and meaningful interaction.
-- It encourages students investigate inside the classroom.
to
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
-- It considers how the students learn. Content - based-approach
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Note: the subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes The Audio - Lingual Method
-- It considers the students beliefs.
-- It lets the students reflect on the language itself.
(Multi - slot substitution drill) Content – based instruction approach Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support.
-- It constructs on knowledge. -- It inquires on pr knowledge.
previous previous
-- It encourages student to understand new language form. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It lets learners to engage in dialogue with peers.
Grammar: •
simple present: yes/no questions, short answer whquestions.
5. Introducir la conjunción “but” para que los estudiantes expresen preferencias de ellos mismos y de miembros de su familia, así:
The Grammar Translation Method ( Use words in sentences)
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It emphasizes the context in which learning is taking place.
I like milk, but my father doesn’t. -- It constructs previous knowledge. My sister likes chicken, but I don’t. 6. Elaborar una serie de respuestas para que los estudiantes escriban las preguntas. Deberán mezclarse respuestas que requieran “yes/no questions” y “ wh-questions”
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It considers students’ beliefs. -- It inquires on previous knowledge. --It makes use of cognitive conflict.
(Scrambled sentences) 7. Solicitar a los estudiantes que elaboren un dibujo con todas sus preferencias y que cada uno de ellos pase a explicarlo en ingles.
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It considers the students beliefs. -- It promotes learning autonomy.
(Picture strip story) -- It makes use of cognitive conflict. -- Verbalization is used as a way to represent the acquired knowledge.
8. Para la siguiente clase solicitar a los estudiantes que lleven distintas frutas par una ensalada. Procurar tener los utensilios necesarios, platos y depósitos grandes, cubiertos, etc.
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It emphasizes performance and understanding. -- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
(Authentic Materials)
-- It encourages cooperative learning.
5. An apple a day keeps the doctor away
Diálogo sugerido Sue: Are you going to store? Dan: Yes, I need some tomatoes for the green salad.
-- It considers the context in which learning is taking place.
Sue: Well, we don’t have any eggs or milk, can we get some? Dan: Sure. -- It makes possible the construction of previous knowledge.
Sue: … and we need some coffee, too. Dan: is there any cheese? Sue: Yes, there is. Buy you can buy some shrimp for the cocktail. Remember that Anita and José are coming for dinner. Dan: Do they like all kinds of food?
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It stimulates a real life encounter.
(Authentic Materials) -- It considers the way students learn. -- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Sue: Yes, they do. At least Anita does. I don’t know about José. Dan: Does she like hot dogs? Sue: No, she doesn’t she like goods American food. Dan: I know! Do we need any carrots for the vegetable soup?
-- It constructs knowledge.
on
previous
Sue: No we don’t, we have some. But you can buy some apples. Remember “an apple a day keeps the doctor away”. Dan: O.K. Do you have any money? Sue: here’s a ten dollar bill. Dan: I’ll be back in a minute. 1. Puede hacer una revisión de los números en forma rápida. Auxiliarse con la fruta que los alumnos han llevado par contar, por ejemplo las naranjas. 2. Introducir some y any. Dar la explicación pertinente sobre su uso. Vocabulary: •
asking and giving information about likes, dislikes and types of food.
Grammar: •
-- It constructs previous knowledge.
(Deductive application of the rule)
-- It allows the students reflect on the language itself.
Content based instruction approach
-- Verbalization is used as a means to represent the knowledge acquired.
food
Functions: •
The Grammar Translation Method
simple present: affirmative, negative and interrogative forms
3. Solicitar a los estudiantes que expresen oralmente nombres de alimentos usando some y any. Escribirlos en la pizarra.
4. Dar nombres de alimentos para que los estudiantes elaboren preguntas u oraciones afirmativas o negativas utilizando “some” y “any”.
Principle: when learners perceive the relevance of their language use, they are motivated to learn. They know that it is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. The Grammar Translation Method
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
(Use words in sentences) -- It emphasizes individual learning.
• •
count and mass nouns some /any 5. Elaborar una lista de alimentos que se consumen en distintos países, comenzando con las pupusas de El Salvador. Por ejemplo:
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
Communicative Language Teaching El Salvador
pupusas
-- It considers the learners’ beliefs. (Authentic Materials)
USA
Hamburgers and hot dogs.
Italy
Spaghetti
Costa Rica
gallo pinto
España
paella
Nicaragua
nacatamal
Guatemala
fiambre
-- It lets knowledge transcend to another situation and context.
--It emphasizes individual learning. Luego que los estudiantes elaboren oraciones por escrito utilizando la información dada. 6. Para utilizar la pregunta: Do we need any ________________? Haga una lista de “comidas” para que entre todos enumeren lo que se necesita para la comida. 7. Preparar una pequeña escena en inglés para que los estudiantes, disfrazados de distintas frutas y verduras, expresen que tipo de beneficio representa para los humanos. 8. Con la fruta que han traído, hacer una ensalada y disfrutarla al final de la clase.
Task based instruction approach
-- It considers the students beliefs.
(An opinion gap)
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
Desuggestopedia
-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.
(Creative adaptation) Desuggestopedia ( Positive suggestion)
-- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
UNIT FIVE: LET’S SAVE THE EARTH CONTENTS 1.The living planet
SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY MINED 1. Organizar un juego de bingo con láminas de distintos animales.
METHODS
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY -- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
Desuggestopedia (Creative adaptation)
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
Vocabulary: • •
animals the weather
Functions: • •
describing animals and their habitat. asking and giving information about the weather
Grammar: • • • •
there is/there are can expressing possibility Wh- questions: how much, how many, etc. adjectives of quality
2. Mencionar en inglés nombres de animales como camel, zebra, whale, bear, etc. Para preguntar si los estudiantes los han visto en vivo.
3. Organizar un viaje al zoológico o al campo para que los estudiantes se formen una idea del hábitat de las distintas especies. En forma sencilla, los estudiantes pueden presentar reportes en grupos de experiencia.
Contentapproach
based
instruction
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
Principle: the subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes. Communicative Language Teaching
-- It promotes the discussion of student’s viewpoints. -- It makes possible knowledge transcend from the classroom to real situations.
(Authentic materials)
--It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing.
4. Hacer que los estudiantes describan un animal de su preferencia y su hábitat, que pasen al frente lo que han escrito para que el resto de la clase adivine el nombre del animal.
Task - based instruction approach
--It makes possible students creativity.
(An opinion gap)
-- It considers the student’s learning styles. -- It considers the learners’ beliefs. -- It lets learners to engage in dialogue with peers.
5. Hacer que los estudiantes escriban oraciones usando can (para expresar posibilidad) con los nombres de los animales, por ejemplo: Zebras can run 30 kilometers per tour.
Grammar Translation Method
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
(Use words in sentences)
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It encourages students to express by themselves in writing.
6. Escribir las palabras interrogativas how much, how fast, how far, how long, how tall, en lugar visible, para que los estudiantes hagan preguntas con ellas. Dar los siguientes datos: Camels can drink 114 liters of water. African elephants are over 3 meters tall.
Content - based instruction approach
-- It inquires on previous know ledge.
Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support.
-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.
Content approach
-- It considers the learners’ beliefs.
-- It makes possible the whole class interaction
Zebras can run 30 kilometers per hour. Whales swim 9650 kilometers south in the autumn. 7. Explicar que muchos de esos animales están en peligro de extinción y preguntar si los estudiantes saben que animales están en ese peligro en El Salvador.
8. Preguntar cuántas estaciones tenemos en El Salvador (lluviosa y seca) par luego, con láminas, mostrar las cuatro estaciones que se dan en otros países.
9. Introducir las palabras rainy, snowy, dry, cool sunny, icy, hot, cold. Con la ayuda de un globo terrestre ubicar los lugares del planeta en que se dan esas temperaturas y esos climas.
based
instruction
Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous experience. Content- based instruction approach Principle: the subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes. Content - based instruction approach Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support.
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It involves students’ in real world situations.
-- It makes possible the construction of previous knowledge. -- It considers the students´ learning styles.
10. Que los estudiantes escriban pequeños párrafos en los que se describan el clima de ciertas zonas y los animales que allí viven.
-- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development in learning activities.
The Direct Method ( Paragraph writing)
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
2. Weather around the World.
Vocabulary: • •
the weather seasons and month
Functions: •
asking and giving information about the weather.
1. Repasar los nombres de estaciones en El Salvador y el mundo a través de preguntas como: Is it cold in El Salvador in December?
2. Escribir la frase: “what’s the weather like?” En la pizarra y con el auxilio de un mapa del mundo señalar zonas decir por ejemplo: “what´s the weather like in Argentina in December?
3. Invitar a la clase a una persona del servicio meteorológico para que explique a los estudiantes cómo se puede pronosticar el tiempo atmosférico, o recortar el periódico el pronóstico del día.
Content based approach.
instruction
Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous experience. The direct method
-- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context. -- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It emphasizes the context in which learning is taking place.
-- It constructs knowledge.
on
previous
(Map drawing) -- It lets the knowledge transcend to another context. Communicative Teaching
Language
-- It makes possible the knowledge transcend from the classroom to real situations and context.
(Authentic materials) -- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language.
4. Con el auxilio del mapa del mundo hacer que los estudiantes identifiquen los hemisferios, el ecuador, los continentes, los mares, desiertos, polos.
Communicative Teaching (Authentic materials)
Language
-- It makes use of cognitive conflict. -- It considers how the students learn. -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
5. Elaborar con los estudiantes organizados en equipos, un tablero en que se jornalicen las actividades que se realizan en cada mes o período en la comunidad donde viven.
-- It emphasizes learning. Task based instruction approach ( An opinion gap activity)
-- It considers the context in which the learning is taking place. -- It constructs knowledge.
Grammar: •
adjectives quality
for
3. Animals in danger
Vocabulary: • •
describing animals and their habitats geographical features
6. Hacer que los alumnos investiguen sobre los lugares más altos, más bajos, más calientes de El salvador; similarmente, hacer esto con el mundo.
1. Deletrear los nombres de los distintos continentes para que los estudiantes los escriban. Luego, que los lean todos juntos.
2. Con la ayuda de un mapa del mundo, señalar un área en el mapa para que los estudiantes digan el nombre. (Continentes, mares, océanos).
cooperative
Content - based instruction approach Principle: communicative competence involves more than using language conversationally. It also includes the ability to read, discuss and write about the content from other fields. Content based instruction
on
previous
-- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development in learning activities. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy and promote skills of self reliance and investigation over teacher dependence. --It lets the students learn from real world situations. -- It encourages students to investigate outside the classroom. -- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous experience. Content – based instruction
-- It encourages the students to express by themselves in writing.
Principle: learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content within the context of authentic material and tasks.
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Functions: •
asking and giving information about animals and their habitat
Grammar: • • •
simple present Wh- questions: how fast, how big, etc. adjectives of quality
3. Escribir en la pizarra nombres de habitats, por ejemplo: poles and tundra, grasslands, mountains, forests, rain forest. Leerlos con los estudiantes y, luego, que ellos los escriban en su cuaderno.
-- It makes possible the construction of previous knowledge. The Audio-Lingual Method (Repetition drill)
4. En el mapa del mundo ubicar los habitats mencionados en el numeral tres hasta lograr que todos los estudiantes puedan hacerlo.
Content – based instruction
-- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context.
-- It promotes the whole class interaction.
Principle: learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content within the context of authentic material and tasks.
5. Realizar un ejercicio de pareamiento de los distintos habitats con los animales que allí viven. Panda Polar bear Galapagos turtle
grasslands
Mountain gorilla Cheetah
-- It emphasizes individual learning.
(A reasoning gap activity)
-- It considers the student’s learning styles.
desserts
Bengala tiger Californian condor
Task - based instruction approach poles and tundra
mountains
-- Correct answer and errors can be considered as worth step to get the knowledge.
Blue whale Black rhino
forests
Kangaroo
rain forests
Iguana El Salvador 6. En parejas que los estudiantes se hagan preguntas así:
Task based- instruction approach
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
( An opinion gap activity)
-- Correct answer and errors could be considered as worth step to get the knowledge.
Community Language Learning
-- It encourages students to investigate outside the classroom.
Question: Where do elephants live? Answer: In grasslands in Africa and India. 7. Hacer que los estudiantes investiguen más sobre los habitats de los animales. Por equipo puede asignar un animal a cada uno para que presenten a la clase un reporte sencillo en inglés. 8. Invitar a un biólogo o un veterinario a la clase para que hable sobre la vida animal.
(Small group task) Communicative Teaching
Language
-- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language.
(Authentic materials) 9. Elaborar una pequeña encuesta y que contesten todos los estudiantes. En parejas pueden compartir la información. Las posibles preguntas pueden ser: What do you do to recycle things? What do you do to save the energy?
4. Your planet needs you
What do you do to help animals? 1. Preparar fotografías de los periódicos sobre fábricas, zonas de bosques quemados y talados, basureros, etc. Colocarlos en el aula visible para todos los estudiantes. Dar tiempo para que los observen y
-- It stimulates a real life encounter.
Task – based instruction approach Principle: Students have input into the design and the way that they carry out the task. This gives them more opportunity for authentic and meaningful interaction.
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
-- It considers students’ beliefs.
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place. Communicative
Language
reflexionen sobre ellos.
Teaching
-- It considers the way students learn.
(Authentic Materials)
-- It makes use of cognitive conflict. -- It involves students in real world situations.
Vocabulary: •
words related to eco-system
2. Escribir en la pizarra oraciones como estas: What every day objects can we recycle?
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
What causes air pollution and acid rain?
Task based instruction
Which of the rivers is more polluted?
(A reasoning gap activity)
-- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context. -- It promotes the students investigate outside or inside the classroom.
What is happening to our forests? What destroys the ozone layer?
Functions: •
asking an giving information about the ecosystem
Grammar: • •
simple present in all its forms must/mustn’t
Leer las oraciones y que los estudiantes investiguen las respuestas. 3. Iniciar una campaña de reciclaje en el grado. Con cajas de cartón, que los estudiantes las rotulen en inglés para que allí depositen desperdicios que se reciclan. Esta campaña puede extenderse a toda la institución.
4. Para introducir must y musn´t, utilice la campaña de reciclaje iniciada para que, en tiras de cartulina, los estudiantes elaboren oraciones como: We must recycle paper, y que las coloquen por todo el grado.
Communicative Teaching.
Language
-- It makes possible the learning transcend from the classroom to real situations.
(Authentic materials) -- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-world context. The Grammar Translation Method
-- It constructs previous knowledge.
(Deductive application of the rule)
-- It can encourage learners’ initiative. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning. --It makes possible students creativity.
5. Escribir cartas en inglés que se podrían enviar a las distintas organizaciones (MAG, ONG) solicitándoles charlas. 6. Solicitar a los estudiantes que investiguen lo que su gobierno local está haciendo para evitar más daños al medio ambiente. Que los estudiantes elaboren reportes.
5. Wonderful creatures
Vocabulary: •
acts animals
about
1. Procurar que los estudiantes nombren los animales que conocen y sus costumbres alimenticias, donde viven, como se esconden, si se comen o no etc.
The Grammar Translation Method (Composition) The Direct Method
-- It considers the way student learns.
-- It encourages students investigate outside the classroom.
to
(Paragraph writing)
Content based approach
-- It makes possible the knowledge transcend from the classroom to real situations. -- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous experience.
-- It can initiative.
encourage
learners’
--It can encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
2. Después de escuchar a varios estudiantes haciendo descripciones, que el alumnado escriba cinco preguntas como:
-- It can emphasize autonomy and initiative.
How big is the______?
The Grammar Translation Method
Can_______________swing?
(Using words in sentences)
learners’
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.
How much does a _________weigh?
Functions: •
describing animals and their habitat
Que se hagan las preguntas en pareja. 3. Que los estudiantes elaboren pequeños carteles con ilustraciones así:
Task- based instruction
--It makes creativity.
possible
students
( An information gap) Do you know?
-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.
•
asking and giving information about animals
Grammar: • •
simple present in all its forms Wh- questions: how big, how tall, etc.
You probable know that a camellion can change colors. But did you know it can move one eye without moving the other?
4. Con la información obtenida del proyecto anterior, que los estudiantes escriban preguntas así: “where do bowers live? Y que otro estudiante conteste.
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It makes possible the whole class interaction. The Direct Method
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
( Question and answer exercises)
-- Verbalization is used as a way to represent the acquired knowledge. -- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
5. Como un proyecto, puede hacerse que en grupo los estudiantes preparen pequeñas escenas representando animales para denunciar el daño que se hace a su hábitat.
Desuggestopedia
-- It encourages the students to express by themselves in writing. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
(Creative adaptation)
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. --It makes creativity.
possible
students
-- It makes use of cognitive conflict. -- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development in learning activities.
UNIT SIX: WHAT DO YOU DO? CONTENTS
SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY MINED
1. A day with dolphins
1. Presentar una lectura relacionada con la rutina diaria de una persona y pedir a los estudiantes que subrayen todos los verbos en la lectura sugerida.
METHODS Communicative Teaching
Language
CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY -- It enquires on knowledge. -- It can autonomy.
(Authentic materials)
develop
previous learners’
-- It emphasizes individual learning. Vocabulary: • actions
2. Luego que hayan subrayado los verbos, que escriban oraciones con esos verbos de acuerdo con el texto.
The Grammar Translation Method (Use words in sentences)
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It encourages students to reflect about the use of the English Language.
Functions: • describing routines
daily
3. Realizar un ejercicio de complementación en el que los estudiantes escribirán los verbos. Pueden dárseles todos los verbos para que ellos escojan el que deben escribir.
Grammar Translation Method
-- It encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development of learning activities. -- It lets students to make choices in their works.
(Fill in the blanks) -- It considers the different students´ learning styles. Grammar: • simple review
present
4. Preparar oraciones segmentadas para que los estudiantes los pongan en orden. Pueden prepararse sobres con las oraciones para que por equipos los vayan formando.
5. Solicitar a los estudiantes que escriban en un párrafo lo que hace cada uno de ellos (10 líneas). Que cada uno
Communicative Teaching
Language
(Scrambled sentences)
The Direct Method
-- It emphasizes individual as well as cooperative learning. -- It can autonomy.
develop
learners’
-- It makes use of the cognitive conflict. --It emphasizes individual learning as well as cooperative learning.
comparta su información con otro compañero y que cada uno reporte sobre otro.
(Paragraph writing)
6. Promover un juego en el que los estudiantes entrevisten a sus compañeros y a cada uno le hacen una pregunta. Escriban en la pizarra un cuestionario así: Find someone who…
Task-based approach
-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing. instruction
( An information gap)
Helps his/her father in the field____________________ Cleans his/her room everyday _____________________ Cooks for his/her family_________________________ Works in a drugstore____________________________ Gets up at 5:00 in the morning____________________
-- It can autonomy.
develop
-- It emphasizes learning. -- It inquires knowledge.
learners’
cooperative
on
previous
- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
El estudiante al entrevistar preguntará, por ejemplo: “Do you help your father in the field?”Después de que todos los estudiantes han hecho las preguntas, habrá que ponerlas en comun.
-- It promotes the discussion of student’s viewpoints.
-- It lets the students express themselves orally. 7. Hacer que cada estudiante entreviste a una persona muy conocida de la comunidad. Luego, que cada estudiante lea en la clase las actividades de esa persona sin decir el nombre, con el objeto que los demás adivinen de quién se trata.
Communicative Teaching (Authentic materials)
Language
-- It promotes learners’ initiative. -- It considers the way the student learns. -- It promotes the student investigate outside the classroom.
2.Busy teenagers
1. La lectura que se usa en esta lección deberá describir las actividades que realiza una persona joven en cualquier parte del mundo.
Communicative Teaching.
Language -- It involves students to learn from real world situations.
(Authentic Materials) Vocabulary: • everyday activities
Functions: • asking and giving information about everyday activities
Grammar: • object pronouns • simple present
2. Dar el nombre de un(a) joven famoso(a) para que los estudiantes vayan construyendo lo que esa persona hace todos los días. Por ejemplo, pueden escoger a algún deportista de la comunidad o nacional, que sea modelo de buenas cualidades. El primer estudiante dice: “(nombre del deportista) gets up at six a.m.” y se escribe esto en la pizarra; luego se sigue agregando hasta completar un párrafo. 3. Individualmente, cada estudiante hará lo mismo con un personaje que él/ella escoja.
The Direct Method
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
( Paragraph writing) -- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
The Direct Method
-It develops autonomy.
learners’
-- It emphasizes learning.
individual
(Writing paragraph)
4. Solicitar a un estudiante pararse al frente, para que los demás le hagan preguntas, por ejemplo, “ what time do you get up?
Taskbased instruction approach (An information gap)
--It can encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level. -It develops learners’ autonomy. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It helps face the unpredictable phase of the language.
5. Preparar una ficha como esta :
Grammar Translation Method (Fill in the blanks)
-- It inquires knowledge.
on
previous
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.
Name______________________age:____________ Profession__________________________________ City where he lives__________________________ City where ho works_________________________ How long does he works_____________________ When he sees his family______________________
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It lets students face the unpredictable phase of the language.
Los estudiantes pueden llenar una ficha con personas famosas y, luego, hacer un juego para leer en voz alta una ficha los demás estudiantes pueden adivinar quién es el personaje. -- It considers the ways students learn.
Desuggestopedia
3.A Good professional
6. Hablar sobre la conveniencia de estar siempre ocupados. Que cada estudiante escriba lo que hace en tiempo libre.
(Positive suggestion)
1. Escoger una lectura de un/a profesional famoso/a.
Communicative Teaching
-- It encourages the students to express by themselves in writing.
Language
-- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
(Authentic Materials) Vocabulary: •
professions
2. Hacer que los estudiantes den ideas de que se trata la lectura de la lección. Preguntarles que es lo que les gustaría saber acerca de esa persona.
-- It considers the students beliefs. The Grammar Method
Translation
(Translation passage)
a
of
literary
-- It can promote the discussion of student’s viewpoints -- Correct answer and errors can be considered as worth step to get the knowledge.
Functions: • asking and giving information about daily routines Grammar: • saxon genitive • possessives • questions words
3. Introducir el posesivo con la ‘s (saxon genitive), tomando como modelo a un estudiante del grado. Escribir en la pizarra: Miguel’s afternoon routine. Bajo este titulo escribir lo que
The Grammar Method
Translation
(Deductive application of the rule)
-- It lets construct previous knowledge. -- It takes into account the context in which learning is taking place.
ese estudiante hace en su período. 4. Tal como se hizo en la sugerencia anterior, que cada estudiante entrevista a un compañero y que después escriba lo que ese compañero hace. 5. Escribir en inglés nombres de profesiones en la pizarra. Escoger una de las y entre todo el grado escribir un párrafo sencillo, de unas cinco líneas, sobre las actividades que ese profesional desarrolla un día común. Por ejemplo: Dancer: Nina Petrowsky is a prima ballerina at the Bolshoi Ballet. She lives with her husband, Guya, in an apartment in Moscú. The apartment is small… 6. Con base en lo que se ha construido en la pizarra, hacer que los estudiantes lean la información y que luego, en su cuaderno, hagan preguntas así: What’s her husband name? Where does Nina live? How’s Nina’s life?
Communicative Teaching.
Language
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning. -- It stimulates verbal interaction.
(Authentic materials) -- It inquires on previous knowledge. The Direct Method (Paragraph Writing)
-- It encourages cooperative learning. -- It can make possible the whole class interaction.
The Direct Method (Reading questions)
comprehension
-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing. -- It can encourage learners’ initiative. -- It makes use of cognitive conflict. -- It emphasizes individual learning.
7. Si es necesario. Dar claves para que los estudiantes escriban preguntas. Por ejemplo:
The Audio - LingualMethod
Where/ live/ What/husband’s name/ What / do/ in the morning 8. Solicitar a los estudiantes que escriban un párrafo acerca de ellos mismos, utilizando el saxon genitive cuando sea posible. Que lo lean al frente y pedir que cada uno de los demás escriba una oración sobre el estudiante así:
(Multiple substitution drill)
slot
4. Plans and expectatives
Content- based approach Principle: the subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes. Content based approach
Vocabulary: • actions • occupations and professions review
2. Solicitar que cada estudiante escriba en su cuaderno:
Functions: • actions and giving information about future intentions
3. Con ilustraciones presentar pequeñas descripciones, por ejemplo: I have a university education in medicine. I work in a hospital. I like to work with people. Presentar varias profesiones u ocupaciones de esta manera.
Grammar: • “going future • “want to”
4. Solicitar exprese lo que su compañero de al lado quiere ser, por ejemplo:
Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support. The Audio – Lingual Method
Margarita likes children; she wants to be a
( Chain drill)
to”
-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. The Grammar Translation Method (Composition)
Robert’s brother lives in San Salvador. 1. Preguntar que quieren ser cuando sean adultos. Se pueden sugerir profesiones u ocupaciones que ellos mencionan. Escribirlas en la pizarra.
-- It considers the way students learn.
-- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing. -- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It lets the teacher engage in dialogue with the students.
-- It involves the students in real life situations. -- It emphasizes individual learning.
I want to be_________________________, añadiendo el nombre de una profesión u ocupación.
Principle: when they work with authentic subject matter, students need language support. Content – based instruction approach
-- It supports the construction of previous knowledge of the language. -- It considers the way the students learn.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
pediatrician. She is going to be a good doctor. (pediatrician) The Direct Method 5. Motivar a los estudiantes a suponer que ya escogió la profesión o carrera técnica que va a estudiar y que redacte un párrafo parecido al siguiente: I like to fly, I’m going to be a pilot, I like everything about the space.
-- It encourages learners’ autonomy. (Paragraph writing) -- It emphasizes individual learning. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative.
6. Puede organizar un juego pasando cinco estudiantes al frente. Cada estudiante deberá decir una frase acerca de una profesión escogida; si se elige “profesor”, las frases pueden ser:
Desuggestopedia (Creative adaptation)
-- It lets students face the unpredictable phase of the communication.
Communicative Language Teaching
-- It stimulates students to learn from real situations.
(Authentic materials)
-- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive element to construct knowledge of the English language.
I like people I don’t like office work I check papers. I work with many people. I play in my job. 7. Invitar a un orientador profesiográfico o psicólogo para que de una charla inicial a los estudiantes sobre las distintas posibilidades de carrreras u oficios.
-- It emphasizes performance and understanding.
5. Making christmas
plans
for
1. Preguntar que va a hacer en vacaciones. Escribir en la pizarra lo que digan. I am going to work with my father. I am going to play everyday. I am going to rest.
Vocabulary: •
dates
Functions: • asking and giving information about future intention and habits
Grammar: • “going to” future • simple present • adverbs of frequency
I am going to visit my relatives. I am going to read books. 2. Escribir en la pizarra What are you going to do for Christmas? Explicar, si es necesario, sin traducir. Dar tiempo para que los estudiantes escriban sus respuestas.
3. Pedir a varios estudiantes que lean lo que han escrito y que los demás escuchen y traten de comprender. Que los estudiantes hagan preguntas sobre lo escuchado.
4. Si en la comunidad viven varios extranjeros, invitarlos al aula para que expliquen cómo celebran la navidad en sus países. Si el visitante habla inglés, los estudiantes deben hacerle preguntas.
Content – based approach
-- It inquires on previous knowledge.
Principle: when learners perceive the relevance of their language use, they are motivated to learn. They know it is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself.
-- It makes possible the whole class interaction.
Task- based instruction approach
-- It stimulates a real life encounter.
(An opinion gap)
-- It considers students’ beliefs.
Community Language Learning
-- It considers the way the students learn. -- Correct answer and errors can be considered as worth step to get the knowledge.
(Reflective listening)
-- It constructs on students’ prior knowledge.
-- It supports the verbal interaction.
Communicative language learning (Authentic materials)
-- Verbalization can be used as way to represent the acquired knowledge. -- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative. -- It considers the different student’s learning styles. -- It stimulates a real life encounter.
5. Solicitar a los estudiantes que investiguen cómo se celebra la navidad en distintas partes del mundo y que hagan una pequeña exposición.
Communicative Language Learning (Authentic material)
-- It can develop learners’ autonomy and promote skills of self reliance and investigation over teacher dependence. -- It encourages students to investigate outside the classroom. -- It stimulates a real life situation.
6. Practicar los adverbios de frecuencia: always, never, sometimes, often, escribiendo oraciones como: We always eat tamales for Christmas. I sometimes invite friends to my house.
The Grammar Translation Method (Use words in sentences)
7. Que cada estudiante escriba tres oraciones personales sobre la navidad usando adverbios de frecuencia y que las lea en voz alta.
The Grammar Translation Method
-- It emphasizes individual learning.
(Use words in sentences)
-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.
The Audio-Lingual Method (Chain drill)
-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.
8. Si un estudiante dice We always go to the beach for Christmas, que el compañero de la par le pregunte: “Are you going to the beach this year?” Puede hacerse un ejercicio en cadena.
-- It inquires on previous knowledge. -- It lets the students to Express by themselves in writing.
-- It supports the verbal interaction. -- It can encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level.
2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High
Contents
The programs analysis reflects the constructivist ideas because they present contents based on the students’ interest and previous knowledge. That is, the topics are related with points that the learners would like to know according to their age, these are connected with the information which has been acquired in their environment (family, media, community, etc.). This information allows motivating the students and helps them to attach the old information with the new one.
Methodology The proposed methodology in the Junior High programs enhances the students learning ability and help teachers, to select enriched material for teaching. It is focused on the Constructivist approach which benefits all students with different needs and abilities. The teacher is able to adapt more materials to the students’ environment, which helps the students’ become successful learners. By using several teaching ways for the students, individual and group learning as a whole is being enhanced, because one single teaching way does not reach all levels of understanding. Teacher’s involvement
The Constructivist Approach presented in the programs has many methods and techniques for students to learn, but by assessing the students’ abilities, the teacher is able to choose the right method or technique for the individual student. This Approach cannot favor the teacher’s preferred style, but must meet the needs of all students by using a variety of
teaching styles. The teacher may be able to use their ideas or imaginative thoughts as freely. The teacher’s assistance is widely considered in the programs not as the knowledge giver but as a bridge between the child and the knowledge. It allows the teacher to put into practice their creativity using what the programs propose in order to help the students to construct meaningful learning. Teacher must endeavor to present relevant information to keep the learners’ motivation for learning. Students’ involvement The students’ action in the English programs is regarded as the most important element since it begins the success construction of their own knowledge.
All the activities
suggested in the programs lead the students to get involved in this process, because they allow constructing new understandings based on the previous ones. But the programs also let the teacher builds previous knowledge (English language knowledge) when they are missing.
2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs Contents
It is considered that the programs present some disadvantage such as: There are contents which can not be standardized for all Salvadorean students for instance content 3 from unit 3, “a circus school.” (Seventh grade) Since, circuses are not common everywhere in El Salvador. This could originate lack of interest for learners.
In unit 6 the first content titled “A day with dolphins” (seventh grade) has no coherence with the suggested methodology because it is supposed that might talk something about dolphins. This kind of mistakes leads to misunderstandings of context and meaning.
Methodology The programs from the beginning suggest that the students must write sentences and paragraphs. However, it is well known that in El Salvador most of the students get familiar with the English language in seventh grade and do not have developed this skill; therefore, some of methodological suggestions are not attached to the student’s previous knowledge of the English language.
The programs do not specify the percentage of the use of the English language during the class in progress.
The programs are too wide, if it is considered that at this level the teacher should take enough time in the construction of the prior knowledge of the English language.
The suggested methodology does not specify the English level that the student should have developed some activities like: tell and write stories which are advanced to student’s level.
Some methodological suggestions are too extensive, and do not take into consideration the real time to develop a content. For example to develop complex grammatical structures like present perfect (eight and ninth grade)
2.95. Programs in the practice
Contrasting what the English program for Junior High proposes to produce Meaningful Learning and the practice, the researchers valued, that the program is used only as a reference for planning some topics and not as a set of systematized organization of the objectives, contents and activities.
The programs are consulted without deepen in the real objective pretended with them, because of the lack of information that the teacher has about the Constructivist Methodology.
The programs propose methods and Constructivist techniques for the English Language teaching. However, the teacher creates his own methodology based on the “Activist way” (do just for do).
2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice The starting point of this research is in the Piaget’s, Vigotsky’s Bruner’s, Ausubel’s and Gardner’s theories whose ideas have transcended to the educative practice, renowned as Constructivism because of the central idea that the individual is the constructor of his or her own knowledge. Therefore, it is considered necessary to contrast the involvement of the Constructivist ideas assumed methodologically in the English programs through the direct observation activities done in class by the teacher and students.
Piaget divided the children development in four stages. He considered that the individual reaches different levels of knowledge depending on the age. For that reason, in the teaching learning – process the new knowledge must be presented considering elements that converge with the learners maturing. In this sense, the programs and any other help to ease the students to acquire knowledge in the formal education have regarded Piaget’s ideas. However, in the practice it was observed that the teacher did not take into account the students’ developmental stage because in the contents presented to the students their ages interests, needs and motivation were not considered.
Vigotsky’s most important concept is the Proximal Development Zone which emphasizes the cooperative learning. According to him learners do not learn in an isolated way but in the social context in which is valued the help that people around can give to the individual in knowledge construction. Vigotsky draws attention not just to the role that the society plays but to the role that the teacher performs to help his group in the knowledge acquisition. In the practice it was observed most of the time the individual worked. Some students work by themselves but the great majority did not work and in the best of the cases they asked to copy what the other classmate had done. They almost never inquired to the teacher, if they did it; the help was not enough to encourage the students to construct a Meaningful Learning.
Bruner’s contribution to the educative field presents similarity to Piaget’s ideas. He distinguished three models to represent understanding, and assure that these are present in every knowledge acquisition in the whole life.
Example of the three models of knowledge representation: Students could be asked to construct models of the parts of the human body (enactive); they might watch a film about, or involving, the human body (iconic); or they could consult reference texts and then discuss their findings (symbolic).
Bruner thought that learners construct new knowledge based on the information already learned. The early years provide the basis for language, physical agility, social understanding, and emotional development that learners will use for the rest of their life. From this new perspective, it is acknowledged the function of the learners’ previous experiences which must be discovered by the teacher in order to assist their students in learning.
This aspect mentioned by Bruner was not observed in the classroom, teacher almost never asked about what the students know concerning the new content or something related to it. Most of the time he started his class without having information on what the students knew about it.
The most important developments of Ausubel’s writings in the theory of knowledge were the Advanced Organizers and the Meaningful Learning. He recognized the importance of the use of material which provides an anchoring idea to the students about a new content in order to ease their understanding. Ausubel also concentrated on the idea of constructing meaningful learning, which is possible when the students relate the knowledge acquired with the new one, to do so it is necessary to distinguish what the child knows to look for the connection between those kinds of information.
Related to this point, what the researchers observed in the class in progress was that the teacher almost never used any material in his classes except a marker and sometimes a book from which he took some dialogues to write on the board. Also when he started a new content or finished one he did not matter to find out whether the students had learned or not, in order to consider it in the next content or unit.
Howard Gardner is also renowned as Constructivist because of the multiple intelligences theory. He affirmed that all individuals posses at least eight intelligences which the teacher should discover, nurture and strengthen them in order to classify the type of activities, exercises, tasks, etc. for each students to do. According to Gardner, the teacher must not apply the same strategy to ease the students to learn because every single learner is different from the other and needs to be leaded according to his or her weaknesses and strengths.
The observation revealed that the teacher did not take into consideration the way the students learn because during the time the researchers were in the classroom he never changed the way to teach and not even were observed attempts for helping students who needed an additional way of instruction.
2.9.7. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the authors’ ones)
Constructivism is a reference for teachers which suggest them to take into consideration the learners’ age, the social environment, the prior knowledge and the different levels of understandings as means to acquire knowledge, in order to succeed in the teaching learning process. Identifying those aspects, teacher become conscious that the learner is an individual who is capable to construct knowledge by themselves.
Constructivism is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching. A theory about learning because it tells the teacher the way the individual learns. It is not a description of teaching because it does not tell the teacher a specific way for developing its task, but to choose the methodology that responds to the students’ interests and needs.
The way the individual perceives knowledge and the process of coming to know provides the basis for educational practice. If educators believe that learners passively receive information then priority in instruction will be on knowledge transmission. If, on the other hand, they believe that learners actively construct knowledge in their attempts to make sense of their world, then learning will likely emphasize on the development of meaning and understanding.
Constructivism lets the educator know how the individual learns and does not prescribe any specific methodology but to make an adaptation according to what the learners need in order to acquire a Meaningful Learning, which is considered as the final knowledge
product that the students acquire from the relation between what he knew and what has been presented.
In a constructivist view, the learner is the one who constructs knowledge, but it does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge; this establishes its base in one of the most important concepts of Vigotsky’s theory the Proximal Development Zone, which is the level of understanding that the learners can reach by themselves and the one that can reach with help of another more capable individual. Constructivism modifies the teacher’s role; so that teachers help students construct knowledge rather than reproduce a series of facts. He is a facilitator, who coaches, moderates, and suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, and try things that don’t work. He offers students different learning experiences and the students reflect on those experiences and give a meaning or make sense without been taught by the teacher. When something new is presented to students, they have to reconcile it with their previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what they believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, they are active creators of their own knowledge. To do this, they must ask questions, explore, and assess what they know.
Constructivism transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook. The Constructivist teaching emphasizes the attention to the students’ diversity. This principle is drawn out from the multiple intelligences theory which emphasizes the
importance to teach according to the students’ learning way and needs. For that reason it must be considered the usefulness of the methodology that responds to every student requirement, through the cooperative learning among students and teacher – students. The Constructivist teacher must provide tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and put into words their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. It considered that the most relevant aspects in a Constructivist teaching is the students’ role, teacher’s role, the curricular contents and the references given by the constructivist theory about how the individual learns in such a way the teacher makes use of the learners’ natural capabilities and development and the role that plays the environment and the interaction among them. There are many ways of interpreting or understand the connection of those aspects to develop skills and abilities to construct knowledge in a participatory way.
CHAPTER III 3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK 3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH
At the beginning of this research the first idea was that the Constructivism has been applied in the Salvadorean curricular instruments in order to give a new course to the Salvadorean Education to respond to the globalization phenomenon. This was the starting point of this research which leads the researchers to find out the reaches and limitations of the application of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior
High by the Ministry of Education (MINED). The bibliographical information found in documents from the Ministry of Education gave to know that the Constructivism Approach was assumed officially in the English programs since 1998. Other texts provided important elements of the Constructivist theories which helped to have a clear idea about the Constructivist Methodology as well.
The Salvadorean Educative specialists pointed out that the Constructivism is not new in El Salvador; since the teachers make it possible in the classroom everyday and that the situation is that they did not know the methodology as Constructivism until 1994. As it is the case with many of the current or popular paradigms, teachers were already using the Constructivist Approach to some degree. They also indicate that Constructivism could become in “Activism” when the contents are developed without taking into account all those aspects that lead students to achieve an enduring knowledge. The result of the “Activism” is a meaningless knowledge. Its consequences are visible, in the change from content to content, from unit to unit, from a grade to another when the students have to put into practice what they have learned before, and the students do not remember basic procedures to develop the new one.
On the other hand, the Constructivist Methodology is considered groundbreaking for teachers and students in the sense that this advises the teachers to leave the old methodology which sees learners’ mind as blank pages upon which knowledge is etched, and emphasize the way the student learns considering all those personal characteristics that allow establishing methods and techniques to help them to gain a better understanding of their world.
The Constructivist Methodology promotes the students’ construction of knowledge by themselves especially through hands on, minds on, and cooperative learning. The teacher has to guide the students toward the construction of knowledge. Thus, he offers a variety of activities according to the students needs and interests in which they can analyze, create, and discuss together to build new learning that will be meaningful in their lives.
The Constructivist Approach presented methodologically in all the programs is centered in the development of skills, in which the student learns to reach understanding of topics by himself. In this framework, the English study programs for Junior High guide teachers in the planning and organization of the teaching learning process (TLP), considering the reality of El Salvador and the students’ ages, abilities and interests, and taking into account their specific needs as English- language learners. To achieve this, these programs present specific objectives, contents, methodological suggestions, evaluation criteria, and cross curricular topics in every lesson.
The methodology proposed by MINED in the English programs of Junior High is eclectic (integral), which combines activities and techniques from the different teaching - learning approaches and methods, such as: Total Physical Response, (TPR), Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, Silent Way, Audio- Lingual Method, Desuggestopedia, Communicative Language Learning, the Communicative Language Teaching approach, Content- Based approach and the Task – Based approach. The combination of methods selected by the teachers should match the needs of the class: the rhythm, style of learning, age of students, teaching style, experience, and didactic resources available.
The English programs for Junior High enhance motivation, participation and self confidence through different communicative activities in which students become fully active participants. It stresses the importance of providing learners with the opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes not only for the development of linguistics skills. Students work with authentic material in small groups, practicing meaningful and functional activities.
Obviously, the proposal of this methodology in the programs meets reality in the classroom. In this sense, and considering that this research aims to find out whether the Constructivist Methodology was being applied in the classroom and which are its reaches and limitations, it was necessary the direct observation of the teacher’s and students’ role at Junior High level in the public school “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez”, which is placed in Sensuntepeque, Departamento de Cabañas, approximately 84 kms far from San Salvador city: it is located in the Segunda calle poniente number 29 from Barrio El Calvario with infrastructure code 12266, it is part of the Educative District 09-01.
In 2006 this institution had a population of 2000 students divided into Kindergarten, Elementary, Junior High, High School and Evening school for adults. The school’s facility is made of 18 available classrooms for teaching. It counts on basic services. The human resources are 43 trained teachers to work on the different levels, 900 students’ parents and 2000 students. The school counts with a Centre of Resources for Learning, (in Spanish CRA) which does not work, therefore, a project on computer assisted learning was implemented. In the science field, there were received from MINED 4 laboratory kits, there is an available library that is used by students and teachers as well.
The school mission is “To get Educative success, applying Methodologies that allow the integral development and the experience of the human values practiced by the students. Its vision is “We want to make of the school, an institution, to form helpful people to the family and the society so they can contribute with the development of our nation.”
The observation carried out in this institution was the complement of the bibliographical research about the Constructivist theory and its entrance in the Salvadorean territory. The final results gave to know that the Constructivist Methodology is not applied in a systematical way; most of the time it is mixtured with elements of an “activist methodology” or traditional one.
Constructivist Methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education is still on paper, the direct observation of teacher and students’ role in the practice do not reflect a remarkable application of its principles. The most frequent observation criterion was not visible choice from the four used to determine the frequency that the students’ and teacher’s performance show Constructivist attitudes during the development of different contents. (See attachments). The interview with the teacher who is specialized in the English teaching field (See attachments) in charge of teaching English Language gave to know the following: He used the English programs for Junior High in planning but he did not know about the Constructivist Approach assumed within them. Also he said he has never been in a workshop about constructivism; as a result, he just used the programs to highlight some aspects from this, such as the name of the contents, units and objectives. Consequently, he did not develop the suggested methodology in the programs, and he developed his own teaching way based on the traditional way in the classes in progress. The researchers also wanted to realize about the students’ feelings about their preferences, usefulness and the
class methodology of the English subject through a questionnaire (See Attachments). They responded that, they liked the English subject a little, but at the same time they considered that, English is important for their lives, they also considered that learning English is a little difficult. Moreover, they answered that, they liked the way the teacher developed the English class a little and that, the teacher, must change his methodology to teach English a lot.
Considering these answers it is assumed that the students are conscious about the importance of English Learning, but at the same time they recognize that there is an obstacle that restraint them to success in their learning which could be the teacher’s methodology. On the other hand, teacher’s responses give to know what essential would be the fact to be completely aware of the new methodology and how to use it. However, the teacher cannot be responsible at all for this, but the whole educational system that has to propitiate all the conditions in schools and the educators’ professionalism in order to attain a truthful development of the constructivist methodology.
It is fundamental to mention that in a Salvadorean classroom at a public school like “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez” the teacher must face large class groups, lack of essential didactic resources to teach the English subject and that he had to teach in double shift which constitute additional obstacles to develop the Constructivist Methodology.
If Constructivism Approach is considered as the solution to put an end to the traditional teaching ways in El Salvador it is essential that teachers know this theory (the nature of how human beings build knowledge as a rich and rewarding area in which develop teaching) and also to be showed the way they have to develop the teaching- learning
process with this Constructivist Approach. That is, the teachers have to be trained in the Constructivist practice. Moreover, to be specialist in their subjects and help the students “Learn to learn”. In this way Constructivism will not be just an “educative approach” and will not be mistaken with “Activism”.
However, it is considered that time is still running out for positive results of the application of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior High.
It is important to mention that according to what the teacher commented, it seems that all of that changes about a new way of teaching English in El Salvador appeared suddenly without time to digest ( much less understand) the changes brought in the educative field as a result of the last Educative Reform. In this sense, it is considered that teachers must have great participation in the definition of new educational reforms.
The Ministry of Education can no longer be boasting about, Constructivism is being used in the Salvadorean classroom especially in the English Language Teaching. Its application has to be rethought.
This research about the application of the Constructivist Methodology proposed by MINED in the programs of Junior High has shown how fragile appears the theory in practice. Therefore, it will have to devote vastly scientific and financial resources to overcome the teachers and students’ needs in order to develop a real education that responds to the globalization phenomenon to be at the front of the progress as it was stated in the entrance of the Constructivism in the Salvadorean Education.
3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE For data gathering were used two checklists, one for the observation of the teacher’s role and one for the student’s role during the class in progress. The procedure consisted in the observation of the teacher and students during their performance in the classroom, during two weeks because in the school the teacher taught English everyday in Junior High level. The totals of observation were three per day, twelve per week, and twenty four during the two weeks. The researchers entered to the classroom at the beginning of the class and they stayed there until the end. The checklists were verified to analyze the performance of the students and teacher, after each class during the break time. It was in this way, because the checking process in the classroom could be disturbing for the teacher, students and researchers.
3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS The data analysis was carried out taking into account the frequency, counting for each class the researchers were in situ in the school for the English class to be observed. It was decided to make a consolidation of the observation from the three grades to do the analysis, because there were no notable changes in the students’ and teachers’ performances. The totals of frequencies were converted into percentages (See attachments) to obtain the final results.
3.4. CHRONOGRAM ACTIVITY Documental research Adjustments to the gathered information during the seminary course. Elaboration of the instruments. Fieldwork Direct observation at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez� Theoretical processing Data analysis First draft edition Results First draft presentation Second Draft edition Second draft presentation Final draft edition Final draft presentation
MONTH/ 2006 August September October
November
December
January
MONTH/ 2007 February March
April
3.5. RESOURCES Human resources Researchers, academic advisor, teacher, students, school principal and school vice – principal.
Logistics resources School, computers, paper, flash memory, Compact Disk, diskettes, books, magazines computer ink, paper, information downloaded from internet.
3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT CHAPTER I 1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Introduction 1.1. General and specific objectives 1.2. Antecedents of the problem 1.3. Statement of the problem 1.4. Justification 1.5. Reaches and limitations 1.6. Type of research 1.7. Sum up of concepts and categories to be used
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. THEORETICAL- METHODOLOGICAL BASE
2.1. Origin of the constructivism 2.2. Pioneers of the constructivism 2.3. New perspectives to the constructivist learning theory 2.4. What is Constructivism? 2.4.1. Types of constructivism 2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom 2.4.3. The constructivist teacher 2.4.4. Teacher’s role 2.4.5 Student’s role 2.5. Constructivist Methodology 2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology 2.6. Didactic principles in the teaching of the English Language 2.7 Characteristics of the pedagogical constructivism
2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK Methodology 2.8.1. Population sample 2.8.2. Methods, techniques, instruments and procedures
2.9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE RESEARCH
2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High
2.9.2. Analysis of the seventh grade Program
2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High 2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs
2.9.5. Programs in the practice
2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice
2.9.7 DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the authors’ ones)
CHAPTER III
3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH 3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE 3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS 3.4. CHRONOGRAM 3.5. RESOURCES 3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT 3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCES 3.8. ATTACHMENTS 3.8.1. Checklist for the Constructivist teacher’s role 3.8.2. Checklist for the Constructivist student’s role 3.8.3. Interview 3.8.4. Questionnaire 3.8.5. Checklist to observe methods used during the class in progress
3.8.6. Observation’s results 3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal
3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCE
General References Alwood de mata, Claudia. Reforma Educativa de los 90. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1999.
Alvarez de Zayas, Carlos M. Pedagogía como ciencia. Ed. Félix Varela. Cuba. 1998.
Antunes, Celso. Como Estimular las inteligencias múltiples. Ed. Narcea. España. 2002.
Boggino, Norberto. El constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Homosapiens. Argentina. 2004.
Corrales Mora, Maricruz. Lenguaje logo – Descubriendo un nuevo mundo. Ed. Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Costa Rica. 1996.
Diccionario Enciclopédico de Educación. Grupo Editorial Ceac. España. 2003.
Diccionario de las Ciencias de la Educación. Ed. Santillana. México. 1993.
F. Biehler, Robert. En: Psicología aplicada a la enseñanza. Ed. Limusa. México. 1990.
García, Madruga, Juan Antonio. En: Psicología evolutiva. Ed. Universidad nacional de Educación a Distancia. Madrid. 1990.
Espinosa, Francisco. Panorama de la Escuela Salvadoreña y otros escritos. Ed. Piedra Santa. 2000.
Galo de Lara, Carmen María. Evaluación del Aprendizaje. Ed. Piedra Santa. El Salvador. 2001.
Kennet, Henson. Psicología para la enseñanza eficaz. Ed. Thomson. México. 1999.
Larsen Freeman, Diane. Technique and principles in language teaching. Ed. Oxford University. China. 2000.
Nunan, David. Second Language teaching & learning. Ed. Newbury House. United States. 1999.
Juif, P. En: Grandes orientaciones de la pedagogía contemporánea. Ed. Narcea. España. 1988.
Rojas Zamora, Marisela. Educación Científica y matemáticas para el niño preescolar I. Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Costa Rica. 2002.
UNICEF. Fundamentos de la metodología participativa y de la investigación participativa. Ed. UNICEF. Guatemala. 1998.
Universidad José Simeón cañas. Desarrollo Profesional. Sistema de educación a Distancia. Departamento de educación. El Salvador. 2003.
Used references Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003.
Arancibia, Violeta. En: Psicología de la Educación. Ed. Alfaomega. México. 1999. Bladillo Gallego, Rómulo. Competencias Cognoscitivas. Ed. Magisterio. Colombia. 1999.
Bruner, Jerome. Desarrollo Cognitivo. Ediciones Morata. España. 2001.
Campbell, Linda. En: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel. Argentina. 2000.
Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teóricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y Piaget. Ed. CONAFE. México. 2002.
Delgado Amaya, Master Didier. Revista Matices Pedagógicos. Ed. INFORP- UES. El Salvador. 1999.
Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de Enseñanza – Aprendizaje. Ed. Trillas. México. 2002.
Escamilla, Luís. Reformas Educativas – Historias contemporáneas de la Educación Formal en El Salvador. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1981.
FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998.
Ferrater Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España. 2002.
Fernández Santos, Agustín. En: I Congreso pedagógico ALFA: Creando nuevas formas de Enseñar y Aprender. Ed. Montañas de Fuego. El Salvador. 2002.
Flores Ochoa, Rafael. Evaluación Pedagógica y Cognición. Ed. Mc Graw – Hill Interamericana. Colombia. 1999.
González, Eugenio. Psicología de la Educación y del desarrollo en la Edad Escolar. Ed. CCS. España. 2004.
Grupo Océano. Manual de la Educación. Ed. Océano España. ISBN: 84-494-1617-5.
Joao, Oscar Picardo. Educación y Realidad - Introducción a la filosofía del aprendizaje. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002.
Labinowicz, Ed. Introducción a Piaget - Pensamiento- Aprendizaje- enseñanza. Ed. Colegio Americano. México. 1986.
Luzuriaga, Lorenzo. Antología Pedagógica. Ed. Lozada. Argentina. 1956.
MINED. Programas de estudio de ingles – Tercer ciclo de Educación Básica. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1998.
MINED. Reforma Educativa en Marcha Documento II. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1994 -1999.
MINED. Reforma Educativa en marcha - un vistazo al pasado de la Educación en El Salvador- documento I. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1995.
MINED. Programas de Escuelas Modelos. El Salvador. 1998.
Ferrater Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España. 2002.
Onrubia, Javier. En: El Constructivism en el Aula. Ed. Grao. Bogotá. 1999.
Ortiz de Maschwitz, Elena María. Inteligencias Múltiples en la educación de la persona. Ed. Bonum. ISBN 950-507-570-7.
Pérez Castro, Abigail. En: Reforma de la historia y la historia de la reforma educativa en marcha de El Salvador. (Borrador). Ed. MINED. El Salvador, s.f.
Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El Constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002.
Picardo Joao, Oscar Carlos. Realidades Educativas - Teoría y praxis contemporánea. Ed. INFORP- UES, El Salvador. 2000.
Ruiz Ayala, Nubia Consuelo. Desarrollo de potencialidades y Competencias. Ed. Prolibros. Colombia. 2003.
Saavedra R, Manuel S. Diccionario de Pedagogía. Ed. Pax. México. 2003.
Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Ed. Obando, Costa Rica, 2002.
WWW.MINED.gob.sv
Zabala, Antoni. En: Constructivismo en el aula, Ed., Grao, Colombia, 1999.
3.8. ATTACHMENTS
CHECKLIST FOR THE CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER’S ROLE SCHOOL: “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez” GRADE: _________
Section ____________ Date ___________
OBJECTIVE: To observe the teacher’s role during the class in progress.
QUESTIONS
FREQUENCY Always
1. How often does the teacher emphasize learning? 2. How often does the teacher emphasize teaching? 3. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’ autonomy? 4. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’ initiative? 5. How often does the teacher address learners as individuals of will and purpose? 6. How often does the teacher show in his performance that learning is a systematic process? 7. How often does the teacher encourage learner inquiry? 8. How often does the teacher nurture learner’s natural curiosity? 9. How often does the teacher emphasize performance and understanding when assessing learning? 10. How often does the teacher make extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and analyze? 11. How often does the teacher encourage learners to engage in dialogue with other students and teacher? 12. How often does the teacher support co- operative learning? 13. How often does the teacher involve learners in real world situations? 14. How often does the teacher emphasize the context in which learning takes place? 15. How often does the teacher consider the beliefs of the learner? 16. How often does the teacher consider the attitudes of the learner? 17. How often does the teacher provide learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding form authentic experience? 18. How often does the teacher tolerate errors as part of the teaching learning process?
Sometimes
Rarely
Not visible
19. How often does the teacher include student self assessment and peer evaluation in the program? 20. How often does the teacher interact with the whole class? 21. How often does the teacher interact with individual students as well? 22. How often does the teacher take into consideration in his teaching learning process; the different learning styles, the multiple intelligences and special needs of the students? 23. How often does the teacher inquire about students’ prior knowledge? 24. How often does the teacher encourage students to use prior knowledge? 25. How often does the teacher show respect for the students? 26. How often does the teacher offer options and choices in students’ works? 27. How often does the teacher explain to the students what they are doing to understand what they are learning? 28. How often does the teacher construct previous knowledge? 29. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate inside the classroom? 30. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate outside the classroom?
CHECKLIST FOR THE CONSTRUCTIVIST STUDENT’S ROLE
SCHOOL: Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez GRADE: ________ Section ________ Date______________ OBJECTIVE: To observe the learners performance during the class in progress.
QUESTIONS
FREQUENCY Always
1. How often does the student interact with other? 2. How often does the student interact with the teacher? 3. How often does the student constantly listen to the teacher’s methodological suggestions? 4. How often does the student perform the teacher’s methodological suggestions? 5. How often does the student perform actively his/her own learning? 6. How often does the student ask during the class in progress? 7. How often does the student investigate inside the classroom? 8. How often does the student investigate outside the classroom? 9. How often does the student show interest for a new topic? 10. How often does the student discuss with peers his/her own viewpoints? 11. How often does the student discuss with teacher his/her own viewpoints? 12. How often does the student work in whole class activities? 13. How often do the students work in small class activities? 14. How often does the student work in individual activities? 15. How often does the student show respect for the teacher? 16. How often do the students show in their performances that enjoy what they are learning?
Sometimes
Rarely
Not visible
INTERVIEW OBJECTIVE: To get the teacher’s knowledge and experience about constructivism approach 1. Do you apply the English study program in the didactic planning? _________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 2. Do you apply the English study program in the teaching - learning practice? _________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 3. Do you know the English study program approach? Explain. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 4. Do you use some textbooks for planning classes? Which one? Why? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 5. Do you know about the constructivist approach? _________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 6. Do you apply the Constructivism in the classroom? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
7. Have you ever been in any workshop about the constructivism for English teacher? When? _________________________________________________________________________
CUESTIONARIO PARA ALUMNOS DE TERCER CICLO DE EDUCACION BASICA COMPLEJO EDUCATIVO SOTERO LAINEZ Grado _____________ Sección ____________ OBJETIVO: el siguiente cuestionario tiene como objetivo conocer las opiniones de los estudiantes de tercer ciclo de educación básica sobre la materia de Ingles en cuanto a la preferencia, utilidad y la metodología de la clase.
1. ¿Te gusta la materia de inglés? Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____
2. ¿Consideras que aprender inglés te servirá en tu vida? Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____
3. ¿Consideras que aprender inglés es difícil? Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____
4. ¿Te gusta como desarrolla la clase el maestro? Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____
5. ¿Consideras que el maestro debe cambiar su forma de enseñar inglés? Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____
CHECKLIST TO OBSERVE THE TEACHING METHODOLOGIES USED BY THE ENGLISH TEACHER SCHOOL________________________________________________________________________ GRADE_____________________SECTION_______________DATE_______________________ OBJECTIVE: To observe the methods used by the teacher during the class in progress. METHODS
TECHNIQUES
The Grammar Translation Method
Translation of a literary passage
Reading comprehension questions
Antonyms/ synonyms
The Direct Method
Reading aloud
Question and answer exercise
Getting students to self - correct
The Audio Lingual Method
Dialog memorization
Backward build-up (Expansio n drill)
Silent Way
Sound color chart
Dessugestopedia
Classroom set- up
Communicative Language Learning
Tape recording student conversation
The Total Physical Response
Using commands to direct behavior
The Communicative Language Teaching
Authentic materials
Repetition drill
Teacher’s silence
Peripheral learning
Positive suggestion
Cognates
Chain drill
Deductive application of the rule
Single- slot substitution drill
Peer correction
Transcription
Conversation practice Multiple- slot substitution drill
Rods
Visualization
Fill- in the blanks exercises Transformati on drill
Self –correction gestures
Choose a new identity
Reflection on experience
Role reversal
Scrambled sentences
Fill - in the blanks
Role- play
Memorization
Use words in sentences
Composition
Dictation
Map drawing
Paragraph writing
Question and answer drill
Use of minimal pair
Word chart
First concert
Reflective listening
Complete the dialogue
Fidel charts
Second concert
Human computer
Primary activation
Picture strip story
Structured feedback Secondary activation
Small group task
Action sequence
Language games
Grammar game
Role - play
3.8.6. RESULTS OF THE TEACHER’S ROLE OBSERVATION (SEVENTH, EIGHT, AND NINTH GRADES) CHART 1 QUESTIONS Always Fa Fa%
FREQUENCIES Sometimes Rarely Fa Fa% Fa Fa%
Not visible Fa Fa%
2
8.3
13
20.8
5
4
16.7
100%
21
87.5
1
4.2
__
0.0
2
8.3
100%
5
20.8
18
75
100%
21
87.5
100%
1. How often does the teacher emphasize learning?
2. How often does the teacher emphasize teaching? 3. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’ autonomy? 4. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’ initiative? 5. How often does the teacher address learners as individuals of will and purpose? 6. How often does the teacher show in his performance that learning is a systematic process? 7. How often does the teacher encourage learner inquiry? 8. How often does the teacher nurture learner’s natural curiosity? 9. How often does the teacher emphasize performance and understanding when assessing learning? 10. How often does the teacher make extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and analyze?
4.2
54.2
TOTAL
1
0.0
1
__
0.0
1
1
4.2
12 25
4
16.7
13
54.1
100%
17
70.8
4
16.7
2
8.3
1
4.2
100%
__
0.0
2
8.3
7
29.2
15
62.5
100%
__
0.0
__
0.0
3
12.5
21 87.5
__
0.0
3
12.5
5
20.8
16
66.7
100%
1
4.2
6
25
5
20.8
6
25
100%
4.2
2
8.3
100%
11. How often does the teacher encourage learners to engage in dialogue with other students and teacher? 12. How often does the teacher support cooperative learning? 13. How often does the teacher involve learners in real world situations 14. How often does the teacher emphasize the context in which learning takes place? 15. How often does the teacher consider the beliefs of the learner? 16. How often does the teacher consider the attitudes of the learner? 17. How often does the teacher provide learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding form authentic experience? 18. How often does the teacher tolerate errors as part of the teaching learning process? 19. How often does the teacher include student self assessment and peer evaluation in the program? 20. How often does the teacher interact with the whole class? 21. How often does the teacher interact with individual students as well? 22. How often does the teacher take into consideration in his teaching learning process; the different learning styles, the
__
0.0
4
16.7
4
8.3
18
75
100%
54.2 __
0.0
2
8.3
7
29.2
13
100%
5
20.8
5
20.8
4
16.7
10 41.7
100%
2
8.3
2
8.3
7
29.2
13
54.2
100%
1
4.2
3
12.5
20 83.3
100%
100%
0.0 __
__
0.0
3
12.5
11 45.8
10 41.7
__
0.0
__
0.0
9
37.5
15
62.5
100%
2
8.3
3
12.5
7
29.2
12
50
100%
__
0.0
1
4.2
1
4.2
22
91.6
100%
10
41.7
9
37.5
5
20.8
__
__
100%
1
4.2
11 45.8
9
37.5
3
12.5
100%
__
0.0
1
1
4.2
22
91.6
100%
4.2
multiple intelligences and special needs of the students? 23. How often does the teacher enquire about students’ prior knowledge? 24. How often does the teacher encourage students to use prior knowledge? 25. How often does the teacher show respect for the students? 26. How often does the teacher offer options and choices in students’ works?
4
16.7
6
25
9
37.5
5
20.8
100%
4
16.7
6
25
9
37.5
5
20.8
100%
22
91.6
__
0.0
__
0.0
2
8.4
100%
1
4.2
2
8.3
21
87.5
100%
0.0
4
16.7
4
16.7
16 66.6
100%
0.0
1
4.2
13 54.2
10 41.6
100%
0.0
__ 0.0
__ 0.0
24 100
100%
0.0
__
__
24
100
100%
1592 53.1
100%
__ 27. How often does the teacher explain to the students what they are doing to understand what they are learning? __ 28. How often does the teacher construct previous knowledge __ 29. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate inside the classroom? __ 30. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate __ outside the classroom? TOTAL
0.0
383.3 13
0.0 371 12.4
0.0 620.9 21.5
Chart 1 presents the result of the teacher’s role observation during the class in progress. It is a consolidation of seventh, eight and ninth grades, considering that during the observations in the three grades there were no significant changes in the way the teacher developed his classes. The final results confirm that a 53.1% of the Constructivist
characteristics valued during the theoretical processing and the analysis of the programs for Junior High were not visible. In the other hand, a 13% shows the application of the Constructivist principles during the class in progress.
RESULTS OF THE STUDENT’S ROLE OBSERVATION (SEVENTH, EIGHT, AND NINTH GRADES)
CHART 2 QUESTIONS Always Fa Fa%
FREQUENCIES Sometimes Rarely Fa Fa% Fa Fa%
Not visible Fa Fa%
1. How often does the student interact with the other?
3
12.5
6
25
9
6
25
100%
2. How often does the teacher interact with the teacher?
3
12.5
3
12.5
7
29.2
11
45.8
100%
3. How often does the student constantly listen to the teacher’s methodological suggestion? 4. How often does the student perform the teacher’s methodological suggestions? 5. How often does the student perform actively his /her own learning? 6. How often ask during the class progress? 7. How often does the student investigate inside the classroom? 8. How often does the
37.5
TOTAL
10
41.7
12
50
2
8.3
__
0.0
100%
10
41.7
11
45.8.
1
4.2
2
8.3
100%
__
0.0
3
12.5
15 62.5
6
25
100%
__
0.0
2
8.3
10 41.7
12
50
100%
__
0.0
__ 0.0
__ 0.0
24
100
100%
__
0.0
__ 0.0
__ 0.0
24
100
100%
student investigate outside the classroom? 9. How often does the student show interest for a new topic? 10. How often does the student discuss with peers his/her own view points? 11. How often does the student discuss with teacher his/her own view points? 12. How often does the student work in whole class activities? 13. How often does the student work in small class activities? 14. How often does the student work individual activities 15. How often does the student show respect for the teacher? 16. How often do the students show in their performances that enjoy what they are learning? TOTAL
__
0.0
__ 0.0
10 41.7
14
58.3
100%
__
0.0
__ 0.0
2
8.3
22
91.7
100%
__
0.0
__ 0.0
4
8.3
22
91.7
7
29.1
16 66.7
1
4.2
__
0.0
100%
4
8.3
3
4
8.3
17
70.9
100%
6
25
12 50
3
12.5
3
12.5
100%
__
58.3
7
29.2
3
12.5
__
0.0
100%
4
8.3
6
25
16 66.7
__
0.0
100%
679.2 42.4
100%
237.4 14.9
12.5
337.5 21.1
345.9 21.6
Chart 2 illustrates the students’ performance during the class in progress as it was stated before in chart 1, it was also made a consolidation for the three grades observed. This shows that a 42.4% of the constructivist characteristics were not visible. While a 14.9% were always observed.
100%
RESULTS OF THE STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRIE CHART 3
QUESTIONS
FREQUENCIES Mucho Poco Nada Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa% 1. ¿Te gusta la materia de 18 37.5 23 47.9 7 14.6 100% ingles? 2. ¿Consideras que aprender 41 85.4 7 14.6 100% inglés te servirá en tu vida? 3. ¿Consideras que aprender 21 43.7 22 45.9 5 10.4 100% ingles es difícil? 4. ¿Te gusta como desarrolla 14 29.2 18 37.5 16 33.3 100% la clase el maestro? 5. ¿Consideras que el 26 54.2 11 29.9 11 29.9 100% maestro debe cambiar su forma de enseñar inglés? The results presented in chart 3 give to know the students’ preferences by the English subject. A 47.9% answered that the like a little the English subject. But it seems there is an inconsistency in the second question when an 85.4% responded that English it would be useful in their lives. A 45.9% considered that learning English is a little difficult. Then, what it would be the problem? The following could respond that. A 37.5% answered that they like a little the way the teacher develop his English class. Therefore, a 54.2% responded that the teacher must change the way he teaches English.
The checklist presented on (page 160) was used to observe the methods and techniques used by the English teacher at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez.” The results have not been presented in percentages because there was no a remarkable use of different methods and technique. Thus the researchers considered just to mention that the most used method was The Grammar Translation Method with the technique, deductive application of the rule.
BASIC THEORETICAL PROPOSAL ABOUT CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY
3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal for English teachers at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez.” Sensuntepeque, Cabañas. The purpose of this proposal is to highlight basic aspects of the Constructivist Methodology. It is not a prescription but a highly flexible instrument which can be interpreted in many different ways, considering what the tasks and the students´ demand. What is Constructivist methodology? Constructivist Methodology starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to proposals in which the learner reacts rather than acts go after than construct. For the same reason fits to these ideas all those methodologies based on the group activity of the students and the teacher, it found its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone (Level of understanding that is possible when a learner engages in a task with the help of a more expert peer for example the teacher, another student etc.). The constructivist methodology is used to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate and reason. Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners who construct their own knowledge. A Constructivist teacher Constructivist Methodology requires that the teachers turn their attention by 180 degrees. The teacher’s role in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of information giver to that of facilitator, guide, and learner. As a facilitator, the teacher provides the rich environments and learning experiences needed for collaborative study. The teacher is also required to act as a guide a role that incorporates mediation, modeling, and coaching. Often the teacher also is a co-learner and co-investigator with the students.
A Constructivist classroom Along with a constructivist teacher it is also needed to have a Constructivist classroom. Creating a constructivist classroom requires that the classroom teacher must be in position to: Influence or create motivating conditions for students Take responsibility for creating problem situations
Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge and Create a social environment that emphasizes that attitude of learning to learn
Contrasting the traditional classroom with the Constructivist classroom TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM Curriculum begins with the parts of the Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning whole. Emphasizes basic skills. with the whole and expanding to include the parts. Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is Pursuit of student questions and interests is highly valued. valued. Materials are primarily textbooks and Materials include primary sources of material workbooks. and manipulative materials. Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. Teachers disseminate information to Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students; students are recipients of students construct their own knowledge. knowledge. Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in authority. negotiation. Assessment is through testing, correct Assessment includes student works, answers. observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product. Knowledge is a transmission Knowledge is transformation Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences. Students work basically alone. Students work basically in groups. The respect is one way. Students have to It is characterized by the mutual respect between respect the teacher. the teacher and the students. Evaluation is seen as a product oriented: Process – oriented: reflection on process, self achievement testing; criterion- assessment; criterion referecing referencing (and norm- referencing)
Constructivist principles Students come to class with an established world-view, formed by years of prior experience and learning. Even as it evolves, a student’s world-view filters all experiences and affects their interpretation of observations. For students to change their world-view requires work.
Students learn from each other as well as the teacher. Students learn better by doing. Allowing and creating opportunities for all to have a voice promotes the construction of new ideas. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students. Seek and value students’ points of view. Adapt instruction to address student suppositions. The key component to learning is motivation. Students need knowledge Assess student learning in the context of teaching. Learning is a social activity. Learning is not instantaneous. These are applicable at all levels and stages of learning. As teacher works with the ideas of constructivist learning, He will develop personal versions of these principles. The following are general learning activities adapted to support the teacher’s work in order to motivate students to learn English in a dynamic environment.
General Constructivist strategies Authentic assessment
Assessment that seeks to evaluate students’ abilities in “real-world” contexts, including the application and demonstration of skills and knowledge to authentic tasks or projects likely to be encountered in adult life.
Scaffolding An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to Vigotsky (1978), students’ problem solving skills fall into three categories: skills which the student cannot perform, skills which the student may be able to perform, and skills that the student can perform with help Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.
Minds on, hands on The learners need to be active, that in order to participate in learning teachers need to engage the learner in doing something, in hands-on involvement, in participatory exhibits and programs. But the more important point is the idea that the actions which are developed for the audience engage the mind as well as the hand. Not all experiences are educative, as Dewey pointed out in. This does not mean that they necessarily have to be complex but they do need to allow the participants to think as they act. Physical involvement is a necessary condition for learning for children, and highly desirable for adults in many situations, but it is not sufficient. All hands-on activities must also pass the test of being minds-on they must provide something to think about as well as something to touch.
General Learning Activities to develop in the classroom
Students can construct additional knowledge by writing: Poems, short play, legal briefs, song lyrics, journals, diaries, memoirs, travelogues, interviews, letters (or e-mail) to experts, original advertisements new endings for stories or songs.
Students can construct additional knowledge by making/inventing/designing/drawing: Posters, cartoons, timelines, models, charts, maps, graphs, board games, concept maps, and multimedia presentations.
Students can construct additional knowledge by performing/presenting: A play, a concert, role-play lecture (such as a well-known person from history), a dance based on literature or historical event, collected songs about a topic from another era etc.
Learning activities adapted to the English programs for Junior High Woodward, Suzanne W. Fun with grammar. Prentice Hall Regents. United Stated. 1997. Activity 1: Ball Toss. Focused content: A healthy life. Unit Four, 7Âş grade. Dynamic: Whole class. Material: Any soft ball or balloon. Time: 10 minutes. Procedure: Have students sit or stand in circle. Tell them you want a name of a food according to the category selected. (fruit, vegetable, meat, drink, etc.) when they catch the ball. Begin the game by tossing the ball a student and saying a category. If you said fruit, the student catching the ball must provide a name of a food. That student then throws the ball to another and says a new category or the same.
fruit
meat
drink
vegetable
Orange
Chicken
Soda
Corn
Banana
Fish
Tea
Potato
Apple
Steak
Coffee
Tomato
Grapes
Pork
Water
Onion
watermelon
turkey
chocolate
carrot
Example: Teacher: vegetable. Student A: corn / fruit . . . Student B: orange / drink . . .
Activity 2: Tic Tac Toe Focused content: Physical exercises. 7° grade, Unit four Dynamic: Two teams Material: a grid with pictures. Time: 12 minutes.
Procedure: present a tic tac toe grid with picture of body parts on the board. Divide the class into two teams, one of them will mark X on the grid the other one will mark O. The teams take turns coming to the board and writing next to the picture the name of body part .If a student from team X writes a correct name , he /she then marks a large X over that space. When team O writes a correct response, it marks a large O over that space.
The first team that succeeds in having three of its marks in a row is the winner.
Activity 3: Picture sentences Focused content: Meeting a star. 7째 grade Unit three Dynamic: Pair work Material: magazine picture to share in class. Time: 15 minutes Procedure: Give each pair of students a magazine picture. The picture should have several photos of different persons in it .Have the pairs write 10 sentences about the picture, using an adjective and a noun in each sentence.
When the pairs have finished, have the students in each pair take turns holding up their picture and reading out their sentences. Activity 4: Scavenger hunt Focused content: At the fair. 7째 grade, unit three. Dynamic: small groups. Material: Magazines to share in class. Time: 15 minutes
Procedure: arrange the class into groups of three or four. Give each group several magazines to cut up. Have the groups look for action pictures .Assign a certain number of pictures and a time limit. Then they write sentences like: For example: The children are playing. The boy is walking.
Activity 5: Concentration
Focused content: A good professional. 7째 grade, unit six. Material: board. Dynamic: small groups. Time: 20 minutes.
Procedure: Draw a blank grid with only numbers on the board. Divide the class into teams of about five. On a paper, your grid will have the answers written in. Each team takes turns calling out two numbers, trying to match a profession and a place of work. As the first participant calls out numbers, write the words that correspond to these numbers in the blanks. You are asked if it is a match .If not, the facilitator erases the words. If so he or she leaves them there and cross them out. The team takes another turn. If the team does not make a match, erase the two words.
Example of grid on the board.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
3 Fire station 8 Dentist 13 bank 18 Police station
4 office 9 hospital 14 clinic 19 stadium
5 waiter 10 airport 15 school 20 fireman
On the instructor’s paper:
1 Nurse 6 pilot 11 restaurant 16 secretary
2 teacher 7 Soccer player 12 Police officer 17 accountant
Activity 6: Changing the story Focused content: Salvadorean Character. 9° grade, unit two. Material: copies of Love Poem by Roque Dalton. Dynamic: small groups. Time: 20 minutes
Procedure: Divide the class into small groups and give each group a copy of the Love Poem. Love poem. (Roque Dalton) Those who widened the Panama canal (and were on the silver roll´ not the golden roll’) those who repaired the pacific fleet in California bases, those who rotted in prison in Guatemala, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua for stealing, smuggling, swindling, for starving, those who always suspected of everything (allow me to place him in your custody for suspicious loitering aggravated by the fact of being Salvadorian). Those who pack the bars and whorehouses in every port and capital . . . (“The Blue Grotto”, “The G-String”,”Happyland”) The sower of corn deep in foreign forest, the crime barons of the scandal sheets, those who nobody ever knows where they are from, the best artisans of the world, those who were riddled with bullets crossing the border, those who died from malaria or scorpions
bites or swarming bees in the hell of banana plantations, those who got drunk and wept for the national anthem. . .
The students read the poem and changed the irregular and regular verbs in past tense into present tense .be sure they understand and go over the answer when groups have finished.
Activity 7: Dialogue writing and acting out Focused content: Going to the stadium. 8° grade, unit four. Material: None Dynamic: pair works. Time: 15 minutes.
Procedure: arrange the class into pair works. Instruct them to write a short dialogue about sport activities like: A- What kind of sport do you like? B- I like basketball. A- Do you like swimming? B- Yes, I like. Do you play soccer? . . . When the pairs have finished ask them to practice and act it out for the whole class.
Activity 8: Yard sale Focused content: Shopping. 8° grade, unit six. Material: pictures and common things at home and school. Time: 30 minutes.
Procedure: Make group of four people each and prepare a yard sale with some of the things you have with you: books, make-up items, combs, purses, earrings, rings, etc. Put all these items on a table or on the floor. Then, one member of the group becomes the “seller”; the other can go to see the other yard sales and become “customers”. You should all move around asking for prices and characteristics of the objects being sold.
Price $12.00
Price $9.00
price $20.00
Price $25.00
Price $22.00
Price $31.00
Price $15.00
Price $29.00
Price $30.00
Activity 9: Folk Tales Focused content: Tell me a story. 8° grade, unit two. Materials: None. Dynamic: small groups. Time: 25 minutes. Procedure: Get a group of five participants each; chairs should be arranged in circle form. Any one in the group must say one sentence that is expected to originate the folk tale of the “Cipitio” or a similar folk tale. Then, the participant closest in the circle repeats this same line but adds one line of his/ her own line (or the story should continue in this fashion until all the elements to the story have been told), you may want to share your group’s story with the other groups. Example: he was a short boy He loved to visit rivers He watched girls at rivers He was a child with big hat He was a child with big stomach Note: Instead of having the participants SAY the lines, they could WRITE them one by one, by passing a paper with the lines contributed by each of the participants.
Activity 10: Find someone who. Focused content: What have you done today? Unit Five, 8° grade. Materials: checklists. Dynamic: Whole class. Time: 20 minutes Procedure: Interview classmates to find some one who. . .? and writes his/ her name next to the question, the first one to complete the survey is the winner. Example: Have you ever . . .
12345678-
eaten a hot dog?_________________________ visited Guatemala recently?________________ written a Poem?_________________________ driven a car? _________________________ been in Tazumal ruins?____________________ bought a bicycle? _____________________ drunk hot chocolate? _____________________ played ping pong _____________________
Activity 11: Time machine Focused content. How’s life going to be? Unit Two, 9º grade. Materials: list of basic items. Dynamic: pair works. Time: 30 minutes. Procedure: Work in pairs. Imagine that you are going in a trip that will take you 100 years into the future. What will you need when you arrive? You have only enough room in your time machine for some of the equipment listed below, but not all. Put each item into one of these categories:
aspirin food bicycle Bible notebooks raincoat cash Camera watch
car sunglasses checkbook television set calculator
warm clothes matches radio sleeping bag tape recorder heavy shoes English dictionary
category Absolutely essential
Item classification
Useful but not essential No use at all
Then get together with another pair and compare your lists. If you could take only two items, which one would you take?
Activity 12: Picture search (BE/ HAVE) Focused content: Our neighbor. Unit One, 7ยบ grade. Materials: Magazines or catalogs. Dynamic: Small groups Time: 15 minutes Procedure: Divide the class into group of three or four .Give each group several catalogs or magazines. Have each group make ten sentences from a picture or pictures, using a form of to be or to have.
Examples:
He is a man The man has a ball.
He is a boy He has a book
Have the groups read their sentences aloud while showing the class the pictures the sentences describe.
Activity 13: Twenty questions Focused content: Movie stars. Unit Six, 9º grade. Materials: None Dynamic: whole class Time: 15 minutes Procedure: Choose one student to come to the front of the class this student will be given an identity of a famous person. This student sits in front of the class and may answer only YES or NO to any question The class may ask a total of 20 yes or no questions to discover the “identity” of the student in front of the class. If they guess the student’s identity before or by the twentieth question, the class wins. If the class does not guess correctly, the student wins.
questions
short answers
Are you tall? Are you rich? Are you short? Are you pretty? Are you Mexican? Are you Italian? Do you play tennis? Do you play basketball? Do you have a car? Do you drink coffee? How old are you?
Activity 14: Noncomparative. Focused content: Look! I’m changing. Unit Three, 8º grade. Materials: board and markers. Dynamic: teams Time: 15 minutes Procedure: Divide the board in half. On each side, write the words: comparative and noncomparative. Divide the class into two teams. Have each team form a line .The first person from each team comes to the board.
Call out an adjective. The students check either comparative or noncomparative. The first one to choose the correct answer gets a point for his or her team. After each adjective, the students at the board are replaced by two more students for the next adjective. The team with the most point at the end of the game wins .Both speed and accuracy are important.
Comparative Older Hotter Colder Shorter Cheaper Prettier Younger Stronger Taller smaller
Noncomparative Bad Big Tall Thin Dark Fat Large Nice Good Happy