Sneak preview health book

A Guide to…

Health & Disease in

REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS

By Dr Brendan Carmel and Dr Robert Johnson

SNEAK PREVIEW 176 Pages 240 Colour Photos

HYGIENE PROTOCOL FOR REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN SHOWS AND EXHIBITIONS ....................................................................... 30

Exhibitor and Vendor (Seller) Rules ............................................................................................................................................ 30 Quarantine and Hygiene Q & A.......................................................................................................................................................... 31

PREVENTATIVE HEALTH CARE ..................................................................................................................32

YOU AND YOUR VETERINARIAN .......................................................................................................................................32 THE VETERINARY HEALTH CHECK .................................................................................................................................33 VISITING THE VETERINARIAN ...............................................................................................................................................33

Transportation to your Veterinarian ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Pythons, Snakes and Lizards, Turtles, Frogs ................................................................................................................... 34 BASIC VETERINARY AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES..........................................................35 Faecal Analysis ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................35 Sampling Faeces and Gastrointestinal Contents, Wet Prepartion, Faecal Flotation .........35 RECORD KEEPING ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Record Keeping Software......................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Record Keeping Checklist..........................................................................................................................................................................37

HUSBANDRY ..........................................................................................................................................................................39 HOUSING REPTILES .............................................................................................................................................................. 40

REPTILE VIVARIUMS ............................................................................................................................................................................... 41 KEY COMPONENTS OF A REPTILE VIVARIUM ........................................................................................... 41

Enclosure Size ............................................................................................................................................................................................................42 Substrate...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................43 Furnishings ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................43 Hides................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 44 HOUSING LIZARDS ....................................................................................................................................................................................45

HOUSING TURTLES ................................................................................................................................................................ 46

KEY COMPONENTS OF A TURTLE VIVARIUM.............................................................................................47

HOUSING FROGS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Aquatic Vivarium ...................................................................................................................................................................................................49 Semi-aquatic Vivarium ..................................................................................................................................................................................49 Terrestrial Vivarium (Terrarium) .......................................................................................................................................................49 Arboreal Enclosures ..........................................................................................................................................................................................49 Furnishing and Plants .....................................................................................................................................................................................49 Substrate...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................49 THERMOREGULATION AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT ....................49

Low Rate of Energy Expenditure .....................................................................................................................................................49 Variation of Body Temperature .........................................................................................................................................................49 HOW THERMOREGULATION OCCURS ................................................................................................................... 50 Preferred Body Temperature ............................................................................................................................................................... 50 Body Temperature and Disease ....................................................................................................................................................... 50 Temperature Gradient ...................................................................................................................................................................................51 page 5

HEATING ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................52

HEATING FOR REPTILES ...................................................................................................................................................................52 Heating Basics .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 HEATING FOR TURTLES .................................................................................................................................................................... 54 HEATING FOR FROGS............................................................................................................................................................................ 54

HUMIDITY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................55 Reptiles................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55 Turtles ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55 Frogs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55

LIGHTING ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................55

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ......................................................................................................................57 Ultraviolet, Visible and Infra-red Spectrums ..................................................................................................................57 ULTRAVIOLET LIGHTING ................................................................................................................................................................ 58 Radiation Decays over Distance and Time........................................................................................................................ 58 Overexposure to UV Lighting ............................................................................................................................................................. 58 What UV Lighting Do I Need For My Enclosure? ........................................................................................................59 The Four Ferguson Zones ..........................................................................................................................................................................59 Lighting System Selection Based on Ferguson Zones...................................................................................... 60 Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60

HYGIENE ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................61 Disinfectants................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61 Phenols................................................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Alcohols ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Oxidising Agents ...................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds .......................................................................................................................................62 Other Disinfectants ............................................................................................................................................................................................63 VIrkon速, F10sc速 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................63 DISINFECTING PROCEDURE......................................................................................................................................................63 Water Bowl Hygiene..........................................................................................................................................................................................63 Personal Hygiene ..................................................................................................................................................................................................63 Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 ZOONOSES............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Golden Rules of Reptile Handling and Hygiene ........................................................................................................ 64 Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 64 HANDLING, RESTRAINT AND TRANSPORTATION ...............................65 Handling Pythons.................................................................................................................................................................................................65 Handling Venomous Snakes................................................................................................................................................................. 66 Handling Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 Handling Monitors ..............................................................................................................................................................................................67 Handling Turtles .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 68 Handling Frogs ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68 page 6

TRANSPORTATION .................................................................................................................................................................................... 68 Long Distance Travel ........................................................................................................................................................................................69

FEEDING................................................................................................................................................................................................................70

FEEDING PYTHONS AND SNAKES ..................................................................................................................................71 Frozen Prey Items, Feeding Live Prey ......................................................................................................................................71

FEEDING LIZARDS .......................................................................................................................................................................................72 FOOD PRESENTATION..........................................................................................................................................................................72 PREY ITEMS..............................................................................................................................................................................................................73 FEEDING TURTLES ......................................................................................................................................................................................73

Australian Short-necked Turtles....................................................................................................................................................... 74 Wild Diet, Captive Diet ............................................................................................................................................................................... 74 Feeding Australian Long-necked Turtles.............................................................................................................................75 Wild Diet, Captive Diet ...............................................................................................................................................................................75 FEEDING FROGS..............................................................................................................................................................................................75 HOW OFTEN TO FEED REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ....................................................................76 Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................76

BREEDING ........................................................................................................................................................................................................77 Vet Check of your Breeding Collection ...................................................................................................................................78 SEX IDENTIFICATION .........................................................................................................................................................78 Pythons and Snakes ..........................................................................................................................................................................................79 Probing Method .................................................................................................................................................................................................79 Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80 Monitors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80 Turtles ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81 Frogs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81 SEXUAL MATURITY....................................................................................................................................................................................81 Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................81 REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.........................................82 Mode of Reproduction of Some Commonly Kept Australian Species...........................................82

SPERM AND EGG DEVELOPMENT (SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS) .............................................................................................................83 COOLING ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................83

What is Cooling—How Much and for How Long?....................................................................................................83 PARTHENOGENESIS—WHO NEEDS A MALE? ...........................................................................................83 COURTSHIP AND MATING ........................................................................................................................................................... 84 FERTILISATION AND OVULATION ................................................................................................................................. 84 Pythons and Snakes ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84 Turtles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84 Frogs ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 FACTORS INFLUENCING BREEDING IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ..........85 Pythons ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................85 Reasons for Low Reproductive Rates in Reptiles ......................................................................................................85 page 7

PREGNANCY (GRAVIDITY) .......................................................................................................................................................... 86 Egg Laying ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................87 Clutch Size, Clutch Size and Incubation Period for Some Commonly Kept Species ............87 Egg-laying Problems ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 89 Follicular Stasis, Dystocia (Difficulty in Birth or Egg-laying) ...................................................................... 89 Speying the Female .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 90 INCUBATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................91

THE HEALTHY REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN.......93

PYTHONS AND SNAKES ....................................................................................................................................................................93 Weight ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................93 Activity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 94 Posture and Muscle Tone .......................................................................................................................................................................... 94 Respiration .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94 Skin .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94 Heat-sensing Pits ...................................................................................................................................................................................................95 Eyes.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96 Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96 LIZARDS .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................97 Weight ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97 Posture and Muscle Tone ...........................................................................................................................................................................97 Skin ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97 Eyes.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98 Nose ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98 Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98 TURTLES ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99 Weight ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 99 Activity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 99 Respiration .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99 Carapace and Plastron .................................................................................................................................................................................. 99 Skin .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................100 Eyes and Ears...........................................................................................................................................................................................................100 Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................100 FROGS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 101 Restraint......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101 Weight .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101 Activity............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101 Respiration ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101 Skin ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101 Eyes....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101

ANATOMY OF SNAKES, LIZARDS, TURTLES AND FROGS.................................................................................................................... 102 SNAKE ANATOMY.................................................................................................................................................................... 102 LIZARD ANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................................ 103 page 8

TURTLE ANATOMY................................................................................................................................................................104 FROG ANATOMY ......................................................................................................................................................................... 105 BASIC ANATOMY .......................................................................................................................................................................106 CLOACA....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 What are Faeces, Urates and Urine? ........................................................................................................................................ 106 SIGHT AND OTHER SENSES .................................................................................................................................................... 106 Eyelids............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 The Third Eyelid................................................................................................................................................................................................... 107 The Parietal Eye ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 107 The Nasolacrimal Duct............................................................................................................................................................................... 107 Why Do Turtles Cry? ................................................................................................................................................................................... 107 The Spectacle and Subspectacular Space ...................................................................................................................... 107 Puffy Eyes (Pseudobuphthalmos) .............................................................................................................................................. 109 Systemic Disease................................................................................................................................................................................................ 109 Other Facts on Eye Anatomy ..............................................................................................................................................................110 Summary of the Reptilian Eye ..........................................................................................................................................................110 Can My Reptile and Amphibian Hear?...................................................................................................................................110 Something Smells!............................................................................................................................................................................................110

FIRST AID, CARE AND MEDICATION FOR SICK REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ......................................................................... 111 BASIC FIRST AID...........................................................................................................................................................................................113 Emergency First Aid Kit Essentials .............................................................................................................................................113

DISEASES AND CONDITIONS

BY SPECIES

..........................................................................................................................................................114

PYTHONS AND SNAKES........................................................................................................115 RESPIRATORY DISEASE ............................................................................................................................................115 Blocked Nostrils ...................................................................................................................................................................................................115 Stress ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................115 Oral Infections ........................................................................................................................................................................................................115 Neurological Signs ...........................................................................................................................................................................................115

INFECTIOUS DISEASES...............................................................................................................................................116 VIRAL DISEASES ..........................................................................................................................................................................................116 ‘Sunshine’ Virus (a new Paramyxovirus).............................................................................................................................116 Inclusion Body Disease (IBD)..............................................................................................................................................................116 Ferlavirus (previously known as Ophidian Paramyxovirus or OPMV) ......................................116 Sunshine Virus versus Ferlavirus versus Inclusion Body Disease......................................................116 page 9

BACTERIAL DISEASES ........................................................................................................................................................................117 Stomatitis (Mouth Infection) ..............................................................................................................................................................117 Abscess .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................118 Eye (Subspectacular) Abscess.........................................................................................................................................................118 Septicaemia ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................118 Ventral Dermatitis—‘Blister Disease’ .....................................................................................................................................119 Slipped Skin Disease .....................................................................................................................................................................................119 FUNGAL DISEASES ..................................................................................................................................................................................119 PARASITIC DISEASES ......................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Protozoa ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 120 Roundworms (Ascarids) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Tapeworms (Cestodes)............................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Sparganosis............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Mites—‘Reptile Mite’ Ophionyssus natricis .................................................................................................................... 121 Mite Facts ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 122 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 122 Treatment of the Enclosure for Mites .................................................................................................................................... 122

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONDITIONS ............................... 123 Lumps and Bumps ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 123 Regurgitation ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 123 Causes, Prevention ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 123 Constipation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 124 Prolapse ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 124 Spinal Osteopathy ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 125 Fatty Liver Disease (Hepatic Lipidosis) ................................................................................................................................ 125 Dystocia (Difficulty in Egg-laying) ............................................................................................................................................. 126 Causes, Treatment ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 126 Caring for the Female Snake ............................................................................................................................................................. 127 Important Points Regarding Egg-laying........................................................................................................................... 127 Anorexia (Loss of Appetite)................................................................................................................................................................. 128 TROUBLESHOOTING THE ANOREXIC PYTHON.................................................................................. 128 The Enclosure ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 128 The Python................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 129 Physical Examination, Treatment .............................................................................................................................................. 129 Dysecdysis (Abnormal Skin Shedding) ............................................................................................................................... 130 Retained Spectacle ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 131 Cancer (Neoplasia)........................................................................................................................................................................................... 131 Rodent Bites and Live Feeding....................................................................................................................................................... 131

LIZARDS ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 132 INFECTIOUS DISEASES.............................................................................................................................................. 132 Adenovirus in Bearded Dragons.................................................................................................................................................. 132 Stomatitis and Gingivitis ........................................................................................................................................................................ 132 Yellow Fungus Disease (CANV) ...................................................................................................................................................... 133 page 10

PARASITIC DISEASE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 133 Worms and Coccidia...................................................................................................................................................................................... 133 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 134 Mites.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 134 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 134

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES .................................................................................................................... 135

METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD)........................................................................................................................... 135 Nutritional Metabolic Bone Disease (NMBD) ............................................................................................................. 135 Renal Metabolic Bone Disease (RMBD)............................................................................................................................... 136 Vitamin D Synthesis....................................................................................................................................................................................... 136 Captive Reptiles and UVB Exposure........................................................................................................................................ 136 Clinical Signs of MBD ................................................................................................................................................................................... 136 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 137 DYSECDYSIS (ABNORMAL SKIN SHEDDING).......................................................................................... 137 SWOLLEN OR BULGING EYES ............................................................................................................................................. 138 Within the Eye, Around or Behind the Eye.................................................................................................................... 138 ROSTRAL ABRASION (NOSE-RUBBING) .......................................................................................................... 139 BIRTH DIFFICULTY (DYSTOCIA) ...................................................................................................................................... 139 GUT IMPACTION ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 139 TAIL REGENERATION (AUTOTOMY) ........................................................................................................................ 140 Features of Autotomy and Regeneration, Treatment ..................................................................................... 140

TURTLES .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 142 INFECTIOUS DISEASES.............................................................................................................................................. 142

VIRAL DISEASES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 142 BACTERIAL DISEASES ....................................................................................................................................................................... 142 Septicaemic Cutaneous Ulcerative Disease (SCUD) .......................................................................................... 142 Abscesses ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 142 Septicaemia .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 143 TURTLE STEAMER .................................................................................................................................................................................... 143 RESPIRATORY DISEASE ................................................................................................................................................................. 144 MOUTH INFECTIONS (STOMATITIS) ....................................................................................................................... 144 FUNGAL DISEASE ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 144 PARASITIC DISEASE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 144

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES .................................................................................................................... 145

METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD)........................................................................................................................... 145 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 145

PYRAMIDING OF CARAPACE (SHELL) .................................................................................................................. 145 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 145 EMACIATION...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 146 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 146 OBESITY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 146 page 11

PROTEIN DEFICIENCY....................................................................................................................................................................... 146

Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 146 VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY (HYPOVITAMINOSIS A) ............................................................................ 146 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 146 FATTY LIVER DISEASE (HEPATIC LIPIDOSIS) .......................................................................................... 146 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 146 FOREIGN BODY INGESTION AND IMPACTION .................................................................................... 147 PROLAPSE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 147 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 147 OEDEMA (SOFT TISSUE SWELLING)........................................................................................................................ 147 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 147 TRAUMA .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 148 EGG RETENTION (DYSTOCIA) ............................................................................................................................................. 148 CANCER (NEOPLASIA)...................................................................................................................................................................... 148

FROGS........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 149 INFECTIOUS DISEASES.............................................................................................................................................. 149

VIRAL DISEASES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 149 BACTERIAL DISEASES ....................................................................................................................................................................... 149

Abscesses—Treatment ............................................................................................................................................................................... 149 Treatment................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 149 Skin Infections, Red Leg and Septicaemia ..................................................................................................................... 150 Osteomyelitis .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 150 Mycobacteriosis .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 150 Chlamydiosis ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 150 FUNGAL DISEASES ................................................................................................................................................................................. 151 Chytridiomycosis Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ........................................................................................... 151 Saprolegniasis ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 151 Mucor Amphibiorum ................................................................................................................................................................................... 151 PARASITIC DISEASES ......................................................................................................................................................................... 151 Protozoa ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 151 Myxozoans ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 151 Worms............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 152 Rhabdias, Oxyurids, Sparganosis .............................................................................................................................................. 152 Flukes—Trematodes ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 152 Ectoparasitism....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 152

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONDITIONS ............................... 153

METABOLIC BONE DISEASE................................................................................................................................................... 153 EMACIATION...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 153 OBESITY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 153 GASTRIC OVERLOAD .......................................................................................................................................................................... 153 GASTRIC OBSTRUCTION.............................................................................................................................................................. 154 PROLAPSE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 154 CORNEAL LIPIDOSIS ........................................................................................................................................................................... 154 HYPOVITAMINOSIS A........................................................................................................................................................................ 155 page 12

OEDEMA (SWELLING) ....................................................................................................................................................................... 155 CHEMICAL TOXICITY .......................................................................................................................................................................... 155 TRAUMA .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 156

Lacerations, Fractures and Amputations ........................................................................................................................ 156 Rostral Abrasion (Snout Trauma) ................................................................................................................................................ 156 NEOPLASIA (TUMOURS) .............................................................................................................................................................. 156

DISEASE CHECKLIST ........................................................................................................................................................ 157 Signs of Disease in Pythons ................................................................................................................................................................ 157 Signs of Disease in Colubrids and Elapids ...................................................................................................................... 158 Signs of Disease in Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................... 160 Signs of Disease in Turtles .................................................................................................................................................................... 162 Signs of Disease in Frogs ........................................................................................................................................................................ 164

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 167 GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................................................................................168

S EIPPER

STATE AND TERRITORY LICENSING AUTHORITIES ....................... 172 VETERINARY CONTACTS .......................................................................................................................................174

Marbled Velvet Gecko Oedura ‘marmorata’

page 13

M WILSON

may grow up to four metres in length or more.

Many commonly kept species of turtle will grow to around dinner plate size. There is little point in purchasing a large reptile if you can only provide a small enclosure.

Longevity

R JOHNSON

Blue-tongued Lizards are ideal for keepers just starting out

S EIPPER

Central Bearded Dragons are popular species with novice keepers

Children’s Pythons are a popular python for novice and experienced keepers alike

Remember that a reptile will live for many years if cared for correctly. You may want to choose a particular species based on the likely lifespan.

For example, it is not uncommon to see turtles that have been passed down from grandparents to grandchildren. Many pythons and snakes live for tens of years if cared for correctly and lizards live for several years.

Commonly kept amphibians typically live from approximately 5–15 years, although there are reports of some frog species living for decades.

Is it Better to Buy a Young Reptile or Amphibian?

All reptiles require special care, particularly when they are young. For newcomers to reptile and amphibian care, we suggest buying a fully grown animal. Novices often have difficulty providing for juvenile reptiles because they are less tolerant to environmental changes, especially when moved into a new environment. An older reptile will hopefully have established feeding patterns and be of a size that can withstand the rigours of moving to a new home.

Most of the problems veterinarians see in young reptiles are due to the difficulty novices have in providing adequate care for their newly purchased reptiles. Many reptiles less than 12 months of age are difficult or fussy feeders and great skill is required to coax them onto a regular feeding schedule. In addition, young reptiles that are rapidly growing are more prone to developing diseases such as metabolic bone disease (see page 135) if the diet and/or husbandry are inadequate.

Do not underestimate the difficulty of owning a juvenile reptile if you have not owned reptiles before. page 23

HOUSING REPTILES Once you have decided on the species of reptile to keep, the next step in your journey is to purchase or build the reptile enclosure or vivarium.

Think first—where will you locate the enclosure?

R JOHNSON

A dedicated room for the housing of reptiles is preferable but not always possible. It is best to choose the warmest room in the house rather than the tin shed in the backyard.

This will limit husbandry associated problems and help to reduce your heating costs. You should also try to keep captive reptiles separate from other household pets such as cats and dogs, rabbits and rats, because housing different species close to each other can cause stress. Imagine if you were the pet rat housed next to a python or snake!

A purpose-built indoor enclosure is recommended for housing most reptiles because this provides a stable environment that is easily monitored year-round—especially if you are a novice keeper.

Depending on the region of Australia in which you live, you may need to house your reptile indoors during winter. Some keepers find a good compromise is to use an outside enclosure during the summer months, bringing the reptiles inside once winter approaches. This provides reptiles with the benefits of access to natural light and a larger enclosure when outside, while providing a heated and monitored vivarium during the cooler months.

Outdoor enclosures should be secure, protected from predators and in a sheltered region of the garden or backyard. Ensure the enclosure is escape and predator-proof. Hygiene can be an issue with outside enclosures, as cleaning and disinfection is usually performed intermittently or less often than in the case of indoor enclosures, and natural substrates are virtually impossible to disinfect. Despite these concerns, outdoor enclosures can provide a safe, environmentally stimulating environment for many reptiles.

Arboreal (climbing) pythons, such as this Green Tree Python, need somewhere to climb and perch

page 40

KEY COMPONENTS OF A TURTLE VIVARIUM Ensure the enclosure is escape-proof, as turtles are experts at disappearing! A dry land (or dock) region is essential in order for the turtle to get out of the water. Ideally, the land area should be protected with a shelter.

A ELLIOTT

A heat lamp should be placed over one section of the dry land, with a basking temperature of approximately 30–33°C, allowing the turtle to bask if required or to move away from the heat while remaining on dry land. A water heater and thermometer should be fitted to your tank.

Make sure that the tank is properly conditioned before purchasing your first turtle. This involves taking a few weeks to set up the tank and ensuring that the water quality is perfect and the filter is working before introducing your turtle(s).

Test basic water parameters every 1–2 weeks. Simple water testing kits are available from pet stores and aquarium shops.

Ideally, there should be little or no nitrites, nitrates or ammonia in your tank water and the pH should be neutral (7) or just above.

A turtle set up complete with fake rock background and ledges

page 47

HOW THERMOREGULATION OCCURS • Movement between a heat source such as sunlight, warm substrate and a heat sink—shade, water or a burrow.

• Postural adjustments eg changes in body volume, shape orientation or posture.

• Physiological responses eg heat production in muscle tissues in some species, colour changes, circulatory changes and ventilatory adjustments to increase water evaporation from mucous membranes. Reptiles may pant or gape in high temperatures. Captive animals should not be kept in conditions where they are exposed to high temperatures without the opportunity of escape to a cooler region. Conversely, at temperatures below the regulated range, reptiles become torpid and sluggish and digestion ceases. Ensure that all captive reptiles are given a choice of temperature zones in their enclosure.

Preferred Body Temperature Care of reptiles and amphibians requires knowledge of the unique thermal requirements of a species. Preferred body temperature (PBT) is species and sometimes subspecies dependent (See Table on page 51).

In captivity, species that are diurnal (those that are active during the daytime, eg bearded dragons) and/or arboreal (those that are tree dwelling or climbers, eg carpet pythons) require a radiant heat source, whereas species that are nocturnal (those that are active at night, eg geckos) and/or predominately terrestrial (those that are land dwellers, eg the Children’s Python) may avoid a light/heat (photothermal) source and prefer a thermally variable substrate or subfloor heating.

Frogs and turtles may also require supplementary heating, particularly if housed in the cooler parts of Australia. Heaters should be used to keep aquarium water at a constant and comfortable temperature. A heat mat may be sufficient for a frog tank holding shallow water.

Turtles and some frogs also enjoy basking under radiant heat sources. This means that in most cases a daily thermal cycle or behavioural access to thermal variation is desirable. Heating sources available include infrared lamps, regular incandescent globes, thermal tape or cord and ceramic globes. Thermal gradients or mosaics can be arranged using these sources and a variety of shelters. Heat availability can be coupled with, or be independent of light sources.

Body Temperature and Disease Inappropriate thermal exposure can suppress the immune systems of reptiles and amphibians and operate in conjunction with other forms of distress imposed by captivity. An inability to cool below activity temperatures for prolonged periods can affect appetite and reproduction. Bacterial infections can induce reptiles to select a body temperature several degrees above ‘normal’ levels. Studies have shown that elevated body temperature enhances survival of animals infected with a potentially lethal pathogen. It is therefore bad husbandry to cool sick reptiles.

Do you know the difference between a thermostat and a thermometer?

A thermostat is a device used to automatically regulate temperature.

A thermometer is a device to measure temperature. page 50

Heating Basics • All reptiles require heat.

• Relate the temperature requirements for a species to that encountered in nature.

• A temperature gradient must be provided to enable the reptile to select the appropriate temperature—to thermoregulate.

• Know the difference between a thermostat and a thermometer—you need both.

• Regularly measure and record the temperatures in your vivarium.

• Ensure any radiant heat sources are protected from contact with your reptile.

• Understand the interaction between heat and humidity in a vivarium.

• Link heating with lighting.

HEATING FOR TURTLES A variety of heat lamps are available—incandescent bulbs, halogen and dichroic lamps. Other than water heaters, heat sources should be placed outside the vivarium. All heaters should be connected to a thermostat.

Water temperatures for most turtle species should be in the range of 22–28°C. This is best achieved by using a standard aquarium heater.

HEATING FOR FROGS

A ELLIOTT

A ELLIOTT

A variety of heat lamps are available—incandescent bulbs, halogen and dichroic lamps. Other than water heaters, heat sources should be placed outside the vivarium. All heaters should be connected to a thermostat. As heat mats and heat cords provide heat but no light, the day/night photoperiod is not affected. This reduces the stress compared with a heat lamp that frequently turns on and off.

Water in aquatic vivariums may need to be heated, particularly in cooler parts of Australia.

Small tank suitable for housing juvenile turtles

This glass enclosure is specifically designed for reptiles and amphibians

page 54

FEEDING

S EIPPER

R JOHNSON

Dietary habits vary greatly among Australian reptiles, depending on species, size and state of maturity.

For example, Blue-tongue Lizards start off life eating insects and snails and gradually become more omnivorous in their feeding habits, eventually preferring a range of vegetables, fruit and snails. In captivity they can also be offered the occasional boiled egg.

Bearded dragons similarly begin as insectivores and as they mature develop a taste for vegetables and fruits.

All Australian pythons and snakes—venomous and nonSnails are a favourite for Blue-tongued Lizards venomous—are carnivorous.

Turtles can be either carnivorous or omnivorous.

Whatever reptile or amphibian you are planning to keep, research and find out what they eat in the wild and ensure you will be able to offer them that diet—or something appropriately similar— on a consistent basis.

Some food items can be harmful to reptiles in captivity for a variety of reasons.

• Inadequate diet—for example low-calcium diets may lead to metabolic bone disease (MBD).

• Inappropriate diet—for example feeding mice to bearded dragons. Find out what your Different size mice are fed to reptiles according to their age, development and size. From left to right: large adult, small adult, reptile eats in the wild. Mice are hopper or weaner, pinky and day-old pinky too fatty and high in protein for most lizard species.

• Dangerous diet—for example, impaction of the bowel may occur if a bearded dragon is fed too many mature crickets at one time.

Reptiles are generally fed no more than 20% of their body weight at a time. All mammalian prey items must be pre-frozen (preferably for four weeks at least) for animal welfare reasons and to limit parasitism. If you keep more than one python or snake, never feed them together in the same enclosure. This can prove dangerous if both decide to eat the same item and can result in one injuring or devouring the other, rather than giving up its hold of the prey. page 70

A FAWCETT

BREEDING

Pink-tongued Skinks

Interest in reptile keeping has increased considerably in recent years, and the number of reptile breeders has grown accordingly. Some keepers begin breeding their reptiles simply for fun, some seek quick sales, and others work on developing popular hybrids and colour morphs for a more sophisticated market.

A comprehensive breeding plan involving proper husbandry, detailed record keeping, appropriate quarantine measures and reproductive strategies can lead to a more fulfilling and successful outcome for the reptile breeder.

Housing of breeding reptiles varies from small plastic drawers for smaller reptiles and hatchlings to vivariums for larger species. Rooms should be secure, vermin-proof and well ventilated.

Containers for adults should provide enough space for mating to take place. Newspaper or butcher’s paper is a suitable substrate.

Good background knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of reptiles and reptile keeping is important.

As an example, terms such as ‘postovulatory shed’ may sound alien to first-time reptile breeders.

Since fertilisation and ovulation in pythons and snakes does not occur in an ordered manner, the time of egg-laying is difficult to predict, but the postovulatory shed— the shed which occurs after the female ovulates—provides a clue.

Breeding reptiles requires experience, excellent husbandry and equipment. If you wish to breed pythons, it is essential that potential breeding reptiles are fit and consider cooling down prior to mating (no less than 18–20°C). Attention must be paid to behaviours during the gravid period, taking particular notice of the ‘pre-lay shed’.

Depending on environmental temperature, incubation times may also vary, and to further complicate reproductive issues, the sex of the young (sex determination) can be a result of either page 77

FIRST AID, CARE AND MEDICATION FOR SICK REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

R JOHNSON

Reptiles often become ill when things go wrong with the keeper’s husbandry. Low temperatures, poor hygiene, little or no access to UV light and inappropriate diet can all contribute to making your reptile sick. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms are opportunistic pathogens (bugs)—they strike when the immune system is not working well. Good husbandry and diet will prevent the establishment of most infections.

Reptiles can develop illnesses and organ diseases such as heart disease and liver failure also seen in other animals. Many types of cancers (neoplasms) have been reported in reptiles. It is also common for older reptiles to develop similar illnesses to those suffered by older humans, dogs, cats or other animals, including osteoarthritis and renal failure. Veterinarians provide geriatric care for reptiles, and active research is conducted in this area.

The fundamentals of nursing a sick reptile or amphibian are similar to those for any animal. The following should be provided: • Heat Provide supplementary heat for the patient, making sure that your reptile is kept within its preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)—see Temperature Gradient on page 51.

Mammals have a fever when they are sick, however, reptiles cannot generate body heat, and therefore we need to create a ‘fever’ for them to boost their immune system by making sure that they achieve their preferred body temperature (PBT).

• Isolate Minimise handling and provide adequate shelter within the enclosure. It is best to isolate sick reptiles in order to stop disease spread, limit injury, and to provide security and comfort. A dedicated hospital cage is ideal. Remember the rules associated with quarantine and disinfection.

Administration of subcutaneous fluids to a Green Tree Python

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Treatment If no obvious abnormalities are found: • Reduce handling.

• Raise the temperature of the hotspot in the enclosure (even if you think it is appropriate as it stands).

• Increase the day length or UVB exposure.

• Provide regular exposure to natural light—many anorexic reptiles will eat once taken outside to access natural, unfiltered light. Take your python for a ‘walk’—drape it on a small tree or allow it to investigate the lawn or garden (under strict supervision).

• Change food items—try offering a mouse instead of a rat.

• Consult your reptile veterinarian regarding faecal analysis for parasites such as roundworm.

If the above husbandry changes are unsuccessful in making your python eat, consult your reptile veterinarian. As well as a comprehensive physical examination, blood and faecal analysis, ultrasound and radiography may be necessary to achieve a diagnosis.

Dysecdysis (Abnormal Skin Shedding)

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It is illegal in some states to feed reptiles or frogs to captive reptiles.

Healthy pythons shed their skin in one piece, including the spectacles. Difficulty with shedding or sloughing occurs in otherwise healthy snakes that are maintained in environments that are too dry, or in sick or dehydrated animal. Mite infestation commonly contributes to dysecdysis.

Pythons and snakes kept in hygienic conditions within their preferred optimal temperature zone (POTZ) and at a humidity Abnormal shedding (dysecdysis) in a dehydrated Children’s Python level in keeping with the species, and that are provided with adequate furniture to aid removal of the shed, rarely suffer from dysecdysis.

In order to increase humidity in an enclosure, use a large water bowl, preferably with a heat mat underneath to increase evaporation. Always ensure adequate ventilation.

Pythons suffering from dysecdysis may require daily soaking in clean, warm water. Rub a wet towel over the snake after the soak to help remove the retained shed. Consider applying a very small amount of a non-irritant moisturising cream after soaking to help soften and loosen the skin.

Do not pull too hard when removing the ‘shed’—it should peel off without much effort. If the shed does not come away with the first treatment, try again once daily. It may take several days to achieve removal of the retained or abnormal shed—be patient! Abrasive surfaces such as rocks or roughened pieces of wood in an enclosure will aid the natural process of skin shedding (ecdysis). page 130

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD) Metabolic bone disease is the most common nutritional disease in captive freshwater turtles.

Signs include weakness, shell deformities, softness of the shell and stunted growth.

Turtles require a balanced diet with adequate levels of calcium, vitamin D and protein. Exposure to UVB light—via UV lights or natural sunlight—is necessary to ensure metabolism of vitamin D and calcium in the body. Remember ultraviolet light does not pass through glass or plastic and ultraviolet lights should be regularly tested for efficacy or replaced every six months.

Treatment

The carapace of this Eastern Long-necked Turtle with severe metabolic bone disease is soft and a section has broken away

B CARMEL

B CARMEL

Ensure that turtles are on a well-balanced diet with adequate calcium and have access to good levels of artificial and natural UVB. Often deformities of the shell are permanent.

Notice the curling of the carapace and general distortion of the shells in this short-necked turtle with metabolic bone disease

PYRAMIDING OF CARAPACE (SHELL) Low environmental humidity (too dry) and a high protein diet are known to cause a pyramidshaped deformity of the carapace in captive tortoises. Similar changes to the carapace occur in freshwater turtles.

Take care when feeding animal protein such as beef strips, pinkie mice, dog and cat food to omnivorous species. All turtles require some animal protein, however, like many foods too much is not necessarily a good thing. See Feeding on page 70.

This condition and MBD are arguably linked to over-handling, which potentially restricts the turtle’s access to its preferred environment. Remember Australian turtles are aquatic and require access to water at all times.

Treatment Ensure that turtles are on a well-balanced diet. Often deformities of the shell are permanent. page 145

Wounds, lacerations and fractures require immediate assessment by a veterinarian.

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TRAUMA

R JOHNSON

Lacerations Lacerations or punctures may occur due to bites or scratches from large invertebrates, cats or even reptiles.

Many are treated as open wounds with antiseptic applications and antibiotic treatments. Some lacerations may require Swelling caused by a lizard attack in a Green Tree Frog— note the tell-tale teeth marks on the skin suturing.

R JOHNSON

Fractures and Amputations Fractures may occur due to acute trauma in otherwise healthy frogs, or in frogs suffering from metabolic bone disease.

The latter is referred to as a pathological fracture.

Some fractures, such as pelvic fractures, may heal with simple rest and pain relief. Long bone fractures may require splinting or pinning. Limbs may also A White-lipped Tree Frog with an amputated hind limb due require amputation due to severe injury to osteomyelitis such as compound fractures, muscle trauma or bone infection (osteomyelitis).

Captive frogs appear to cope well after a single amputation.

Rostral Abrasion (Snout Trauma)

NEOPLASIA (TUMOURS)

R JOHNSON

Some frogs develop small ulcers or wounds on their nasal region due to rubbing. It is often a sign of ‘escape’ behaviour or stress.

Husbandry changes may be necessary. Snout trauma or rostral abrasion in a Green Tree Frog Consult with your veterinarian and an experienced frog keeper to uncover the cause and treat the wound.

Neoplasia occurs in amphibians. Tumours may be confused with granulomas or swellings caused by inflammation or infection. Tumours may be inflammatory, parasitic, hyperplastic, or neoplastic.

Many tumours occur on the skin and A benign tumour in a Green and Golden Bell Frog can be easily excised. page 156