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Colophon Published by BLKVLD Publishers | The Netherlands www.blikvelduitgevers.nl Š BLKVLD Publishers, Zandvoort 2016 All rights reserved by Jolanda Bos 2009 - 2016 First edition 2016 ISBN 978-90-807744-4-5 No part of this book may be reproduced or transmited in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, on-line reproduction or by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission of the publisher.
Text editing Ariel Singer Book design and cover Lonneke Beukenholdt Photos (unless stated otherwise) Jolanda Bos Map of Egypt Martin Hense With photographs by Steve Evans p.15; Fair Trade Egypt p.27, p.30; Hendrikje Nouwens p.40, p.46; Martin Hense p.55; Lynn Ardent p.62; TrickyH p.78; Christophe Cerisier p.92, p.101, p.107; Eye Ubiquitous p.124; picture of the author: Sigrid van Roode. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use the copy write material in this book; the author and publisher apologize for any errors or omissions and would welcome these being brought to their attention.
Content Introduction
4
Crafts
6
Basket weaving
8
Fez production
14
Beading belly dance costumes
20
Nagada weaving
26
Tulle bi telly production
32
Ababda hairstyling
40
Tent making
48
Objects
56
Arousa el burqa
58
Amulets and talismans
64
The kaffiyah
74
The Maria Theresa Thaler
80
Tassels
86
Kohl containers
92
Rashaidah veils
100
Silver jewelry
108
Female costume and dress
118
Beads
126
The Sinai face veil
136
The qabqab
144
Ababda swords and daggars
152
Background
159
160
Socio-cultural aspects and senses
Aluminium
164
The Aswan souq
172
The last years of the silver trade
178
Traces of function and use
182
Literature and map of Egypt
188
Introduction Why a book on wearable heritage you might ask? Monumental buildings, landmarks, landscapes and archaeological remains are virtually immovable, easily traceable and relatively well protected by law. However, (small) movable objects in contemporary and traditional cultures that are used in everyday life are changing and disappearing faster than ever because of modernization and globalization. These items almost never have formal status or protection and are often discarded or sold without any description or study being accomplished. Traditional veils worn by Bedouin people in the Egyptian desert are one example of such objects. These veils are often sold to tourists without considering their value as representations of heritage in a rapidly changing culture. Frequently, tourists do not recognize the historical significance of the pieces. In this manner, museum-quality pieces of traditional culture are sold or lost. I would like to draw these veils, jewelry and clothing away from the sphere of mere souvenirs and into the realm of heritage; wearable heritage.
That brings us to another question: what is wearable heritage exactly? In this book I will use the following definition: all objects or artifacts, and any additional elements in, or associated with, the general concept of dress and costume that have specific meaning as expressions of self and individuality. Often they convey social or even religious values, traditions and identity. This may also include status symbols like weaponry, (costume) jewelry or amulets and talismans worn on the body. Equally important are the objects belonging to a woman or man’s personal sphere of physical or mental status – for instance, make-up containers and traditions of body decoration. They too can be meaningful possessions that people find worth passing on to others as (wearable) heritage. Over the past 15 years I have written several articles for magazines about crafts and objects from Egypt and the West-Asian and North African (WANA) regions. This book combines these previously published articles in an edited form. It contains stories about customs, beliefs, economics, history and socio-cultural phenomena of the people who live in these areas. Often, objects still used in Egypt today can be found in archaeological contexts as well - although perhaps in a slightly different form or with a different meaning, function or use. As an archaeologist these objects interest me, and contemporary culture has often enabled me to interpret the past in a different manner. Apart from the meaning and symbolism of objects, the different shapes and materials in which they are made interest me as well. The combination of different materials is a subject that has particularly peaked my curiosity. For instance, I find fascinating the silver elements of a charm or amulet bound together with red thread, or tassels made of fabric that are then trimmed with small glass beads. In this book I hope to share my love for these materials with you. Not only with descriptions, but especially with images showing the details of objects that demonstrate these combinations. The combination of materials may change the meaning of an object or even influence its preservation through time. The book in front of you is divided into three parts: crafts with their materials and techniques, various objects and their meanings, and some background or socio-cultural aspects of wearable heritage and associated trade. Of course, if my goal was to describe all aspects of Egypt’s wearable heritage, this book would be no where near complete – a large variety of topics could have been added. I have made a selection and have chosen subjects I found representative of the tale I wished to tell. Most of the time, this selection of topics reflects my personal preference. Often the topics or objects are part of the “Wearable Heritage collection” I curate, or they are photographs of objects I came across during my travels and work in Egypt. With this book I hope to cultivate understanding and appreciation for Egypt’s wearable heritage and its surroundings and to give the reader an idea about crafts and objects deeply rooted in their traditions.
Jolanda Bos, June 2016
Wearable Heritage
Introduction
6
Crafts In a country like Egypt, a multitude of traditional crafts can still be found, probably executed in essentially the same way for hundreds of years. The subjects of the following chapters could therefore have been much more diverse and could have included jewelers, tapestry weavers, embroiderers and many more. The crafts I describe here I have chosen solely because they crossed my path on my travels in Egypt. However, this range of subjects has also allowed me to explain about the production processes involved in making wearable heritage objects; about the producers, the places they work, the materials they use, the ways in which they preserve and pass on their trade, and about some other interesting aspects of craftsmanship. Egypt’s traditional crafts are not all practiced in the same setting or context, or with the same intensity. Some are executed as work done at home between other household tasks (crochetting beaded fringes on scarves or tulle-bi telly) and some are seasonal crafts (basket making). Some craftsmen are highly regarded (fez makers), and others have a lower social status. Some work requires highly specialized producers (tent making), while some crafts are practiced casually and by less specialized craftspeople (hairstyling). Some crafts have dedicated working areas (tent makers and weavers), whereas other working areas are only temporary (gaffas and basket making). For the understanding of crafts, it is important to examine each craftsman’s special postures and habits – there are always particular working rhythms, paces, repetitions and finishing processes. Gender related issues are interesting to consider as well (hairstyles are, for instance, often done by a person of the same sex as the client: men create hairstyles for men, and women for women). Finally, apprenticeship is an interesting aspect to consider, since this is how crafts may be preserved for posterity and passed on. Although these aspects are different for each craft, they all illustrate the ways in which you can look at crafts in general. With the following chapters I will illustrate some of these aspects with a selection of contemporary Egyptian crafts. Wearable Heritage
Crafts
Gaffas makers working on the roadside as some women pass by and stay for a chat
Basket weaving
[from left to right] A basket from Siwa called mamoura nedibash; this beautifully decorated basket with tassels and leather was made to commemorate a wedding and used for storing jewelry and other personal items Graffas makers working in the vicinity of Aswan in the south of Egypt by the side of the road A neolithic basket, more than 7000 years old, as found by the archaeologists excavating the site of the Upper K Pits in the Fayum
Wearable Heritage
In ancient Egypt, there were no cupboards in Egyptian houses. Most objects, food and household goods were stored in boxes and baskets. Archaeologists have excavated such items from a variety of ancient contexts. Most of the time the preservation conditions are far from optimal for these organic materials, however, from tombs and other buried contexts, complete baskets have been uncovered. In today’s Egypt, baskets and crates are almost as widely used as they were in antiquity. Baskets are truly multifunctional objects; along with their obvious purposes, they also have some unexpected uses. For example: a baskets can be used as a container for milk when milking livestock, as a scoop for measuring grain, as a wall decoration, or as a food cover protecting against flies. In some cases baskets are made in domestic situations, produced by women in their homes, while in other cases specialized basket weavers produce them on an almost industrial scale.
Crafts
10 A small Nubian basket, made of palm leaves reinforced with strips of leather at the stand
When visiting Egypt, you may see the whole lifespan of a basket in one single setting along the Nile. Production, use and subsequent discard may all be seen in one location. There is definitely charm in being able to follow this process, as if archaeological artifacts were being made in front of your eyes. It is a process that has repeated itself throughout the centuries and you can observe it as you pass by. On the corner of the street a broken crate is thrown into a fire, and a goat is eating the remains of another basket, as if it was still a juicy tuft of fresh grass. Elsewhere, parts of a crate are reused as a support for transporting a pile of bread loaves. A boy is carrying them on top of his head, balancing them while driving a bike through the city. Crates similar to those made since Pharaonic times are lying broken on the streets, or have been given a second life as a support in a market stand. The functions for which they were originally made are often quite different from how they are used or reused. And in this context the basket might disappear under the sand, to be excavated by archaeologists again after a thousand years. These crates, made from the ribs of palm leaves (gerid in Arabic), are often produced on the side of the road by a man who has set up his temporary workshop there. This workplace is often indicated by no more than a stack of crates used as an advertisement. The craftsman transports huge amounts of long gerid to the production site, where he then remains for a short period of time to provide the local community with new crates. He sits on the floor of his ‘workshop’ and uses very few tools, several prongs and knifes may lie on the ground around him. Men from the neighborhood stop by to place their order. The workshop slowly becomes a social place, where stories and news are exchanged by the producer and passersby who stop for a chat. While talking, the craftsman splits the palm leaves and punches holes in the ribs. There are shreds of the ribs lying all over the ground. Thinly sliced strips are punched through the holes of flat, large ribs, with a thick piece of gerid. In the resulting
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product, no nails are used. In this way, slowly the framework of the crate, or gaffa, is constructed. This technique is also used to make objects besides crates (sometimes accompanied by a few nails in order to keep the ribs in place). Chairs, tables, beds, whole racks for shops, bird cages, miniature mosques and even cribs are made of this material and in this manner. They are relatively inexpensive objects and very characteristic Egyptian handicrafts. Without doubt one of the most charming styles of Egyptian baskets, is when the basket is made or built-up with a coiling technique. This technique begins with the center of a basket, created by a small circle or bundle of grass, wrapped and held together by the leaves of a palm tree or similar material. Another bundle of grass is then coiled around it and attached to it by wrapping a piece of palm leaf around this bundle and piercing it through the previous coil. In this manner, the basket spirals slowly into the desired shape. The quality of these baskets differs significantly and is determined by the thickness of the coils and the wrapping material used. Baskets made with larger bundles are much easier and faster to make, but correspondingly less sturdy. Also, the material used for the wrapping and sewing often varies. For decoration, nowadays, sometimes nylon threads, brightly colored cotton threads, or even candy wrappers are used instead of palm leaves. These recycled candy wrappers, are one of my favorite examples of the inventiveness of Egyptian culture and the modernization of a craft. One of the best areas to look for baskets and basket production is southern Egypt (ancient Nubia), where this coiling technique is also used. At the souq or market in Aswan you can often find these baskets where vendors in white gallabiyas sell exotic goods from farther south in Africa. Baskets are used here also as a way of displaying other goods and produce; they can contain herbs for drinks or sticks with which to brush your teeth. On the walls of Nubian houses flat dishes made with this technique can be found. They are used as decoration, but are also
12 used to cover food or serve as dishes on which bread and delicacies are placed. These dishes are often decorated in various geometric patterns of colored wrappers. In Aswan, these baskets are popular with tourists, since they make nice souvenirs of Egypt. Occasionally you will find old baskets too, of extremely fine quality, but discolored by the sun and the years, tucked away in the corner of some store. To avoid having mice or other animals eat the food supplies, in the Nubian region the food is often stored in baskets hung from the ceilings of houses. The baskets are suspended on straps decorated with snail shells that serve as support for the basket lids. When placed correctly, the lid can lean on the snail shells in such a manner that a small opening is created. The lids can also be placed directly onto the basket, keeping the food inside safe from small rodents and insects, while air and wind may pass through the tiny holes to cool the food. These ‘refrigerators’ are part of the traditional Nubian household. On the western border of Egypt, more than fifteen hundred kilometers away from Nubia, baskets are made using similar techniques. Here lies the Siwa Oasis; a place rich with palm trees and surrounded by salt lakes. Siwa is known for its traditional Berber populations with their unique costumes and culture. The general shapes of the baskets of Siwa are much more closed than those of Nubia, although the basic production techniques remain the same. In the oasis, the edges of the baskets and the handles are often trimmed with bright red dyed leather reinforcements. The decoration of the baskets is very easy to distinguish, following a similar pattern to the traditional Siwan dress. The sides of the somewhat rigid coiled baskets are decorated with rope fringes made of grass, and cotton or silk tassels. From the lids, numerous tassels flutter like locks of hair. Mother of pearl buttons and silk embroidery decorate the baskets in radiating patterns. This embroidery is threaded between the coils after the basket is finished. Siwa has many different basket types, as diverse as the functions for which they are used. Here, just as in Nubia or the rest of Egypt for that matter,
baskets are used for storing household produce and scooping rice and dates, but also for milking cattle. The most elaborately decorated style of basket is used for storing wearable heritage and costumerelated objects. Girls from Siwa decorate these themselves, as part of their trousseau, and store their valuables in them for the future. This specific type of basket is called mamoura nedibash. Silver jewelry is important in Siwa and such jewelry may be stored in these elaborately decorated baskets. In this manner the baskets from Siwa form a direct link to clothing and other regional heritage objects. Baskets and crates made from organic materials have been used in Egypt for thousands of years. In antiquity, even boats were made of reeds and utilized the same techniques discussed above. Woven baskets and mats have also been used in houses and Bedouin huts located on the edges of Egypt. Indeed, many of these techniques are as old as the Pharaonic culture itself. Crates, beds and cribs are still made with the same materials and techniques as they have been for hundreds of years. The producers of crates, coming through town every few months, play an important social role as well, spreading stories and news from across the country. Baskets have been an aspect of myths and stories since early literature, such as individuals being smuggled into forbidden places, or baby Moses being hidden along the Nile. And, at the very beginning of the Pharaonic history, some 7000 years ago, baskets dug into the sand reinforced the walls of storage pits, used to store grain. Thus baskets were even lining the granaries of Egypt!
A display of gaffas as a sign to advertise the production of crates
A woman sits in the courtyard of her house in the Dahla oasis and makes baskets of plaited material
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Fez production
[left] The last fez production place in the Cairo souq, showing the press on top of the oven [from left to right] A woman in traditional dress and veil, with a small child wearing a fez (19th century Egypt) A boy with a fez
In Cairo, in a part of the souq or local market place less commonly frequented by tourists, and close to the ancient city gate Bab Suwela from the eleventh century AD, two workshops are situated next to each other. They both make the same objects, but nobody knows whether they are true rivals or if they are not in competition at all. With their craft, they have become the last of their kind in Egypt. These are the last fez makers in Cairo. In fact they are the last fez makers in Egypt, and bear witness to Egypt’s colonial period.
A coin amulet with depiction of the fez as a political symbol
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16
The sign on a shop of one of the fez makers in Cairo
The fez originated in Morocco, in the eponymous city of Fez. Here, people wore a tall headdress, red in color and made of felt, which was particularly popular amongst intellectuals. Pilgrims took these objects home and thus the headgear spread and became popular in other parts of the Islamic world as well. The modern fez is still made of felt and has a conical shape, but is often lower than the original. Generally, a dark-colored tassel dangles from the center of the top, or there is a small fringe in the middle. Originally, the headdress was worn encircled with a turban. Although other colors have been used now and then, most fezzes are deep red. Once upon a time, the color of the fez was an indication of the quality – the deeper red the color, the more expensive the fez and, of course, the more important its wearer. For a long time the city of Fez had a monopoly on the production of the fez. The dye traditionally used in the production of the dark red felt and characteristic of the fez, was derived from a berry (the Cornus mascula). This plant occurred only in the vicinity of this city (although white and black fezzes were also made). It took years for the fez to be produced in other countries, where it eventually became even more popular than in Morocco itself. After the discovery of synthetic dyes, the production of the fez was also moved to other cities, even to Europe. In Europe, the fez was produced in Vienna and Czechoslovakia, specifically in a factory in Strakonice. When fez manufacturing began in this city, the textile industry had already been famous for centuries, but the production of the fez caused it to really take off. So, despite the fact that the fez originated in Morocco, it is certainly not the case that it was used and made in the Maghreb region alone. While at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Western dress like trousers and shirts, became more widely used in the North African region, headgear remained more traditional. In Islam praying while wearing a hat with a brim, which many western hats have, was rather impractical as the faithful must touch the ground with their foreheads. Thus the brimless
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18 fez was elected part of the national costume. In the time of Ottoman Sultan Mahmoud II (1809-1839), the fez even became, by royal decree, a prescribed part of the official attire of the Ottoman Empire. Even women wore fezzes; although the female style was smaller and had no fringe. In the Ottoman era, and the period after that, the use of the fez spread throughout North Africa, the Eastern world and even parts of the rest of the world. Eventually the fez lost its original form, becoming rounder and higher, and then lower again, and was worn with and without a tassel or turban. In several countries, this headgear was given a different name. In Egypt, for example, the fez was called a tarboosh, derived from the Persian words sar-boosh, head cover. Also in Egypt, under Turkish rule, the fez was especially popular and in particular was the headgear of the elite. The wearing of the fez continued in Turkey until the beginning of the twentieth century, when it was eventually banned by Mustafa Kemal because it supposedly did not fit his Western ideas. This ban led to uprisings and riots and fezzes were confiscated across the empire. For a long time, even after its ban in Turkey, the home of the Ottoman Empire, fezzes were still used in several army uniforms. Mainly at the beginning of the twentieth century, the fez was incorporated into a variety of military dresses in the region. This usage dated back to a time when the modern concept of a uniform, with its practical appearance and function, was considered of little importance. The main purpose of the uniform rather was to indicate differences in rank. In the armies of several European countries, colonial regiments were distinguished from others by the wearing of a fez – thus the fez became particularly widespread with colonialism. Its use extended over much of Africa, Asia and India and in most cases remained until just before the Second World War. Then, in the majority of armies, more practical uniforms replaced the traditional dress code. Although the Egyptian army even wore the fez until the 1950s! The fez was worn until 1952, to be precise, when it – as a symbol of King Farouk – was abandoned with the seizure of power by Colonel Nasser.
There are also less formal associations with this headgear. For example, in many countries, wearing the fez was linked to a form of (sometimes banal) entertainment. Especially in Western countries, the fez is used in cartoons (like in Tom and Jerry), in theaters (like by Tommy Cooper) and in a variety of films. In countries such as Morocco, Turkey and Egypt fezzes are occasionally worn by doormen in hotels because of its past associations. The once honorable role of the fez as distinctive dress for the elite and religious leaders has now become entertainment for tourists. Meanwhile, the fez in Egypt is no longer popular in any other circumstances, mainly because it is now generally associated with the colonial regimes. Only two producers are left in Cairo, where a true industry once flourished. Their shops and workshops are located side by side, as is customary in the markets of Egypt. With rival businesses side by side, the buyer can easily compare products. Today, however, there are very few people who still want to buy a fez, so the manufacturers make only a few hundred each year. Some tourists, who venture off the beaten path of the souq, are interested in
An mage showing fezzes being worn as part of military uniforms
fezzes. They watch the production process, film it a few times, and now and then they even buy a fez, but that is hardly sufficient for producers to keep up their businesses. The workshops are a true example of lost glory. The shops have not been updated since the 1950s and old fezzes lie dusty in their cabinets, as if time has stood still. But anyone who takes the trouble to walk into these stores, asking about the production process or wanting to buy a fez, is treated to a detailed and enthusiastic explanation of a craft tradition more than seven centuries old. The core of the fez is a plaited mat which provides the firm structure of the headgear. The fez made in Egypt is traditionally round and firm, although elsewhere a looser or less stiff version of the fez is worn. The inside of the fez is lined with leather. Around the plait, red felt is stretched on a brass mold and secured with glue. Large and impressive stoves play an essential part in the production process. They can still be seen outside the shops in the marketplace in Cairo. They are situated on the threshold of the workshop, generally outside. They date back to the time of King Farouk, as can be seen from the emblems in the front of the stoves. A fire circulates in the interior of the furnace and production takes place in the massive press mounted on the top. The heat in the stove cannot be allowed to exceed 90 degrees, or the wool of the felt will burn. After the fez is stretched around the mold, the material inside the mold is compressed and glued together by the heat and pressure of the press. In this way the characteristic shape of the headgear is created. Fezzes made these days in Cairo are almost exclusively done on commission, because the market is so small. A certain bitterness about this can hardly be hidden, even from people who come by and show a genuine interest in the craftsmanship and products. The last fez maker can hardly make a living from his production. The Western-oriented hotels in the country order too few these days and a real fez is not cheap. The real fez can be recognized by the lack of a seam, since it is fabricated from a single piece of felt. The hat is made only of felt, no other materials are
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used except for the leather lining on the inside and in the matting support. Making a fez is an ingenious process. The workshops of these fez makers are an example of nineteenth century Cairo. However, nowadays the history, customs and architecture of nineteenth and twentieth century Egypt are rarely appreciated, although a change and a slow turnaround can be felt. Buildings from the same period as the heydays of the fez are increasingly labeled as heritage worth protecting and plans are being made to refurbish and revitalize the neighborhoods built then. Let’s hope that with these activities, the popularity of the fez will rebound as well, so that this beautiful craft is not lost.
Tulle bi Telly production
On these pages several examples of tulle bi telly can be seen, showing the effect of the silver decoration on different colored tulle fabrics
Wearable Heritage
Asyut is the largest city in Middle Egypt. It is an ancient city with a long history and an ancient name. The city was inhabited from the Pharaonic period onwards and its name was probably pronounced then as Saouti. It is therefore not hard to guess from where the current name comes. Asyut once was a commercial center, from which desert caravans departed into the deep Sahara with goods produced in Egypt. In ancient times the town was associated with the god Wepwawet, a jackal god. In modern Asyut, the population is predominantly Muslim but has a large Christian community as well. The city is generally characterized as one of the most traditional areas in Egypt. Most men wear the traditional galabiyah, a long sleeved dress, and many women wear a traditional veil that covers the whole body. It is therefore perhaps even more striking that of all the towns in Egypt, this is the one where a delicate fabric developed, the seductive tulle bi telly, as it is called in Arabic, literally tulle with silver.
Crafts
34
Details of the folded flat silver strips, covering the tulle
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36 Decoration of silver on textile is not at all unknown to the Arab and East Africa regions. In southern Egypt and the Sudan textiles are often decorated with flat silver wire. In other regions, like India, Iran, Pakistan, the Golf region, Yemen and Saudi Arabia, this technique is often called badla. In this technique the metal strips are wrapped around the warp and weft of a piece of textile, decorating for instance head covers and veils. The most famous examples are the Bedouin veils of Rashaidah (this form of wearable heritage is discussed elsewhere in this book). The heavyweight Rashaidah veils are completely decorated with silver wire similar to that used in the tulle bi telly work. The thin, slight curved pieces of silver reflect the light of the Egyptian sun beautifully. This effect is enhanced by the different facets the wires seem to have when they are bent and twisted. It is not difficult to imagine why this form of decoration became so popular. The amount of silver can also indicate the status of the family of the woman who wears such veils. The silverwork on the large veils of the Rashaidah became a way to indicate wealth and to enhance the beauty of the women wearing it. This decoration became characteristic of the Bedouin tribes of the southeastern desert of Egypt and Sudan. But how did similar techniques then come to be used in central Egypt on tulle? The machine-produced material that we call tulle was first made early in the nineteenth century, 1808 to be precise, with the invention of the Bobbinet machine by Englishman John Heathcoat. The names comes from combining ‘bobbin’ meaning ‘spindle’ and ‘net’ to indicate the appearance. This machine was an important invention in industrial Europe and was eventually improved on in France by Joseph Marie Jacquard. On a bobbin a mesh-like fabric was made with widely spaced warp threads. Then the subsequent bobbinet threads were wrapped around the warp threads at a diagonal angle, creating a perfect hexagonal, net-like fabric. With this technique it was possible to create very fine, transparent tulle in all kinds of basic materials, such as cotton. The French town Tulle became famous for this work, thus the fabric was given the name of the city. The story goes that in the nineteenth century during the French occupation of Egypt, a textile factory was
opened in Asyut mainly in order to make tulle. The factory was founded in order to end an economic malaise in the city. Many craftsmen working in the weakening textile industry lived in Asyut, as textile production traditionally had its center in middle Egypt. The Frenchman who took on the project looked to the craftsmanship of the Egyptians in the region to create something new and special. And so they did! At the beginning of the twentieth century the famous Asyut-tulle became one of the most popular textiles of that time. The story of the tulle factory thus became a very successful one. A combination of the tulle and the silverwork was the trick. Egyptians contributed to the creation of the new style of tulle by applying traditional flat silver wire decoration – the silver wire could easily be strung and bent through the openings in the mesh. The silver weighed down the tulle and caused the otherwise light textile to drape in a very graceful manner. When the silver was strung close enough together, the fabric rippled beautifully, almost as if it was a liquid. Thus arose tulle bi telly and it became popular in Europe in the Fin-de-siècle period. Romanticized orientalism, the airy tulle and the Art Nouveau style fit together very well. Graceful and delicate ornamental garments, such as veils or scarves, matched perfectly the arabesque character of Art Nouveau. Additionally, when in 1922 the tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered, it began a wave of Egyptomania. In the first half of the twentieth century the popularity of this fabric experienced its peak. It appeared as clothing and decorative elements in films and was especially prized for dance costumes. Not only in Egyptian films, but also in Hollywood, the thin, sensual fabric was a significant success. Famous actresses wore it on the sets of movies. For example, Hedy Lamarr wore it in “Samson and Delilah” (1949) and Theda Bara in “Cleopatra” (1917). No complete copy of the latter remains, but what has survived shows that Theda Bara was surrounded almost all the time by tulle bi telly used in various objects and of various qualities. With the rise of the Egyptomania the tulle bi telly became a serious trend. It was worn on the head and shoulders as a shawl throughout Europe and America, and it was even used in evening dresses.
However, it was not only used in clothing. It was also widely used in home decoration, for example, in piano draperies. The tulle bi telly produced in this period is of especially fine quality and it is now very hard to find these old fabrics, although they are sometimes sold on the antique markets in Paris. The cotton tulle was very smooth, as opposed to the modern, synthetic material used for tulle. The old tulle with silver has become a much sought after and beloved fabric. Especially in the world of Oriental dance, tulle bi telly has played an important role over the course of the past two centuries. This has to do with the fact that the transparent fabric accentuates the sensual and suggestive aspects of this dance form. Black tulle with silver streaks and lines contrasts beautifully with the skin underneath, and the shimmering of the silver accentuates the rapid movements in oriental dance. Both this kind of fabric and the art of belly dance or oriental dance were introduced at the same time to Europe and America, at the Chicago World Fair in 1893, when they were on display for the public.
An old postcard of an Arab woman wearing a tulle fabric decorated with silver strips
The patterns woven into the fabric range from animal and human figures to geometric designs that usually run in strips in the tulle. Numerous types of images are used, including tents, mosques, birds, trees, people, stars, camels, falcons, pyramids and many more. Coptic shawls usually have different designs from Islamic scarves. In the decoration of Coptic scarves human figures are common, while the Islamic designers do not depict living creatures. The Islamic geometric patterns fit perfectly into the aesthetic of the Art Nouveau movement of the early twentieth century and were very often used in this period in Europe. Sometimes the patterns were intentionally broken or left unfinished, or the symmetry of the composition was designed to be uneven. The idea behind this is not always clear, but perhaps can be explained by the traditional belief that perfect designs may attract the Evil Eye. The decorations of the tulle bi telly are made by threading strips of thin metal wire through the tulle. The strips may be made of silver, but also of copper, chromium, gold or other metals. Each strip
Wearable Heritage
Crafts
is approximately 0.1 cm wide and 1.5 cm long. They are crossed over the threads of the tulle in such a manner that one of the openings of the netting is completely covered with silver. The wire is then bent, squeezed with the fingernail, and cut off. Each stitch is a separate strip of silver. After the design is complete, the fabric is flattened once more by compressing the mesh with a press or a roller. Some experts say that the original, most expensive tellywork was flattened with the teeth. The metal would supposedly still bear the imprint of the tooth of the maker as a sign of quality. The similar technique of badla, most likely originated in the Indian Moghul Empire, from which it spread in the eighteenth century. Even though silver on tule is not an ancient technique, it is characteristic of Egypt and it represents a very specific part of the country’s history. It symbolizes a period when Egyptian culture became popular in Western Europe and America. The craft has thus become part of Egyptian cultural heritage, worth preserving for posterity. In the latter part of the twentieth century, the production of this fabric experienced a decline and the technology was nearly lost. Fortunately, there have been relatively recent initiatives to revitalize this craft. Today, tulle fabrics decorated in a similar way are being made by a Fair Trade initiative in Egypt. About twenty women from Shadawyl island in Middle Egypt are producing this fabric once again. Now, new galabiyahs or dresses are made for women, as well as scarves and shawls, all in different colors and different fabric qualities. There is something for everyone and the objects are not only made in the traditional black and white – red and purple varieties are now produced, and frequently in sizes more in line with the needs of modern buyers. Decorative geometric patterns and a stylized female or doll figure on a white tulle fabric
Wearable Heritage
Crafts
Silver jewelry
[from left to right] A stamp on the inside of a bracelet, showing the mark of the jeweler who made the piece A jeweler in Aswan weights a silver anklet for sale
Wearable Heritage
In the main street of the Khan el-Khallilih souq in Cairo most shops selling gold jewelry and precious stones can be found. Anywhere tourists go in the souq, there are many stores selling silver and golden cartouches in which a visitor can have his or her name engraved in hieroglyphs. A little further away from these touristy spots, golden jewelry with Arab motifs, worn mainly by Egyptian women, are sold. However, if you are interested in antique silver jewelry you just might be referred to tiny stores down narrow streets, in the back of which a curtain behind the counter shields a staircase. This staircase then leads to an upper floor, where a whole different kind of trade is happening. Here, men in bright white galabeyas and headscarves stare at scales weighing out silver jewelry. There is a wall with drawers holding small beads and silver bells, and small boys pass silver chains between the customer and the merchant. While tea is served, prices are quietly negotiated. Here, lying dusty in baskets, rests the heritage of a culture that is disappearing much faster than the treasures of the pharaohs: the traditional silver jewelry of Egypt.
Objects
110
Stamps and hallmarks left by the jeweller on a bracelet to identify the designer and the quality of the silver pieces
In the Khan el-Khallilih, nowadays it is mostly gold and gold jewelry being sold. In the not so distant past however, this was very different. Although currently gold is the most popular material, in the previous centuries, silver was the best-selling precious metal for jewelry. The silver shops in the marketplaces have often been reduced to no bigger than the size of a phone booth. Only traders looking for antique Egyptian jewelry come here now, looking for pieces worn in the previous centuries by Bedouin people to be sold on the Internet. Or a single dealer who is still buying silver jewelry for the Bedouins can be found here. But this vanishing trade and craft can tell a story about major life changes and other sociocultural phenomena. Traditionally women in Egypt (and the entire West Asian and North African region), possess and wear silver jewelry. This jewelry represents their personal property. It is their savings and insurance when times get tough. In Arabic there is even a saying that reflects this aspect of jewelry: “El hadayad lil wa’t el shadayad”. This translates to something like: “jewelry is there for difficult times”. In a society where banks still play a marginal role, having jewelry is a good way to invest money sustainably. It is common for a woman to receive jewelry as part of her dowry (mahr in Arabic) and this silver jewelry remains her personal possession throughout the marriage, to do with as she pleases. A woman may also acquire more jewelry during her married life, for example she may be given more jewelry at the birth of a child. Silver jewelry provides economic assets and status to a woman, but there is more. These jewelry items also show which region or community a woman is from, they shows her social status, whether she is married or she has given birth to children, etc. Apart from this there are also the apotropaic qualities of jewelry to be discussed. Silver amulets are mentioned elsewhere in this book in relation to zār rituals and other evil-repellant forces. Silver as a material has been mined in the region since ancient times, although it has always been
Wearable Heritage
Objects
much harder to find in Egypt than gold. For this reason, silver has long had a higher value than gold, which was abundantly available in the country. From the eighteenth and nineteenth century onward, however, a new source of silver became available: the coins that came in from Europe with commercial trade. In particular one of those coins played an important role as a silver source: the Maria Theresa Thaler. Around 1900, over a hundred million of these coins were in circulation in the region. Nowadays you will find this coin (in which the effigy of Maria Theresa is kept) used as a piece of jewelry or sewn onto a garment. Other coins may be melted to serve as raw material for jewelry. Some coins are pierced and may be attached to clothing or veils. In general coins on veils and clothing have multiple functions. On a practical level, they weigh the garments down in a desert landscape, where the wind almost always blows. They also show the wealth of the wearer and thus their social position within a group. And of course, they are also direct financial resources, which are ready at hand to drawn upon when needed. When determining the monetary value of the decoration on clothing or individual pieces of jewelry in Egypt, the skills of the silversmith are not so much taken into account, but rather the monetary value of the silver itself at the time of the sale is important. The silver content and weight of the objects thus determines how much money a woman can get, should she choose to sell her possessions. Because this value fluctuates in a market system, it is the stamp on the jewelry displaying the silver content that is of greatest importance. These hallmarks may be placed upon various parts of the silver objects, sometimes in quite obvious places, not at all tucked away, as we might see on the inside of rings in Western cultures. The West Asian and North African region, with Egypt in its the center, contains a wide variety of cultures and groups. In particular, the nomadic tribes from Africa and the Bedouin from the Arab Peninsula
112
The scales inside a jeweler’s store, where pieces of silver are weighted before being sold [right] An amulet from Nubia and Southern Red Sea area
meet in Egyptian territory. This results is cultural exchange, which is also reflected in the variations in jewelry. The influences from the different corners of the region have also impacted each other over time. Additionally, Roman and ancient Egyptian amulets and shapes can be reflected in present day jewelry. This is not only true for patterns, but also for the techniques that were used to construct the jewelry. The exchange of different techniques and patterns took place via trade routes, or via the pilgrimage to Mecca. Egypt has always been at a crossroad of trade and pilgrimage routes. The diversity of the populations of Egypt - the Berbers in the west, Bedouin in the northeast and indigenous nomadic populations in the south - has always ensured a large variety of clothing and jewelry. All jewelry from this region is large in size, but often exceptionally subtle and with quite detailed finishes. To assign certain jewelry to a region and date, it is important to keep the details of the jewelry pieces, patterns and techniques in mind. For instance, Berber motifs, which are found across North Africa all the way into Morocco, can be found in Egypt as well. In addition, you can see influences in the south from Yemen, where fine filigree work and very delicate and detailed decoration is used. In the attic of the stores in Cairo you can still find these different forms of jewelry, that is, if you can recognize them and know what to ask for. For a woman in a nomadic society, the ability to carry her possessions with her on her body (in the form of jewelry, for example) is of great importance. In these societies, it is useful in general if possessions are portable or wearable – so that they can be easily packed when the campsite is broken down and the cattle are moved into other pastures. Jewelry and clothing such as veils, decorated with silver and amulets, indisputably belong to the woman who wears them every day. Only if she deems it necessary, can the pieces be sold or bartered. When these women die, the jewelry is almost always traded and melted down to serve as raw material for new jewelry and a new owner. It is because of this, that for dealers, collectors and researchers, it has become increasingly more difficult to come by
Wearable Heritage
Objects
good and authentic Bedouin silver. This also makes finding jewelry older than one or two generations very difficult. Adding to the problem, the exact age of the objects is very hard to determine. Silver hallmarks are often lacking on pieces from nomadic societies because the silver content could not always be proven. The only way to date the pieces is by the silver hallmarks, which have changed over time. However, even this can be problematic, since often these hallmarks were stamped on the silver much later than the year in which the piece was made. Silver jewelry was, for instance, sometimes hallmarked only when the pieces arrived in the market to be sold again. Today, silver jewelry is no longer bought by women in Egypt. Gold has replaced it as a sign of prosperity. And with this shift, the knowledge and techniques of the silversmith are disappearing as well. Apart from the hallmarks indicating the silver content and the date of a piece of jewelry, a silversmith often leaves his personal mark on the back, in order to indicate that it is his own design. Occasionally the silversmiths may even use a less valuable metal alloy of silver and copper to reduce the economic value of the silver. This is a means of protecting his creations against being melted down and re-forged into new jewelry items. These silver pieces are of diminished value to the Bedouin, but they do tell an interesting story about the tensions between the craft of a silversmith, the artistry of the creations and the monetary value of the jewelry.
114 In the last century there were some Egyptian silversmiths particularly famous for the quality of their work, for example Gabgab, who made jewelry in the Siwa oasis. Mohammed el Mekkawi was another famous silversmith. Asking about him in the souq in Cairo will lead you to “the Doctor�, a silversmith who worked with Mekkawi for years. He may still tell you about the characteristic hallmarks of the pieces and the details of their work. He has made a point of reminding me that when you find silver jewelry from this period, you should not lightly sell it to others, because the profession of silversmith has become rare and the work of famous silversmiths is in danger of being forever lost.
[left top] A silver hilal amulet worn in the North African region for fertility and protection in pregnancy and infancy. It is said that when a woman has given birth one of the small ends at the bottom will be broken off. This ritual shows variants in the region however [left] A bracelet showing decorative patterns; a light shimmer of copper through the silver is visible as well [right] A heavy silver bracelet from the south of Egypt (worn by the Nubian population and the Beja nomads of the desert) with beautiful decorative patterns and filigree work
Wearable Heritage
Objects
116 Some examples of Egypt’s typical silver jewelry This anklet [1] is an example of one of the most famous forms of Egyptian jewelry. It is quite characteristic for both people of the Nile Valley and desert dwellers. The objects are called khulkhal (plural: khalakhil) in Arabic, and are worn around the ankles of women. They are hollow casted metal pieces plated with silver. At each end they are decorated with two pommels, which in turn are decorated with five star-like roundels. The curve of the anklet is adorned with lines, geometric patterns and stars. Over the years the khalakhil have become a symbol of Egyptian jewelry. Women have pointed out to me that many of these anklets produce a sound when worn while walking. This is due to the fact that small stones, sand or other hard objects have been cast into the anklet. Whether or not it was designed that way remains unclear, but the effect is indeed stunning. Another example of Egyptian jewelry is the asawir, a bracelet [2] worn primarily by people from the Western Desert, in the oases of Siwa as well as in the other oases, such as Dahla. They can be found throughout the North African region and are often worn by Berber populations. They are plate silver bracelets, worn around the wrists on a daily basis. They are often worn to such an extant that decoration can no longer be distinguished. Most of the wear is concentrated around the edges of the bracelets. Some of the decorative patterns found in these bracelets are floral, showing abstract representations of palm leaves and dates, as symbols of one of the most important crops in the area in which women wear bracelets like this. Nubian bracelets [3], such as the one displayed here, are massive casted silver pieces and are very heavy to wear. The bands of silver are decorated with larger and smaller studs, arranged in sets of three across the surface. The silver bands are found in groups with different numbers of bands
soldered together at the ends. Here I have shown a bracelet with a set of four bands. This type of bracelet is the perfect example for explaining how bracelets and jewelry were used and sold by women in difficult times. One or two of the bands could be cut off and sold separately in exchange for money or goods, while the rest of the bracelet could be kept and worn with the reduced number of bands. These bracelets were worn by the Nubian population in Egypt, but also by other inhabitants of the Nile Valley and desert people of Egypt. The bracelets were often hallmarked when they were sold in the marketplaces, long after the jeweler that designed them forged and sold them to the first owner. The hallmarks can frequently be found on the decorative studs. Bracelets without hallmarks can also be found, like this example, which is still complete with four bands – no band has been sold in the lifespan of this particular piece of jewelry. Armlets [4], like the one here, are primarily worn by desert dwellers in the south of Egypt, for instance by the Ababda, with whom I traded for this armlet. However, the Rashaidah and Nubian populations in the South wear them as well. They are hollow bracelets of silver with elaborate decorative patterns of filigree, spikes and silver wire. The decorative patterns, like the conical spikes, are made of folded (and thus hollow) plated silver, soldered onto the surface of the bracelet. The bracelets are often closed around the studs with a lozenge shaped plate, decorated with a floral pattern. They are worn around the upper arm of a woman, just above the elbow. On this armlet you can clearly see the way the surface of the silver has become smooth and obtained a patina after years of wear. Often this kind of jewelry remains hidden from plain sight by the textiles women wear. Such jewelry can serve an amuletic purpose, represent a woman’s dowry or wealth and show her social status and identity. These armlets regularly show no hallmarks at all. They have been traded in the desert between nomads, not at marketplaces where the quality of the silver was tested and hallmarks were required for trade.
[3] [2]
[1]
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Wearable Heritage
Objects