GRAMMATICALLY HISTORIC By Alvee Ahmed
Grammatically Historic
By Alvee Ahmed
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Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5 Section 1: Parts of Speech………………………………………………………………………………………6 Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………….7 Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………..14 Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………17 Chapter 4……………………………………………………………………………………………………….20 Chapter 5………………………………………………………………………………………………………..22 Chapter 6………………………………………………………………………………………………………….24 Chapter 7………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26 Chapter 8…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28 Chapter 9……………………………………………………………………………………………………………29 Section 2: Phrases…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..33 Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34 Section 3: Clauses…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….36 Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37 Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38 Section 4: Sentences………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….42 Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..44 Chapter 3…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………46 Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51 Section 5: Paragraphs…………………………………………………………………………………………………………54
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Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..55 Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56 Chapter 3……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….59 Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………62 Section 6: Essays…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..63 Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………64 Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….65 Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69 Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….71 Section 7: Capitalization……………………………………………………………………………………………………….72 Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….73 Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….74 Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….76
Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..78 Chapter 5……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………80 Chapter 6……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………82 Section 8: Punctuations………………………………………………………………………………………………………….84 Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………85 Chapter 2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….88 Section 9: Commonly Confused Words……………………………………………………………………………………90 Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..91 Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………93 Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95 Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………97 Chapter 5…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….100 Ahmed 3
Quizzes w/ Answers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………101 Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….117 Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….127 About the Author……………………………………………………………………………………………………….129 Back Cover Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………………130
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Introduction Before we begin, I would like to start by asking you this: what is grammar? It is defined in the dictionary as “the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics.” What does that even mean? It’s basically the whole entire language that one is involved with. In this case, we will be studying English grammar. We will discuss the main parts of speech, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, essays, and errors that can come along the way. By doing so, we will be able to teach and practice the art of English grammar. By the end of this book, you, the reader, will become much more intellectual and masterful in the English language. So without further ado, let us search into this vastly intriguing language!
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Section 1: Parts of Speech
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Chapter 1: Nouns We always hear the word “noun”. So I ask you, oh fellow readers: what IS a noun? A noun is a part of speech that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can be classified into 5 different categories: common nouns, proper nouns, compound nouns, concrete nouns, and abstract nouns.
Common nouns: names a class of people, places, things, or ideas. Ex: serf, seppuku, agriculture, reign Proper nouns: gives the name or title of a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Ex: Genghis Khan, Feudal Japan, Buddha, Krishna Compound nouns: consists of words used together to form a single noun. Ex: newspapers, highways, swordsman Concrete nouns: refers to material things, to people, or to places. Ex: chariot, wheel, spear, boat Abstract nouns: names ideas, quality, emotions, or attitudes. Ex: ambition, expedition, intelligence
Noun Identifiers The rule for using nouns is that there are different noun identifiers that help to structure a sentence. To start, let’s start with noun endings. Noun endings are suffixes that are added at the end of a word to help structure a noun to the sentence’s benefit. Here are the noun endings:
-ness: attached to adjectives and participles, forming abstract nouns. Ex: boldness -tion: attached to verbs to create abstract nouns. Ex: revolution -ism: attached to verbs to create abstract nouns. Ex: Hinduism -ist: attaches to verbs (usually ending in –ize, though not always) to create a noun, particularly to name someone involved with the action of the verb. Ex: artist -ure: attached to verbs to create abstract nouns. Ex: legislature -tude: attached to form abstract nouns. Ex: latitude -ment: attached normally to verbs to create concrete nouns. Ex: enlightenment -ance: attached to adjectives or verbs to create nouns. Ex: defiance -ence: attaches to usually –ent adjectives to form nouns. Ex: residence -ity: attached to create abstract nouns defining state or condition. Ex: Latinity -ster: attached to create nouns that specify occupation. Ex: mobster -ory: attached to verbs to create nouns indicating places or effects. Ex: contributory
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-eer: attached at the end to form nouns to indicate people that are specified to do something. Ex: pioneer -hood: attaches to another noun to create nouns that indicate a class of people, places, things, or ideas. Ex: brotherhood
Nouns usually follow noun markers. Noun markers are indicative words that lead up to the use of the noun. Here are some examples of noun markers:
a all an both each every her his my our several some that their these this those one two three
…and there are many others. Notice how some of them are in bold. These bolded words are pronouns that could act as noun markers, only when they act as adjectives. Here’s two different examples of the use of the same word:
Some art was found in the Lascaux cave of the hunting and gathering peoples. (“Some” acts as an adjective, so it is a noun marker.) Some were also found in other areas of Europe and Asia. (“Some” acts as a noun itself, and it can’t be indicating to itself, so thus, it is not a noun marker.)
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To indicate whether there is one particular object or if there is multiple objects of the same type, we use the plural form of a noun. The plural form of a noun is usually with an “s” at the end to show there are many, rather than one.
chariot→chariots serf→serfs samurai→samurais
This only works, however, if it is not an irregular noun. Examples of irregular nouns are fish, sheep, and man. With both “fish” and “sheep”, you do not change the words when they become multiple. However, with “man”, instead of changing it to “mans”, which is grammatically incorrect, you change it to “men”. Then, there comes the possessive form, which is used to show that an object belongs to someone or something else. In order to use this form, you must attach (‘s) at the end of the noun. Here are some examples:
samurai’s sword king’s chariot hunter’s spear
If the noun that owns the object is plural, then you must use (s’) at the end instead. For example:
samurais’ swords civilians’ nation hunters’ spears
Nouns can also follow a preposition. Since we are focusing on the noun aspect of this portion, we will discuss prepositions later into the section. These are some common prepositions: Aboard About Above According to Across Across from After Against Along Alongside Alongside of Along with Amid Among Apart from
In behalf of Including In front of In place of In regard to Inside Inside of In spite of Instead of Into Like Near Near to Notwithstanding Of Ahmed 9
Around As As far as Aside from At Away from Back of Because of Before Behind Below Beneath Beside Between Beyond But (except) By By means of Concerning Despite Down Down from Except Except for Excluding For From From among From between From under In In addition to
Off On On account of On behalf of Onto On top of Opposite Out Out of Outside Outside of Over Over to Owing to Past Prior to To Toward Under Underneath Until Unto Up Upon Up to Versus Via With Within Without
Example: The French and Indian War came before the American Revolution occurred. *Note*: Sometimes some of the prepositions can be used as adverbs. 
Ex: The knight tragically fell down.
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Functions Nouns can be used in many different ways. In this part of Chapter 1, we will see these different functions of the noun. To start off, we will start with the subject. The subject of the sentence usually comes before the verb does, and it is the main object in the sentence.
The chariots rolled quickly on the streets of Rome. The samurai realized his defeat in battle, so rather than letting himself get killed, he pulled his sword swiftly from his sheath and stabbed himself in the chest.
We then move on to the direct object. The direct object comes after the verb and it answers what or whom.
The hunters gathered tremendously larger mammals for game. (Gathered what?) The Parliament of Britain ordered the colonists to pay highly with taxes in order to fund the sufficient needs after the major hit they took from the war against France. (Ordered whom?)
Then, there’s something called the indirect object. The indirect object answers to who or to whom.
The hunters gathered vastly larger mammals for game to give to their family. The slaves needed to buy their freedom from their owners, and to do that, the slaves had to work diligently for at least two years.
Now comes the adverbial object. The adverbial object comes after the verb and answers when.
The Redcoats came late into the night to arrest the rebellious. Genghis Khan managed to expand the Mongol Empire very quickly throughout most of the continent of Asia and this achievement made him one of the very most wellknown leaders to ever have lived.
Another function to discuss is the object of preposition. The object of preposition follows a preposition.
Ancient civilization went mostly towards a good transition due to the effects of agriculture upon society. The colonists went through a drastic change in mindset because of how poorly they were treated by the Parliament of Britain; the higher taxes led to the quelling of even more enragement.
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Then comes the subject complement, which is a function that follows a linking verb.
The Parliament was remarkably known to be the government of the British and the colonists. The ancient Greeks were the creator of the idea of democracy; to this day, the U.S and other countries highly maintain this idea.
The object complement follows a direct object and renames it.
The citizens mostly voted Mr. Barack Obama president because of his promising words. The mandate of heaven made an individual king of ancient China; the mandate of heaven was a rule that religiously stated that the heavens chose someone to rule over China.
Then, there are appositives. The appositives rename nouns, which are separated by commas.
Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire, is remarkably considered one of the greatest rulers of history. Octavius Cesar, adopted son of Julius Cesar, took over the Roman Empire after Cesar was assassinated in Ides of March, and amazingly led Romans to be one of the greatest during the time period.
Adjectival is exactly what it sounds like: an adjective that describes the noun following it.
Many middle classed men in feudal times worked furiously at an iron workshop. The ancient Romans created not-so-carbuncle structures, with the idea of the arches, and to this day, they are still intact and looking just as magnificently as they were before.
We can also address nouns in a direct manner, usually in the first or second person point of view. Here’s some examples:
Mr. Jimenez, can you tell us some more about how the Native Americans got their land taken away atrociously? Sam, did you happen to do the homework about researching of what exactly is going on in the Middle East, along with the ISIS situation, or did you leave it to the last minute again?
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Following that, we go forward to the object of the gerund. The object of the gerund is the noun that follows the gerund. For those of you who do not know, a gerund is basically a noun formed from a verb.
Winning the war against Britain was greatly necessary for America’s freedom. Losing control over the civilians of the country can lead to seditious acts, riots, and maybe even the abdication of the throne, so that a new ruler who is deemed to be “better” can come along, historically speaking.
In relation to that, there is the object of the participle, a noun that follows a participle. The participle acts as an adjective, rather than its original intention of being a verb.
After the fighting spree at Boston, now known as the Boston Massacre, the colonists felt highly riveting, and wanted to be even more seditious up against the British Parliament. The Germanic and Celtic people superstitiously thought that wells were very holy; henceforth, the idea of a wishing well came to be, coming from European folklore.
Finally, the object of the infinitive is the last noun function, and it’s when the noun follows an infinitive. The infinitive is just “to + verb”.
Usain Bolt really wanted to win the 100 meter sprint at the 2008 Olympics. John McCain really did not want to lose the Presidential Election to Barack Obama in 2008 and was very committed towards his campaign.
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Chapter 2: Pronouns Pronouns are essential within our sentences in order to be short and pithy with wordplay, rather than being long, loquacious, etc. So what do pronouns function as? Pronouns take the place of nouns that have established. There are six different types of pronouns that are found within the English language. They are: personal, relative, interrogative, reflexive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns. Throughout this chapter, we will go piece by piece about each of those types of pronouns.
Personal Pronouns The first type of pronouns to be discussed are the personal pronouns. Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a person/people. Here is a chart of listing those pronouns: Nominative I/we
Objective Me/us
Possessive My, mine, our, ours
You/you
You/you
Your, yours, your, yours
He, she, it, one/they
Him, her, it, one/them
His, her, hers, its, one’s, their, theirs
Here are some examples of the use of personal pronouns:
I must say, Benjamin Franklin was a historic man, with his scientific ingeniousness and political involvement simultaneously working together. I believe he should have ran for the American president role; if I was him, I would be doing so because he was a tremendously smart man, full of wits.
Relative Pronouns The second types of pronouns to be discussed are the relative pronouns. Relative pronouns link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. Here are examples of relative pronouns: Nominative Who That
Objective Whom That Those/this
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Possessive Whose Of that
Here are some examples of the use of relative pronouns:
Thomas Jefferson was a highly important historical figure in the United States of America, who wrote the Declaration of Independence. This was one of the greatest moments of America because that officially led to the declaration of war against the British in order to take control of the land that they lived upon.
Interrogative Pronouns The third types of pronouns to discuss are the interrogative pronouns. Interrogative pronouns are the pronouns that are used to ask questions. Examples of these pronouns are who, which, what, whatever, whoever. Here are some examples of the use of relative pronouns:
Really, what are those? Whoever ran the Muslim Caliphate in 600 AD must have been really intelligent and strong to take control of such a big, and expansive empire.
Reflexive Pronouns The fourth types of pronouns that are to be discussed are the reflexive pronouns, which refers back to the subject of the clause of sentence or emphasizes its antecedent. Simply put, it’s the personal pronouns with the suffix –self or –selves attached to it (depending on whether it’s singular or plural). Here are some usage of the reflexive pronouns:
Leonidas himself lead the 300 Spartan warriors against the Persians gracefully. The English Parliament could not handle the colonists that were under their reign; thus, how could anyone expect them to be able to handle themselves after the American Revolution, where it was clearly proven that their authority is weak?
Demonstrative Pronouns The fifth kind of pronouns that we’re looking at are the demonstrative pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns points out and identifies objects. Examples of demonstrative pronouns would be this, that, these, and those. Here are some examples of the usage of demonstrative pronouns in a sentence:
Those who hunted for animals and migrated from place to place were mostly known as the nomadic people. That was not much of a great lifestyle, compared to the peoples that settled down and planted crops; in fact, agricultural societies were the ones that prevailed and became cities.
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Indefinite Pronouns The final pronouns that we will discuss are indefinite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns refers to an identifiable but not specific thing or person and conveys the idea of all, none, or some. Here are a list of words that are indefinite pronouns: All Another Anybody Anyone Anything Both Each Either Everybody Everyone Everything Everywhere Few
Many Much Neither Nobody None No one Nothing Other Several Somebody Someone Such
Here are some examples of the usage of the pronouns within the sentences:  
Nobody expected anyone to fly towards the Twin Tower and cause 9/11 to occur, especially not that dramatically. There was chaos everywhere; few managed to survive the attack, and almost everyone at that location were shockingly looking at the scene for a long time.
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Chapter 3: Verbs Like both the nouns and the pronouns, the verbs play a key role because verbs show the time, action, and state of being of the subject within the sentence. Verbs show when things occur, as in the past, present, or future. In order to do so, it has endings that indicate the time: “-s”, “-ed”, and “-ing”. Here’s a chart to help you further understand the usage of these endings: -s Governs Rules Explores
-ed Voyaged Conquered Baptized
-ing Farming Colonizing Battling
Tenses In order to show and indicate time, we have tenses, which come in various different forms to show specific time. Here are the 11 different tenses, along with examples with each one of them: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Simple past (Ex: voyaged, conquered, baptized) Past (Ex: colonized, farmed, battled) Past perfect (Ex: had voyaged, had conquered, had baptized) Past progressive (Ex: was farming, was colonizing, was battling) Simple present (Ex: He governs, she rules, they explore) Present (Ex: They voyage, he conquers, he baptizes) Present perfect (Ex: has voyaged, has conquered, has baptized) Present progressive (Ex: They are colonizing, she is ruling, he is baptizing) Present perfect progressive (Ex: They have been governing, she has been farming, he has been exploring) 10. Future (Ex: He will govern, she will farm, they will battle) 11. Future perfect (Ex: He will have governed, she will have farmed, they will have battled)
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Forms Verbs have many different forms; however, there are three particular verbs that we must look out for and their forms, because they are the basis of the tenses. We are now going to look into the forms of “to be”, “to do”, and “to have”.
Forms of “to be”: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs when used as main verbs, they are always linking verbstrue linking verbs= all forms of be, become, and seem). Forms of “to do”: do, does, did, done, doing (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs). Forms of “to have”: have had, has, having (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs).
Types of Verbs There are at least eleven types of verbs in the English language. Here’s as it follows:
Auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) Linking verbs (verbs that do not describe action, but connect the subject of a sentence to other parts of the sentence-usually the predicate) Lexical verbs(main verbs) Dynamic verbs(indicate action) Stative verbs (describe a condition) Finitive verbs (indicate tense) Nonfinitive verbs (infinitives or participles) Regular verbs (weak verbs) Irregular (strong verbs) Transitive (verbs followed by a direct object) Intransitive verbs (verbs that do not take direct objects)
Voice It is always important to keep in mind about the voice of the verbs. The voice is the form of the verb that indicates how it relates or interacts with the action. The English language has two main voices: active and passive voices.
Active: The colonists freed the USA from the British Parliament’s tightly held grasp. Passive: The USA was freed from the British Parliament’s tightly held grasp by the colonists.
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Verbals Another final thing to keep in mind when working with verbs are the verbals. These are the verb forms that are not used as verbs, but rather, as something else, like a noun or an adjective. Here are the three main verbals:
Gerund: word ending in “-ing” used as a noun. o The conquering of the colonies was done by mainly France, Spain, and British. o Napoleon’s reigning was from 1804-1814, and again in 1815. Participle: word ending in “-ing” or “-ed” used as an adjective. o The reigning government over the thirteen colonies was the British Parliament. o The conquered land was no longer under the hands of the Native American tribes. Infinitive: verb preceded by the word “to” (to go, to jump) used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. o Genghis Khan liked to reign over almost all of Asia. o Ancient peoples had spears to hunt animals with.
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Chapter 4: Adjectives While nouns and verbs are the basic necessities to a sentence, in order to get more into depth about something/someone, you must have the ability to use adjectives in your sentence. Adjectives modify, describe, limit, and identify nouns and pronouns.
Kinds of Adjectives There are three kinds of adjectives: demonstrative, common, and proper adjectives.
Demonstrative: help to indicate a noun while being next to or near the noun in the sentence. o Ex: This samurai I read about the other day valiantly stood tall back in ancient feudal Japan. o Ex: Those colonists bravely went up against the Parliament of England. o Ex: These artifacts were shockingly from Africa. Common: describes noun in a simple, general way. o Ex: The colonists and British quickly fired dangerous shots at each other once the official Revolutionary War started. o Ex: The samurai put the sharply pointed into his sheath. o Ex: The ancient Roman Empire fell once Emperor Romulus got barbarically overthrown by Odoacer. Proper: describes noun in a specific category, usually derived from a proper noun. o Ex: Samurais were mostly Japanese. o Ex: Rarely were they ever Chinese or any other Asian ethnic group for that matter. o Ex: Come to think of it, I think the Japanese were different, especially because of their samurai warriors.
Endings Sometimes, in order to form an adjective, you must add a suffix at the end of the word; however, it can’t just be any suffix that you would find on the Internet or from somewhere else. Here are the specific endings that you can use to make an adjective:
-ous: added at the end to form adjective to mean “full of a quality.” Ex: harmonious—full of harmony -al: added at the end to form adjective to mean “the general sense of what kind or type”. Ex: political—part of politics -y: added at the end to form adjective to mean “incline towards something”. Ex: -ive: a suffix of adjectives showing tendency. Ex: destructive—tendency to destroy Ahmed 20
Using those suffixes, you can convert words from other parts of speech to turn them into adjectives. Simply just remember to add the suffixes listed above onto the word correctly and voila! You have yourself an adjective! Here’s some demonstrations below:
history (n) → historical (adj) harmony (n) → harmonious (adj) fault (n) → faulty (adj)
Articles A key type of adjectives that help in the basic functions of a sentence is known as articles. An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a noun. In the English language, there are only two articles: “a” and “the”. Here’s examples on the use of these two articles:
The colonists went about freely and officially became the United States after the Revolutionary War ended. A man by the name of Aristotle once said, “The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet.”
Comparatives/Superlatives Throughout the section of adjectives, sometimes a question comes into mind, something along the lines of, “What if something is better or worse than something, or even the most superior out of all the things?” Ironically enough, there is your answer. The words better and worse fall under the category of being a comparative because it can only compare two things. It is usually followed by “than”. Here’s an example:
President Barack Obama was better than President Bush, mostly because of what Bush said and did. The colonists felt much better being under a republic/democracy that suffering miserably under a monarchy such as the British Parliament.
On the other hand, superlative adjectives are adjectives that show comparison of three or more things. Unlike the comparative, there is no need for “than” to follow the word. Here’s a usage of a superlative:
Out of President George Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, Barack Obama was the greatest president.
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Chapter 5: Adverbs Now that we’ve gone over the basics of what’s necessary for a sentence, plus the adjectives, we now move onto adverbs, something that will help with further making higher standard sentences. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Endings As you can see, adverbs can be similar to adjectives in many ways. Much like adjectives, adverbs also have suffixes that can be used to change words. Here are the three adverb suffixes:
-ly: suffix that forms adverbs from adjectives. Ex: politically -wards: suffix that shows temporal direction. Ex: southwards -wise: suffix that forms adverbs denoting manner. Ex: clockwise
Much like the adverbs, you can use the suffixes and attach them so that they will form adverbs; in this case however, you must attach them to either an adjective or an adverb. Here are examples:
political (adj) → politically (adv) after (adj) → afterwards (adv) other (adj) → otherwise (adv)
Types Adverbs can be classified into five types of adverb categories: Manner, Frequency, Degree, Place, and Time.
Manner: describes how the action was answered. o For their technology, the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids swiftly. o England responded to the Boston Tea Party quickly by blocking out Massachusetts ports and making the colonist pay for the tea. Time: describes when. o Shortly after the Boston Massacre, tensions between the Parliament and the colonists went further. o Retaliation for the 9-11 attacks on the World Trade Center came immediately. Frequency: describes how often. o The United States is constantly getting into conflicts in the Middle East. o During crucifixion, often the person would be left hanging and would be dead in four to five days.
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Degree: describes how good/bad it is o World War II ended up going badly for Hitler because he ended up suiciding after realizing his defeat; both he and his wife drank poison. o D-Day landing day in France went exceptionally well. Place: describes where. o Many soldiers in the Persian army were not willingly there, but brought as forced soldiers. o Slaves started going underground; they were running away from their owners and going to the North in order to gain freedom.
Intensifiers Sometimes when you speak or write, you must put emphasis on your words, isn’t that right? That’s the function of intensifiers: words which are used to add force to the meaning of verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Here are some ways you can use intensifiers:
King Henry the 8th strongly disagreed with the idea of just having one wife. The French and Indian War was a quite disastrous war. The Crusaders wanted to take over Jerusalem so badly.
Comparatives/Superlatives Once again, much like adjectives, adverbs have their comparatives and superlatives. It’s practically the same thing for both, except…with adverbs. Here are some examples:
With the invention of the wheel, transportation came more quickly than ever. With the invention of airplanes and automobiles, however, people and things went most quickly.
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Chapter 6: Conjunctions Sometimes sentences can end up pretty long, with having a list and what not. So in that case, what could we do to fix that problem? Easy and simple: use conjunctions. Conjunctions are used either when there is a list of objects or people, or it is used simply to connect two independent clauses. Here are three types of conjunctions:
Coordinating: a conjunction that is placed in between clauses. Think FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, & so. o Ex: The Loyalist didn't like the newly independent United States, so many of them went back to England. o Ex: I do not think it is justified for any of the Muslims to be segregated, persecuted, or discriminated horrendously, yet many of these ignorant people believe that all Muslims are alike thanks to 9/11, al-Qaeda, and ISIS, when in reality, those people in those despicable organizations are nothing more than “Muslim” extremists that put on a show and use the Islam religion as a front. Correlative: conjunctions that connect two things that are grammatically equal. Examples are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, whether/or, as/so. o Ex: Neither France nor the United Kingdom wanted to lose the French and Indian War, so they fought valiantly. o Ex: By the time of Cornwallis’s defeat in Yorktown in the American Revolution, both the colonists and the British Parliament felt that it was highly necessary to come to an agreement; thus the war stopped getting funded by the British, and at the end, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed on both parts. Subordinate: a secondary form of conjunctions that deal with connecting two unequal grammatical parts. Examples are after, though as, as if, as long as, as thought, because, before, if, in order that, provided that, since, so, so that, that, though, till, unless, when, where, whereas, & while. o Ex: George Washington gladly accepted to be president of the U.S as long as they didn't call him King George. o Ex: The colonists started to revolt and go against the British Parliament because of the heavily taxation that was bestowed upon them; it was as if the colonists were at fault for the bad economic decisions coming from the Parliament, and the Parliament always abused their power to put higher and higher taxes.
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Surprising as it may be, relative pronouns (as mentioned in Chapter 3, look further on that chapter if you need to) also happen to play a key role in connecting two clauses, much like the conjunctions. That’s where the similarities end, however. As you already probably know, relative pronouns take on the place of the noun in order to become the subject or the object, depending upon circumstances. While conjunctions merely function as connectors of two clauses, the relative pronouns do that same thing (if possible) and meanwhile, retain their function in being the noun subject or object. Examples are who (refers to people), which (refers to nonliving object or animals), & that (may refer to animals or nonliving objects). Here are two examples of its usage:
Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador, who mercilessly conquered the Inca Empire. A well-known writing that were ratified slowly by 1781 are the Articles of Confederations, which basically established a government to reign over the people, yet at the same time, limiting their power enough so that civilians and states have a say on the decision.
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Chapter 7: Prepositions Whether if it is between the sentences or if it is towards the end of the sentences, it is always essential to have the preposition in mind. The preposition links nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other parts of the sentence. One thing to keep in mind is that prepositions are never followed by verbs. Here is a list of some prepositions you can use: Aboard But (except) On About By On account of Above By means of concerning On behalf of According to Despite Onto Across Down On top of Across from Down from Opposite After Except Out Against Excluding for Out of Along For Outside Alongside From Outside of Alongside of From among Over Along with From between Over to Amid From under Owing to Among In Past Apart from In addition to Prior to Around In behalf of To As Including Toward As far as In front of Under Aside from In place of Underneath At In regard to Until Away Inside Unto From Inside of Up Back of In spite of Upon Because of Instead of Up to Before Into Versus Behind Like With Below Near Within Beneath Near to Without Beside Notwithstanding Between Of Beyond Off While that may seem like a numerous amount to you, there’s several more to where that came from: http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/list-of-prepositions.html. Ahmed 26
Here are examples on the usage of prepositions:
According to historians, the American Revolution was known to be caused because of the fact that the colonists were enraged of getting taxed heavily; before the French and Indian War (known as the Seven Years’ War), they were getting along well with the British Parliament, but after the taxing, the colonists were not at all happy with their disposition, leading to what we know as the American Revolution.
The French and Indian War was a war that stretched from Europe, across the Atlantic Ocean, to North America; it was a war for domination of North America between the French and the English empires, the French being alongside most Native American tribes, thus mostly controlling North America, while the British had a much stronger navy, which led to their win. Instead of a colonist being able to go across the Appalachian Mountain after the 7 Years’ War, on behalf of the king, the British Parliament prohibited them from going across the mountains due to the atrociously large number of Indian there were on the other side.
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Chapter 8: Interjections The final part of speech that remains is interjections. Interjections, while rarely ever seen or used, are words or phrases that show a sudden emotion. Here is a list of interjections in alphabetical order: A B C D E F G
Aha, ahem, ahh, ahoy, alas, arg, aww Bam, bingo, blah, boo, bravo, brr Cheers, congratulations Dang, drat, darn, duh Eek, ehh, encore, eureka Fiddlesticks Gadzooks, gee, gee whiz, golly, goodbye, goodness, good grief, gosh Ha-ha, hallelujah, hello, hey, hmm, holy buckets, holy cow, holy smokes, hot dog, huh, humph, hurray Oh, oh dear, oh my, oh well, oops, ouch, ow Phew, phooey, pooh, pow Rats Shh, shoo Thanks, there, tut-tut Uh-huh, uh-oh, ugh Wahoo, well, whoa, whoops, wow Yeah, yes, yikes, yippee, yo, yuck
H
O P R S T U W Y
Some usage of interjections are shown here in these examples:
Ugh, I just hate rats because they make me feel sickly…eek…rats spread the bubonic plague, which makes it even worse…darn, these rats! Dang, these colonists were cold enough to even selfishly steal the land from the Native Americans…aww that doesn’t sound too good. Yikes, it looks like the Africans back in the day really had a lot to struggle with, especially with the amount of racism and slavery they had weighing upon their shoulders…darn.
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Chapter 9: Key Associated Terms to Know For Parts of Speech Now that we have gone over every parts of speech there is to know, let’s go over some of the important terms that are related to some of those parts of speech.
Antecedents What are antecedents? Antecedents are the nouns or clauses that are replaced by the pronouns that come after it. Here is an example:
Julius Caesar was tremendously shocked when he found out that Brutus was also involved in his assassination on Ides of March. (In this case, the antecedent is Julius Caesar because “he” replaces his name.)
Complements When you look at the subtitle for this section, some of you might wonder, “What does telling a person that he or she looks good have to do with anything?” Don’t get it confused. That is a compliment, spelled with an “i”. A complement is a word or group of words that complete the independent clause and have to do with the subject or object of the sentence. Here is an example:
The colonies gained true independence after the Battle of Yorktown, where it was clearly shown that General Cornwallis of the British was at his limits and thus laid the guns down and surrendered. (As shown clearly here, “independence” is the complement to the colonies because it is both related to the subject and it also finishes the independent clause.)
Objects What are objects? Now don’t get me wrong here, this isn’t the rhetorical question that’s equivalent to, “WHAT ARE THOSE?!?!?!?” By objects, I mean it grammatically. Objects are the nouns or noun phrases which the verb or preposition is directed towards.
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There are two main types of objects: direct and indirect. Direct objects are basically the nouns or noun phrases in which the action (verb) is directed upon. For example:
The colonists mercilessly kicked native people out of their own land.
Indirect objects, on the other hand, are objects that do not have the verb directly on them; rather, a preposition may be considered “enacted” upon them, and the indirect object is usually in between the verb and the actual direct object. For example:
The Congress gave Thomas Jefferson the right to spectacularly write the Declaration of Independence.
Modifiers We come down to the question about what modifiers are. A modifier is something that either adds more sense or restricts the noun; usually it either uses an adjective or another noun. Here’s an example:
The magnificent colonists were able to get through without being funded by the Parliament, showing how well organized and neatly-put their government was.
Transitions Transitions…we hear them everywhere…but what are they? Transitions are words that help to move on to the next subject in a smooth fashion. Here is a list of words that are used to transition to the next subject: Relationship
Possible Words and Phrases
To add ideas
beyond that besides moreover furthermore finally
in addition likewise also next
To illustrate/demonstrate
for example even though that is specifically a case in point
in other words for instance to illustrate as proof
To yield a point
granted of course
since this is so although true
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conversely however nevertheless
on the contrary on the other hand while this may be true
To emphasize a point
above all more important surely
indeed in fact without a doubt
To compare
at the same time in the same way
likewise similarly
To show order
first second in the second place finally
in conclusion last next
To repeat or restate
in other words that is to say
in short
To summarize
for these reasons in conclusion
all in all overall
To show relationships in space
close by nearby next to
in front of behind
To show relationships in time
before afterward formerly later meanwhile next
presently previously subsequently ultimately soon after
To show contrast
Visit www.duplinschools.net to view where this chart came from.
Here’s an example on how to use transitions:
First, there was a vigorously fought war, known as the Seven Years’ War. Second, there came the victory, but that came at a high price. Third, the colonists started to have to pay high taxes to pay funds. Finally came a sense of rebellion, leading to the stages of American Revolution.
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Expletives What are expletives? Expletives are sentences that start off with here, there, or it, followed by a corresponding verb form of “to be”. Here is an example:
There was an uproar in the 1920s on poetry, due to the rising Great Depression that hit almost everywhere. It was one of the worst times, if not the worst time, of mostly everyone’s lives.
Agreements With sentences, one cannot just simply arrange the words together. There are certain rules they have to follow, which are the agreements of grammar. There are two agreements to be maintained. Firstly, there is the common one that mostly everyone has heard of—the subject/verb agreement. The subject/verb agreement is the idea that singular subjects correspond to singular verbs. An example is shown here:
ISIS members terrorize people maliciously without any reason. The ISIS member terrorizes those that practically cannot defend themselves.
The noun-pronoun agreement is where singular antecedents must have singular pronouns, while plural antecedents must have plural pronouns. This is shown as follows:
If one were to commit seppuku in battle, then he or she would be shown to have valiantly served feudal Japan far more than someone who gets killed in battle. If individuals were to commit seppuku in battle, then they would be shown to have valiantly served feudal Japan far more than someone who gets killed in battle.
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Section 2: Phrases
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Chapter 1: What Are Phrases? We all throw around the term “phrase” all the time: “what does this phrase mean”, or “phrase these words in a different way.” But what are phrases really? Phrases are groups of words that function as a part of speech. There are three different types of phrases:
Prepositional phrases Appositive phrases Verbal phrases
In this chapter, we will discuss into depth about these three phrases and how to use them in a sentence.
Prepositional Phrases One of the most commonly used phrases, if not THE most commonly used phrase, is the prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases are a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. It is used as an adjective or an adverb.
American society from the enactment of the first Treaty of Paris has changed drastically. Slavery was such an immensely critical controversy in the 1800s that there had to be a Civil War within the supposed “United” States of America at that time; thus, it led to the abolition of slavery under Abraham Lincoln’s term.
Appositive Phrases Another phrase to look at is the appositive phrase. The appositive phrase is a group of words that include all the words or phrases that modify an appositive. Recall in the Nouns section of the book where they discuss appositives: appositives are words that merely renames the noun, usually separated by a comma. Here are two examples of the use of the appositive phrases:
Genghis Khan, the founder and leader of the Mongol Empire, has been known to diversely conquer many lands across the Asia continent. The Boston Tea Party, the event where many colonists raided merchant ships and threw away crates of tea, was such a horrifying event that the Parliament angrily enacted the Coercive Acts, closing down the ports until the damage was paid off.
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Verbal Phrases The last type of phrases to discuss are verbal phrases, which are a group of words that begin with a verbal and it usually ends with a noun. Here are the three verbals:
Gerund: words ending in “-ing” that are used as a noun o The key to war was the fighting of one another gruesomely. o The act of suiciding during battle against another samurai, seppuku, while saddening to the 21st century, it was regularly seen and nothing to be done about it. Participle: word ending in “-ing” or “-ed” used as an adjective o The thirteen original colonies were fully challenging to Great Britain for their valuable freedom. o The British Parliament were discriminating towards the colonists due to them being overseas, and thus, they thought they had every right to tax them higher than that of an Englishman. Infinitive: verb preceded by the word “to” to be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs o The thirteen colonies had to go to war, if they really wanted England to stop taxing them. o To go into war with Britain sounded extremely crazy at that time, thinking they were really hopeless; as we can see now, we are now our very own country.
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Section 3: Clauses
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Chapter 1: Independent Clauses To form an actual sentence, what we require is an independent clause. An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. It is also known as a simple sentence pattern.  
Ex: Barack Obama is the extremely handsome president at the moment. Ex: Before, George W. Bush was the president of the United States of America.
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Chapter 2: Subordinate Clauses Subordinate clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and must begin with a subordinate conjunction. It is also known as dependent. While subordinate clauses aren’t necessarily required, they help to make the sentence look better. There are seven different kinds of subordinate clauses: noun clause, adjective clause, adverb clause, essential clause, nonessential clause, relative clause, and elliptical clause.
Noun Clauses What are noun clauses? Noun clauses are used as the noun in a sentence and can function as a subject, a predicate noun, a direct object, an object of a preposition, an indirect object, or an appositive.
Where the war was held deeply impacted the outcome of the American Revolution. Whoever fired first at Lexington and Concord started the whole American Revolution.
Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses are used to modify a noun in an independent clause. Some adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns:
The vigorously fought battle at Lexington and Concord is where the American Revolution began. What was known as New Amsterdam before, New York City is very industrial and is a city full of commerce; it was called New Amsterdam due to the Dutch living there.
Others begin with relative pronouns:
ISIS is a radical Islamic group who are savagely running a rampage in the already troubling Middle East. Thomas Jefferson was someone who wanted to change the idea of the Sedition Act, mainly due to the fact that it seemed highly unconstitutional and breaks the 1st amendment.
NOTE: The relative pronoun has two functions: to introduce the clause and also as a sentencepart within the clause.
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Adverb Clauses Then there is the adverb clause. The adverb clause was used to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in an independent clause, introduced by a subordinating conjunction and used to indicate time, place, cause, purpose, result, condition, and/or concession. Modifying verbs:
Unfortunately, many samurais died and were given a grave where few people could notice. When the shots were fired, that was when the Revolutionary War officially started.
Modifying adjectives:
John Adams considerably messed up twice as much as from before, in terms of the right to speak freely; he would put those who would not feel good about the government and put them to jail, even if they were not conspiring. Hitler always passionately spoke like he was right about what he was doing with his persecution law.
Modifying adverbs:
Genghis Khan worked harder than most other rulers would have worked in order to spread his empire thoroughly across the Asia continent. The Americans had their government easier than the French once they had dominantly proved to those reigning above them that they can be free.
Relative Clauses Relative clauses are dependent clauses that begin with a relative pronoun.
The colonists who were seditious against the Parliament were mostly fought with the Redcoats that were ordered in from the British. The woman who was most prominent in the story of the Underground Railroad is Harriet Tubman, because she courageously went back and forth to free slaves that wanted to go to the North.
Elliptical Clauses Elliptical clauses are a form of adverb clauses in which part of the clause is omitted.
When reading, you should make sure to learn more on the ancient civilizations thoroughly; this will help to get a basis as to where everything started. When shot, there would be female nurses to help them out frequently. Ahmed 39
Essential Clauses As given in the name of the clause, essential clauses are ESSENTIAL (necessary) to the meaning of the sentence. Here are some examples:
The system that was used most frequently during medieval times to show who had wealth and who had a high position was known as feudalism. The system that is highly suited for the U.S in current times is capitalism; currently, U.S ranks number 1 when it comes down to GDP growth and economy.
Nonessential Clauses Obviously the contrary to essential clauses, nonessential clauses are clauses that are not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Here are examples of its use: Taxes, which the colonists rebelliously refused to pay, were set by the Parliament at the time the colonies were under the British. The ancient empires, which were the Olmecs, the Aryans, the Mesopotamians, and the Egyptians, were the first to properly build what we now call cities, due to the large population after settling down and learning agricultural skills.
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Section 4: Sentences
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Chapter 1: Sentence Parts Obviously as you know, there are multiple parts to a sentence, which we would call sentence parts. There are two sentence parts of the English language and they are:
Subject: What or whom the sentence is about Predicate: Tells about what is going on with the subject
Subject For the subject, there are three main types: complete, simple, and compound. In the complete subject, there are main words in a subject, along with any modifiers that could describe the subjects. Here are some examples:
The 44th president of the United States of America, Barack Obama, gladly obliged in meeting with Vladmir Putin in order to discuss the topic of ISIS and their criminal ways. The “great” Industrial Revolution was not that great for many of the poorly-put people, as well as the people in the middle-class, for there was much high labor and thus, people started to stress further and further; the wages were very low, and conditions at the factories were very bad. A simple subject is the main word or words in a subject. It does not include any of the modifiers that might describe the subject. Here are examples of its use: The president of the United States was tasked immensely with issues with not just America, but also the issues occurring around the world, due to the fact that America is part of the United Nations and for the safety of America as well. Saddam Hussein was executed for crimes against humanity; he had brutally killed 148 Iraqi Shi’ites in Dujail in 1982.
A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects that share a verb or verb phrase. These subjects are joined by a conjunction such as and, or, or nor. Modifiers, in this case, would not be included in the compound subjects. Here are some examples:
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were highly competitive against each other in the 2nd presidential elections; John Adams won by four electoral votes. George Washington and John Adams were greatly known as the 1st president and vice president, respectively, of the United States of America.
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Predicate The predicate goes hand in hand with the subject, and much like the subject, there are three main types of predicate, having appeared before in the types of subject as well: complete, simple, and compound. A complete predicate includes the verb or verb phrase and all the words that give more information about it. Here are some examples:
Barack Obama, sadly, will not run for re-election in 2016 due to the fact that presidents can only have two terms. Donald Trump, widely known for his businesses and ventures and how much money he has, is running for president because he thinks that Mexicans are the main problems for immigration.
A simple predicate is only a verb or verb phrase, and it does not contain anything else. Here are some examples on identifying the simple predicate:
Genghis Khan was known mainly for his conquests throughout Asia. The Sons of Liberty were people that openly protested against the Parliament, especially due to the unfair tariffs and taxes that were put upon the colonists.
A compound predicate is much like the compound subject, except it’s for verbs. Basically, a compound predicate is two or more verbs or verb phrases that share the same subject and are joined by a conjunction. Here are examples on how to use it: George Washington was a Founding Father of the United States and was the 1st President as well. Napoleon Bonaparte was known to be militarily skilled and became politically skilled after the French Revolution.
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Chapter 2: Sentence Types Throughout this book, or any kind of a book, there always happens to be different types of sentences. One cannot just stick to one type of a sentence; it would end up very boring, and there would be no variation whatsoever. Thus it leads me to say that there are four different types of sentences found in the English language: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.
Declarative Sentences What is a declarative sentence? A declarative sentence is a sentence that states or declares. It usually ends with a period. Here are some examples:
Napoleon immensely affected the results of the French Revolution. (The period is at the end of the sentence.) Barack Obama is widely known as president who wanted change and tried as hard as he could to fix the mistakes of the past presidents. (The period is at the end of the sentence.)
These are the most common types of sentences to be found.
Interrogative Sentences Interrogative sentences, coming from the verb “interrogate” meaning to ask, are used to ask or to question. It always ends with a question mark. Here are examples of its uses:
Who exactly IS John McCain, and did he even somehow impact the elections back in 2008? Why was Parliament unfairly taxing the colonists, rather than equally taxing both the Englishmen AND the colonists?
Imperative Sentences What are imperative sentences? Imperative sentences are sentences that give a direct command to something or someone. It usually ends with either an exclamation mark or a period. Here are examples of how to use imperative sentences:
Tell me about how the Glorious Rebellion occurred and why it is significantly put within history almost all the time. (Notice the period at the end.) “Stop Donald Trump and his extremely provincial thoughts at once!” they ferociously said. Ahmed 44
Exclamatory Sentences An exclamatory sentence usually expresses strong emotions, usually with the idea of exclaiming. It always ends with an exclamation mark. Here’s how to use them:
Paul Revere’s infamously known quote is, “The Redcoats are coming! The Redcoats are coming!” Of course ISIS is a very bad group; they are known to behead people in front of a camera! These people are nothing but brutal savages!
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Chapter 3: Sentence Patterns There are many variations in how sentences are structured, whether be it short or very detailed. This is known as the sentence pattern. There are thirteen kinds of sentence patterns:
Simple Complex Compound Complex-compound Loose Periodic Balanced Parallel Structure Chiasmus Asyndeton Polysyndeton Anaphora Epistrophe
Simple Sentences By definition, most of us know what the term simple means, and thus, most of us can obviously infer that a simple sentence is a non-specific, broad sentence. A simple sentence, grammatically speaking, is a sentence that is just one independent clause. Here are some examples:
I frantically looked on about Napoleon for the test. George Washington was a highly-known Founding Father.
Complex Sentences Contrary to simple sentences, complex sentences are sentences with one independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Basically, the dependent clause is used for descriptive or informative purposes. Here are some examples:
If you need to look at the politics always occurring every day, look at NPR.org or PBS.org. Once Washington’s second term was coming to a close, he wisely chose to not run for president again.
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Compound Sentences Then comes the pattern known as compound sentences. A compound sentence is a sentence that has multiple independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. Usually, it is connected by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). Here are some examples:
The high tariffs and taxes on shipments from outside the colonies to the colonies led to the colonists becoming angry, and thus, they started to become revolting and seditious. The British had the strongest army across the world, yet they were simply no match to the minutemen of the colonies during the American Revolution.
Complex-Compound Sentences After the complex and compound sentences, we have another type of sentence pattern: complex-compound sentences. A complex-compound sentence is a sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. This, too, also has coordinating conjunctions, like the compound sentences; unlike the compound sentences, it contains at least one dependent clause, much like the characteristic of a complex sentence. Here are some examples:
If you are willing to learn about history, you can go to History.com, for it has every single historical piece, starting from the ancient times all the way to the present. Since the British army underestimated the American soldiers, not only were they defeated, but also, their amount of soldiers were torn apart and annihilated.
Loose Sentences Loose sentences are sentences that contain an independent clause followed by a subordinate construction, be it a clause or a phrase, to describe the independent clause. Here are some examples of how they work:
Genghis Khan is a well-referenced figure to this day, especially because he was known to be a ferocious ruler that expanded his empire throughout the Asian continent. Richard Nixon had a very terrible presidency, considering his impeachment and the water gate scandal.
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Periodic Sentences On the other hand, in contrast to loose sentences, periodic sentences give the independent clause at the end, especially in order to make something more suspenseful or interesting. Here is how to create a periodic sentence:
Due to the American Revolution and its success, the French got greatly influenced in trying to do the same thing. While the Americans were very successful after the revolution, the French did not bode well after their revolution.
Balanced Sentences Based off of the word balanced, it’s easy to see that the idea of the balanced sentence is to evenly structure the sentence. To put it in other words, a balanced sentence is a sentence where phrases or clauses parallel each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length. Here are some examples:
A Japanese person once philosophically stated, “Vision without action is daydream; action without vision is nightmare." A man that goes by the name of Alexander Hope concisely stated in An Essay on Criticism in 1709 that, “To err is human, to forgive, divine."
Parallel Structured Sentences Sentences that use the same pattern of words to show that two or more words or ideas are of equal importance and help the reader comprehend what is being written are known as parallel structures. Here are some examples on its usage:
Benjamin Franklin was majorly known for being a scientist, a diplomat, and a politician. John Adams is highly known as a lawyer, a Founding Father, and a president of the U.S.
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Chiasmus Sentences Some sentence patterns can be unique. Chiasmus sentences are one types of sentence patterns that are under that category. Chiasmus sentences are sentences that include a repetition of words, phrases, or clauses in reversed or inverted order. Take a look here:
"Suit the action to the word, the word to the action" is a very famous quote that was made by Shakespeare in Hamlet. Another majorly known Shakespeare work, Macbeth, states, "Foul is fair and fair is foul."
Asyndeton Another unique type of sentence pattern is known as the asyndeton; basically, it is a sentence that leaves out conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses for a rhetorical purpose. Here are some examples:
You must look at the development of ancient civilizations thoroughly, carefully, slowly, in order to be able to study ancient empires. Without thinking, without hesitating, without any doubt, the Electoral College knew Washington was the perfect man to run the newly born United States.
Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is quite the contradiction to asyndeton; instead of using no conjunctions, it uses multiple conjunctions in close proximity to each other between words, phrases, or clauses for a rhetorical purpose. Here are some examples: George Washington was a kind and caring and nice man, and he had the spirit of a very passionate leader out of all the colonists that lived in the colonies at the time. Barack Obama had a lot to deal with during his presidency, including ISIS, and the Great Recession, and Mitt Romney, but he is still alive.
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Anaphora A third unique sentence pattern is known as anaphora. Anaphora is when a sentence features the purposeful repetition of a word, words, or a phrase at the beginning of several successive clauses in order to place emphasis and draw attention. Here are some examples:
Martin Luther King passionately states in his I Have a Dream speech that, “Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.” He was undoubtedly the best general, he was indisputably the smartest man, he was notably the bravest leader, and he was heroically our first president, George Washington.
Epistrophe A final unique type of sentence pattern is known as the epistrophe. An epistrophe is a sentence featuring several phrases or clauses ending with the same word or words. Here are some examples: In William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Brutus states, “Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I offended….” The American Revolution was bravely fought together, painfully suffered together, and strongly won together.
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Chapter 4: Sentence Errors (Incomplete/Incorrect Types) Mistakes can always happen in any form of a situation. That goes the same for the English grammar. There always happens to be some errors that lead to confusion. This chapter is going to go over the mistakes and what NOT to use in a sentence. There are six things to look out for that you should not be doing in a sentence. Here are the six things:
Run-on/rambling Fused Fragment Misplaced modifier Double negative Comma splice
The sections below will go more into depth about each one of these mistakes.
Run-Ons/Rambling Run-on sentences are basically sentences that keep going and going and do not stop; basically, it’s rambling, but more on paper than on dialect itself. Here are some examples of run-on sentences:
George Washington was a president, and he was also a Founding Father, and he participated in the Seven Years’ War, and he only stayed for 2 terms, which means 8 years of presidency, which marked a new precedence for a U.S presidency tradition. Donald Trump is making a ruckus about a wall and immigration, yet he does not speak of Syria or ISIS or any other parts of politics for that matter, and he instead chooses to stay silent on those subjects because he knows nothing about that aspect of politics.
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Fused Fused sentences are a form of run-on sentences that are basically two independent clauses that have no connecting words or punctuations. Here are examples: Genghis Khan was well-known as one of the most successful rulers of all empirical history he can never related towards anyone because most others fall short. Thomas Jefferson mainly believed in a strict interpretation of the U.S constitution all the while he without thinking made the Louisiana Purchase, which was not on the U.S Constitution.
Fragments What are fragments? Fragments are dependent clauses standing by themselves without any independent clauses. You can imagine how odd these “sentences” would. Here are some examples:
Not only was Benjamin Franklin a Founding Father. In Concord and Lexington during the American Revolution.
Misplaced Modifiers Sometimes, we put words in the wrong place. In this case…modifiers are the key ones here. Misplaced modifiers are modifiers that are located on the wrong part of the sentence. Here are some examples:
Tom Paine was freely in stating that the colonists should actually revolt. George Washington was U.S.A of the Father Founding.
Double Negatives What are double negatives? Double negatives are the use of two negative words in a sentence, which contradict each other and cancel each other out; thus, it is an improper form of a sentence. Here are some examples:
There wasn’t nothing that George Washington couldn’t do, especially during his presidency. Washington never goes with nobody to fancy parties, because he does not have no time. Ahmed 52
Comma Splice What are comma splices? Comma splices are when two independent clauses are connected simply by a comma. Here are some examples:  
First take a look closely at the geographical map of USA in the 1800s, then look at the map of USA in 1821, which is after the Louisiana Purchase. Look into ancient civilizations carefully, that way you will be able to understand how cities developed and what these modern, industrialized cities still maintained to this day.
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Section 5: Paragraphs
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Paragraphs Now that we have finally gone over the basics of grammar and how to properly write a sentence without errors, we can now move on to writing ideal paragraphs. First, we must establish one key thing: what IS a paragraph? In a dictionary, a paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or numbering. That sounds complicated, right? To put it concisely, a paragraph is a section full of sentences that are somehow related to each other and broadcasts a single main idea to make a key point or argument. As stated in the dictionary definition, there are always divisions between paragraphs. Most of the time, they are indentations; in some cases, however, as stated in the dictionary definition as well, they can be numbered. Most of the time, they start off on new lines. There are 3 main kinds of paragraphs to look out for that are key fundamentals to essays (which we will go more into depth about later), and they are:
Introductory paragraphs Body paragraphs Closing paragraphs
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Chapter 2: Introductory Paragraphs (Introductions) In an essay, the introductory paragraph is the first paragraph, and it introduces the main idea for the essay. There are two key fundamental sections of that paragraph that both contribute to introducing the main idea, and they are:
Hook Thesis statement
Hook I’m sure that when one hears the word “hook”, they automatically think of fishing rods and how they reel in the fishes. In that metaphoric sense, the hook is the lead that must “reel in” the attention of the audience. In order to gain appeal, one must always have the audience hooked; otherwise, how will the audience become interested with the work? There are two types of hooks: anecdotal and query based. The anecdotal hook is a hook that creates a brief story to set the mood and introduce the topic. Here is an example:
The year is 1783. A farmer by the name of Kevin Diaz-Lopez, a converted American citizen who is mainly known as Kevin the Farmer, has now become bankrupt. He and his wife, Melissa Lopez, are in desperate need of food, money, and land. There is no social organization at this time around their area as well.
The query based hook is a hook that asks a question that brings the reader to the topic. Here is an example to show its function:
Through history, we know that America officially became free after the Treaty of Paris 1783; however, George Washington became the 1st president in 1789. What happened between 1783 and 1789, if America became official in 1783?
Thesis Statement What is a thesis statement? A thesis statement is the purpose of a piece of writing—usually one sentence in length—and something that is arguable. There are six types of thesis statements: the assertion, the fact, the opinion, the belief, the generalization, the document based, and the theory.
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The assertion is the claim of the thesis statement. It is usually forceful and full of confidence; one can’t just make a weak claim and expect it to be taken seriously unless there is an emphatic force in the words. Here is an example:
The Articles of Confederation were very weak and incapable of keeping the American country together.
The fact is a verifiable thesis statement. One cannot just simply have an assertion that has no verification; otherwise, the legitimacy of both the work and the creator of the work would become invalid. Here is an example:
The Articles of Confederation were majorly flawed due to the fact that in it, it stated that Congress did not have any right to tax and to trade; at that time, states only had that right. The Articles of Confederation also made it impossible to have one uniformly system of currency.
The opinion states which side the author of the essay is on. It is always personal. Here is an example:
The Articles of Confederation were the worst thing that could have happened to America.
The belief is an opinion that is held by many to be a fact, although it really isn’t necessarily a fact. It is usually social, religious, or political in nature. Here is an example:
Historians, history textbooks, and politicians alike say that the Articles of Confederation were a huge mistake in America.
The generalization of the thesis statement uses absolute or statistical pronouns—all, always, every, never, none, most, half—to make its point. This is a type of thesis statement that should be avoided as much as possible. Here is an example:
Multiple speculations show that the Articles of Confederation were the cause of problems for America, and that it was the major reason why America was about to fall into bankruptcy.
The document based thesis statement cites a specific source and its position on a topic, thus implying what side the author of the work takes. Here is an example:
In “18th Century: America’s First Failure at Government—The Articles of Confederation”, Ted Brackemyre makes a valid point by saying that the Articles of Confederation lasted for a short period of time and that it was very weak in nature, both socially and economically.
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The theory is the statement that can be tested and potentially proven. Here is an example: 
The Articles of Confederation were dysfunctional, both socially and economically.
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Chapter 3: Body Paragraphs With the introductory paragraph out of the way, there comes the body paragraphs. Body paragraphs echo the thesis and present evidence to support and expand on the thesis. Usually in an essay, there are multiple body paragraphs. One cannot just think that one evidence would end it, unless that particular evidence is so strong that it overpowers everything (which is pretty unlikely). Body paragraphs are made up of three things: a topic sentence, evidence from quotes, and closing sentences.
Topic Sentence Topic sentences are the beginning of a body paragraph. It must specifically indicate the topic of the paragraph and focus on one subject and area of evidence or support. Here is an example of how to create a topic sentence:
Multiple speculations show that the Articles of Confederation were the cause of problems for America, and that it was the major reason why America was about to fall into bankruptcy.
Evidence from Quotes In order to make the topic sentence be backed up with a very strong skeleton, it would be wise to get evidence from multiple sources, especially quotes, words from another person that back up the argument. This can show that there are multiple people that believe in the particular main idea. One thing to remember is that quotes should NEVER be used as individual sentences, and that they should be embedded within sentences. If you use a quote as an individual sentence, it will break the flow of the argument and will look clumsy. Here are examples on how to use quotes and integrate them into the body paragraph:
Martin Kelly agrees, “To this effect, the Articles were purposely written to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect” (Kelly 73). “To this effect, the Articles were purposely written to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect”, according to a historian (Kelly 73).
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Unfortunately for the new America at that time, “The Articles were purposely written to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect,” according to a historian (Kelly 73). Unfortunately for the new America at that time, “The Articles were purposely written [solely] to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles [of Confederation] took effect” (Kelly 73). Unfortunately for the new America at that time, “The Articles…[had]…many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect” (Kelly 73).
Quotes, however, do not even necessarily have to be used. Instead, one can paraphrase, which is rewording of a quote into other words of the same length without quotation marks, yet at the same time. Let’s take a look:
Original Quote: “To this effect, the Articles were purposely written to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect” (Kelly 73). Paraphrase: The Articles of Confederation tried to limit the power of the national government, but it ended up creating more problems than solutions (Kelly 73).
One can also make a summary of the quote by condensing it in concise terms. Here is an example:
Original Quote: “To this effect, the Articles were purposely written to keep the national government as weak as possible. However, there were many problems that soon became apparent as the Articles took effect” (Kelly 73). Summary: The Articles caused more problems than causing solutions.
Another thing that could be done (though it best be avoided) is creating abstract examples, which are the hypothetical “what-ifs” examples. Let’s take a look:
If the Articles of Confederation were worded differently, maybe our government would have been much stronger during that time.
The better alternative to use are the concrete examples, which are actual, reference-able examples. Here is an example:
After 1787, the U.S decided to ratify a new constitution and drop the Articles of Confederation, what we call the U.S Constitution; afterwards, there were much less problems.
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Closing Sentences Closing sentences are found at the end of the body paragraphs, and they end the discussion of the topic within the paragraph with a transitional or culminating word—sometimes an adverb— and should echo the thesis of the essay. Here is an example:
Thus, there are major evidences from both the past and the present that imply and show that the Articles of Confederation were very flawed and caused major disruption in America.
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Chapter 4: Closing Paragraphs The closing paragraph, also known as a conclusion paragraph, is the last paragraph of an essay. It should somehow relate to the thesis; however, it definitely should not just be a mere summary of the previous paragraphs of the essay. Instead, use a statement of extension. The statement of extension extends the thesis statement using the consequences of disregarding the implications of the thesis. It can either be one or more sentences. Here is an example:
If the Articles of Confederation were not flawed, then there wouldn’t have been a ratification of a new constitution nor unhappy people. However, the fact that there was a major rebellion in 1786 especially due to the Articles of Confederation, known as Shay’s Rebellion, clearly shows that this is untrue.
The final sentence to the closing paragraph would relate to the hook.
Thus, maybe the core of Kevin the Farmer’s poor conditions and unhappy living were due to the higher-ups messing up badly on their first constitution, the Articles of Confederation…
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Section 6: Essays
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Essays Paragraphs are known mainly for one thing: utilization in order to create something known as an essay. An essay, you ask? It is a very common term, thrown around almost all the times when it comes down to assignments. However, what really is an essay? An essay is a short writing on a topic. In order to write an essay, one must learn how many types of essays there are and what kind of essays will work, especially based off of the circumstances that are given during the particular time. When do we particularly use essays? One can use an essay to make the reader gain new knowledge; one can also use an essay to convince the reader that something is right or wrong. An essay can be used for story-telling, or it could even be used for summarization. Whatever the case is, essays generally tell SOMETHING. In this section, not only will we discuss the types of essays, but also, we will discuss how to use strategies/planning tips, how to use steps, and how to create the works cited page.
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Chapter 2: Types Essays tend to have different functions. How would you tell the difference? Essays are classified based off of what type of information they give or what the purpose is. There are six different types of essays, and they are:
Persuasive Expository Analytical/Critical Narrative Research Timed
Persuasive Essays What are persuasive essays? Persuasive essays, also known as argument essays, are the types of essays that are argumentative. They are made to try to get the reader onto one side of a disagreement/argument. Here are steps from EssayInfo.com that pithily state how to skillfully write a persuasive essay:
Choose your position. Which side of the issue or problem are you going to write about, and what solution will you offer? Know the purpose of your essay. Analyze your audience. Decide if your audience agrees with you, is neutral, or disagrees with your position. Research your topic. A persuasive essay must provide specific and convincing evidence. Often it is necessary to go beyond your own knowledge and experience. You might need to go to the library or interview people who are experts on your topic. Structure your essay. Figure out what evidence you will include and in what order you will present the evidence. Remember to consider your purpose, your audience, and you topic.
Keep in mind that one should be able to know their subject thoroughly and be able to prove theirs to be stronger than the counterargument; it should be supported with strong evidence. Facts, statistics, quotes, and general examples are things that are considered strong evidence. They help to maintain a “skeleton” of the essay.
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Expository Essays We then transition on to expository essays. Expository essays, known as informative essays, are essays that try to teach the readers about a particular topic. One must set forth an argument and back it up with evidence, much like the persuasive essays; however, unlike the persuasive essays, expository essays are not trying to show the argument of one side vs. the other. In order to write an expository essay, one must have a clear and concise thesis statement that provides information to the reader. Then, there must be smooth and correct forms of transitional statements between the introduction paragraph, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. Finally, there must be body paragraphs that include evidential support. There are two types of expository essays:
Compare and contrast: This is a type of essay that shows the similarities and differences of two different things. Make sure to not get this mixed up with a persuasive essay; while it may show two different things that have contrasts, unlike the persuasive essay, which contains two things that contradict each other, the two things found in the compare and contrast have some similarities, even with the differences. Cause and effect: This is a type of essay that shows two events occurring. The first event stimulates a response, and thus the second event occurs. Usually, it starts off with the thesis statement about how both events occur. In the body paragraph, through evidence, it goes more into depth about how the first event causes the second event.
Analytical/Critical Essays What are analytical essays? Analytical essays, also known as critical essays, are what they say they are; analyses. Analytical essays are responses to a text or a motley of texts that are given to the author for the purpose of breaking down those particular texts. There are two types of analytical essays:
Evaluative essay: This is a type of essay that is a review of the text or the various amounts of texts. It includes the judgment (your opinion), criteria (reasons for that opinion), and evidence (examples). Interpretive essay: This is the type of essay that has analysis of elements of a text or multiple texts. As stated at Ehow.com, “The essay should have a clear thesis and introduction. It should include body paragraphs covering the elements you're interpreting, including symbolism, characterization, themes or mood and setting.”
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Narrative Essay Has someone ever told you that, “Oh my God, Morgan Freeman would make a very good narrator” or “What point of view is this story narrated from?” Not so coincidentally, it can relate to the word narrative, which, in dictionaries, basically means “a story.” So what would a narrative essay mean? A narrative essay is an essay that gives an account to read for the audience. In this case, there is no argument, but rather, it is a story. While it CAN be fictional, it does not necessarily pertain to being so; authors of these types of essays tend to write more about real life events, yet it can still be a narrative. How? Let’s find out. Authors of narrative essays can write about personal anecdotes, which are short accounts of an event occurring that is relevant towards the author. One can talk about how their grandfather was and how he influenced the author to become who that individual is today; one can talk about how they ate peanut butter with a spoon and all of a sudden started to choke, and how it invoked a fear of spoons upon them.
Research Essay What is a research essay? A research essay is an essay that analyzes a text and unlike the analytical paper, it does not merely look at the mere elements of the text or give an opinion; it argues a point by breaking down the information that is given. There are two ways to put it:
MLA Format: As stated in Owl.Purdue.com, “MLA style specifies guidelines for formatting manuscripts and using the English language in writing.” The paper is usually typed, double-spaced, font 12, and has an indention at the beginning of each paragraph. It contains a “Works Cited” page, with all the sources that the info and evidence come from. We shall go further into depth about that page later. APA Format: What is APA? APA stands for American Psychological Association. This format is more specific, and it relates to social sciences and their sources. The “Works Cited” page is different from the MLA. We shall go into depth about that page later.
Timed Essay What is a timed essay? It’s in the name: a timed essay is an essay that is timed. There is a limited amount of time that is given in order to write that essay. There are two types:
Document Based Question (DBQ): This is a type of timed essay in which the individual is given a question, with several texts/documents that allow you to help provide evidence for the timed essay. Ahmed 67
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Prompt Based: In this type of essay, the individual is given a statement, followed by a question, which would become reiterated within the essay to answer that particular question, the response being based off of the preceding statement in the prompt.
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Chapter 3: Strategies/Planning Tips/Steps Before we ever start anything, it is always the best idea to plan first. Many people, when writing essays especially, always rush into doing things, and thus, that ends up with the work they created to be marked lower. However, a plan would be very essential because one, it can list off various pathways a person can take to write the essay, and two, it would organize how one wrote their essay a lot better.
Pre-Writing/Prompt Analysis/Outlining When giving any form of an essay to write for anything, it is always best to do some pre-writing. Brainstorming is a key essential to everything. One can use a bubble map to show a main idea and then branches of that particular idea. One could use a Venn diagram to see the similarities and differences. One can use a sequential map to go in a particular order. Whenever given a prompt or text to analyze, not only is it necessary to read it and understand it, but it is also necessary to break it down and annotate it. It would be useful to keep some post-its in order to break down each and every key statement within the text. Finally, outlining is a very important component in the prewriting. It determines how well organization will be and how the structure will go. If you were to mess up here, things could get confusing within the essay itself. Here’s an example of outlining:
I. Intro A. Main Idea 1. Detail a. Sub-detail 2. Detail 3. Detail
Research/Evaluation of Sources When doing an essay, one must know about WHAT they’re writing about. Because of this, before or during the pre-writing, one must research on the topic that they are given about. Researching helps to give further knowledge on the topic. Don’t just look at one source and think it is over; in order to make sure that the knowledge of your topic stays fresh in your mind, look at different sources and different perspective of the topic of each source. This can also help to think of an idea to form a rebuttal, a counter to the counterargument.
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However, there is a saying that goes, “Quality over quantity.” Between one GOOD source vs. ten BAD sources, which is likely to be chosen? It’s clearly obvious that the good source will be chosen. One must make sure that the sources they get are verified and true; if they happen to get bad sources, their argument will look weaker than ever.
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Chapter 4: Works Cited Page In order to show that the essay that one created is not plagiarized, there must be particular proof from where the sources of the evidence for the essay came from. This also gives credit to the original person who created the actual source. This is the works cited page. As mentioned before, there is the MLA Format and the APA Format. The MLA Format is something that is recommended by the Modern Language Association, and they have specific guidelines on how to write the works cited page. Here is how to write it:
Author. Title of Manuscript/Document. date of composition (at least year; if unknown, write N.d.). form of material (MS for manuscript or work written by hand; TS for a typescript or work prepared by machine) along with "the name and location of the library, research institution, or personal collection housing the material." Example from Owl.Purdue.com: Henderson, George Wylie. Baby Lou and the Angel Bud. N.d. TS. Collection of Roslyn Kirkland Allen, New York.
The APA Format, on the other hand, is a particular style that follows what the American Psychological Association dictates. Here is how to write it:
Author Last, F. M. (Year, Month Date). Entry Name [Def Number]. In F.M. Last (Ed.) & F.M. Last (Trans.), Website Title. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL Example from a SlideShare project from Jaime Cabrera:
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Section 7: Capitalization
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Chapter 1: Idea of Capitalization While it may seem unnecessary to go over what specifically capitalization is, it is best to go over the fact that, as common as it is, not many people truly know each and every time they SHOULD capitalize the first letter of the word. True, they may know to capitalize the first letter of the first word of the sentence, or maybe a proper noun, but even after that, there are other rules as well. In this section, I will mainly discuss the twenty-five rules that explain each and every time one should capitalize. It may seem like a lot, but once you read this, it will be easy as pie. The twenty-five rules will not be put together in one single chapter; instead, they will be divided into five rules per chapter so that it does not overwhelm the reader. This ensures the efficiency of understanding. Before starting, I shall give a disclaimer: all credits go to Ccsd.net for the rules on capitalization. Some rules from there, however, have been omitted from this book due to its redundancy. So without further ado, let us start!
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Chapter 2: Rules 1-5 Rule 1 The first rule for capitalization is this: capitalize the first word, the last word, and all important words in a title. Articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, in this case, are NOT important words in a title; therefore, they must not be capitalized. Here is an example:
The “Declaration of Independence” was a very important document that noted that Americans no longer recognized Britain as their country, which immensely enraged the king and the Parliament. (While “declaration” and “independence” are capitalized, “of” is not.)
Rule 2 The second rule for capitalization is that capitalize Mother, Dad, and other titles when they serve as a replacement for the person’s name. Do not capitalize it if it is linked to a possessive noun (i.e my mom, Sam’s dad, etc.) Here is an example:
I do believe, Mister, that Napoleon was majorly known for being a leader within the French Revolution, was he not?
Rule 3 The third rule to keep in mind is that everyone should capitalize the name of organizations. No matter what kind of an organization it is, it MUST be capitalized, no exceptions. Here is an example: The Boston Gazette started to publish newspapers that spoke of how the colonies did not want to keep dealing with the taxes that were painstakingly high in amount, especially since the Parliament did not want to recognize that they were being very brutal on the colonists.
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Rule 4 The fourth rule that comes about is to capitalize names of day, month, holidays, and special days. Here is an example:
Columbus Day came to exist due to the fact that Columbus spectacularly found new land to expand to, even if he died not wanting to believe that the land that he had landed on was not Asia.
One thing to keep in mind is this: do not capitalize a, an, the, and, but, or, nor, or prepositions of four or less letters unless those words are the first or last word.
Rule 5 The fifth rule that we come across about capitalization is that one must capitalize a proper adjective but not the noun it modifies unless the nouns is part of a title. Here is an example:
A Thanksgiving Day dinner is usually in every household to celebrate the arrival of the pilgrims onto American land and the peace that they had when dining with the natives of the land; albeit temporarily, nonetheless, it was still a historic event. (Notice how “dinner” is not capitalized even though “Thanksgiving Day” is.)
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Chapter 3: Rules 6-10 Rule 6 The sixth rule is this: capitalize the brand name, but not the product. Here is an example of how this goes:
The Quakers Oats Company oats were first manufactured as a product in 1877, founded exclusively by Henry Parsons Crowell. (Notice how the second “oats” is not capitalized because it is their product.)
Rule 7 The seventh rule dictates that one must capitalize company names. Here is a demonstration of its usage:
Aero Rt. is the second airline service to have officially been created out of the entire world, starting from 1910.
Rule 8 Rule number eight of capitalization: capitalize institution names. What do I mean by institution? By institution, I mean schools, colleges, and universities. Here is an example:
Originally, Harvard was made for those that wanted to become priests and ministers.
Rule 9 The ninth rule of capitalization is that there must be capitalization on particular geographic places and locations. Here is an example of what I mean:
America was officially free when the British and the Americans signed the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
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Rule 10 Rule ten of capitalization is that one should capitalize a particular historical event or time period. Here is an example of how to capitalize properly: 
The time of the Articles of Confederation, known as the Critical Period, is named that due to the fact that the Articles of Confederation completely made the federal government unable to tax the states.
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Chapter 4: Rules 11-15 Rule 11 Now we move on to the eleventh rule. It asks to capitalize religions, religious denominations, religious documents, names of churches, and names of a supreme being. An example is shown here:
Protestants moved quickly to the colonies due to the fact that they clearly did not want the church and state to be together; this was looked down upon by both the kind and the church as well.
Rule 12 The twelfth rule in capitalization states that one must capitalize languages. Here is an example:
Bengali is probably one of the more recent languages to represent a country, specifically a new country known as Bangladesh.
Rule 13 The thirteenth rule that is to be maintained is that one must capitalize specific names of structures. Here is what I mean:
The incident at the Twin Towers, now remembered as 9/11, is such a historic event that to this day, it is still remembered and many people acknowledge the victims of that deadly event.
Rule 14 What does the fourteenth rule do? It says to capitalize names, initials, and titles appearing with names. Here is an example of its usage:
Mr. George Washington, after clearly stating that there be no factions, how do you feel towards the political parties and how Jefferson has become president?
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Rule 15 The fifteenth rule in capitalization is the most common: capitalize the first word in the sentence. Here is an example: 
The Egyptians created the pyramids grandiloquently back during the first civilizations.
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Chapter 5: Rules 16-20 Rule 16 The sixteenth rule is another one of the most common rules in English: capitalize the pronoun “I”. Here is an example:
I learned that Genghis Khan was always trying to set the stage for everything, for he was an ambitious man that wanted nothing more than authority over the whole Asian continent.
Rule 17 Poetry is an essential thing to think about, for it helps to calm a person down, eases the mind, and it is essential in poetry. Why am I talking of poetry all of a sudden? I took the time to digress because the seventeenth rule pertains to poetry: capitalize the first letter of the first word of every line in poetry. Here is an excerpt of Maya Angelou’s “Still I Rise” and how it follows this rule:
You may write me down in history With your bitter, twisted lies, You may tread me in the very dirt But still, like dust, I'll rise…
Rule 18 Our eighteenth rule in capitalization is to capitalize the first letter of the first word in a direct quotation. Here is an example:
“Timmy, what exactly was the significance of World War I?” Ms. Gala asked.
One thing to note is this: in a split quotation, do not capitalize the first letter of the word in the second part unless a new sentence is begun. Here is an example:
“Timmy,” Ms. Gala called out, “what exactly was the significance of World War I?”
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Rule 19 The nineteenth rule that we have in terms of capitalization is to capitalize bodies of government and departments. For example:
Bacon’s Rebellion was a significant event that was basically an attack on the House of Burgesses.
Rule 20 The twentieth rule to capitalization is to capitalize racial and ethnic groups. Here’s an example:
Irish people tend to dislike the British due to the fact that the British took over the land of Ireland around the time of the 11th or 12th century under the British Empire and forced the English language upon them.
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Chapter 6: Rules 21-25 Rule 21 The twenty-first rule of capitalization is to capitalize North, South, East, West, Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest when they refer to a region of the country or world. Do not capitalize north, south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, or southwest when they are used as directions. Here is an example:
The North U.S was in conflict with the South U.S, unfortunately, in the 1860s, due to slavery being popular in the South while abolition being popular in the North.
Rule 22 The twenty-second rule to remember for capitalization is to capitalize political parties and their members.
At the time of the ratification of the Constitution, the Federalists were trying their best to ensure that the Constitution became the ideal document for America.
Rule 23 For the twenty-third rule in capitalization, one must capitalize the first letter only in most hyphenated words that being a sentence. It also says to capitalize both parts of a hyphenated word in titles. For example:
Sixty-million were brutally killed in the Pacific War, known as World War II. Vice-President Thomas Jefferson was mostly in conflict when John Adams was in his presidency due to their differences in beliefs.
Rule 24 Rule number twenty-four is in reference to the president of the United States, to show that his/her position is very important in the United States. Based off of that statement, one can imply what I am about to say: capitalize “president” when it refers to the leader of the United States. Here is an example:
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Rumor has it that President Bush knew about 9/11 all along, and that he had relations with Bin Laden at the time; however, that is mere speculation, and there is no proof from the man himself.
Rule 25 The final rule, which is just as important as each and every other rule in this section, is this rule: capitalize the first word of the greeting and closing of a letter. For example:
Dear Mr. George Washington, … … … … With much admiration, John Jay
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Section 8: Punctuations
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Chapter 1: Punctuations (Part 1) Punctuations are common things that we use in grammar. But really, what is the true definition of a punctuation? In a dictionary, a punctuation is the mark used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning. Punctuation is a vital necessity in grammar. Why? Because not only does it end the sentence, but it also helps to distinguish significant features within the sentence and in general, it also helps to distinguish sentences from each other. There are thirteen different types of punctuation marks in the English grammar, and they are:
Brackets Parentheses Periods Commas Hyphens Dashes Colons Semicolons Question marks Exclamation marks Single Quotation marks Quotation marks Ellipses
We will go more into depth about this in this chapter.
Brackets What are brackets? Brackets are “[ ]” symbols, and they are used to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language in order for the quote to make sense. Here are some examples of its use:
Winston Churchill once eloquently stated said “Democracy [is] the worst type of government there is [except] for all the others.” Neil Armstrong once merrily stated, “[To land onto the moon for the first time,] this is one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.”
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Parentheses Parentheses are found everywhere, especially in mathematics and English. Let us identify what a parenthesis is. Parentheses are usually represented by “( )” symbols and function to include material that you want to de-emphasize or that wouldn't normally fit into the flow of your text but you want to include nonetheless. Here are some examples:
Benjamin Franklin (a very well-known politician and Founding Father) was widely known as a scientist and created the pathway to the study of electricity. George Washington (first U.S President) was famously known for his fancy parties at his house, which often tended to last days.
Periods Periods are the most common punctuation mark; it’s probably the most used in not only this book, but every book that has ever been published. A period is represented by “.” and they are used to end a declarative or imperative sentence. Here are some examples:
George Washington was widely known by many today as the first President of the United States of America under the Constitution. Thomas Jefferson was majorly known as the author of the Declaration of Independence, as well as the Secretary of State later on under the Constitution.
Commas Commas are most likely the second most common type of punctuation within the English grammar. What is it? Commas are represented by “,” and they separate elements in a series. Here are some examples of its usage, Democracy would be the perfect governing system, but there will always be a disagreement on issues that will make everything complicated. Benjamin Franklin, while known mainly to be a major politician, also happened to be a major scientist and author.
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Hyphens What are hyphens? Hyphens are represented by “-“ and they are there to connect two or more words (or numbers) into a single concept, especially for building adjectives. Here are some examples:
About six-hundred and twenty thousand soldiers were brutally killed during the Civil War in the 1860s. George Washington was fifty-seven years old when he officially became the first president of the U.S.
Dashes Dashes are different kind of punctuation. Dashes, in terms of Grammarly.com, are “little line[s] that [are] written in the middle of the line.” They are represented by “—“One thing to note is that it should not be confused with hyphens; hyphens are much shorter, so keep that in mind. Much like it doesn’t physically appear to be a hyphen, it also does not have the same function as a hyphen; while hyphens divides parts of a word, dashes help to separate groups of words. Here is an example:
Washington—who valiantly served in the French and Indian War—happened to be utilized in the Revolutionary War due to his military experience. Benjamin Franklin—who was prominently known for being both a scientist and politician—went to France to be allies in the Revolutionary War.
Colons When one says “colon”, you may think about your intestines. However, in this case, we aren’t talking about the human body. So what IS a colon? A colon, represented by “:” is a type of punctuation mark that indicates that the writer is about to quote or list something, or that the writer is separating two clauses, the second clause expanding on the first one. Here is an example:
One must always know this: Jefferson is mainly known to be the author of the Declaration of Independence. Obama faced: ISIS, threat of impeachment, and birth certificate scandals all in just one and a half term in office.
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Chapter 2: Punctuations (Part 2) Semicolons What is a semicolon? A semicolon is another type of punctuation mark, characterized with the symbol “;”, and it usually indicates a pause, usually between two main clauses. It usually has more emphasis on the pause than that of a comma. Here are some examples:
To this day we remember the sacrifices that the Revolutionists had to make in order to free America; the flag of America itself is a commemoration to this freedom. Thomas Jefferson was completely against slavery; however, in order to gain the support of those that were for slavery, he did not include that issue in the Declaration of Independence.
Question Marks What is a question mark? (Note the irony in that previous statement…) A question mark is a punctuation mark represented by “?” and is usually found at the end of interrogative sentences to mark them as questions. Here are some examples:
Theoretically speaking, can we say that the Jacksonians at the time of Quincy Adams were corrupted? What kind of world would we be living in if the South had got their way and succeeded from the Union?
Exclamation Marks What is an exclamation mark? An exclamation mark, marked by “!”, are usually found in either interjections or exclamatory sentences. Here are some examples:
“All men are created equal!” was one of the main slogans of revolutionists; yet unfortunately there was slavery that coexisted, which was a very big contradiction. “I have a dream!” is a prominently known phrase that was created by Martin Luther King Jr., who is also well known for his civil rights movement.
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Single Quotation Marks What is a single quotation mark? One may think that these are called “apostrophes”; however, that is simply not the case. A single quotation mark, shown as (‘), are a type of punctuation marks; specifically, they are a type of quotation marks (punctuation marks used to say statements from other people/sources) that are found within double quotation marks. There will be more on double quotation marks in the next subheading. Here are examples of single quotation marks and its usage:
“The Declaration of Independence,” Ben stated quickly, “said, ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.’” “In the Holy Quran, passed by the prophet mainly known as Muhammad, it states, ‘God is the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful,’” said Giovannie.
Double Quotation Marks As I have stated before, we would go over double quotation marks within this subheading. Double quotation marks, which are the standard quotation marks that people generally use, are shown in (“), and their function is to quote others, whether from a book or from audio. Here are some examples:
“Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense, infamously known to have influenced the sparks of revolution within the colonists,” said Janai. “Alexander Hamilton was prominently known to be the author of the Bill of Rights,” stated Joseph.
Ellipses What are ellipses? An ellipse, represented by “…”, is used to omit some words from within a quote. Here’s an example:
“All men…are created equal” was an immensely catchy phrase for the revolutionists. A part of the Declaration of Independence states that, “The decree is gone forth…that a more equal liberty…must be established in America."
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Section 9: Commonly Confused Words
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Chapter 1: Commonly Confused Words (Part 1) Throughout grammar, we will always encounter words that confuse us and at some point, they may even use those words incorrectly. Here, throughout these chapters of the section, I will make sure to specify the most words that are misused with another similar word.
Who/Whom One of the most common confusion is when to use “who” or “whom”. Here is the main difference: while “who” is used for the subject or the subject compliment, “whom” is mainly used as an object. Here are their usages in its proper form:
Abraham Lincoln was the man who led the Union to war against the Confederate States and courageously fought to bring them back into the Union. To whom was the Declaration of Independence addressed to?
Their/There/They’re One of the unique confusion of words out there are “their”, “there”, and “they’re”, especially because they’re three words that are homophones, words that sound the same but are spelled and meant differently. What’s the difference? “Their” is a possessive form of the pronoun “they.” Meanwhile, “there” indicates location. Finally, “they’re” is a contraction for “they are”. Here are their proper usage in action:
Southerners made a significantly great amount of money with slaves working on their cotton plantations. There were many views on the slave issue in the 1850’s and that basically split the country apart into the south and north. They’re constantly monstrously raping female slaves, yet the southerners viewed the blacks as inferior.
Lie/Lay What is the difference between “lie” and “lay”, you may ask? The term “lie” means to put in a resting position to an animal or person. Meanwhile, the term “lay” means to put an object in a resting position. Here are examples of these words being used properly:
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Sometimes all a slave wanted was to lie down, and never pick any cotton again, but that was a dream that would only happen if they escaped to the North. During the Great Depression, many factories had to unfortunately lay off their workers.
Laid/Lain What is the difference between “laid” and “lain”? “Laid” means to put an object down. Meanwhile, “lain” is the past participle of “lie”. Here are some examples: The Founding Fathers beautifully laid the foundation for democracy in the United States. After the World War II, many bodies had lain brutally in the trenches for some time.
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Chapter 2: Commonly Confused Words (Part 2) Affect/Effect Another two confusing words are “affect” and “effect”; while they are both related to each other, they are not the same exact word. “Affect” is a verb that means “to influence”; “effect” is a noun that means “a result”. Here’s how to use them in sentences:
George Washington’s first term in office had an extremely important effect on how the next presidents would be viewed as. World War II had affected America’s relations with Japan in a sense that they gained a new ally, yet much resentment against Russia abruptly formed, which then led to the Cold War.
Accept/Except “Accept” and “except” are hardly any different from the other common confused word, other than the fact that they are homophones. So, what is the difference between these two words (other than their spelling)? “Accept” means to receive; “except”, on the other hand, means “to leave out.” Here are some of their examples in their correct functions:
After England accepted defeat, many Loyalists quickly decided they did not want to live in the United States, so they left along with the British Army back to England. The United States Constitution dictated that “All men [were] created equal”, except that they intentionally did not mention Blacks.
Could Have, Would Have, Should Have vs. Could Of, Would Of, Should Of Now, this section is a little bit different from the others. Why? We will find out in a minute. So, what is the difference between “could have/would have/should have” and “could of/would of/should of”? The main difference between these two groups, shall I say, is that the “could have/would have/should have” group is grammatically correct; the other is not. The other group is derived mainly off of the contractions, “could’ve, would’ve, should’ve”, and this leads to much confusion within the writing of English. Here are two comparisons of sentences that are correct and incorrect:
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Britain could’ve (could have) won the American Revolution, except they didn’t want to excessively spend money on another war. (Correct) Thomas Jefferson should of been our first president, except George Washington was a much more popular choice. (Incorrect)
Loath/Loathe One letter, as shown here, can make a really key difference. So, in terms of definition, what I s the difference between “loath” and “loathe”? To be “loath” means to be “unwilling or reluctant” to do something. “Loathe”, however, means something else altogether: it means “to hate”. Here are examples of how they are both used in sentences:
England was loath to leave the American territories after their in the American Revolution. England and France loathed each other and were constantly warring against each other until World War I.
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Chapter 3: Commonly Confused Words (Part 3) Infer/Imply A lot of people say that they are “inferring” something, especially during accusation; however, that is not the correct way to use the word. To “infer” means to simply “deduce something out of given facts”, while to “imply” means to “suggest something indirectly.” Here are examples on how to use them in sentences:
People often use the midterm elections to infer which party is going to win the presidential elections. The Republican takeover of Congress can be used to imply that many of the states were extremely unhappy with the Democrats.
Weary/Wary Another two common homophones are “weary” and “wary”. What is their difference? To be “weary” means to be “tired, fatigued”; meanwhile, to be “wary” means to be “cautious”. Here are some examples:
It was quite obvious that Abraham Lincoln was weary after the end of the Civil War, by just looking at his aged face. The British were not wary at the battle of Lexington and Concord because they were extremely confident that they would win the battle against the colonists, who they thought had no military experience whatsoever.
Proceed/Precede What is the difference between “proceed” and “precede”? “Proceed” means “to go forward”, while “precede” means “to come before”. Here are some examples on which word usually goes where:
Once the Declaration of Independence arrived to the king of England, he had to proceeded and angrily declared war on the Founding Fathers and those that supported them. George Washington preceded John Adams most notably as the first President of the United States.
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Discrete/Discreet What is the difference between “discrete” and “discreet”? “Discrete” is “characterization of separation” while “discreet” is “characterized by modest or prudent behavior.” Here’s how to use them in sentences, shown in these examples:
During the Boston Tea Party, the rebels wore discrete Indian masks to cleverly hide their true identity. The Sons of Liberty had to be discreet about their private held meetings, or else they would get imprisoned.
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Chapter 4: Commonly Confused Words (Part 4) Conscience/Conscious While these two words are not homophones, they do sound quite similar, and they both are related to each other. It’s better to be safe than sorry, and henceforth, I have decided to include their differences as well. “Conscience”, which happens to be a noun, means “a sense of right or wrong”; “conscious” is an adjective that characterizes a person to be “awake, full of sense”. Here are examples of their usage within sentences:
Abolitionist had the conscience of knowing that slavery was bad, and they thought that many of the Southerners were clearly unconstitutional, especially since the Constitution declared that everyone had rights, which must also include blacks. Many soldiers during the Civil War had to go through operations while being conscious the whole time due to the lack of anesthesia.
Can/May Many people ask their teachers, “Can I use the restroom?” Now, grammatically speaking, that would be incorrect. So let’s say you had to use the restroom during the restroom during English, and you asked that question to your teacher. Out of comical reasons, I have a feeling that teacher would say something along the lines of, “I don’t know, can you?” That, my fellow readers, is the difference between “can” and “may.” “Can” is used for the description of abilities. “May” is used in order to ask for permission. Here’s how it goes: The citizens of the United States can optimistically elect those who should be leaders in their eyes in this wonderful democracy and hope for the best. Middle Eastern people may never be able to live under a democracy at this rate, especially due to how corrupt the government is out there.
Which/Witch Which witch is with us tonight? I don’t know; you tell me. But you know what I DO know? I know that “which” and “witch” are homophones! The difference between those two words are that “which” is “a pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing and not used to refer to people”; Ahmed 97
“witch” is “a woman who is said to have evil powers, found in myths and fables.” Here are some examples:
The French navy, which helped the rebels in their struggle for independence against England, came just in time for the Patriots to win the war. During the Salem Witch Trials, many innocent women were hung, and burned because of the paranoia of many of their neighbors.
A lot/Alot There’s a lot of things that are incorrect in this world...and by a lot, I mean, “a lot.” Hah! See what I did there? The correct way to say that there is a numerous amount of something is “a lot”, not “a lot.” Many people mistakenly use “alot” in many of their writings, especially when growing up in elementary school. Let’s see the correct and incorrect ways to write it within a sentence:
A lot of Republican voters surprisingly would want Donald Trump to be the primary candidate for the GOP, even with absurd and atrocious, racist words. (Correct) Alot of times, people may just not understand the key concepts of politics, and due to this, they may vote for Trump; simply because of the fact that he’s saying crazy things, he’s getting much more publicity, leading to his immensely popular votes. (Incorrect)
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Chapter 5: Commonly Confused Words (Part 5) Here we go, this is the last chapter!
To/Too Once again, a letter makes a key difference. I see this common mistake everywhere in inexperienced writings; the confusion between “to” and “too” is just too much. The difference between “to” and “too” is that “to” is “a preposition that expresses the direction of or identifies a person or thing that is affected”; “too” is an adjective that just means “also”. Here are examples on how they are used in sentences:
“To be or not to be, that is the question…” is prominently known from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, where Prince Hamlet is contemplating suicide or not; it is a quote used to this day and is historically referenced in many works of art, literature, music, etc. Not only were the Americans worried and against the expansion of British people in the Americas, but the French, too, were against British expansion in the Americas.
Supposed To/To Suppose Must I really do this? I suppose. See what I did there again? What’s the difference between those two, seeing as the second one is the root to the first one? “Supposed to” means “being obligated to” or “being mandated to”; to “suppose” itself is “to guess.” Here are examples of how it should be used:
Congress was supposed to work together to pass bills; instead they fight amongst themselves to stop any bill from going through. I suppose many citizens will vote for Democrats this year, especially due to the roster of the Republican candidates running for president.
Than/Then “I’d rather get kicked by her than die.” “I’d rather get kicked by her then die.” Grammar makes a very big difference, especially in writing. If you don’t know which word is which, then errors like this may pop up. Ahmed 99
So now that we got over that, what is the main difference between those two words, other than their spelling? “Than” is used for comparisons, while “then” is an adverb that means “at that time”. Here’s how they are used:
Republicans would rather gladly eat dirt than agree with anything the Democrats support, let alone admit defeat to them; they will do whatever it takes to try to gain the upper hand. Once Barack Obama was inaugurated, he was able to then happily move into the glorious White House.
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Quiz for Section 1 For this quiz, match the words to the phrases that are given. 1. Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs 2. Singular verb must mean singular noun 3. Pronoun must correspond to antecedent 4. Modification of nouns through these 5. Common, proper, compound, concrete, abstract 6. In order to shorten statements, used to replace nouns. 7. Noun ending 8. To show that someone has something 9. Verb does over the noun 10. Preposition is enacted upon the noun
A. Adjectives B. Noun-pronoun agreement C. Pronouns D. Nouns E. Adverb F. –tion G. H. I. J.
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Noun-verb agreement Direct object Possessive Form Indirect object
Quiz for Section 1(Answer Key) 1. Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (E) 2. Singular verb must mean singular noun (G) 3. Pronoun must correspond to antecedent (B) 4. Modification of nouns through these (A) 5. Common, proper, compound, concrete, abstract (D) 6. In order to shorten statements, used to replace nouns. (C) 7. Noun ending (F) 8. To show that someone has something (I) 9. Verb does over the noun (H) 10. Preposition is enacted upon the noun (J)
A. Adjectives B. Noun-pronoun agreement C. Pronouns D. Nouns E. Adverb F. –tion G. Noun-verb agreement H. Direct object I. Possessive Form J. Indirect object
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Quiz for Section 2 For this quiz, you must answer the question. 1. What are phrases? How many phrases are there? 2. Name the three phrases and define them. 3. Give an example of each phrase. Make sure to label properly. 4. To refresh your memory, this question is given: what is a verbal? 5. What are the 3 different kinds of verbals that can be used to create verbal phrases? 6. Give an example of each kind of verbal phrase. Make sure to label properly. 7. True or false: An infinitive is a word ending in “-ing” or “-ed” used as an adjective. 8. True or false: All sentences have phrases. 9. Fill in the blank: The colonists were ______________ after the Seven Years’ War. (tax) 10. Create an appositive phrase by introducing Napoleon to someone in a sentence.
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Quiz for Section 2 (Answer Key) 1. Groups of words that function as a part of speech. There are three. 2. Prepositional (a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, and is used as an adjective or an adverb), appositive (a group of words that include all the words or phrases that modify an appositive), and verbal (a group of words that begin with a verbal and ends with a noun). 3. Answers may vary, see an example of a phrase in the book 4. Verb forms that are not used as verbs. 5. Gerund, participle, and infinitive. 6. Answers may vary, look at the phrases chapter. 7. False: that is a gerund. 8. False: Not all sentences have phrases 9. taxed 10. Answer may vary. Look at “Phrases� chapter.
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Quiz for Section 3 In this quiz, you must match the letter to the corresponding term. 1. Clauses 2. Independent Clauses 3. Dependent Clauses 4. 5. 6. 7.
Noun clause Adjective clause Adverb clause Relative clause
8. Elliptical clause 9. Essential clause 10. Nonessential clause
A. Meaningful clauses that are needed in the sentence B. Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in the independent clause C. Dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun D. Unnecessary clauses E. A branch of adverb clauses F. Used to modify a noun G. Groups of words with a subject and a verb H. Can’t stand alone I. Simple sentence pattern J. Used as the noun in a sentence
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Quiz for Section 3 (Answer Key) 1. Clauses (G)
A. Meaningful clauses that are needed in the sentence B. Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in the independent clause C. Dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun D. Unnecessary clauses E. A branch of adverb clauses F. Used to modify a noun G. Groups of words with a subject and a verb H. Can’t stand alone I. Simple sentence pattern J. Used as the noun in a sentence
2. Independent Clauses (I) 3. Dependent Clauses (H) 4. 5. 6. 7.
Noun clause (J) Adjective clause (F) Adverb clause (B) Relative clause (C)
8. Elliptical clause (E) 9. Essential clause (A) 10. Nonessential clause (D)
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Quiz for Section 4 Answer the fill in the blank question for each. 1. True or False: The complete subject is ONLY the main words within the subject. 2. True or False: The compound subject contains main words of the subject and its modifiers. 3. What is a predicate? 4. Name the 4 types of sentences. 5. How many kinds of sentence patterns are there? 6. Name the type of sentence pattern that contains the independent clause at the end of the sentence to show emphasis. 7. Are run-on sentences a type of sentence pattern? 8. Correct this sentence: Jane was a mainly woman that did stuff many. 9. How many types of sentence errors are there? 10. Name the sentence error that only contains a dependent clause and nothing more.
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Quiz for Section 4 (Answer Key) 1. False 2. False 3. Tells about what is going on with the subject. 4. Declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory 5. Thirteen. 6. Periodic sentence 7. No, they are not. 8. Jane was a woman that mainly did stuff. 9. Six. 10. Fragment
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Quiz for Section 5 In this quiz, circle the answer that is most accurate to the given question. 1. What do you call the statement that leads the introductory paragraph? a. Thesis statement b. Leading statement c. Hook d. Topic sentence 2. If an author were to write a hypothetical, brief story in the beginning to prove his point, what type of hook would that be? a. Anecdotal b. Query based c. Abstract example d. Hypothetical situation 3. Is a belief always a fact? a. Yes b. No 4. Generalizations are types of thesis statements that should be avoided. a. True b. False 5. What do you call the type of thesis statement that cites a specific source and its position on a topic? a. Evidence from quotations b. Document based c. Theory d. Fact 6. How many ways can a person use a quote? a. 9 b. 7 c. 5 d. 3 7. What is the difference between abstract and concrete examples? a. None, they’re both examples anyways. b. Concrete examples do not have actual facts and are mainly hypothetical situations, while abstract examples have solid facts. c. Abstract examples do not have actual facts and are mainly hypothetical situations, while concrete examples have solid facts. d. Neither a, b, or c. 8. Closing sentences are only found in closing paragraphs. a. True b. False Ahmed 109
9. Should the thesis be summarized in the conclusion? a. Yes b. No 10. What should the final sentence of the essay be? a. A closing argument b. A question that leaves the audience wondering c. A question that refers back to the anecdote in the introduction d. Depending on what kind of hook, both b & c.
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Quiz for Section 5 (Answers) In this quiz, circle the answer that is most accurate to the given question. 1. What do you call the statement that leads the introductory paragraph? a. Thesis statement b. Leading statement c. Hook d. Topic sentence 2. If an author were to write a hypothetical, brief story in the beginning to prove his point, what type of hook would that be? a. Anecdotal b. Query based c. Abstract example d. Hypothetical situation 3. Is a belief always a fact? a. Yes b. No 4. Generalizations are types of thesis statements that should be avoided. a. True b. False 5. What do you call the type of thesis statement that cites a specific source and its position on a topic? a. Evidence from quotations b. Document based c. Theory d. Fact 6. How many ways can a person use a quote? a. 9 b. 7 c. 5 d. 3 7. What is the difference between abstract and concrete examples? a. None, they’re both examples anyways. b. Concrete examples do not have actual facts and are mainly hypothetical situations, while abstract examples have solid facts. c. Abstract examples do not have actual facts and are mainly hypothetical situations, while concrete examples have solid facts. d. Neither a, b, or c. 8. Closing sentences are only found in closing paragraphs. a. True b. False Ahmed 111
9. Should the thesis be summarized in the conclusion? a. Yes b. No 10. What should the final sentence of the essay be? a. A closing argument b. A question that leaves the audience wondering c. A question that refers back to the anecdote in the introduction d. Depending on what kind of hook, both b & c.
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Quiz 6 For this quiz, match the number with the letter. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Persuasive essay Essay MLA Format APA Format Research essay
A. B. C. D. E.
6. Analytical essay 7. Analytical essay 8. Narrative essay
F. G. H.
9. Works cited page 10. Expository essay
I. J.
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Page that gives credit to source Essay with a limited amount of time Analyzes and breaks down a text Looks at elements of a text Argumentative and makes you look at one perspective and take one side Informs the reader Tells a story American Psychological Association issued, mainly for social sciences Used commonly and is recommended Short writing on topic
Quiz for Section 6 (Answer Key) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Persuasive essay (E) Essay (J) MLA Format (I) APA Format (H) Research essay (C)
A. B. C. D. E.
6. Analytical essay (B) 7. Analytical essay (D) 8. Narrative essay (G)
F. G. H.
9. Works cited page (A) 10. Expository essay (F)
I. J.
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Page that gives credit to source Essay with a limited amount of time Analyzes and breaks down a text Looks at elements of a text Argumentative and makes you look at one perspective and take one side Informs the reader Tells a story American Psychological Association issued, mainly for social sciences Used commonly and is recommended Short writing on topic
Quiz for Sections 7, 8, & 9 Answer the given questions.
1. How many rules are there in the Rules of Capitalization? Name one of them. 2. True or False: When a proper noun/holiday is used to describe a noun, that particular noun must also be capitalized. 3. What do brackets function as within a sentence? 4. What is the difference between a hyphen and a dash? 5. True or false: The apostrophe mark serves to be found within quotation marks. 6. Use “there”, “they’re”, and “their” in a sentence. 7. Do you lie down or do you lay down? 8. What is the relation between “affect” and “effect” 9. What is the relation between “conscience” and “conscious”? 10. Would you say I have given you alot to read or a lot to read?
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Quiz for Sections 7, 8, & 9 (Answer Key) 1. Twenty-five. Rule can vary; see “Capitalization” section. 2. True or False: When a proper noun/holiday is used to describe a noun, that particular noun must also be capitalized. 3. They function to contain words not found in the quote that make it more understandable. 4. Dashes are longer and are found between groups of words; hyphens divide words. 5. False. 6. Sentence may vary. See “Their/There/They’re” 7. I lie down. 8. If something AFFECTS something else, then the EFFECT of it could either be good or bad. 9. In order to have a conscience, one must be conscious. 10. A lot.
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All these definitions have been paraphrased/found from either the dictionary or an Internet source.
A___________________________________ Abstract Examples: the hypothetical “what-ifs” examples.
Abstract Noun: names ideas, quality, emotions, or attitudes Active Voice: a type of voice. See more on “Voice” in the “Verbs” chapter. Adjective: words that modify, describe, limit, and identify nouns and pronouns. Adjective Clause: clause that is used to modify a noun in an independent clause. Adjectivial: an adjective that describes the noun following it. Adverbs: words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs Adverb Clause: clause that is used to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in an independent clause, introduced by a subordinating conjunction and used to indicate time, place, cause, purpose, result, condition, and/or concession. Adverb of Degree: adverb that describes how good or bad it is. Adverb of Frequency: adverb that describes how often. Adverb of Manner: adverb that describes how the action was answered. Adverb of Place: adverb that describes where. Adverb of Time: adverb that describes when.
Adverbial Object: comes after the verb and answers when. Agreements of Grammar: certain rules that sentences have to follow. Analytical Essay: responses to a text or a motley of texts that are given to the author for the purpose of breaking down those particular texts. Anaphora: a sentence features the purposeful repetition of a word, words, or a phrase at the beginning of several successive clauses in order to place emphasis and draw attention.
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Anecdotal Hook: a hook that creates a brief story to set the mood and introduce the topic. Antecedents: the nouns or clauses that are replaced by the pronouns that come after it. Appositive Phrases: a group of words that include all the words or phrases that modify an appositive. Appositives: something that rename nouns, which are separated by commas. Argument Essay: See “Persuasive Essay”. Article: a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a noun. Assertion: the claim of the thesis statement. Asyndeton: a sentence that leaves out conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses for a rhetorical purpose.
B___________________________________ Balanced Sentence: a sentence where phrases or clauses parallel each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length.
Belief: an opinion that is held by many to be a fact, although it really isn’t necessarily a fact. It is usually social, religious, or political in nature. Body Paragraphs: paragraphs in between that echo the thesis and present evidence to support and expand on the thesis. Brackets: “[ ]” symbols, used to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language in order for the quote to make sense.
C___________________________________ Chiasmus Sentences: sentences that include a repetition of words, phrases, or clauses in reversed or inverted order. Closing Sentences: found at the end of the body paragraphs, they end the discussion of the topic within the paragraph with a transitional or culminating word—sometimes an adverb—and should echo the thesis of the essay. Colon: “:”, a type of punctuation mark that indicates that the writer is about to quote or list something, or that the writer is separating two clauses, the second clause expanding on the first one. Ahmed 118
Comma: “,”—separate elements in a series. Comma Splices: when two independent clauses are connected simply by a comma. Common Adjective: adjective that describes noun in a simple, general way. Common Noun: names a class of people, places, things, or ideas. Comparative: adjectives that are comparing two things. Complement: a word or group of words that complete the independent clause and have to do with the subject or object of the sentence. Complete Predicate: the verb or verb phrase and all the words that give more information about it in the predicate. Complete Subject: main words in a subject, along with any modifiers that could describe the subjects. Complex Sentences: sentences with one independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Complex-compound Sentence: a sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause and also has coordinating conjunctions. Compound Noun: consists of words used together to form a single noun. Compound Predicate: two or more verbs or verb phrases that share the same subject and are joined by a conjunction. Compound Sentence: a sentence that has multiple independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. Usually, it is connected by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). Compound Subject: two or more simple subjects that share a verb or verb phrase. These subjects are joined by a conjunction such as and, or, or nor. Modifiers, in this case, would not be included in the compound subjects. Conclusion: last paragraph of an essay. Concrete Examples: actual, reference-able examples. Concrete Noun: refers to material things, to people, or to places Conjunctions: words that are used either when there is a list of objects or people, or it is used simply to connect two independent clauses Critical Essay: See “Analytical Essay”. Ahmed 119
D__________________________________ Dashes: “—“, little lines that are written in the middle of the line. Declarative Sentence: a sentence that states or declares. It usually ends with a period. Demonstrative Adjective: adjectives that help to indicate a noun while being next to or near the noun in the sentence. Demonstrative Pronouns: pronouns that point out and identify objects.
Direct Object: the part that comes after the verb and it answers what or whom. Document Based Question (DBQ) Timed Essay: a type of timed essay in which the individual is given a question, with several texts/documents that allow you to help provide evidence for the timed essay. Document-Based Thesis Statement: thesis that cites a specific source and its position on a topic, thus implying what side the author of the work takes. Double Negatives: the use of two negative words in a sentence, which contradict each other and cancel each other out.
Double Quotation Marks: (“), standard quotation marks used by most people, often to quote someone else.
E___________________________________ Ellipses: “…”, used to omit some words from within a quote Elliptical Clause: a form of adverb clauses in which part of the clause is omitted. Epistrophe: a sentence featuring several phrases or clauses ending with the same word or words.
Essay: a short writing on a topic. Essential Clause: clause that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Exclamation Mark: “!”, indicates an exclamatory sentence. Exclamatory Sentence: sentence that expresses strong emotions, usually with the idea of exclaiming. It always ends with an exclamation mark.
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Expletives: sentences that start off with here, there, or it, followed by a corresponding verb form of “to be”. Expository Essay: essays that try to teach the readers about a particular topic.
F___________________________________ Fact: verifiable thesis statement. Fragment: dependent clauses standing by themselves without any independent clauses.
Fused Sentence: a form of run-on sentences that are basically two independent clauses that have no connecting words or punctuations.
G__________________________________ Generalization: part of the thesis statement uses absolute or statistical pronouns—all, always, every, never, none, most, half—to make its point.
H__________________________________ Helping Verbs: verbs that link the subject to the main verb. Homophones: words that sound the same but are spelled and meant differently. Hook: the lead that must “reel in” the attention of the audience. Hyphens: “-“, there to connect two or more words (or numbers) into a single concept, especially for building adjectives.
I___________________________________ Imperative Sentence: sentences that give a direct command to something or someone. It usually ends with either an exclamation mark or a period. Indefinite Pronoun: pronoun that refers to an identifiable but not specific thing or person and conveys the idea of all, none, or some. Independent Clause: a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Indirect Object: answers to who or to whom. Ahmed 121
Informative Essay: See “Expository Essay”. Intensifiers: words which are used to add force to the meaning of verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Interjections: words or phrases that show a sudden emotion Interrogative Pronoun: the pronouns that are used to ask questions. Interrogative Sentence: sentences used to ask or to question. It always ends with a question mark.
Introductory Paragraph: the first paragraph, which introduces the main idea for the essay.
L___________________________________ Linking Verbs: See “Helping Verbs”. Loose Sentences: sentences that contain an independent clause followed by a subordinate construction, be it a clause or a phrase, to describe the independent clause.
M__________________________________ Misplaced Modifiers: modifiers that are located on the wrong part of the sentence. Modifier: something that either adds more sense or restricts the noun; usually it either uses an adjective or another noun.
N__________________________________ Narrative Essay: an essay that gives an account to read for the audience. Nonessential Clauses: clauses that are not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Noun: part of speech that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Noun Clause: clause that is used as the noun in a sentence and can function as a subject, a predicate noun, a direct object, an object of a preposition, an indirect object, or an appositive. Noun Endings: suffixes that are added at the end of a word to help structure a noun to the sentence’s benefit. Noun Markers: indicative words that lead up to the use of the noun. Ahmed 122
Noun-Pronoun Agreement: the idea where singular antecedents must have singular pronouns, while plural antecedents must have plural pronouns.
O__________________________________ Object: the nouns or noun phrases which the verb or preposition is directed towards. Object Complement: a function that follows a direct object and renames it. Object of Preposition: object following a preposition.
Object of the Gerund: the noun that follows the gerund. Object of the Infinitive: the noun that follows an infinitive. Object of the Participle: noun that follows a participle. Opinion: a personal statement that shows what side the author takes.
P___________________________________ Paragraph: a distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or numbering. Parallel Structured Sentences: sentences that use the same pattern of words to show that two or more words or ideas are of equal importance and help the reader comprehend what is being written. Paraphrase: the rewording of a quote into other words of the same length without quotation marks, yet at the same time. Parentheses: “( )” symbols, function to include material that you want to de-emphasize or that wouldn't normally fit into the flow of your text but you want to include nonetheless.
Passive Voice: a type of voice. See more on “Voice” in the “Verbs” chapter. Period: “.”, used to end a declarative or imperative sentence. Periodic Sentence: sentence that gives the independent clause at the end, especially in order to make something more suspenseful or interesting. Personal Anecdote: short accounts of an event occurring that is relevant towards the author. Personal Pronouns: pronouns that are associated primarily with a person/people. Ahmed 123
Persuasive Essay: the types of essays that are argumentative. Phrases: groups of words that function as a part of speech. Plural Form: a noun usually with an “s” at the end to show there are many, rather than one. Polysyndeton: a sentence that uses multiple conjunctions in close proximity to each other between words, phrases, or clauses for a rhetorical purpose. Possessive Form: used to show that an object belongs to someone or something else. In order to use this form, you must attach (‘s) at the end of the noun. If the noun that owns the object is plural, then you must use (s’) at the end instead. Predicate: the part of the sentence that tells about what is going on with the subject. Prepositions: words that link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other parts of the sentence. Prepositional Phrases: group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. It is used as an adjective or an adverb. Prompt Based Timed Essay: a type of essay where the individual is given a statement, followed by a question, which would become reiterated within the essay to answer that particular question, the response being based off of the preceding statement in the prompt.
Proper Adjective: adjective that describes noun in a specific category, usually derived from a proper noun. Proper Noun: gives the name or title of a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Punctuation: the mark used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning.
Q__________________________________ Query-based Hook: a hook that asks a question that brings the reader to the topic. Question Mark: “?”, indicates interrogative sentences Quotation Marks: punctuation marks used to say statements from other people/sources. Quotes: words from another person that back up the argument.
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R__________________________________ Rebuttal: a counter to the counterargument. Reflexive Pronouns: pronouns that refer back to the subject of the clause of sentence or emphasizes its antecedent. Relative Clause: dependent clauses that begin with a relative pronoun. Relative Pronoun: pronouns that link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause.
Research Essay: an essay that analyzes argues a point by breaking down the information that is given. Run-on Sentences: sentences that keep going and going and do not stop.
S___________________________________ Semicolon: “;�, indicates a pauses between two main clauses. Sentence Parts: the multiple parts of a sentence.
Sentence Patterns: many variations in how sentences are structured, whether be it short or very detailed. Simple Predicate: only a verb or verb phrase, and it does not contain anything else in the predicate. Simple Sentence: a sentence that is just one independent clause Simple Subject: the main word or words in a subject. It does not include any of the modifiers that might describe the subject. Single Quotation Marks: (‘), a type of quotation marks, usually found within double quotation marks. Statement of Extension: the statement that extends the thesis statement using the consequences of disregarding the implications of the thesis. Subject: the part of the sentence that usually comes before the verb does, and it is the main object in the sentence. Subject Complement: a function that follows a linking verb.
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Subject/Verb Agreement: the idea that singular subjects correspond to singular verbs. Subordinate Clause: clauses that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and must begin with a subordinate conjunction. Summary: the condensation of a quote in concise terms. Superlative: adjectives that show comparison of three or more things.
T___________________________________ Tenses: functions of verb that show and indicate time Theory: a statement that can be tested and potentially proven Thesis Statement: the purpose of a piece of writing—usually one sentence in length—and something that is arguable. Timed Essay: an essay that is timed. Topic Sentence: the beginning of a body paragraph. Transitions: words that help to move on to the next subject in a smooth fashion.
V___________________________________ Verb: shows the time, action, and state of being of the subject within the sentence. Verbal Gerund: word ending in “-ing” used as a noun. Verbal Infinitive: verb preceded by the word “to” (to go, to jump) used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Verbal Participle: word ending in “-ing” or “-ed” used as an adjective.
Verbal Phrases: group of words that begin with a verbal and it usually ends with a noun. Voice: the form of the verb that indicates how it relates or interacts with the action.
W__________________________________ Works Cited: particular proof from where the sources of the evidence for the essay came from, giving credit to the person/people.
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Works Cited Brackemyre, Ted. "America's First Failure at Government." The Articles of Confederation. U.S History Scene, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. Cabrera, Jaime Alfredo. "Research or Proposal Writing." Research or Proposal Writing. SlideShare, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. Casil, Amy Sterling. "How to Write an Interpretive Essay." EHow. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Boston. 16 Dec. 1873. Poem. United States, Boston. Kelly, Martin. "Why Did the Articles of Confederation Fail?" About.com Education. About.com, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. Patton, Marilyn. "Analytical Essay Defined." Analytical Essay Defined. DeAnza College, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Adjectives." Adjectives. ESLDesk, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Comparative and Superlative Adverbs." Comparative and Superlative Adverbs. Edufind, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. " Ellipses." Ellipses. The Punctuation Guide, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Evaluative Essay: Examples, Format & Characteristics." Evaluative Essay: Examples, Format & Characteristics. Study.com, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "How to Master the Document-Based Essay Question on the AP U.S. History Exam." How to Master the Document-Based Essay Question on the AP U.S. History Exam. Study.com, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Introduction Paragraph." Introduction Paragraph. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "MyCCSD." MyCCSD. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Narrative Essay: Definition, Examples & Characteristics." Narrative Essay: Definition, Examples & Characteristics. Study.com, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Persuasive Essay Writing Help, Ideas, Topics, Examples." Persuasive Essay Writing Help, Ideas, Topics, Examples. EssayInfo, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
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"Punctuation – Apostrophes versus Quotation Marks." Punctuation – Apostrophes versus Quotation Marks. Ergons, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Welcome to the Purdue OWL." The Purdue OWL: APA Style. Purdue Online Writing Lab, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Welcome to the Purdue OWL." Purdue OWL: Essay Writing. Purdue Online Writing Lab, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Welcome to the Purdue OWL." Purdue OWL: MLA Formatting and Style Guide. Purdue Online Writing Lab, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "Welcome to Purdue OWL Engagement." Purdue OWL. Purdue OWL Engagement, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "What Is A Dash?" Grammarly Handbook. Grammarly, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "What Is a Demonstrative Adjective?" YourDictionary. LoveToKnow, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. "What Is a Research Paper?" What Is a Research Paper? Empire State College, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
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About the Author Alvee Ahmed is a sixteen year old adolescent male that currently goes to Francisco Bravo Medical Magnet High School. He is in the 11th grade. While he is doing rather well in his academics, he is also involved in many extracurricular activities, such as Cross Country/Track, MESA, Desi Club, and other activities. As a freshman, Alvee was mediocre at best in his English class; during his sophomore year, however, he learned to grasp concepts of English that helped him create this book. Currently, he is taking Honors American Literature and learning more key concepts that he can utilize within his writing.
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Dedication First and foremost, I would like to thank Mr. Raphael Rodriguez, my current Honors American Literature teacher for giving us the task to create a grammar book project; with his motivation, I was able to completely finish this book and let you, the readers, be able to utilize it for your own grammar. Secondly, I would like to thank Mr. Carlos Jimenez and Ms. Tishana Starling, because they got me interested in history in general; without them, I probably would have had a harder time to relate my book towards anything else. Thirdly, I would like to thank my parents; while I am about to digress for a moment, I would just like to put it out there that they were the ones that brought me into this planet, and had they not done so, both I and this book would not have been here. Finally, I would like to thank you, the readers, for taking the time to read this book, when you could be doing absolutely anything else. Finally I would like to thank Antonio Raymundo for giving me inspiration to move along with this project; he gave me much-needed support throughout both sophomore year and junior year.
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