Reflip Type - MFA Thesis (Fall 2021) by Brittany Strozzo

L REFLIP E P TY DEVELOPING VISUAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING TYPOGRAPHY TO COLLEGIATE STUDENTS WITH DYSLEXIA BRITTANY STROZZO MASTER OF FINE ARTS THESIS PROJECT LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION AND THE ARTS DEPARTMENT OF STUDIO AND DIGITAL ARTS

REFLIP L E P TY DEVELOPING VISUAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING TYPOGRAPHY TO COLLEGIATE STUDENTS WITH DYSLEXIA

Rachel Ashley Dugan, M.F.A. | Committee Chair

Sarah Lynn Hoyt, M.F.A | First Reader

Andrea Leigh Brake, M.A., M.B.A. | Second Reader

A. Todd Smith, M.F.A. | Department Chair The personal, religious, philosophical, or political positions found this project are solely that of the student, and do not necessarily reﬂect the views or opinions of the committee or Liberty University.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In writing and developing this thesis, I would like to thank all those individual involved on my committee who have worked alongside me and provided excellent encouragement and feedback. I would like to thank my family for all of the support and my husband who sticks by me through the stressful moments during the development process, as well as the encouragement they have all provided. My students, who may not know I am writing this, were a huge inspiration as I teach students with learning disabilities, dyslexia being one, and I have used this experience to gain insight into be a better teacher for them.

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DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my family who helped me financially to get to this point as well as emotionally. I also dedicate this to my husband who is always by my side to provide encouragement. Finally, I dedicate this thesis research to my students. They inspire me everyday and make me want to be a better professor. In conducting research to understand teaching typography and design to students with dyslexia, I have become a more well-rounded instructor and truthfully have learned some highly impactful information from the research that I plan to take back to the classroom and use to enhance the overall student learning experience.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Introduction................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER 2 Research....................................................................................................................17

CHAPTER 3 Visual Process............................................................................................................55

CHAPTER 4 Final Solution.............................................................................................................89

CHAPTER 5 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 101

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................ 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 135

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ABSTRACT In educational facilities today, the approaches to teaching typography to college students with dyslexia are limited. This thesis provides a research-based pedagogy for teaching typography to students in a way that accommodates the visual, processing, and auditory differences present in students with dyslexia. Through the analysis of the learning disability itself, existing material for graphic designers with dyslexia, and current accessibility standards for those with dyslexia, this thesis offers a practical solution to provide a more balanced learning experience for all students, especially those with dyslexia. The aim of this study was to examine the current graphic design standards and refocus and modify them for ease of readability for all individuals, especially those with dyslexia.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Graphic design is "the art and profession of selecting and arranging visual elements—such as typography, images, symbols, and colors—to convey a message to an audience" (Meggs par. 1). Graphic design is also often referred to as "'visual communications,' [emphasizing] its function of giving form [to elements such as book design], advertisement, logo, or Web site" and other necessary information (Meggs par. 1). Graphic design involves learning specific skills and focusing on developing the visual-based solutions to address a given problem. Designers use a combination of text and graphics to develop content accurately in a layout format. Understanding design means being able to read material accurately in order to address errors or layout text for final concepts. However, if readers have any visual or cognitive impairment, deciphering visual elements, including text, can be very challenging. In the case of this thesis, the focus was dyslexia, which causes readers to struggle with word comprehension and reading because the "person cannot use [their] higher-order linguistic skills to access the meaning [of words or letters] until the printed word has first been decoded and identified"; dyslexia results in a reading deficiency, which “comprises two main processes—decoding and comprehension” (Shaywitz 308). Dyslexia is a cognitive learning disability that affects an individual’s association of letters and words. To define the term, “Dyslexia is a written language disorder characterized by the poor reading of [words and] non-words, and advantage for concrete over abstract words with the production of semantic, visual and morphological errors” (Boumaraf and Macoir 137). Dyslexia affects reading, writing, and visual comprehension capabilities. The comprehension issues stem from a neurological disconnect that results in disrupted communication between the eyes and the brain. Individuals with dyslexia think differently than those without this learning disability. They may think in a highly creative way with an abundance of creative ideas to express; however, due to the cognitive-based dyslexia

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learning disability, these individuals have difficulty effectively using visual elements, such as text, to translate their creative ideas into visual design solutions in the medium of graphic design. Studies have shown that individuals with dyslexia typically think more with the right hemisphere of their brain than the left. The “left brain hemisphere operates in a linear, sequential manner with logical, analytical and propositional thought” (Vlachos, et al. 1536). People with dyslexia have a more right-brained way of thinking because “the right hemisphere [of the brain] operates in a non-linear, simultaneous fashion and deals with nonverbal information as well as dreams, fantasy, and creative thinking (Vlachos, et al. 1536). The left side of the brain, or left hemisphere, is more focused on spoken language, whereas the “right hemisphere is specialized for visuospatial and appositional thought” (Vlachos, et al. 1536). In other words, people with dyslexia, while right-brained in thought processes, “are highly global, visual, relational, and intuitive learners” (Vlachos, et al. 1536). In focusing on creative thinking and creativity as a whole, individuals with dyslexia struggle with reading and writing in grade school, so they devise ways to access visual-spatial skills, such as focusing on the development of ideas visually rather than the written format. Majeed, et al. explained, “Despite the typical verbal [or written] impairments, some research has suggested and found that individuals with Dyslexia significantly outperform their peers without Dyslexia on tests of creativity” (188). “If creativity is indeed enhanced in individuals with Dyslexia, one important implication is that encouraging these individuals to build on this strength can potentially improve their self-esteem and overall emotional adjustment (Majeed, et al. 188). Paying greater attention to this unique strength may also help to change public perceptions of dyslexia as largely a disability, thereby reducing the stigma against individuals with dyslexia” (Majeed, et al. 188). As a college educator teaching students with learning disabilities, I have learned that each student and their learning style is unique. However, finding a uniform approach is key to assisting each student with dyslexia in understanding typography and type arrangement in design. Because my research and

Introduction

observations revealed that some educators perceive a learning disability as an impediment instead of a neurological deficit, I realized it is crucial to focus on building student inclusiveness in class and self-esteem in students’ design capabilities to enhance the overall comprehensive college experience. Teaching design takes time and patience, especially for instructors of college students with dyslexia. A key factor in teaching typography is to show these students that they can perform at the same level as students without dyslexia. The goal of this thesis was to implement a technique with tracking and leading to provide a new standard in typography education for students with dyslexia. This technique of tracking and leading should be significant enough to enhance students’ learning experience but not so excessive that the style itself could not be used in the design industry today. The underlying idea was to provide content that can be accepted in design and at the same time promote a new standard that makes it easier to teach the material and provides a new approach to perceiving typography as design forms rather than just letters for ease of visual comprehension. Established knowledge about dyslexia indicates that for people with dyslexia, the cognitive and visual correlation is different than for those without dyslexia, but these individuals are still creative people seeking to learn new traits. Dyslexia “is typically associated with speed deficits in reading-related tasks, poor phonological and/or phonemic awareness and poor performance in rapidnaming tasks,” (Majeed, et al. 188) as well as “difficulties with accurate and/ or fluent word reading and spelling” (Vlachos, et al. 1537). Even if individuals lack a strong ability in reading and writing accuracy, they can learn to decipher text visually. In other words, students with dyslexia “have a learning style based more on creative, spatial thinking” (Vlachos, et al. 1540). Educators must discover innovative ways to introduce material to students with dyslexia, and focusing on their visual comprehension strengths will be vital to bridging the gap between how these students learn in an environment where not all students have a learning disability. Also, correlating a solution that works for all students will assist in establishing design correlations and allow students to see progressions in typography that make hierarchy, layout, and other key design

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methodologies more apparent. All teaching methods should be inclusive, so that students learn in an encouraging environment, and instructors can focus on idea development and content arrangement using Adobe software. As an instructor and senior graphic designer, it is crucial that I understand all aspects of design to provide the best possible instruction to college students. Through experience and education, I have grown my skill sets to assist students with learning disabilities. My focus on the education of college students with learning disabilities, specifically dyslexia, made me realize that my focus must be not only imparting information but also making students feel that they are part of the big picture, that they are included. It is important to guide education in such a way that understanding is fluid, and inclusivity aids in building confidence. The focus is developing material to break the content down into components or steps that represent progression for understanding. In my experience, it is necessary to break down the complex material into digestible steps to facilitate quick and easy comprehension by students. Through multi-modal instructions, students benefit from visual, auditory, and written representations, techniques which benefit all ranges of students with learning disabilities. This step-by-step approach supports dyslexic students’ ability to understand written content, especially when content is augmented with auditory and visual components. My passion for teaching students with dyslexia goes beyond the learning disability. It is a focus on skills. It is a focus on self-efficacy and self-advocacy for the students. The goal is to promote a safe learning environment where all students feel equal. The learning material does not change in difficulty; instead, my teaching approach changes. The approach focuses on multi-modal learning (auditory, written, and visual). This learning leads to a repetition of material to increase and build upon skills during each class. The passion I have for this type of education derives from the rewards of students’ success and feelings of mastery. Inclusive education provides students with all accessibility they need to enhance their learning experiences; these accessibility elements can also be used in life. The students with dyslexia may think and process material differently, but assisting these students in putting their ideas down on paper is a true reward.

Introduction

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CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH

UNDERSTANDING DYSLEXIA Dyslexia refers to a learning disability that affects an individual’s association with letters and words. To define the term, “Dyslexia is a written language disorder characterized by the poor reading of [words and] non-words, and advantage for concrete over abstract words with the production of semantic, visual and morphological errors” (Boumaraf and Macoir 137). Dyslexia affects reading, writing, and visual comprehension capabilities. The comprehension issues stem from a neurological disconnect in communication between the eyes and the brain. To better understand how an individual with dyslexia views Figure 1 - Visual example of how reading looks for people diagnosed with Dyslexia (Hampstead & Frognal Tutors). letters, see (Figure 1). “The word ‘Dyslexia’ is derived from the Greek language, with ‘dys,’ meaning difficulty and ‘lexia,’ meaning language” (Alsobhi and Alyoubi 26). The language and writing difficulties present with dyslexia include “phonological processing, rapid naming, working memory, processing speed, and the automatic development of skills that may not match up to an individual’s other cognitive abilities” (Alosobhi and Alyoubi 27). Dyslexia is a learning disability that may present itself alongside other metacognitive neurodivergent learning disabilities. The research will focus on dyslexia and typography, an element of graphic design and visual communication that features words and word structures.

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Word association and structure is confusing and uncomfortable for students with dyslexia. The main focus will be on how visual communication can bridge the gap between the challenges associated with dyslexia and typography-based issues while emphasizing educational approaches to enhance learning achievement and prepare the students for a career in design. The research will provide teaching strategies that help students with dyslexia understand typography through visual representation, creating associations with how these students can effectively use images and words to communicate ideas and concepts visually. Providing students with visual representation will also allow them to overcome the reading difficulties that complicate their efforts to design solutions with typography. Students with dyslexia learn in different ways, but those differences do not mean they should not be given the ability to learn and grow their understanding of graphic design. The goal is not to ostracize these individuals due to their unique cognitive abilities; instead, educators are responsible to help them grow and develop career-based skills. First, providing an inclusive learning environment with constructive feedback will benefit the development of self-confidence. Next, it is essential to provide individuals who have dyslexia with a learning environment in which they can succeed. It has been argued that many obstacles to the inclusion of students with dyslexia can be prevented by adopting a universal design for learning. In other words, instructors can design education to simultaneously accommodate students with diverse learning needs, including students with disabilities and specific learning differences. In this framework, instruction is designed with an orientation towards the diversity among students’ needs, reversing the traditional instructional approach in which adjustments for diverse students must be negotiated on an individual basis” (Marco and Mortari 361). Stampoltzis described how teachers’ understanding of dyslexia benefits students: Teachers’ attitudes affect students’ attitudes and their learning outcomes. Teachers play the most important role in the assessment of children’s symptoms and [behaviors] related to dyslexia. Children with dyslexia usually attend mainstream schools, and teachers are responsible for teaching them effectively and helping them achieve academically and socially. Often the key for a pupil is meeting a teacher who understands what it is like to be dyslexic and who knows the difficulties they experience. When teachers understand the nature and

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characteristics of dyslexia, they are better prepared to address students’ needs. [Educators’] adequacy is related to their attitudes, but it is more dependent on their knowledge [of] dyslexia (Stampoltzis et al. 129). Students with dyslexia struggle with visual comprehension of letters and words. When first learning, “[beginner] readers, [or first-grade elementary school children], must decode [printed words] to access the identity of the meaning of words” (Gabrieli 281). At this time, the students “already know the meanings of words in spoken language, but they have to learn to relate language to print through explicit phonological Educators must awareness that spoken words are address the overall composed of discrete sounds (phonemes) that can be mapped onto letters or composite of syllables (graphemes)” (Gabrieli 281).

symptoms, as dyslexia displays different in each person.

There are many forms of dyslexia, and educators must not focus on only one type. Instead, educators must address the overall composite of symptoms, as dyslexia displays differently in each person. Types of dyslexia classified by healthcare officials include phonological dyslexia, double deficit dyslexia, surface dyslexia, visual dyslexia, primary dyslexia, secondary [or developmental] dyslexia, and acquired dyslexia (Philipps pars. 6-13). Also, “other learning difficulties [are] associated with dyslexia,” and these include left-right disorder, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and auditory processing disorder (Philipps par. 14). In determining the type of dyslexia present in an individual, “the most widely used test in clinical practice,” especially in children, “is the so-called rapid automatized naming (RAN) task that assesses the speed with which” the person can identify a “continuously presented series of highly familiar visual stimuli [displayed] as rapidly as possible” (Bexkens, et al. 213). “The [RAN] stimuli” includes naming elements such as “letters, digits, colors or pictures of familiar objects,” and individuals “with dyslexia typically need more time

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to name the RAN items compared with age-matched controls” of individuals without dyslexia (Bexkens, et al. 213). Phonological Dyslexia “is an impairment of reading novel words (non-words) with otherwise good performance in reading familiar words” (Tree and Kay 2861). Phonological dyslexia is seen in both “acquired cases ([obtained in life]), or developmental ([obtained in development prior to birth])” (Tree and Kay 2861). Double Deficit Dyslexia, also referred to as “second core deficit dyslexia, is independent from a phonological deficit” (Vaessen, et al. 202). Dyslexic individuals with double deficits “show more severe literacy problems than dyslexics with a single naming or single phonological deficit because the two problems are independent and additive” (Vaessen, et al. 203). Surface Dyslexia is a form of dyslexia that “is associated with accurate but slow reading of familiar words, and phonological dyslexia is associated with inaccurate non-word reading and poor phonological awareness” (Hanley and Sotiropoulos 336). Surface dyslexia can also be acknowledged as a form of developmental dyslexia. Visual Dyslexia “is defined by visual errors in reading” where the individual includes errors that may lead to “substitutions, omissions, and additions of some of the letters in a target word (when at least half of the letters in the error are present in the target word)” (Friedmann, et al. 1). Primary Dyslexia is “the most common type of dyslexia” and instead of being damage to, it is considered “a dysfunction of the left side of the brain (cerebral cortex) and does not change with age” (Perlstein, “What Are the Six Different Types of Dyslexia?” par. 1). This form of dyslexia can vary in severity, and Perlstein asserted, “Educational intervention will be academically successful throughout their lives” (par. 1). Secondary or Development Dyslexia “is characterized as a specific, severe and persistent deficit in the acquisition of reading and spelling skills that cannot be explained in terms of other cognitive abilities and educational circumstances” (Bexkens, et al. 212). This form of dyslexia is found in “5-10% of

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the general population” and is related to a “deficit in phonological processing,” which inhibits the ability to develop “phoneme-grapheme associations” (Bexkens, et al. 212). Secondary or developmental dyslexia happens due to “problems with the brain development during the early ages of fetal development” (Perlstein "What are the six different types of dyslexia?" par. 2). Acquired Dyslexia or Trauma Dyslexia is a form of dyslexia that “occurs after [there has been] brain trauma or injury to the area of the brain that controls reading and writing” (Perlstein "What are the six different types of dyslexia?" par. 3). Along with dyslexia, other learning difficulties include left-right disorder, wherein individuals cannot interpret specific visual signals or direction; auditory dyslexia, which inhibits auditory processing of sounds; dysgraphia, which affects the ability to hold a pen and write; and dyscalculia, which affects the ability to work with numbers. Overall, it is hard to decipher, as “[well-documented findings show] that most [individuals] with dyslexia demonstrate a mixed profile [and can] be differentially impaired with one type of [educational] stimulus” (Peterson, et al. 348). Individuals “with phonological dyslexia are differently impaired at phoneme awareness (PA), whereas [individuals] with surface dyslexia are differently impaired at tasks emphasizing orthographic knowledge” (Peterson, et al. 349). Understanding the different types of dyslexia clarified the research aim and solidified the final solution approach. The reason for this research was to gain a deeper understanding of dyslexia to understand how to approach teaching typography effectively. Individuals with dyslexia, as a whole, struggle with the visual correlation of letters and words, and they often experience auditory processing difficulties. The goal of teaching creative confidence in typography education is to focus on the visual component. In determining what affected reading and visual interpretation most, the goal was to apply the research information and develop visuals in different formats to provide ease of type letter-to-word correlation. Proper word and letter correlation will allow students with dyslexia to improve their understanding of typographic arrangement and

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why it is essential in creating compelling graphic design work. Also, students will learn how to recognize and replicate similar typographic elements in their visual-based project solutions. In addressing educational approaches to teaching dyslexia, it was crucial to know the different types of dyslexia. The images pictured to the in Figure 2 represent how individuals see with dyslexia. Dyslexia relates to how the eyes perceive the words and the distances between words instead of letters

Figure 2 - Visual disturbances that are present to Dyslexic readers (Hampstead & Frognal Tutors).

(Figure 2). Readers with dyslexia often skip words, and their eyes do not move in sync to read content fluidly. A reprogramming of the perceptual eye span would have to occur for dyslexic individuals to perceive as a person without dyslexia would, reading while spanning across a series of words. What mainly affects the reading component for people with dyslexia is “the loss of parallelism between the two ocular axes during horizontal saccades [or eye movements], a physiological phenomenon first in divergence then in

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convergence at the end of the saccade, occurs differently in dyslexics” (Quercia et al. 873). In other words, this is how the brain to eye connection works for those with dyslexia. Dyslexia affects the connection to the brain, and students with dyslexia especially have “difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, poor decoding skills, and spelling difficulties" (Andresen 1151). As Dyslexic students or individuals read text, “the eyes perform a series of ballistic saccades during which no visual information [processes]” (Quercia et al. 871). Dyslexia can present functionality from high-level processing. For instance, a person may experience a minimal cognitive dysfunction to low-level processing, wherein the individual faces extreme difficulty and disruption between cognitive functionality concerning word understanding and association. It is best to introduce new material to individuals with dyslexia auditorily for comprehension purposes. When introducing visual components first through auditory receptive methods, the pupil can associate the sound with its written form to improve visual comprehension of letterforms, words, and word structures. Figure 3 demonstrates how difficult it is for individuals with dyslexia to read and perceive written material. Dyslexic students tend to focus their reading strategies on using the “slow and capacity-demanding phonological route [however] this process uses a lot of their cognitive capacity to decode words and can have negative consequences for single as well as multiple source comprehension, especially for the integration of information within and across sources” (Andresen, et al. 1152). Students have been more and more exposed to media, too, as the internet evolved. The introduction to the content and images benefits these students regarding memory retention, versus just reading alone. Therefore, providing a visual and hands-on environment could be critical if students with dyslexia are to overcome typography association issues. Along with vision and reading, dyslexia also changes visual attention capabilities: “Visual attention reduces the amount of information that can be processed and accelerates the entire vision process” and is categorized into selective and divided attention types (Quercia et al. 874). “‘Selective’ attention concerns the ability to centralize gaze on the relevant information from among

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left/right confusion

difficulty getting ideas on paper

SPATI

organizational problems

gets lost easily

dates alphabet

AL/ TEMPORAL

time tables

M EM

DIFFICULTIES

cannot remember what words look like

phone numbers coordination difficulties

TRO

NIN

find background noise distracting

DYSLEXIA

LISTE

problems note taking

WRI T I

O RY

can’t find the right words

sequences

ELL

ING

difficulty ‘hearing’ sounds

READING losing place in text

difficulty copying

needing to re-read

handwriting difficulties moving or overlapping text

Figure 3 -Dyslexia Functions Diagram (About Dyspraxia). Redesigned by Brittany Strozzo using Freepik royalty-free graphics (Rawpixel.com “Mental Health Understanding the Brain Vector Free Vector" Digital Image)

multiple stimuli located in the visual field while ignoring those not relevant to the performance of a task’” (Quercia et al. 874). “‘Divided’ attention is defined as ‘the ability to respond to several visual stimuli simultaneously in order to perform two or more visual tasks at the same time’” (Quercia et al. 874). Since dyslexia takes so many forms, understanding focal points and ways to focus the attention is vital. The “attention window” enables educators to address the functionality of an individual with dyslexia and “the amount of orthographic information able to be treated at every step of reading and learning” (Quercia et al. 875). Gaining an understanding of the components of dyslexia aids in understanding how an individual perceives and retains information. Knowing the different components that make up the learning disability and how it has been addressed in past experiences provides insight into new approaches and suggests ways

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to modify how typography can be introduced to students with dyslexia. How students with dyslexia retain information is a crucial component that may become a significant contributor to the design industry, as these students perceive design in a different format than individuals without dyslexia. Students with dyslexia are very visually oriented, as word comprehension is problematic for them. With such a visual perception of the world, students with dyslexia can provide a new generation of visualization, ideation, and vision in design. Individuals with dyslexia have difficulty with writing and spatial and temporal functions. These difficulties affect functions such as telling time or direction, motor control, reading and reading comprehension, spelling, listening, organization, note-taking, hearing, handwriting, and ideation. Also, noises can provide interference. The diagram in figure 3 provides information on the different types of dyslexia and the different problems that arise with each area. Dyslexia can be addressed, and students can improve in skill. However, it takes the right combination of teaching strategies and methods to provide an educational experience these students can understand and strategies that can promote success.

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TYPOGRAPHIC CHOICES & DYSLEXIA The changing of typefaces leads to more fluency in reading overall. Research indicated that educators of college-based graphic design students with dyslexia must assist the students in understanding typography in the best way possible. In a college setting, especially for students with dyslexia, “teachers and educational researchers have suggested that it is always beneficial to simplify material and its presentation to reduce the cognitive load on the learner” (French, et al., 301). Often “in a school setting, students and teachers sometimes judge the success of a lesson based on the ease of understanding, processing, and remembering the presented information” (French, et al., 301). This approach is not appropriate for those with dyslexia and does not apply to metacognitive variations (French, et al., 301). Studies have shown that “making information harder to learn can improve future recall” (French, et al. 301). It is important to understand that recall is the ability to remember stored memory; however, when recall is affected, the individual may have difficulty recalling new information without repetition and practice. However, for learners with dyslexia, overly detailed information can result in high anxiety levels, inability to process material, or other circumstances under which the student cannot follow along and does not receive the necessary resources to succeed. According to French et al., “Desirable difficulties are manipulations of the information to be learned that can make it harder for the learner and slow the learning process” (301); however, having dyslexia does not mean the individual will not experience “increased retention of information over time” (French, et al. 301). A stronger approach, which may be achieved through teaching experience, is not to make the material more difficult but to create a repetitive process that provides the same content repeatedly while slowly introducing new concepts. This approach provides a way to educate students in complex material with less of a processing overload. This method could heavily reduce anxiety and makes the content far more understandable and easier to address.

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DESIGN OF TEXT

FONTS Individuals with dyslexia tend to see letterforms and identify words by their shape rather than the individual letters and combination of letterforms that comprise words. Based on research, “font recommendations come from associations for people with dyslexia, and they agree on using sans-serif fonts,” and “the British Dyslexia Association recommends using Arial, Comic Sans, or, as alternatives to these, Verdana, Tahoma, Century Gothic, and Trebuchet” (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:3). Researchers have not reached a consensus regarding font selection based on evidence-based studies; however, some also “recommended [to avoid using] italics and fancy fonts, which are particularly difficult for a reader with dyslexia, and pointed to Arial as the preferred font choice” (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:4).

Individuals with dyslexia tend to see letterforms and identify words by their shape rather than the individual letters and combination of letterforms that comprise words. Alongside sans serif typefaces or fonts, “the only recommendation for serif fonts came from the International Dyslexia Centre and that was for Times New Roman,” and “Courier is easier to read by people with dyslexia because it is monospaced” (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:4). Helvetica and Helvetica Neue, similar to Arial, are also popular choices. Fonts that have been specifically designed for people diagnosed with dyslexia include “Dyslexie, Read Regular, Lexie Readable, and Open Dyslexic” (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:4). Open

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Dyslexic is the free font variation. Font examples that represent both the above references as well as similar font styles that match the same visual appeal. The following are examples of fonts that include both the above referenced and similar font styles that offer the same visual appeal. Arial > Arial written as example. Baskerville > Baskerville written as example. Helvetica > Helvetica written as example. Helvetica Neue > Helvetica Neue written as example. Comic Sans > Comic Sans written as example. Courier > Courier written as example. Bodoni > Bodoni written as example. Garamond > Garamond written as example. Georgia > Georgia written as example. Myriad > Myriad written as example. Times > Times written as example. Times New Roman > Times New Roman written as example. Tahoma > Tahoma written as example. Verdana > Verdana written as example. Calibri > Calibri written as example. ITC Avant Garde > ITC Avant Garde written as example. Open Sans > Open Sans written as example. Open Dyslexic > Open Dyslexic written as example. Traditional and Modert Type Styles

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The fonts on the previous page are good options because they are sans serif, monospaced, and roman based on structure. These types of “font styles significantly improved the reading performance over serif, proportional and italic fonts” (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:1). Open Dyslexic is a free downloadable font that benefits individuals with dyslexia as the font structure keeps the letters from flipping and moving. Also, Open Sans is an excellent alternative for web-based fonts when fonts like Arial or Helvetica may not be available. Rello and Baeza Yates' research states: Most of the previous work with regular readers without dyslexia applies to the two most common fonts used on screen and in printed texts, Arial and Times [and] users preferred Georgia as more pleasing and easier to read. In a second test, they compared Georgia with Verdana, a sans serif face designed for onscreen use. Users expressed subjective preference for Verdana, but they performed better reading Georgia. Bernard et al. [2003] compared two fonts—Arial and Times—and two font sizes—10 and 12 points—with 35 participants (Rello and Baeza-Yates 15:4). Focusing on using Helvetica font variations, Arial, Verdana, ITC Avant Garde, and Computer Modern will be the most beneficial in developing content for design material regarding benefit design-based understanding for students with dyslexia. When focusing on the design of text, there are specific elements that must be addressed.

FONT READABILITY AND LEGIBILITY When focusing on the design of text, specific elements must be addressed. The only style guide those with dyslexia was developed by the British Dyslexia Association. The goal of this association is to develop a guide that represents the best approaches to developing content for people with dyslexia. However, the downside of this style guide online is that it does not include recommendations for design-specific letter spacing and line spacing; instead,

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the guide states that adding more spacing in these elements is ideal. The standard for typography in today’s industry is to use 12-point type. In Thinking with Type: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, and Students, Lupton stated that “the point system equals 1/72 inch or .35 millimeters. Twelve points equal one pica, the unit commonly used to measure column widths” (38; Figure 5). The readability depends not only on the size of the type but also on the set “width of the letter [which is] intrinsic to the proportions and visual impression of the typeface” (Lupton 38; Figure 4).

Figure 4 - Typography Measurements & Typography Width (Lupton).

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The next factors are the size of the type and the line width, which also play a factor in readability: “Readability and legibility are independent but distinct measures of a reader’s interaction and engagement with any type setting” (Strizver ch. 4). Readability is “the measure of how easy or difficult it is for the reader to understand a written text setting; legibility is defined as the measure of how easy or difficulty it is for the reader to distinguish individual letterforms from each other” (Strizver ch. 4). The readability and legibility of type is dependent on “typographic principles of measurement and spacing, namely line length or measure, character count per line, word spacing, leading, and case, which are all critical to the success of a graphic designer’s typeface selection” (Strizver ch. 4). Designers must consider readers’ comfort, as well. A longer measure, or line length, can “create eye strain, causing the reader to lose their place when reading; shorter line lengths or measures fragment text setting, forcing a reader to become distracted” because the reader must “constantly [return] to a new line of text” (Strizver ch. 4). Even though line lengths vary depending on the application of the text, “a count of sixty (60) to seventy-two (72) characters (including word spaces) per line” is the most “recommended for optimum readability” (Strizver ch. 4).

Word spacing is the critical spacial consideration that has a direct influence on readability of any text setting.

An additional component is word spacing. Word spacing can be adjusted with tracking and letter spacing with kerning in design. Word spacing focuses on “a critical spatial consideration that has a direct influence on the readability of any text setting” (Strizver ch. 4). If there is too little word spacing, readers may encounter “difficulty . . . in distinguishing one word from another”; however, if there is too much spacing, then readers perceive “a visual separation between words, creating a disjunctive and disruptive reading experience” (Strizver ch. 4). Along with word spacing, any designer must also consider elements such as the “x-height, cap height, weight, and type style when evaluating a type selection for any [given] application” (Strizver ch. 4).

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The most notably legible fonts in the industry today are Old Style, Transitional, and Modern text typefaces, respectively, such as Garamond (Claude Garamond, ca. 1530; see here), Baskerville (John Baskerville, 1757; see here), and Bodoni (Giambattista Bodoni, 1798; see here), all possess universal visual characteristics that enhance legibility—simplicity, proportion, and contrast (Strizver ch. 4). “While utilizing these typefaces does not automatically guarantee legible text settings, typographic principles such as measurement, spacing, and alignment will certainly influence how these text settings are read” (Strizver ch. 4). These principles, however, do not denote that these are the only options available; these choices represent industry standard regulated fonts focusing on readability and legibility. When focusing on readability and legibility, “form follows function,” and “you need to remember that optimum readability and legibility allow a reader to immediately focus on words first, not on the typeface [selected]” (Strizver ch. 4). For people with dyslexia, the most readable font styles are sans serif fonts, as stated above in the research. Other researchers have tested variables but provided more results for what individuals with dyslexia cannot do than what they can achieve. Research findings indicated that the “font size should be 12-14 point or equivalent” as larger fonts are more readable to individuals with dyslexia (British Dyslexia Association "Readable fonts" par. 2). Letters should have “larger inter-letter/character spacing (sometimes called tracking) [which] improves readability, ideally around 35% of the average letter width” (British Dyslexia Association "Readable fonts" par. 3). The 35% mark for letter width is stated to be ideal because if the “letter spacing is excessive it can reduce readability,” which is the opposite of the intended goal to increase readability. Also, the “inter-word spacing should be at least 3.5 times the inter-letter spacing” (British Dyslexia Association "Readable fonts" par. 4). The line spacing itself, also referred to as leading, should be “1.5/150% [which is preferable” (British Dyslexia Association "Readable fonts" par. 5 ). When understanding and using the 1.5 measurement, it is best to represent that the spacing is the number multiplied by 1.5.

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Another recommendation is to avoid any form of italics or underlining “as this can make the text appear to run together and cause crowding” of letters (British Dyslexia Association par. 6). If emphasis is needed, it is best to use bolding of letters or words. Another rule is to “avoid text in uppercase/capital letters and small caps, which can be less familiar to the reader and harder to read” (British Dyslexia Association par. 7).

FONT HEADINGS AND STYLES When using headings and styles in writing, consistency is key to ensure the content is easy to follow for the individual with dyslexia. Heading type should be “at least 20% larger” than body copy or “normal text” in a document (British Dyslexia Association "Headings and structure" par. 2). Bolding can be used with headers if more emphasis is needed. Also, designers should make sure there is extra space added with any headings and between each paragraph for ease of navigation on the page and readability. Also, because hyperlinks can easily be seen as headings or important type, make sure to distinguish hyperlinks so they appear different and are easy to find and not easily confused with other type elements. When working with type, use formatting tools prebuilt into the software, such as “text alignment, justification, indents, lists, line and paragraph spacing to support assistive technology users” (British Dyslexia Association "Headings and structure" par. 3).

FONT & LAYOUT COLORS When working with type and color, and content in regard to document color formats, there are various rules that should be followed to increase readability for individuals with dyslexia. It is best to “use single color backgrounds [and to] avoid [use of] background patterns or pictures and distracting” elements (British Dyslexia Foundation "Colour" par. 1). Make sure that there are high

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levels of contrast between text and backgrounds. The use of “dark colored text on a light (not white) background” is most ideal (British Dyslexia Foundation "Colour" par. 3). White backgrounds are not preferred as “white can appear too dazzling” and be a distraction to letter recognition (British Dyslexia Foundation par. 3). The colors to avoid using are green, red, and pnk because “these colors are difficult for those who have color vision deficiencies (color blindness)” (British Dyslexia Foundation "Colour" par. 4). Also, when printing, matte paper represents a stronger readable surface as gloss

FONT LAYOUT When working with type layout, “left align text, without justification” (British Dyslexia Foundation "Layout" par. 1). When possible, avoid the use of columns, as seen in newspapers. The length of lines of text should not exceed “60 to 70 characters” (British Dyslexia Foundation "Layout" par. 3). White space should be used in reduce “clutter near text and group related content” (British Dyslexia Foundation "Layout" par. 4). Finally, it is good to include a table of contents to enhance navigation of a document that has a lot of written content, like a book.

TYPING WITH FONTS When typing content for individuals with dyslexia, designers should focus on using an “active rather than passive voice” and “be concise” to “avoid using long, dense paragraphs” (British Dyslexia Foundation "Writing Style" par. 1). Make sure the sentences are concise, and avoid unnecessary words. The “use [of] images to support text” enhances readability and reading comprehension (British Dyslexia Foundation "Writing Style" par. 4). The use of bullet points or numbered lists can also improve readability by breaking up content in a more evenly spaced format than paragraphs. Always “give instructions clearly, avoid double negatives, and avoid abbreviations where possible,” and provide a glossary “if abbreviations or complex words are used (British Dyslexia Foundation "Writing Style" par. 9).

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TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING TYPOGRAPHY There are several components to focus on when teaching typography to students with dyslexia. These components should relate to multi-modal learning, literacy, and inclusivity. The first focus should be a structured and comprehensive literacy approach. Students with dyslexia typically have a lower literacy in reading and writing due to a visual misconception of words and letters. Providing an alternative to reading, such as accessibility readers, boosts confidence in the activity of reading. For example, “a small handheld e-reader device, formatted to display a few words per line” allows for the reduction of content viewed at one time in large text-based elements. The same readers who struggle can read the content and “sight words” on the page more easily using a device. Therefore, students learn to recognize and decode phonemes and in turn “read more rapidly” (Schneps et al. 1). When it comes to improving writing, a focus on practice will boost students’ confidence in writing techniques: “Students with dyslexia often [have writing difficulties, [and this factor] can be partially attributed to their reading difficulties, [which] can manifest in many ways in their writing, such as poor spelling, poor legibility, lack of diverse vocabulary, poor idea development, and/or lack of organization” of content (Hebert et al. 843). Working on improving such writing deficits will lead to improved written skills for those with dyslexia. Students with dyslexia should be developing writing skills even in typography classes as they need to be able to catch errors and read and manipulate text in the design field. The higher the self-efficacy with reading and writing, the better the result for final designs. Creating an inclusive classroom is another way to reduce the negative stigma of dyslexia: “A lack of confidence can affect their performance, especially in social situations, such as reading and writing in front of others” (Pino and Mortari 347). “Dyslexic students pose a particular challenge to academic staff because their difficulties are hidden” (Pino and Mortari 347). An instructor or professor

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may not be aware of the learning disability and therefore may feel as if the student is not participating, when in truth, the symptoms of dyslexia are not outwardly recognizable, and the student may be unable to maintain the same level of coursework as a student without dyslexia. Therefore, pointing out that a student is lazy or not working because they have Dyslexia does not promote their self-esteem overall. Also, teaching at the rate of a non-Dyslexic student will typically confuse the student with Dyslexia and leave them having questions they are fearful of asking. In turn, creating an inclusive learning environment allows everyone to feel equal. It promotes learning and the ability for anyone to ask any type of question. This allows the student with Dyslexia to feel included and provides the student with the needed time to learn, both inside The best and outside of the classroom. This experience approaches derive also allows the student to learn self-advocacy and speak up for themselves if material is not from logical understood without scorn or discrimination.

ideas of how the

Therefore, a teacher’s asserting that a student is lazy or not working when they in fact have dyslexia information should does not promote their self-esteem overall. Also, be relayed to teaching methods that are designed for students students. without dyslexia typically confuse students with dyslexia and leave them with questions they are afraid to ask. In contrast, creating an inclusive learning environment allows everyone to feel equal. Such an environment promotes learning and makes space for anyone to ask any type of question. This approach allows the students with dyslexia to feel included and provides all students with the time they need to learn, both inside and outside of the classroom. This experience also allows the students to learn self-advocacy and speak up for themselves without fear of scorn or discrimination. In regard to placing typography, the best approaches derive from logical ideas of how the information should be relayed. Focusing on ways to separate the text to have wider tracking and more leading will provide an easier understanding of the text in general. This arrangement allows students with dyslexia to read the

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information more easily. Also, presenting different versions, including extraspaced text and closer-spaced text, allows easier processing and reading for dyslexic students. This approach is effective because the students will first read the letters with higher tracking and kerning, understand the content, and then move on to the lower tracked and leaded text, where they will see the letters in a more visual format and be able to read more easily. This practice promotes reading literacy and design confidence overall. Also, it is key to incorporate multi-modal learning. Consistently presenting material in a written format, verbal format, and visual format improves the students’ overall cognition. Students can perceive the information in different formats, and receiving the information in a multi-modal format will allow the enhancement of self-efficacy, and in turn, the student will learn the material in a more well-rounded format.

It is key to incorporate multi-modal learning. Consistently presenting material in a written format, verbal format, and visual format improves the students’ overall cognition.

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DYSLEXIA IN GRAPHIC DESIGN EDUCATION In working to understand the education of students with dyslexia, it is vital that instructors understand the learning disability. However, it is also essential to have a strong understanding of the material being taught. In gaining a strong understanding of the current teaching techniques available to students with dyslexia, instructors may develop new insights that enhance productivity and retention among graphic design students with dyslexia in college settings.

GRAPHIC DESIGN GRAPHIC DESIGN DISCIPLINE Graphic design is a profession and discipline learned through understanding basic design principles to gain real-world experience. Graphic design is more than just preparing “students for professional practice”; design also must be taken seriously as a program of study with “a state of flux” and constant “external engagement” to provide growth and development (Harland 5). Teaching alone is insufficient to train graphic designers. Providing students with real-world experiences and practice is vital in aiding and engaging on a higher level. Harland focuses on creative engagement as the research states: Engaging creativity: employing assessment feedback strategies to support confidence and creativity in graphic design practice dampens the student fixation on grades by emphasizing the importance of the teacher-student relationship and value of face-to-face feedback, despite institutional barriers working against this practice. (Harland 5) The more engaged a student is, the more confident the student will become in making design decisions. In turn, the focus should be on skill and learning, not grades, so students will focus less on how much they can make and more on how they can improve their skills and work ethic.

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DESIGN METHODS & COMMUNICATION Students must correlate theory to practice to engage in the course material. For example, “design students usually are unmotivated to read semiotics theory without a clear relation to practice” (de la Cruz and Mejia 84). In other words, students react more and engage more when they learn theory in correlation with a hands-on activity. Students can better understand course material if they can work on a project or exercise that provides a tangible example of the design’s element, how it is used, and why it is essential. As students learn theory, working with content provides a robust understanding and recall. If the theory were taught alone, students might neither sustain interest nor relate elements as easily. Another crucial element is teaching with graphics. For example, “mood boards offer a visual and censorial channel of communication,” and this visual representation “can take an active role assisting problem finding and also problem-solving in the design process” (Ormecioglu and Ucar 1802). Mood boards are just one of the many ways students who do not work well with large amounts of text can visually relay and document research. Mood boards serve as vital representation pieces for research advancement towards final design pieces.

DESIGN PROCESS According to Lu et al., “During the design process, it is not possible for someone to be under optimal conditions and have unlimited inspiration at all times” (154). However, for students with dyslexia, who may already have confidence issues, the lack of ability to develop an idea may lead to emotional shutdown. Allowing these students the flexibility to develop a design and research process that suits their learning style will help them discover their own eureka moments. Students must also be aware that research and research development aids in understanding and better development of design work through gaining physical samples or more knowledge of the topic itself. Lu et

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al. explained, “As confirmed in numerous studies, designers’ iterative behavior varies between their moves and the images they are seeing,” and the aspects of their process may not be limited to personal experiences (155). Helping students to focus on the “big idea approach [which] relies primarily on image associations” provides its benefits (Lu et al. 156). When numbers and letters are eliminated, students with dyslexia can make associations and correlations with visual images. These visual images can then aid in relationships later with typographic arrangement. Students with dyslexia have varied and different cognitive processes, as represented in Figure 5, which must be addressed individually based on unique neurological considerations. Students must focus not only on design abilities and technical knowledge but also on creative confidence to evolve and grow through design development and achieve professionalism. Gaining creative confidence does not happen overnight, and if students have low levels of self-confidence, focusing on creative confidence may take more time and effort. Focusing on education in graphic design for students with dyslexia requires an understanding of practice, hands-on experience, and psychology. Increasing creative confidence requires “the willingness to take adaptive risks [and the] risk of making mistakes and even failing” in order to learn and grow (Beghetto et al. 2). Students must understand that taking risks and sometimes not succeeding is a normal and helpful part of the experience of learning. Teaching must involve the ability to develop content and the understanding of how to address design education with real-life values in the classroom.

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Figure 5 - Neurological Considerations for Dyslexia (National Center on Improving Literacy)..

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MULTI-MODAL & NEUROIMAGING The last area to address is multi-modal neuroimaging for students with dyslexia. Multi-modal techniques focus on educating students via multiple senses, using visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and reading and writing strategies with every educational approach (Figure 6). According to Kleven, et al., “Visual learning involves the use of graphs, infographics, Figure 6 - Multi-modal learning styles cartoons and illustrations, videos, artwork, flow (Kleven, Frances, et al.). charts and diagrams” to stimulate the eyes and brain of the individual ("Visual Learning" par. 1). “Auditory learning is mostly concerned with what we listen to” and focuses on lecture or other auditory relay methods (Kleven, et al. "Auditory learning" par. 1). “Kinesthetic learning gets learners active” and can involve moving around the room for learning games or group activities to stimulate the mind (Kleven, et al. "Kinesthetic learning" par. 1). Finally, reading and writing deals directly with “text-based courses, PDFs, documents, books, and eBooks” (Kleven, et al. par. 1). Introducing multi-modal learning methodologies to students in a format relating to design and typography may enhance a unique learning environment and reinforce learning strategies. The learning strategies may include repetition and practice to aid in retention.

GRAPHIC DESIGN OF TEXT ON READING QUALITY Findings from another study represented how designing text can benefit readability for students with dyslexia: “A reader affected by the chaotic eye movements caused by the magnocellular system, which manifests itself by impaired visual perfection,” may benefit from increased font size and strategic layout of text on a page (Zikl, et al. 1).

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Since dyslexia is “a specific speech disorder of constitutional origin characterized by problems with decoding of individual words, usually reflecting an insufficient capacity for phonological processing,” problems arise with text orientation in design (Zikl et al. 2). Variables affected include “reading performance—speed, correctness, reading technique [and] comprehension”— as well as difficulties with “orientation in the text [and] text reproduction” (Zikl et al. 2). Students with dyslexia may experience confusion especially in the use of letters that have “similar shapes such as b-d-p, a-o-e, m-n, [and] l-k-h,” along with “kinetic inversions [transposition of syllables], skipping or adding syllables, words or sentences, inappropriate use of omission of diacritics or guessing of word endings” (Zikl et al. 2). Many different levels of complexity impact understanding, and a typographic education for students with dyslexia requires a multi-modal approach. When using typography in design, it is essential to address how pupils with dyslexia see and interact with text from low-level to high-level processing capabilities. According to Zikl, et al., “pupils with dyslexia show a greater number of correctly read words” when text is presented in three specific formats, including S2 “bigger font”, S3 “larger spaces between words and lines,” and S4 the “alternation of bold and normal print” words (Zikl, et al. 4; Table 2). The study indicated that “pupils with dyslexia usually feared reading,

Table 2 - Reading accuracy with type modifications (Zikl et al).

they are demotivated, and if they found one of the texts easier/ more legible, it could be reflected in a more positive attitude towards reading” and type usage (Zikl, et al. 4). Text modifications could lead to a more natural way to interpret

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and understand type usage in design and overall readability for those with the dyslexia learning disability (Figure 7). Benefits were seen when font sizes were more extensive, and more space was provided between lines and words on the page. This research can provide an understanding of how content spacing is vital for easier readability for students with dyslexia. In designing, this same representation can be carried out to create compelling work that can be visually perceived and understood by those students’ metacognitive-focused functionality.

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Figure 7 - Simplified text display for Dyslexia comprehension (Dawood).

In researching and understanding about educating students with dyslexia, it is vital to understand the learning disability; however, it is also essential to have a strong understanding of the material being taught in order to provide full understanding and clarity of the material. This thesis focuses on teaching typography to college students with dyslexia by focusing on teaching strategies in graphic design education. In gaining a better understanding of current teaching techniques, educators may develop an understanding and new insights into teaching techniques that enhance productivity and retention among students with dyslexia in college-based settings.

HIGHER EDUCATION & INCLUSIVENESS Another critical factor is inclusion. Students with any learning disability already often feel ostracized by society or peers. The inclusion of these individuals in activities or course material actively benefits self-esteem and boosts

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interactivity and learning. Also, allowing students with dyslexia sufficient time to process material before involvement provides a more robust understanding and a strong eagerness to participate in course work and activities. In higher education, students with dyslexia often struggle with “reading, writing, [and] verbal expression”; however, in communication-based design, courses emphasize text differently (Çorlu, et al. 217). “For example, in order to emphasize the meaning of the text, a professional graphic designer utilizes different angles, type sizes, characters, and even irrational layouts just as dyslexics do”; such a practice significantly benefits students with dyslexia, who then learn to visually portray text over standard written format (Çorlu, et al. 217). “Educational modes [present today] of dyslexia also place importance on the mediating effects of the environment such as inadequate teaching methods, or inadequate exposure to literacy, which exacerbates the difficulties [of having dyslexia in educational environments]” (Riddick 223). For example, “individuals [with dyslexia] may have impairments”; however, “these are only transformed into disabilities by the negative attitudes” of those educating them or by “the society they live in”(Riddick 224). The goal of educating students with dyslexia should not directly focus on one particular student; instead, educators may focus on inclusion through “school reform” (Riddick 225). For “specific learning difficulties and behavior difficulties, [a school’s educational structure] is often the [issue] because [the] school prescribes a narrow band of acceptable behavior or learning which does not accommodate [for] the diversity of [all] student characteristics (Riddick 226). The educational facility must adapt to teaching all learning types with patience and metacognitive learning formats to enhance inclusion, educational performance, and comprehension capabilities for everyone, especially individuals with dyslexia. For students with dyslexia Pino and Mortar reference how: a lack of confidence can affect their performance, especially in social situations, such as reading and writing in front of others. Dyslexic students pose a particular challenge to academic staff because their

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difficulties are hidden. The possibility of meeting the needs of students with dyslexia and enhancing their learning potential is, therefore, contingent upon their choice to self-identify as having a diagnosis of dyslexia. (Pino and Mortari 347) Inclusiveness must involve not only peers but also educators. In a study of educators and lecturers, some expressed “skepticism” in regard to a student’s statement that they had dyslexia. In contrast, other educators might state that “there was no point in aiming for higher because you are dyslexic” (Pino and Mortari 358). When an individual with dyslexia is told they cannot complete a task correctly because the educator is not giving them a chance, the student may experience a shutdown or lose the desire to master content. Overall, focusing on inclusiveness and appropriate educational approaches is necessary to provide a well-rounded experience of learning typography and to promote self-esteem and enhance growth and development among individuals with dyslexia.

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LIMITED TEACHING STRATEGIES EXIST Teaching strategies to meet basic accessibility needs exist in some college or universities for students with dyslexia, but outside of these elements, students are left to fend for themselves as if they have no learning disability. Previous studies on graphic design and dyslexia include explorations of reading, selfefficacy, and inclusivity. Reading studies focus on “the reading quality of pupils with dyslexia in relation to the graphic design of text” where “text modifications chosen [during the study] were those recommended for readers [with dyslexia], i.e., highlighting of syllables, using larger font sizes and spaces between words and lines, in comparison with the font size and line spacing commonly used in reading books” based on the given age group (Zikl, et al. 2). Also, “the graphically modified text will have a positive impact on the reading speed of pupils [with dyslexia] in comparison with the regular [standardized] text” (Zikl, et al. 2). Self-efficacy studies represent that the “belief that one can successfully complete a task or course of action in a specific context” has been demonstrated and “self-efficacy is one of the most vital intrapersonal capacities in [any] environment” to promote positive behavior and success (Nalavany, et al. 18). Inclusivity, simply the inclusion of all individuals in activities, also enhances self-efficacy. The idea, in any setting, especially a college classroom, is to avoid “low self-esteem [which] results in feelings of unworthiness, inadequacies, and deficiencies” by making the student feel included and capable (Nalavany, et al. 284). Feeling involved and part of a bigger picture may enhance students’ overall self-worth and in turn increase “social competence, problem-solving ability, intellectual ability, self-competence, and worth relative to others” (Nalavany, et al. 284). Ways to enhance this overall feeling of self-efficacy and inclusivity are to adopt the use of dyslexia-friendly marketing and course materials to really allow the student to feel as if they can be easily involved in the process itself, as well as providing easy access to all necessary assistive technology as well as learning

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or emotional counseling when needed. These elements, along with course support, may establish an active and engaging learning environment.

Graphic design students with dyslexia are taught on the same level of any other student with no regard to their specific needs in order to aid in the ability for those with dyslexia to better understand and process material. The focus on the visuals produced in Chapters 3 and 4 will lead to enhanced learning experiences for students with dyslexia by describing a detailed teaching approach to accompany design course work. The goal is to introduce typography in a step-by-step methodology and through modified tracking and leading.

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DYSLEXIA IN DESIGN CLASSES Studiesfocusing on design classes are nearly nonexistent; therefore, this section will focus on classroom settings for students with dyslexia in general. Some educational facilities assist students with learning disabilities. Beacon College is one of the leading colleges in the nation that focuses specifically on educating college students with learning disabilities, including dyslexia. The disheartening situation is that most higher education facilities do not see dyslexia as a disability and therefore treat the students as if they were incapable of doing the work. “Dyslexia affects 10–20% of the population in all literate countries” and is a common disability among college students (Dawson 189). In the current educational system, many institutions do not have a good understanding of how to help students with dyslexia: Despite the fact that dyslexia has been recognized as a specific developmental reading disability in medically oriented disciplines for over a century (Hinshelwood, 1909; Orton, 1925), the translation of basic science research into improved methods for the instruction of individuals with dyslexia is limited (Alsobhi, Khan, & Rahanu, 2015; Shaywitz, 2008; Wilson & Oxford, 2015), and most of this work focuses on interventions to remediate deficiencies (Grigorenko et al., 2020) or strategies to mediate or compensate for learning challenges (Edyburn 2007; Dawson 189). College or university institutions do not always address dyslexia as a learning disability and provide limited assistance or accessibility components to students with dyslexia. “Cognitive psychologists [have] insufficiently attended to the experiences of dyslexic people and how different learning contexts and discourses shape the ways dyslexia is understood and managed” (Cameron and Billington 1359). Their conclusions indicate that psychologists seem to “forget that [the] measurements and conclusions are the product of

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social processes and therefore not a neutral route to the discovery of facts” (Cameron and Bilington 1359). There is also a perception by “some parents, educators, dyslexic people and other members of the public” that dyslexia is not really a learning disability but rather just a set of literacy difficulties and therefore associate the idea of dyslexia with “laziness or stupidity” (Cameron and Billington 1359). The fact that those with dyslexia think this way is a result of societal stigma. Educators must also contend with the perception that students with dyslexia who seek additional help are cheating. Overall, the focus on dyslexia needs to change so the students can get proper education with accessibility components that will lead to higher self-efficacy in the workforce.

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DYSLEXIA IN EMPLOYMENT Previous findings indicated that “there is considerable evidence that dyslexia affects individuals throughout their lives in many spheres of activity including work” (Nalavany et al. 17). Even with the Americans with Disabilities Act passed to reduce workplace discrimination, “de Beer et al. (2014) found that employees with dyslexia, their employers, and work colleagues all viewed having dyslexia as a disadvantage” (Nalavany et al. 17). Also, an additional study showed that many adults with dyslexia “have lower self-esteem than their non-dyslexic peers and lower job satisfaction” (Nalavany et al. 17). Knowing that adults often struggle with self-efficacy when entering the work environment, educators’ addressing the issue at a student level to promote self-efficacy, or “the belief that one can complete a task or course of action in a specific context,” could significantly enhance performance (Nalavany et al. 18). A large part of self-confidence is believing in oneself and one’s ability. Self-efficacy also focuses on intention, behavior, motivation, and the ability to execute activities that influence “creative decision making” and work engagement (Nalavany et al. 19). In working with students with dyslexia, it is critical to focus on enhancing skills through practice and building confidence in skills. This focus will enhance the emotional experience and support better real-life work experiences once students graduate. Focusing on improving self-efficacy early on may reduce impacts of workplace trauma, such as “symptoms of depression or anxiety, insomnia, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, excessive anxiety and worry, irritability, and panic attacks (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)” (Nalavany et al. 18). Once they have built their skills, the students will need to find the ideal fit in their career to enhance self-efficacy.

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It is key in developing self-efficacy skills early in the development phase for individuals with dyslexia. The skills, first developed in grade school education, should then be enhanced through college-based education. Students with dyslexia in a college settings should understand their own skills and be able to practice them efficiently and effectively. Building confidence at the college level by teaching career-based skills will provide students with a level of selfefficacy that can lead into the workplace. If individuals with dyslexia enter the workplace with a stronger overall confidence, the adjustment phase should be less detrimental, and those individuals’ coping skills will make them more efficient overall. Looking at these issues in the context of the pervasive lack of self-efficacy and acceptance in the workplace, it is clear there is a problem to be solved. Design can be used to help solve this problem. In developing a system that is implemented in education, especially in graphic design education, students with dyslexia may be provided with a written format that is easier to read and comprehend, which will also aid in their understanding of the use of typography in design.

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CHAPTER 3

VISUAL PROCESS

Visual Process

DESIGN PLAN The plan for the design was to develop resources for an educational approach. The concepts consist of poster development, or print-based materials, as well as an app design or user-interface (UX) development. These tools are meant to provide an approach to understanding typography more easily for students with dyslexia as well as to provide a new approach to presenting typography in a more accessible way for all readers. Aims include improving readability, legibility, and letter interpretation through increased tracking and leading of content. This increase in leading is not highly spaced and not based on the design industry standard. The tracking, or spacing of letters in orders, and kerning, or spacing between two letters, is adjusted just enough to accomplish ease of readability for those with dyslexia. This mild modification does not disrupt the design but increases the audience that can see the material. Providing these design elements in education also helps in explaining typography for students in graphic design. Students with dyslexia will more quickly learn letter recognition as relevant to design quality and be able to develop material they can easily read by applying slight modifications without disrupting industry standards. The design concepts address an adjustment in teaching students with dyslexia so such individuals can understand and better process material in higher education courses.

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ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM The final designs will enrich education and ease the transition to understanding typography in design for individuals with dyslexia, and the material will also initiate a new standard in design that does not heavily deviate from current design standards but only enhances them for people with dyslexia. Research presented the understanding that 1.5 for leading, equivalent to 1.5x the font size or 1.5x the font’s automatic leading size, improves the readability for people with dyslexia and all audiences. The type is not spaced so far that it disrupts reading, but it is also not spaced so closely that it causes letter confusion for people with dyslexia. Through design research and gaining a more robust understanding of dyslexia, the intent was to develop a set of posters and an app that promotes understanding of type arrangement in design and meets accessibility needs. The posters will promote learning typography and learning to see type as an image to understand proper type arrangement using design principles. The mobile application will provide more in-depth education on typography and break down each element, serving as a tool to teach the importance of typography, type arrangement, type hierarchy, and the readability and legibility of type. Since the majority of graphic design work involves typesetting, these are necessary skills to develop. It is essential that educators determine a collegiate educational model that demonstrates and teaches industry standards in typography, type arrangement, and design principles, while presenting content in a manner that is accessible for students with dyslexia.

Visual Process

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MOOD BOARD FOR POSTER DESIGNS Mood boards are a great mechanism for brainstorming and conceptualizing ideas for final designs. Previous research and understanding of typographic arrangement indicated the mood board allows the arrangement of visual information to demonstrate what aspects of the design could be best understood by users with dyslexia. The mood board shown here references sample color palettes that research indicated are the best color combinations for individuals with dyslexia. The selected fonts were chosen from the British Dyslexic Association’s recommendations for fonts that represent best readability and legibility for individuals with dyslexia. The visual representations of broken letters and typed paragraphs represent how individuals with dyslexia see. Research indicates that no one can truly understand how someone with dyslexia sees, but these visual representations are based on the work of designers who have studied dyslexia and developed visual examples based on feedback in field studies. The designs are meant to represent how individuals with dyslexia describe how they view words. Of course, as research indicated, there are many forms of dyslexia, and no two individuals with dyslexia are the same. Understanding the broad spectrum of the neurological disadvantage supports development of a visual solution that would improve the overall readability and legibility of characters.

Visual Process

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Typography The definition of typography Bus re comnis sunt harum volorep erferna musdae. Itatur, cusam aut eaqui blacipis eos quos doluptas

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Kerning

Tracking

Leading

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Left Align

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Right Align

Centered

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Justified

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Kerning

Tracking

Leading

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Left Align

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Right Align

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Centered

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Justified

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POSTER SKETCHES AND IDEATION The sketches were the beginning of the process of ideating and understanding how to develop posters that would best represent design to accommodate people with dyslexia. The ideas in sketching and writing out content were to express the best way, in the early research period, of representing the readable type. More research denoted that spacing between lines (1.5 or 21 points) and higher tracking of words would improve readability in education for students with dyslexia. The samples above represent visual studies of using different types in a spaced-out arrangement

Visual Process

Big Header Secondary Title

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officiis doluptatus utae. Ustias et qui vendit vendae. Dignissus veliaestrum aut opta cus, ommoluptur?

repel molupta tiumque qui optis nihilla boremol oruptaque con coriorro ommodio. Ribusam dolo dolupta tquunti tenectem delia eum laborro veri omnistrum excerro remquiae velles parumquodia qui nonet ommolore pro ma venis reptae mi, int, iurit verspis invenec eribusdam si tem esciis sum quas min cullaccusdam ra nonsedignis ere voloreriorem nis samus aut int maio tescia dolut et ipsam, nobitio dolessit id ulpa quati consequ idendendia inciis pore idit dus dolorer feriae numque laborem autectaerro mo blab imporest ipsundit fugiatem hita que reic tem qui

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Big Header

Secondary text that will focus on information which is right aligned.

Secondary Title Section Title Obitis restion corpost, ute venihillat occullo reperum eiur aut endam, nobit, invenist ut pore cullam, sus dis el id quibusam harcitem adit assuntotasin re core ad ut ad et voloreperum et, ommodi re, que reiur secto de mos porempor simaxim illendis dolloreriae sam et et veliquibus est, voluptatis doluptia con et occum eatur aut asperum qui volorerum unt electibusam nonem qui tem niti debitatecta nam aut eum reperoratus autatem olorro eosam, nieniet velitat ibeatistios comnia pratia doluptaspero consequ assume ditior am inullup taerfer ionesto quodi consequam, officiis doluptate perferf erchici omnietur? As venis excest acesti blatiandunt voluptat exere volorpor as elesseque doluptatatem evenda sequia qui consed mil ipsandi gendipistia nit omnimporis iur, int, exero ipis dolut lam eatin pro vendesecepel est, sum enecest, audam, volecustint volum dit

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POSTER SKETCHES AND IDEATION If they understand which concepts work, educators can identify early concepts that will not provide the best introduction of typography to students with dyslexia in higher education. The posters are a great early introduction as the posters are simple and can also be a hands-on educational design demonstration for course instruction. However, in researching typography, I initially explored concepts that would represent page layout. Upon further research and finding that simple type would be a better representation at first, I decided to no longer approach the idea of the page layout as an early introduction as it might cause confusion and be a more complex example that would be best introduced to more advanced students who already understand typography. Exploration and research are a great way to learn what are the best approaches and what approaches would work better at a later time.

Visual Process

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MOOD BOARD FOR MOBILE APP DESIGN To understand type arrangement research and the components of type spacing and color for individuals with dyslexia, I felt it best to develop a component that accompanies the poster designs and provides an aid to students who need a reference to typography rules as they are learning. The same design rules applied to the posters are to be applied to the app. The mobile app concept, which will be a prototype, will replicate the design concepts and color schemes from the posters to produce a usable tool for students with dyslexia. Students will be able to reference concepts such as type arrangement, type spacing, typography components, and other aspects of typography anatomy and structure. This tool will be usable alongside physical design work to help students understand and promote letter recognition.

Visual Process

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MOBILE SKETCHES AND IDEATION The sketches pictured represent my ideas of what would make the best assets in a mobile app to accompany the study of graphic design by students with dyslexia. The sketches illustrate several examples, including type anatomy, with each letter representing one specific component of anatomy and then a definition to explain. The app will allow students to search concepts quickly and provide useful information about specific elements, such as type anatomy, type arrangement, type alignment, and other basic typography elements in design.

Visual Process

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MOBILE APP The mobile application’s final concept is a secondary tool that students can use as a study guide. The app follows the same guidelines as the posters and derived from design research. Fonts with tracking and appropriate leading can be applied based on discoveries of what is best for students with dyslexia. The app would pair as a reference piece. When students are working, whether they have dyslexia or not, they can reference the app to understand key terms and other functional components of typography. The early stages of the app focused on finding a layout that would benefit students with dyslexia, as well as provide visual and written components. The auditory elements would be read with the reader built into the device.

Visual Process

COURSE FINAL TYPOGRAPHY COLLEGE COURSE

FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DIFFERENCES BRITTANY STROZZO | ARTS 524 - ADVANCED TYPOGRAPHY

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TYPOGRAPHY CURRICULUM The typography course curriculum developed in the Advanced Typography class at Liberty University was the main inspiration behind the thesis topic. In the Advanced Typography class, I developed a course curriculum that I could be presented and implement to teach college students with learning disabilities in my current position as a college instructor. The college decided it would be a great addition in developing this curriculum as no typography courses were currently offered. The course was adapted in the fall 2021 semester as a topics class and will again be submitted as a topics class in the fall of 2022. The end goal is to take what I have learned from this thesis, adapt all the knowledge to improve this course for the fall 2022 semester, then push for the course to be adapted into the college course catalog as a permanent course for the web digital majors. Understanding how to bette r represent typography to individuals with dyslexia has paved the way to understanding how to promote better readability in all aspects of graphic design for the design industry.

Visual Process

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CHAPTER 4

FINAL SOLUTION

Final Solution

Typography

A n a t o m y o f Ty p e

Anatomy of Type

Let t er-spa c in g

Letter-spacing

C ap H ei g ht St ro k e

Cap Height Stroke

Eye

X - h ei g h t

Serif

Ascender

Co unt er

Ape r t u re

Serif

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Descender

L e a d in g

Ascender

Baseline

Eye

X-height

Des c e n d e r

Stroke

Eye

X-height

S erif

B as el i n e

Letter-spacing

Cap Height

Counter

Aperture

Descender

Leading

Ascender

Baseline

Counter

Aperture

Leading

VISUAL SOLUTION #1 - POSTER Following extensive research, and through educational experiences, evidence indicated that the best approach to teaching typography to individuals with dyslexia is focusing on following the British Dyslexia Association’s writing standards for dyslexia, and then transferring those into the principles of graphic design with a typography emphasis. The principles of design include the proper use and visual placement of imagery and text in regard to alignment, hierarchy, contrast, repetition, proximity, balance, color, and space. The posters will serve as an instructional tool in teaching students with dyslexia about typography. The posters will not only serve as a guide but also an in-class demonstration that students will also work to build. Students will be shown three posters, side-by-side. One poster will represent excessive tracking that will pose readability issues for all students. The second poster will represent a tracked representation of the poster presented in a way that is more visually readable to students with dyslexia or individuals with other visual impairments and equally as readable to individuals without dyslexia. The final poster will represent the current industry standard without tracking applied. The three examples provide a reference for students with dyslexia. The students will be able to focus on the posters, examine the letters, understand the concepts, and then use the tools and skills they have to develop the poster and practice design as they learn key typography components. Finally, the color palette in the posters is ideal for individuals with dyslexia. It applies a soft play of colors and a non-white background to enhance overall readability. Underlining that is applied to headers is far enough from the words that it will not disrupt readability, and type leading, or space between lines, is different in each poster. The idea for this educational material was inspired by the typography material in a Liberty University course I teach for students with learning disabilities (see Appendix A & B).

Final Solution

Poster 1 representing high tracking and moderate leading. The tracking for the main top header is 260pt, the subtitles are 180pt and leading is 30pt. This excessive tracking and leading will disrupt readability and make reading slower and more difficult for all audiences. This is a class example of what not to develop.

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Poster 2 representing medium tracking. This level of tracking is easy on the eye for all viewers and leading is only slightly exceeding standards. Studies represent a moderate tracking and leading. The letter-spacing or tracking of the headers are 90pt and the body copy is 30pt. The leading is 1.5x the size of the font, which is the standard explained in research. The font is 19pt so the leading is 28.5pt. The same measurement works for 1.5x the automatic leading set for a typeface. Final Solution

Poster 3 is an industry standard with no modifications. The tracking is 0pt and the leading in the body copy and examples is set to automatic based on font size.

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Typography A n a t o m y o f Ty p e L e t t e r- s p a c i n g Ca p He i g ht S t ro k e

Eye

X- h e i g h t

Se r i f Descender

Ascender

B a s e l i ne

Counter

Leading

A p e r t u re

Poster 4 representing high tracking and moderate leading. This poster has the same settings as poster 1 for tracking. Students would not reconstruct this poster.

Final Solution

Typography Anatomy of Type Letter-spacing Cap Height Stroke

Eye

X-height

Serif Descender

Ascender

Baseline

Counter

Leading

Aperture

Poster 5 representing high tracking and moderate leading. This poster has the same settings as poster 2 for tracking. Students would not reconstruct this poster.

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Typography Anatomy of Type Letter-spacing Cap Height Stroke

Eye

X-height

Serif Descender

Ascender

Baseline

Counter

Leading

Aperture

Poster 6 representing high tracking and moderate leading. This poster has the same settings as poster 3 for tracking. Students would not reconstruct this poster.

Final Solution

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VISUAL SOLUTION #2 - TYPOGRAPHY APP The typography mobile app will serve as a secondary resource for students learning typography. Students will focus in the classroom and on assignments to understand and practice the use of typography; however, having a tool at their side to assist only benefits their academic efforts. The app will represent a dyslexic-accessible setup where students can search and review typography terms, design examples, and the detailed components of type anatomy. The app will be a useful tool for students as it will be a typography dictionary providing both written and visual representations. The mobile application provides a secondary resource that breaks down all content for students learning typography. The mobile application is a study tool with active search fields built-in. The sample here is only a prototype and provides a sample of what the application can achieve; however, this prototype provides information about type anatomy with visual representations as well as written descriptions, type alignment samples, typography definitions, type styles, and samples, as well as type families and all of the font-weight variations. The application is also developed with the mindset of 1.5x leading and tracking to enhance readability for students with dyslexia and provide a highly readable resource for any individual. In order to see a fully interactive variation, please watch the video at https://youtu.be/3cN6uK7oJ5M

Final Solution

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Conclusion

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IN CONCLUSION MAIN POINTS

Throughout this project, the research, visual resources, and connections I have made will improve my ability to teach students with learning disabilities. In researching typography and dyslexia, I have gained understanding of different connections that will assist and improve my abilities to teach students with learning disabilities. Dyslexia is a neurological disorder that affects visual recognition and processing of written material. The many different types of dyslexia make it very difficult to determine which individual has what specific classification. However, I have discovered that the key is not in understanding how to teach the material to specific dyslexia classifications but rather in designing material that is easier for all audiences to read. Research provided insight into selecting the best color options, page layout components, font types, tracking (spacing) of letters, as well as leading adjustment (space between lines). The final solutions represent the visual component of this research. The visual material is not only a tool to use to teach students at the college level; it also represents a new norm for graphic design standards. The visual representation incorporates a modification of letter spacing and line spacing, but these changes are not so extensive that they represent a departure from accepted industry standards. For example, incorporating a slightly more spaced-out type is ideal in the industry as it improves the overall quality and readability of the material for everyone. Dyslexia involves the rearranging of words or letters by the brain, making content hard to read, but other visual impairments exist, and presenting material or printed design content in public with slightly modified text would not detract from the design, as my visuals illustrate, but would extend the

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view-ability beyond graphic design college students to a much larger public audience. This is just one way to solve the problems that those with dyslexia encounter with current typographic standards and use. I am sure that there are further applications for this research, especially if a full graphic design curriculum were considered to further enhance student learning. The overall goal of this curriculum concept would be to develop content that is more standardized in the industry and more accessible overall for dyslexia, and even individuals with visual impairment. The goal will be to enhance all design components so elements are easier to understand in an educational setting as well as promote enhanced teaching strategies in all educational institutions.

FUTURE ASPECTS Moving forward, I would like to continue research and actively develop focus groups to incorporate students with dyslexia and focus groups that incorporate non-dyslexic individuals. Other elements of research would include surveys, activities, and other forms of data collection. This research would enhance the specialized curriculum and further enhance educational approaches even beyond the current thesis material. The overall goal of continued research will be to promote design inclusivity by pushing the concept of updating the design standard into the public eye and modifying standards to enhance readability for everyone. These concepts would not change the design in general but change how the material is viewed.

WHAT I LEARNED As a professor, I have learned new teaching strategies that I will be able to take back to the classroom to enhance the overall educational experience for students with dyslexia. The goal will be to promote new aspects of content relay and promote even more inclusivity in all learning challenges. As a professor, I will omit elements that make readability more complicated and use appropriate color choices and text arrangements.

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APPENDIX

Appendix A

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APPENDIX A TYPOGRAPHY COURSE

Appendix A

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APPENDIX B GUIDE TO TEACHING INDESIGN TO STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES (EBOOK)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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