B.CON I - PROJECT 01

EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION EXPERIENCING, DOCUMENTING AND ANALYSING THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION l (BLD 60303) PROJECT 01 | SEM 02 | MAR 2017 TUTOR: MS SATEERAH HASSAN TAN CHIN WERNG WONG LIENG KAM YUEN XUAN HUI YEE MAE YUEN CLARA LEE PEI LIN WONG TECK POH

0324408 0323566 0324292 0328561 0324495 0327462

01 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION TO SITE TAN CHIN WERNG

03 04 05

FOUNDATION

(1-2)

02

PRELIMINARIES WORK

SITE AND SAFETY (3-10) TAN CHIN WERNG 2.1 SIGNAGE 2.2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 2.3 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

WONG LIENG KAM (11-20) 3.1 SITE INVESTIGATION 3.4 EARTHWORK 3.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION 3.5 SETTING OUT 3.3 TEMPORARY SERVICES 3.6 SITE LAYOUT

(21-44)

YUEN XUAN HUI 4.1 SUBSOIL MOVEMENT 4.2 DEFECT OBSERVATION 4.3 FOUNDATION MATERIALS 4.4 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF FOUNDATION 4.5 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

4.6 FOUNDATION BED 4.7 STEPPED FOUNDATION 4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION 4.9 SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION 4.10 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION 4.11 FOUNDATION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

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SUPERSTRUCTURE

(45- 79 ) YEE MAE YUE (5.1, 5.2, 5.3), CLARA LEE ( 5.4, 5.5) 5.1 BEAMS 5.2 COLUMNS 5.3 SLABS 5.4 WALLS 5.5 STAIRCASES

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ROOF

4.12 BASIC SIZING 4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION 4.14 PILE CAPS 4.15 ON SITE OBSERVATION

DOORS AND WINDOWS

(80-90)

CLARA LEE 6.1 DOORS 6.2 WINDOWS

(91-107)

WONG TECK POH 7.1 ROOF FUNCTIONS 7.2 ROOF FORMS 7.3 ROOF SHAPES

7.4 ROOFING MATERIALS 7.5 ROOF CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 7.6 ROOF ON SITE

01 INTRODUCTION TO SITE TAN CHIN WERNG

LAUNCH YEAR: 2016 PROJECT DURATION: 19 MONTHS TOTAL ACREAGE: 100.08 ACRES LAND TYPE: MALAY RESERVED LAND CURRENT STAGE: PHASE II

DESIRAN BAYU, PUCHONG Desiran Bayu, a much-anticipated upcoming development by LBS. A lakeside residential development, on a Malay Reserve land. The central attraction in the development is that homes and facilities are built around a 43-acre lake. And with any waterside living, one experiences the beauty of water, breeze and rustling sounds from the surrounding lush greenery.

Hence the name, Desiran Bayu. It aims to depict the perfect calm of tranquil waters, gently laced with the sound of leaves rustling with the occasional breeze.

02 SITE AND SAFETY TAN CHIN WERNG

2.1 Signage 2.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 2.3 Construction safety The construction work has long been considered as a high-risk and dangerous occupation due to high percentage of injuries and death. For examples, falling from heights, electric shocks, exposure to a hot or harmful substance etc.

SIGNAGE

The reason of placing the safety signs are to deliver the important message to the public and warn the public that accidents could be happen in construction site.

Signage of assembly point to indicate the location of the emergency gathering point during any unforeseen accidents or emergencies.

Meaning of Colour Safety Signs Different colours of symbols and signage give identity different actions or procedures to be used.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY SCAFFOLDING Scaffolding is a temporary structure to support the original structure as well as workmen used it as a platform to carry on the construction works.

Types of scaffolding varies with the type of construction work. Scaffolding is made up of timber or steel. It should be stable and strong to support workmen and other construction material placed on it. All scaffolding should be designed and inspected before the start of the work every day to make sure it is safe to use.

LADDER Appropriate length should be used and inspection should be carry by the worker who in charge of the safety. Slippery condition of ground should be avoid for setting up the ladder to reduce the hard of slipping.

FENCING The boundaries of the construction site should be fenced to prevent outsiders entering the site. The fencing should be at least 2 meters high to provide anti-climb feature and avoid accessing of unauthorized people.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT SAFETY HAT To provide protection from falling objects and to protect the safety of workers when they are operating a construction vehicle HIGH VISIBLE VEST To protect the workers from any direct contact to objects which may cause harm to the physical body and allow a worker to be highly visible in the construction site..

BOOT To provide protection to worker’s feet from sharp objects which may pierce and injure the feet and to protect the feet against any falling objects.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a clothing or equipment designed to be worn by construction workers to prevent injuries.

EYE PROTECTION Providing protection to the eyes of the workers from hazardous objects such as dust particles, molten metal as well as sparks during construction.

GLOVE Protects the hands of the workers when handling sharp objects, tools and corrosive chemicals.

PLANTS AND MACHINERY EXCAVATING & EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT

BACKHOE Also called a rear actor or back actor, is a piece of excavating equipment or digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two- part articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader.

Typically, dig depth is somewhere between 12 and 16 feet (3 to 5 m).

Used in the construction industry to shift large amounts of earth and dig foundations and landscape areas

EXCAVATOR It is a heavy construction equopment consisting of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the "house". They are a natural progression from the steam shovels. and often mistakenly called power shovels. All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors

CRAWLER LOADER It has the strength to survive heavy excavating. crawler loaders are capable of manoeuvring across the entire construction site under its own power

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

TELESCOPIC CRANE This type of crane offers a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside of the other.

A hydraulic mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the length of the boom.

For safety purpose, the crane must always work on a hard, level base. And the weight of the load must be calculated correctly.

Telescopic cranes are another form of heavy cranes employed to transport and maneuver objects from one place to another.

The picture shows that they're transporting and pouring the cement into the column mold.

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

GENERATOR SET A generator set is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to devices and machineries on site.

CONCRETE MIXER is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.

For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.

CONSTRUCTION VEHICLES CONCRETE TRANSPORT TRUCK used to transport and mix concrete while travelling to the construction site. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery.

The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction, the spiral blade "discharges�, forces the concrete out of the drum. A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.

03 PRELIMINARIES WORK

WONG LIENG KAM

3.1 Site Investigation 3.2 Soil Investigation 3.3 Temporary Services

3.4 Earthwork 3.5 Setting Out 3.6 Site Layout

The purpose of preliminaries is to describe the works as a whole, and to specify general conditions and requirements for their execution, including such things as subcontracting, approvals, testing and completion.

3.1 SITE INVESTIGATION

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A process of evaluation of factors influencing the selection and use of the most appropriate locations for a project which is done at the early stage of project that include the aspects of measurement of land, economy, site surrounding, public infrastructure, planning condition and regulation, land regulation and so on. It is limited to the proposed site only but sometime include the site surrounding where adjacent structure exist.

IMPORTANCE OF SITE INVESTIGATION The most important process in project development is it can give a clear view on the actual site condition and problems that may arise during construction. Without site investigation or inadequate site investigation ground is a hazard and the geotechnical design is incomplete and inadequate. The consequence of an inadequate design or poor interpretation of the site investigation results can be disastrous, i.e. construction delay, cost overruns and disputes due to design has to be amended or even failures may be encountered.

OBJECTIVE OF SITE INVESTIGATION To assess the general SUITABILITY of the site and the environs for the proposed works including implications of previous use or contamination which enable and adequate economic DESIGN to be prepared, including the design of temporary works. In addition, To plan the best method of CONSTRUCTION; to foresee and provide against difficulties and delays that may arise during construction due to ground and other local conditions. Furthermore, to determine the CHANGES that may arise in the ground and environmental conditions. Either naturally or as result of the construction works. Last but not lease, where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of DIFFERENT SITES, or different parts of the same site.

13 TYPES OF SITE INVESTIGATION a) Site for new works b) Defects or failures of existing works c) Safety of existing works d) Material for constructional purposes STAGE OF SITE INVESTIGATION a) DESK STUDY Collection of a wide variety of information relating to the site.

Example: maps, drawings, details of existing or historic development, local authority information, geological maps, memoirs, record; details of utilities, services, restrictions, right of way, ownership of adjacent property, aerial photographs.

b) SITE RECONNAISSANCE An early examination of the site by appropriate experts, e.g. geologist, land surveyor, soil engineer, hydrologist, etc.

Information should be collected on the overall site layout, topography, basic geology, details of access, entry and height restrictions, climate, stream flows, groundwater conditions, site utilization related to weather and time of year.

Where possible photographic records should be kept.

c) DETAIL EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL STUDIES Further assessment of the relevant aspects required for the design and construction of the project. i) Detailed LAND SURVEY ii) Detailed GROUND CONDITION iii) HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS iv) CLIMATE v) EXISTING and ADJACENT STRUCTURES vi) Location of UNDERGROUND structures d) DETAIL EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL STUDIES i) Laboratory testing of samples ii) In situ testing

3.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION A process to determine the nature of the soil on site.

OBJECTIVES OF SOIL INVESTIGATION i) The actual soil conditions at site ii) The actual bedrock condition iii) The actual ground water condition

METHOD TO INVESTIGATE THE SOIL i) JKR/Mackintosh probe ii) Trial holes iii) Plate bearing test iv) Hand auger v) Deep boring

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3. 3 TEMPORARY WORK

15

Before commencement of any actual construction work, the contractor has to consider throughly all temporary facilities required for the work. Some of these facilities are required as spelt out in the contract documents under the Preliminaries.

TEMPORARY FACILITIES SITE OFFICE

TEMPORARY SIGNAGES

WORKER ACCOMODATION

Construction site will generally require office facilities to provide accommodation for site manager, provide space for meetings and to provide storage for site documentation. It is important that Baseline site offices are comfortable, attractive and versatile, as well as being suitably robust and secure

To promote & advertise the ongoing construction as well as to provide information regarding site & safely displayed in a location immediately adjacent to the business premises to which the sign relates.

The workers’ accommodation is a composition of large numbers of cabins to accommodate the workers. The accommodation is constructed using containers and zinc roofing, which results in the containment of hot air within the living space. Stairs are provided to allow accessibility to the first floors.

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TEMPORARY TOILET

CONSTRUCTION HOARDING

ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

Helps to protect the heath of the workers.

Provides a changing room for workers to clean up and change before heading back home

Electrical supply needed for powering the machineries during the construction process.

3.4 EARTHWORK CLEARING THE SITE Demolition of existing building: removal of trees; removal of topsoil (the top 300mm will contain plant life and decaying vegetation. This mean that the top soil is easily compressed and would be unsuitable for foundation) IMPORTANCE OF EARTHWORK Earthwork, though broad by its many aspects, is a specific and important engineered phase of construction.

Engineered earthwork begins with a sol investigation and ends as a foundation for all construction. Thee widest highway, the longest bridge, and the tallest building could not exist were it not for a solid foundation; this is foundation is earthwork

SITE CLEARING

SLIDE-SLOPE IN EXCAVATION

COMPACTION

The purpose of this section is to establish uniform practices to be followed for removal of trees and stumps. Where such removals are set up on a lump sum basis, varying interpretations as to the extent of removal are possible.

During earth excavation check that slope is maintained in slide soil

Compaction reduces the volume of air space in the soil. This compaction increases the dry unit weight and strength of the soil to better support structures. This is a very important step,

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3.5 SETTING OUT SETTING OUT THE BUILDING The building is set out to clearly define the outline of the excavation and the center line of the all, so that construction can be carried out exactly according to the plan. Undertaken once the site has been cleared or any debris or obstruction and ant reduced level excavation work is finished.

METHOD OF SETTING OUT i) Setting out building by coordinates ii) Setting out with theodolite and level iii) Checking verticality iv) Setting out and alignment in steel framed buildings v) Alignment and verticality in form work yi) Control and calculation for route surveying

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BASELINES

OFFSET PEGS

A baseline is a straight reference line with respect to which corners of the building are located on the ground. It may be outer boundary of a road or curb or boundary of the area or simply a line joining any two points.

Once points specifying the layout are located on ground pegs are driven in the ground at that spot. Once excavations for foundations begin, the corner pegs will be lost. To avoid these extra pegs called offset pegs are used. Batter boards are normally erected near each offset peg and are used to relocate the points after the excavation has been done.

Proposed structure Corner profile

Turn odd a right angle and measure x horizontally

Offset peg Baseline

Baseline Marks on profiles

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STAGES OF SETTING OUT

FIRST STAGE In practice, first stage setting out involves the use of many of the horizontal and vertical control methods and positioning techniques. The purpose of this stage is to locate the boundaries of the works in their correct position on the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to do this, horizontal and vertical control points must be established on or near the site.

SECOND STAGE Second stage setting out continues on from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab, road sub-base level etc.

Up to this point, all the control will be outside the main construction.

HORIZONTAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE These are the points that have known coordinates with respect to a specific point. Other points such as layout corners can then be located. Plenty of control points should be used so that each point of the plan can be precisely located on the ground.

Baseline Building Z

Secondary site control point on baseline established by bearing and distance from E and F Design corner point

VERTICAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE In order that design points on the works are positioned at their correct levels, vertical control points of known elevation relative to some specified vertical datum are established.

Bevel top

Set bolt Angle bolted to wall

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3.6 SITE LAYOUT

ACCESS SECURITY; HOARDINGS WORKSHOPS AREAS SITE NAME BOARDS ACCOMODATION SITE OFFICE Baseline

04 FOUNDATION YUEN XUAN HUI

4.1 Subsoil movement 4.2 Defect observation 4.3 Foundation materials 4.4 Construction process of foundation 4.5 Types of shallow foundation 4.6 Foundation bed 4.7 Stepped foundation 4.8 Simple Rc foundation

4.9 Simple raft foundation 4.10 Short bored pile foundation 4.11 Foundation design principles 4.12 Basic sizing 4.13 Foundation types and selection 4.14 Pile caps 4.15 On-site observation

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4.1 SUBSOIL MOVEMENT FUNCTION

SUBSOIL MOVEMENT

-to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead, live and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building

Primarily to changes in volume (subsoil becomes wet or dry and occurs near the upper surface of the soil) -Compact granular soils -gravel -suffer very little movement -Cohesive soils -clay -suffer volume changes near the upper surface -Frost heave

- Trees

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4.2 DEFECT OBSERVATION Cracking in Walls - caused by applied forces which exceed those that the building can withstand - superficial, materials dry out and subsequently shrink to reveal minor surface fractures of < 2 mm.

-Severe cracking in walls may result from foundation failure, due to inadequate design or physical damage.

A survey should be undertaken to determine: 1) The cause of cracking, i.e. * Loads applied externally (tree roots, subsoil movement). * Climate/temperature changes (thermal movement). * Moisture content change (faulty dpc, building leakage). * Vibration (adjacent work, traffic). * Changes in physical composition (salt or ice formation). * Chemical change (corrosion, sulphate attack). * Biological change (timber decay).

2) The effect on a building's performance (structural and environmental).

3) The nature of movement, completed, ongoing or intermittent (seasonal).

Simple method for monitoring cracks

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4.3 MATERIALS Concrete (durable material of adequate strength) -cement + aggregates + water (in controlled proportions) Cement

-manufactured from clay and chalk and is the matrix or binder of concrete mix

Aggregates

Water

- natural rock which has disintegrated or crushed stone or gravel

- must be quality fit for drinking -Water is added to start the chemical reaction and to give the mix workability - amount used is called Water/ cement ratio (usually 0.4 to 0.5) MIXES - expressed as a ratio: - 1:3:6/ 20 mm which means1 part cement 3 parts of fine aggregate 6 parts of coarse aggregate

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4.4 FOUNDATION CONSTUCTION PROCESS 1. Excavation

6. Erect the reinforcement for stump

2. Pour a layer of lean concrete

3. Build the formwork

7. Add more ties to the formwork

8. Pour concrete

4. Add spacer blocks

5. Lay the reinforcement (main rebar , tranverse rebar)

9. Set, curing, hardening

10. When Concrete gains sufficient strength, dismantle the formwork

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4.5 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Traditional strip

Deep strip or trench fill

Beam and slab raft

Solid slab raft

Isolated pad

Combined pad

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4.6 FOUNDATION BED - A concrete slab resting on and supported by the subsoil, usually forming the ground floor surfaces.

4.7 STEPPED FOUNDATION - usually considered in the context of strip foundations - used mainly on sloping sites (to reduce the amount of excavation and materials required to produce an adequate foundation)

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4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION Concrete Foundations Concrete â&#x20AC;&#x201C; high compression strength, weak tensile strength

METHOD OF PROVIDING TENSILE RESISTANCE - include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a form of reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces induced into the foundation.

-Steel - readily available - high tensile strength

CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE SUPPORTED RC SLABS 1) Assemble and erect formwork 2) Prepare and place reinforcement 3) Pour and compact or vibrate concrete 4) Strike and remove formwork in stages as curing process.

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4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION

IDENTIFICATION OF CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT Bar coding - a convenient method for specifying and coordinating the prefabrication of steel reinforcement in the assembly area - Common notations- R = plain round mild steel (250 N/ mm², 8-16mm dia.)

S = stainless steel W = wire reinforcement (4-12 dia.)

T (at the end) = located in top of member Abr = alternate bars reversed (useful or offsets)

- example: 2T20-1-200B 2: number of bars T: deformed high yield steel (460 N/mm², 8-40 mm dia.)

20: diameter of bar (mm) 1: bar mark or ref. no 200: spacing (mm) B: located in bottom of member 21= shape code

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT Steel bars - mild steel (R) or high yield steel (T) / (Y) -contains about 99% iron, manganese, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus -proportion of carbon determines the quality and grade of steel

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4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION - Mild steel:0.25% carbon - grade 250 or 250 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength (0.25% carbon, 0.06% sulphur and 0.06% phosphorus) - High yield steel:0.40% carbon - may also be produced by cold working or deforming mild steel until it is strain hardened.

- grade 460/425 (0.40% carbon, 0.05% sulphur and 0.05% phosphorus).

- 460 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength: 6, 8, 10, 12 and 16 mm diameter - 425 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength: 20, 25, 32 and 40 mm diameter Example of steel reinforcement

MILD STEEL REINFORCEMENT -located in areas where tension occurs in a beam or slab. Concrete specification is normally 25 or 30 N/m in this situation.

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4.9 SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATIONS - used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where the top 450 to 600 mm of soil is overlaying a poor-quality

4.10 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION - a form of foundation which are suitable for domestic loadings and clay subsoils where ground movements can occur below the 1â&#x20AC;&#x17E;000 depth associated with traditional strip and trench fill foundations.

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4.10 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION Concrete Foundations Concrete â&#x20AC;&#x201C; high compression strength, weak tensile strength

METHOD OF PROVIDING TENSILE RESISTANCE - include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a form of reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces induced into the foundation.

- Steel - readily available - high tensile strength

CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE SUPPORTED RC SLABS 1) Assemble and erect formwork 2) Prepare and place reinforcement 3) Pour and compact or vibrate concrete 4) Strike and remove formwork in stages as curing process.

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4.11 FOUNDATION DESIGN PRINCIPLES - to ensure that the structural loads are transmitted to the subsoil(s) safely, economically and without any unacceptable movement during the construction period and throughout the anticipated life of the building or structure BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE 1. Assessment of site conditions in the context of the site and soil investigation report.

2. Calculation of anticipated structural loading(s).

3. Choosing the foundation type taking into consideration: - Soil conditions - Type of structure - Structural loading(s) - Economic factors - Time factors relative to the proposed contract period - Construction problems.

4. Sizing the chosen foundation in the context of loading(s), ground bearing capacity and any likely future movements of the building or structure.

4.12 BASIC SIZING -the size of a foundation is basically dependent on two factors: 1 . Load being transmitted, max 70kN/m (dwellings up to three storeys).

2. Bearing capacity of subsoil under proposed foundation.

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION STRIP FOUNDATION - for most subsoils and light structural loadings such as those encountered in low to medium rise domestic dwellings where mass concrete can be used.

- Reinforced concrete is usually required for all other situations

Isolated pad

Traditonal strip

Deep strip or trench fill

Reinforced concrete strip

Continuous column

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION PAD FOUNDATION

RAFT FOUNDATION

-for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. Pad foundations are usually constructed of reinforced concrete and where possible are square in plan

- used to spread the load of the superstructure over a large base to reduce the load per unit area being imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful where low bearing capacity soils are encountered and where individual column loads are heavy.

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION CANTILEVER FOUNDATION

PILED FOUNDATION

-used where it is necessary to avoid imposing any pressure on an adjacent foundation or underground service

- a series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil - used when suitable foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional foundations uneconomic - The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be caused by: 1. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.

2. High water table - giving rise to high permanent dewatering costs.

3. Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such as peat and recently placed filling materials which have not sufficiently consolidated.

4. Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement or plastic failure.

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION -Classification of Piles -piles may be classified by their basic design function or by their method of construction:

End bearing piles

Replacement Piles

Friction or floating piles

Displacement piles

REPLACEMENT PILES TYPES 1) Percusion bored ( small or medium size

contracts with up to 300 piles - load range – 300 to 1300 kN - length range – up to 24,000 - diameter range – 300 to 900 - may have to be formed as a pressure pile in waterlogged subsoils 2) Flush bored ( large projects – these are basically a rotary bored pile using bentonite as a drilling fluid) - load range – 1000 to 5000 kN - length range – up to 30,000 - diameter range – 600 to 1500 3) Rotary bored (small diameter – <600mm) Light loadings- can also be used in group or clusters wish a common pile cap to receive heavy loads - load range – 50 to 400 kN - length range – up to 15,000 - diameter range – 240 to 600

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION belled toe loads - load range – 800 to 15000 kN - length range – up to 60,000 - diameter range – 600 to 2400 DISPLACEMENT PILES

( large diameter – >600mm) Heavy concentrated loadingsmay have an under reamed or

- driven piles (usually driven into the ground displacing the earth around the pile shaft) - preformed or partially preformed - driven into the required position to a predetermined depth or to the required “set” which is a measure of the subsoil's resistance to the penetration of the pile and hence its bearing capacity by noting the amount of penetration obtained by a fixed number of hammer blows - types - preformed- timber, concrete, steel ( box, tube, “h”, screw) - driven in- situ - cast in situ - partially preformed – PCC and in-situ concrete , steel and in-situ concrete

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4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION PREFORMED CONCRETE PILES

PARTIALLY PREFORMED PILES

-used on medium to large contracts of not less than one hundred piles where soft soil deposits overlie a firmer strata

- composite piles of precast concrete and in-situ concrete or steel and in-situ concrete

-piles are percussion driven using a drop or single-acting hammer

- used on medium to large contracts where bored piles would not be suitable owing to running water or very loose soils

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4.14 PILE CAPS DRIVEN IN-SITU PILES - used on medium to large contracts as an alternative to preformed piles particularly where final length of pile is a variable to be determined on site.

- typical example (franki driven insitu pile

Piles can be used singly to support the load but often it is more economical to use piles in groups or clusters linked together with a reinforced concrete cap. It can also be linked together with reinforced concrete ground beams.

-usual minimum spacing for piles is: 1) Friction Piles – 1,100 or not less than 3 ✕ pile diameter 2) Bearing Piles - 750 mm or not less than 2 ✕ pile diameter

CAST IN-SITU PILES PILE TESTING

-an alternative to the driven in-situ piles

-it is advisable to test load at least one pile per scheme -should be overloaded by at least 50% of its working load and this load should be held for 24 hours - should not form part of the actual foundations -Suitable testing methods are: 1 . Jacking against kentledge placed over test pile.

2. Jacking against a beam fixed to anchor piles driven in on two sides of the test pile.

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4.15 ONSITE OBSERVATION Due to the subsoil movements, the shallow foundation used on site is pad foundation and the deep foundation used is RC piles Pit is being excavated for lean concrete( blinding) to pour inside later

Cast- in- situ

blinding and ground beam

Reinforcement is erected, ties are added to formwork, the next step is to pour the concrete

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4.15 ONSITE OBSERVATION Concrete: 1: 2: 4 ( 4 pounds of coarse aggregate and 2 pounds of sand for every pund of cement, grade 35 Rebar (loop)

Rebar

Rc pre-cast pile

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4.15 ONSITE OBSERVATION Rebar(loop): Size: 1 units, Mild steel (R) 10mm thick

Rebar(loop): Size: 2 units, High yield steel (T) 10mm thick

Rebar: Size: 4 units, High yield (T) 12mm thick

Rebar: Size: 3 units, High yield (T) 16mm thick

Binding layer: 50mm THK lean concrete

Binding layer: 50mm THK lean concrete

Rc pre-cast pile: 1 units, 150mm x 150mm length 6m, max load 200kN

Rc pre-cast pile: 2 units, 150mm x 150mm length 6m, max load 200kN

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4.15 ONSITE OBSERVATION Rebar(loop): Size: 2 units, High yield steel (T) 10mm thick

Rebar(loop): Size: 2 units, High yield steel (T) 10mm thick

Rebar: Size: 5 units, High yield (T) 16mm thick

Rebar: Size: 5 units, High yield (T) 16mm thick

Binding layer: 50mm THK lean concrete

Binding layer: 50mm THK lean concrete

Rc pre-cast pile: 3 units, 150mm x 150mm length 6m, max load 200kN

Rc pre-cast pile: 4 units, 150mm x 150mm length 6m, max load 200kN

05 SUPERSTRUCTURE YEE MAE YUEN CLARA LEE PEI LIN 5.0 Superstructure 5.1 Beams 5.2 Columns

5.3 Slabs 5.4 Walls 5.5 Staircase

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5.0 INTRODUCTION The superstructure of a building is the part that is entirely above its foundation or basement. It is the part of the building that is above ground level, and it usually serves the purpose of the building's intended use.

The plinth is the portion of the building between the ground level and the surface of the floor immediately above the ground. It is part of the superstructure.

Superstructure Sub-structure

Onsite Photos

Foundation

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5.1 BEAMS Beams are structural elements that mainly resists transverse loads. When a load is applied, an equal and opposite reaction is produced at the support points. The total effect of all forces produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, causing internal stress, strains and deflections of the beam.

LOAD BEARING BEAMS MECHANISM

Load

TYPES OF LOAD

1. Concentrated Loads w (N/m)

3. Applied Couple M

Compression 2. Uniformly Varying Load Tension

w (N/m)

4. Uniform load

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5.1 BEAMS TYPES OF BEAMS 1. R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Beam

3. Simply Supported Beam - Supported freely on two ends of wall

Singly

Doubly 4. Fixed beam

2. I/H Beam Has an I or H shaped cross-section Web

Flange

The web resists shear forces while the flanges resist most of the behinding moment experienced by the beam

- Both ends fixed rigidly on respective walls

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5.1 BEAMS TYPES OF BEAMS

5. Cantilever beam

7. Overhanging beam

- Fixed on one end of the column/wall while the other end is free - Tension zone on top side and compression zone at the bottom

- Either one or both ends extend beyond the column support Simply supported portion

Overhanging portion 6. Continuous beam - Supported on more than two supports

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5.1 BEAMS PROCESS OF BEAM CONSTRUCTION Beams used onsite : Doubly RCC Beams 1. Fixed rods of steel to tensile machinery. Rods are arranged in 2 layers of equal numbers.

3. Pour concrete into formwork 4. Concrete is then poured into the column and left to cure. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then the formwork may be removed which is roughly. *

2. A formwork is built around steel rods, ensuring rods run through the center of the beam *Please refer to page 60 to 65 for further information on Slump Test and Concrete Cube Test.

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5.2 COLUMNS Columns are a structural element that transmits, through compression, the load from the slab above to the Earth or structural element below the column independently.

TYPE OF COLUMNS 1. Concrete Columns These columns have an embedded steel mesh (known as rebar) to provide reinforcement

2. Wood Columns Solid wood such as Tualang, Kapur and Kempas used to withstand load of the building

3. Steel Columns These columns have good compressive strength, but have a tendency to buckle or bend under extreme loading.

4. Masonry Column and Pilaster Pilasters are structurally a pier but architecturally known as a column

Masonry Column

Masonry Pilaster

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5.2 COLUMNS REINFORCEMENT OF COLUMNS 1. Composite Columns - Structural steel shapes surrounded or filled by concrete (longitudinal reinforcement is optional)

2. Spirally-Reinforced Columns - Longitudinal reinforcement bars arranged in a circle and tied together by a closely spaced continuous spiral - Cross sectional shape : Circular or square - No. of reinforcement bars : Mininum 6 bars

3. Tied Column - Longitudinal reinforcement bars are tied together by smaller diameter latitudinal bars at fixed intervals along the height of the column - To ensure stability of columns against local buckling - Cross sectional shape : Square or rectangular - No. of reinforcement bars : Minimum 4 bars

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5.2 COLUMNS HOW WILL A COLUMN FAIL? This can be due to their: - Length - Cross-sectional area - Method of fixing - Shape of the section

Buckling

Compression

Shear

The cross-sectional area and the section shape are incorporated into a geometric property of section, known as the radius of gyration. This refers to the distribution of an object's components around an axis. It can be calculated

Where, I = 2nd moment of area, A = cross-sectional area

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5.2 COLUMNS CONSTRUCTION OF COLUMN 1. Marking the location of columns by tying reinforcement steel bars for columns onto the foundation rebar

1

2. Stirrups are tied around and secured in place latitudinally 3. More vertical reinforcement bars is linked with each other to increase height of column

2

4. The formwork using plywood is placed before casting takes place

5. Steel wedge is used to secure the formwork in place when concrete is left to cure. To maintain the shape of the column and ensuring no alteration to form or shape while curing takes place 6. A crane will pour the concrete from the top and into the column. A worker will be positioned above the column, adjusting before allowing wet concrete into the formwork 7. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then the formwork may be removed. *

4

6

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5.2 COLUMNS Column Reinforcement bars (Vertical) Formwork (Made from plywood)

Stirrups (Latitudinal reinforcement bars)

Concrete column (End result)

Crane to carry the wet concrete Worker adjusting before pouring wet concrete

ON SITE Steel wedges to keep formwork secured

Type of column : Tied column with 4 reinforcement bars

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5.3 SLABS They are designed to carry either uniformly distributed loads or concentrated loads. Concrete is usually used for construction of slabs due to high compressive strength.

TYPES OF SLABS 1. One way slab - Length is two more times the width. It is supported on two sides and bending is predominantly in one direction

2. Two way slab - Length is less than double of the width (approximately square shaped). It is supported on all four sides and bends in two directions

Solid with beams Solid with beams

Ribbed with beams

Solid with band beams

Ribbed with band beams

Precast and composite slab with beams

Ribbed slabs with integral beams

Waffle with beams

Waffle with integral beams

3. Suspended slab - They are not in contact directly to the ground. They form roofs or floors above ground level. They receive structural support from beams connected to this slab

Solid

Solid with edge beams and column head

Waffle

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5.3 SLABS CONSTRUCTION OF SLAB 1. Fix the formwork and making sure there are no gaps to prevent wet concrete from dripping out of cast 2. Fixing reinforcement mesh frame

3. Install the service pipes such as plumbing or electrical pipes as well as sleeves for air-conditioning and piping 4. Wet concrete is poured to form the slab 5. Curing of concrete slab to prevent cracking from happening. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then the formwork may be removed. *

Wet concrete

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5.3 SLABS ONSITE Suspended slab is used in this site. This means the slab is connected to the beam by the ends of its framework

Suspended slab

A rock of standard thickness placed between formwork and cardboard to ensure the concrete covers the entire formwork.

If formwork is not covered by the concrete, it will affect the strength of slab. This is not achieve safety standards. Hence, it will be a hazard to occupants of household.

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5.3 SLABS

Service pipes installed before pouring concrete into formwork

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CONCRETE CUBE TEST To test the compressive strength of the concrete. This will depend on its water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality of concrete material and quality control during the production of concrete.

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CONCRETE CUBE TEST

9. On the 7th day from the date of preparation, 3 of the 6 cubes will be dried with a cloth and then tested in a compression testing machine. We test the cubes on 1. Make a cube with sides of 150 mm with the mold the 7th day because it is believed that the concrete will provided with a steel ruler. The mold can be adjusted achieve 70% of its strength by this time. If the cubes by loosening and tightening the nut bolds of the mold. fail to show this, early action can be taken to improve 2. After lubricating the insides of the mold, the concrete the concrete mixture mix will be poured in three layers. Each layer of 50 mm thickness.

STEPS :

3. The layers are compacted with a tamping rod with the bullet ended side 4. The mold is then struck from the outside on all four sides to ensure no honeycomb forms at the surface where the concrete and mold come in contact

10. On the 28th day, step 9 is repeated for the 3 other cubes and the results of compression tests are noted 11. The compressive strength of the cube is obtained from this formula :

5. Trim the top of the mold and smoothen it out with a trowel 6. Steps 1-5 are repeated for another 5 cubes 7. After an hour, label the molds from 1 to 6 and the date to keep track of the duration of left to cure 8. After a day or 24 hours, open the molds and release all 6 cubes from their molds. These concrete cubes are then immersed into water at room temperature (28oC)

The compressive strength obtained from the results is then compared to the standard compressive strength (depending on the grade of concrete)

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CONCRETE CUBE TEST COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (BY GRADE OF CONCRETE) ON THE 7TH AND 28TH DAY

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CONCRETE CUBE TEST COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT DIFFERENT AGES

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SLUMP TEST This test is to determine the workability and consistency of the concrete mix. The test is carried out from batch to batch to ensure uniform quality of the concrete during construction. The difference between the concrete cube test and slump test is that the slump test provides immediate results.

STEPS : 1. The internal surface of mold is cleaned and applied with grease. Place the mold on a flat and smooth non-porous base plate.

2. Fill the mold with concrete mix in 4 equal layers.

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SLUMP TEST 3. Using a tamping rod, tamp each layer in a uniform manner over the cross section of mold.

5. Clean the mortar or water that leaked between the mold and base plate 6. Slowly raise the mold from the concrete in a vertical direction immediately after step 5

4. Remove the excess concrete from the top and smoothen it with a trowel

7. Measure the slump as the distance between the height of the mold and the height of the point of the specimen being tested.

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SLUMP TEST CONCRETE SLUMP RESULTS

1

2

3

4

1) True slump It is the only slump that can be measured in the test.

The measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has been removed

3) Collapsed Slump This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high. Which means it has too much water in the cement mixture.

2) Zero slump It is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, where the concrete is not very workable and dry.

This ratio is generally used for road construction

4) Shear Slump It is an incomplete result. Therefore, the concrete has to be retested

06 DOORS AND WINDOWS CLARA LEE PEI LIN

6.1 Doors 6.2 Windows Doors may be defined as an open-able barrier secured in a wall opening while windows are a vented barrier secured in a wall opening. Windows and doors connect the interior of a house to the outdoors, provide ventilation and daylight, and are important aesthetic elements.

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6.1 DOORS DOOR FUNCTION Doors provide an opening from the outside in to the inside of the buildings as well in between interior spaces.

Doorways should be designed to be big enough to move through easily and allow the moving of furniture and equipment. Moreover, doorways should be located so the patterns of movement they create between and within spaces are appropriate to the uses and activities housed by the spaces.

DOOR TERMINOLOGY

DOOR HARDWARE

These are the components of a door.

Hinge

Door Handle

Door Knob

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6.1 DOORS TYPES OF DOORS A revolving door normally has four wings/ leaves that hang on a center shaft and rotate one way about a vertical axis within a round enclosure. The central shaft is fitted with ball bearing arrangement at the bottom, which allows the shutters to move without any jerk and making noise.

Collapsible doors are used in garages, workshops, public buildings etc. to provide increased safety and protection to property. The shutter operates between two rails, one fixed to the floor and other to the lintel. Rollers are mounted at the top and bottom.

Sliding doors consist of either one, two or three doors that slide by each other on a track depending upon the size of opening and space available for sliding. In these doors, the shutter slide horizontally along tracks with the help of runners and rails.

Sliding glass doors are common in places where there is no space to swing the door.

Folding doors are made of many vertical strips or creases that fold back to back into a compact bundle when pushed open. These strips or creases hang and run on a track on top. They save space as they do not swing out of the door opening. Folding doors are usually noisy, and considered not so durable and have sound and weather insulation.

The swing doors are fitted to its frame by special double action hinges. The hinges permit the shutter to move both ways, inward as well as outward. To open the door, a slight push is made and the spring action returns the shutter back to a closed position. .

Shutter doors are commonly used for shops, warehouses, stores etc. These doors are made from thin metal slabs interlocked together. These doors acts like a curtain and thus provides adequate protection and safety against fire and thefts.

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6.1 DOORS TYPES OF DOORS

DOOR DESIGNS Hinged doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction but not in the other.

The axis of rotation is usually vertical. The most common door type. It is a simple & rigid. The panel swings, opens and closes, on hinges.

Single Side Panel RightHand Swing

DOOR MATERIALS

Timber

Six Panel

Fiberglass

Steel

Glass

Flush

Four Panel Half Moon

Single Side Panel LeftHand Swing

Two Panel Half Lite

Two Panel 3/4 Lite

Two Side Panels Left-Hand Swing

UPVC/Vinyl

Full Lite

Double Door One Side Fixed

Aluminium

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6.1 DOORS ON SITE TYPES OF DOORS The two types of doors used: wooden and glass doors.

Top rail

1. Wooden doors The wooden doors used are flushed, hollow core doors. They are used in the terrace houses and double-storey cluster- link houses There are two thickness of wooden doors used, the thicker door (220mm), A is being used as the entrance door, while the thinner door (190mm), B is used as doors for back entrances,bathrooms, bedrooms and storerooms

2. Glass Sliding doors

Hollow core Stile Lockblock Door face

Only the terrace house has a double glass sliding door. The door operates by bypass sliding.

Bottom rail Hollow core door diagram

Wooden door A

Wooden door B

Sliding glass door

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6.1 DOORS ON SITE DOOR FRAME The door frame is made from aluminium.

Close up photo of hinge and latch strike taken at terrace house.

Photograph shows the unfinished door at terrace houses.

Benefits of using aluminium frame - Slim profile - Durable - Narrow sight lines - Low maintenance - Light yet strong - Poor heat conduction compared to other materials

The components of door hardware seen on the door are the door hinges and the mortise plate. These components are made from the stainless steel as they are long lasting and do not rust easily

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6.2 WINDOWS FUNCTION OF WINDOWS A window Is an opening that provides visual contact between the exterior and the interior of the building. It also admits light, control air ventilation and influences thermal comfort in the building.

WINDOW TERMINOLOGY

TYPES OF WINDOWS

Head Jamb Upper Sash Vertical Pivot

Horizontal Pivot

Fixed

Glass Pane Side Jamb Stop Lower Sash

Trim Sill Slopes Sliding

Casement

Awning

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6.2 WINDOWS WINDOW FRAME MATERIALS

Aluminum frames are known for being rugged and long lasting. They won’t wear out in sunlight and won’t rot, or mold or suffer from most common wear problems that affect wood, vinyl or fiberglass windows. But, they are quite expensive. You’ll spend more for aluminum windows than you will for vinyl or fiberglass, though they are usually a bit cheaper than wooden windows.

Vinyl frames made of PVC (polyvinyl chloride). The material is extruded into a straight shape and then crafted together into a window frame and filled with glass to make the window.

Vinyl windows are affordable and they are known for being good insulators. However, they are not as durable as wooden, fiberglass or aluminium window frames.

Wooden frames are highly durable, attractive, and they last for a long time when properly maintained.

However, wooden windows are expensive and require maintenance. If the windows re not repainted when needed, the frame will expand and contract severely due to moisture changes in the wood. They are also susceptible to rot and weathering in certain climates.

Fiberglass frames are highly durable, resists weathering and can bear extreme temperature changes better than any other material as fiberglass is so close in composition to the glass panes used to make up windows so both materials expand and contract about the same amount with temperature changes. Fiberglass is an excellent insulator and makes window frames that work to prevent the transfer of heat.

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6.2 WINDOWS WINDOW FRAME INSTALLATION PROCESS Sub Frame System The sub-frame system comprises a subframe which is either cast in or anchored to the wall. The main frame is then installed onto the sub frame at a much later stage of the construction.

This process was used to install the frame onto the rough opening at the site.

3. Anchor the sub frame to the rough opening.

1. Position the sub frame using aluminium plate and ride up blocks.

4. Seal the anchor heads and the joints with the wall with protection tape on the frame.

2. Check the alignment of the sub frame.

5. Placing main frame on to the sub frame. Millet is use to knock the finishing trim..

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6.2 WINDOWS IN SITE TYPES OF WINDOWS ON SITE Sliding window

Fixed window

1. SLIDING WINDOW Sliding window includes one fixed sash and one that slides horizontally to the left and right.

Advantages of sliding window - fewer parts than conventional windows - low-maintenance and cost-effective choice - Durable.

- Easier and faster to open

The photograph shows the latch used to lock the sliding window.

The photograph shows the window frame is made from aluminium.

2. FIXED WINDOW Fixed windows can't be opened. It allows light to enter the space. However, there is no air ventilation allowed to get in. These windows are often used in combination with operating windows. In this case. the sliding window to allow air ventilation.

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6.2 WINDOWS IN SITE TYPES OF WINDOWS ON SITE

4. AWNING WINDOWS Awning are hinged at the top and swing outward from the bottom. They glide open and shut with the turn of one easy-to-reach handle.

Advantages of Casement Windows - Privacy is maintained as it can be installed higher than normal windows - Operation of the window helps keep the rain out even when kept open

3. CASEMENT WINDOWS Casement windows are windows that are hinged on the side and the sash opens horizontally opposite the hinge.

Advantages of Casement Windows - Easily operated - Wide openings to allow good air ventilation - Extended window directs air into house - Superior security as locks are embedded into frame

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5.4 WALLS

(done by Clara Lee) WALL FUNCTION

Walls are the vertical constructions of a building that enclose, separate, and protect its interior spaces.

Exterior walls support vertical loads from floor and roof to the foundation structure and withstand the horizontal wind loading as well as serve as a protective shield against the weather for the interior spaces of a building. However, interior walls subdivide the space within a building.

TYPES OF WALLS 1. Load Bearing Walls 2. Non- Load Bearing Walls

LOAD BEARING WALLS A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that bears the weight of your house, from the roof and upper floors, all the way to its foundation structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick.

1. Retaining Wall A structure that holds or retains soil behind it, it is designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil

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5.4 WALLS LOAD BEARING WALLS

NON- LOAD BEARING WALLS

2. Cavity Wall The lower wall supports the floor and wall above. The upper wall is non load bearing since the weight of the truss roof is totally borne by the trusses's bearing point on the outer wall

A wall constructed from two skins of masonry, the outer skin of which can be brickwork or blockwork and the inner skin of which is generally of blockwork, separated by a cavity to prevent the penetration of moisture and to allow for the installation of thermal insulation. Cavity walls are normally used in colder climate countries

1. Partition Wall A non-load bearing wall that separates the internal spaces of a building. As well as spatial division, they can provide; privacy, acoustic and fire separation and flexibility of layout.

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5.4 WALLS WALL MATERIALS 1. Concrete Wall 2. Masonry Wall 3. Glass Wall

CONCRETE WALLS i. CAST-IN-SITU WALLS Cast-in-situ concrete refers to a liquid concrete, that is to be cast on site into a wall.

Characteristics - Concrete that is cast into forms on the building site - Any shape that can be formed can be cast - Certain types of concrete elements cannot be precast, and can only be cast in-situ

Advantages

Disadvantages

- Easy transportation of wet concrete - Flexible when it comes to geometric shapes - Relatively easy to do late changes to structure - Structure becomes monolithic

- Produced in an unprotected environment - Additional time required for drying out process - Requires more temporary work - Complex process with many inputs and flows

Process

1. Set up skeletal structure 2. Set up the formwork with steel bar and pour mortar into the formwork.

3. After the mortar has completely dried, remove the formwork.

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5.4 WALLS CONCRETE WALLS 2. PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS Precast concrete are building components are manufactured in a central plant and later brought to the building site for assembly.

Types of Precast Concrete Walls i. Solid Concrete Wall It is solid concrete wall panels which requires some form of insulation and an interior wall finishing inside the building.

Advantages

Disadvantages

- Easier to control the mix, placement, and curing -Quality is easily controlled - Precast wall can be installed on site immediately - superior strength and durability

-Limited building design flexibility - Skilled workmanship is required on the site - Connections are difficult

ii. Sandwich Wall The sandwich wall can be insulated or not (a.k.a typical wall panel). The difference between this two is that the insulated sandwich wall panels are cast with rigid insulation "sandwiched" between two layers, or wythes, of concrete. The insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal insulating property ("R" value) for the wall.

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5.4 WALLS iii. Thin shell wall Thin-shell wall panels consist of a thin, outer-wythe of concrete typically ranging between 1.5 and 3 inches in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up" system, usually constructed of steel framing or studs, or sometimes concrete. The back-up system is what connects the wall panel to the structural system of the building and often provides the furring for interior finishes, such as drywall to be attached.

PROCESS 1. Plotting the wall element Mark the outline of the wall with the dimensions you want

4. Concrete filling Pour mortar onto the iron bar

2. Moulding and placing electric/ water installations Place the electric and water pipes on the mark (depending on what you need).

5. Vibration and rotation (double wall formation) After the mortar has dried, rotate the dried mortar and stack it with another prepared wall.

3. Inserting reinforcement (ironing) Insert iron bars within the outline of the wall.

6. Storing the walls Hook the wall off to a side as it is available to be cast to construction

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5.4 WALLS MASONRY WALL

TERMINOLOGY

Masonry walls consist of modular building blocks bonded together with mortar to form walls that are durable, fire-resistant, and structurally efficient in compression.

TYPE OF BRICKS

Brick on edge (shiner, bull stretcher) Soldier- A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the brick exposed.

Sailor- A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed TYPE OF BOND

Concrete Brick

Sand Lime Brick bla bla

Clay Brick

Stone Brick

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5.4 WALLS GLASS WALL In masonry, glass wall are normally made from glass blocks

Advantages 1. Distorting image to create privacy 2. Resistance in heat, sound and impact 3. Cost effectiveness (minimal maintenance) 4. Transmit light in both direction 5. Glass blocks come in variety of options 6. Resistant to earthquakes.

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF GLASS BLOCK WALL

1. Determine the number of glass blocks. Plan and measure as glass blocks cannot be cut.

Remember to leave space for the mortar as well

2. Mix enough mortar for your usage.

3. Lay a bed of mortar. Place the glass blocks. The spaces between the end of the block will be filled with expansion strip instead of mortar due to temperature change.

4. Repeat step 3. After filling the second row, place panel anchors on the glass blocks and screw them into the side wall of both ends.

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5.4 WALLS ON SITE SAND LIME BRICK WALLS Walls found in the 2-storey terrace houses and Semi-Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of Desiran Baru can be categorized as masonry walls, and in specific, brick walls.

The types of bricks which are used for the construction of the houses are sand lime bricks.

The photograph above shows the sand lime bricks used to make the wall of the terrace house.

The photograph on the left shows the sand lime bricks stacked up outside the terrace houses.

Description of Sand Lime Brick - Sand lime brick is used to construct both internal and external walls of the 2-storey terrace houses of Desiran Bayu.

-The sand lime bricks were pre-made and then transported to the construction site to be used.

- The bricks were laid out in an running bond formation.

Advantages - Their color appearance is gray instead of the regular reddish color.

- Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish that doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t require plastering.

- These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-bearing member.

- The cost of sand lime brick is cheaper than clay brick.

- The brick wall made with sand lime brick offers high sound insulation.

- The brick can withstand firs for 2 hours.

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5.5 STAIRCASE FUNCTION The stairs are important component in the overall circulation scheme of the building as it helps a person move from one level to another. During the consideration of design and placement of a staircase, safety and ease of travel are one of the most important factors.

TERMINOLOGY

TYPE OF STAIRS PLANS 1. Straight- run 2. Winder 3. 2 Quarter Winder 4. 2 Qurter Landing 5. Double-Winder 6. Half Landing 7. Curved 8. Spiral

7

5

1

2

3

8

6

4

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5.5 STAIRCASE MATERIALS USED

Wood is the most traditional staircase material and the most affordable. Wood is strong and easy to work with and provides an element of warmth in the home. Wood also provides a lighter-weight staircase that will not place undue stress on your floor.

Concrete stairs can provide a sense of solidity and a strong, contemporary look. Concrete stairs are usually supplied precast in sections and ready to be assembled on site. The cost of concrete staircases varies considerably based on the complexity of the design, the specialized manufacturing required and the installation costs.

Glass staircases add a touch of contemporary glamour to an interior. The advantage of glass staircases is that they are lightweight and allow open views and filtered light through the levels in a house. However, glass staircases are one of the more expensive material options.

While metal stairs usually cost more than wooden varieties, their strength and durability makes them an excellent material option.

Metal also offers a flexibility of design and can be used in a variety of styles ranging from heavy industrial looks to lightweight, elegant designs.

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5.5 STAIRCASE ON SITE The staircase found at the construction site were in two types of houses. In phase 1, the terrace houses and in phase two, the semi-detached houses.

TERRACE HOUSE STAIRCASE

TERRACE HOUSE STAIRCASE

The photo shows a completed staircase from the terrace house.

The photo shows a incomplete staircase in the semi-detached house.

The type of staircase The staircase plan shows that this staircase is a half-turn staircase. The staircase turns twice and 90° at each turn.

The type of staircase The staircase is straight-run staircase as it extends from one level to another without turns or winders.

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5.5 STAIRCASE ON SITE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRCASE 1. Measure and mark the dimension of the stairs on the floor.

-Total rise of the stairs -The run of the stairs -The width of the stairs

3. Reinforcement

6. Add finishing A simple wood float was used to clean and smoothen the surface of the mortar.

2. Building and Assembling Formwork:

Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the necessary height and length and positioned into the formwork.

The formwork was made by using plywood or framing timber. The side forms are cut per the tread and riser calculations.

4. Preparing Concrete Sufficient and well mixed mortar was prepared using portable cement mixer.

5. Pouring concrete The process starts from the bottom and concrete was poured one step at a time. Mortars are spread evenly and spade is used to remove the trapped air bubbles.

7. Curing The steps were sprayed with curing compound and covered with burlap.

Once the concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood formwork was then be removed

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5.5 STAIRCASE ON SITE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRCASE

Partially completed handrails at the terrace house.

8. Installing Handrails The handrails were positioned onto the staircase at the location where they will be installed.

- The position of the railings are marked - Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.

- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.

- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.