Adventures of Hanuman on Lanka

ADVENTURES OF HANUMAN ON LANKA FROM THE

R A M AYA N A

SIMON RAY INDIAN & ISLAMIC WORKS OF ART

SIMON RAY INDIAN & ISLAMIC WORKS OF ART

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15 PA I N T I N G S D E P I C T I N G T H E

ADVENTURES OF HANUMAN ON LANKA FROM THE

R A M AYA N A

INTRODUC TION BY

J . P. L O S T Y

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have great pleasure in presenting this catalogue illustrating a magnificent group of 15 Chamba paintings from the Ramayana, depicting the exciting adventures of Hanuman and events leading up to the great battle on Lanka.

This enchanting group of paintings is a continuous sequence from the Sundara Kanda that describes how Hanuman leaps to Lanka and finds Sita, battling many demons and monsters along the way.

I would like to thank Jerry Losty for writing the introduction to the catalogue, which illuminates, through his meticulous research, this distinctive and stylistically unusual sequence of Ramayana paintings.

I would like to thank Leng Tan for so beautifully writing the descriptive captions for the paintings that tell the story of Hanuman’s adventures.

I am grateful to Catherine Glynn, Eberhard Fischer and Andrew Topsfield for their expert advice.

I would also like to thank William Edwards for his assistance in proofreading the text and Kwang Su Eom for his measurements of each painting.

Finally, I would like to thank Peter Keenan for his wonderful design, which brings Hanuman’s adventures to life and Richard Harris for the image scanning and colour reproduction.

Simon Ray

INTRODUCTION

ADVENTURES OF HANUMAN ON LANKA 15 PAINTINGS FROM THE SUNDARA KANDA OF THE RAMAYANA INDIA (CHAMBA), 1800-1810

These fifteen paintings form a connected sequence from the fifth book (Sundara or Beautiful Book) of the epic Ramayana, from Hanuman’s leap across the sea and his adventures in Lanka, to his return, the defection of Vibhishana, and finally the allied army crossing the sea to Lanka. They cover the whole of the Sundara Kanda of the Ramayana in the northern recension (it should be noted that H.P. Shastri’s translation follows a recension that transfers the last twenty-two chapters of the Sundara Kanda to the next book, the Lanka or Yuddha Kanda, the Book of Battles).

No other books of the Ramayana in quite this style have so far come to light. This could suggest that this series was filling a gap in an earlier series that lacked this particular book. Such a piecemeal approach to illustrating the Ramayana was common in the Pahari region, since the resources needed for a complete illustrated manuscript or series could be beyond the resources of any individual patron. The earliest Pahari version, the so-called ‘Shangri’ Ramayana, was illustrated in four campaigns over the best part of half a century from about 1690 onwards and employed artists from different ateliers for some of the books. In another Ramayana series from Mankot, only the Book of Kishkindha seems to have been produced at the court studio 1700-1710. Pandit Seu’s Guler Ramayana of circa 1725 consisting of the early books seems to have been continued by the Siege of Lanka series possibly by his son Manaku circa 1730. The first three books of the Early Kangra Ramayana of circa 1775-1780 were supplemented by books five and six a decade or more later. So our isolated fifth book is easily enough explained. Of particular relevance to our series is the Chamba Ramayana from circa 1760 that seems to have been discontinued after the death of Raja Umed Singh in 1764, when even the first two books had not been completed, and was then taken up again about fifteen years later.

There is no shortage of earlier illustrated Ramayanas from the plains. Even though none survives in the Early Rajput style, such a manuscript must have adorned the library at Chitor where the Ranas of Mewar claimed descent from Rama himself. The earliest survivals are associated with the Mughals. Akbar had

the Sanskrit text translated into Persian and his great manuscript was finished in 1588. His mother Hamida Banu Begum seems to have had her own version prepared from around 1595. Two Mughal nobles had their own manuscripts: that of Abd al-Rahim Khan-i-Khanan dates from 1589-1598, while the earliest surviving version using the Sanskrit text is that associated with Prince Salim’s friend Bir Singh Deo of Orchha from around 1595. Other Rajput rulers had their own versions prepared, including one from Central India around 1640 and most spectacularly of all, that commissioned by Rana Jagat Singh of Mewar with completion dates from 1649 to 1653 and illustrated by over 400 large paintings prepared in three different Mewar styles.

Despite the assurance of the artist’s hand that has created our series, his work is difficult both to place in a given atelier and to date accurately, since certain early features are contradicted by others that seem later. The most obvious stylistic resemblance is one that has been thought unique to Garhwal. The sea throughout (no. 1 etc.) as depicted here in a pattern of spirals and swirling eddies is inhabited by amusing little dragons and sea-horses who poke their heads and half their bodies above the water as well as by large fish. Such a depiction of water and sea creatures is found in the Garhwal Sudama-Charita series dated by Archer to 1775-1790 (Archer 1973, Garhwal 7ii) as well as in a Garhwal Krishna subduing Kaliya circa 1780 albeit without the sea creatures (ibid., Garhwal 4; Lal 1968, pl. 2). These are very distinctive spiral swirls, which W.G. Archer suggests are inspired by the spiralling eddies of the Alakananda in the rains at Srinagar.

The spiralling eddies are very unlike the swirling waters depicted in paintings from the later Kangra workshop, which actually appear more like pieces of a jigsaw being fitted together, as for example in two Ramayana pages from around 1850 (Britschgi and Fischer 2008, nos. 66 and 67).

Yet, this apparently decisive clue to provenance is contradicted by other evidence. In fact the swirling eddies with water teeming with fish are found almost completely formed in a Chamba Ramayana series from 1780-1785, for the date of which see below (Ohri 1983, pl. 3). Figures on the whole in our series are remarkably squat, not just the demons as a way of diminishing them, but also the monkeys, bears and the few humans who appear in this book including the two brothers and perhaps Sita, though she is always depicted seated. Other squat women appear in the burning of Lanka as they try to escape the flames (no. 9). Sita appears in nos. 3, 4 and 9, Rama and Lakshmana in nos. 11, 13-14. In no. 11 the brothers’ facial profile is regular with an obtuse angle between forehead and nose, wide almond-shaped eyes with pupils at the front with white visible beneath, and high arching eyebrows. In no. 13 the two brothers have concave profiles with pointed noses, but in no. 14 the profile is almost straight without any angle. This suggests several hands were involved in the series. The two brothers wear either pointed leaf caps or flatter caps with the leaves arranged in a circle and leaf skirts with large pointed leaves.

These squat figures with their leaf caps and skirts and distinctive profiles appear also in a Ramayana series attributed by Archer to Tara Singh at Chamba 1840 -1850 (Archer 1973, Chamba 58), now in the Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba, but Archer and Randhawa before him were misled according to V.C. Ohri as to

both attribution and date by Randhawa’s ignorant informant (Ohri 1983, pp. 16-17). This Ramayana Ohri believes to be a continuation of the 1760 series from Chamba discontinued in 1764 and in his 1983 book publishes twelve paintings from the Aranya Kanda which he dates to 1780-1785. Ohri states that the books of Kishkindha and Sundara in this series (there is no Yuddha Kanda) are later and inferior. Vogel’s list of the contents of the Bhuri Singh Museum (1909, D.67-150) lists 84 paintings for the set, including thirteen corresponding to our fifteen in the Sundara Kanda, but these have not been published. The figures in the Aranya Kanda published by Ohri have much in common with our Sundara Kanda series. Several artists were involved in the Aranya Kanda series so that Rama and Lakshmana appear with different profiles much as in our series and wear different kinds of leaf hats both pointed and circular again as in our series.

One particular artist (Ohri 1983, pls. 9, 11) favours the kind of squat figures found in our series for the two brothers. Our Sita’s profile and facial features are matched by the representations of some of those of Sita in the Chamba series (Ohri 1983, pls. 1, 3 etc.), who is sometimes shown as rather squat (ibid. pl. 9) as in our human figures. Squatness in general is a feature of some later nineteenth century Pahari schools, but is not necessarily indicative of a late date.

Architecture in our series is very distinctive. Noteworthy is the depiction of individual bricks or stones in walls each with its surround of mortar in staggered rows (no. 2 etc.), which is again similar to those seen in the Garhwal Sudama-Charita series (Archer 1973, 7iii). As in that series they can be rendered in simple flat elevation or sometimes in perspective. This feature it must be pointed out is also seen in Chamba painting, as in another Sudama-Charita series from Chamba (Randhawa 1979, pl. 6). The Aranya Kanda series of course has no buildings to compare. Again very similar to the Garhwal Sudama series (Archer 1973, Garhwal 7v) is the great gateway with pavilion on top (no. 2). Interior walls are normally decorated with double rows of arched niches, but these are found in many Pahari styles. Views of the palace or city normally show a backdrop of buildings, gateways and towers (although Ravana’s palace no. 2 seems to include two mosques) in a relatively simple manner without the compartmentalisation for instance of later Kangra paintings. Particularly Garhwali are what appear to be large circular or octagonal chhatris perched on top of small circular minarets (nos. 2, 8) as in Archer’s Garhwal 23 (circa 1800-1820). Karl Khandalavala points out a peculiarly Garhwal type of pillar (1958, fig. G-4, p. 277, and fig. 40) with a ‘double-lotus’ motif of lotus petals going both down to cover the pillar base and up at considerable length to cover the shaft, a type that perhaps can be seen in Ravana’s pavilion in our no. 5.

Noteworthy landscape features include slanted striated pink rocks with naturalistic trees and shrubs poking up from the rocks, which are found throughout the series. These differ markedly from the slabs or slanted rocks found in the Kedarakalpa and later Kangra series. Again a parallel is found in Garhwal, Rati entreats Shiva circa 1815-1825 (Archer Garhwal, no. 34), although this feature is more useful for determining date rather than style. These slanting rocks are used to great effect in the various scenes of Hanuman leaping across the ocean and then back again (our nos. 1 and 10). The ground is otherwise envisaged as a series

of hillocks in green or other pastel shades with pink rims to suggest distance, punctuated by swards of green. The arcs of hills dotted with small stylised trees so characteristic of some early Garhwal paintings are not present, instead the ground is punctuated by small hillocks in pink and green, while large naturalistic trees with dense, tightly packed leaves punctuate the landscape. These trees seem more characteristic of the Chamba Aranya Kanda than of anything from Garhwal. In several of Ohri’s plates but by no means all the rocks are covered with small dark monochrome bushes almost resembling holes. These are found also all over the rocks in our Sundara Kanda series and especially in our no. 12. These are in addition to the normal little bushes also scattered over the rocks. This is such a distinctive feature that some connection between these paintings is indicated.

Whereas in our series, figures, tree foliage and rocks are treated as areas of solid colours with short dabbing brush strokes, the green sward and sometimes tree trunks are modelled with long parallel lines over a lighter ground. This technique is found as early as the fifth and sixth books of the Bharany Ramayana from about 1790-1800, undertaken a quarter century after the earlier books (Britschgi and Fischer 2008, nos. 56 and 78). Skies are of the deep almost slate blue variety favoured in Garhwal.

Our series is full of imaginative and amusing details. In no. 1, amidst the swirling waters lively and amusing water creatures poke their heads above the surface to observe what is going on, while Hanuman in his flight pokes his tongue out in concentration and once arrived on Lanka looks back in amazement at what he has achieved. In this and the other scenes of crossing the ocean (nos. 10, 12 and 15) there is no horizon, which suggests the infinite expanse of the waters, as had been the case in the first of the Garhwal Sudama-Charita series when Sudama sets eyes on Dwarka on the shores of the western ocean, beyond which the swirling, eddying waters recede under the picture frame (Archer 1954, pl. 1). Once arrived on Lanka (no. 2), Hanuman diminishes himself in size, leaps to a tower to peer down on a sleeping Ravana like a dog on point, and clambers across the golden buildings of Lanka, all against a deep star-filled sky. He breaks down the fruit trees in the Ashoka grove (no. 4) and torments Sita’s guardian who runs off to report his misdeeds to Ravana. He lays about him with great gusto using the branches of destroyed trees (no. 6) as he fights the pop-eyed, toy-like demons, while the water creatures flee the scene in terror. Hanuman allows himself to be caught and bound with a snake round his neck (no. 7) and stands meekly before Ravana as Vibhishana pleads for his life as his tail is bound up with oil-soaked rags to be set alight (no.

8). The scene of the demon women and children fleeing the burning city (no. 9) while Hanuman dowses his burning tail in the sea is rich in lively detail of everyday life. No. 10 is a repeat of no. 1 but in reverse - Hanuman is showered with flowers as he crosses the sea, the sea creatures seem to rejoice with him, and he is warmly embraced by Angada on the other side. In no. 11 the artist depicts the monkey chiefs over-indulging in a fruit orgy, which leads some of them to have to lie down to recover. As Vibhishana is humiliated by his brother Ravana (no. 12), the demon attendants express their astonishment, while Vibhishana determinedly puts his crown back on his head and jumps off the cliff as if to kill himself but in

fact to fly across the sea to Rama. The army of the monkeys and bears is amusingly drawn in repetitive detail, with only the faces of those in front drawn fully, suggestive of the vastness of their ranks as they recede between the hillocks (nos. 13, 14). They have a very complete band of musicians, who are playing various kinds of drums and trumpets, as well as the shehnai and the flute. In no. 15 the musicians lead the army across the bridge to Lanka with only Sugriva in his palanquin depicted among the leaders, while the curious sea creatures again poke their heads above the waves.

Our series then exhibits a mixture of features found in both Chamba and Garhwal painting. Although linked to the 1780-1785 Chamba paintings of the Aranya Kanda it presumably must be somewhat later since it is not quite so finely painted. A date of 1800-1810 from Chamba seems the most suitable, which would allow for influence from Garhwal artists to add some of the features distinctive to that style, an influence caused by the flight of artists from Garhwal consequent on the Gurkha conquest of 1804. Raja Pradyumna was killed and his brother Parakram took refuge with Sansar Chand in Kangra. Some of the Garhwal artists may have returned to Guler, or gone to Kangra with Parakram, but the evidence of our series suggests that some of them travelled beyond Kangra to Chamba. Sansar Chand in any case had his own problems shortly afterwards with the Gurkhas in 1806 and the Sikhs in 1809.

J. P. Losty

Provenance:

References:

Formerly in the collection of Dr Alma Latifi, CIE, OBE (1879-1959)

Archer, W.G., Garhwal Painting, Faber and Faber, London, 1954 Archer, W.G., Indian Paintings from the Punjab Hills, Sotheby Parke Bernet, London and New York, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1973 Bhatia, Usha, ‘Chaitu at Tehri Garhwal’ in Ohri, V.C., and Craven, R., ed., Painters of the Pahari Schools, Marg Publications, Bombay, 1998, pp. 141-148 Britschgi, J., and Fischer, E., Rama und Sita: das Ramayana in der Malerei Indiens, Museum Rietberg, Zurich, 2008 Goswamy, B.N., and Fischer, E., ‘The First Generation after Manaku and Nainsukh of Guler’ in Beach, M.C., Fischer, E., and Goswamy, B.N., Masters of Indian Painting, Artibus Asiae, Zurich, 2011, pp. 687-718 Khandalavala, K., Pahari Miniature Painting, New Book Co., Bombay, 1958 Lal, M., Garhwal Painting, Publications Division, New Delhi, 1968 The Ramayana of Valmiki, translated by Hari Prasad Shastri, Shanti Sadan, London, 1953-1959 Ohri, V.C., The Exile in the Forest, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, 1983 Randhawa, M.S., Chamba Painting, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, 1979 Vogel, J.Ph., Catalogue of the Bhuri Singh Museum at Chamba, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1909

Dr Latifi, an eminent civil servant, collected Indian works of art from the 1930s to the 1950s. He amassed a substantial collection of Indian paintings from which some paintings were loaned to the Royal Academy exhibition in London entitled, The Art of India and Pakistan, 1947-1948.

Private London Collection

1 HANUMAN LEAPS ACROSS THE OCEAN

The Monkey King Sugriva has sent a band of monkeys led by Prince Angada to explore the southernmost tip of India. They meet the old wingless King of the Vultures, Sampati, who tells them that he saw Sita being abducted by the Demon King Ravana, who now holds her captive in the city of Lanka, on an island four hundred miles across the vast ocean.

After an impassioned debate about which monkey has the strength to cross the sea, Jambavan, the King of the Bears, urges Hanuman, son of the Wind God, Vayu, to make the leap as the only one capable of accomplishing this daunting task.

Hanuman expands to an immense size and leaps from the summit of Mount Mahendra with outstretched arms and tail waving in pleasure.

Crushing the mountain as he takes off, the force of his trajectory churns the waves to reveal crocodiles, serpents, turtles, huge fish and monsters lying in wait. The Ocean commands

Mainaka, the underwater mountain, to rise above the waters to give Hanuman a place to rest midway but he merely taps it with his hand and leaps off again.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.8 cm Height: 22.2 cm Width: 31.7 cm Width: 36.6 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper

Next he is tested by the Mother of Serpents, Surasa who extends her jaws to a hundred miles in order to swallow him. Hanuman keeps increasing his girth, forcing her mouth to expand, but suddenly reduces his body to the size of a thumb and flies safely out of her mouth unharmed.

Final danger appears in the form of the vast demoness Simhaka who rises from the salty waves to eat him, ensnaring him by stepping on his shadow.

Hanuman dives into her extended mouth and kills her by clawing out her entrails. Here we see her destroyed and sinking back into the depths.

Hanuman arrives on Lanka and looks back on his great accomplishment, while the city towers gleam in the distance.

within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapter 1

2 H A N U M A N E X P L O R E S T H E G O L D E N C I T Y O F L A N K A AT N I G H T T O S E A R C H F O R S I TA

Ravana’s golden-walled and jewel-studded city of Lanka, built by the celestial architect Vishvakarma, looms large, magnificent and impregnable, filled with magnificent palaces, guarded by powerful rakshasas and surrounded by a golden rampart. In order to escape detection by the demons while he explores the city, Hanuman reduces his mighty form to the size of a cat and tries to slip unnoticed into the city under the cover of night, lit only by the moon and stars.

His entry is barred by the Goddess of Lanka, the presiding deity of the city that manifests as a monstrous demoness who guards the city against intruders. After she

questions his purpose and finds his answer, of wishing to behold Lanka and see its great buildings, unsatisfactory, they fight and Hanuman floors the demon, injuring but not killing her. She tells him Brahma’s prophecy that in the hour a monkey overcomes her by force, the titans will cease to be invincible and Lanka will fall. As this prophecy cannot be changed, she lets him pass through the city gates. Hanuman spends the whole night exploring the city while it sleeps, visiting Ravana’s chambers within the zenana to observe the demon king asleep and secretly entering every room in every palace unobserved. In the painting, Hanuman appears five times in the continuous narrative and once only his waving tail indicates his discreet presence.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.8 cm Height: 22.2 cm Width: 32.5 cm Width: 36.7 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapter 3

3 H A N U M A N F I N D S S I TA I N T H E A S H O K A G R O V E

Though Hanuman has spent the entire night exploring Lanka, studying its defences and seeing all its great banqueting halls and the aerial chariot Pushpaka, observing the powerful demons armed to the teeth and the beautiful sleeping demon wives of Ravana, he has not yet found Sita.

Almost admitting defeat in the face of despair and yet not wishing to return to Kishkindha without having found her, he enters a beautiful Ashoka grove within a walled garden that he has not yet explored.

Watered by a stream and filled with birds and animals, this is the place where Sita would most likely be found. At the centre of the grove is a Shingshapa tree with dense leaves and blossoms on its spreading branches, surrounded by a golden dais. Shrinking further in size, Hanuman climbs into the foliage and conceals himself within the perfect vantage point.

Then suddenly he sees Sita, thin and emaciated from sorrow, fasting and the performance of austerities, her garments soiled and the lustre of her few remaining jewels dimmed, yet still recognisable as the beautiful abducted princess. Closely guarded by ferocious demon women, Hanuman decides that the best way to attract her attention without frightening her or alerting the rakshasis is to speak softly to her from the branches when she sits below the tree, praising Rama in words that will bring her comfort.

After a long conversation during which he affirms his identity, convinces her of his role in seeking her whereabouts, assures her that now she is found Rama will soon rescue her, Hanuman descends from the tree, kneels at her feet and gives her Rama’s ring as proof of his love and the fact that Hanuman is his emissary.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.7 cm Height: 22 cm Width: 32 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 15-37

4 H A N U M A N TA K E S L E AV E O F S I TA A N D D E S T R O Y S T H E A S H O K A G R O V E

After gratefully accepting Rama’s ring from Hanuman, Sita gives him in exchange a celestial pearl to bring back to Rama as proof of Hanuman having seen her still alive. Formerly adorning her forehead and now secreted within her robes, hidden from Ravana and the demon women, this priceless gem is what we see Sita giving to Hanuman in the upper left corner of the painting. She also tells Hanuman to remind Rama of when he defended her from a wicked crow who kept pecking her, by throwing a blade of grass which he transformed into a Brahma weapon that blinded the crow in one eye. If Rama had defended her so well against a mere crow, why does he not now rescue her from the far greater danger of the evil Ravana, who threatens to eat her within one month if she does not acquiesce to his advances? Hanuman assures her that Rama will soon come with a massive army of monkeys and bears now that he knows of her whereabouts.

Taking his leave of Sita, Hanuman reflects on what else he can do to aid the rescue mission. He decides to ascertain the strength of the demon forces by provoking an encounter with the titans and also hopefully meeting Ravana face to face so that he might study him closely, and observe his personality and intentions. To this end, he destroys the Ashoka grove and the magnificent surrounding gardens to incite Ravana’s fury.

He uproots the trees, tears down the branches and creepers, knocks down the pleasure pavilions and lays waste to the immaculate flower-beds, sweeping through the garden like a raging tempest. He also attacks a demoness who reports the incident to the outraged Ravana.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.8 cm Height: 22.3 cm Width: 31.8 cm Width: 36.7 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 38-41

5 H A N U M A N F I G H T S T H E R A K S H A S A S S E N T B Y R AVA N A

Deeply angered by the female titan’s report of a monkey the size of a mountain laying waste to the gardens and uprooting the trees of the Ashoka grove, Ravana orders eighty thousand retainers called kinkaras, whose strength in combat equals his own, to attack and seize Hanuman.

Bearing weapons of every form including swords, knives, maces, spears and axes, the demons surround Hanuman and attack him from every direction.

As Hanuman carries no weapons, he continues to uproot whole trees with which he decimates the demon host. He then grabs an iron bar that stands near the gate and uses this to pulverise the demons. As he fights, he loudly proclaims victory to Rama and his forces and boasts of his own prowess as a destroyer of armies in order to strike terror into the demons’ hearts, hoping his declarations will reach Ravana’s ears.

With all the kinkaras slain by him singlehandedly, Hanuman declares that many monkeys as powerful as himself will come to Lanka in their thousands and millions to exterminate all the titans, who now tremble in abject fear. Ravana responds by sending out his most powerful warriors, beginning with Jambumalin, son of Prahasta, in a chariot drawn by asses.

Though the skilful Jambumalin succeeds in covering Hanuman with darts and arrows, Hanuman seizes a club from the battleground and with one mighty blow fuelled by anger, crushes Jambumalin’s chest to the extent that no part of his body remains recognisable. Ravana has no choice but to send further demons into battle. We see the ten-headed demon king in his palace at the top of the painting barking orders to his soldiers, each of his ten faces livid with anger.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.9 cm Height: 21.8 cm Width: 31.6 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 42-44

6 HANUMAN CONTINUES TO FIGHT THE R AKSHASAS

The battle between Hanuman and the demons intensifies as birds flee in the sky and fish, turtles and serpents react with alarm in the stream into which the fallen trees have crashed. Ravana’s troops seem to be thinning out on the top right as each successive wave of great warriors is decimated by Hanuman.

Following the death of Jambumalin, Ravana sends out the seven sons of his seven ministers in thundering chariots, accompanied by a large army with elephants and horses. They aim a thousand arrows at Hanuman, all of which he evades as swiftly as the wind. He leaps on them and destroys the entire host with his feet, hands, fists and nails. He then annihilates five generals and their forces. Virupaksha, Yupaksha, Durdharsha, Praghasa and Basakarna, leaders of Ravana’s forces and masters of military strategy, are all ground to death by the peak of a mountain which Hanuman tears off. Finally, Hanuman slays the youthful warrior Aksha, but not without regret at taking the life of one so young, so brave and so promising. Amazed by his prowess, the demons do not believe Hanuman to be a monkey but a being of a higher order.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.8 cm Height: 22.5 cm Width: 31.3 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 45-47

7 H A N U M A N A L LO WS H I M S E L F TO B E C A P T U R E D BY I N D R A J I T

Agitated and filled with anger after the defeat of many of his finest warriors, Ravana commands his own son, the god-like demon prince, Indrajit, to take the field. In the upper register of the painting, we see Ravana telling Indrajit that he has far greater faith in him than the warriors who have gone before, as he has proved himself invincible in battle, having in his possession an arsenal of divine weapons acquired by the grace of Brahma, and a deep knowledge of magic, time and space acquired through the diligent practice of austerities.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.5 cm Height: 21.6 cm Width: 31.8 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue

A titanic battle between Indrajit and Hanuman ensues as they are well matched in skills and neither can be defeated as a result of boons from Brahma. Dancing like the wind, Hanuman skilfully eludes the shower of gold-tipped arrows sent at lightning speed by his formidable adversary.

Realising that Hanuman is incapable of being slain, Indrajit decides to capture him instead. He unleashes the most powerful weapon conferred by Brahma, the naag paash or serpent noose. Though Hanuman has been granted the boon of invulnerability in combat by Brahma, he allows himself to be taken captive by the snake weapon as he understands that this is Brahma’s ordained intention for him and protected by his boons, he feels no pain or fear from the noose. Hanuman also considers the advantage of being taken prisoner as he will soon be brought face to face with Ravana. In the foreground of the picture, under the shade of a beautiful Sala tree, we see Indrajit triumphantly holding the snake noose tied around Hanuman’s neck while the monkey stands before him with a gentle smile, docile and unresisting.

and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapter 48

8 H A N U M A N I S B R O U G H T B E F O R E R AVA N A A N D H I S TA I L I S W R A P P E D I N A B U N D L E O F C LOT H

Indrajit brings Hanuman before Ravana and proudly presents the monkey for questioning. The demon prince stands before Ravana’s throne, pointing to his simian prisoner standing in the outer courtyard. Though Hanuman is awed and astonished by the power, magnificence and splendour of Ravana seen in close proximity, when asked to explain himself, he boldly recites his credentials as the minister of Sugriva, sent on a mission to locate Sita whom he has already found in the Ashoka grove. Declaring his intention to report his findings to Rama and bring back an army to attack Lanka, he also asks Ravana to consider saving himself from destruction and securing the future of Lanka by releasing Sita. His fearless words, spoken in the measured tones of a wise politician and seasoned diplomat, only serve to infuriate Ravana the more, who orders him to be put to immediate death.

Hanuman is saved by the intervention of Ravana’s younger brother Vibhishana, who pleads for Hanuman’s life by saying that it is unrighteous and unworthy of Ravana as a king to kill a messenger; it is stated in the scriptures and understood by all practitioners in the art of princely warfare that under no circumstance may an envoy be put to death. Messengers may however be tortured and punished so Ravana, noting that a monkey’s greatest pride is his tail, decides to humiliate him by setting it on fire. The demons can be seen binding Hanuman’s tail in a huge wad of cloth, with pots of oil poured on it to be set aflame.

Indrajit notes with some trepidation that tying Hanuman with rope and cords negates his Brahma serpent noose as binding a prisoner by any other means renders the mantra of the naag paash void. In this painting, we no longer see the snake around Hanuman’s neck.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.5 cm Height: 21.5 cm Width: 31.5 cm Width: 36 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 48-52

9 H A N U M A N S E T S F I R E T O L A N K A W I T H H I S B L A Z I N G TA I L A N D P U T S IT OUT IN THE SEA

Having set Hanuman’s tail on fire, the demons drag him on a parade of humiliation through the city, advancing joyfully down the wide streets and proclaiming his misdeeds with conches and trumpets. Thousands of demon citizens gather to enjoy the spectacle of his punishment, which Hanuman endures for the sake of inspecting the plan of the city and its fortifications once again in daylight, having seen them only dimly at night. When the titan women inform Sita of unfolding events, she implores the God of Fire, Agni, to spare Hanuman any suffering. Though his tail flares up in an effulgent blaze, he feels no pain. His father, the Wind God Vayu, also lends a hand by blowing ice-cold breath on his tail.

Suddenly, by reducing his body to diminutive proportions, Hanuman slips from his bonds and leaps free onto the roof tops of Lanka, which he sets alight with his tail, sweeping from mansion to mansion as he advances towards Ravana’s palace. Fanned by the wind, the flames spread everywhere. As dwellings collapse, their rich ornamentation of jewels, gold and silver flows in streams like molten lava. The women and children of the city scramble to save their belongings, exiting their homes with what little they can carry away from the inferno. As the vast crowds panic, some fall from high balconies while others remain trapped within the city as it crumbles, engulfed by tongues of flame that stretch into the sky. Having burnt Lanka to the ground, Hanuman quenches his tail in the sea then anxiously proceeds to check on Sita in case he has set her on fire, but he finds her safe, protected from destruction by her own purity. He then bids her goodbye.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.4 cm Height: 21.8 cm Width: 31.8 cm Width: 36.6 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 53-55

10 HANUMAN JUMPS BACK ACROSS THE OCEAN

His mission accomplished, with Sita discovered and Lanka burnt to a cinder, Hanuman, eager to see Rama and to bring his great tidings to the army of monkeys, prepares to return in glory across the sea, from the northern shore of Lanka to the southern tip of India. He ascends the great Mount Arishta, high as the clouds and covered with groves in which animals and celestial beings dwell; scattered with metallic deposits and scarred with deep ravines shrouded in mist; abounding in caves, crags, streams and waterfalls; and covered with flowers and creepers of every description. Gathering up all his strength, Hanuman presses down hard before taking a mighty leap from the heavenly summit, flattening the mountain with the force of his propulsion, before coursing through the air like the wind. For the second time, he achieves the impossible task of crossing the ocean that he has traversed not so long before, a feat for which he will be justly celebrated. On his return journey, Hanuman is unimpeded by monsters having defeated them all, but pays joyful homage to Mount Mainaka, the friendly mountain in the depths of the sea.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.7 cm Height: 22.3 cm Width: 31.5 cm Width: 36.4 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper As he passes through the shimmering clouds in the sky, disappearing then appearing once again from behind the clouds, Hanuman is surprised by a shower of multi-coloured floral blossoms, thrown down by heavenly beings as a garland for a returning hero.

Landing safely on Mount Mahendra, Hanuman is embraced by Angada and Jambavan, and given a rapturous hero’s welcome by the monkey troops.

Exultant from the news that he has seen Sita, they settle down to listen to Hanuman recount his adventures.

within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 56 and 57

11 T H E M O N K E Y S D E VA S TAT E T H E M A D H U VA N A G R O V E A N D G O R G E T H E M S E LV E S ON FRUIT AND HONEY BEFORE THEY RE TURN TO R AMA

Leaping down from the summit of Mount Mahendra with uncontrollable excitement, flush with pride at the overwhelming success of their mission and eager to report to Rama their findings, the monkeys hurtle homeward at breakneck speed. Nearing Kishkindha, they arrive at Sugriva’s celestial grove of Madhuvana, planted with countless fruit trees and swarming with honey bees. They are given permission to partake of fruits and honey by Dadhimukha, Sugriva’s uncle who is the guardian of the grove but the feast soon descends into a drunken orgy of excess as the intoxicated monkeys begin to sing, laugh, clap, boast and fight with each other as well as the guardians of the grove, stripping the trees of fruits, flowers and leaves and laying waste to the whole of Madhuvana. Drunk with liquor and giddy with arrogance, the celebration descends into a disrespectful plunder of the

royal orchard. Even Prince Angada behaves improperly by striking his granduncle Dadhimukha, while some of the monkeys collapse in a stupor after their overindulgence.

Yet when Dadhimukha flies to Mount Prasravana to complain to Sugriva, the monkey king realises at once that such an escapade would not happen if the troops had failed in their mission. Sugriva deduces that Hanuman has found Sita and therefore the monkeys deserve their feast as a reward. He tells Dadhimukha to bear with the arrogance of the victorious and sends him to fetch the monkeys. On the right, we see Hanuman bowing before Rama who presents him with a necklace in appreciation of his triumphs.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.8 cm Height: 22.3 cm Width: 31.7 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Sundara Kanda, chapters 61-64

12 VIBHISHANA DEFEC TS FROM LANK A AND FLIES ACROSS THE OCEAN

As the great army of monkeys and bears arrives on the shore of the ocean, the defiant Ravana consults his counsellors and generals as to what should be his next move. He asks for advice to be given only after careful consideration of all the facts, but driven by his lustful infatuation for Sita, listens to only what he wants to hear. With the sole exception of his wise brother Vibhishana, all the demons argue for war, citing Ravana’s previous successes in battle, boasting of their own prowess, dismissing Rama as a mere mortal and thus easily vanquished, and conveniently forgetting the recent devastation wrought by a single monkey of exceptional prowess.

Vibhishana’s assessment of the situation is entirely different. He believes the demons are heading for defeat and will be crushed by Rama, who should not be underestimated. He insists that Ravana return Sita, whom he has wrongfully abducted, as she is the sole cause of this enormous conflict; Rama would not attack Lanka without just reason. In addition to these rational arguments, which Ravana dismisses as the prating of a jealous and malicious relative, Vibhishana cites a series of bad omens in the

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.6 cm Height: 22 cm Width: 31.3 cm Width: 36.2 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Yuddha Kanda, chapters 7-16

city that have appeared since Sita’s incarceration: sacrificial fires dimmed by smoke, domestic animals falling ill, and ants and reptiles appearing in kitchens and altars. He tells Ravana that all the citizens believe him wrong in capturing Sita but none dares speak the truth. Vibhishana repeats his advice on several occasions to no avail, in public assembly as well as privately in Ravana’s chambers before only his minsters.

In the end, severely rebuked by Ravana at the council of war, Vibhishana takes his leave of Lanka and flies over the sea to join Rama’s forces. In the painting, Ravana seems to have angrily kicked Vibhishana, whose crown has fallen to the ground. He hastily puts it on again as he exits the palace before leaping off the mountain top. The crown is an important motif as Vibhishana will eventually become King of Lanka after Ravana’s defeat.

13 R A M A R E C E I V E S V I B H I S H A N A A N D L E TS LO O S E H I S A R R O WS O N T H E S E A

Appearing like a flash of lightning as he reaches the northern shore, Vibhishana is spotted by Sugriva as he stands amidst his vast monkey forces.

Mistrustful of the titan’s sudden arrival and questioning his true intentions, Sugriva rushes to tell Rama, who consults his generals on whether he should accept Vibhishana into his camp. The monkey chiefs debate whether Vibhishana has been sent by Ravana as a spy, or come on his own accord to join Rama’s side. Suspicious of his motives and fearful of a sudden attack, they suggest a thorough interrogation before forming an alliance. Since he is a deserter from Ravana’s side, might he not suddenly also turn on them?

It is Hanuman who offers the most measured view, reading sincerity and intelligence into Vibhishana’s open countenance and confident yet tactful manner.

Vibhishana has been hovering in mid-air during the discussion but as soon as Rama welcomes him, he joyfully lands on the shore and is warmly greeted by the monkey chiefs who bring him before Rama. Falling at Rama’s feet, Vibhishana tells of his mistreatment by Ravana, and describes in detail the defences of Lanka. Rama asks Lakshmana to anoint him with sea water as the King of Lanka, pending Ravana’s imminent destruction. Vibhishana then provides Rama with a solution to crossing the ocean, advising him to appeal

for help to Sagara, Lord of the Waters, as Sagara is Rama’s ancestor. For three nights, Rama performs austerities on the shore, offering obeisance to the ocean to ask for safe passage, but Sagara refuses to appear until Rama shoots flaming arrows at the sea, churning the waters into a mighty storm, threatening to dry them up and kill all the creatures within. Finally, Sagara rises from the waves, accompanied by an entourage of river goddesses led by Ganga and the Indus, who flank the King of the Sea in the background, bowing to Rama who still menacingly brandishes his bow.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.7 cm Height: 22 cm Width: 31.7 cm Width: 36.9 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Yuddha Kanda, chapters 16-21

14 T H E M O N K E Y A N D B E A R A R M I E S P R E PA R E F O R WA R

A military band plays as Rama and his allies hold their final council of war.

As in the preceding illustration, the thousands and millions of monkeys and bears stretch into the far distance along the shore. Groups of them clustered between the receding bluffs in the background give an idea of the vastness of the assembled army. Sugriva’s palanquin is parked near the royal encampment.

Sagara, Lord of the Waters, has appeared before Rama and explained that like the other elements of earth, wind, air and light, water remains true to its nature and thus he cannot solidify. However, he can still make it possible for Rama’s forces to cross over by pacifying all the monsters of the sea and rendering the sharks inactive so that they will not eat the monkeys on

their journey. Sagara then points to the monkey Nala, who unknown to all is the son of the celestial architect Vishvakarma, who built the glittering city of Lanka. His illustrious ancestry has hitherto remained hidden, as Nala has modestly never spoken of his powers, nor have his services been required until now, but Sagara informs Rama that Nala has inherited stupendous gifts from his father and is just as skilled and talented in architecture.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.7 cm Height: 22.4 cm Width: 31.5 cm Width: 36 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Sagara instructs Nala to construct a causeway over the water that he promises to uphold. Rama commands the monkeys to enter the forest in their thousands to uproot trees and dig up rocks. They use their powerful hands and feet but also deploy mechanical devices and pull on chains to transport stones as big as elephants to the shore, to be assembled into a colossal bridge under Nala’s direction. Work begins by throwing the largest boulders into the sea to lay the foundations of a bridge heading straight towards Lanka, tracing a line on the waves that when seen from the sky resembles the parting in a woman’s hair.

Shastri, 1953-1959, Yuddha Kanda, chapter 22

15 T H E M O N K E Y A N D B E A R A R M I E S M A R C H T O B AT T L E O V E R T H E B R I D G E T O L A N K A

In this painting, we see only a small, tightly packed section of the infinite massed ranks of monkeys and bears that cross over the bridge of rocks to Lanka in their millions. Led by the band of musicians and trailed by Sugriva in his golden palanquin, the monkeys quiver with anticipation at the impending battle but remain disciplined as they march to their destiny with precision, order, purpose and determination. At the same time, the fact that they are embarking on a great adventure with high spirits and merriment is conveyed by the monkeys turned full face to the viewer, who register great astonishment at what they are doing and what they have achieved.

cemented to take the weight of the troops and finished by a smooth pavement of stones. In addition to a lattice of tree trunks and branches wedged between the rocks, Rama’s arrows have been used as pins in the construction process. In the swirling waters on each side of the bridge, sea creatures gambol benevolently. The gods and celestials are so impressed with the architectural masterpiece that has materialised despite all the difficulties, that when Rama’s forces arrive on Lanka, they secretly anoint him with water from the sea and unknown to him, bless Rama with victory over his foes.

India (Chamba), 1800 -1810 Image: Folio: Height: 26.3 cm Height: 21.5 cm Width: 31.8 cm Width: 36.5 cm Opaque pigments and gold and silver on paper within narrow blue and wide red borders

Shastri, 1953-1959, Yuddha Kanda, chapter 22 Under the supervision of the architect Nala, the bridge measuring a hundred leagues or four hundred miles in length and ten leagues in width, has taken only five days to construct. On the first day fourteen leagues are built, on the second day twenty, on the third day twenty-one, on the fourth twenty-two and on the fifth, twenty-three leagues to reach Lanka on the opposite shore. Such is Nala’s skill that the bridge is sturdy and well-constructed, solidly

Š Copyright images: Simon Ray Š Copyright text: J. P. Losty and Simon Ray

Published by Simon Ray First published May 2016

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