MUSIC BETWEEN PLAY AND COMMUNICATION - DEMO by Circolo Virtuoso

GIUSY NEGRO

MUSIC BETWEEN PLAY AND COMMUNICATION

with an introduction by Paolo Pellegrino

Edizioni Circolo Virtuoso

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION by Paolo Pellegrino

Chapter I ASPECTS OF MUSIC THEORY I. II. III.

Reflections upon communication Kantian elements in the theory of responsible listening Aspects of Th.W. Adornoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s philosophy of music

12 16 24

Chapter II MUSIC, SOUND AND EXPERIENCE I. II. III. IV.

Towards a linguistic conception of music Multicultural society, education, music The sound and the ineffable Discovering sounds

31 34 39 43

Chapter III MUSIC THERAPY I. II. III.

From music to music therapy Playing with music Music therapy

46 53 57

Chapter IV MUSIC AND TEACHING STRATEGIES I. II.

Music and its effects in children Music and didactics

64 68

CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION 1. This book is a complete and ambitious programme of musical education, although its potential exceeds school activities. According to the Author’s express purpose, “playing with music” becomes an appealing way of initiating children into the world of sounds, as “sound perception is the basis for a good understanding of music”. But “learning by playing” is not the only purpose of this book: it also includes an exhaustive study of music therapy, an aspect of great importance from a clinical point of view. It is a technique that has achieved widespread success: whenever the foetus listens to his mother’s cardiac rhythm or to the sounds from the surrounding world, he stores up memories that can be recollected for the benefit of the cognitive system. Music is amusement by virtue of its exceptional evocative and communicative power. A sound theoretical structure is the background of this book, which sifts music through the litmus paper of mass media communication and other relevant categories of interpretation, including Kant’s concise model anticipating the theory of responsible listening: the isolated moments of sensory fascination (the so called “catchiness”) turn out to be incompatible with the immanent structure of the work of art, which lives in a substantial unity. Music is not only amusement: it is also a source of knowledge of primary importance. This is a theory by the great philosopher and musicologist Th. W. Adorno, who died in 1969 and to whom the Author gives a lot of space in the first chapter. The idea of music as an expression of the tension and the unbridgeable rifts in modern society is the leitmotif of Adorno’s musicology and his philosophical sociology, where some elements of the Marxist ideology, the left-wing Hegelianism and the “negative” philosophy are also to be found. He proceeded from an accurate analysis of the phenomena of aesthetic commercialization caused by the mass-culture industry and adopted the loneliness of avant-garde and the radicalism of his linguistic choices as his tragic and utopian salvation from the processes of standardizing rationalization started by the mature capitalism. This attitude is exemplified by Adorno’s interpretation of Schönberg’s music in Philosophy of Modern Music (1949), where Schönberg’s school is theoretically set against Stravinskij’s “reified” neoclassicism. The categories of Adorno’s philosophy, which are to be found in his essays Wagner (1952) and Mahler (1960) as well, strongly influenced musical avant-garde’s way of thinking in the postwar period. He was an acute, sometimes polemical observer of the developments of these ideologies.

The Author examines Adorno’s essays about Beethoven as collected in his famous posthumous work Beethoven. The Philosophy of Music 1. Everybody knows the theoretical and interpretative value of this work 2, to which Adorno devoted a long time and a lot of study – the earliest fragments on this subject date back to 1934, the last revision to the middle of the sixties – without succeeding in finishing it. In fact he never worked on the drawing up of the book: on the one hand, because of the complexity of Beethoven’s production; on the other hand, because the philosopher was convinced that it was historically impossible to hold a dialogue with a kind of music expressing humanity after Auschwitz. His fragments about Beethoven are little more than some hints at a subject that he had no more reason to deal with in a period when the “better worlds” praised by the greatest German musician seemed to be the grotesque derision of an offended humanity. Such a conflict is the reason why the book has never been written; its fragments correspond to the sadness of most of Beethoven’s music, which mystically “speaks” to man and waits for an answer in vain. One of Adorno’s basic theories in the earliest fragments sketches the close relationship between music and thought and compares the role of Beethoven in the history of western music to the uniqueness of Hegelian philosophy (fr. 24). Such a lapidary statement is enough to understand the theoretical value of Adorno’s Beethoven and to dispel the suspicion of an incidental hyperbole; on the contrary, the leadership of the two figures dissolves in the identity of their contents: “Beethoven’s music is Hegelian philosophy”. Adorno created “the essence” of the comparison between Hegel’s Logic and Beethoven’s music (the composer is said to be the “prototype of the revolutionary middle class”, fr. 109), so we should not think of these fragments, which supplement the eight volumes of the Gesammelte Schriften, as a philological curiosity, but as an invitation to get to the heart of Adorno’s philosophy and music criticism. The reflections upon Beethoven throw light upon the mechanism that produced Adorno’s aesthetics. A constant factor in his theoretical model is to be found here: his refusing to consider art and philosophy as two separate languages, as traditional aesthetics did on the grounds of the “theory of the monistic-symbolic-intuitive essence of art”. In other words the basic categories of Hegelian philosophy and the aesthetics understood as philosophy of music converge – “music may be the only source the purest and strictest concept of art comes from” (par. 13) -, whereas the process started by Beethoven in

TH. W. ADORNO, Beethoven. Philosophie der Musik. Fragmente und Texte [Beethoven. The Philosophy of Music], R. Tiedemann (Ed.), Frankfurt am Mein 1993. 2 Compare with two interesting reviews: F. Luisetti, Il tramonto della bellezza [The decline of beauty], and C. Migliaccio, Tecnica e Metafisica [Technique and Metaphysics], both published in “L’indice”, XIX (2002), n. 9.

order to make music an independent language turns the technical problems into philosophical dilemmas. Beethoven’s music - composed in a “period when music, rather than poetry, met philosophy, at least in Germany” (fr. 69) - used “anything but outworn means” to express the antinomies in the middle class and the impossibility of reconciling individuality and social totality from an aesthetic point of view. The development of themes and static repeats, tone harmonization and amorphous details coexist so much in Beethoven’s major works, that every single element is useful to the whole and dissolves in its particularity at the same time. The result of the inner polarization of music and its contents is the “enigma” in Beethoven’s last works: he “turns the impossibility of an aesthetic harmony into aesthetic contents”, in order to preserve both polyphony and aphoristic motifs. According to Adorno Beethoven’s late works are a full rebellion against the flowery elements in music and against everything is not objectively necessary. Therefore, “the assertion of the idea of music in itself becomes the reason for the loss of ‘classicism’, fullness, harmony, rotundity, perfection”. This late style with its contrast between monody and polyphony is the evolution of Beethoven’s classicism, which breaks into fragments in order to be the purest essence of music, “classically” free from frills (compare fr. 269). The distinctive feature in Beethoven’s late style is the dissociation of centre, that is to say the end of harmony. If lyrical appearance breaks into fragments and the form itself tends towards a fragmentary nature, we are faced with “ruins”. Another theme stands out and esplicitly evokes Benjamin’s motif of the Angelus Novus, the angel of history whom a storm “irresistibly drives towards future, on which he turns his back, while the heap of ruins rises before him in the sky”. The “thought of death” predominates in the background, i.e. the devastating fury in the face of which “the rights of art cease”. This is one of the crucial elements in Adorno’s interpretation 3. The enigma of Beethoven’s late style, which recurs in the finest pages of this book, merges into the enigma of Adorno’s aesthetics. The “genuine” modern art which Adorno defends reacts against the rule of culture industry with the renunciation of aesthetic illusion and sensible appearance “in favour of knowledge”.

With regard to Beethoven’s late style compare with Arbo’s contribution in “Aut-Aut”, special issue, May-June 1988, n. 225, pp. 81-90. For an outline of Adorno’s way of thinking cf. P. Pellegrino, Teoria critica e teoria estetica in Th. W. Adorno [Critical and aesthetical theory in Th. W. Adorno], Argo, Lecce 20042.

2. But apart from Adorno’s ingenious interpretation, what is the meaning and the cognitive role of music? Can we briefly define the specific character of music? Furthermore: can the categories of music analysis voice the emotions that a piece by Bach, Schubert or Mahler stirs up? What is the relation between the criticism of music form and the aesthetic judgements suggested by listeners’ “sensitiveness”? 4 The basic questions about the conceptual definition of music - and about the changes it has undergone from the origins of Western cultural tradition to the present time - cause a lot of problems, especially with regard to the fusion of meaning and emotions, which seems to hide the secret of a piece. Whereas in ancient times (from Pythagoras onwards) music was associated with numerical relations, which revealed the harmony of universe, whereas St. Augustin used to call music “scientia bene modulandi”, the musical practice prevailing at the beginning of modern times referred to the sphere of affectivity and emotions; the eighteenthcentury rationalism and the Romantic irrationalism led up to the assertion of the “nonsemantic nature” of musical expression on the one hand, and to the conception of music as a “language” on the other hand. “What is music then?”, the Austrian composer Anton Webern wondered; and answered: “Music is a language. Through this language man tries to express that kind of thoughts he cannot turn into concepts, as they are musical thoughts”. “Everybody would like to use sounds to communicate something cannot be expressed otherwise. In this sense music is a language” 5. As a matter of fact music is not only a “sound-moved form”, as Eduard Hanslick stated 6; in addition to its syntactic structure, or better still blended with it, the “language of sounds” has a semantic component, i.e. it has contents. Moreover, the translation of such contents into words is not unworkable, as the Romantics holding fast to the idea of the “ineffability” of music thought; besides being legitimate, putting music into words and conceptualizing it may be helpful for communication, intersubjectiveness, rational discussion and verifiability. The model of music analysis takes its place in this setting: analysts’ work must be directed to the exploration and definition of the conceptual contents of music and to the interpretation of its meaning. Such work is not a mere study of the hidden structure of music; far from showing

Cf. C. DAHLHAUS, Analyse und Werturteil [Analysis and Value Judgement], Mainz 1970. A. WEBERN, Der Weg zur neuen Musik [The Way to Modern Music],W. Reich (Ed.), Wien 1960, pp. 46, 17. 6 E. HANSLICK, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen [The Beautiful in Music], Leipzig 1854. According to Hanslick each form of art should be understood in itself, i.e. in its technical peculiarity; the formal “inquiry” gradually replaces the Hegelian “method”, i.e. the principle that particular aesthetics completely depends on superior general aesthetics. 5

too technical an image of analysis, it meets music criticism in many ways 7. Besides studying this model in depth, the essays in this book give some interesting examples of it.

3. A whole chapter of this book deals with music therapy, its relation to childhood and its effectiveness as a remedy for many clinical cases. By music therapy we mean a preventive and rehabilitative intervention that uses musical expression (as a non-verbal communication form) for the stimulation and the development of faculties such as affectivity, motion, language, etc. Such an intervention is intended for both children and adults. Whereas

the

therapeutic

purpose

falls

under

the

competence

doctors

(neuropsychiatrists), the preventive and rehabilitative one can be undertaken by experts in various disciplines (pedagogics, psychology, etc.). The different forms of intervention are adopted exclusively or to support other cures. We can distinguish two main interrelated procedures: a “receptive” approach and an “active” one. The receptive approach consists in listening to sound messages (rhythmical or musical) selected from musical literature or from particular sound situations or suitably created by the therapist before or during his meeting with patients. The active approach consists in making music (in the widest meaning of the word, including both conventional and heterodox creations) with musical instruments, objects, parts of body and in individual or group expressions. We can also distinguish different spheres of intervention: the relational sphere, i.e. the cases in which it is essential to motivate, stimulate and support some affective and emotional attitudes that turned out to be disordered and to impede normal communication and social relations; the motor sphere: the intervention aims at stimulating and supporting movements from a functional and expressive point of view; the verbal sphere: the intervention aims at stimulating verbal communication with regard to rhythm and phonetics; the sensory sphere (auditive and visual): the therapist intervenes to improve and specialize the residual hearing through tactile, visceral or bone stimuli or to improve and specialize the sense of hearing in the blind through information contributing to the knowledge of reality. The sound messages with hypnotic and relaxing qualities proved to be particularly useful to relieve pain. Because of the recent origins of music therapy and because of its interdisciplinary character (which links it to information theory, cybernetics, semiotics, musicology, 7

Cf. H.H. EGGEBRECHT, Musik verstehen [Understanding music], München 1995. Please allow me to refer to my own contribution too: “L’ascolto e il riascolto in musica: problemi di estetica e analisi musicale” [Listening to music and listening to it again: aesthetical and music-analytical questions], in L’estetica del neoidealismo italiano, Congedo Editore, Galatina 1996, pp. 209-226.

psychoanalysis, theory of creativity, etc.) there are partly converging views, rather than unanimously accepted criteria. The cultural bases for the discipline can be found in the anthropological and existential branches of psychology, in psychoanalysis itself (as music can help us bring aggressive or repressed impulses to light and sublimate them) and in behaviourism as well, which makes use of musical experience as a means of compensation in negative or conflictual situations. Music therapy has been successfully employed in many countries for several decades; it proved to be able to overcome the resistance that patients offered to other therapeutical instructions.

4. The above-mentioned outline of music theory and music therapy may be considered the starting point for the treatment of musical education and the strategies favouring the teaching of music. We need to make some preliminary remarks. Musical education is a recently developed field of research. If education is aimed at forming the personality and the sociability of pupils, rather than transferring technical knowledge to them, the age-old custom of music academies may not be considered - strictly speaking - as pertaining to education. In academies teaching usually takes the form of professional training, although new educational systems began to spread between the late sixties and the early eighties of the twentieth century. Musical education in the true sense has been carried out in non-professional schools and in nonspecialized teaching since the early twentieth century. The inclusion of music in interdisciplinary programmes inspired a new concept of didactics and started a series of experiences and suggestions, which developed abroad and reached Italy in the sixties. Research has subsequently differentiated. The expression “musical education” may be interpreted in different ways: firstly, it can denote the practice of teaching; secondly, it names one of the curricular school subjects. Therefore it may correspond with an educational model that is (or should be) the basis for practical experience. Finally, the expression in a broad sense can refer to research and to anything is planned, proposed or carried out about the teaching of music. We further use the expression “didactics of music” to refer to all methods and strategies that enable us to translate a certain model into specific practice. According to the modern theory of “curricula” a model of musical education should mainly contain the goals to be achieved (i.e. what must be learnt), the contents (broadly speaking: the activities, the forms of knowledge) and the teaching methods. All that should be defined in relation to factors such as the nature of the cultural subject (i.e. what we mean by music, what 8

kinds of phenomena are included in it, what sociocultural purposes it serves), the qualities of each pupil (psychological traits, knowledge, social context, needs) and the main educational principles. As the Author appropriately points out, we must bear these concepts in mind in considering the stages in the progress of research into musical education, which probably developed from the nineteenth-century pedagogical thought. A new conception of teaching where art, sensibility and expressiveness played a leading role even in non-professional education – became the basis for the modern active methodologies in the teaching of music. The educational models by E. Pestalozzi, J.F. Herbart, F. Fröbel and other scholars share the same rejection of abstract teaching, the request for concreteness in learning, the insistence on the necessity of adapting teaching to pupils’ physical and mental development and to their interests and needs as well. Hence the stress on intuition, which Pestalozzi regards as the basis for knowledge, the call for spontaneousness (which may seem ingenuous today, as it reminds us of the myth of “natural knowledge” as enunciated in Rousseau’s Emil), the insistence on children’s characteristic way of learning and on the role of games in forming their personalities (as theorized by Fröbel). These models also share the belief that the mind of a child is not a tabula rasa where anything can be written, but a store of prior knowledge to which educationists should refer as a point of departure. Art activities are considered as essential as science for the development of personality. Scholars are far from the old imitative principles and the old conception of teaching as they state that art education “starts from the use of the senses, organs and limbs” (hence the need for “elementary exercise”, cf. Pestalozzi) or as they point out the effectiveness of games for training children to rhythm and singing (Fröbel). Music – as well as the other forms of art – is considered a synthesis of the senses and the inner life and a means of expressing one’s own corporeity, affectivity and intelligence. Through music we gain self-awareness and fulfil ourselves in the social context we belong to at the same time. In the last chapter the Author stresses the positive and invigorating effects that music has on children with regard to perception, affectivity, motivation and creativity. She brings honour to some pioneering intuitions by Ferrante Aporti, Rosa Agazzi and – in particular - Maria Montessori, who insisted on sound perception as the basis for a good understanding of music.

****

This introduction is an attempt to clear up the purpose on which Giusy Negro wrote her book, which alternates reflections upon music with methodological suggestions for teaching. The essay is organized into thematic blocks that may seem not strictly interrelated from a formal point of view. Such a structure probably reflects the Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personality and her interests. A guiding thread is to be found in it, however: the ambivalence of music, which can act as a game and a powerful instrument of communication at the same time. Hence the spinoff it provides for clinical medicine (music therapy) and education. The Author displays a clear understanding of the world of sounds and a profound passion for teaching in this book. She will certainly carry on her research work with interesting results.

Lecce, 25th April 2009 Paolo Pellegrino

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