Dictionary of Kabbalah and Kabbalists

T HE DI CTI ONA RY O F KA BBALAH AND KAB BA LI S T S

T HE D ICTIONARY O F KABBAL AH AND KABBAL IS T S

Dan Cohn-Sherbok

First Published 2009

by Impress Books Ltd Innovation Centre, Rennes Drive, University of Exeter Campus, Exeter EX4 4RN © Dan Cohn-Sherbok 2009 The right of the author to be identified as the originator of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Typeset in Garamond by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon Printed and bound in England by Short Run Press Ltd, Exeter, Devon All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978–0–9556239–7–4 (hbk) ISBN 978–0–9556239–6–7 (pbk)

For Lavinia

CO N T E N T S

List of Illustrations Preface Chronology Introduction

ix xi xiii xxv

The Dictionary

1

Further Reading Index

208 210

I L LU S T R AT I ON S

1. Merkavah: the divine chariot as described in the Book of Ezekiel 2. Jacob’s Ladder: depicts the successive stages of heavenly ascent 3. Pardes Rimmonim: Moses Cordovero composed Pardes Rimmonim in which he depicted the divine world of the sefirot, here with the initial letter of Malkhut at the centre 4. Azilut: the Hebrew letter aleph is the initial letter of Azilut, here depicted as a diagram of the sefirot with Tiferet at the centre 5. Angels: such as the seraph depicted here, play a major role in kabbalistic Judaism 6. Amulets: used frequently in the Middle Ages to ward off evil 7. Akiva: who lived in 1st-century Palestine was a great scholar and mystic 8. Shabbatai Z.evi: in the 17th century, Shabbatai Z.evi was regarded by Jews world-wide as the long-awaited messianic redeemer 9. En Sof: in Kabbalistic Judaism, God is understood as En Sof (the Infinite) who emanates through the divine sefirot 10. Sefirot: from En Sof (Infinite) there emanated ten sefirot which are arranged hierarchically as depicted here 11. Zohar: a medieval mystical commentary on the Pentateuch, ascribed to the 2nd-century scholar Simeon bar Yoh.ai 12. Adam Kadmon: represents the totality of the divine emanations of the sefirot 13. Divine names: in kabbalistic Judaism there are many different names for God 14. Z.imZ.um: according to kabbalistic Judaism, a divine contraction (Z.imZ.um) took place when God emanated the ten sefirot 15. Tetragrammaton: depicted here at the bottom of the two hands are the four letters of God’s name often used in kabbalistic sources

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xxvii xxix xxxi xxxiii xxxv xxxvii xxxix xli xliii xlv xlvii xlix li liii lv

PR E FACE

The entries in this work – including kabbalistic concepts, kabbalists and antikabbalists – are ordered alphabetically. In matters of orthography, terminology and punctuation the Dictionary generally follows British practice. An effort has been made to identify small places by naming a larger place nearby, or locating it within a state or area. Where a place-name has changed in the course of history, the name current at the time under discussion has been used. In article headings, the following abbreviations are used: b.=born, d.=died, fl.= flourished, c.=circa.

The use of a question mark indicates uncertainty about the date or dates to which it is attached. Throughout the Dictionary BCE is used for the dates before the year 1, and CE for dates from the year 1 onward. Hebrew words have been transliterated generally according to the Sephardi pronunciation. For purposes of tracing entries in the Dictionary, readers should note that ‘h.’ (not ch) and ‘z.’ (not tz) are used. Titles of works as well as foreign terms generally appear in italic type. Cross-references are in capital letters. Names begin generally in inverted form although in many cases in alternative forms. Brackets are used for alternative names.

Any scholar working in Jewish studies owes an enormous debt to those lexicographers who have already published reference works. The following have been consulted in checking and cross-checking the information contained in this Dictionary: Geoffrey Wigoder, The New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia, W. H. Allen, 1977; Jewish Encyclopedia, Funk and Wagnalls, 1901–5; Yacov Newman and Gavriel Sivan, Judaism A–Z: Lexicon of Terms and Concepts, Department for Torah Education and Culture in the Diaspora of the World Zionist Organization, 1980; Raphael Judah Zwi Werblowsky and Goffrey Wigoder (eds), The Encyclopedia of Jewish Religion, Phoenix House, 1967; Geoffrey Wigoder (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Judaism, Macmillan, 1989; David Bridger and Samuel Wolk (eds), The New Jewish Encyclopedia, Behrman House, 1962; Geoffrey Wigoder, Dictionary of Jewish Biography, Simon and Schuster, 1991; Encyclopedia Judaica, Keter, 1971 (second edition, Thomas Gale, 2003). I would also like to acknowledge my indebtedness to Z’ev ben Shimon Halevi.

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CHRO N O L OG Y

Patriarchal period Exodus from Egypt Period of the Judges Period of the United Monarchy Division of the Kingdom Elijah Isaiah Destruction of the Northern Kingdom (Israel) by the Assyrians Destruction of the Southern Kingdom (Judah) by the Babylonians Ezekiel Babylonian Exile Return of the Exiles Rebuilding of the Second Temple Second Temple Period Hellenistic period Maccabean rebellion and Hasmonean period Hasmonean revolt Roman period Philo Johanan ben Zakkai Nehunya ben ha-Kanah Jewish rebellion against Rome Eleazar ben Arakh Mishnaic period Bar Kokhba revolt Akiva Sefer Yez.irah Ah.er Ben Azzai Ben Zoma Simeon bar Yoh.ai xiii

c. 1900–c. 1600 BCE c. 1250–c. 1230 BCE c. 1200–c. 1000 BCE c. 1030–c. 930 BCE c. 930 BCE 9th century BCE 8th century BCE 722 BCE 586 BCE 6th century BCE 586–538 BCE 538 BCE c. 520–c. 515 BCE c. 515 BCE–c. 70 BCE c. 333–63 BCE 167–163 BCE 166–164 BCE c. 146 BCE–c. 400 CE 1st century BCE fl. 1st century CE second half of the 1st century 66–70 second half of the 1st century c. 100 BCE–c. 200 CE 132–5 c. 50–135 2nd century fl. first half of 2nd century 2nd century 2nd century 2nd century

C H RO N O LO G Y

Plotinus Talmudic period Ibn Ezra, Abraham Medieval period Period of the Gaonim Karaism founded Dunash Ibn Tamim Israeli, Isaac Donnolo, Shabbetai Gabriol, Solomon ben Judah ibn Ibn Pakuda, Bah.ya Judah ben Barzillai al-Bargeloni Crusades Abraham ben David Of Posquières Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob ibn Nah.manides Judah ben Kalonymus ben Meir Establishment of the Inquisition Jacob Nazir H . asidei Ashkenaz Isaac the Blind Eleazar ben Judah Of Worms Meshullam ben Moses Jacob of Margève Jacob of Margeve Alroy, David Asher ben David Jonah be Abraham Gerondi Judah ben Samuel he-H . asid of Regersburg Ibn Latif, Isaac ben Abraham Adret, Solomon ben Meir ben Simeon ha-Meili Azriel of Gerona Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia Eleaza ben Moses ha Darshan of Wuerzburg Bah.ya ben Asher ibn H . lava ha Darshan Togarmi, Barukh Hillel ben Samuel Abulafia, Todros ben Joseph ha-Levi Moses ben Solomon ben Simeon of Burgos Adret, Solomon ben Ezra of Gerona Moses ben Shem Tov de Leon Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon Abi xiv

205–270 CE c. 200–c. 600 1089–1164 c. 600–c. 1600 c. 600–c. 1300 c. 760 c. 850–after 955 c. 855–955 913–c. 932 1020–c. 1057 c. 1050–1120 late 11th and early 12th century 1095–1291 c. 12th century d. 1148 1194–1260 d. 1196/1199 c. 1230 late 12th century 12th–13th century 1160–1235 c. 1165–c. 1230 c. 1175–c. 1250 12th–13th century late 12th –13th century 12th century first half of 13th century c. 1200–1263 d. 1217 c. 1220–1290 c. 1235–c. 1310 first half of 13th century early 13th century 1240–after 1241 mid-13th century 13th century 13th century c. 1220–c. 1295 c. 1220–1298 1230/1235–c. 1300 c. 1235–c. 1310 d. 1238 or 1245 c. 1240–1305 1248–c. 1325

C H RO N O LO G Y

Gikatilla, Joseph ben Abraham Asher ben Jehiel Gerondi, Jacob ben Sheshet Sahula, Meir ben Solomon Abi

1248–c. 1325 c. 1250–1327 mid-13th century 1260? perhaps 1261– after 1335 mid-13th century second half of 13th century late 13th to early 14th century 13th–14th century 13th century 13th century 1310–c. 1360 1360–1463 active c. 1370 c. 1370 late 13th–14th centuries early 14th century first half of 14th century 14th century 14th century 14th century late 14th centuryearly 15th century end of 14th centurybeginning of 15th century c. 1380–c. 1441 d. before 1426 d. 1439 c. 1450–c. 1510 c. 1474–1546 15th century 15th century 15th century 1460–1540 1460–1540 c. 1460–after 1528 1463–1494 1500–1532 1480–after 1540 before 1485–after 1542 c. 14th century 1505–73 1488–1575 1522–70 1534–72

Jacob ben Jacob ha-Kohen Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen Recanati, Menahem ben Benjamin Isaac Of Acre Abraham ben Azriel Abraham ben Alexander of Cologne Aldabi, Meir ben Isaac Canpanton, Isaac ben Jacob Ibn Motot, Samuel ben Saadiah Samuel ben Saadiah ibn Motot Ibn Gaon, Shem Tov ben Abraham David ben Judah he-H . asid Ibn Shuayub, Joshua Canpanton, Judah ben Solomon Joseph ben Shalom Ashkenazi Ibn Waquar, Joseph ben Abraham Menahem Ziyyoni Botarel, Moses ben Isaac Ibn Shem Tov, Shem Tov ibn Runkel, Solomon Zalman Kara, Avigdor ben Isaac H . ayyat, Judah ben Jacob Berab, Jacob Alcastiel, Joseph Ficino Marsilio Caro, Isaac ben Joseph Giorgio, Francesco Galatinus, Pietro Columna Abraham ben Eliezer ha-Levi Pico della Mirandola, Giovani Molcho, Solomon Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel ibn Almoli, Solomon ben Jacob Abraham ben Isaac of Granada Joseph Tzayach Joseph Caro Moses Cordovero Isaac Luria xv

C H RO N O LO G Y

Najra, Moses ben Levi Alkabetz, Solomon ben Moses ha-Levi Ibn Yahya, Gedalliah ben Joseph H . iyya, Rofe Albaz, Moses ben Maimon Zayyah, Joseph ben Abraham ibn Fani, Ezra ben Isaac Jacob Zemah Reuchlin, Johann Luria, Solomon ben Jehiel Abraham ben Elizer ben Moses de Arzin, Joseph ben Jacob Labi, Simeon Benevento, Immanuel ben Jekuthiel Albotini, Judah ben Moses Ashkenazi, Bezalel ben Abraham Ashkenazi, Joseph Judah Loew ben Bezalel Dato, Mordecai ben Judah Luria, Isaac Attia, Shem Tov Jaffe, Mordecai ben Abraham Azikri, Eleazar ben Isaac Khalaz, Judah ben Abraham Ashkenazi, Nephtali ben Joseph Uceda, Samuel ben Isaac Vital, H . ayyim ben Joseph Tabul, Joseph ibn Fano, Menahem Abraham Galante, Abraham Sarfaty, Vidal haEarly modern period Shabbatai Z.evi Modern period Lonzano, Menahem ben Judah de Delacrut, Mattathias ben Solomon Elijah ben Moses de Vidas Glanate, Moses ben Mordecai Barazani, Samuel ben Nethanel ha-Levi Cordovero, Gedaliah ben Moses Loanz, Elilah ben Moses Pinto, Josiah ben Joseph Busal, Hayyim ben Jacob Obadiah de Abulafia, Hayyim ben Jacob Gallico, Elisha ben Gabriel xvi

?1508–1581 c. 1505–1584 1526–1587 1550?–1618 16th century 16th century 16th–17th century d. after 1665 1455–1522 ?1510–1574 1580–1592 16th century 16th century 16h century d. 1519 c. 1520–1591/94 1525–1577 1525–1609 1525–1591/1601 1534–1572 c. 1530–1601 c. 1535–1612 1550–? d. before 1537 c. 1540–1602 1550–?

1543–1620 c. 1545–beginning 17th century 1524–1620 second half of 16th century c. 1550–1620 c. 1550–c. 1700 1626–76 c. 1700–present 1550–before 1624 mid-16th century 16th century fl. 16th century 1560–1630?

1562–1636 1564–1536 1565–1648 d. c. 1565 1580–1668 c. 1583

C H RO N O LO G Y

H . ayyim ben Abraham ha-Kohen Sarug, Israel Absaban, Solomon Alsheikh, Moses Adeni, Solomon bar Joshua Horowitz, Isaiah ben Abraham ha-Levi Azulai, Abraham ben Mordecai Fludd, Robert Angel, Baruch Ashkenazi, Mordechai Israel ben Jonathon from Leczyca Ashkenazi ben Isaac Kohen Mordecai Gallico, Samuel Nehemiah ha-Kohen Azubib, Joseph Nehorai Azubib, Saadiah ben Nehorai Benjamin, Baruch ben Israel Vital, Samuel ben H . ayyim Aboab, Samuel ben Abraham Sasportas, Jacob Bloch, Mattathias ben Benjamin Ashkenazi Akiva Baer ben Joseph Yakhini, Abraham ben Elijah Galante, Moses ben Jonathan II Horowitz, Jacob ben Abraham Aaron ben Samuel Zacuto, Moses ben Mordecai Ashkenazi, Malkiel Cardozo, Abraham Miguel Budo, Abraham ben Elijah Boton, Jacob ben Abraham Di Primo, Samuel Abraham ben Josiah Troki Bacharach, Jair H . ayyim ben Moses Samson Aaron Berechiah ben Moses of Modena Foa, Eliezer Nahman Nathan of Gaza Rovigo, Abraham ben Michael Querido, Jacob Shabbetai of Raszkow Heliprin, Jehiel ben Solomon Prossnitz, Judah Leib ben Jacob Holleschau Falk, Jacob Joshua ben Z.evi Hirsch Almosnino, Joseph ben Isaac Joseph Issachar Baer ben Elhanan xvii

c. 1585–1655 fl. 1590–1610 d. 1592 d. after 1593 1567–1625?

1565?–1630 c. 1570–1643 1574–1637 1595–1670 late 16th–early 17th century first half of 17th century late 16th–early 17th century 17th century 17th century 17th century 17th century 17th century 1598–c. 1678 1610–1698 c. 1610–1698 1610/1620–1668 17th century 1617 1620–1689 d. 1622 c. 1620–1701 c. 1620–1697 d. c. 1650 1626–1706 1625–1717 1635–1687 c. 1635–1708 1636–1687 1638–1702 d. 1639 d. after 1641 1643–1680 c. 1650–1713 c. 1650–1690 1655–1745 1660–1746 c. 1670–1730 1680–1756 1642–1689 c. 1642–1705

C H RO N O LO G Y

Aaron Selig ben Moses of Zolkiew Bahiul, Daniel ben Judah Azulai, Masud Bahiri, Yaha Boshal, Moses ben Solomon Bonafaux, Daniel ben Israel Pinheiro, Moses Katz, Naphtali ben Isaac Cuenque, Abraham ben Levi Jehiel, Michael ben Eliezer Moses ben Menahem Graf Mordecal ben H . ayyim of Eisenstadt Malakh, H ayyim ben Solomon .

Arha, Eliezer ben Isaac Wanneh, Isaac ben Abraham H . ayon, Nehemiah Hiyya ben Moses Joseh Joske ben Judah Judel of Lublin Ashkenazi, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jacob Azulai, Abraham ben Israel Alfandari, H . ayyim ben Isaac Raphael Habillo, David Yizhaki, Abraham ben David Poppers, Meir ben Judah Loeb ha-Kohen Zoref, Joshua Heshel ben Joseph Jaffe, Israel ben Aaron Ayylon, Solomon ben Jacob Z.emah., Jacob ben H . ayyim Rokeah, Elazar ben Shmelke Temeris, Jacob ben Eliezer H . agiz, Moses Reuben Hoeshke ben Hoeshke Katz Mahalalel ben Shabbatai Hallelyah Hamiz, Joseph Landsofer, Jonah ben Elijah Basilea, Solomon David Sar-Shalom Jehiel Michael ben Judah Lebin he-H . asid Algazi, Israel Jacob ben Yom Tov Hannover, Nathan Nata Ergas, Joseph ben Manuel Isaac ben Abraham of Posen Raphael Immanuel Ricchi, Immanuel ben Abraham Hai Forti, Jacob Raphael Hezekiah ben Abraham Israel Eyebeschuetz, Jonathan xviii

d. 1643 second half of 17th century 17th century 17th century 17th century c. 1645–after 1710 17th century 1645–1719 d. 1648 d. 1648 1650–1700/1710 1650–1729 between 1650 and 1660–1716 or 1717 d. 1652 mid-17th century c. 1655–c. 1730 1659?–1706 1660–1718 c. 1660–c. 1741 c. 1660–1733 d. 1661 1661–1729 d. 1662 1633–1700 c. 1640–after 1703 c. 1665–1728 d. after 1665 1665–1741 d. 1666 1672–1751? d. 1673 d. after 1675 d. c. 1676 1678–1712 c. 1680–1749 1680–1728 1680–1756 d. 1683 1685–1730 d. 1685 1688–1743 1689–1782 1690–1764

C H RO N O LO G Y

Attar, H 1696–1743 . ayyim ben Moses Emden, Jacob 1697–1776 Elijah ben Kalonymus of Lublin second half of the 17th century Isaiah H asid from Zbarazh 17th of 18th century .

Lonzano, Abraham ben Raphael de late 17th–early 18th century Modern Period c. 1700–present Baal Shem Tov 1700–60 Buzaglo, Shalom ben Moses c. 1700–1780 Amarillo, Aaron ben Solomon 1700–1772 Chotsh, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jerahmeel c. 1700 Epstein, Aryeh Leib ben Mordecai 1705–1755 Moses H 1707–1747 . ayyim Luzzatto Falk, Samuel Jacob H ayyim 1710–1782 .

Koidonover, Z.evi Hirsch d. 1712 Landau, Ezekiel 1713–1793 Laniado, Solomon ben Abraham d. after 1714 Elimelech of Lyzhansk 1717–1787 Frank, Jacob 1726–1791 Russo, Baruchiah 18th century Bavli, Menahem ben Moses 18th century Mystics of Bet El 18th century Kimhi, Raphael Israel ben Joseph first half of the 18th century Benjamin, Moses first half of the 18th century Elijah ben Solomon Zalman 1720–1797 Philadelphia, Jacob 1720 or 1735–after 1783 Levin, Z.evi Hirsch ben Aryeh Loeb 1721–1800 Azulai, H ayyim Joseph David 1724–1806 .

Baruch ben David Yavan 18th century Aryeh Leib of Shpola 1725–1812 Baruch of Kosov c. 1725–1795 Horowitz, Samuel Shmelke of Nikolsburg 1726–1788 Algazi, Yom Tov ben Israel Jacob 1727–1802 Menahem Mendel of Peremyshlany b. 1728 Levi Yitzhak of Berdichev 1740–1809 Sharabi, Shalom 1729–1777 Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk 1730–1788 Menahem Nahum of Chernobyl 1730–1797 Aryeh Leib Sarahs 1730–1791 Twersky, Menahem Nahum ben Z.evi of Chernobyl 1730–1787 Jehiel, Michael of Zloczow c. 1730–1787 Wilna, Jacob ben Benjamin Wolf d. 1732 Israel of Kozienice 1733/7–1815 Joseph Moses of Salositz c. 1735–c. 1815 Moses H ayyim Ephraim of Sudylkow c. 1740–1800 .

Levi Yitzhak of Berdichev 1740–1809 xix

C H RO N O LO G Y

Abraham ben Dov of Mezhirech Kranz, Jacob ben Wolf Lachowicze, Mordecai ben Noah of Elijah Phinehas Meir Meisels, Uzziel ben Z.evi Hirsch Hart, Jacob Jacob Joseph of Ostrog Jacob Isaac ha-H . ozeh of Lublin Jacob Koppel ben Moses of Mezhirech Shneur Zalman of Lyady Jacob Isaac ben Asher Pryzsicha Aaron ben Moses ha-Levi of Starosielce H . ayyim of Volozhin Rymanower, Z.evi Hirsch Israel Harif of Satanov Nahman of Kosov Abraham ben Israel of Brody Levin, Menahem Mendel Pinto, Jacob Baruch ben Jehiel of Medzibezh Samuel ben Eliezer of Kaiwaria Kallo, Yizh.ak Isaac Mordecai of Neskhim Lara, H . iyya Kohen De Hirschfeld, Ephraim Joseph Castelnuovo, Menahem Azariah Meir ben Elijah Ropshitser, Naphtali Z.evi Apta, Meir Gordon, Jekuthiel ben Leib Susskind, Alexander Radoshitser, Issachar Baer Simh.ah Bunem of Przysucha Wormser, Seckel Bikayam, Meir ben Halifa Twersky, Mordecai of Chernobyl H . ayyim, Abraham Raphael ben Asher Nahman of Bratzlav Dov Baer of Mezhirech Molitor, Franz Joseph Nahman of Horodenka Eptsein, Isaac ben Mordecai Peremyshlyany, Meir ben Aaron Leib of Joseph Moses ben Jekuthiel Zalman Kemenka, Z.evi Hirsch Loebel, Israel xx

1741–1776 1741–1804 1742–1810 c. 1742–1821 1743–1785 1745–1814 1738–1791 1745–1815 d. c. 1740 1745–1813 1766–1814 1766–1828 1749–1821 1778–1847 d. 1781 1749–1836 1749–1826 1749–1826 d. c. 1750 1750–1810 mid-18th century 1751–1821 1752–1800 d. after 1753 c. 1755–1820 1760–1847 1760–1827 1760–1831 18th century 18th century 1765–1843 1765–1827 1768–1847 d. 1769 1770–1837 d. 1772 1772–1810 d. 1772 1779–1860 d. 1780 c. 1780–1857 1780?–1850 d. 1781 d. 1781 late 18th century

C H RO N O LO G Y

Jacob Joseph of Polonnye Sandzer, H . ayyim ben Menahem Dynow, Z.evi Elimelech Ornstein, Mordecai Ze’ev ben Moses Kotsk, Menahem Mendel of Alexander Susskind ben Moses of Grodno Jacob Isaac ben Asher Przysucha Aaron ben Moses ha-Levi of Starosielce Wahrmann, Abraham David ben Asher Anschel Jolles, Jacob Z.evi ben Naphtali Abraham Gershon of Kutow Belz, Shalom Roke’ah Jacob Joseph of Polonnye Twersky, Aaron Ciechanow, Abraham ben Raphael Landau Isaac Meir Alter of Gur Margoliouth, Meir of Ostraha Halberstam, H . ayyim Guttmacher, Elijah Ruzhin, Israel Alkalai, Judah ben Solomon Hai Hanokh of Aleksandrow Issachar Dov Baer ben Aryeh Leib of Zloczow Abraham ben Jehiel Michal ha-Kohen Eliezer Fischel ben Isaac of Stryzyzow Judah Leib ben Baruch Zusya of Hanipoli Abraham H . ayyim ben Masoud Hai Abraham ben Jehiel Michal ha-Kohen Jacob Samson of Shepetovka Radomsko, Solomon ha-Kohen Rabinowich of Safrin, Isaac Judah Jehiel Al Hakim, Elijah ben Hakkim Moses Adani, Mizrah.i Shalom Abi-H . asira, Jacob II ben Masoud David of Talna Landauer, Meyer Heinrich Hirsch Ankawa, Abraham ben Mordecai Lipschitz, Baruch Mordecai ben Jacob David of Makow Joel, David Heymann Rymanower, Menahem Mendel Graetz, Heinrich Landau, Israel Jonah ben Joseph ha-Levi xxi

b. 1782 d. 1783 1785–1841 d. 1787 1787–1859 d. 1793 1766–1814 1766–1828 c. 1771–1840 c. 1778–1825 d. 1780 1779–1855 c. 1782 1787–1872 1789–1875 1789–1866 d. 1790 1793–1876 1795–1874 1797–1850 1789–1878 1798–1870 d.c. 1800 d.c. 1800 end of the 18th century fl. 1800 d. 1800 1801–1874 d. 1801 d. 1801 d. 1801 1803–1866 1806–1874 1807–1859 second half of 19th century 1807–1880 1808–1882 1808–1841 b. 1810 1810–1885 d. 1814 1815–1882 d. 1815 1817–1891 d. 1821

C H RO N O LO G Y

Epstein, Kalonymus Kalman Zadok ha-Kohen of Lublin Abraham Joshua Heschel of Apta Belz, Joshua Menahem Mendel of Shklov Sarfaty, Abner Israel Tayyib, Isaac ben Benjamin Vizhnitz, Menahem Mendel ben H . ayyim Hager Ginsberg, Christian David Joseph H . ayyim ben Elijah al-Hakam Aryeh Leib of Ozarow Lawat, Abraham David ben Judah Leib Walden, Aaron ben Isaiah Nathan Joseph Meir Weiss of Spinka Eliashov, Solomon ben H . ayyim Marcus, Aaron Vizhnitz, Baruch Alsheikh, Shalom ben Joseph Danzinger, Shraga Feivel Lipschutz, Aryeh Leib Reform Movement Founded Meir Jehiel ha-Levi of Ostrowiec Uri of Strelisk Danzinger, Jerahmeel Israel Isaac Belz, Issachar Dov Judah Z.evi Hirsch of Stetyn Fatiyah, Judah Vizhnitz, Israel Kook, Abraham Isaac Horodezky, Samuel Abba Teitelbaum, H . ayyim Z.evi of Sighet Horowitz, Z.evi Hirsch ben H . ayyim Aryeh Leibush ha-Levi Zevi Hirsch Friedman of Lesko Buber, Martin Belz, Aaron Harlap, Jacob Moses ben Zebulun Ashlag, Yehuda Conservative Movement Founded Roth, Aaron Scholem, Gershom Gerhard Schneerson, Menahem Mendel Brandwein, Judah Modern Orthodoxy founded Levinas, Emmanuel xxii

d. 1823 d. 1848 d. 1825 1825–1849 d. 1827 1827–1884 d. 1830 1830–1884 1831–1914 1833 or 1835–1909 d. 1833 1835–1890 1838–1912 1838–1909 1841–1926 1843–1916 1845–1893 1849–1944 d. 1849 d. c. 1849 c. 1850 1851–1928 19th century 1853–1910 1854–1927 d. 1854 1859–1942 1860–1983 1865–1935 1871–1957 b. in the 1870s–1926 1872–1954 d. 1874 1878–1965 1880–1957 1883–1951 1886–1995 c. 1895 1894–1944 1897–1982 1902–1994 1903–1969 c. 1905 1906–1995

C H RO N O LO G Y

Tishby, Isaiah Zalman Schachter-Shalomi Carlebach, Shlomo Bloom, Harold Dan, Joseph Halevi, Z’ev ben Shimon

1908–1992 1924– 1925–1994 1930– 1935– 1933–

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I N T RO DU CTI O N

Through the ages the Jewish mystic was understood as one who seeks to gain an experience of God. This can be attained either through personal experience or intense speculation. In the history of the faith, mysticism has undergone a complex evolution beginning with the direct experience of the patriarchs, Moses and the prophets, to the recondite cosmological and theological explanations of generations of kabbalists.

The Origins of Jewish Mysticism The Hebrew Scriptures contain some of the most vivid and arresting depictions of divine encounter. Beginning with the Patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac and Jacob – God is depicted as guiding the destiny of the Jewish nation. In Genesis, for example, God told Abraham to go to Canaan, where he and his descendants were to become a great multitude. Later God tested Abraham’s dedication by ordering him to sacrifice his only son – it was only at the last moment that the Lord appeared to Abraham in the form of a divine messenger to tell him to desist. Subsequently God revealed himself to Jacob in a dream of majestic grandeur, promising that his descendants would inherit the land. In another passage, God disclosed himself to Jacob as a divine messenger, and in the gorge of the river Jabbok God wrestled with Jacob, bestowing upon him his new name Israel, which later denoted both the Jewish nation and the Promised Land.

After the ancient Israelites were enslaved in Egypt, God disclosed himself to Moses calling him to free the Jewish people from bondage. Here again Scripture presents God’s revelation in mysterious terms: out of a burning bush God commanded obedience to his will. On Mount Sinai God’s theophany overwhelmed the nation – in fear and trembling they listened to the divine decree. In the prophetic books this tradition of divine revelation continued: from Elijah onwards the prophets spoke in God’s name. Through direct communication, visions and dreams, the Lord disclosed himself to his faithful servants, demanding they rebuke the nation and foretell impending doom.

Although these individuals were often overwhelmed by this encounter, they nonetheless were able to transform these experiences into public utterances about the fate of the nation and the final ‘Day of the Lord’. The Bible thus xxv

I N T RO D U C T I ON

serves as the basis of mystical experience in the life of the Jewish nation – it is here that God met his people, and this record of divine encounter serves as the background to the evolution of Jewish mystical reflection.

According to tradition, prophecy culminated during the period of the Second Temple. In the place of charismatic figures claiming to have had a direct experience of God, Jewish writers engaged in speculation about the nature of God and his relation to the world. Initially such theorizing was contained in biblical books as well as in non-canonical literature. Later Hellensitic Jewish thinkers such as PHILO formulated theories regarding God’s mediation in the cosmos. Drawing on NEOPLATONIC ideas, these writers argued that God has contact with the world through divine agencies. Rabbinic sages, who portrayed such intermediaries in various terms such as METATRON, wisdom and SHEKHINAH, subsequently expanded such a notion. Such theological reflection was far removed from the simple ecstatic experiences of the ancient Hebrews; in place of spiritual experience, these Jewish writers were preoccupied with the question how an Infinite God could become immanent in the world.

Within early rabbinic literature Jewish sages also engaged in theological speculation based on the biblical text. These doctrines were frequently of a secret nature; in the midrash on Genesis it is reported that these mystical traditions were repeated in a whisper so they would not be overheard by those for whom they were not intended. Thus in the 3rd century Rabbi Simeon ben Jehozedek asked Rabbi Samuel Nahman, ‘Seeing that I have heard you are adept at aggadah, tell me how light was created’. He replied in a whisper, upon which the other sage retorted: ‘Why do you tell this in a whisper, seeing that it is taught clearly in a scriptural verse?’ The first sage responded, ‘Just as I have myself had it whispered to me, even so I have whispered it to you’ (Midrash Rabba on Genesis 3). In the same century, Rabbi Judah, for example, said in the name of Rab that God’s secret name could only be entrusted to one who is ‘modest and meek, in the midway of life, not easily provoked to anger, temperate, and free from vengeful feelings’ (Talmud Kiddushin 71a).

The first chapter of the Book of EZEKIEL played an important role in early rabbinic mysticism. In this biblical text the MERKAVAH (divine chariot) is described in detail, and this scriptural source served as the basis for rabbinic speculation about the nature of the Deity. It was the aim of the mystic to be ‘a MERKAVAH rider’, so that he would be able to penetrate the heavenly mysteries. Within this contemplative system, the rabbis believed that the pious could free themselves from the fetters of bodily existence and enter paradise.

A further dimension of this theory was that certain pious individuals could temporarily ascend into the unseen realm and, having learnt the deepest secrets, return to earth. These mystics were able to attain a state of ecstasy, to behold visions and hear voices. As students of the MERKAVAH they were the ones able to attain the highest degree of spiritual insight. A description of the experiences of these MERKAVAH mystics is contained in HEKHALOT (heavenly hall) literature from the 7th to the 11th centuries CE. In order to make their heavenly ascent, these mystics followed strict ascetic disciplines, xxvi

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Figure 1 Merkavah: the divine chariot as described in the Book of Ezekiel

including fasting, ablution and the invocation of God’s name. After reaching a state of ecstasy, the mystic was able to enter the seven heavenly halls and attain a vision of the divine chariot.

Closely associated with this form of speculation was MAASEH BERESHIT (mystical theories about creation). Within aggadic sources the rabbis discussed the hidden meanings of the Genesis narrative. The most important early treatise, xxvii

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possibly from the second century CE, which describes the process of creation, is SEFER YEZ.IRAH (The Book of Creation). According to this cosmological text God created the universe by 32 mysterious paths, consisting of 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet together with ten SEFIROT (divine emanations). Of these 22 letters we read: ‘He hewed them, combined them, weighed them, interchanged them, and through them produced the whole creation and everything that is destined to come into being’ (Sefer Yez.irah 2.2).

These Hebrew letters are of three types: mothers, doubles and simples.

The mothers (aleph, mem, shin) symbolize the three primordial elements of all existing things: water is symbolized by mem; fire by shin; and air by aleph. In the MICROCOSM (the human form) these three mothers represent ‘the head, the belly and the chest – the head from fire, the belly from water, and the chest from the air that lies in between’ (Sefer Yez.irah 3.7).

In addition to these three mother letters, there are seven double letters in Hebrew (beth, gimel, daleth, caph, peh, resh, tau), which signify the contraries in the universe (forces that serve two mutually opposed ends). These letters were ‘formed, designed, created and combined into the stars of the universe, the days of the week, and the orifices of perception in man . . . two eyes, two ears, two nostrils and a mouth through which he perceives by his senses’ (Sefer Yez.irah 4.6–7). Finally there are 12 simple Hebrew letters (hey, vav, zayin, chet, tet, yod, lamed, nun, samech, ayin, tsade, kof), which correspond to the chief human activities – sight, hearing, smell, speech, desire for food, the sexual appetite, movement, anger, mirth, thought, sleep and work. The letters are also emblematic of the 12 signs of the zodiac in the heavenly sphere, the 12 months, and the chief limbs of the body. Thus the individual, world and time are linked to one another through the process of creation by means of the Hebrew alphabet.

These recondite doctrines are supplemented by a theory of divine EMANATION through the ten SEFIROT. The first of the SEFIROT is the spirit of the living God; air is the second of the SEFIROT and is derived from the first – on it are hewn the 22 letters. The third of the SEFIROT is the water that comes from the air: ‘it is in the water that he has dug the darkness and the chaos, that he has formed the earth and the clay, which was spread out afterwards in the form of a carpet, hewn out like a wall and covered as through by a roof.’

The fourth of the SEFIROT is the fire that comes from water, through which God made the heavenly wheels, the seraphim and the ministering angels. The remaining six SEFIROT are the six dimensions of space – north, south, east, west, height and depth.

These ten SEFIROT are the moulds into which all created things were originally cast. They constitute form rather than matter. The 22 letters, on the other hand, are the prime cause of matter: everything that exists is due to the creative force of the Hebrew letters, but they receive their form from the SEFIROT. According to this cosmological doctrine, God transcends the universe; nothing exists outside him. The visible world is the result of the EMANATION of the divine, and God is the cause of the form and matter of the cosmos. By combining emanation and creation in this manner, the SEFER xxviii

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Figure 2 Jacob’s Ladder: depicts the successive stages of heavenly ascent

YEZ.IRAH attempts to harmonize the concept of divine immanence and transcendence. God is immanent in that the SEFIROT are an outpouring of his spirit, and he is transcendent in that the matter, which was shaped into the xxix

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forms, is the product of his creative action. Such speculation served as the basis for later mystical reflection of the medieval period.

H . asidei Ashkenaz Jewish settlers in the Rhineland from approximately the 9th century studied the mystical texts of early rabbinic Judaism. During the 12th and 13th centuries these authorities – the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ – delved into HEKHALOT (heavenly hall) literature, and the SEFER YEZ.IRAH as well as the philosophical works of such scholars as Saadiah Gaon and various Spanish and Italian Jewish NEOPLATONISTS. Among the greatest figures of this period were the 12th-century SAMUEL BEN KALONYMUS OF SPEYER, his son JUDAH BEN SAMUEL OF REGENSBURG, who wrote the Book of the Pious, and ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS, who composed the treatise The Secret of Secrets. Though the writings of these and other mystics were not systematic in character, their works do display a number of common characteristics.

In their writings these mystics were preoccupied with the mystery of divine unity. God himself, they believed, cannot be known by human reason – thus all anthropomorphic depictions of God in Scripture should be understood as referring to God’s glory, which was formed out of KAVOD (divine fire). This KAVOD was revealed by God to the prophets and has been made manifest to mystics in different ways through the ages. The aim of German mysticism was to attain a vision of God’s glory through the cultivation of the life of Hasiduth (pietism), which embraced devotion saintliness and contemplation. Hasiduth made the highest demands on the devotee in terms of humility and altruism.

The ultimate sacrifice for the H . ASIDIM (pious ones) was KIDDUSH HASHEM (martyrdom), and during this period there were ample opportunities for Jews to die in this way as a result of Christian persecution. Allied to such a manifestation of selfless love of God was the emphasis on a profound sense of God’s presence in the world; for these sages God’s glory permeates all things.

Within this theological framework the concept of the H . ASID (pious one) was of paramount importance. To be a H . ASID was a religious ideal that transcended all intellectual accomplishments. The H . ASID was remarkable not because of any scholarly qualities, but through his spiritual attainments. According to these scholars, the H . ASID must reject and overcome every temptation of ordinary life; insults and shame must be endured. In addition, he should renounce worldly goods, mortify the flesh and make penance for any sins. Such an ascetic way of life against all obstacles would lead the devotee to the heights of true fear and love of God. In its most sublime form such fear was conceived of as identical with love and devotion, enabling joy to enter the soul.

In the earlier MERKAVAH tradition the mystic was the keeper of holy mysteries, but for these German sages humility and self-abnegation were the hallmarks of the authentic religious life. Allied with these personal characteristics, the H . ASID was perceived as capable of mastering magical powers. In the xxx

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Figure 3 Pardes Rimmonim: Moses Cordovero composed Pardes Rimmonim in which he depicted the divine world of the sefirot, here with the initial letter of Malkhut at the centre

writings of ELEAZER BEN JUDAH OF WORMS, for example, are found tracts on magic and the effectiveness of God’s secret names as well as recipes for creating the GOLEM (an artificial man) through letter manipulation.

Another feature of this movement concerned prayer mysticism. In the literature of the pietists, attention was given to techniques of mystical speculation based on the calculation of the words in prayers benedictions and hymns. The number of words in a prayer, as well as the numerical value, was linked to biblical passages of equal numerical value, as well as with designations of God and ANGELS. Here prominence was given to the techniques of GEMATRIA (the calculation of the numerical value of Hebrew words and the search for connections with other words of equal value) and NOTARIKON (the interpretation of the letters of a word as abbreviations of whole sentences).

According to the German H . ASIDIM, prayer was like JACOB’S LADDER extended from earth to heaven: it was a process of mystical ascent. It was in xxxi

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this milieu that the famous HYMN OF GLORY was composed – a prayer that subsequently gained a central place in the Ashkenazi liturgy. Here the unknowability of God is suffused with a longing for intimacy with the Divine: Sweet hymns and songs I will recite, To sing to thee by day and night, Of Thee who art my soul’s delight.

How doth my soul within me yearn, Beneath Thy shadow to return, The secret mysteries to learn.

Thy glory shall my discourse be, In images I picture thee, Although myself I cannot see.

In mystic utterances alone, By prophet and by seer made known, Hast Thou Thy radiant glory shown.

My meditation day and night, May it be pleasant in Thy sight, For Thou art my soul’s delight.

For the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, such prayers as well as mystical practices and beliefs provided a means of consolation and escape from the miseries that beset the Rhineland communities during the 12th and 13th centuries.

The Emergence of Kabbalah Parallel with these developments in Germany, Jewish mystics in southern France and Spain were engaged in mystical speculation about the nature of God, the soul, the existence of evil and the religious life. In 12th-century Provence the earliest kabbalistic text, the BAHIR (The Book of Light), reinterpreted the concept of the SEFIROT as depicted in the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. According to the BAHIR, the SEFIROT were conceived of as vessels, crowns or words that constitute the structure of the divine realm. Basing themselves on this anonymous work, various Jewish sages of Provence engaged in a similar mystical reflection. ISAAC THE BLIND, the son of ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIÈRES, conceived of the SEFIROT as EMANATIONS from a hidden dimension of the Godhead.

Utilizing NEOPLATONIC ideas, he argued that out of the Infinite (EN SOF) emanated the first supernal essence, divine thought, from which came the remaining SEFIROT. Beings in the world beneath, he believed, were materialization’s of the SEFIROT at lower degrees of reality. The purpose of mystical activity was to ascend the ladder of EMANATIONS to unite with divine thought.

In Spain and France the traditions from ISAAC THE BLIND were broadly disseminated. One of the most important of these Geronese kabbalists was xxxii

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Figure 4 Azilut: the Hebrew letter aleph is the initial letter of Azilut, here depicted as a diagram of the sefirot with Tiferet at the centre

AZRIEL OF GERONA, who replaced divine thought with divine will, as the first EMANATION of the EN SOF. The most famous figure of this circle was Moses ben Nahman, known as NAH . MANIDES, who helped this mystical school gain general acceptance. His involvement in kabbalistic speculation, combined with his halakhic (legal) authority, persuaded many Jews that mystical teachings were compatible with rabbinic Judaism. In his commentary on the Torah he frequently referred to kabbalistic notions to explain the true meaning of the text.

During the time that these Geronese mystics were propounding their kabbalistic theories, different mystical schools of thought developed in other parts of Spain. Influenced by the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ and the Sufi xxxiii

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traditions of Islam, ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFIA wrote meditative texts on the technique of combining the letters of the alphabet as a means of realizing human aspirations towards prophecy. As an admirer of MOSES MAIMONIDES, he believed that his system was a continuation and elaboration of the teaching of MAIMONIDES’ GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED. Another Spanish kabbalist, ISAAC IBN LATIF, also attempted to elaborate ideas found in MAIMONIDES’ GUIDE. For IBN LATIF, the primeval will was the source of all EMANATION. Adopting NEOPLATONIC concepts, he argued that from the first created thing emanated all the other stages, referred to symbolically as light, fire, ether and water. Each of these, he believed, was the subject of a branch of wisdom: mysticism, metaphysics, astronomy and physics.

According to IBN LATIF, kabbalah was superior to philosophy – the highest intellectual understanding reaching only the ‘back’ of the Divine whereas the ‘face’ was disclosed only in supra-intellectual ecstasy. True prayer led to communion with the active intellect, and then to union of the active intellect with the first created thing. Beyond this union was the union through thought, which was intended to reach the prime will and ultimately to stand before God himself.

Other Spanish kabbalists were more attracted to Gnostic ideas. ISAAC HAKOHEN, for example, elaborated the theory of a demonic EMANATION whose ten spheres were counterparts of the holy SEFIROT. The mingling of such Gnostic teaching with the kabbalah of Gerona resulted in the publication of the major mystical work of Spanish Jewry, the ZOHAR (The Book of Splendour), composed by the 13th-century writer MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON in Guadalajara. Although the author placed the work in a setting of the 2nd century CE, focusing on SIMEON BAR YOCHAI and his disciples after the Bar Kokhba uprising, the doctrines of the ZOHAR are of a much later origin. Written in Aramaic, the text is largely a midrash in which the Torah is given a mystical or ethical interpretation.

God and Creation According to these various kabbalistic systems God in himself lies beyond any speculative comprehension. To express the unknowable aspect of the Divine, early kabbalists of Provence and Spain referred to the divine Infinite as EN SOF – the absolute perfection in which there is no distinction or plurality. The EN SOF does not reveal itself; it is beyond all thought and at times is identified with the Aristotelian First Cause. In kabbalistic teaching, creation is bound up with the manifestation of the hidden God and his outward movement. According to the ZOHAR, the SEFIROT emanate from the hidden depths of the Godhead like a flame: Within the most hidden recess a dark flame issued from the mystery of the EN SOF, the Infinite, like a fog forming in the unformed – enclosed in a ring of that sphere, neither white nor black, nor red nor green, of no colour whatever. Only after this flame began to assume size and xxxiv

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Figure 5 Angels: such as the seraph depicted here, play a major role in kabbalistic Judaism

dimension, did it produce radiant colours. From the innermost centre of the flame sprang forth a well out of which colours issued and spread upon everything beneath, hidden in the mysterious hiddenness of EN SOF. These SEFIROT emanate successively from above to below, each one revealing a stage in the process. The common order of the SEFIROT and the names most generally used are: (1) Supreme Crown, (2) Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Greatness, (5) Power, (6) Beauty (or Compassion), (7) Endurance, (8) Majesty, xxxv

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(9) Foundation (or Righteous One), (10) Kingdom. These ten SEFIROT are formally arranged in threes. The first triad consists of the first three SEFIROT and constitutes the intellectual realm of the inner structure of the Divine. The second triad is composed of the next three SEFIROT from the psychic or moral level of the Godhead. Finally, the seventh, eighth and ninth SEFIROT represent the archetypes of certain forces in nature. The remaining SEFIRAH, Kingdom, constitutes the channel between the higher and lower worlds. The ten SEFIROT together demonstrate how an infinite, undivided and unknowable God is the cause of all the modes of existence in the finite plane.

In their totality these SEFIROT are frequently represented as a cosmic tree of EMANATION. It grows from its root – the first SEFIRAH – and spreads downwards in the direction of the lower worlds to those SEFIROT that constitute its trunk and its main branches. According to the BAHIR, all the divine powers of the Holy One Blessed be He rest one upon the other and are like a tree. Another depiction of the SEFIROT is the form of a man: the first SEFIRAH represents the head, the next three SEFIROT the cavities of the brain, the fourth and fifth SEFIROT the arms, the sixth the torso, the seventh and eighth the legs, the ninth the sexual organ, and the tenth the all-embracing totality of this image. In kabbalistic literature this heavenly man is also divided into two parts – the left column being made up of the female SEFIROT and the right column of the male. Another arrangement presents the SEFIROT as ten concentric circles, a depiction related to medieval cosmology in which the universe is understood to be made up of ten spheres.

For the kabbalists the SEFIROT are dynamically structured; thorough them divine energy flows from its source and separates into individual channels, reuniting in the lowest SEFIRAH. These SEFIROT were also understood as divine substances as well as containers of God’s essence; often they are portrayed as flames of fire. Yet despite their individuality, they are unified with the EN SOF at the moment of creation. According to the ZOHAR, all existences are EMANATIONS from the Deity – he is revealed in all things because he is immanent in them: ‘He is separated from all things, and is at the same time not separated from all things. For all things are united in him, and he unites himself with all things. There is nothing, which is not in him . . . In assuming a shape; he has given existence to all things. He has made ten lights spring from his midst.’

To reconcile this process of emanation with the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, some kabbalists argued that the EN SOF should be seen as Nothingness; thus the manifestation of the Divine through the SEFIROT is a self-creation out of divine nothingness. Other kabbalists, however, maintained that creation does not occur within the Godhead. It takes place at a lower level where created beings are formed independently of God’s essence.

The Problem of Evil For the kabbalists the existence of evil was a central issue. According to one tradition evil has no objective reality. Human beings are unable to receive all the xxxvi

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Figure 6 Amulets: used frequently in the Middle Ages to ward off evil

influx from the SEFIROT, and it is this inability that is the origin of evil. Created beings are therefore estranged from the source of emanation, and this results in the illusion that evil exists. Another view, as propounded in the BAHIR, depicts the SEFIRAH of power as an attribute whose name is evil. On the basis of such a teaching ISAAC THE BLIND concluded that there must be a positive root of evil and death. During the process of differentiation of forces below the SEFIROT evil became concretized. This interpretation led to the doctrine that the source of evil is the supra-abundant growth of the power of judgement – due to the separation and substitution of the attribute of judgement from its union with compassion. Pure judgement produced the SITRA AH . RA (the other side) from within itself, just as a vessel filled to overflowing spills its contents on the ground. The SITRA AH . RA consist of the domain of emanations and demonic powers. Though it originated from one of God’s attributes, it is not part of the divine realm.

In the ZOHAR there is a detailed hierarchical structure of this emanation, in which the SITRA AH . RA is depicted as having ten SEFIROT of its own.

The evil in the universe, the ZOHAR explains, has its origins in the leftovers of worlds that were destroyed. Another view in the ZOHAR is that the Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge were harmoniously bound together until Adam separated them, thereby bringing evil into the world. This event is referred to as the cutting of the shoots and it is the prototype of sins in the Bible. Evil thus originated through human action. Both these views concerning the origin of evil are reconciled in another passage, where it is asserted that the disposition towards evil derives form the cosmic evil that is in the realm of the SITRA AH . RA. xxxvii

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According to the ZOHAR, evil is like the bark of a tree of emanation; it is a husk or shell in which lower dimensions of existing things are encased. As the ZOHAR explains, ‘When King Solomon went into the nut garden, he took a nutshell and drew an analogy from its layers to these spirits which inspire sensual desires in human beings, as it is written, “and the delights of the sons of men are from male and female demons”’ (Ecclesiastes 2:8). This verse also indicates that the pleasures in which men indulge during sleep give birth to multitudes of demons: ‘The Holy One, blessed be he, found it necessary to create all things in the world to ensure its permanence, so that there should be, as it were, a brain with many membranes encircling it.’ In this context evil is understood as a waste product of an organic process – it is compared to bad blood, foul water, dross after gold has been refined and the dregs of wine. Yet despite this depiction, the ZOHAR asserts that there is holiness even in the SITRA AH . RA, regardless of whether it was conceived as a result of emanation of the last SEFIRAH or as a consequence of sin. The domains of good and evil are intermingled and it is the individual’s duty to separate them.

In explaining this picture of divine creation, kabbalists adopted a NEOPLATONIC conception of a ladder of spiritual reality composed of four worlds in descending order. First is the domain of ATZILUT (emanation), consisting of the ten SEFIROT that form ADAM KADMON (primordial man). The second world, based on HEKHALOT literature, is the realm of BERIYAH (creation) which is made up of the THRONE OF GLORY and the seven heavenly palaces. In the third world, YEZ.IRAH (formation) dwell most of the angels presided over by the angel METATRON. This is the scene of the seven heavenly halls guarded by angels to which MERKAVAH mystics attempt to gain admission. In the fourth world of ASIYAH (making) is the lower order of angels – the ophanim who combat evil and receive prayers. This is the spiritual archetype of the material cosmos, heaven and the earthly world.

ASIYAH is both the last link in the divine chain of being and the domain where the SITRA AH . RA is manifest and in this realm the forces of good struggle with the demons.

The Soul For mystics the doctrine of a hidden God who brings about creation had important implications for the kabbalistic view of humankind. The biblical idea that human beings were created in the image of God implies that they are modelled on the SEFIROT, and are MICROCOSMS reflecting the nature of the cosmos. Since the SEFIROT are reflected so, individuals are able to act as perfecting agents through their own lives and deeds. As far as souls are concerned, they are stored in one of the palaces in the sphere of BERIYAH where they are taught divine secrets. But when they enter the world of ASIYAH, such knowledge disappears. According to some kabbalists, the body that houses the soul is the work of the SITRA AH . RA; others contend that corporeality is neither intrinsically good nor bad. On the other hand, there were those who saw xxxviii

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Figure 7 Akiva: who lived in 1st-century Palestine was a great scholar and mystic

bodily processes as reflecting heavenly processes – in such a context the sexual union was regarded as metaphysically significant.

The soul itself consists of three faculties. The lowest is the nefesh (the gross side of the soul) and it is the vital element that is the source of animation. From the nefesh springs all movement, instincts and physical desires. The next faculty xxxix

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is the ruah. (spirit), which constitutes the moral element. Finally, neshamah (supra soul) is the rational component – it functions in the study of the Torah and facilitates the apprehension of the Divine. These three dimensions of the soul derive from three SEFIROT: neshamah, being the soul in its most perfected state, emanates from the SEFIRAH of Wisdom; ruah. from the SEFIRAH of Beauty; nefesh from the SEFIRAH of Foundation – it is the aspect of divinity that comes most into contact with the material universe. These three dimensions of the soul enable humans to fit into God’s plan of creation and empower them with various duties to the cosmos, which is seen as a reflection of the heavenly realm.

As the ZOHAR states: In these three (neshamah, ruah., and nefesh) we find an exact image of what is above in the celestial world. For all three form only one soul, one being, where all is one . . . above the nefesh is the ruah., which dominates the nefesh, imposes laws upon it and enlightens it as much as its nature requires. And high above the ruah. is the neshamah which in turn rules the ruah. and sheds upon it the light of life.

(Zohar 2.142) After death the soul leaves the body for its ascent to the higher realms. It is only after death that the soul becomes conscious of the neshamah. For the kabbalists the neshamah must become pure and perfected in order to return to the Infinite from which it emanated. In this light the doctrine of transmigration of the soul became an important element of the kabbalistic system. According to the ZOHAR, ‘All souls must undergo transmigration; and men do not understand the ways of the Holy One. They know not that they are brought before the tribunal both before they enter into this world and after they leave it. They know not the many transmigrations and hidden trials which they have to undergo’.

(Zohar 2.99). Such transmigration is required because the soul must reach the highest state of its evolution before it can return to its source. Related to this view is the Zoharic theory of the pre-existence of the body: ‘At the moment when the earthly union takes place, the Holy One sends to earth a form resembling a man and bearing upon itself the divine seal’ (Zohar 3.107).

Although the soul in its most exalted state can experience love in the union with the Infinite, it is possible to realize ecstatic love while the soul is in the body. One way to attain such realization is through serving God. The service of the Divine through love leads the soul to union with its place of origin and gives a foretaste of what will occur at death. As the Zohar (2.216). explains, ‘Whosoever serves God out of love comes into union with the holiness of the world which is to be.’ Though such self-perfection of the soul is a major goal of earthly existence, the soul also has a central role in TIKKUN, the cosmic repair of the disharmony in the world that has resulted from Adam’s sin. Through the cutting off of the SEFIRAH kingdom from other SEFIROT, the SITRA AH . RA attained dominance. Yet human beings can bring about TIKKUN since their souls can ascend higher than the angels. As the ZOHAR explains, human action xl

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Figure 8 Shabbatai Z.evi: in the 17th century, Shabbatai Z.evi was regarded by Jews worldwide as the long-awaited messianic redeemer xli

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has a profound effect on the higher worlds: ‘It is from below that the movement starts, and thereafter is all perfected. If the community of Israel failed to initiate the impulse, the One above also would not move to go to her, and it is thus the yearning from below which brings about the completion above.’

The Mystic Way For the mystic, deeds of TIKKUN sustain the world, activate nature to praise God, and bring about the coupling of the tenth and sixth SEFIROT. Such repair is accomplished by keeping the commandments, which are conceived of as vessels for establishing contact with the Godhead and for ensuring divine mercy. Such a religious life provided the kabbalist with a means of integrating into the divine hierarchy of creation – the kabbalah was able to guide the soul back to its source in the Infinite.

The supreme rank attainable by the soul at the end of its sojourn is DEVEKUT, the mystical cleaving to God. The early kabbalists of Provence defined DEVEKUT as the goal of the mystic way. According to ISAAC THE BLIND, ‘The principal task of the mystics and of they who contemplate on his name is, “And you shall cleave to him” (Deuteronomy 13: 4) and this is a central principle of the Torah and of prayer, and of blessings, to harmonize one’s thought above, to conjoin God in his letters and to link the ten SEFIROT to him.’ For NAH . MANIDES, DEVEKUT is a state of mind in which one constantly remembers God and his love ‘to the point that when [a person] speaks with someone else, his heart is not with them at all but is still before God . . . whoever cleaves in this way to his Creator becomes eligible to receive the Holy Spirit.’ According to NAH . MANIDES, the true H . ASID is able to attain such a spiritual state. DEVEKUT does not completely eliminate the distance between God and the individual – it denotes instead a state of beatitude and intimate union between the soul and its source.

In ascending the higher worlds, the path of prayer parallels the observance of God’s commandments. Yet unlike the mitzvot (commandments), prayer is independent of action and can become a process of meditation. Mystical prayer accompanied by meditative KAVVANOT (intentions), focusing on each prayer’s kabbalistic content, is a feature of the various systems of kabbalah. For the kabbalists prayer is seen as the ascent of the individual into the higher realms, where the soul could integrate with the higher spheres.

By using the traditional liturgy in a symbolic fashion, prayer repeats the hidden processes of the cosmos. At the time of prayer, the hierarchy of the upper realms is revealed as one of the names of God. Such disclosure is what constitutes the mystical activity of the individual in prayer, as the kabbalist concentrates on the name that belongs to the domain through which his prayer is passing. The KAVVANAH involved in mystic prayer is seen as a necessary element in the mystery of heavenly unification that brought the Divine down to the lowest realm and tied the SEFIROT to each other and the EN SOF. As the ZOHAR explains, both upper and lower worlds are blessed through the xlii

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Figure 9 En Sof: in kabbalistic Judaism, God is understood as En Sof (the Infinite) who emanates through the divine sefirot

man who performs his prayer in a union of action and word, and thus affects a unification.

In addition to mystical meditation, the kabbalists made use of the letters of the alphabet and of the names of God for the purposes of meditative training.

By engaging in the combination of letters and names, the mystic is able to empty xliii

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his mind so as to concentrate on divine matters. Through such experiences the kabbalists believed they could conduct the soul to a state of the highest rapture in which divine reality is disclosed.

Lurianic Kabbalah In the early modern period SAFED in Israel had become a major centre of Jewish religious life. By the 16th century this small community had become a centre for the manufacture of cloth and had grown in size to a population of over 10,000 Jews. Here Talmudic academies were established and small groups engaged in the study of kabbalistic literature as they piously awaited the coming of the MESSIAH. Heightened by the expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal, such messianic expectation became a prevalent theme of religious poetry written in SAFED during this period. The hymn composed by SOLOMON ALKBETZ, ‘Come, My Beloved’ (Lekhah Dodi), for instance, speaks of the Holy City as an abode for the Sabbath bride and the Davidic King: ‘Come, my beloved, to meet the bride . . . O Sanctuary of our king, O city, arise, go forth from thy overthrow; long enough hast thou dwelt in the valley of weeping . . . shake thyself from the dust; arise, put on the garments of thy glory O my people.’

In this town mystics also participated in various ascetic practices such as fasting, public confessions of sins, wearing sackcloth and ashes, and praying at the graves of venerable sages. Such self-mortification was carried to an extreme

by Abraham ha-Levi Beruchim, who wandered through the streets of SAFED calling on people to repent; he then led those he attracted to the synagogue, climbed into a sack, and ordered these individuals to throw stones at him.

In this centre of kabbalistic activity one of the greatest mystics of SAFED, MOSES CORDOVERO, collected, organized and interpreted the teachings of earlier mystical authors. His work constitutes a systematic summary of the kabbalah up to his time, and in his most important treatise, PARDES RIMMONIM (The Orchard of Pomegranates), he outlines the Zoharic concepts of the Godhead, the SEFIROT, the celestial powers and the earthly processes.

In this study he describes the SEFIROT as vessels in which the light of the EN SOF is contained and through which it is reflected in different forms. For CORDOVERO the Godhead is manifest in every part of the finite world in this way. In another important work, The Palm Tree of Deborah, he expresses the notion that in order to achieve the highest degree of the religious life one should not only observe the commandments but also imitate divine processes and patterns.

Later in the 16th century the greatest mystic of SAFED, ISAAC LURIA, transformed kabbalistic speculation. Originally brought up in Egypt where he studied the Talmud and engaged in business, LURIA withdrew to an island on the Nile where he meditated on the ZOHAR for 7 years. In 1569 he arrived in SAFED and died 3 years later, after having passed on his teaching to a small group of disciples. Of primary importance in the Lurianic system is the mystery of creation. In the literature of early kabbalists creation was understood as xliv

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Figure 10 Sefirot: from En Sof (Infinite) there emanated ten sefirot which are arranged hierarchically as depicted here

a positive act: the will to create was awakened within the Godhead and this resulted in a long process of emanation. For LURIA, however, creation is a negative event: the EN SOF had to bring into being an empty space in which creation could occur, since divine light was everywhere, leaving no room for creation to take place. Thus creation was accomplished by the process of Z.IMZ.UM – the contraction of the Godhead into itself, and therefore the first act was not positive, but rather one that demanded withdrawal. God had to go into exile from the tehiru (empty space), so that the process of creation could be initiated. Z.IMZ.UM therefore postulates divine exile at the first step of creation. xlv

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After this act of withdrawal, a line of light flowed from the Godhead into the tehiru and took on the shape of the SEFIROT in the form of ADAM KADMON, the primordial man. In this process divine lights created the vessels – the external shapes of the SEFIROT – which gave specific characteristics to each divine emanation. Yet these vessels were not strong enough to contain such pure light and they shattered. This shevirat ha-kelim (breaking of the vessels) brought disaster and upheaval to the emerging emanations: the lower vessels broke down and fell, the three highest emanations were damaged, and the empty space was divided into two parts. The first part consisted of the broken vessels with many divine sparks clinging to them, and the second part was the upper realm where the pure light of God escaped to preserve its purity.

In explaining the purpose of the Z.IMZ.UM, Luria points out that the EN SOF before creation was not completely unified – there were elements in it that were potentially different from the rest of the Godhead. The Z.IMZ.UM separated these different elements from one another. After this contraction occurred rishimu (a residue) was left behind that was like water clinging to a bucket after it has been emptied. This residue included different elements that were part of the Godhead, and after the withdrawal, they were poured out into the empty space. Thus the separation of different elements from the Godhead was accomplished. The reason for the emanation of the divine powers and the formation of ADAM KADMON was the attempt to integrate these now separate elements into the scheme of creation and thereby transform them into co-operative forces. Their task was to create the vessels of the SEFIROT into which the divine lights would flow. But the breaking of the vessels was a rebellion of these different elements, a refusal to participate in the process of creation. And by this rebellious act there were able to attain a realm of their own in the lower part of the tehiru; after the breaking of the vessels, these elements expressed themselves as the powers of evil.

Following the shattering of the vessels the cosmos was divided into two parts – the kingdom of evil in the lower part and the realm of divine light in the upper part. For LURIA evil is seen as opposed to existence, and therefore it is not able to exist by its own power. Instead it has to derive spiritual force from the divine light. This is accomplished by keeping captive the sparks of the divine light that fell when the vessels were broken and these subsequently gave sustenance to the satanic realm.

Divine attempts to bring unity to all existence now had to focus on the struggle to overcome the evil forces. This was achieved by a continuing process of divine emanation, which at first created the SEFIROT, the sky, the earth, the Garden of Eden and human beings. The individual human being was intended to serve as the battleground for this conflict between good and evil. In this regard Adam reflected symbolically the dualism in the cosmos – he possessed a sacred soul while his body represented the evil forces. God’s intention was that Adam should defeat the evil within himself and bring about Satan’s downfall. But when Adam failed, a catastrophe occurred parallel to the breaking of the vessels; instead of divine sparks being saved and uplifted, many new divine lights fell and evil became stronger. xlvi

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Figure 11 Zohar: a medieval mystical commentary on the Pentateuch, ascribed to the 2nd-century scholar Simeon bar Yoh.ai xlvii

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Rather than relying on the action of one person, God then chose the people of Israel to vanquish evil and raise up the captive sparks. The Torah was given to symbolize the Jews’ acceptance of this allotted task. When the ancient Israelites undertook to keep the law, redemption seemed imminent. Yet the people of Israel then created the golden calf, a sin parallel to Adam’s disobedience. Again divine sparks fell and the forces of evil were renewed. For LURIA, history is a record of attempts by the powers of good, to rescue these sparks and unite the divine and earthly spheres. LURIA and his disciples believed they were living in the final stages of this last attempt to overcome evil, in which the coming of the MESSIAH would signify the end of the struggle.

Related to the contraction of God, the breaking of the vessels and the exiled sparks, is LURIA’s conception of TIKKUN. For Lurianic mystics, this concept refers to the mending of what was broken during the shevirat ha-kelim. After the catastrophe in the divine realm the process of restoration began and every disaster was seen as a setback in this process. In this battle, keeping God’s commandments is understood as contributing to repair – the divine sparks that fell can be redeemed by ethical and religious deeds. According to LURIA, a spark is attached to all prayers and moral acts; if a Jew keeps the ethical and religious law these sparks are redeemed and lifted up. When the process is complete, evil will disappear. But every time a Jew commits a sin, a spark is captured and plunges into the satanic abyss. Every deed or misdeed thus has cosmic significance in the system of Lurianic kabbalah.

The Mystical Messiah By the beginning of the 17th century Lurianic mysticism had made a major impact on Sephardic Jewry, and messianic expectations had also become a central feature of Jewish life. In this milieu the arrival of a self-proclaimed messianic king, SHABBATAI Z.EVI, brought about a transformation of Jewish life and thought. Born in Smyrna into wealthy family, SHABBATAI had received a traditional Jewish education and later engaged in study of the ZOHAR. After leaving Smyrna in the 1650s he spent 10 years in various cities in Greece as well as in Constantinople and Jerusalem. Eventually he became part of a kabbalistic group in Cairo and travelled to Gaza where he encountered Nathan Benjamin Levi (NATHAN of GAZA), who believed SHABBATAI was the MESSIAH. In 1665 his messiahship was proclaimed, and NATHAN sent letters to Jews in the Diaspora asking them to repent and recognize SHABBATAI Z.EVI as their redeemer. SHABBATAI, he announced, would take the sultan’s crown, bring back the lost tribes and inaugurate the period of messianic redemption.

After a brief sojourn in Jerusalem, SHABBATAI went to Smyrna where he encountered strong opposition on the part of some local rabbis. In response, he denounced the disbelievers and declared that he was the Anointed of the God of Jacob. This action evoked a hysterical response – a number of Jews fell into trances and had visions of him on a royal throne crowned as King of Israel.

In 1666 he journeyed to Constantinople, but on the order of the grand vizier xlviii

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Figure 12 Adam Kadmon: represents the totality of the divine emanations of the sefirot

he was arrested and put into prison. Within a short time the prison quarters became a messianic court; pilgrims from all over the world made their way to Constantinople to join the messianic rituals and ascetic activities. In addition, hymns were written in his honour and new festivals were introduced. According to NATHAN, who remained in Gaza, the alteration in SHABBATAI’s moods, xlix

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from illumination to withdrawal, symbolized his soul’s struggle with demonic powers; at times he was imprisoned by kelippot (the powers of evil) but at other moments he prevailed against them.

The same year SHABBATAI spent three days with the Polish kabbalist, NEHEMIAH HA-KOHEN, who later denounced him to the Turkish authorities. SHABBATAI was brought to court and give the choice between conversion and death. In the face of this choice, he converted to Islam and took on the name Mehemet Effendi. Such an act of apostasy scandalized most of his followers, but he defended himself by asserting that he had become a Muslim in obeisance to God’s commands. Many of his followers accepted this explanation and refused to give up their belief. Some thought it was not SHABBATAI who had become a Muslim, but rather a phantom that had taken on his appearance; the MESSIAH himself had ascended to heaven. Others cited biblical and rabbinic sources to justify SHABBATAI’s action. NATHAN explained that the messianic task involved taking on the humiliation of being portrayed as a traitor to his people. Furthermore, he argued on the basis of Lurianic kabbalah that there were two kinds of divine light – a creative light and another light opposed to the existence of anything other than the EN SOF. While creative light formed structures of creation in the empty space, the other light became the power of evil after the Z.IMZ.UM (divine contraction).

The Rise of H . asidism By the middle of the 18th century the Jewish community had suffered numerous waves of persecution and was deeply dispirited by the conversion of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. In this environment the H . asidic movement – grounded in kabbalah – sought to revitalize Jewish life. Following the massacres of the previous century, many Polish Jews became disenchanted with rabbinic Judaism and through H . ASIDISM sought individual salvation by means of religious pietism. The founder of this new movement was Israel ben Eleazer, known as the BAAL SHEM TOV (or Besht). According to tradition, Israel ben Eleazer was born in southern Poland and in his twenties journeyed with his wife to the Carpathian Mountains. In the 1730s he travelled to Medzhibozh where he performed various miracles and instructed his disciples about kabbalistic lore.

By the 1740s he had attracted a considerable number of disciples who passed on his teaching. After his death in 1760, DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH became the leader of this sect and H . ASIDISM spread to southern Poland, the Ukraine and Lithuania.

The growth of this movement engendered considerable hostility on the part of rabbinic authorities. In particular the rabbinic leadership of Vilna issued an edict of excommunication; the H . ASIDIM were charged with permissiveness in their observance of the commandments, laxity in the study of the Torah, excess in prayer, and preference for the Lurianic rather than the Ashkenazic prayer book. In subsequent years the H . ASIDIM and the MITNAGGEDIM (their opponents) bitterly denounced one another. Relations deteriorated l

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Figure 13 Divine names: in kabbalisitc Judaism there are many different names for God

further when JACOB JOSEPH of POLONNOYE published a book critical of the rabbinate; his work was burned and in 1781 the MITNAGGEDIM ordered that all relations with the H . ASIDIM cease. By the end of the century the Jewish religious establishment of Vilna denounced the H . ASIDIM to the Russian government, an act that resulted in the imprisonment of several leaders.

Despite such condemnation, the H . asidic movement was eventually recognized by the Russian and Austrian governments; in the ensuing years the movement divided into a number of separate groups under different leaders who passed on positions of authority to their descendants.

H . ASIDISM initiated a profound change in Jewish religious pietism. In the medieval period, the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ attempted to achieve perfection through various mystical activities. This tradition was carried on by Lurianic kabbalists who engaged in various forms of self-mortification. In opposition to such ascetic practices, the BAAL SHEM TOV and his followers emphasized the omnipresence of God rather than the shattering of the vessels and the imprisonment of divine sparks by the powers of evil. For H . asidic Judaism there is no place where God is abscent; the doctrine of the Z.IMZ.UM was interpreted

by H . asidic sages as only an apparent withdrawal of the divine presence. Divine light, they believed, is everywhere. As the BAAL SHEM TOV explained: in every human trouble, physical or spiritual, even in this trouble, God himself is there. li

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For some H . ASIDIM, DEVEKUT (cleaving to God) in prayer was understood as the annihilation of selfhood and the ascent of the soul to divine light. In this context joy, humility, gratitude and spontaneity are seen as essential features of H . asidic worship. The central obstacles to concentration in prayer are distracting thoughts; according to H . ASIDISM such sinful intentions contain a divine spark, which can be released. In this regard the traditional kabbalistic stress on theological speculation was replaced by a preoccupation with mystical psychology, in which inner bliss is conceived of as the highest aim, rather than repair of the cosmos. For the Beshtian H . ASIDIM it was also possible to achieve DEVEKUT in daily activities including drinking, business affairs and sex. Such ordinary acts become religious if in performing them one cleaves to God, and DEVEKUT is thus attainable by all Jews rather than a scholarly elite.

Unlike the earlier mystical tradition, H . ASIDISM provided a means by which ordinary Jews could reach a state of spiritual ecstasy. H . asidic worship embraced singing, dancing and joyful devotion in anticipation of the period of messianic redemption.

Another central feature of this new movement was the institution of the Z.ADDIK (holy individual) or rebbe (spiritual leader), which gave expression to a widespread disillusionment with rabbinic leadership. According to H . ASIDISM, the Z.ADDIKIM were spiritually superior individuals who had attained the highest level of DEVEKUT. The goal of the Z.ADDIK was to elevate the souls of his flock to the divine light; his tasks included pleading to God for his people, immersing himself in their everyday affairs, and counselling and strengthening them. As an authoritarian figure his followers saw the Z.ADDIK as possessing miraculous power to ascend to the divine realm. In this context DEVEKUT to God involved cleaving to the Z.ADDIK. Given this emphasis on the role of the Z.ADDIK, H . asidic literature included summaries of the spiritual and kabbalistic teachings of various famous Z.ADDIKIM, as well as stories about their miraculous deeds. Foremost among these leading figures was ZUSYA OF HANIPOL, SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LIADY, LEVI YITZHAK OF BERDICHEV, and NAHMAN OF BRATSLAV. These various leaders developed their own customs, doctrines and music, and gathered around themselves disciples who made pilgrimages to their courts in the Ukraine and in Polish Galicia. In central Poland H . ASIDISM emphasized the centrality of faith and talmudic study; Lubavich H ASIDISM in Lithuania, on the . other hand, combined kabbalistic speculation and rabbinic scholarship. From its inception at the end of the 18th century to the present day, this movement has kept alive the mystical tradition of the Jewish past.

Contemporary Kabbalah Despite the growth and development of kabbalah amongst H . ASIDIM, during the Jewish Enlightenment in the 19th century there was considerable opposition to practical kabbalah amongst modernizers who viewed traditional Jewish mystical teachings as irrelevant in contemporary society. Only a few lii

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Figure 14 Z.imZ.um: according to kabbalistic Judaism, a divine contraction (Z.imZ.um) took place when God emanated the ten sefirot

circles of kabbalists were active outside H . asidic circles such as the followers of YEHUDA ASHLAG who composed a detailed commentary on the ZOHAR in the first half of the 20th century. Today portions of this commentary are published in separate books and studied by a small group of disciples.

GERSHOM SCHOLEM who created a new interest in kabbalistic lore, however, promoted the modern study of Jewish mysticism. SCHOLEM’s works have been published in a variety of languages and have had a lasting influence on a wide number of readers.

Today traditionalists view themselves as students of the kabbalistic tradition of previous generations; yet, in the latter half of the last century, there has been a renewed fascination in kabbalah amongst young Jews who were part of the counter-culture movement. In the 1960s a Jewish counter-culture emerged liii

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out of the general protest movement in the United States. A spiritual strand of counter-culture was manifest amongst the followers of the former Lubavitcher rabbis ZALMAN SCHACHTER-SHALOMI and SHLOMO CARLEBACH. During this period CARLEBACH founded the House of Love and Prayer in San Francisco in 1967. This type of counter-culture Judaism sought to combine communal life with a minimum of religious observance and a maximum of celebration including singing and dancing. One of the activities of this organization was the publication of the magazine The Holy Beggar’s Gazette.

The unaffiliated fringe associated with Jewish counter-culture consisted of artists and poets, many of whom were influenced by kabbalistic teachings.

Although all the streams of the Jewish counter-culture were interested in Jewish mysticism, the counter-culture kabbalists reclaimed magical, heretical and heterodox traditions. This approach is illustrated in Jerome Rothenberg’s anthology, A Big Jewish Book, and in David Meltzer’s Kabbalistic Journal Tree.

Meltzer also published Tree Books in which he made available the work of various Jewish poets; his magazine also contained texts on Jewish mysticism, including the writings of ABRAHAM ABULAFIA. Jewish letter mysticism, Jewish letter permutations and the GOLEM particularly fascinated Meltzer and his followers.

Jewish mystical traditions were also linked to certain trends in contemporary American poetry, as in Hirschman’s Black Alpha.

Such a counterculture marked the beginning of popular interest in kabbalah as evidenced by Herbert Wiener’s 9½ Mystics which depicts the quest for an authentic form of Jewish mysticism. Other books by Charles Ponce and Perle Epstein similarly provided popular, nonacademic introductions to kabbalah for a wide audience. In the 1980s and 1990s such an interest in kabbalistic ideas intensified. Writings on Jewish mysticism are now available in the esoteric sections of most bookshops. These works typically psychologize mystical teachings and employ kabbalah as an instrument for balancing one’s personality.

Also arising in the late 20th and early 21st centuries was the discreet international Kabbalah Society founded by Z’EV BEN SHIMON HALEVI, the English Sefardi author of fourteen books. He has written about and taught the tradition in modern terms to all who seek to find out what the purpose of Existence is and their place in it. While the kabbalah was presented in ancient and medieval terms, he applied contemporary science, sociology and psychology to the symbols and metaphysics of the teaching, especially regarding the Tree of Life diagram. This was related to the body, psyche and spiritual development as well as many phenomena such as government, civilisation and evolution. His main contribution was re-casting JACOB’S LADDER, the integrated model of kabbalah’s four worlds with their levels and triads, into an systematic format.

He also re-introduced the Great Tree, which locks the four worlds and fifty gates together into a chain of being. The English editions and translations into fourteen different languages of his books gave rise to many study groups around the world. Out of this came the Kabbalah Society’s subtitle ‘Toledano Tradition’, which echoed the medieval time in this city where the three Abrahamic lines met in a congenial atmosphere. liv

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Figure 15 Tetragrammaton: depicted here at the bottom of the two hands are the four letters of God’s name often used in kabbalistic sources

In the 1990s kabbalistic centres sprang up throughout the United States.

PHILIP BERG’s Kabbalah Centre in Los Angeles, for example, has become increasingly important through the involvement of celebrities such as Madonna who became fascinated with a New Age version of kabbalah. In New York, Makor, on the Upper West Side, offers courses such as ‘Inner Torah’, ‘Jewish Meditation: A Path for Self-Discovery’, and ‘Drop-in Kabbalah and Spirituality’.

All of these courses emphasize the applicability of their teachings to modern life.

Another central focus of pop kabbalah has been the magical use of kabbalah, and its association with astrology, palm reading and face reading. Other exponents of kabbalistic techniques explore the connection between Judaism and Eastern spiritual practices including Buddhism and yoga. The Kabbalah Centre in New York, for example, offers courses in ‘Basic Reincarnation’.

Not surprisingly, pop kabbalah has evoked widespread criticism from the Jewish establishment. The Toronto Vaad HaRabonim (rabbinic council) and the Queens Vaad HaRabonim, for example, have issued statements to the public about avoiding the learning that takes place in Kabbalah Centres as well as purchasing books dealing with the subject. The Chief Rabbi and the Bet Din lv

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(religious court) of Johannesburg and the Rabbinical Association of South Africa have issued decrees of condemnation against the Kabbalah Centre with its various branches in New York, California and Florida as well as international centres in Israel, South America and Europe under the directorship of PHILIP BERG. Canadian rabbi Emanuel Schochet, a rabbinic authority on Jewish mysticism, has alleged that Rabbi Berg engages in acts of extortion by scaring people with various forms of evil and curses if they refuse to offer money to the Kabbalah Centre. In Schocet’s view, the Kabbalah Centre makes ludicrous promises of physical health and wealth. Yet, despite such criticisms, new age kabbalah continues to grow in popularity and currently exerts an important spiritual impact on its adherents.

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TH E D I C T I O NA RY

A Aaron ben Moses ha-Levi of Starosielce (1766–1828) Leader of a group in the H . ABAD wing of H . ASIDISM. A disciple of SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY, he became estranged from SHNEUR ZALMAN’s son, and successor, Dov Baer. After SHNEUR ZALMAN’s death in 1813, Aaron led a section of H . ABAD. He favoured exaltation in meditation and emotional prayer. His school had more in common with the major trends of H . ASIDISM. His most important work, Sha’arei ha-Yih.ud ve ha-Emunah, is a commentary completing the second part of the TANYA, the main work of SHNEUR ZALMAN. Other writings include Petah. ha-Teshuvah with a foreword explaining and defending his approach. The composition of various H . ABAD melodies is attributed to him.

Although one of his sons attempted to continue his system after his death, most of his disciples joined the main H . ABAD movement led by Menahem Mendel of Lubavich and others.

Aaron ben Samuel (c. 1620–1701) German rabbinical author. He is known for his concordance Beit Aharon, published in 1690–91. In this work he assembled all biblical passages cited or explained in the Talmud, midrashic literature and philosophical, homiletical and kabbalistic works. This concordance was based on Aaron of Pesaro’s Toledot Aharon, Simeon ben Isaac ha-Levi’s Masoret ha-Mikra, and Jacob Sasportas’ Toledot Ya’akov. It was subsequently published in the Vilna and Gordno edition of the Prophets and Hagiographa in 1780. An enlarged edition by Abraham David Lavat appeared under the title Beit Aharon ve-Hosafot in 1880. Aaron’s other works included Sisra Torah, a homiletical commentary on Judges 4 and 5, Shalo’ah. Manot, a short commentary on the Babylonian Talmud, Megillah, and H . ibbur Masorah, a midrashic commentary on the Masorah. Due to the request of his wife, Aaron translated the Midrash Petitrat Moshe into Yiddish; this work was popular among women in Poland and Russia. Aaron also wrote a commentary on Perek Shirah that appeared as an appendix to the Berlin prayer book in 1701.

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AA RO N B E R E C H I A H B E N MO SES OF MODENA

Aaron Berechiah ben Moses of Modena (d. 1639) Italian kabbalist and compiler. He was a cousin on his mother’s side of Leone Modena. For the benefit of religious Jews in Modena, he compiled Ma’avar Yabbok, containing the readings, laws and customs relating to the sick, deathbed, burial and mourning rights. He also compiled Ashmoret ha-Boker, containing prayers and supplications for the use of the pious group Me’irei Shah.ar in Modena as well as Me’il Z.edakah and Bigdei Kodesh, containing prayers and passages for study.

Aaron Selig ben Moses of Zolkiew (d. 1643) Kabbalist from Brest-Litovsk.

His father, Moses Hillel, served as president of the Jewish community of BrestLitovsk; his brother Samuel was a parnas in the Council of the Four Lands. He wrote a compendium of the ZOHAR entitled Ammudei Sheva (Sevenfold Pillars) in five volumes. This work contains a commentary, glosses and explanations of difficult words in the ZOHAR; selections of the Mantua edition of the ZOHAR which are missing in the Cremona edition; an index indicating where the various chapters of the ZOHAR are commented on by Meir Ibn Gabbai, MOSES CORDOVERO, Judah H . ayyat, MENAHEM RECANATI, ELIJAH DE VIDAS and Shabbetai Sheftel Horowitz; an index for the Tikkunei Zohar; and a list of 39 parallel passages in the ZOHAR with their variant readings.

Abbreviations In kabbalistic literature a combination of letters was termed zeruf otiyyot. The term GILGUL was introduced later. Abbreviations were frequently used for recurring concepts. The spread of mysticism led to an increasing use of abbreviations. Such terms were considered as possessing profound and secret qualities. Abbreviations also appear on AMULETS. Abi-H . asira, Jacob II ben Masoud (1807–1880) Moroccan kabbalist. He was widely known for his piety. Three times he tried to go to Erez. Israel, but the community and the government prevented it. Nonetheless, he made the journey as far as Damanhur, near Alexandria, where he died. The anniversary of his death is commemorated in many communities. His works include Dorest Tov; Pittuh.ei H . otam on the Torah; Yoru Mishpatekha, a collection of responsa; Bigdei haSered on the Passover; Haggadah, Ginzei ha-Melekh on kabbalah; Mah.sof ha-Lavan on the Torah; Alef Binah on the alphabet; Ma’gelei Z.edek; Levonah Zakkah on the Talmud, Sha’arei Teshuvah; and Yagil Ya’akov.

Aboab, Samuel ben Abraham (1610–1694) Italian rabbi and opponent of NATHAN of GAZA. Born in Hamburg, he was sent by his father to study in Venice under David Franco and the age of 13. Later he married Franco’s daughter. He served as a rabbi in Verona, and in 1650 was appointed rabbi in Venice. At the age of 80 he was forced to leave Venice for some unknown cause. He wandered from place to place until the authorities allowed him to return to Venice. He was known for his Talmudic and general knowledge, and was frequently consulted for his opinions. He was modest, humble and charitable and attracted a wide following. He was responsible for obtaining 4

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funds to support communities in Erez. Israel. In 1643 Aboab collected funds to ransom Jews of Kremsier who had been taken captive by the Swedes. He was an active opponent of the SHABBATEAN movement. He initially was restrained, hoping to avoid a schism as well as the intervention of secular authorities. Later he adopted a more rigorous approach. When NATHAN of GAZA reached Venice in 1668, he was among the Venice rabbis who interrogated NATHAN on his beliefs and actions. His published works include Devar Shemu’el, responsa published by his son. This work is prefaced by a biography and an ethical will to his sons. It has an appendix concerning the investigation of NATHAN of GAZA in 1667–68. Two of his sons, Abraham and Jacob, succeeded him after his death.

Abracadabra A magic word or formula commonly used in folk medicine as an incantation against disease. The term may be a derivative of an Aramaic demon name. It occurs in the writings of Severus Sammonicus, a gnostic physician of the 2nd century CE. In the same fashion, the name of Shabriri, the demon of blindness, as well as other magic words were used in Jewish magic, incantations and AMULETS. In theory when the name is recited and reduced in letters, the demon disappears along with his name. Similarly, in order to reverse the natural order of things or to cancel a decree, certain actions were done in reverse such as walking backwards, wearing clothes on the reverse side, or reciting biblical phrases backward.

Abraham ben Alexander of Cologne (13th century) Spanish kabbalist.

A disciple of ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS, he emigrated to Spain where he studied with the kabbalist EZRA OF GERONA. SOLOMON BEN ADRET knew him in his youth and described his oratorical ability as well as the material he used in his sermons. Abraham wrote a treatise, Keter Shem Tov, dealing with the TETRAGRAMMATON in which he attempted to create a synthesis between the mysticism of early German Jewish pietists based on combinations of letters and numbers and the KABBALAH of the SEFIROT, which he was acquainted with in Provence or Spain. His text consists of a short summary of his system. It represents cosmological symbolism that relies on the views of Abraham Ibn Ezra in his Sefer ha-Shem as well as statements of the kabbalists EZRA and AZRIEL OF GERONA. This work was first published in Amsterdam in 1810; it also appeared under the title Ma’amar Peloni Almoni in the collection of writtings Likkutim me-Rav Hai Gaon. A new edition was published by Jellinek in Samson ben Eliezer’s work Barukh she-Amar.

Abraham ben Azriel (13th century) German liturgical commentator. He was a disciple of the German pietists, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-H . ASID OF REGENSBURG and ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS as well as Baruch ben Isaac of Regensburg. In about 1234 he wrote Arugat ha-Bosem, a commentary on liturgical poems. This work reveals a comprehensive knowledge of every 5

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branch of Jewish learning including masoretic texts, grammar, vocalization, the midrashim, the Talmud, and kabbalistic literature. All obscure references in the piyyutim are explained in detail. This work did not have a wide circulation and is only rarely quoted in subsequent texts. However, Abraham Berliner discovered the manuscript in the Vatican library and other scholars realized its significance.

He was the first of the French and German scholars to make full use of the whole of MAIMONIDES’ work. Quotations in the book give an insight into the nature of many works that are no longer extant. Abraham was known for his critical insight and independence. He did not hesitate to contradict his teacher, ELEAZAR ROKEAH..

Abraham ben David of Posquières [Rabad] (c. 1125–1198) Talmudic authority in Provence. Born in Narbonne, he died in Posquierès. He was a person of varous literary works. His criticism of MOSES MAIMONIDES’ Mishneh Torah established him as an authoritative scholar. His father-inlaw, Abraham ben Isaac, was the head of the rabbinical court in Narbonne and exerted a considerable influence on him. He also studied with Moses ben Joseph and Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel. As a mature scholar, prominent in Montpellier and Nîmes, he was a person of considerable wealth. According to tradition, he dealt in textiles. He settled permanently in Posquierès, except for a short period when he fled to Narbonne and Carcassonne as a result of the hostility of a local feudal lord. He founded and directed an academy for advanced stuents from all parts of Europe. Some of his students became distinguished rabbis and authors. He himself asserted that his word was law in Provence. He was respected by scholars from Franco-Germany, Spain, North Africa, Italy, Erez. Israel and the Slavic countries. His literary works included codes of law, commentaries on Talmudic literature, responsa, homiletic discourses and critical annotations and glosses on rabbinic literature.

His writings were characterized by precision, persistence in tracing statements to their sources, and logical analysis. Although he did not produce any kabbalistic works, he exerted influence upon the kabbalah through his children.

Having learned about the kabbalah from their father, they became literary leaders and guides in the emerging kabbalistic tradition. Later kabbalistic writers, including ISAAC OF ACRE, Shem Tov ben Gaon and MENAHEM RECANATI, viewed Abraham as one of their own, worthy of receiving revelation.

Abraham ben Dov of Mezhirech [The Angel] (1741–1776) H . asidic sage.

A contemporary who watched Abraham lament the destruction of the Temple remarked: ‘Then I understood it was not in vain that he was named by all “The Angel” since no man born of woman could have such power.’ He was a solitary ascetic who concentrated on the study of kabbalah. He did not emulate the tradition of popular aspects of H . ASIDISM instituted by the BAAL SHEM TOV. In his youth he was a friend of SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY with whom he studied the Talmud and kabbalah in Mezhirech.

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Abraham ben Eliezer ha-Levi [Ha-Zaken] (c. 1460–after 1528) Spanish kabbalist. Born in Spain, he was a pupil of Isaac Gakon. While in Spain he wrote several kabbalistic treatises of which Masoret ha-H . okhmah on the principles of the kabbalah has been preserved. After Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, he wandered through Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt. In about 1514 he went to Jerusalem with the school of the Egyptian nagid, Isaac ha-Kohen Sholal. There he was one of the most respected scholars of the yeshivah. His activities as an apocalyptic kabbalist probably date from the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Like many of his contemporaries, he believed that the year 1524 marked the beginning of the messianic age and that the MESSIAH would appear in 1530–1. He searched for proof in the Bible and the Talmud as well as kabbalistic literature, and sought to arouse the Jewish people to prepare for the coming deliverance through penitence. In 1508 he wrote the treatise Mashreh Kitrin (Untier of Knots) with explanations of the Book of Daniel. Later he wrote Ma’amar Perek H . elek, an explanation of the Talmudic statements on the messianic redemption at the end of the tractate Sanhedrin. In 1517, he wrote his extensive commentary on the Nevu’at ha-Yeled (The Child’s Prophecy). This commentary contains an apocalyptic survey of Jewish history. In 1521 he wrote Iggeret Sod ha-Ge’ullah (The Epistle of the Mystery of Redemption) in which he interpreted the statements of the ZOHAR on redemption. In this way he prepared the way for the activities of SOLOMON MOLCHO. Abraham ben Eliezer ha-Levi Berukhim (c. 1515–1593) Palestinian kabbalist. Born in Morocco, he went to Palestine before 1565. There he joined the circle of MOSES CORDOVERO and was a friend of ELIJAH DE VIDAS. When ISAAC LURIA arrived in SAFED in 1569, he joined his school and was a member of its fourth group. H . AYYIM VITAL had great affection for him, and in several places quotes kabbalistic sayings of ISAAC LURIA, which he heard from Abraham. He was a visionary and ascetic who preached morality and called for repentance. He was called ‘the great patron of the Sabbath’. He went out on Friday mornings to the markets and streets, encouraging householders to hurry with the preparations so that they could close their shops early for the Sabbath. Almost nothing is known about his life, but various legends have been preserved concerning his piety. His Tikkunei Shabbat was printed at the end of Reshit H . okhmah ha-Kaz.ar, and later in numerous editions as a separate work. His H asidut, concerning the tales of pious behaviour which he established for his . group in SAFED, circulated in manuscript. He was the first editor and collector of articles of the ZOHAR, which had not been included in the Mantua edition.

These were later published under the title ZOHAR HADASH (The New Zohar).

Abraham ben Isaac of Granada Spanish kabbalist and putative author of BERIT MENUH.AH (The Covenant of Rest), one of the main works of kabbalah. Nothing is known of his life or when he lived. In the introduction to his commentary on SEFER YEZ.IRAH, MOSES BOTAREL gives a long 7

A B R A H A M B E N I S R A E L OF BRODY

quotation from Sefer ha-Berit written by a scholar referred to as Abraham ben Isaac of Granada. Yet it appears from both the language and contents of this work that the author of BERIT MENUH . AH (which was composed in Spain during the 14th century) did not write it. This text explains the innermost meaning of the vocalization of God’s name in 26 different ways. However, only the first 10 ways were printed, and this only in a corrupt form. H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI saw more than twice this number in manuscript form. The actual content of this work is enigmatic; its symbolism and mysticism do not correspond with conventional kabbalah. The influence of ABRAHAM ABULAFIA’s kabbalistic system is recognizable, but the language and mysticism of ABULAFIA is combined with a complicated system of light-mysticism. In addition, the book’s purpose was to offer a systematic basis for practical kabbalah.

Some passages reveal the author as a visionary; in eight places he quotes his own thought process as the words of ‘the learned Rabbi SIMEON BAR YOH . AI. However, these quotations are not found in the ZOHAR, and in view of their style and content arguably do not belong there. The work was highly regarded by later kabbalists, particularly MOSES CORDOVERO and ISAAC LURIA. CORDOVERO wrote a commentary on part of the book. Abraham quoted two more of his own works, Megalleh ha-Ta’alumot (Revealing Hidden Things) and Sefer ha-Gevurah (The Book of Power), on the names of God and practical kabbalah.

His H . OKHMAT HA-Z.ERUF (Science of Letter Combinations), 12 chapters in the spirit of ABULAFIA, is preserved in manuscript form.

Abraham ben Israel of Brody (1749–1836) Italian kabbalist. He lived in Leghorn and Trieste, but eventually moved to Ferrara where he remained for thirty years. He was known as an ascetic who frequently fasted an entire week and studied six days and nights consecutively. He purchased rabbinic works and distributed them to needy scholars. It was believed in Ferrara that his piety more than once saved the entire Jewish community from disaster. His publications included Lukkutei Amarim (Gleanings), which includes a commentary on the Pirkei Shirah and extracts from kabbalistic works.

Abraham ben Jehiel Michal ha-Kohen (d. c. 1800) Polish kabbalist. From Lask, Poland, he was renowned for his asceticism. He fasted during the week and ate only on the Sabbath. He settled in Jerusalem shortly after 1770. Ten years later he returned to Europe as an emissary to collect funds for the rabbis of Jerusalem.

He was then involved in a number of disputes regarding these collections. He travelled extensively. On these trips he encouraged Jewish communities to repentance and good deeds and encouraged communal activity. On his return to Jerusalem in 1790 he was arrested and held ransom for the failure of the Jewish community to pay taxes. He died in prison. His kabbalistic works include VeH . ashav lo ha-Kohen, Ve-Shav ha-Kohen, Beit Ya’akov and Ayin Panim ba-Torah.

Abraham ben Josiah Troki (1636–1687) Karaite poet and mystic. He was the son of Josiah ben Judah ben Aaron of Troki, Lithuania. He was the personal 8

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physician of King Jan III Sobieski of Poland and of Grand Duke Sigismund II. His writings include Beit Avraham, consisting of a collection of mystical treatises.

Abraham Gershon of Kutow (d. 1780) H . ASID, Talmudic scholar and kabbalist. He was probably born in Kutow, Ukraine, where his father was a rabbi. He was the brother-in-law of the BAAL SHEM TOV. As a youth, he moved to Brody where he studied. According to legend, Abraham resented his sister’s marriage to the BAAL SHEM TOV and at first slighted him. Later he became one of his disciples. In 1747 he went to Erez. Israel where he intended to spread the teachings of H . ASIDISM. He settled first in Hebron and later Jerusalem. He formed close ties with Sephardi scholars in Jerusalem and other countries. The correspondence between him and the BAAL SHEM TOV is an important historical source.

Abraham Joshua Heschel of Apta [Rabbi Of Apta] (d. 1825) Polish H . asidic Z.ADDIK. He was the disciple of ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK and possibly also of the MAGGID JEHIEL MICHAEL OF ZLOCZOW. He served as the rabbi of Kolbuszowa Apta from 1809 to 1813 and Jassy from 1813 to 1814 before moving to Medzibozh. He was an opponent of the maskilim in Brody for disseminating what he considered heretical ideas.

Following the discriminatory legislation passed by Czar Alexander I, which deprived Jewish contractors and taverners of their livelihood, he and Isaac of Radzivilow decreed a public fast. As president of the Volhynian kolel, Abraham raised funds for the community in Erez. Israel. Known as an authority by many Z.ADDIKIM, he was asked to excommunicate deviationists in the controversy between the Bratslav and Przysucha H . ASIDIM but he sought to make peace between the feuding factions. He left instructions that his epitaph should be Ohev Yisrael (a lover of Israel). He was reputed to recount fantastic reminiscences about the events he said he witnessed in former incarnations as high priest, King of Israel, nasi and exilarch. H . ASIDIM viewed his revelations as mysteries like those experienced by Rabbah b. Bar H . ana.

As a religious ecstatic, he delivered homilies on Sabbaths and festivals stressing the love of the Creator and the importance of DEVEKUT (cleaving to God).

He was renowned for using violent gestures when preaching which were viewed by his followers as having spiritual significance. He was an advocate of practical Z.addikism and held that the Z.ADDIK through his wisdom is able to lift up Israel, bind the Jewish people to heaven and bring them blessings.

Absaban, Solomon (d. 1592) SAFED kabbalist. A disciple of ISAAC LURIA, he was a friend of MOSES ALSHEKH. He studied under JOSEPH CARO. Like ALSHEIKH, it is likely that he was among those ordained by CARO. From 1562 his signature appeared on letters and decisions with those of JOSEPH CARO and Moses di Trani. In 1571 he joined them in excommunicating the 9

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physician Daoud, an opponent of Joseph Nasi. He taught in Talmudic academies in SAFED where Jacob Abulafia was one of his students. In 1582 he was av bet din of SAFED; there he associated with mystics and was a friend of Eleazar ben Moses Azikri. Later he settled in Damascus where he was the head of a yeshivah.

Abulafia, Abraham ben Samuel (1240–after 1291) Spanish kabbalist Born in SARAGOSSA, he went to Tudela as a child. When he was 18 his father died, and he later travelled to Erez. Israel where he commenced his search for the mythical river SAMBATYON. According to tradition, the Ten Tribes of Israel lived on its banks. Because of conflict between Muslims and Christians, he journeyed no further than Acre. He later returned to Europe by way of Greece, where he married. From there he went to Italy, and remained for some time in Capua. Here he studied MAIMONIDES’ GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED under the philosopher and physician Hillel ben Samuel of Verona. He was introduced to the study of the kabbalah by BARUKH TOGARMI, the author of a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. Later he studied this work and its commentaries in Barcelona. Convinced that he had attained prophetic inspiration, he began to proclaim his mystical doctrine to a small circle. In 1273 he went left Spain and wandered through Italy, Sicily and Greece. During his travels he composed a number of mystical works in which he advanced his own teaching among kabbalists and followers of MAIMONIDES’ philosophy.

During this period he wrote Get ha-Shemot and Sitrei Torah. This latter work was a mystical commentary on the GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED; according to Abulafia, MAIMONIDES was influenced by kabbalistic concepts. In 1279 he lived in Patras in Greece and wrote a number of short mystical texts which he called Sifrei Nevu’ah (Prophetic Books). These were signed with a pseudonym, which corresponds with the numerical value of his name. The next year he returned to Capua and attracted a number of followers. The similarity between his prophetic revelations and Christian doctrine caused confusion among his disciples and some accepted baptism. Urged by an inner voice, Abulafia went to Rome in 1280 with the intention of calling Pope Nicholas III to account for the suffering of the Jewish people. He was anxious to persuade him to improve their conditions. The Pope, however, condemned him to death by burning, but the sentence was not carried out since the Pope died the same year.

After a month in prison, Abulafia was released and went to Sicily. In Messina he wrote a number of works including OR HA-SEKHEL (Light of the Intellect) concerning the mysteries of the TETRAGRAMMATON and Oz.ar Eden Ganuz which contains autobiographical notes. In his view, the messianic age would commence in 1290; many Jews accepted his prophecies and made preparations to go to Erez. Israel. Yet there was fierce opposition to his teaching on the part of such authorities as SOLOMON BEN ADRET of Barcelona who accused him of claiming to be the MESSIAH. Abulafia responded by accusing ADRET of being a charlatan. This controversy caused Abulafia to flee to Comino where in 1288 he composed SEFER HA-OT (The Book of the Sign). He also composed 10

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a number of treatises defending himself and his doctrine. In 1289 he wrote a commentary on the Torah and a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH entitled Gan Na’ul which appeared in Sefer ha-Peli’ah. In 1291 he completed Imrei Shefer. Abulafia’s teaching deviates from older kabbalistic doctrine in various respects. Basing himself on the doctrine of the ten SEFIROT, he employed the teachings of the kabbalistic school of ELEAZER BEN JUDAH OF WORMS and his successors including the methods of ZERUF (combinations of letters), GEMATRIA numerical value of Hebrew words), and NOTARIKON (letters of a word as abbreviation of sentences). He was convinced that his prophetic kabbalah enabled human beings to receive prophetic powers and commune with the God. In this way, human reason becomes subject to the rule of God’s universal reason. According to Abulafia, this process is the ‘Way of the Divine Name’, or ‘The Way of Sefer Yez.irah’. He was opposed to the way in which many kabbalists used the powers of the Divine Name. These forces, he believed, should only be employed for spiritual purposes. Abulafia based his ecstatic mysticism on rational foundations, and there were certain points of contact between his doctrines and the views of Muslim Sufis. Abulafia was one of the most important kabbalists of the pre-Luranic period. Among his books, The Sefer H . ayyei ha-Olam ha-Ba (The Book of the Life of the World to Come) gained a wide circulation. This study contains explanations of the 72-letter name of God illustrated by circular figures with instructions for mystical meditation. His influence was particularly significant in 16th-century SAFED. Abulafia’s most outstanding pupil was JOSEPH GIKATILLA. Abulafia, H . ayyim ben Jacob (1580–1668) Palestinian Talmudist. He studied in SAFED; later he was ordained by his father. In 1628 he settled in Jerusalem, and later Hebron. Despite his advanced age, he directed the yeshivah there. In 1651–52 Abulafia was an important figure in the controversy concerning the election of a new rabbi of the Hebron community. He went to Cairo to enlist the support of Raphael Joseph, the head of Egyptian Jewry. When NATHAN OF GAZA began his support of SHABBETAI Z.EVI, Abulafia adopted an attitude towards the visions of H . AYYIM VITAL similar to his father. Although he was skeptical, he did not wish to engage in conflict. In 1666 he was one of the delegation of four who went to Gaza on behalf of the Constantinople community to investigate the authenticity of NATHAN’s prophecies. He returned to live in Jerusalem.

Abulafia, Todros ben Joseph ha-Levi (c. 1220–1298) Spanish kabbalist.

Born in Burgos, he was a nephew of Meir Abulafia. Learned and rich, he was the Spanish exilarch and spiritual leader of the Jewish community in Castile. He exerted influence in the court of Alfonso X who granted him estates during the distribution of lands in the cities of Seville and Jerez de la Frontera. He accompanied the king to France in 1275. In 1280–81 Alfonso ordered the arrest of Jewish tax farmers and attempts were made to convert them by torture.

Abulafia pleaded on their behalf. Nonetheless he criticized the Jewish population 11

ABYSS

for those offenses which he believed led to their plight. He encouraged them to disassociate themselves from gentile women and carry out the penances he imposed on them. His novellae on tractate Yevamot were known to H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI. He was instructed in kabbalah by MOSES BEN SOLOMON BEN SIMEON to whom he dedicated Sha’ar ha-Razim (Gates of Secrets). In this work as well as in Oz.ar ha-Kavod (Treasury of Glory) he cited Midrash ha-Ne’lam of the ZOHAR. He was one of the most distinguished kabbalists of his generation. His Oz.ar ha-Kavod combines the kabbalistic doctrine of the gnostic circles in Castile with that of the GERONA school. His writings and those of ISAAC HA-KOHEN and MOSES BEN SOLOMON OF BURGOS elucidate one another. Abulafia also wrote a commentary on the first chapter of EZEKIEL. ISAAC IBN LATIF dedicated his Z.eror ha-Mor (A Bundle of Myrrh) to him. His son Joseph joined the kabbalistic circle in Toledo.

He was friendly with MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON and was one of the first to receive a copy of the ZOHAR from him.

Abyss There are three views of this term. The first is a negative one, which is perhaps the most common relating to Gehenna or Hell. The second is sometimes related to the non-sefirah of DAAT of the Atzilutic Tree which acts as a veil between the lower worlds and the three supernal SEFIROT. The third possibility is related to that which is beyond existence, to Ayin or Nothingness and EN SOF, depth without end.

Academy on High In rabbinic literature, a heavenly body of scholars. The ZOHAR distinguishes between the term ‘Academy of Heaven’ and ‘Academy on High’. The former is headed by METATRON; the latter by God himself.

Promotion from one academy to the other is mentioned, as are various academy heads in certain departments of the heavenly academy. A long section in the portion Shelah. Lekha contains a description of the imaginary wanderings of SIMEON BAR YOH . AI in these academies as well as his meeting with the head of the Academy of Heaven. The place of METATRON in the ZOHAR is taken in the Testament of Rabbi Eliezer the Great, composed by the author of the ZOHAR himself, by Rav Gaddiel Na’ar who forms the subject of a legend. In order to distinguish between the two academies, Midrash ha-Ne’lam on Ruth changed the term ‘Academy of Heaven’ (which originally occurs in the Talmud) to ‘Academy on High’. Legends concerning the Heavenly Academy, which occur in the Talmud, were remolded in the ZOHAR, particularly in the story of H . IYYA’s ascent to the Academy of Heaven. The MESSIAH also seems to come into this academy at certain times to study the Torah with scholars in various sages.

Adadi, Abraham H . ayyim ben Masoud H . ai (1801–1874) Halakhic authority and kabbalist from Tripoli. Born in Tripoli, he became an orphan at an early age.

His grandfather, Nathan Adadi, raised him. In 1818 the family went to SAFED where Adadi studied and travelled abroad as an emissary of the community.

In Leghorn in 1837 he heard of the earthquake that took place in SAFED 12

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and returned to Tripoli. He served as a rabbi and dayyan there and maintained a bet midrash. After 1865 he returned to SAFED and remained there. Adadi paid particular attention to local minhagim (customs), especially of Tripoli and SAFED. His books include much historical information, particularly about Tripoli. Adadi’s works include Ha-Shomer Emet about halakhot and customs concerning Torah scrolls; Va-Yikra Avraham containing responsa; Zeh ha-Kelal on Talmudic methodology; and Makom she-Nahagu dealing with customs omitted from Ha-Shomer Emet.

Adam Baal Shem Legendary figure about whom various tales have been collected in small Yiddish pamphlets published in Prague and Amsterdam in the 17th century. They recount the miracles performed before Emperor Maximilian II by a kabbalist. According to these tales, Adam Baal Shem was born and buried in Bingen near Worms. However, his permanent place of residence was Prague.

The tales about him were popular and used by the compiler of Shivh.ei ha-Besht who transformed Adam Baal Shem into an esoteric kabbalist in Poland who died close to the birth or during the childhood of the BAAL SHEM TOV, the founder of H . ASIDISM. According to H . asidic legend, Adam Baal Shem composed writings on the mystery of kabbalah, which he commanded his son to give to the BAAL SHEM TOV. Apparently the earlier figure of a German Jewish folktale (Adam Baal Shem) was combined in H . asidic legend with that of the SHABBATEAN prophet Heschel Zoref, who died in Cracow around the time of the BAAL SHEM TOV’s birth. The work Sefer ha-Z.oref, on the mysteries of SHABBATEAN kabbalah, in all probability reached the BAAL SHEM TOV who ordered them to be copied by his disciple Shabbetai of Raschkow. Nonetheless, copies of the work were preserved in the courts of several Z.ADDIKIM. The H . ASIDIM were not aware of the SHABBATEAN character of these works, but several legends spread about their contents. The author of Shivh.ei ha-Besht or the creators of the legends about the BAAL SHEM TOV modified the character of these writings and attributed them to Adam Baal Shem.

Adam Kadmon Primordial man Kabbalistic doctrine. Genesis 1:26 states: ‘Let us make man in our image.’ This verse implies that Adam was created in the image of a spiritual entity called Adam. Early kabbalistic texts describe adam elyon (supreme man); in the ZOHAR the term used is ‘adam di-l’ela’ or ‘adam ila’ah’. This term represents the totality of the divine emanations in the ten SEFIROT, or alternatively a single SEFIRAH such as KETER (crown), H . OKHMAH (wisdom) or TIFERET (beauty). The term Adam Kadmon was first found in Sod Yedi’at ha-Mez.i’ut, a 13th-century kabbalistic text. In the Tikkunei Zohar (Emanations of the ZOHAR), divine wisdom is called Adam ha-Gadol (The Great Man). Ezek. 1:26 (‘a likeness as the appearance of a man’) implies the existence of a spiritual man, which EZEKIEL saw in the vision of a divine chariot. The letters of the TETGRAMMATON when spelled out in full have the numerical value of 45, as do the letters of the word Adam. In this respect support was found for the revelation of God in the form of a spiritual 13

A DA N I , M I Z R A H. I S H AL OM

man. In contrast to Adam, this spiritual man is referred to in the ZOHAR as ‘adam kadma’ah ila’ah’ (primordial supreme man), and in Tikkunei Zohar he is called ‘Adam Kadmon’ (primordial man) or ‘Adam Kadmon le-khol ha-kedumim’. In the teachings of ISAAC LURIA, great importance is given to Adam Kadmon.

There Adam Kadmon represents the worlds of light which, after the retraction of the light of EN SOF (Infinite), emanated into primeval space. This Adam Kadmon is the most supreme expression of the Deity that is available to human mediation. It ranks higher in the Lurianic system than all four worlds – ATZILUT (emanation), BERIYAH (creation), YEZ.IRAH (formation) and ASIYAH. The presentation of Adam Kadmon and his mysteries, particularly the description of the lights which flow from his ear, mouth, nose and eyes is fundamental to H . AYYIM VITAL’s EZ. H . AYYIM (Tree of Life) and other Lurianic texts. Through this theory the anthropomorphism of kabbalah is most forcefully expressed. As a result there is an adam de-veri’ah (man of creation), adam di-yez.irah (man of formation), and adam de-asiyah (man of making). Unlike Adam Kadmon, who is from the divine emanation, Satan emanates from the world of evil. In Tikkuni Zohar and in later Lurianic texts, there is no relationship between Adam Kadmon, which is the light, which transcends all other lights, and the MESSIAH. This connection was later made by SHABBATEANS, who believed in the divinity of the MESSIAH and viewed SHABBATAI Z.EVI as the incarnation of Adam Kadmon.

Adani, Mizrah. i Shalom (second half of the 19th century) Yemenite kabbalist and scholar. The appellation Miz.rahi was given to Adani because of his eastern Yemenite origin. He immigrated to Jerusalem where he joined the kabbalistic circle of BET EL. He wrote Sukkat Shalom dealing with the tractate Bava Kamma; the introduction to this work contains a description of his journey to Erez. Israel. He also wrote Shelom Yerushalayim consisting of novellae on the Ez. H . ayyim of H . AYYIM VITAL as well as some others on the kabbalistic writings of SHALOM SHARABI. Adeni, Solomon bar Joshua (1567–1625?) Yemenite commentator on the Mishnah. In 1571 he immigrated with his family to SAFED where he studied with David Amarillo. In 1577–78 his father moved to Jerusalem. After his father’s death in 1582 he was cared for by Moses ben Jacob Alh.ami who continued to support him until his death. He arranged Adeni’s marriage in 1590.

In about 1582 Adeni entered the yeshivah of the kabbalist H . AYYIM VITAL, but later studied under others as well including BEZALEL ASHKENAZI. Studying in seclusion, he wrote annotations in the margins of the Mishnah, which he abbreviated. After the death of BEZALEL ASHKENAZI, he settled in Hebron where he was a schoolteacher. His wife, daughter and two sons died in 1600 apparently from a plague. His eight children from a second marriage all died in childhood from epidemics and diseases. Adeni’s commentary on the Mishnah, Melekhet Shlomo, was intended to deal with the entire Torah and explain the Talmuds.

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A H. E R [ E LI S H A B E N AVUYA]

Adret, Solomon ben [Rashba] (c. 1235–c. 1310) Spanish scholar. From a distinguished family in Barcelona, his teachers included Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi and NAH . MANIDES. While young, he engaged in financial transactions, and the King of Aragon was among his debtors. Later he became a rabbi in Barcelona. He was the leading figure in Spanish Jewry before he was 40 and his views were accepted in other lands. Pedro III of Aragon consulted him concerning various cases that had arisen between Jews in different communities.

Questions were addressed to him from throughout the Jewish world. He wrote about 1,000 responsa. Knowledgeable about philosophical and scientific matters, he spearheaded the movement against the dissemination of such knowledge to the masses. Yet he did not endorse a ban against secular studies; instead he permitted the study of physics and metaphysics from the age of 25 and put no restriction on the study of astronomy and medicine. He also sanctioned the study of MAIMONIDES’ writings. He opposed the allegorical method of interpreting Scripture as well as the extreme mystical tendency predominant in Spain and attacked the activities of ABRAHAM ABULAFIA. Afterlife In kabbalistic sources, theories about the hereafter are more systematic than in rabbinic literature. Kabbalistic eschatology is highly complex and varied as between the different kabbalistic systems. The soul is viewed as divided into several parts; its origin is in divine emanation. It is incarnated on earth with a particular task to fulfil. The soul of the wicked (one who has failed in his assigned task) is punished and purified in hell or is reincarnated again to complete its unfinished work. In certain cases, the wicked soul is denied even hell or reincarnation and is exiled without the possibility of finding rest. Much kabbalistic literature is devoted to detailing the various stages of ascent and descent of the soul.

Agla Kabbalistic sign used as a talisman. It is a combination of the initial letters of Attah Gibbor Le’olam Adonai – these are the first four words of the second benediction of the Shemoneh Esreh. To the letters Yod and He (the numerical value of which equals 15), ISAAC LURIA added the numerical value of letters making twenty, which when added to fifteen (15+20=35) is equivalent to the sum total of the letters in Agla (1+3+30+1=35). Other kabbalists identify the name with that of the 35 angelic princes of the Torah.

Ah. er [Elisha ben Avuya] (fl. first half of the 2nd century CE) Palestinian tanna. Known as Ah.er, he was born before 70 CE. According to the Talmud, he made a heavenly ascent along with BEN AZZAI, BEN ZOMA and AKIVA. As a result, he ‘destroyed the plants’. According to the Babylonian Talmud, this refers to becoming a heretic by embracing a form of dualism and thereby forsaking the mitzvot. Alternatively, it may refer to accepting one of the forms of sectarianism current during this period. Other traditions maintain that on one occasion heretical works fell from under this cloak, that he was influenced by Greek culture, or that his belief in divine providence and reward and punishment 15

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was undermined as a result of experiencing the persecutions following the Bar Kokhba revolt. His conduct after this act of apostasy is described in the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds. Nonetheless, Meir continued to discuss Torah with him.

Akedah Binding of Isaac. It refers to the Pentateuchal narrative (Gen. 22:1–19) describing God’s command to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, the son of his old age. Obedient to God’s will, Abraham took Isaac to the place of sacrifice and bound him on the altar. The angel of the Lord then told Abraham to stay his hand and a ram was offered in Isaac’s place. In Jewish thought the Akedah is a symbol of self-sacrifice in obedience to God’s decree. In the ZOHAR, the patriarchs on earth represent the various potencies (SEFIROT) in the divine realm: Abraham, Divine Lovingkindess; Isaac, Divine Power; and Jacob the harmonizing principile. Abraham is obliged to display severity in being willing to sacrifice his son, contrary to his own special nature as the pillar of lovingkindess.

Thus is set in motion the process by which fire is united with water and mercy with judgement so that the way can be paved for the emergence of complete harmony between the two in Jacob. This mirrors the processes in the divine realm whereby God’s mercy is united with his judgement so the world can endure. The H . ASIDIM have read various subtleties of their own into the ancient text. One version states that Abraham and Isaac knew that the actual sacrifice would not be demanded but they went through the motions to demonstrate they would have done this if God had insisted. The true lover of God carries out even those religious obligations, which are personally pleasant to him solely out of love of God. Abraham obeyed the second command not to kill Isaac solely because of this. Another version is that when God wishes to test a person, he must first remove him from the light of full comprehension of the Divine.

Otherwise the trial will not be complete. Abraham was ready to obey even in this state of dryness of soul. The lesser Divine Name Elohim is therefore used at the beginning of the narrative rather than the TETRAGRAMMATON to denote that the vision in which the command was given lacks clarity. Abraham’s greatness consisted in his refusal to allow his natural love for his son to permit him to interpret the command as other than a decree to sacrifice Isaac.

Akiva (c. 50–135) Palestinian tanna. Born in Judaea, he was originally ignorant of the tradition. He was employed as a shepherd, but through his wife Rachel’s encouragement he devoted himself to Jewish learning. He studied in the academy in Lydda, and later at his own academy in Bene-Berak. His teachers included Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Joshua ben Hananiah and Nahum of Gimzo. By 95–96 he had become a prominent scholar. Later he was on a footing with Simeon ben Gamaliel. He probably remained at Lydda as long as Eliezer was there, and then later set up his own school at Bene-Berak. The Talmud states that Akiva, accompanied by 12,000 students, returned home after an absence of 12 years; he overheard his wife telling a neighbour that she would wait another 12 years if within that time he would double his knowledge. Hearing this, he left 16

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without revealing himself to her and returned 12 years later. He was credited with systematizing the midrash halakhot and aggadot. He was a member of a deputation to the emperor at Rome who pleaded for the recision of decrees forbidding the teaching and practice of Judaism. His pupils included some of the most important scholars of the age, including Meir, SIMEON BAR YOH . AI, Yose ben Halafta, Eleazar ben Sammua and Nehemiah. When a revolt against Rome broke out in 132 CE under Bar Kokhba, he viewed Bar Kokhba as the longawaited MESSIAH. He was later imprisoned by the Romans for teaching Torah in defiance of their edict, and was tortured to death by the Romans by having his flesh torn from his body. He welcomed his martyrdom as an opportunity of remaining faithful to the tradition. The Talmud relates that Akiva along with BEN AZZAI, BEN ZOMA and AH . ER made a mystical ascent. Hagiga 14b records: ‘Our rabbis taught that four entered an orchard. These are they: BEN AZZAI, BEN ZOMA, AH . ER and Akiva. Akiva said to them, “When you reach the stones of pure marble, do not say, ‘Water, water!’ For it is said, ‘He who speaks falsehood shall not be established before my eyes.’” Ben AZZAI gazed and died. Concerning him Scripture says, “Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints.” BEN ZOMA gazed and was stricken. Concerning him Scripture says, “Have you found honey? Eat as much as is sufficient for you, lest you be filled therewith and vomit it.” AH . ER cut down the shoots. Akiva departed in peace.’

Akiva Baer ben Joseph (17th century) Austrian kabbalist He was among the Jews who were expelled from Vienna in 1670; he wandered through the whole of Bohemia and parts of Germany teaching Talmud and delivering lectures in the synagogue. He became rabbi of Burgpreppach in Bavaria. There he wrote a kabbalistic commentary to the daily prayers, Avodat ha-Bore (The Worship of the Creator). This was published three times – a new commentary for the Sabbath and holidays was added to the third edition. Akiva later became rabbi of Zeckendorf near Bamberg where he met the leader of the community, Seligman Levi Meri. Together they composed an encyclopedia to Midrash Rabbah, Pi Shenayim (A Double Share). He remained there for six years before going to Schnaitach. He was imprisoned during a riot; after his release he became rabbi of Gunzenhausen and later of Ansbach. He wrote two Yiddish works: Abbir Yaakov (The Mighty God of Jacob), which is a collection of legends from the ZOHAR and from Midrash ha-Neelam about the patriarchs; and Maasei Adonai (The Deeds of the Lord), a collection of stories from the ZOHAR, the writings of ISAAC LURIA, and other kabbalistic works.

Albalag, Isaac (13th century) Spanish translator and philosopher. He appears to have lived in Catalonia. In 1292, he composed the only work of his which has been preserved: a Hebrew version of al-Ghazali’s Magasid al-Falasifa with a prologue and elaborate notes (Tikkun ha-De’ot). In this work he sought to elucidate the text; his aim was to determine the roles of revelation and philosophy in the speculations of an intellectual Jew. Even though later Jewish philosophers 17

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and theologians made frequent use of this work, kabbalists such as SHEM TOV IBN SHEM TOV as well as opponents of Aristotealian philosophy such as Abraham Shalom censured him and Isaac Abrabanel. Nonetheless his work was copied and read with interest in Jewish circles of southern Italy and Greece during the 15th century.

Albaz, Moses ben Maimon (16th century) Moroccan kabbalist. He lived in Tarrodant and was the author of Heikhal Kodesh, which he began writing in 1575.

This work is an interpretation of the prayers in the kabbalistic idiom, based mainly on the ZOHAR and MENAHEM BEN BENJAMIN RECANATI’s works.

Albotini, Judah ben Moses (d. 1519) Kabbalist and commentator on MAIMONIDES’ writings from Lisbon. His father was a scholar in Lisbon.

Albonini became one of the ‘Members of the Yeshivah of Jerusalem’. In 1509 he signed with them an ordinance to exempt scholars from taxes. He succeeded Jacob of Triel as head of the Jerusalem yeshivah; as such, he was head of the Jerusalem rabbis. He was the author of several halakhic and kabbalistic works. His main writing is the Yesod Mishneh Torah on MAIMONIDES. This work includes the notation and explanation of the sources, which preceded MAIMONIDES. It discusses the foundation of every halakhah and the manner in which it was substantiated by MAIMONIDES. According to Albotini, the critics of MAIMONIDES made superfluous assumptions because MAIMONIDES’ sources were not accessible to them. Albotini, however, had several texts and manuscripts, which he was able to use. Of particular interest in his work are the introductions, which encompass subjects treated

by MAMONIDES; these are discussed extensively in the place where they are first mentioned. Albotini analyzes the problems, explains the practical issues, and sums up the subject.

Alcastiel, Joseph (15th century) Spanish kabbalist who lived in Játiva Aragon, at the time of the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. A text exists which contains his responsa to 18 questions purportedly asked by JUDAH BEN JACOB H . AYYAT even though it is not clear that Alcastel ever lived in Italy or knew H . AYYAT. H . AYYAT does not mention him in his writings nor do his writings show the influence of Alcastiel’s work. However, Alcastiel’s ideas influenced other kabbalists in the generation after the expulsion from Spain including Meir Ibn Gabbai, SOLOMON BEN MOSES HA-LEVI ALKABETZ, MOSES CORDOVERO and ISAAC LURIA. Alchemy Ancient art that was the origin of chemistry. In the Middle Ages kabbalah and alchemy were frequently linked. The author of the ZOHAR believed in the transmutation of metals, and he also adopted the alchemical theory of perfect and imperfect metals as well as the belief that when silver is transformed into gold, it reaches a higher state of perfection. According to 18

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tradition, H . AYYIM VITAL studied chemistry. H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI spoke of the philospher’s stone in his Midbar Kedemot. Various prescriptions for the making of gold are found in books of practical kabbalah.

Nonetheless, the influence of kabbalah on alchemy was greater than that of alchemy on kabbalah. Hence, some of the Christian alchemists adopted the theory of the ten SEFIROT as well as the doctrine of the secrets of letters obtained by ZERUFIM and GEMATRIOT. Aldabi, Meir ben Isaac (c. 1310–c. 1360) Spanish religious philosopher with an interest in kabbalah. He was the grandson of ASHER BEN JEHIEL. He received a traditional religious education and later studied philosophy and science.

In 1348 he left Toledo and settled in Jerusalem. There he finished his work, Shevilei Emunah. Aldabi wrote this work to demonstrate that Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle derived their knowledge from Jewish sources. He was determined to assemble fragments of ancient Jewish wisdom scattered through the works of Greek philosophers and natural scientists and trace them back to their sources. The topics in this volume are not arranged systematically but are presented in a random sequence. He borrowed primarily from Hebrew literature and to some extent from Arabic sources. His philosophical views were influenced by the writings of MAIMONIDES as well as BAH . YA BEN JOSEPH IBN PAQUDA. In addition NAH MANIDES’ works were particularly evident . in Aldabi’s preoccupation with kabbalah. Other sources included JOSEPH IBN Z.ADDIK and HILLEL BEN SAMUEL of Verona.

Alexander Susskind ben Moses of Grodno (d. 1793) Lithuanian kabbalist.

He lived in Grodno, and is reputed never to have engaged in unimportant conversations so that he would be able to concentrate on his study and prayer.

According to legend, several days before Passover in 1790, a Jewish victim of a blood libel was sentenced to death unless he agreed to convert to Christianity.

Fearing that the condemned man would be unable to withstand this ordeal, Alexander obtained permission to visit him in prison and persuaded him to choose martyrdom. The execution was to take place on the second day of Shavuot; on that day Alexander left the synagogue in the middle of the service and went to the place of execution. There he heard the condemned man recite the prayer of martyrdom, said ‘amen’ and returned to the synagogue where he recited a prayer for that person’s soul. His most important work is Yesod ve-Shoresh ha-Avodah, a book dealing with ethical issues. Divided into twelve sections, the final section contains an account of the coming of the MESSIAH. According to Alexander, the basis of divine worship is love of God and love of the Jewish people. In his view, the essence of observance is KAVVANAH (intent). The deed alone without intention is meaningless. For this reason, he insisted on the meticulous enunciation of each word in prayer. He also laid down a specific order of study: Talmud, musar, literature, and then kabbalah.

NAHMAN OF BRATSLAV said of him: ‘He was a H . ASID even before there was H ASIDISM.’ .

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Alfandari, H . ayyim ben Isaac Raphael (c. 1660–1733) Turkish kabbalist.

He lived in Brusa, Turkey where he met ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO. According to CARDOZO’s testimony, Alfandari came to him in Constantinople for esoteric study and accepted CARDOZO’s views about divinity. For this reason, Alfandari quarreled with Samuel Primo, the rabbi of the Adrianople community.

He was summoned before the scholars of Constantinople in c. 1683 and warned to disassociate himself from CARDOZO’s circle. He then denied being associated with this group and accused CARDOZO of belief in the Trinity. Later Alfandari became an extreme SHABBATEAN. He signed his name ‘H . ayyim Z.evi’, called himself ‘messiah’, and gathered a group of followers in Constantinople. CARDOZO accused them of desecrating the Sabbath and eating forbidden food. In 1696 Alfandari settled in Jerusalem as head of the community. He was active in public affairs and headed a yeshivah. When he was in Egypt where he studied ISAAC LURIA’S writings that were in the possession of Moses Vital, grandson of H . AYYIM VITAL. He also resided in SAFED where he wrote a booklet, Kedusha Ve-Vei Shimshei. By 1710 he had moved to Constantinople. In 1714 he was a signatory to the excommunication of NEHEMIAH H . AYON during the controversy concerning Oz le-Elohim. However, in 1717 he served as H . AYON’s envoy and delivered letters of the scholars of Hebron and Salonika to the rabbis of Constantinople. The following year he tried to reconcile H . AYON with Naphtali Katz.

Algazi, Israel Jacob ben Yom Tov (1680–1756) SAFED kabbalist. He was the grandson of Nissim Solomon Algazi and Joseph H . azzan. He was in all likelihood born in Smyrna, and lived in SAFED. He was a member of a circle of kabbalists headed by Jacob Vilna. Algazi copied and published H . emdat Yamim with his own glosses. By 1737 he lived in Jerusalem; a year later he dedicated Neveh Shalom Berit Avraham, a yeshivah founded for him. He became head of BET EL, a bet midrash for pietists and was known as ‘the pietist rabbi’. He was the first signature on the constitution of the kabbalistic group Ahavat Shalom. He served as chief rabbi when Isaac ha-Kohen died in 1755. He wrote numerous halakhic and homiletic works.

Algazi, Yom Tov ben Israel Jacob (1727–1802) Palestinian kabbalist.

He studied with his father ISRAEL JACOB ALGAZI and was a friend of H.AYYIM JOSEPH AZULAI; both studied under Jonah Navon and SHALOM SHARABI. He was a member of the bet ha-midrash Neveh Shalom and of BET EL. SHALOM SHARABI succeeded Algazi’s father as head of the kabbalists’ yeshivah, but Yom Tov served as administrator. When SHARABI died in 1782, he was elected rabbi and dayyan. In c. 1777 he became rishon le-Zion. In 1764 he accompanied Abraham b. Asher and H.AYYIM JOSEPH AZULAI on a mission on behalf of the Pekidei Erez. Israel be Kushta (Agents for Erez. Israel in Constantinople). From 1770 to 1775 Yom Tov went on other missions from Jerusalem to Constantinople, Adrianople and Belgrade. He also travelled in Italy, France, Holland, Germany and Poland, returning to Jerusalem in 1777.

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His son Jacob served as a parnas of the Hebron community; as its debts became greater, Algazi and his son had considerable difficulties and were in danger of imprisonment. Creditors became violent and Jacob Algazi was attacked.

In 1795 Yom Tov went to Constantinople and collected a considerable sum of money for Hebron; in addition, he raised funds in Smyrna and Salonika.

However, before he returned to Jerusalem, his son died from his injuries.

Al Hakim Elijah ben H . akkim Moses (1807–1859) Rabbi, preacher and kabbalist from Baghdad. The son of Moses H . ayyim Al Hakim who served as rabbi of Basra and then of Baghdad. Elijah was the author of Midrash Eliyahu, a work on kabbalist explanations of biblical and Talmudic passages. He was also a wealthy merchant.

Alkabetz, Solomon ben Moses ha-Levi (c. 1505–1584) Kabbalist and mystical poet from Salonika. In 1529 he decided to settle in Erez. Israel. In the course of his trip he stayed in Adrianople where a group of kabbalist ascetics asked him for instruction. At Nikopolis, he was in contact with JOSEPH CARO. Alkabetz stated that while they were studying the Torah on the night of Shavuot, the MAGGID appeared to CARO. They thus established the custom of staying awake on the night of Shavuot to study. Alkabetz preached wherever he went. It appears that he arrived in SAFED in 1535. Little is known about his life there, but it appears that he was the head of the Meron yeshivah. He was a prolific author and composed works on the Bible and others of a kabbalistic nature.

Many of his manuscripts were stolen when he died. In order to understand the secrets of the ZOHAR, Alkabetz used to go out with his students to pray and meditate on the graves of Z.ADDIKIM. According to tradition, Alkabetz had a profound gift for stimulating spiritual revivals and the mystical life. His disciples included MOSES CORDOVERO, who married his sister. Alkabetz’s Likkutei Hakdamot le-H . okhmat ha-Kabbalah is analogous in structure to CORDOVERO’s PARDES RIMMONIM. Their views were similar, however Alkabetz in his work argued that the SEFIROT are the essence of God, and he moved toward the conception of God as immanent in the world. His kabbalistic theories emphasized the theoretical element and sought to endow these symbols, reflecting an inner, hidden world, with a conceptual character. As a kabbalistic commentator on the Bible, his system generally followed his teacher, JOSEPH TAITAZ.AK. According to Alkabetz, the sayings of the Talmudic sages were the true kabbalah because they possessed authentic traditions, which were passed on from generation to generation. More than any other scholar in SAFED, he made use of the kabbalistic writings of ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS. Alkabetz’s hymn Lekhah Dodi became widely popular in Jewish communities and was later introduced into the prayer book. The meaning of this hymn, which is permeated by a longing for redemption and the regeneration of the SHEKHINAH, was changed by the SHABBATEANS. They believed that the MESSSIAH had already arrived, and they adapted the hymn to confirm their views.

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Alkalai, Judah ben Solomon H . ai (1798–1878) Religious Zionist from Sarajevo. Born in Sarajevo, he was brought up in Jerusalem where Eliezer Papo influenced him. From 1825 he was rabbi of Semlin. In 1834 he published a booklet entitled Shema Yisrael, in which he advocated the establishment of Jewish colonies in Palestine. When in 1840 the Jews of Damascus were charged with the blood libel, he became convinced that the Jewish people could be secure only in their own land. Henceforth he published a series of books and pamphlets explaining his plan for self-redemption. In Minh.at Yehudah, he argued on the basis of the Hebrew scriptures that the MESSIAH would not miraculously materialize; rather he would be preceded by various preparatory events. In all his writings Alkalai cited passages from the Talmud, the midrash and kabbalistic literature, and added his own mystical interpretations.

Allegory In kabbalistic thought the concept of remez (allegory) is occasionally found. In the ZOHAR, stories of the patriarchs and Ruth were interpreted as allegories of the fate of the soul in its descent from above into the human body, its vicissitudes in the body, and the future allotted to it after death and in the world to come. In kabbalistic literature, allegorical interpretation was prominent among kabbalists who tended to seek a compromise between philosophy and kabbalah and develop mystical views beyond the theosophical system of the SEFIROT. The main figure in this development was ISAAC IBN LATIF. In the commentaries on the Pentateuch of BAH . YA BEN ASHER, the allegorical parts were separated from the kabbalistic parts. Allegorical interpretations were also found in the writings of JOSEPH IBN WAQAR and SAMUEL IBN MOTOT. Almoli, Solomon ben Jacob (before 1485–after 1542) Grammarian, philosopher and kabbalist from Spain. He was born in Spain, lived in Salonika and later settled in Constantinople. He served there as dayyan and rabbi. He devoted himself to the study of science and medicine and appears to have served as physician to the sultan. There are few biographical details known about him except that he suffered from poverty. Having conceived the idea of compiling a general encyclopedia, he embarked on this project although he was aware that it would take many years to complete and that large sums of money would be required to have a reference library. He was encouraged by the hope that others would take up the work if he failed to complete it. However, the scholars of Constantinople reacted negatively to this plan. Almoli was also unsuccessful in his attempt to recruit trainees to undertake this work. He did, however, publish a small pamphlet of 24 pages, under the title Me’assef le-Khol ha-Mah.anot.

This was a prospectus of the proposed encyclopedia, which was to include (l) Mah.aneh Yisrael on what every Jew needs to know; (2) Mah.aneh Leviyyah on general knowledge; and (3) Mah.aneh Shekhinah on Hebrew, Aramaic, biblical exegesis, theology, kabbalah and the commandments in the Torah. Also included is his Sh’ar ha-Shem he-H . adash, which was intended to be the first section of a large work dealing with all matters of faith. In this text he treats the existence of God and divine attributes according to kabbalah and philosophy.

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Almosnino, Joseph ben Isaac (1642–1689) Palestinian kabbalist. He was born in Salonika and studied under Hananiah Taitaz. ak. He went to Jerusalem to study in Jacob H . agiz’s bet ha-midrash, Bet Ya’akov. There he probably met NATHAN OF GAZA. In c. 1666 he served as a rabbi in Belgrade where he married the daughter of the rabbi of the city, Simh.ah ha-Kohen; in 1668 he succeeded him. He became a SHABBATEAN and transcribed the writings of NATHAN OF GAZA which were sent to his community. The community suffered two serious disasters during Almosnino’s tenure: a great fire consumed his library and part of his writings; later the community was destroyed when Belgrade fell to the Turks in 1688. Most of the Jews escaped, but some were taken captive. Almosnino subsequently travelled to German communities where he was successful in raising funds to ransom them and rebuild the community.

Many communities turned to Almosnino with their problems, and a number of scholars including Moses Ibn H . abib corresponded with him about halakhic issues. Numerous emissaries visited him from Erez. Israel including MOSES GALANTE. Alphabet The letters of the Hebrew alphabet played a pivotal role in the development of Jewish mysticism. According to numerous kabbalistic sources, God created the universe out of the Hebrew letters. Such cosmological theories were combined with the NEOPLATONIC notion of the divine emanation of the SEFIROT. According to various kabbalists, meditation on particular Hebrew letters can induce a state of mystical ecstasy.

Alroy, David (12th century) Leader of a messianic movement in Kurdistan.

Born in Amadiya, east of Mosul, his name was Menah.em ben Solomon but he called himself David as befitted his claim that he was king of the Jews. Alroy is a corruption of al-Dūjī, his family name in Arabic. The movement appears to have begun among mountain Jews of the northeast Caucasus before 1121.

It gathered momentum from the ferment that accompanied the struggle between Christendom and Islam following the First Crusade and during the wars proceeding the second. The calamities of this period were viewed by many Jews as the birth pangs of the MESSIAH. The leader of the movement was initially Solomon, Alroy’s father, who claimed to be the prophet ELIJAH. The young Menah.em was declared the MESSIAH. To announce this event the leaders of the movement addressed a decree to Jewish communities.

They stressed penitential preparation by fasting and praying, however their opponents viewed such propaganda as misguided and dangerous. The movement was suppressed, but Alroy re-established his centre in Amadiya on the route leading from Khazaria to the Crusader kingdom. According to legend, when the Seljuk sultan imprisoned Alroy, he magically freed himself.

Alroy then invited Jews of the area as well as elsewhere to Amadiya; they were to come with weapons concealed in their garments. According to an antiJewish tradition, rumours of his activities reached Baghdad. Two imposters had forged a letter from Alroy in which he promised to convey the Jews of 23

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Baghdad to Jerusalem by night on the wings of angels. Before Alroy was able to act, he was murdered either by the authorities or by his father-in-law who had been bribed. A number of his followers continued to believe in him after his death.

Alsheikh, Moses (d. after 1593) Palestinian scholar. He was born in Adrianople and studied in Salonika under JOSEPH TZAYACH and JOSEPH CARO. He emigrated to Erez. Israel and lived in SAFED where he was an authority on Jewish law. He was a teacher in two rabbinical academies and a preacher; he was also active in communal affairs and a member of the rabbinic court of JOSEPH CARO. He was ordained by CARO and later ordained H . ayyim VITAL. His major field of interest was halakhah but he was interested in Bible exegesis as well. He also engaged in kabbalah. About 1590 he visited Syria and Turkey and possibly Persia in the interests of Jews in SAFED. He also sent an appeal on behalf of the SAFED communities to Italy and other countries.

Alsheikh produced commentaries to most of the books of the Bible. These works contain religious-ethical and religious-philosophical ideas supported by quotations from talmudic and midrashic literature.

Alsheikh, Shalom ben Joseph (1849–1944) Rabbi of the Yemenite community of Jerusalem. He preached and taught at the Alsheikh Great Synagogue in Sana. He left in 1888 and reached Jerusalem in 1891. There he devoted himself to studying in various yeshivot. However, he became more involved in leading the community of Yemenite immigrants in Jerusalem. He founded educational and charitable institutions, and in 1893 he was elected to the administrative committee of Yemenite Jewry. In 1895 he was one of the founders of the kabbalist yeshivah Reh.ovot ha-Nahar. In 1908 he was chosen chief rabbi of the Yemenite Jews of Jerusalem. He left several works in manuscript form including a kabbalistic commentary on the Torah, sermons, commentary on Yemenite liturgy, and various liturgical poems.

Amarillo, Aaron ben Solomon (1700–1772) Halakhic authority and kabbalist from Salonika. He studied under David Sereo, one of the great Salonikan legal authorities of his day. On the death of Isaac ben Shangi in 1761, he became one of the three chief rabbis of Salonika. His son Moses published his responsa Penei Aharon. Some of his responsa were published in the Ashdot ha-Pisgah of Joseph Nah.muli. He also edited Kohelet ben David of David H . azzan; he added to it a eulogy and elegies on the death of his brother H ayyim Moses.

In 1756 during . an economic crisis, he proposed a moratorium on all debts, which was adopted by the community.

Amulet From earliest times human beings have sought to protect themselves from evil by the use of objects which are considered holy. One of the ways of doing this was to keep a holy object close to a person, frequently wearing it as an article of clothing or an ornament. Amongst Jews the custom developed for 24

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individuals to have pieces of paper, parchment or metal discs inscribed with various formulae which would protect the bearer from the evil eye. Such artifacts are known as amulets. It is not known whether they were used in the biblical period. However, from rabbinic times onward, particularly in the Middle Ages, the use of amulets became common. The simplest amulet had an inscription of the name of God on a piece of parchment or metal. A number of mystical tracts contain instructions for the preparation of amulets. One of the most important controversies in Jewish history was caused by the use of amulets. JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ, the rabbi of Hamburg, was accused by JACOB EMDEN of having used the name of the false MESSIAH, SHABBETAI Z.EVI, on amulets which he had prepared. EYBESCHUETZ vigorously denied this charge.

ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Gaon of Vilna, a bitter opponent of H . ASIDISM, endorsed the use of amulets. However, with the emancipation of European Jewry the use of amulets became increasingly less frequent although it continued in Eastern Europe until the Second World War. Among Oriental communities, amulets were widely used.

Angel, Baruch (1595–1670) Salonikan kabbalist. He was head of the Talmud Torah Yeshivah. His disciples included David Conforte, Solomon ben Samuel Florentin and Isaac Florentin. He was asked to become rabbi of Smyrna, but refused since he was unwiling to trespass on the reign of the incumbent rabbi.

His works include H . iddushei ha-Rav Barukh Angel, dealing with selected chapters of various tractates and responsa. His glosses to the Shulh.an Arukh, H . oshen Mishpat are included in the Doresh Mishpat of his disciple Solomon Florentin.

Angels Jewish mysticism distinguishes between several categories of angels: ministering and corrupting angels, angels of mercy, and angels of severe judgement. Moreover, angels with masculine characteristics are distinguished from those with feminine qualities. The angels stemming from the highest light came into being on the first day of creation and enjoy eternal life. Angels who rebelled against God and were consumed by fire as a result were formed on the second day of creation. The angels consist of fire and water, or according to another tradition, of four heavenly elements: mercy, strength, beauty and dominion corresponding to the four earthly elements – water, fire, earth and air. The angels represent the spiritual powers of the finest ethereal substance. When fulfilling their roles on earth, they manifest themselves in human form and sometimes as spirits. The strength of angels lies in the emanation of the divine light, which is manifest in them. The idea that the ministering angels daily sing hymns before God and praise his wisdom was developed in later Jewish mysticism. According to the ZOHAR, the angels live in the seven heavenly halls (HEKHALOT). A special heavenly hall is set aside for angels who mourn the destruction of the Temple. The ministering angels only begin to sing in heaven when Israel begins to praise God on earth. The angel Shemiel carries the prayers of Jews from their synagogues up to the Temple; then the hosts of ministering angels suffused in streams of light descend to earth only to return to the divine throne to intone 25

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their hymns to God. Of the ministering angels, those who serve God himself are called bah.urim; those that serve the SHEKHINAH are called virgins. The angels led by archangels are arranged in four groups before the throne of God. Uriel’s group stands in front of the throne. Raphael’s group behind it. Michael’s group is to the right, and Gabriel’s is to the left. The first encounter between angels and human beings allegedly took place when, at God’s behest, the mysterious Book of the Heaven was handed to Adam through Raziel, Hadarniel and Raphael.

The angels know the future; a herald announces the fate of human beings in heaven. Every day angels in raiments of light are dispatched to the lower world without special assignments: some serve the body; others serve the soul. In each person there is a good angel and a wicked one. Every human act is accompanied by good and evil spirits. Even in the hereafter the angels accompany human beings where, depending upon their lives on earth, they are received either by the angels of peace or the angels of destruction. In the service of the unclean of the sitra di-semola (left side) stand the angels of destruction corresponding to the ministering angels of the holy right side. In accordance with God’s command, the latter bring human beings either good or evil. But with the angels of destruction malice is a natural characteristic. These angels, too, live in seven halls and are subject to certain superiors. They swarm through the air, mingle with humans to seduce them, and later report their acts to their leaders so that they can present indictments before God. The army of angels of destruction constitute the family of the unclean other side (KELIPPAH).

Ankawa, Abraham ben Mordecai (b. 1810) Moroccan scholar and kabbalist.

Born in Salé, Morocco, his family was probably of Spanish origin. He lived in Tlemcen, Algeria and in Salé where his father was president of the community.

After serving as dayyan in Salé, he went to Leghorn in about 1838 to arrange the printing of his writings. On his return he travelled to various towns in Morocco and the Oran district in search of material for his halakhic works. He was interested in the unpublished researches and rulings of the old Castilian and North African rabbis, making extensive use of them and the works of European authorities. His visits were normally brief, but he stayed for a considerable time in Tlemcen and founded a Talmudic academy there. His writings include a prayer book for the year, H . esed le-Avraham or Sha’ar ha-Shamayim, arranged in accordance with the teachings of ISAAC LURIA, including various mystical prayers, formulas, directions and explanations.

Anna Be-Kho’ah. Prayer hymn ascribed to NEH . UNYA BEN HA-KANAH. It was probably composed in the circle of the 13th-century Spanish kabbalists.

The hymn was originally part of a group of kabbalistic prayers known as Tefillat ha-Yih.ud which give expression to the longing of Israel for deliverance from the Diaspora and implores God’s support and protection. It consists of seven verses of 6 words each, the initials of which form the 42-lettered Name of God and similar mystical combinations. The prayer is recited in the order of sacrifices contained in the daily morning prayer and on the Sabbath eve before the hymn 26

ARAPHEL

Lekhah Dodi. Among the rites of Eastern Europe influenced by kabbalah it is recited in the counting of the omer.

Antinomianism The notion that members of a particular religious group are under no obligation to observe the prescriptions of that tradition. It is the opposite of legalism. The SHABBATEAN and FRANKIST movements are often described as antinomian in character; this term is used to indicate that there are occasions when it is necessary to transgress the law. There are three aspects of antinomianism: (l) the first requires the transcending of such oppositions as good–evil, sacred–profane or virtue–sin; (2) the preference of evil to good for a higher good; (3) the elimination of regular prohibitions because of the coming of the MESSIAH. Anthropomorphism In MERKAVAH mysticism the ascent of the ecstatic soul into the realm of the divine throne is a central theme. A description of the revelation of the divine majesty in the form of a human figure became a focal point of this vision. This description is found in the SHIUR KOMAH. This text attributed to AKIVA and Ishmael gives enormous figures for the measurement of each organ of the divine primoridial man on the throne. This text was attacked by the Karaites as a profanation and degradation of religious concepts about God. Some philosophers in the Middle Ages tried to explain them away as late forgeries. Other thinkers, such as Judah Halevi, however, justified the SHIUR KOMAH because it brings the fear of God into the souls of men.

Later, MAIMONIDES ruled that it was an idolatrous work and should be destroyed. In kabbalistic sources the SHIUR KOMAH was viewed as a symbol for the revelations of the divinity in the SEFIROT. As a result, it was favourably appraised. Important parts of the ZOHAR represent a kind of adaption or imitation of the SHIUR KOMAH. Apta, Meir (1760?–1831) Polish H . asidic rabbi and kabbalist. He was born in Apta, Poland and was a pupil of Isaac of Pinczow. He served as rabbi in Strobnitsa at an early age, and later in Apta. He was a disciple of JACOB ASHER HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN and became his chief successor. His views appear in Or la-Shamayim. Meir’s theories were conservative in nature; his main importance lies in his rejection of the teachings introduced by JACOB ISAAC BEN ASHER PRZYSUCHA and his school. In some respects Meir was the prototype of the H . asidic traditionalist. He emphasized the importance of the Z.ADDIK and stressed the principles of piety, reverence, unostentatious performance of religious precepts and loyalty within the movement.

Araphel One of the seven heavens in the Jewish mystical tradition. From ZEVUL to Araphel is a five-hundred-year journey; from Araphel to SHEHAKIM is another five-hundred-year journey. According to tradition, when Moses ascended Mt Sinai, he came to Araphel; this is called the ‘Canopy of Torah’. It is thick darkness.

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A R AVO T

Aravot The highest heaven according to Jewish mysticism. From MAKHON to ARAVOT is a five-hundred-year journey; from ARAVOT to the Throne of Glory is a five-hundred-year journey.

Archangels They are inhabitants of the world of BERIYAH, while angels reside in the world of YEZ.IRAH. The ‘el’ in their names indicate they operate under the will of God. The archangels Raziel, Zadkiel and Haniel on the right side of the TREE of BERIYAH represent the merciful or expansive functions of the universe, while Zaphkiel, Samael and Raphael on the left perform as the severe of constricting counterparts. Michael and Gabriel on the central pillar of the Tree hold the balance and maintain the will of God. METATRON at the KETER of BERIYAH is the transfigured Enoch, that is, a human being with archangelic powers. This place in the highest heaven had been vacated

by Satan after his rebellion and fall. The archangel Sandalphon is seen as the manifestation of Enoch or Eloijah at the MALKHUT of BERIYAH. Arh. a, Eliezer ben Isaac (d. 1652) Erez. Israel kabbalist and physician. He was born in SAFED, but moved to Hebron early in the 17th century where he officiated as rabbi. He studied with ABRAHAM AZULAI who wrote Or ha-H . ammah with Arh.a’s help. Arh.a served as dayyan in the bet din of Gaza. It is possible that he was there only during the 1619 epidemic although he was certainly in Gaza in 1626. His name is mentioned in an inscription on the walls of the grave of Aaron on Mount Hor. In 1623 he and other scholars of Jerusalem recommended to wealthy Jews in Constantinople the publication of ABRAHAM AZULAI’s Zohorei H . ammah. ISAIAH HOROWITZ appointed Arh.a executor of his estate. In about 1630 Arh.a was compelled to leave Hebron.

In 1648 he was in Jerusalem. His son Isaac Arh.a also figured among the scholars of Hebron. Eliezer Arh.a wrote extensively, but none of his works was published.

His responsa illuminate the relations between Jews and non-Jews in Israel.

Arikh Anpin A configuration of three upper SEPHIROT, known as the ‘long face’. It is the first configuration in ATZ.ILUT and the root of all the others.

Aryeh Leib of Ozarow (d. 1833) Polish H . ASID and founder of the Ozarow dynasty of Z.ADDIKIM. He was a pupil of JACOB ISAAC HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN and of his father-in-law Reuben ha-Levi of Dzierzgowice, the author of Duda’im ba-Sadeh. He became a Z.ADDIK in Ozarow in 1815; later he settled in Opole. His teachings are quoted by his grandson Aryeh Leib in Birkat Tov. Aryeh Leib of Shpola (1725–1812) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Shpola. He was a popular miracle-worker and faith healer. He belonged to the third generation of H . ASIDIM in the Ukraine and was a disciple of Phinehas of Koretz. He served as a beadle in Zlatopol and was known among the common people as a saint and healer who helped the poor. Stories circulated about the miracles he performed. He was also active in communal affairs. He participated in the 28

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assembly of Jewish leaders held at the end of the 18th or beginning of the 19th century, possibly at the initiative of LEVI YITZHAK OF BERDICHEV to discuss the anti-Jewish measures proposed by the Russian government.

BARUCH OF MEDZIBEZH, who was critical of Aryeh Leib’s association with common folk, opposed him. When NAHMAN OF BRATSLAV settled in Zlatopol, near Shpola, conflict took place between the two H . asidic leaders.

Aryeh Leib’s popular approach, emphasizing the importance of unsophisticated faith, was incompatible with NAH . MAN’s style. Aryeh Leib’s teachings reflect the current messianic expectation that redemption would take place in 1840.

Tales of the miracles he allegedly performed are collected in Tiferet ha-Maharal.

Aryeh Leib Sarahs (1730–1791) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Poland. He was born in Rovno, Poland. Although his father’s name was Joseph, he was known as Leib Sarahs after his mother. This form of identification may derive from a prayer in the mystical BOOK OF RAZIEL, which mentions a Leib ben Sarah.

Aryeh Leib was a disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. His saying, ‘I did not go to the MAGGID OF MEZHIRECH to learn Torah but to watch him tie his boot laces’, emphasized that the Z.ADDIK’s personality and conduct is of central importance in H . ASIDISM. Aryeh wandered from place to place helping the needy, especially by securing the release of debtors who were imprisoned. His deeds are embellished by popular legend, which relates that he came invisible to the court of Emperor Joseph II in Vienna to obtain the abrogation of measures included in the Toleranzpatent. Legends about him are recorded in Ukrainian folk literature.

Arzin, Joseph ben Jacob (16th century) Kabbalist. He was the third haver in the ‘first class’ among ISAAC LURIA’s disciples. According to H . AYYIM VITAL, Joseph was older than VITAL. Possibly he was born in 1540. H . AYYIM VITAL relates that Arzin quarrelled with Elijah Falcon, one of LURIA’s disciples. LURIA expelled Falcon from his group and considered dismissing Arzin as well but refrained from doing so. Several of his sermons, which were received from LURIA, are mentioned by H . AYYIM VITAL. He was an author of a commentary on Idra Rabba. Arzin was among the twelve h.averim of LURIA’s school who signed a writ of alliance with H . AYYIM VITAL to learn about LURIA’s teachings from him. In 1588 Arzin appeared in Salonika on behalf of the Talmud Torah Association of SAFED. Moses Almosnino preached in honour of this mission. He died at a young age.

Asceticism Religious abstention from self-indulgence based on the belief that renunciation and self-mortification can bring a person to a higher spiritual state. Although such practices were not a feature of either biblical or rabbinical Judaism, they were prevalent among Jewish kabbalists.

Asher ben David (first half of the 13th century) Kabbalist and grandson of ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIÈRES from Provence. He was 29

A S H E R B E N JE H I E L [ A S HERI ] [ROS H ]

one of the most important pupils of his uncle, ISAAC THE BLIND. When dissatisfaction occurred among the Jews of Catalonia due to kabbalistic propaganda from ISAAC’s pupils, ISAAC sent Asher as his representative to NAH . MANIDES and Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi in Gerona. Asher cited kabbalistic traditions in the name of his father. He was in contact with Meir ben Simeon of Narbonne who was an opponent of kabbalah. Lengthy expositions of one of Asher’s works were meant as a reply to Meir ben Simeon’s polemics.

Numerous of Asher’s kabbalistic treatises circulated widely. His writings are important because they are among the earliest detailed accounts of kabbalistic theories illustrating the influence of NEOPLATONIC ideas into the older kabbalistic tradition.

Asher ben Jehiel [Asheri] [Rosh] (c. 1250–1327) Talmudist in Toledo.

His teachers included his father, one of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ who was a follower of Judah ben Samuel he-H asid and his elder brother. He lived . in France, and then in Cologne and Coblenz. From there he went to Worms where his teacher Meir ben Baruch of Rothenburg was rabbi. Ahser became a member of the local bet din; after the imprisonment of Meir, he became the leader of German Jewry. Fearing a similar fate, he left Germany in 1303 and went to Barcelona where he was welcomed by SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET. In 1305 he became rabbi in Toledo and was embroiled in a conflict about the study of philosophy. When SOLOMON ADRET proposed a ban on philosophical studies for anyone under 25, Asher influenced his colleagues to support this ban. His negative attitudes toward philosophy, however, did not extend to science generally.

Ashkenazi, Bezalel ben Abraham (c. 1520–1591/94) Erez. Israel Talmudist and halakhic authority. He was born in Jerusalem or in SAFED where he studied under Israel di Curiel. About 1540 he went to Egypt where he studied in Cairo under David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra. Later he founded a yeshivah there, which included among its scholars ISAAC LURIA. He was a friend of the poet Israel Najara. When David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra went to Erez. Israel, Ashkenazi succeeded him as head of the Egyptian rabbis. A quarrel took place between him and Jacob ben H . ayyim Talmid, the nagid of Egyptian Jews, and Ashkenazi excommunicated him. Through the intervention of local authorities, the office of nagid was abolished and the head of the Jews was given the title of chelebi with limited powers. It is probable that it was this quarrel which impelled Ashkenazi to leave Egypt. In 1587 he became head of the Jerusalem rabbis, apparently succeeding H . AYYIM VITAL. Ashkenazi instituted numerous communal enactments, exempting scholars from taxation and persuading the Ashkenazi community to assist in bearing the burden of taxation. He travelled as an emissary to various countries, collecting money for the community and encouraging immigration to the Holy Land. He persuaded Jews in various countries to set aside Purim as a special day for making contributions to the Land of Israel. Many students in the Diaspora including SOLOMON ADENI 30

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attended his yeshivah in Jerusalem. Ashekanzi was concerned with copying and editing old manuscripts; in addition he published glosses on the Mishnah and the commentaries of Samson of Sens and MAIMONIDES. He also annotated the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, and compiled general rules of Talmudic methodology.

Ashkenazi, Joseph [Ha-Tanna of SAFED] (1525–1577) Annotator and commentator on the Mishnah from Prague. He was the son-in-law of Aaron ben Gershon Land, rabbi in Prague. He headed the bet din of the Poznan community.

Ashkenazi fought against philosophy and theoretical-philosophical kabbalah.

In Prague he denounced MAIMONIDES as a heretic; he was threatened with excommunication by the rabbis of Prague because of such a stance. Abraham ha-Levi Horowitz wrote a polemic tract against Ashkenazi’s father-in-law, which was also directed against Ashkenazi himself. After his father-in-law died in 1560, Ashkenazi went to Verona and later to Egypt where he taught in a yeshivah. There he was friendly with BEZALEL ASHKENAZI and possibly ISAAC LURIA. It is likely that his contacts with these two sages, who devoted themselves to the study of variant readings of the Mishnah and Talmud influenced Ashkenazi to accept the usage of the Egyptian scholars. In 1569 he went to SAFED where he was involved in controversy. His opposition to philosophy is expressed in one of his works written in 1575. Ashkenazi attacked MAIMONIDES and his ideas, and opposed the use of allegory as well as the philosophical idea that God is pure unchangeable intellect. In Ashkenazi’s view, this heresy is the source of all other heresies including the denial of providence, reward and punishment, and resurrection in the world to come. According to Ashkenazi, the books of the kabbalah ascribed to tannaim and amoraim constitute true kabbalah. In this light he criticized the kabbalists of the Middle Ages who attempted to compromise kabbalistic theories with philosophy. The authors of speculative kabbalism, he declared, were false kabbalists.

Ashkenazi, Malkiel (d. c. 1620) SAFED kabbalist. He probably settled first at SAFED where he was close to the circle of ISAAC LURIA’s disciples. Later he lived in Hebron. He was in all likelihood the rabbi of Hebron. According to reports that H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI heard from the elders of Hebron, Malkiel was responsible for consolidating Jewish settlement there.

He had an important library in his house which included six scrolls of Lurianic kabbalah corrected in HAYYIM VITAL’s own hand.

Ashkenazi, Mordecai ben Isaac Kohen (late 16th–early 17th century) Rabbi and preacher in Syria. His major work, Rosh Mor Deror, was influenced by his teacher and father-in-law, Samuel Laniado. A collection of his homilies on the Torah, written in the tradition of Jewish preaching, deals with redemption, God’s revenge on the Gentiles, and Israel’s condition after the coming of the MESSIAH. Ashkenazi occasionally used kabbalistic terms in his preaching.

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Ashkenazi Naphtali ben Joseph (c. 1540–1602) Rabbi in SAFED. He studied in the two great yeshivot of the Ashkenazi community in SAFED and became a preacher there. He suffered great privation as a result of the deterioration of the economic situation and went to Egypt in 1595 and then to Italy. In Mantua he met Moses Berab. In 1601 he published Imrei Shefer, a volume of sermons influenced by kabbalism. Leone Modena held Ashkenazi in high esteem and wrote a poem in praise of his book. In Venice he was received with honour and the rosh yeshivah, Ben Zion Z.arefati, invited Ashkenazi to join his staff. During his stay he was the guest of Kalonymus Belgrado, the founder of the yeshivah. He discovered the manuscripts of SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET and ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIÈRES and published them in 1602. He wished to return to Erez. Israel but died in Venice.

Ashkenazi, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jacob [H . akham Z.evi] (1660–1718) Rabbi and halakhist. His father, Jacob Sak, was a well-known scholar. He and his maternal grandfather, Ephraim ben Jacob ha-Kohen, escaped from Vilna to Moravia during the 1655 Cossack uprising. In 1676 he wrote his first responsa. At this time he was sent to the yeshivah of Elijah Covo in Salonika to study the Sephardi scholars’ method. During his stay in Salonika and Belgrade he adopted Sephardi customs and manners and assumed the Sephardi title ‘h.akham’ and also the name ‘Ashkenazi’. In 1680 he returned to Ofen and continued his studies. After his wife and daughter were killed during the siege of Ofen, Ashkenazi escaped to Sarajevo where he became h.akham of the Sephardi community. In 1689 he went to Berlin via Benice and Prague where he married the daughter of Meshullam Zalman Neumark-Mirels, the av bet din of the ‘Three Communities’ of Altona, Hamburg and Wandsbeck. He later moved to Altona where he devoted himself to teaching. On the death of his father-in-law in 1707 he became rabbi of Hamburg and Wandsbeck. Due to a controversy with Moses Rothenburg, with whom he shared the position of rabbi of Altona, he resigned his post. However, he continued to act as head of the yeshivah in Altona, later becoming rabbi of the Ashkenazi community in Amsterdam. When the emissary of NEHEMIAH H . AYON, the emissary of SHABBATAI Z.EVI, arrived in Amsterdam, he and MOSES H . AGIZ ruled against his writings and excommunicated him. Incensed that he had not been consulted about H . AYON’s writings, the Sephardi rabbi, SOLOMON AYLLON took issue with these findings and a new commission was established under AYLLON. This body ruled that AYLLON’s views were in accordance with traditional kabbalah. When Ashkenazi refused to apologize to H . AYON, a bitter conflict took place between the Portuguese and Ashkenazi communities. Eventually Ashkenazi resigned his position in Amsterdam. After a stay in London and Emden, he went to Poland and settled in Opatow. In 1718 he was appointed rabbi of Lemberg.

Ashlag, Yehuda (1886–1995) Israeli kabbalist. Born in Warsaw, he was educated in H . asidic schools and was the disciple of Shalom Rabinowicz of 32

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Kalushin, and his son Yehoshah Asher of Porissov. He also had a teacher whose name he was not allowed to disclose. He emigrated to Palestine in 1920 and settled in the Old City of Jerusalem where he established a yeshivah, Bet Ulpena leRabbanim. In 1946 he moved to Tel Aviv. His writings include Panim Me’irot and Panim Masbirot, a commentary to EZ. H . AYYIM by H . AYYIM VITAL; Talmud Eser Sefirot, dealing with the kabbalistic doctrines of ISAAC LURIA; and HaSullam (The Ladder), a commentary on the ZOHAR and ZOHAR HADASH. Asiyah The World Of Making. Although details differ among different kabbalistic schools, the basic consensus is that the universe of Asiyah constitutes the subspiritual or lower world, from the psychic or the material down to the ‘husks’ of creation (KELIPPOT). This is the region of the grossest SEFIROT, consisting of material substance.

Astrology Study of the supposed influence of the stars on human events and the predictions based on this study. There is no explicit mention of astrology in the Bible, but astrological calculations became an important element of kabbalistic speculation. The SEFER YEZ.IRAH contains several astrological passages concerning such topics as the relationship between the seven planets and the seven days of the week, and the relationship of the 12 simple consonants to the 12 house of the zodiac and the 12 months. The Sefer Razi’el ha-Malakh contains the principle basis for a system of astrology. The ZOHAR takes astrology for granted and uses astrological imagery and terminology. Astrological reasons for the commandments are also occasionally given. Nonetheless, the ZOHAR states that prior to the giving of the Torah, all earthly creatures were dependent on the stars; after the revelation, however, God exempted those children of Israel who studied and observed the law from heavenly rule. In the Tikkunei Zohar and other kabbalistic works the seven planets were linked with the seven days of the week and the seven nether spheres. The 12 houses of the zodiac were linked with the 12 months of the year, the 12 tribes of Israel, and the 12 permutations of the TETRAGRAMMATON. According to the Sefer ha-Peli’ah, the higher powers descend on the seven planets from the divine name of 42 letters, each planet receiving the influx appropriate to it from six of the letters of that name.

Attar, H . ayyim ben Moses (1696–1743) Moroccan kabbalist. Born in Salé, he was taught by his grandfather. He later settled in Meknes after the death of his great-uncle Shem Tov to manage his business in partnership with Shem Tov’s son whose daughter he married. He studied and taught there, but due to financial problems and the political situation in Morocco, he settled in Erez. Israel. He was encouraged to make this journey when he learned that H . AYYIM ABULAFIA had renewed the community in Tiberias. He was anxious to establish a college in the Holy Land to attract students from the Diaspora, and went to Erez. Israel with his closet disciples including David H . asan and Shem Tov Gabbai. He arrived in Leghorn in 1739. There he won an enthusiastic audience and Leghorn became a centre for students who came to study with him. He preached to large audiences 33

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encouraging them to repent. Groups were organized to help in his yeshivah and philanthropists financed the publication of his works. He sent proclamations to Jewish communities throughout Italy, urging emigration to the Holy Land; in addition he travelled extensively to Venice, Ferra, Modena, Reggio and Mantua.

When he learned about epidemics in Erez. Israel, some of his disciples were reluctant to settle there; H . ayyim, however, remained adamant. In 1741, he and a group of 30 others, including Jews from Morocco and Italy, departed from Leghorn. Moses Franco and Abraham Ishmael Sangvinetti described the voyage.

In late summer their ship reached Acre where he established a yeshivah. About a year later, he moved to Pek’in. During a visit to Tiberias, H . AYYIM ABULAFIA urged him to settle there, but he and his followers went to Jerusalem where he established a yeshviah. He was the head of the division, which studied the codes and their connection with Talmudic sources. Special attention was given to reconciling the decisions of MAIMONIDES with the Talmud. The students engaged in ascetic practices, spending their nights in supplication and prayer for redemption and peace. The group frequently prostrated themselves in prayer on holy graves. Attar’s work includes the H . efez Adonai on the Talmud as well as Or Ha-H ayyim, a commentary on the Pentateuch.

AH . . asidic legend relates that the BAAL SHEM TOV attempted to go to the Holy Land to study under him.

Attia, Shem Tov (c. 1530–1601) SAFED kabbalist. He lived in Salonika and settled in SAFED before 1570. He was one of the twelve disciples of ISAAC LURIA who requested H . AYYIM VITAL to reveal to them the secrets of the kabbalah. His only extant halakhic work is his responsa on the laws of the sabbatical year, published in the responsa Avkat Rokhel of JOSEPH CARO. In SAFED Shem Tov gave an approbation to the responsa of MOSES GALANTE; he was also a signatory to the regulation passed by the scholars of SAFED exempting rabbis from taxation. He appears to have left SAFED since in 1591 he was mentioned among the scholars of Adrianople. In 1601 he was again in SAFED where he served as the head of the local community council.

Atz.ilut The first world, Atz.ilut is the world of emanation, the world of divine thought. It is a completely spiritual world without any existence of separated entities. It brings into existence and sustains the other worlds. It is the highest of the four worlds, above BERIYAH, YEZ.IRAH and ASIYAH. Avodat ha-Kodesh Work by Meir ben Ezekiel Ibn Gabbai in which he expoundded in detail his kabbalistic system. He made a close study of MAIMONIDES in order to refute him.

Ayllon, Solomon ben Jacob (c. 1655–1728) Rabbi and kabbalist from Salonika. He received his rabbinical training in Salonika. As a young man, he joined the followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and was in contact with NATHAN OF GAZA. The accusation made by Ayllon’s opponents that he was among the followers of SHABBATAI who had adopted Islam and the assertion that 34

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his first wife had not been divorced from her husband were never proved. He appears to have belonged to moderate SHABBATEANS who remained faithful to the rabbinic tradition. After 1680 he went to SAFED, spending several years there. Later he went to Europe as an emissary of the SAFED community. In 1688 he arrived in Leghorn and had close ties with the Italian followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. In 1689 he went to London and became Haham of the Jewish community. In 1700 he was appointed rabbi of the Portuguese community in Amsterdam. Ayllon supported efforts to print one of the most important works of the SHABBATEAN, Abraham Miguel Cordozo. He declared that the work was above suspicion. Nonethless, the book was burned as a heretical text in accordance with the views of learned authorities in Smyrna. During the summer of 1713 Ayllon together with the president of the Portuguese community came into conflict with Z.EVI ASHKENAZI who had been appointed chief rabbi of the Amsterdam Ashkenazi community. This dispute began when the SHABBATEAN author NEHEMIAH H . AYON came to Amsterdam and requested Ayllon’s approval to distribute his book, Oz le-Elohim. It was clear that he regarded Ayllon as a fellow believer. Before Ayllon and other scholars from his community had an opportunity to examine this work, Z.EVI ASHKENAZI and MOSES H . AGIZ issued a ban on H . AYON forbidding him to publish his writings. Ayllon and his community, however, regarded this ban as an attack on their authority and sided with H . AYON. They stated that this book was a mere kabbalistic work and that they did not regard it as heretical. This dispute caused considerable consternation in Amsterdam as well as other communities in Italy.

Eventually Z.EVI ASHKENAZI and H . AYON both left Amsterdam.

Azikri, Eleazar ben Moses (1533–1600) Erez. Israel kabbalist. He studied under Joseph Sagis in SAFED. In 1596 Jacob Berab II ordained him. His mystical diaries contain meditations, revelations and dreams. They cover the period from 1564 until his death. His aim was spiritual perfection, purification and communion with God. In 1571 he divided his day: two-thirds to be devoted to writing, and the remainder to meditation. During this time he would not even study, but sat instead in awed silence focusing on God. During the years in which he practised asceticism, he advanced in the stages of DEVEKUT. In 1575 he thought of a method whereby he would be able to entrust to God his spirit and soul. He drew up a deed of association with God in the form of a legal document, the witnesses being Heaven and Earth. He also drew up a deed of association with Elijah Sasson and Yahal for the purpose of spiritual partnership and co-operation. The partners undertook not to relinquish the law of God, to refrain from worldly activity and to devote their time to the study of the Torah and the worship of God. In another deed they specified rules concerning the unity of the group, love of people, not to judge anyone and to respect everyone, to accept the law of the Torah, to study it with fervour, to think constantly about God and the SHEKINAH, and to pray with zeal. Prayers and worship at the graves of revered rabbis took an important place in the life of the group. Apart from exercises in meditation they recited love poems to God. 35

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Azriel of Gerona (early 13th century) Spanish kabbalist. Little is known of his life. In a letter to Azriel, his teacher, ISAAC THE BLIND, seems to have opposed his spreading kabbalistic doctrines in wider circles. The poet Meshullam Dapiera of Gerona praises him as a teacher of kabbalists in Gerona.

His works have a characteristic style using a specific terminology. All deal with kabbalistic subjects including Sha’ar ha-Sho’el (The Gate of the Enquirer), an explanation of the doctrine of the ten SEFIROT in question and answer form with the addition of a commentary; a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH; a commentary to the Talmudic aggadot; a commentary on the liturgy consisting of instructions for mystical meditations on important prayers; a letter sent by Azriel from Gerona to Burgos in Spain dealing with kabbalistic issues; and a series of small treatises and essays on the mysticism of prayer and the mystical meaning of sacrifice. As one of the most profound kabbalists, his work reflects the process by which NEOPLATONIC thought penetrated into the kabbalistic tradition as it reached Provence in the SEFER HA-BAHIR. Azriel was acquainted with NEOPLATONIC literature, which he quoted extensively.

It is not possible to know how he became familiar with concepts belonging to the philosophy of SOLOMON IBN GABIROL as well as the Christian NEOPLATONIC thinker John Scotus Erigena. In his work, the importance of the will of God as the highest attribute parallels GABIROL’s views. Other topics, such as the coincidence of opposites in the divine unity appear, to have its origin in Christian NEOPLATONISM. Azriel emphasizes the disparity of the NEOPLATONIC idea of God, which can only be formulated in negatives, and the biblical God about whom positive assertions can be made. The former is the EN SOF (Infinite); the biblical concept of God, however, is represented by the world of the SEFIROT which in various emanations reveals the creative movement of the divine unity. The logic, by which he established the necessity of the assumption that the existence of the SEFIROT is an emanation of power, is entirely NEOPLATONIC. However, in contrast with the doctrine of Plotinus, these emanations are processes taking place within the Deity, and not intermediate steps between God and creation. This occurs within God himself, between his hidden being and his appearance as creator testified by the Bible. The kabbalistic doctrine of Azriel knows nothing of a creation from nothingness. Yet he repeatedly uses the term: the nothingness out of which everything was created is a symbolic representation of the Divine Being, which surpasses all which is comprehensible to human beings.

Azubib, Joseph Nehorai (17th century) Egyptian scholar. He was in Alexandria in 1665; the following year he wrote to Moses Tardiola, an emissary from Jerusalem in Tripoli about the appearance of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He gave him information about NATHAN OF GAZA as well. SAADIAH BEN NEHORAI AZUBIB, his younger brother, was head of the Algerian community.

Azubib, Saadiah ben Nehorai (17th century) Algerian scholar. The brother of JOSEPH NEHORAI AZUBIB, he served as head of the Algerian 36

AZU LA I , H. AY Y I M JO S E P H DAVI D [H. I DA]

community during a period of economic harship. Saadiah was the author of Tokhah.at Musah, a commentary on proverbs. He was among those who banned the books of NEHEMIAH H . AYON, the follower of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. Azulai, Abraham ben Israel (c. 1660–c.1741) Kabbalist from Marrakesh.

He was related to ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI AZULAI, a disciple of Isaac de-Levayah and a friend of Solomon Amar II and Abraham ibn Musa. He lived in Tetuan and later in Meknes, Morocco. He was praised by H . AYYIM BEN ATTAR for his erudition in kabbalah. He told H AYYAM JOSEPH DAVID .

AZULAI that Abraham ben Israel used to write AMULETS for sick people but without writing any of the names of God on them. There were numerous legends about him. He wrote a commentary on the ZOHAR. Azulai, Abraham ben Mordecai (c. 1570–1643) Moroccan kabbalist. Born in Fez, he studied Talmud, philosphical literature and kabbalah. He did not agree with the interpretations of the kabbalah given by his teachers, nor did he engage in kabbalistic speculation until he obtained MOSES CORDOVERO’s PARDES RIMMONIM. Subsequently he was concerned with the question of the relation between kabbalah and philosophy. Eventually he abandoned philosophical inquiry and dedicated himself to kabbalah. He decided to emigrate to Erez. Israel, but did not realize this wish until after he had lost his wealth during the antiJewish persecutions in Morocco in 1610–1613. He went to Hebron, Jerusalem and Gaza. Finally he settled in Hebron where kabbalists from SAFED had congregated. There he found the writings of CORDOVERO and the majority of ISAAC LURIA’s works in H . AYYIM VITAL’s versions. Azulai’s writings include Or ha-H ammah consisting of a commentary on the ZOHAR based mainly on .

CORODVERO’s book and also on LURIA’s commentary, and a commentary on the ZOHAR by H . AYYIM VITAL written before he knew LURIA, as well as marginal notes on the ZOHAR by an unknown author. Another work, Or haGanuz, consists of an explanation of expressions in the Zohar. Azulai followed Lurianic kabbalah and believed it superseded CORDOVERO’s system.

Azulai, H . ayyim Joseph David [H . ida] (1724–1806) Erez. Israel halakhist, kabbalist, emissary and bibliographer. Born in Jerusalem, he was descended on his father’s side from a prominent family of rabbis and kabbalists from Spain.

His mother was the daughter of Joseph Bialer who had gone to Ęrez Israel with Judah H . ASID in 1770. He studied under various important Jewish scholars including Jonah Navon, Isaac ha-Kohen Rapoport, and H . AYYIM ATTAR. Azulai attained eminence in Jewish studies and was regarded as the leading scholar of his generation by Jews in the Ottoman Empire and Italy. Azulai combined religious and mystical ardor with intellectual curiosity. He spent most of his active years travelling abroad as an emissary of the communities in Erez. Israel to collect funds for academies and scholars there. Between 1753 and 1758 he visited Italy, Germany, Holland, France and England. During these travels he refused the call to become h.akham of the Sephardi community in Amsterdam. When he 37

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returned to Jerusalem, he served as dayyan and engaged in communal activities.

He also became a member of SHALOM SHARABI’s group of kabbalists.

He left Erez. Israel in 1764, having been delegated to go to Constantinople to intercede on behalf of scholars in their disputes with communal leaders. Once he learned that the communal leaders had been successful in the dispute, he remained in Cairo where he served as rabbi. In 1769 he returned to Hebron. In 1772 he again when abroad as the emissary for Hebron. Eventually he settled in Leghorn. His writings include a literary diary Maagal Tov, which covers the years 1753–78. Numerous legends depict the wonders and miracles he performed.

Azulai, Masud [Masud Ma’aravi] [Masud Saggi-Nahor] (17th century) Moroccan kabbalist and rabbi. He went from SAFED to Morocco, became a kabbalist ascetic, and in 1601 joined the Beit ha-Va’ad in SAFED. About 1612 he was among the six SAFED scholars who ordained Azriel ben Meir ha-Levi Ashkenazi, one of the Ashkenazi scholars in Salonika. He was still alive in 1621. His disciples included Solomon Shlomel Dreznitz who, according to Azulai, had read all ISAAC LURIA’s writings three time and was as familiar with them as with the letters of the alphabet. No writings of Azulai are known except a manuscript containing his sermons.

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B Baal Shem Tov [Besht] [Israel ben Eliezer] (1700–?) Ukrainian founder of H . ASIDISM. Born in Okop in Podolia, he first earned a living as an assistant teacher in a heder. Later he worked as a watchman in a synagogue. According to tradition, he went into hiding in the Carpathian mountains. There he worked as a digger of clay, while his wife sold in town. Subsequently he became an innkeeper. In about 1730 he moved to Tluste. In the mid-1730s he revealed himself as a healer and spiritual leader, attracting numerous followers. Owing to his ability to perform miracles, many Jews accepted his leadership and teaching.

For a number of years he undertook journeys in order to effect cures, expel evil demons and exert influence. For the Baal Shem Tov, prayer served as the central mystic approach to God as opposed to study and scholarship. At particular moments he was able to attain a state of mystical exaltation. Both future events and figures from the past were disclosed to him in dreams. In H . asidic lore, he is portrayed as conversing with individuals and groups rather than preaching in the synagogue. In these discourses there is little evidence of Talmudic scholarship, and his adversaries criticized him for his lack of learning, concern with healing, making AMULETS and his discussions with ordinary people. Both Israel and his disciples were conscious of their leaders’ mission. A number of his dreams and visions from on high are related to the actual difficulties of everyday existence.

Emphasizing the importance of charity, the Baal Shem Tov sought to ransom captives and prisoners. In his teaching, he stressed that devotional joy is the proper attitude for Jews to adopt in every moment of their lives, particularly during prayer. Opposed to the preoccupation with ascetic fasting, he was also critical of admonitory preaching. It is related that the Baal Shem Tov made mystical ascents in which he received revelations. On one ascent he confronted the MESSIAH and asked him when he would come. In reply the MESSIAH declared that this would occur when the Baal Shem Tov’s teaching is revealed to the world and others will be able to perform unifications and have ascents of the soul. Then, he stated, all the KELIPPOT (powers of evil) will be consumed and it will be a time of grace and salvation. The Baal Shem Tov gave advice as 39

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to the correct procedure to follow when studying and praying: ‘Whenever you offer your prayers and whenever you study have the intention of unifying a divine name in every word and with every utterance of your lips, for there are worlds, souls and divinity in every letter. These ascend to become united one with the other and then the letters are combined in order to form a word so that there is complete unification with the divine.’

Bacharach, Jair H . ayyim ben Moses Samson (1638–1702) German Talmudic scholar. He was the son of Moses Samson ben Abraham Samuel Bacharach.

Born in Leipnik, where his father was a rabbi, he accompanied him to Prague where his father served as a preacher. Bachrach then lived in Worms where his father became rabbi of the community. In 1653 he married Sarlan, the daughter of Sussmann Brilin of Fulda. He spent six years in his father-in-law’s house, acquiring knowledge of the Talmud and its commentaries. Deeply involved in kabbalistic studies, he became interested in the SHABBATEAN movement. He acquired a library of writings connected with SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s messianic claims. In addition a group of 13 Talmudic scholars met daily under his leadership for the purpose of study and self-sanctification in anticipation of messianic redemption. Although decades later after he recognized SHABBETAI Z.EVI as a false MESSIAH, he always referred to him as ‘Rabbenu Shabbatai Z.evi’. In 1666 he became rabbi and rosh bet din at Coblenz. However, three years later he was compelled to leave office possibly as a result of intrigue. The same year he settled in Worms. When his father died in 1670, he functioned in his place as rabbi of the city but was succeeded in this position by Aaron Teomim, whom he regarded as an inferior scholar. In 1689 when Worms was occupied by the French armies, Bacharach fled to Metz. The next year he left for Frankfurt to collect some debts; at this time his family was in such dire straits that his wife sold his library. During the following few years he was often forced to change his residence. At Frankfurt in 1699 he published his collection of responsa under the name H . avvat Yair. The same year the Jewish community of Worms chose Bacharach as their rabbi. Although he was a believer in kabbalah, he warned against giving oneself over to the study of kabbalah or philosophy.

Bahir, Sefer ha- This work contains theories about a wide range of subjects transmitted in the form of explanations of biblical verses, discussions between different figures, as well as statements about various topics. In addition to aggadic sayings, there are commentaries on the mystical significance of specific verses, the shapes of several letters of the alphabet, the vocalization and cantillation signs, the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, and on sacred names and their use in magic. The interpretations of some verses contains explanations of the esoteric meanings of the commandments. The book in its current form confirms the tradition of the 13th-century kabbalists that Sefer ha-Bahir (Book of Light) was passed down in as remnants of scrolls, booklets and traditions. It contains sections that break off in the middle of a sentence. There are discussions which are not completed. About 12,000 words in length, the structure of the book is loose.

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It consists of a collection of material brought together without editing. The language of the book is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic, and the style is often very difficult. Nonetheless, Sefer ha-Bahir contains numerous parables and sayings which have no parallel elsewhere. It is the earliest text that deals with the realm of the divine attributes and interprets much of Scripture as if it were concerned with events in the divine realm and the action of God’s attributes.

These attributes are given symbolic names, derived from interpreted verses. The SEFIROT, which are mentioned in the SEFER YEZ.IRAH as corresponding to the ten basic numbers, became in this work divine attributes, lights and powers, each of which fulfils a specific function in the work of creation. This divine realm, which can be described only in symbolic language, is the central element of the book. Even the reasons for the mitzvot are related to this supernal realm.

The Sefer ha-Bahir adopts the view of the SEFER YEZ.IRAH that there are ten SEFIROT, and it concludes that each SEFIRAH is alluded to in Scripture or in rabbinic sources by various names and symbols. The domain of these attributes is given pictorially. The divine powers constitute the secret tree from which the souls blossom forth. But these powers are also the sum of the holy forms, which are joined together in the likeness of supernal man. Everything in the lower world contains a reference to something in the sphere of the divine attributes. God is master of all the powers, and his nature can be discerned. In general, the Sefer ha-Bahir represents an important stage in the development of kabbalah, displaying great variations in detail from what is found in later works.

The work provides evidence of an early stage of kabbalistic speculation. Sefer ha-Bahir appeared at the end of the 12th century in southern France. Some scholars maintain that the book originated about this time; others contend that at least part of the book was a literary adaption of an earlier work, the Sefer Raza Rabba, which is mentioned in the responsa of the geonim. In Spanish kabbalistic circles Sefer ha-Bahir was accepted as an ancient source, composed by the sages of the Talmud. The work had no parallel until the appearance of the ZOHAR. In 1331 Meir ben Solomon Abi-Sahula, a pupil of SOLOMON BEN ADRET, wrote a commentary on Sefer ha-Bahir which was published as Or Ha-Ganuz (The Hidden Light). Later, David H . avillo and Meir Poppers wrote commentaries on the work.

Bahlul, Daniel ben Judah (second half of 17th century) Moroccan halakhist, kabbalist and preacher. He wrote notes on Yazeh. Yakar, a work by ABRAHAM GALANTE on the ZOHAR to Exodus.

Bah. ya Name given to the author of the NEOPLATONIC work Kitāb Ma’anī al-Nafs. Nothing is known about him. It appears that he wrote this text sometime between the middle of the 11th and the middle of the 12th centuries. This work presents the structure of the universe as a hierarchy of ten emanations created by God. These emanations are the active intellect, soul of the universe, nature, matter, bodies of the spheres, stars, fire, air, water and earth. Each is dependent on its predecessor for the divine power required to active it. From 41

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the ten emanations are formed the composite substances of the sensual world into which the soul must descend. While passing through each emanation in its descent, the soul acquires outer garments of impurities until it reaches earth and is embodied in a human person. Different degrees of impurity depending on the length of the souls’ stay in each of the emanations provide the differences between souls. Once the soul inheres in a body, the rational soul unites with the lower vegetative and animal souls, and loses its original suprasensual knowledge.

To reverse this process and ascend upwards, the rational soul must purify itself by cutivating virtue and governing the lower souls. Bah.ya argued that the immortality of the soul after death is due to the fact that all things composed of elements return to their source. Hence the soul returns to its origins, which is the spiritual soul of the universe. Souls possessing moral perfection can rise to an earthly paradise where they can acquire the knowledge necessary for their ascent to the suprasensual world. Souls possessing only intellectual perfection or no perfection at all are doomed to their earthly surroundings. As part of their punishment, these souls strive unsuccessful to make an ascent.

Bah.ya ben Asher Ibn H . lava (13th century) Exegete, preacher and kabbalist from Saragossa. According to tradition, he lived in Saragossa and served as dayyan and preacher there. He was a disciple of SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET. The clarity of his style and exposition have made his books popular. In Z.e’enah u-Re’enah, Bah.ya interpreted the Pentateuch in four ways – literal, homiletical, rational and according to the kabbalah. He used various sources, beginning with Talmudic and midrashic literature, exegetic and philosophical sources, and ending with kabbalistic interpretations. In his writing, the way of reason was not always identified with the philosophical-rationalistic interpretation. In Bah.ya’s view, all that is ouside the divine word belongs to the way of reason insofar as it is necessary to explain verses or the mitzvot according to the subject. Bah.ya has been viewed as of great importance in kabbalah and are one of the main sources through which the kabbalistic sayings of NAH . MANIDES’ contemporaries have been preserved. Generally, Bah.ya did not divulge his kabbalistic sources. With the exception of the SEFER HA-BAH . IR, he rarely mentioned other kabbalists even though he used the writings of JACOB BEN SHESHET GERONDI, ASHER BEN DAVID, JOSEPH GIKATILLA and others. He treated the ZOHAR in a similar fashion. He knew parts of the ZOHAR, and he copied from them.

Bah. ya ibn Pakuda see Ibn Pakuda, Bah. ya Baraita of 32 Rules Baraita giving 32 hermeneutic rules to be used in the interpretation of Scripture. The Baraita appears at the beginning of Midrash Mishnat Rabbi Eli’ezer, and at the beginning of Midrash ha-Gadol to Genesis.

Although ascribed to Yose ben Eleazar who lived about 150 CE, many examples of the application of its rules are attributed to later tannaim and even to the amoraim. Hence it is likely that the original Baraita merely listed the rules, the examples being added later. Although the 13 halakhic rules of Ishamel are 42

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included in the Baraita, all the examples given are taken from aggadic passages.

These rules were well known and used by rabbis both in aggadic interpretation and in finding support in the biblical text for a decision. However, they were never used to derive halakhic decisions from the text.

Barazani, Samuel ben Nethanel ha-Levi (1560–1630?) Rabbi and kabbalist from Kurdistan. Born in Kurdistan, he maintained yeshivot in Barazan, Akrah, Mosul and Amadiyah. During his final years he was the most distinguished scholar of Kurdistan where his disciples occupied positions of importance.

Barazani sent letters of rebuke and well as comfort to communities with the aim of preventing religious laxity. He lived in poverty and was regarded as a saint. His grave in Amadiyah became a place of pilgrimage. Barazani’s books are filled with kabbalistic themes. Some of his piyyutim, festival prayers and reshuyyot are included in the liturgy of Kurdistan. Among Barazani’s works are Avnei Zikkaron on the laws of ritual slaughter. The Barazani family included rabbis of Mosul and other Kurdish towns.

Baruch ben David Yavan (18th century) Court Jew of the Polish King August III. He was a leader of the Council of Four Lands and a shtadlan for the Council.

As such he influenced the court for furthering Jewish causes. He studied under JACOB JOSHUA FALK. He was prominent in combating the remnants of the SHABBATEANS and the FRANKISTS. In the controversy about JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ’s adherence to SHABBATEANISM, he upheld JACOB EMDEN in his condemnation of EYBESCHUETZ. Baruch did not hesitate to effect the removal of H . ayyim ben Abraham, an adherent of EYBESCHUETZ, from the post of rabbi in Lublin. Baruch then took a leading role in Jewish diplomatic efforts to counter the FRANKISTS. When the disputation between the Talmudists and FRANKISTS became the occasion for an ecclesiastical order to burn the Talmud, Baruch (aided by Mordecai Merkil) sought help from Count Bruehl. Baruch obtained access to the papal nuncio and succeeded in saving various Talmudic works. He also persuaded Count Bruehl to use his influence at the papal curia to counter the blood libel accusation instigated by FRANK. In 1764 he frustrated FRANK’s intrigues with Russian ecclesiastic authorities.

Baruch ben Jehiel of Medzibezh (1757–1810) Russian rabbi and teacher.

He was the son of Adele, the only daughter of the BAAL SHEM TOV. His brother was Moses H . ayyim Ephraim of Sudlikov, author of Degel Mahaneh Ephraim. For over thirty years he was the leader of H . ASIDIM of Podolia at Tulchin and later at Medzibezh. He ruled with considerable skill, travelling around in luxurious carriages and collecting money and presents from his disciples. He was greeted with enthusiasm on his journeys. The rich and influential looked to him for protection; the masses for his help. In Medzibezh he held court and even kept a court-jester Hirschele of Ostopole. Some of his sermons were published after his death. According to legend, Baruch in his youth gained the love of his grandfather’s followers. The elderly Phinehas of Koretz predicted 43

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that he would become famous. Baruch boasted that nothing was hidden from him and that to him were revealed all the mysteries of theology. Legend relates that on one occasion SIMEON BAR YOCHAI appeared to him in a dream and declared: ‘Baruch, my beloved, you are a perfect man.’

Baruch of Kosov (c. 1725–1795) Kabbalist from Kosov. He was a disciple of MENAH . EM MENDEL OF VITEBSK. He studied with MENAH . EM MENDEL OF PEREMYSHLANY. He became MAGGID of Kosov. In his sermons he sought to make the kabblist doctrine as taught by ISAAC LURIA and H . AYYIM VITAL comprehensible. In his view, LURIA was the highest authority on the kabbalah. Hence he advised all who wished to study the ZOHAR to read LURIA and VITAL first. He interpreted LURIA’s doctrine of Z.IMZ.UM as a metaphor rather than a fact. In this regard he argued against the interpretation of RAPHAEL IMMANUEL H . AI RICCHI. Baruch taught that the true life of every material entity is conditioned by its spiritual aspect. Thus he argued that full surrender and complete attachment to God is possible because this is an intellectual discipline originating in love. He stated that it was possible to attain a concept of things, first through the senses, and then through imagination, and finally through wisdom. It was only through wisdom, he believed, that one could perceive the spiritual quality inherent in all material things. It was only through wisdom that one had the capacity to feel pain, which the soul inevitably feels when a person has committed a sin. Baruch conceded that questions of predestination and free will are so difficult as to be unanswerable. Nonetheless, he believed in both doctrines, and counselled unconditional belief. Baruch was opposed to the followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and JACOB FRANK. In 1760 his opposition to JACOB FRANK motivated him to write various tracts with the aim of refuting the anthropomorphism applied by FRANKISTS to the basic concepts of kabbalah.

Bashiri, Yaha (17th century) Yemenite kabbalist. His work is characterized by accuracy and beauty. Later Yemenite scholars refer to him in their writings, while popular legends recount his piety and the miracles he performed. His two works are H . avaz.z.elet ha-Sharon, a kabbalistic work dealing with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and Bashiri, a commentary on the Pentateuch based on GEMATRIA. Basilea, Solomon Avid Sar-Shalom (c. 1680–1749) Italian kabbalist. He received instruction from the most learned scholars in the city, including his father, Menahem Samson Basilea, Judah ben Eliezer Briel, Moses Zacuto, and Benjamin ben Eliezer ha-Cohen Vitale of Reggio. He also studied astronomy and geometry. He served as rabbi of Mantua in 1729. At the age of 44 he began a methodical study of kabbalah according to ISAAC LURIA’s system.

In 1733 he was accused by the Inquisition of having mocked Catholicism and of retaining unexpurgated Hebrew works. He was imprisoned for a year, and later confined to his house and finally to the ghetto. He supported 44

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MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO against those who were critical of his kabbalistic practices. Solomon’s main work, Emunat H . akhamim, was designed to stress the continuity in Jewish tradition of the mystical significance of the Torah and the error of scholars who opposed this interpretation. To support his views, Solomon reviewed the corpus of Hebrew literature as well as Greek, Arabic and Renaissance philosophy. According to Basilea, the ZOHAR was not written by SIMEON BAR YOH . AI, but it nonetheless contains esoteric doctrines that were handed down to his disciples. Basilea also rejected the opinion, which ascribed the authorship of the ZOHAR to MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON. His writings were well received by kabbalists, but opponents of the kabbalah were critical. JACOB EMDEN wrote a refutation of Emunat H . akhamim.

Bavli, Menahem ben Moses (16th century) SAFED rabbi and kabbalist.

This is little information about his origins. The title ‘Bavli’ probably stands for ‘Roman’; it is possible that he came from Italy. In 1522 and again in 1525 he signed himself as dayyan in Trikkala, Greece. Later he settled in Erez. Israel. In 1531 he was in SAFED together with his father and brother Reuben. They made their living by wool dyeing. Menahem was considered one of the greatest scholars in the town. One of his responsa was published in the collection Maran le-Even ha-Ezer; in it he quoted a ruling of Jacob Berab whom he refered to as ‘our teacher the Great Rabbi,’ suggesting that Bavli may have been a student at Berab’s yeshivah in SAFED. After 1553 he was in Egypt. From SAFED Bavli went to Hebron possibly in connection with the expansion of Jewish settlement there.

Belz, Aaron (1880–1957) Galician H . ASID. The son of ISSACHAR DOV BELZ, he lived an ascetic life and instituted a lengthy order of prayer. The influence of Belz H . ASIDISM was widespread. On the outbreak of the Second World War, Aaron escaped to Sokol and then to Przemysl where 33 members of his family were murdered. After confinement in ghettos in Vizhnits, Cracow and Bochnia, he was sent to Kaschau and later to Budapest. In 1944 he reached Erez. Israel. There he revised his political views and instructed his followers to support the Agudat Israel. He created yeshivot and battei midrash. His home in Tel Aviv became a centre for Belz H . ASIDIM. Belz, Issachar Dov (1854–1927) Galician H . ASID. He was the son of JOSHUA BELZ. Influenced by Aaron of Chernobyl, he was an exacting leader of Galician Orthodoxy and headed the Mah.azikei ha-Dat. He opposed the Agudat Israel and denounced every form of innovation including Zionism. In 1914 he fled to Hungary and lived in Ujfeherto where he was successful in winning many Hungarian Jews to Belz H . ASIDISM. In 1918 he settled in Munkács and became embroiled in a quarrel with the Z.ADDIK of Munkács. In 1921 he returned to Galicia and lived first in Holschitz, returning to Belz in 1925.

Belz, Joshua (1825–1894) H . ASID from Belz. He was the son and successor of SHALOM ROKE’AH BELZ. He provided Belz H . . ASIDISM with an 45

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organizational framework which maintained it as the focus of H . ASIDISM in Galicia. A leader of Orthodox Jewry in Galicia, he was an ardent opponent of the Haskalah. He initiated the creation of the Mah.azikei ha-Dat organization and the Orthodox newspaper Kol Mah.azikei ha-Dat. As a result of the cultural and social tensions amongst Galician Jews, the Belz Z.ADDIKIM adopted an extreme position and resisted every new idea emanating from non-Orthodox circles.

Belz, Shalom Roke’ah. (1779–1855) Founder of the Belz dynasty from the Ukraine. He came from a distinguished family descended from Eleazar Roke’ah. of Amsterdam. He was an orphan and studied under his uncle, Issachar Baer of Sokal whose daughter he married. At Sokal he was introduced to H . asidic teachings by Solomon of Lutsk, a follower of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. Later he became a disciple of Jacob Isaac Horowitz, the Seer of Lublin, URI OF STRELISK, ISRAEL OF KOZIENICE, and ABRAHAM JOSHUA HESCHEL OF APTA. On Horowitz’s recommendation, Shalom was appointed rabbi in Belz. After Horowitz’s death in 1815, Shalom was viewed as a Z.ADDIK. He built a bet midrash in Belz which attracted thousands of H . ASIDIM and Belz became a centre of Galician life. Many legends tell of Shalom’s miracles. He was also considered an authoritative Talmudist. Active in public life, Shalom served as a spokesman for Galician Jewry. He was a fierce opponent of the HASKALAH. His teachings as well as tales about him are collected in Dover Shalom.

Ben Azzai (2nd century CE) Palestinian tanna. He lived in Tiberias and was a disciple of Joshua ben Hananiah and a colleague of AKIVA. He was one of the four who entered Pardes. According to tradition, he died as a result. The Talmud claims that this occurred since he was led astray by mystical teaching (Hag. 14b).

Ben Zoma (2nd century CE) Palestinian tanna. He was a contemporary of AKIVA and studied under Joshua ben Hananiah. He was an outstanding scholar, and according to the Mishnah the last of the authoritative biblical commentators (Sot. 9:15). He was one of the tannaim who engaged in mystical speculation. According to legend, he was one of the four sages who entered PARDES. It is reported that he cast a look and became demented. Another tradition records that he died.

Benevento, Immanuel ben Jekuthiel (16th century) Italian grammarian and kabbalist. He lived in Mantua and was the pupil of Moses Basola of Pesaro.

He wrote Livyat H . en, dealing with Hebrew grammar and poetry, and published Ma’arekhet ha-Elohut, the kabbalistic work of Perez ben Isaac Gerondi of Barcelona, which he annotated with his own commentary. He also published the first printed editon of the major parts of the ZOHAR based upon a comparative study of several texts of the ZOHAR. Benjamin, Baruch ben Israel (17th century) Jerusalem rabbi. He studied with his father and later at the yeshivah of Isaac Gaon where kabbalah was 46

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included in the curriculum. In 1657 he along with other kabbalists from Jerusalem endorsed the certificate which stated that Baruch Gad, the Jerusalem messenger to the East, had visited the Ten Lost Tribes. Some of his responsa were included in Mishpetei Z.edek, the work of his friend Samuel Garmison. When he served as dayyan in Jerusalem, he wrote a work dealing with divorce. Towards the end of his life he travelled to Egypt, possibly as an emissary.

Benjamin, Moses (first half of the 18th century) Rabbi and kabbalist from Baghdad. He was the first of the Baghdad scholars to have studied the kabbalah and was an expert in Lurianic kabbalah. Very little is known about his life. His wife and children died in an epidemic before 1737. He appears to have served as a rabbi. His book Ma’aseh Rav Moshe is a commentary on the Masorah as well as an explanation of rabbinic verses and sayings. His other writings include Ho’il Moshe, a homiletical interpretation of the Pentateuch. His kabbalistic works consist of Tefilah le-Moshe and Sha’arei Yerushalayim, which contains kabbalistic principles according to the ZOHAR and ISAAC LURIA. Berab, Jacob (c. 1474–1546) Talmudist. Born in Spain, he became a rabbi of Fez at the age of 18. He then moved to Egypt where he became the head of a major rabbinic academy. JOSEPH CARO was one of his students. He later settled in SAFED. He was one of the foremost rabbinic authorities of his age.

In 1538 he initiated the abortive attempt to renew rabbinic ordination as a first step toward reconstituting the Sanhedrin. He was himself the first ordained rabbi named by the rabbis of SAFED, and later ordained JOSEPH CARO. The scheme was opposed by Levi ibn Haviv of Jerusalem and others. Shortly after this abortive initiative, he fled from SAFED, probably because of problems with the Turkish authorities.

Berg, Philip American kabbalist. Born in Brooklyn, Berg studied at a yeshivah where he was ordained a rabbi in 1951. He initially worked as an insurance salesman and was married to his first wife Rivkah whose uncle, YEHUDA BRANDWEIN, dean of Yeshiva Kol Yehuda in Israel, profoundly influenced him.

After Brandwein’s death, Berg returned to the United States. In 1971 he married Karen, his second wife, and travelled to Israel. Two years later the Bergs returned to Queens, New York where they established a centre for kabbalistic study. He subsequently became Dean of the worldwide Kabbalah Centre and has written numerous books about kabbalah including The Wheels of a Soul, Astrology, The Star Connection, and Kabbalistic Astrology.

Beriyah The second of the four worlds (ATZILUT, BERIYAH, YEZ.IRAH, ASIYAH). In explaining the picture of divine creaton, kabbalists adopted a NEOPLATONIC conception of a ladder of spiritual reality composed of four worlds in descending order. First is the domain of ATZILUT (emanation), consisting of the ten SEFIROT that form ADAM KADMON (primordial man). The second world, based on HEKHALOT literature, is the realm of 47

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BERIYAH (creation) which is made up of the Throne of Glory and the seven heavenly palaces. In the third world, YEZ.IRAH, dwell most of the angels presided over by the angel METATRON. This is the scene of the seven heavenly halls guarded by angels to which MERKAVAH mystics attempted to gain admission. The fourth world of ASIYAH (making) is the lower order of angels – the ophanim who combat evil and receive prayers. This is the spiritual archetype of the material cosmos, heaven and the earthly world. ASIYAH is both the last link in the divine chain of being and the domain where the SITRA AH . RA is manifest; in this realm the forces of good struggle with the demons.

Berit Menuh.ah Following the compilation of the ZOHAR, Jewish scholars continued to elaborate mystical doctrines. Pre-eminent among such mystical reflections was the treatise Berit Menuh.ah, attributed to the 14thcentury mystic ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC OF GRANADA. Like ABRAHAM ABULAFIA, the author of this treatise was preoccupied with the letters of the TETRAGRAMMATION. In his view the name of God should have the vowel segol. Such pointing, he believed, represents the unification of all things with their divine source. In his view, the three illuminations represented by the three dots were actually one, yet they became divided into three. In Berit Menuh.ah he explained that the middle one was the most powerful and provided the unifying principle. According to ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC, the vowel segol, when applied to the TETRAGRAMMATON, actives messianic impulses.

Bet El Centre of kabbalistic study in Jerusalem. It was founded in 1737

by Gedaliah Hayon for the study of kabbalah. In the late 1740s SHALOM SHARABI arrived in Jerusalem from Yemen. He studied at Bet El, becoming an oustanding kabbalist and was appointed head of the yeshivah. Under his leadership the yeshivah grew and became a major centre for Jewish study. The scholars there were divided into four groups. The first awoke at midnight to say tikkun hatzot and learn Lurianic kabbalah until dawn. The second delved into the works of ISAAC LURIA from after shah.arit until midday. The third group studied Mishnah from midday till nightfall. After ma’ariv the fourth set learned Talmud and the Shulh.an Aruk. As the reputation of the yeshivah spread throughout the Jewish world, it attracted various prominent scholars. In 1775 SHARABI chose 12 disciples who formed a special group (Ahavat Shalom). The synagogue premises remained in the hands of leading kabbalists from generation to generation. Distinguished scholars of kabbalah continued to emigrate to Jerusalem to study at the yeshivah. In 1927 an earthquake damaged the building, which was later rebuilt. During the Israel War of Independence the building was desecrated. Nonetheless, under the leadership of Shalom Hedaya, the yeshivah continued to function and was re-established in the Old City in 1974.

Bikayam, Meir ben H . alifa (d. 1769) Kabblalist and crypto-SHABBATEAN from Smyrna. He studied kabbalah under JACOB WILNA and belonged to his circle. He was initiated by WILNA into the mystery of the Godhead as revealed 48

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by SHABBATAI Z.EVI. Bikayam received from his teacher the kabbalistic works of Solomon ha-Levi, which Solomon had obtained from his father Benjamin ha-Levi. Some of the most learned individuals of the Smyrna community belonged to this group. Bikayam was a friend of H . AYYIM ABULAFIA and Isaac ha-Kohen Rappaport, the rabbis of the community. One of the wealthy Jews there, Solomon Ardit supported him and his circle. The leader of the Constantinople community, Samuel ha-Levi and Moses ben Joshua Soncino of Smyrna, supported the publication of his writings. When Bikayam went to Smyrna in 1747, Abraham Enriques Miranda and Joseph Enriques Miranda welcomed him. There he taught SHABBATEAN kabbalism and published two books. In 1747 he returned to Smyrna. His writings deal with kabbalah and contain allusions to SHABBATEANISM. His works include Me’ir la-Arez. and Me’orei Or on the portions of the Pentateuch according to Lurianic kabbalah.

Binah The third SEFIRAH. In contrast with HOKHMAH, Binah (Understanding) is the principle of intellect that makes distinctions. What was previously undifferentiated in the divine wisdom exists in the womb of Binah. In it, all forms are already preformed but still preserved in the unity of the divine intellect, which contemplates them in itself.

Bittul ha-Yesh Annihilation of all that which is. Kabbalists believe that because God’s light is veiled in our world, only through profound mediation and contemplation on the truth that all is God and that all that exists is in God, can bittul ha-yesh be achieved. It denotes the annihilation of the ego, the loss of self-consciousness, and losing oneself in God. In Jewish mysticism this is a state of awareness in which the individual realizes that there is no need to bridge the gap between him and God because he is already in God, because God is all, and God is in all. To achieve the state of bittul ha-yesh, meditatiton and contemplation as well observance of the commandments is necessary. Through these means, the soul is able to ascend the tree of the SEFIROT. Bloch, Mattathias ben Benjamin Ze’ev Ashkenazi (1610/1620–1668) Polish preacher and one of the leaders of the SHABBATEAN movement.

He was born in Cracow; his grandfather, Feivel Bloch, was one of the leaders of the community during the first half of the 17th century. He studied under Menahem Mendel Krochmal and Abraham Joshua Heschel. He suffered during the persecution of the Jews under Chmielnicki and during the Swedish occupation of 1648–57. In 1660 he was in Jassy. Five years later on his way to Erez. Israel he was in Constantinople where he published Kelal Katan, a homily on Deuternomy 32. He relates that he had two important homiletical books in his possession: Sefer Kelal Gadol, written in the peshat, remez and derash styles; and Sefer Mattiyahu, a kabbalistic commentary on the Torah. Bloch appears to have become a SHABBATEAN in 1665 either while he was in Constantinople or when he arrived in Jerusalem and met SHABBETAI Z.EVI. At the end of 1665 in Smyrna, SHABBETAI Z.EVI appointed kings in a similar order to that 49

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of the ancient kings of Israel and Judah. Bloch was appointed ‘King Asa’. In 1666 Bloch was among the leaders of the SHABBATEAN movement in Egypt.

After SHABBETAI’s apostasy, Bloch persisted in his belief but left Egypt for Mosul where he served as a rabbi or dayyan. Bloch’s influence spread to the communities in Kurdistan, which he encouraged in their SHABBATEAN belief.

His activities as rabbi of the community as well as a SHABBATEAN leader are recorded in letters preserved from 1668.

Bloom, Harold (1930–) American literary critic. Born in New York, he taught at Yale from 1955. He was an authority on Romantic and Victorian poetry and wrote studies of Shelley, Blake and Yeats. His critical works include The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry, A Map of Misreading: Agon and Towards a Theory of Revisionism. Bloom also dealt with religious and Jewish texts in such books as Ruin the Sacred Truths: Poetry and Belief from the Bible to the Present and The Book of J. He also was interested in Gnosticism and kabbalah’s influences on American spiritual practices in The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation, Omens of Millennium: The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams and Resurrection, and Kabbalah and Criticism. In this latter work he uses the kabbalah as a model for contemporary literary criticism.

Bonafaux, Daniel ben Israel (c. 1645–after 1710) SHABBATEAN prophet from Salonika. He was born in Salonika and settled in Smyrna where he served as an h.azzan in the Pinto synagogue. He was a follower of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. After SHABBATAI’s apostasy, he continued in his belief. The SHABBATEANS accepted Bonafaux as a prophet. When ABRAHAM MIGUEL CORDOZO came to Smyrna in 1674, Bonafaux (known as H . akham Daniel), was at the head of the group of CARDOZO’s followers. In the 1680s Bonafaux returned to Salonika; his opponents claimed he had joined the DOENMEH. About 1695 when he returned to Symrna, he created considerable consternation by his visionary activities. He would read questions addressed to him in sealed letters and demonstrate various phenomena dealing with light. Many came to him for answers to their questions including critics from abroad who sought to examine him and ascertain his SHABBATEAN belief. These included ABRAHAM ROVIGO. Bonafaux was a friend of Elijah ha-Kohen ha-Itamari, the preacher of the town, who referred to him as ‘Yeled’ in his story about a soothsayer. In 1702 Bonafaux was expelled due to the request of the leaders of the community and lived in a village near Smyrna. After 1707 he went to Egypt, returning to Smyrna in 1710 with an imaginary letter of praise of SHABBATAI Z.EVI from the Ten Lost Tribes. Until his death he maintained contact with CARDOZO who claimed that the ‘MAGGID’ who talked through the mouth of Bonafaux was the soul of the kabbalist DAVID HABILLO. Book of Kana Kabbalistic work dealing with the commandments. It is believed to have been written in Spain in the second half of the 14th century.

The same author composed the Sefer ha-Pelliah. A central figure in both works 50

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is the wonder-child Nahum who allegedly received a divine reveleation at the age of five. The books are written in the form of dialogues between the boy and his father Kanah. The writer declares that the literal meaning of rabbinic sources is found in kabbalistic interpretation. Both texts consist of collections using as sources both Spanish kabbalah and German kabbalah. They are strongly antitalmudic and anti-rabbinic. It is likely that their antinomian mysticism influenced SHABBATAI Z.EVI. Book of Raziel The Sefer Raziel ha-Malach is a medieval text, primarily written in Hebrew and Aramaic, but surviving also in Latin translation. According to tradition, it was revealed to Adam by the angel Raziel. Some scholars believe it originated among the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. The likely compiler of the medieval version is ELEAZAR OF WORMS. The work draws heavily on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH and the Sefer Ha-Razim. It is divided into five books, some of it in the form of a mystical midrash on creation. It features elaborate angelology, magical uses of the zodiac, GEMATRIA, names of God, protective spells, and a method of writing magical healing AMULETS. Book of Visions In addition to H . AYYIM VITAL’s presentation of Lurianic kabbalah as well as his own mystical theories, he wrote his Book of Visions while in Damascus. This work contains both his own dreams and visions, and those of others.

Boshal, Moses ben Solomon (17th century) SAFED rabbi. His father brought him to SAFED from Sidon when he was 12. He studied there with various rabbis; at the age of 25, when he was forced to leave because of a series of calamities, he moved to Rome and became a rabbi there. His only extant work, Yishmah. Moshe, was written after years preaching on Sabbaths and holidays.

It contains several sermons for each Sabbath or festival Torah reading. The sermons consist primarily of commentaries on the Torah, although explanations of midrashic literature are also found. From his quotations from the ZOHAR in the introduction to the book, where he also includes a biography, he appears to have been familiar with kabbalistic literature.

Botarel, Moses ben Isaac (end of 14th–beginning of 15th century) Spanish scholar. After the edicts against Jews in Spain in 1391, a pseudoMESSIAH named Moses appeared in Burgos. A letter praising this figure was attributed to H . asdai Crescas; possibly it refers to Moses Botarel. Yet there are various works containing adverse reactions to Botarel’s messianic pretensions by opponents. On the strength of his claims, Botarel circulated letters, which he introduced with the phrase: ‘Thus says Moses Botarel, occupying the seat of instruction in signs and wonders.’ Botarel wrote books and pamphlets in various branches of the Torah as well as halakhah, kabbalah and philosophy. These writings included quotations of scholarly works from the geonic period until his day. However, most of these quotations are either spurious or copied from 51

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sources entirely different from those he named. Botarel lived for some time in Avignon, and later wandered in France and Spain. He boasted of his contact with the Christian scholar Maestro Juan of Paris, implying that he had written a number of his books at his Maestro Juan’s request. In 1409 he composed a lengthy commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. This work was not kabbalistic but rather combined a collection of sayings of others, including fabrications as well as selections from earlier kabbalistic works attributed to nonexistent sources. Many of Botarel’s kabbalistic remedies were included in collections of writings of practical kabbalah. A contemporary poet, Solomon Bonafed, criticized Botarel’s pretensions and hinted at his forgeries. His fabrications misled a number of scholars who assumed they were genuine and utilized them to reconstruct the origins of kabbalah.

Boton, Jacob ben Abraham Di (1635?–1687) Halakhist from Salonika.

He was born in Salonika and was a disciple of H . asdai ha-Kohen Perah.yah.

His father, Abraham ben Jacob, was the grandson of Abraham ben Moses di Boton; he served as chief rabbi of Salonika and was one of the opponents of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. During his father’s lifetime, Jacob served as dayyan. He was acquainted with and believed in SHABBATAI Z.EVI. When his father died, he failed in an attempt to succeed him as chief rabbi despite the recommendation of Solomon Amarillo. Jacob wrote numerous responsa, containing important material dealing with the economic conditions of his time. He made use of various manuscripts of the rishonim and quoted early regulations of the Salonika community. A large part of his responsa was burnt together with his other writings when he was in Constantinople at the home of H . AYYIM ALFANDARI. Brandwein, Judah (1903–1969) Palestinian scholar. Born in SAFED, he was a descendant of the H . asidic dynasty of the rabbi of Stretyn. He studied at yeshivot in Jerusalem where ABRAHAM ISAAC KOOK ordained him. Even though he was a H . asidic rabbi, he engaged in manual labour and worked as a builder. At night he studied and meditated on mystical writings. He was the brother-inlaw and disciple of YEHUDAH ASHLAG who taught him kabbalah. After ASHLAG’S death, he completed ASHLAG’s commentary on the ZOHAR: Ma’alot ha-Sullam. He also wrote a commentary on Tikkunei Zohar (Emendations of the ZOHAR). In additon he published the works of ISAAC LURIA and republished MOSES CORDOVERO’s Or Ne’erav (Pleasant Light).

Brudo, Abraham ben Elijah [Abraham Chelebi] (1625?–1717) Turkish rabbi and preacher. Born in Constantinople, he became rabbi there at an early age. When the SHABBATEAN movement began to spread, he was an adherent. In 1666 he was a signatory to a letter of the rabbis of Constantinople and Smyrna supporting SHABBATAI’s claims. Yet, a year later the rabbis sent another letter expressing opposition to SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s. Apparently, however, Burdo changed his mind and again supported SHABBATAI. In 1688 or possibly later he served as rabbi and preacher in Adrianople. Later he 52

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returned to Constantinople. Following the war between Venice and Turkey, he travelled to raise ransom money for captive Jews. In 1684 he was in Leghorn and then went to other Italian cities. In 1695 he was in Amsterdam, Germany and Austria. The following year he was again in Venice. After this journey, he lived in Jerusalem, where he was chief rabbi. In 1697 he published Birkat Avraham, containing sermons on Genesis.

Buber, Martin (1878–1965) Israeli theologian of Polish origin. Born in Vienna, he grew up in Lemberg where he was a student. He studied at the universities of Vienna, Leipzig, Zurich and Berlin. In 1898 he joined the Zionist movement. He later began to study H . ASIDISM. From 1909 he was involved in Jewish affairs.

In the post-war period he encouraged a policy of reconciliation with the Arab population in Palestine. In 1923 he published his most famous work, I and Thou; two years later the first volumes of his and Franz Rosenzweig’s German translation of the Bible appeared. At this time he began to lecture on Jewish religion and ethics at the University of Frankfurt, and in 1930 he was appointed Associate Professor of Religion. With the rise of Nazism, he immigrated to Palestine where he became Professor of Social Philosophy at the Hebrew University. In addition to his philosophical works, he applied his existentialist approach to the origins and development of H . ASIDISM. Buber maintained that a new form of prophetic protest was manifest in H . ASIDISM’s emphasis on prayer and religious observance. Further, H ASIDISM created pious communities of the faithful by . translating kabbalah from esoteric knowledge to a living tradition.

Busal, H . ayyim ben Jacob Obadiah De (d. c. 1565) Kabbalist from Salonika.

He was an exile from Spain. In Constantinople, he studied under Elijah Mizrah.i and was a disciple of Isaac Amarillo in Salonika. After the death of Eliezer Hashimoni, he was elected as his successor to serve as rabbi of the Catalan community in Salonika. His tenure was marked by various conflicts within the community, particularly between the rabbi and lay leaders over their powers.

A major dispute took place between Busal and the community before 1540.

Busal was obligated to issue a document and was warned that his refusal would disqualify him and his sons from serving as rabbis of the community. Busal refused to comply despite this threat. Another conflict occurred between Busal and one of the rabbis of Salonika, JOSEPH TAITAZ.AK. Shortly before 1550, he went to Constantinople but continued to serve as the rabbi of the Catalan community. The poet Saadiah Longo wrote an elegy about him and regarded Busal as one of the most important scholars of his era. Busal was engaged for many years in the composition of his code of law. In 1546 he completed his work on the order of Zera’im as well as 13 other tractates. He was one of the few Salonika scholars whose kabbalistic works were published. They include Be’er Mayim H . ayyim.

Buzaglo, Shalom ben Moses (c. 1700–1780) Moroccan kabbalist. Born in Marrakesh, he was taught kabbalah by ABBRAHAM BEN ISRAEL AZULAI, 53

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JACOB PINTO and Isaiah Ha-Kohen. He was persecuted by the sultan and subject to torture by fire. As a result he signed himself as ‘brand plucked out of the fire’ (Zech. 3.2). He left Morocco in about 1745 and went to London where he wrote books on esoteric topics. His major work was a commentary on the ZOHAR. In the controversy between JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ and JACOB EMDEN, both sides attempted to influence him to endorse their positions. However, Buzaglo sought to remain neutral: he believed that EYBESCHUETZ’s AMULETS were SHABBATEAN in nature, yet he also accepted that they had been falsified. His Mikdash Melekh was the first systematic commentary on the entire ZOHAR.

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C Canpanton, Isaac ben Jacob (1360–1463) Castilian rabbi. He was head of a yeshivah in Zamora, Spain; his students included Isaac de Leon, Isaac Aboab II, Samuel ben Abraham Valensi, and SHEM TOV IBN SHEM TOV. He laid down methodological rules for the study of the Talmud which were summarized in Darkhei ha-Talmud. In this work he departed from the method of previous scholars who had merely formulated Talmudic rules. Instead Canpanton systematically explained the proper method of studying the text.

He also was the first to lay down methodological rules for the study of the rishonim. His system was passed on by his students to JACOB BERAB who introduced it into his yeshivah in SAFED. Samuel ibn Sid, the pupil of Isaac de Leon, also described the method of study at the yeshivah laid down by Isaac Canpanton in Kelalei Shemuel. Canpanton was also active in communal affairs. In 1450 after the death of Don Abraham Benveniste, he became a member of a committee (along with Joseph ibn Shem Tov and Joseph ben Abraham Benveniste) appointed to apportion tax among Castilian Jews. He died in Penafiel after considerable hardship. He appears to have engaged in the study of kabbalah and miraculous deeds were attributed to him. His disciples circulated his kabbalistic teaching.

Canpanton, Judah ben Solomon (14th century) Ethical writer and philosopher. Little is known about him except a few scattered remarks in his work Arba’ah Kinyanim. He was a pupil of Yom-Tov ben Abraham Ishbili. It appears that Canpanton lived in Molina and witnessed the persecutions of Jews in Spain. He also seems to have engaged in disputations with Christians. Yet it has not been ascertained whether he wrote a treatise dealing with these polemics. It has also not been established where he belonged to the same Canpanton family as ISAAC BEN JACOB CANPANTON. Arba’ah Kinyanim, his major work, is a philosophical and ethical treatise influenced by kabbalistic doctrines. It is divided into four parts, each of which deals with a particular subject. His sources were largely the writings of Spanish Jewish philosophers including Abraham ibn Ezra 55

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and MAIMONIDES. He also drew on rabbinic literature including the works of NAH . MANIDES and Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi.

Cardozo, Abraham Miguel (1626–1706) Spanish SHABBATEAN. Born in Rio Seco, Spain, to a Marrano family. He studied medicine and Christian theology at the University of Salamanca. He lived for a time with his brother in Madrid, and in 1648 left Spain and settled in Venice. In Leghorn he returned to Judaism and continued his studies in medicine and acquired a knowledge of rabbinic literature. He worked as a physician, but in 1659 he began to travel. According to tradition, he lived in Tripoli, but according to his own account he first went to Egypt and lived in Cairo where he studied Lurianic kabbalah. In 1663 or 1664 he went to Tripoli where he began to have revelations. When information about the appearance of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and NATHAN OF GAZA was received, he became a follower. He persisted in his belief after SHABBATAI’s apostasy, which he sought to justify. He corresponded with a number of leaders of the SHABBATEAN movement including NATHAN OF GAZA, Abraham Yakhini and SHABBATAI himself. He composed a number of books, pamphlets and treatises in support of SHABBATAI’s messiahship. In 1668, the rabbis of Smyrna accused him of misconduct regarding the mitzvot. In 1673 he was banned from Tripoli. He lived in Tunis until 1674 where he was a physician of the local ruler. In 1674 he went to Leghorn, and later travelled to Smyrna where he came into contact with other SHABBATEANS. His group evolved a sectarian life marked by visions and revelations in which a MAGGID confirmed Cordozo’s theories. During this period he called himself ‘Messiah ben Joseph’. He later went to Constantinople, but settled in Galipoli. During this period the DOENMEH sect emerged, which Cordozo opposed despite their respect for him. He developed his own doctrine which was different from that of NATHAN OF GAZA. This teaching was called Sod ha-Elohut. In 1686 he returned to Constantinople where he lived until 1696. He eventually attempted to settle in Erez. Israel but moved to Alexandria. He was one of the most important SHABBATEAN leaders of the 17th century.

Carlebach, Shlomo (1925–1994) American rabbi and performer. Born in Berlin, he went to New York with his parents in 1939. He studied at Mesivta Tora Vo-da’ath yeshivah and Beth Midrash Gevoha of America yeshivah. He developed an interest in H . ASIDISM and became an outreach emissary for H . ABAD Lubavitch.

Together with ZALMAN SCHACHTER-SHALOMI, he went on missions to university campuses throughout the United States. Early on he played the guitar and composed songs in the folk idiom; these works blended elements of the H . asidic niggun, Israeli song and American folk revival. In the mid-1950s he left the Lubavitch movement, seeking to reach a broader audience. He performed in coffeehouses throughout this period and produced an album. In 1977 he and his ‘Holy Hippelach’ left Northern California and established Moshav Me’or Modi’in outside Tel Aviv. Simultaneously he served in his late father’s congregation on New York’s Upper West Side. By the time of his death, he had recorded over 25 albums, composed up to 5,000 songs, and performed on five continents.

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Caro, Isaac ben Joseph (15th century) Spanish scholar. He lived at the time of the expulsion of Jewry from Spain in 1492. Born in Toledo, he was the head of a yeshivah. Several years before his expulsion, he moved with his yeshivah to Portugal. When the expulsion of Jews from Portugal was decreed in 1497 he went to Turkey and became a rabbi in Constantinople. His Toledot Yiz.h.ak is a commentary on the Pentateuch, which includes literal, homiletical, kabbalistic and philosophical interpretations. He adopted his nephew, JOSEPH CARO, who frequently mentioned him.

Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim (1488–1575) Spanish scholar. Born in Toledo, Castile, it appears that he went with his family to Turkey or Portugal after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. After Jews were expelled from Portugal in 1497, he and his family went to Turkey. Initially he lived in Constantinople, but later in Adrianople, Nikopol and Salonika. He studied under his father Ephraim; after his father’s death his uncle, ISAAC CARO, brought him up. In Turkey he apparently met SOLOMON MOLCHO. He was also influenced by JOSEPH TAITAZ.AK and SOLOMON ALKABETZ. In Salonika and in Adrianople there were groups of pietists and kabbalists led by these scholars. In 1522 he began writing Beit Yosef. In 1536 he left Turkey for SAFED where he appears to have studied under JACOB BERAB who ordained him along with three other scholars. After BERAB left SAFED in 1538, he was regarded as the leader of the scholars there. His pupils included MOSES CORDOVERO and MOSES ALSHEIKH. Caro is best known for his halakhic work the Shulh.an Arukh, which became the authoritative code of Jewish law. As a kabbalist, Caro was concerned with kabbalistic doctrine and was committed to kabbalistic theories concerning ascetic and spiritual perfection. He belonged to a circle of scholars and ascetics that included leading kabbalists of the age. In his circle kabbalah was not merely a matter of mystical theology and theosophical speculation; several members of his group experienced mystical revelations. Caro believed himself to be visited by a heavenly MAGGID who revealed to him kabbalistic doctrines.

This mentor identified himself as the heavenly archetype of the Mishnah and the SHEKHINAH and manifested himself in the form of automatic speech, which came out of Caro’s mouth. These visitations which continued for about 50 years were written down in a mystical diary, Maggid Mesharim.

Castelnuovo, Menahem Azariah Meir ben Elijah [Menahem H . ayyim] (1760–1847) Rabbi and author from Siena. Born in Siena, he was the son of a merchant. In addition to his rabbinical and general knowledge, he was familiar with kabbalah. After serving as a rabbi in Siena and Padua, he went to Leghorn where he was dayyan in the bet din of Raphael Ergas and later in that of Joseph Franco. His works include Misgeret ha-Shulh.an, Emek ha-Melekh and Petah. ha-Teva.

Chariot Riders The term is used to define those who were said to go down into the Chariot (MERKAVAH) in order to enter the higher worlds. The MERKAVAH was an important component of EZEKIEL’s vision representing the world of YEZ.IRAH, that is, the world of the soul in contrast to the Throne, 57

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which symbolises the spiritual dimension of the heavens. It is common to all mystics that they have to go deep within themselves as the microcosm of existence in order to experience the macrocosmic worlds. The psyche is the vehicle or chariot by which this is possible, because it has access to all four worlds, as can be seen from its position on JACOB’S LADDER. Chotsh, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jerahmeel (c. 1700) Polish kabbalist. He was an itinerant preacher who lived in Cracow, Prossnitz and Western Europe. His Shabta de-Rigla is a collection of kabbalistic sermons. His other writings include Derekh Yesharah, dealing with kabbalistic prayers and magic, and H . emdat Z.evi, a commentary on the Tikkunei Zohar in the spirit of ISAAC LURIA’s kabbalah. It may be that he belonged to the ascetic wing of the SHABBATEANS. Chotsh also revised a Yiddish translation made by his grandfather Aviezer Zelig of parts of the ZOHAR. Ciechanow, Abraham ben Raphael Landau of [Czechanower] (1789– 1875) Polish rabbi and Z.ADDIK. His family name was originally Dobrzinsky, but when he married the daughter of Dan Landau, the parnas of Polock who supported for many years, he changed his name to Landau. His H . asidic mentor was Fishel of Strykow. He was an admirer of SIMH . AH BUNIM OF PRZYSUCHA. In 1819 Abraham was appointed rabbi of Ciechanow where he officiated until his death. Although he was invited to serve as rabbi in Lodz, Lublin and Polock, he refused to leave the smaller community where he served as rabbi. From 1866 he was acknowledged as a Z.ADDIK by the H . ASIDIM in Ciechanow, but continued to follow the Ashkenazi rite. He never adopted the custom of receiving petitions or money from his followers. He often took part in consultations concerning public matters of Jewish interest adopting a stand of extreme conservatism.

Cordova City in Andalusia Spain. The first references to a Jewish community there date from 840. When Cordova became the capital of the Ummayad caliphate in Spain, it was a centre of Jewish culture. This was largely due to the influence of H . isdai ibn Shaprut who attracted philosophers, poets and scholars to the city.

Cordovero, Gedaliah ben Moses (1562–1625) Rabbi and kabbalist from SAFED. He was the son of MOSES CORDOVERO. Born in SAFED, he studied under Solomon Sagis after the death of his father when he was eight.

Before 1584 he was in Italy where he engaged in the book trade. While in Venice he published Yom ha-Kippurim and Or Ne’erav. It appears that he was also active in Italy as a preacher announcing imminent redemption. With ISRAEL SARUG, he was in Modena where they urged the adoption of the SAFED customs of rising early to mourn for the destruction of the Temple and to pray for redemption.

Gedaliah went to the Holy Land after 1590 and became chief rabbi of Jerusalem.

In 1607 a quarrel broke out between him and the Jerusalem scholar Menahem di Lonzano, who had helped him to obtain his position. As a consequence, Lonzano was compelled to leave Ęrez Israel. However, after a short time, he returned and 58

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peace was established between these two men. Gedaliah was in Italy from 1609 to 1611 as an emissary for Jerusalem. In 1625 the disturbances during the reign of Ibn Faruk, governor of Jerusalem, imposed a strain on Gedaliah in his role as chief rabbi and he died during the riots which took place.

Cordovero, Moses (1522–1570) Palestinian kabbalist. His birthplace is unknown, but he was the most important kabbalist in SAFED before ISAAC LURIA. He was a disciple of JOSEPH CARO and SOLOMON ALKABETZ, and later was a teacher of ISAAC LURIA. His major work was PARDES RIMMONIM (The Orchard of Pomegranates). Later he wrote Elimah Rabbati and a lengthy commentary on the ZOHAR. Cordovero’s views constitute a summary and development of various trends in kabbalistic speculation. His work seeks to construct a complete system. Cordovero followed the Tikkunei Zohar in his understanding of God as a transcendent being: God is the first cause, different from all other beings. In his view, no positive attribute should be ascribed to him. Yet, Cordovero stressed that the difference between kabbalah and philosophy lies in the solution of the problem of God’s relationship with the world. The bridge is possible by the structure of the SEFIROT which emanate from the Deity. For Cordovero, God is transcendent and personal. Thus, the central problem of his theology is the relationship between EN SOF and the SEFIROT. Should they be understood as God himself, or vessels? Cordovero maintained that the SEFIROT are both substance and vessels. They are beings emanated from God, but his substance is immanent in them. Cordovero described the SEFIROT as instruments by which God is active in the world, and as the vessels containing divine substance, which animates them.

Cosmology Theories describing the origin and structure of the universe.

Numerous mystical tracts, including the SEFER YEZ.IRAH and the ZOHAR, were preoccupied with the creation of the universe, and cosmological speculation became a central feature of kabbalistic speculation.

Creation From the earliest period Jewish mystics were preoccupied with cosmology. In aggadic sources as well as in the SEFER YEH . IRAH, various recondite theories were propounded concerning the process whereby God created the cosmos. The theme of creation continued in the ZOHAR and other medieval kabbalistic texts as well as in the theology of ISAAC LURIA and subsequent kabbalists.

Cuenque, Abraham ben Levi (d. 1648) Kabbalist author and SHABBATEAN from Erez. Israel. Born in Hebron, he joined the SHABBATEAN movement and remained among its followers even after SHABBETAI Z.EVI’s conversion to Islam. In 1683 he went as an envoy to Europe, crossed Italy, France, Poland and Germany and returned in 1693. At the request of a friend in Frankfurt, he wrote his memoirs of SHABBATAI Z.EVI whom he had met in Hebron. Sections of this work are included in JACOB EMDEN’s Torat ha-Kena’ot.

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D Daat In kabbalistic sources, the SEFIRAH of KETER and DAAT are actually one. They represent different dimension of a single force. When KETER manifests itself in consciousness, it transforms into the SEFIRAH of Daat. In other words, KETER and Daat are two sides of the same coin. Usually when referring to the ten SEFIROT, one will either count KETER in which case one does not count Daat, or vice-versa. Hence, there are actually only ten SEFIROT, but, all together, eleven names. The configuration of the SEFIROT is depicted in kabbalstic sources by a vertical array along three parallel axes, each representing a mode of divine influence within creation. This is referred to as a sulam (ladder), an etz. (tree), or z.elem Elohim (supernal image of God). According to this last designation, the configuration of the SEFIROT suggests that of the human body. The SEFIROT are divided into three triads of three. There is right, left and middle at three levels. The first triad of right, left and middle is the triplet of the mind: Daat (or alternatively KETER), HOKHMAH and BINAH. Dan, Joseph (1935– ) Israeli scholar He was born in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, and went to Palestine at the age of three. His family lived in Jerusalem and he studied at the Hebrew University. He began teaching at the Hebrew University in 1958, becoming professor of kabbalah in 1978. A leading scholar in the area of Jewish mysticism, his research combined a historical, philological and literary approach. His writings focused on the beginnings of kabbalah, HEKHALOT literature, the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ and ethics and H ASIDISM. .

Danzinger, Jerahmeel Israel Isaac (1853–1910) H . asidic rabbi. He was the grandson of SHRAGA FEIVEL DANZINGER, and the son of Jehiel Danzinger. He had wide learning and was beloved by the H . ASIDIM. He questioned his followers about their circumstances and advised them accordingly.

He had a small circle of learned disciples, but also provided moral guidance to others. His writings include Yismah Yisrael.

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Danzinger, Shraga Feivel (d. 1849) Polish H . asid. He was the founder of a dynasty of H . asidic rabbis in Poland who were active from the second half of the 19th century. Their court was at Aleksandrow, a small town near Lodz. He served as rabbi in the towns of Sierpc, Gabin and Makow. He succeeded his rebbe, Isaac of Warka.

Dato, Mordecai ben Judah (1525–1591/1601) Italian kabbalist. His writings are extant in various manuscripts. His works include commentaries on biblical passages; an index to the ZOHAR; a commentary on Esther; a commentary on Habakkuk; a commentary on Psalms; a commentary on the haftarot; letters on kabbalah to Ezra; letters on halakhic matters to scholars in Italy; and memoirs of his visit to SAFED written by his son but formulated by Dato himself.

David ben Judah he-H . asid (early 14th century) Spanish kabbalist. He was the grandson of NAH . MANIDES, and a descendant of JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-H . ASID OF REGENSBURG. He wrote several books which illustrate the development of kabbalistic doctrine after the publication of the ZOHAR. Besides the teachings of NAH . MANIDES, these reflected the traditions which evolved from the sayings of Castilian kabbalists, the ZOHAR, and the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. He was the author of the first commentary on Sefer ha-Gevul, a part of the ZOHAR. He also wrote Marot ha-Z.ove’ot al ha-Torah, based on the ZOHAR which he quotes in Hebrew translation with the addition of sayings from other sources; Or Zaru’a, a kabbalistic commentary on the order of the prayers; and treatises on the mysteries of the alphabet, on creation and on MERKAVAH mysticism. His works were quoted by other kabbalists.

David of Makow (d. 1814) MAGGID and dayyan in Makow. Born in Rovno, he was an adherent of the H . asidic leader MENAHEM MENDEL OF VITEBSK in his youth. After the H . ASIDIM were excommunicated by ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, he became one of his followers and joined the MITNAGGEDIM. He warned against the dangers he saw in H . asidic teaching.

In his opinion H . ASIDISM constituted a threat to normative Judaism. He blamed the courts of the Z.ADDIKIM for the spread of religious and moral anarchy.

He was particularly critical of H . asidic leaders including the BAAL SHEM TOV. His two anti-H . asidic works are Zemir Ariz.im and a treatise, which exists in three versions. Other of his writings include commentaries on the Bible and the Mishnah, and two letters and his will. Between 1772 and 1798 he was the most important polemicist against H . ASIDISM. Echoes of his thought are found in Haskalah literature, particularly the work of Joseph Perl and Peter Beer. His daughter Rachel married Joshua of Makow, who also took part in the struggle against H . ASIDISM. David of Talna [David ben Mordecai Twersky] (1808–1882) Z.ADDIK who lived first at Vasilkov and then at Talna in the Ukraine. He was the most famous of the eight sons of Menahem Nahum Twersky, the founder 61

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of the Chernobyl H . asidic dynasty. Thousands of individuals came to his court, which he maintained in luxurious style including a court jester. According to tradition, his house contained a silver chair bearing the inscription in gold: David Melekh Yisrael H . ai ve-Kayyam (‘David, King of Israel, lives and is in existence’). This gave his opponents a means of denouncing him to the Russian authorities as a rebel against the government. As a result, he was imprisoned and freed only after several appeals. Despite his aristocratic lifestyle, he was a man of the people. His speech contained popular proverbs so that the common people could understand him. He was fond of music and brought famous folk singers and musicians to his court. The Talna melodies became popular amongst the H . ASIDIM and Jews in general. His writings include Magen David, Birkat David and Kehillat David.

Delacrut, Mattathias ben Solomon (mid-16th century) Polish kabbalist and astronomer. In 1550 he went to Italy where he studied mathematics, natural sciences, astronomy and kabbalah in Bologna. His writings include a commentary on Gossouin’s Le Livre de Clergie or L’Image du Monde, a treatise on astronomy and natural sciences; and a commentary on JOSEPH GIKITILLA’s kabbalistic work Sha’arei Orah. Delacrut was primarily concerned with theoretical kabbalah dealing with complex questions concerning God, creation and the relation of human beings to the Divine. In his view, human beings were created to serve their Creator. Before the world was formed, everything that existed was in the keeping of divine darkness. God brought about creation by the agency of the SEFIROT, which had always been part of his essence. God created humanity in his image: the soul of each person acts in the body in the same way that the qualities of God function in the world. The dualism of body and soul does not exist only in human beings but is manifest everywhere in the material world.

Human beings stand at the median between the upper and lower world; they have free will and the power to decide between good and evil. Through purity of body and soul, human beings can approach nearer to God. Demons Evil spirits. Kabbalists made use of various motifs in the Talmud and midrash with regard to demons and added new elements. Kabbalist sought to systematize demonology so that it could fit into their understanding of the world; in addition, they added various elements from external sources such as medieval Arabic and Christian demonology.

Devekut (cleaving) In kabbalistic literature, the term means ‘cleaving to God’. This is achieved mainly during the time of prayer or mediation before prayer through proper KAVVANOT (intentions). Devekut is described as the highest step on a spiritual ladder; this is reached after the believer has mastered the attitudes of fear and love of God. The aspect of the divine world to which the mystical prayers when he aspires to attain the state of devekut is usually the SHEKHINAH (the tenth and lowest of the SEFIROT) which is identified with the feminine element in the divine realm. Kabbalists emphasize that the communion achieved by the mystic during prayer is transitory; only after death 62

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can a person hope that his soul will reach a complete state of devekut with God. The final state of bliss will not be attained until there is messianic redemption.

This view is found in the ZOHAR and was widely accepted by later kabbalists.

Nonetheless, most kabbalists attempted to formulate a concept of communion with God. This is described in various ways using a range of symbols. One of the most common ideas found in kabbalistic sources is that devekut is a ladder by which a person can climb from one SEFIRAH to another. By this means the soul is raised in mystical contemplation. It is possible in rare instances for devekut to take place with EN SOF, which is beyond the SEFIROT. There are references in early kabbalistic sources of contemplative devekut such as devekut ha-mah.ashavah (cleaving of thought to God) which means the return of human thought to its origin in divine wisdom, or the devekut ha-raz.on (cleaving of human will to God) achieved through prayer. Later more emphasis was placed on the union of the human soul with its spiritual origin in the world of the SEFIROT. There can also be elements of ecstasy associated with devekut – in this case devekut is not an intellectual state of mind, but rather emotional exaltation. In most kabbalistic sources, there is a connection between devekut and prophecy.

Moses and the prophets were described as those who achieved devekut. When this occurs, Ru’ah. ha-Kodesh (the Holy Spirit) comes into contact with the mystic.

The notion of devekut, as the highest spiritual accomplishment, was popularized by some kabbalistic writers. This became a theme of H . ASIDISM. Divination The process of predicting the future by means of various methods.

In rabbinic literature the sages adopted an ambivalent attitude towards divination.

Despite the prohibition against this practice in Scripture, scholars particularly in Babylonia lived in an environment in which divination was frequently practised.

The sages sought to overcome this difficulty by distinguishing between nah.ash (divination proper) which was forbidden, and simanim (signs) which was permitted. In the Middle Ages it was common among Jews to read omens from bodily phenomena. In addition, the active creation of signs and portents was common. On the night of Hoshanah Rabba, when it was believed that the decision concerning men’s fate during the New Year was irrevocably determined, it was a widespread custom among Jewry to go out into the moonlight to see if the shadows they cast were lacking heads. This was a sign that what had happened to the shadow would soon occur to the body. The earliest reference to this practice was made by ELEAZER OF WORMS. Like Christians, Jews also used the Bible as a method of divination: they opened the Bible at random and took as a portent the first word of sentence they encountered. Divination through casting lots was also common. It was usual to employ devices like tossing a coin to throwing the dice. Other methods of divination included the practice of two friends agreeing that the first to die should return to reveal the secrets of heaven to the other, or calling up the dead and questioning them about future events.

Doenmeh Adherents of SHABBATAI Z.EVI who embraced Islam as a consequence of SHABBATAI’s conversion. When SHABBATAI converted 63

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to Islam in September 1666, a number of his followers interpreted his apostasy as a secret mission. The majority adhered to Judaism. However, while SHABBATAI was still alive, several leaders of the movement believed it was essential to follow in the steps of the MESSIAH and become Muslims without renouncing Judaism. Until SHABBATAI’s death in 1676 this group, which was located largely in Adrianople, numbered 200 families; they came mainly from the Balkans but there were also adherents from Izmir, Brusa and other places.

There were a few outstanding kabbalists among them whose families occupied an important position among the Doenmeh. Even among the SHABBATEANS who did not convert to Islam, including NATHAN OF GAZA, this sect was viewed with favour. Many of the community became converts as a result of SHABBATAI’s teaching; they lived outwardly as Muslims but practised a form of messianic Judaism based on a number of precepts which were attributed to SHABBATAI. These principles were based on the Ten Commandments.

The community later moved to Salonika. Marrying among themselves, they eventually evolved into antinomian sub-groups, which violated Jewish sexual law and asserted the divinity of SHABBATAI and their leader, BARUCHIAH RUSSO. In Italy several SHABBATEAN groups also emerged and propagated their views. In the 18th century the most important SHABBATEAN sect was led by JACOB FRANK, who was influenced by the Doenmeh in Turkey. Believing himself to be the incarnation of SHABBATAI, he announced that he was the second person of the Trinity and gathered together a circle of disciples.

Donnolo, Shabbetai (913–c. 932) Italian physician and writer on medicine.

Details of his life are found in his autobiographical sketch in the preface to his book Sefer H . akhmoni, a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. Born in Oria, Italy, he was captured by Saracen raiders at the age of twelve but was ransomed by relatives in Taranto. He studied medicine and was well versed in the Talmud as well as geonic literature. He travelled extensively, presumably visiting Salerno. He practised medicine in southern Italy. He was both a pharmacist and physician. Throughout his commentaries he emphasized the importance of Hebrew writings. The parallelism of physiognomies and astrology in his writings was based on his belief that the human body is an image of the MACROCOSM. Using his scientific knowledge, he sought to demonstrate that everything in human beings corresponds to some phenomena in the world. He gave a detailed study of the functions of the various parts of the human body, and then equated them with the functions of the various powers and elements in the world. Human beings, therefore, were not created in the image of God, but in the image of God’s creation. Donnolo attempted to give a scientific explanation of the creation of the world in the course of his interpretation of the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. Later interpreters, especially the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, used his views to develop their own notion of the process of creation.

Double Letters According to SEFER YETZ.RAH 3:2–10, the process of creation took place through the Hebrew letters: ‘By means of the 22 letters, by 64

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giving them a form and shape, by mixing them and combining them in different ways, God made the soul of all that which has been created and all that which will be. These 22 letters are divided into three groups, beginning with the three mother letters. The second group consists of 10 double letters. As SEFER YEZ.IRAH 4:8 relates: He caused the letter bet to reign over life . . . and he formed through them: Saturn in the universe, the first day of the year, and the right eye in the body of male and female. He caused the letter gimel to reign over peace . . . He formed through them: Jupiter in the universe, the second day of the year, and the left eye in the body of male and female. He caused the letter dalet to reign over wisdom . . . He formed through them: Mars in the universe, the third day in the year, and the left ear in the body of male and female. He caused the letter kaf to reign over wealth. He formed through them: Sun in the universe, the fourth day in the year, and the left ear of the body of male and female. He caused the letter pey to reign over gracefulness . . . He formed through them: Venus in the universe, the fifth day in the year, and the left nostril in the body of male and female. ‘He caused the letter resh to reign over seed . . . He formed through them: Mercury in the universe, the sixth day in the year, and the left nostril in the body of male and female. He caused the letter tav to reign over dominion . . . He formed through them: Moon in the universe, the Sabbath day in the year, and the mouth in the body of male and female.’

Dov Baer of Mezhirech (d. 1772) Ukrainian leader of H . asidim. Born in 1710, he was a student of JACOB JOSHUA FALK; later he taught in Torchin, becoming a preacher in Korets and Rovno. Subsequently he settled in Mezhirech in Volhnynia. Near the end of his life he resided in Annopol. He was generally recognized as the successor to the BAAL SHEM TOV. In addition to his study of Talmudic law, Dov Baer was preoccupied with kabbalistic doctrines as propounded by ISAAC LURIA. Adopting an ascetic lifestyle, he subjected himself to a variety of mortifications, which had an adverse effect on his health. According to tradition, he sought a cure from the Besht, and in consequence became an ardent disciple. After the death of the BAAL SHEM TOV, he was widely recognized as the leader of the H . asidic movement, although he was opposed by an older follower of the Besht, JACOB JOSEPH OF POLONNOYE. By 1766 Dov Baer’s authority was recognized throughout the H . asidic world. The starting point of Dov Baer’s mystical system was his conviction that God is present in all things. According to Dov Baer, the divine emanation that is manifest throughout creation offers the basis for contact with God – the aim of human life is to reunite creation with the Creator. This is possible by focusing one’s life and all worldly aspects on the divine dimension.

This can be achieved by motivation that inspires action: all acts when motivated by the ultimate purpose of serving God become acts of unification. For Dov Baer the process of attachment to God brings about the unification of all the worlds below and the Divine. In presenting this theory, he maintained that the purpose of human existence is to return to Ayin (nothingness) which precedes creation.

In this quest the soul descends from the heavenly realm so as to raise up material 65

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existence through spiritual exaltation. By this means it is possible to restore cosmic harmony. In this process there is a mingling between the first SEFIRAH (divine emanation), Ayin, and the second sefirah H . OKHMAH (wisdom). In general Dov Baer did not differentiate between these two emanations; they were treated as related and he transposed them in order to demonstrate the true nature of the soul. Such a monistic approach stipulated that God is found everywhere. Here the concept of divine immanence and the Lurianic concept of lifting up of the sparks serve as the basis for the notion of worship through corporeality. Distinguishing himself from the Lurianic understanding of Z.IMZ.UM (divine contraction), Dov Baer returned to the ideological system of MOSES CORDOVERO who envisaged Z.IMZ.UM as an act of concealment from the aspect of Divine Essence. For Dov Baer the breaking of the vessels is not catastrophic – rather its purpose is to illuminate the nature of existence.

For Dov Baer the role of the Z.ADDIK is to attain a life of complete holiness.

By virtue of his spiritual elevation, he can serve as an intercessor on behalf of his people.

Dualism The doctrine that holds that reality consists of two ultimate principles. Historically dualistic systems have appeared in philosophical as well as moral forms. However, in Jewish mysticism, the esoteric discipline and ecstatic visionary practices of the MERKAVAH mystics did not share the dualism of alien gnostic religious systems. The term ‘yoz.er bereshit’ (Creator)_ was deprived of any gnostic connotations by being used in the SHIUR KOMAH literature for the manifestation of God on the Throne of Glory. Nonetheless, traces of dualism are found in the distinction made by kabbalists between the hidden Godhead (EN SOF) and the Godhead as manifested in the SEFIROT. Such dualistic tendencies are most marked in the kabbalistic treatment of evil. For kabbalists the demonic realm (SITRA AH . RA) is a kind of negative mirror image of the side of holiness with which it was engaged in combat. Yet, here too it is necessary to distinguish between a dualistic tendency and dualistic theory.

Kabbalistic doctrine does not posit an ultimate dualism. Thus, kabbalists were compelled to seek the origin of the demonic realm in the sphere of divine emanation.

Dunash Ibn Tamim (c. 890–after 955) North African scholar, from Kairouan. He studied with ISAAC ISRAELI. The philosophical and theological parts of his commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH reflect the NEOPLATONISM of ISRAELI’s thought. Dunash probably received from ISRAELI his medical knowledge, displayed especially in the last pages of his commentary. He also demonstrated knowledge of certain theories of Arabic grammar. In addition to astronomy, his commentary illustrates that he had read treatises derived from Greek sources on physics and the natural sciences.

Dunash is thought to be the author of various works including a treatise on astronomy. His commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH was written in 955/6.

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much of the knowledge of his day without losing sight of the truths of religion.

He dealt with such ideas as the concept of an incorporeal God who created a perfectly regulated universe, a hierarchy of souls of the spheres, and prophetic inspiration, which coincided, in the highest degree with Plotinian ecstasy. He was critical of Saadiah Gaon’s commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. Duties of the Heart Work by the 11th century Spanish Jewish philosopher BAH . YA IBN PAKUDA. Throughout this study BAH . YA calls upon his readers to remain faithful to their inner experience. Divided into ten chapters, the book progressively leads the faithful to the love of God. The structure of BAH . YA’s treatise was borrowed from Arab mystical tracts which take the reader through ascending stages of a person’s inner life towards spiritual perfection and ultimately union with the Divine. Each of its ten chapters is devoted to a particular duty; the subjects treated include the unity of God, the nature of the world which reveals God’s handiwork, divine worship, trust in God, sincerity of purpose, humility, repentance, self-examination, asceticism, and the love of God. Dybbuk In Jewish folklore, the dybbuk was seen as an evil spirit, which enters into a living person and cleaves to his soul and speaking through his mouth.

The term is not used in the Talmud or in kabbalistic sources. It was introduced in the 17th century from the spoken language of German and Polish Jews. It is an abbreviation of dybbuk me-ru’ah. ra’ah (a cleavage of an evil spirit), or dybbuk min ha-h.iz.onim (dybbuk from the outside) which is found in human persons. The act of attachment of the spirit to the body became the name of the spirit itself.

Nonetheless, the verb davok (cleave) is frequently used in kabbalistic sources where it refers to the relations between and evil spirit and the body. Stories about the dybbuk were usual in the Second Temple and the Talmudic period.

Initially the dybbuk was considered to be a devil or demon, which entered the body of a sick individual. Later it was believed the some of the dybbukim are the spirits of dead persons who were not laid to rest and became demons. This idea combined with the doctrine of transmigration of the soul (GILGUL) in the 16th century and became widespread. The entry of a dybbuk into a person was believed to be the result of a secret sin. A combination of views current in the non-Jewish world and popular Jewish beliefs influenced by kabbalistic doctrine form these conceptions. The kabbalistic literature of ISAAC LURIA’S disciples contains many stories about the exorcism of dybbukim. The power to exorcise dybbukim was given to accomplished H . asidic leaders. They exorcised the dybbuk from the body which was bound by it and simultaneously redeemed the soul by providing a TIKKUN (restoration) for the person either by transmigration or by causing the dybbuk to enter hell.

Dynow, Z.evi Elimelech (1785–1841) H . asidic Z.ADDIK in Dynow, Galicia.

He was a disciple of Z.evi Hirsch of Zhidachov, JACOB ISAAC HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN and ISRAEL OF KOZIENICE. He served as a rabbi in Strzyzow, 67

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Halicz, Dynow and Munkacs. His opposition to Haskalah and philosophy was evidenced in his devotion to kabbalah as the essence of Judaism. He viewed philosophical enquiry as a waste of time and soul. Rational reason should not be sought for the mitzvot – rather they should be observed with love. In his view, the task of the Z.ADDIK is of utmost importance since by means of attaining the highest spiritual level the Z.ADDIK is able to unite the lower and the upper worlds. Z.evi Elimelech differentiated between two types of Z.ADDIKIM: (1) the perfect one who is a servant of God; and (2) the one who only worships God. Worship of God, he believed, must combine both love and fear. Fear corresponds to Z.IMZ.UM, and love corresponds to hitpashetut (expansion).

Just as there can be no stability or survival for worlds without Z.IMZ.UM, so if it were not for fear, human beings would dissolve in ecstasy and the light of the soul would depart from its earthly container. Fear of divine majesty, in contrast with fear of punishment, is the acme of faith. A person to whom God gives knowledge is enabled to retreat within himself directing his thought to his Creator while in the company of others. Dynow’s writings include kabbalistic texts as well as homiletic and exegetical works.

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E Eleazar ben Arakh (second half of the first century CE) Palestinian tanna.

He was of the disciples of JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI. He engaged in mystical speculation. The Talmud recounts that while they were travelling together, he asked R. Johanan to teach him the mystic speculations on the Divine Chariot. ‘ “No!” replied the master. “Did I not already tell you that the MERKAVAH may not be taught to anyone unless he is a sage and has an original turn of mind?”

“Very well, then!” replied Eliezer ben Arakh. “Will you give me permission to tell you a thing which you taught me?” “Yes!” replied JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI. “Say it!” Immediately the master dismounted from his donkey, wrapped himself in a garment, and sat on a stone beneath an olive tree. “Why, O master, have you dismounted from your ass!” asked the disciple. “Is it possible,” replied he, “that I will ride on my donkey at the moment when you are expounding the mysteries of the MERKAVAH, and the SHEKHINAH is with us, and the ministering angels are accompanying us?” Then Eliezer ben Arak began his discourse on the mysteries of the MERKAVAH. No sooner had he begun, than fire came down from heaven and encompassed all the trees of the field, which with one accord, burst into song . . . An angel cried out from the fire, saying, “Truly these, even these are the secrets of the MERKAVAH.” ’ Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (c. 1165–c. 1230) German kabbalist. He was the last major scholar of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. Born in Mainz, he studied in many centres of learning in Germany and France. His father, JUDAH BEN KALONYMUS, was one of the leading scholars of his generation and taught his son halakhah and esoteric theology. JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-H . ASID was also his teacher along with Moses ha-Kohen and Eliezer of Metz. He witnessed the massacre of the Jews by Crusaders at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century. On several occasions in his commentary on prayer, he noted the events that occurred in Worms. In one of these pogroms his wife, daughter and son were murdered. His works consisted of halakhah, liturgical poetry, theology, ethics and exegesis. His 69

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major theological study was Sodei Razayya (Secret of Secrets). The first part is a study of creation. Eleazar wrote this section as an exegesis based on the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This was in according with his belief based on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH that the alphabet was the source of the cosmos. He included material from HEKHALOT and MERKAVAH literature. Most of this work was included in Sefer Razi’el. The second part of this study, Sod haMerkavah (Secret of the Divine Chariot), deals with the secrets of the angels, the Holy Throne, the Chariot, the Divine Voice and the Divine Glory. Here he made use of the teachings of Saadiah Gaon as well as HEKHALOT literature.

The third part, Sefer ha-Shem (The Book of the Holy Name), is a systematic exegesis of the names of God. The fourth part is a treatise of psychology, H . okhmat ha-Nefesh. The final part is a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH and discusses the GOLEM. Eleazar’s contribution to ethics is contained in the first two chapters of Sefer Ha-Rokeah.. A discussion of ethics is also found in his introduction to Sodei Razayya.

Eleazar ben Moses ha-Darshan of Wuerzburg (mid-13th century) German scholar. He was one of the later writers of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ from the school of JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-HASID and ELEAZAR OF WORMS. His father Moses was JUDAH’s brother-in-law. None of his writings has been published. Two of his works in manusript form consist of a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, cited by ABRAHAM ABULAFIA, and parts of his commentary on the Torah which uses mainly the system of GEMATRIA. Possibly sections of his other works are scattered in 13th-century Ashkenazi exegetical literature, and many quotations are found in the writings of later scholars such as his son Moses ben Eleazar.

Elhanan ben Yakar (first half of the 13th century) H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ theologian from London. He lived in London and appears to have travelled to the continent. In common with the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ he was primarily interested in esoteric theology. His family was related to Simeon ben Isaac.

He received some traditions from the toasafists in France. All his writings are based on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH including Sod ha-Sodot, a theological treatise which uses the SEFER YEZ.IRAH extensively. He was acquainted with contemporary Christian works, both in Latin and French. In this he is unique among the theologians of the H . ASIDEI ASHEKNAZ movement. Entire pages of Elhanan’s writings are found in the commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH attributed to Saadiah Gaon. He discussed the major problems of H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ theology including creation, the relationship between the Creator and the Divine power revealed by the prophets, and the Special Cherub. His theories often contain a stronger element of mystical speculation than what is found in the writings of continental ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. Eliashov, Solomon ben H . ayyim (1841–1926) Lithuanian kabbalist. He studied in the yeshivah in Telz, but spent most of his life in Shavili in Samogita, 70

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Lithuania. In 1915 he was expelled with the rest of the community to Russia; in 1922 or possibly 1924 he settled in Jerusalem. He was viewed as one of the greatest kabbalists in Russia at the end of the 19th century. His method was influenced by the tradition of ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN and his disciples and he opposed those who interpreted kabbalah in an idealistic manner, particularly the kabbalistic commentaries of MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO and the H ABAD H ASIDIM. All his kabbalistic works were . . compiled at the end of the 19th century under the title Sefer Leshem Shevo veAh.lamah. The works of Eliashov contained a systematic description of Lurianic kabbalah concerning the doctrine of ATZILUT. Eliezer Fischel ben Isaac of Strzyzow (end of the 18th century) Galician kabbalist. He was born and lived in Strzyzow near Tarnopol and was close to the circle of kabbalists of the Klaus of Brody. He devoted four books to the exposition of kabbalistic teaching in which the principles of Lurianic doctrine were presented in a lucid fashion. In addition to his writings on kabbalah, he published Olam Va’ed on the calculation of the seasons and new moons. He was a leading opponent of the H . ASIDIM. Elijah Israelite prophet, active in the Northern Kingdom during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (9th century BCE). According to MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON, Elijah belongs to the angels who advocated the creation of human beings. Accordingly, Elijah is an angel who dwelt only temporarily on earth before ascending to heaven. MOSES CORDOVERO compared Elijah’s life with the fate of Enoch: these two are the only biblical personages who were carried off from earth in an extraordinary fashion. The further fate of Elijah and Enoch in heaven is described in various mystical works. Enoch’s body was consumed by fire and he himself is changed into METATRON, the highest angel. Elijah, on the other hand, remained after his ascension in possession of his earthly shape. This is why he can maintain his association with the human world and occasionally appear on earth. His body is not made from dust like other human beings, but rather came from the tree of life – this enables him to carry out God’s commands and miracles. Thus, unlike Enoch who is known only as the archangel METATRON, Elijah keeps his name under which he intervenes in Jewish history. The ZOHAR recounts devout men to whom Elijah is supposed to have revealed himself. In latter kabbalistic sources, Elijah’s comments on the secrets of the Torah are frequent. Elijah prophesied the births of ISAAC LURIA and ISRAEL BEN ELIEZER BAAL SHEM TOV to their parents. In addition, he appeared to the BAAL SHEM TOV and played an important role in the legends of the Z.ADDIKIM. Elijah ben Kalonymus of Lublin (second half of the 17th century) Preacher and rabbi. Little is known about him. His only work, Adderet Eliyahu, contains sermons on the Torah portions. These resemble short fables. In these derashot Elijah employed kabbalistic terminology quoting from the ZOHAR, 71

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Zohar H . adash, and Sefer ha-Peli’ah. In addition he used Talmudic-midrashic literature and Rashi. At the end of the book is a prayer from Erez. Israel, the recitation of which could insure forgiveness of sins connected with the destruction of the Temple and the Diaspora.

Elijah ben Moses De Vidas (16th century) SAFED kabbalist. He was a disciple and friend of MOSES CORDOVERO. In 1575 he completed his major work, Reshit H . okhmah, dealing with morality. In contrast with previous writers, he included kabbalistic theories in his work, which was aimed at a popular audience: he quoted all that is said in the ZOHAR on the question of ethical conduct.

Quotations from the ZOHAR were annotated from manuscripts found in SAFED. The book is encyclopedic in character and divided into five chapters concerning fear, love, repentance, holiness and humility. Vidas added five chapters from Israel Alnakawa’s Memorat ha-Ma’or dealing with the mitzvot, education, business and manners. At the end of these he added H . uppot Eliyahu Rabba, a collection of rabbinical sayings, and Or Olam, which contains moral maxims.

Elijah ben Solomon Zalman [Vilna Gaon] (1720–1797) Born in Selets, Grodno province, he came from a well-known rabbinic family. From childhood, he demonstrated unusual ability. At the age of six and a half he gave a homily in the synagogue of Vilna and answered the questions on it put by the rabbi. At the age of seven he studied with Moses Margalioth of Keidany. Before the age of 13 he attempted to cultivate practical kabbalah and to create a GOLEM. He studied astronomy, geometry, algebra and geography to understand certain Talmudic laws and discussions. He also engaged in the study of Hebrew grammar.

After his marriage at the age of 18, he secluded himself in a small house outside the city to concentrate on his study. After staying with his father-in-law in Keidany, he travelled throughout Poland and Germany. Subsequently he settled in Vilna and received financial assistance from benefactors. In Vilna his diligence in study became widely known. When he was 40 he began to give lectures to outstanding scholars. In 1756 when he was requested by JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ’s supporters to express his view on the controversy with JACOB EMDEN, he refused to pass judgement. Elijah encouraged the translation of works on the natural sciences in Hebrew, but was opposed to philosophy and the Haskalah.

In addition, he was a vehement opponent of the H . ASIDIM. Although he devoted considerable attention to the kabbalah, he regarded halakhic studies as of pre-eminent importance. Regarding kabbalistic sources, his central aim was to abolish any contradictions between kabbalistic texts and Talmudic literature.

Whenever he found seeming contradictions he ascribed them to error in the understanding of the kabbalah or the words of the Talmud. He applied the same approach to the kabbalistic works of ISAAC LURIA. His method of exposition in kabbalah was also directed to understanding the words in their plain sense.

Elijah Phinehas ben Meir (c. 1742–1821) Lithuanian scholar, kabbalist and maskil. Born in Vilna, he travelled extensively among the Jewish communities of 72

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Europe after his father’s death. In each city he visited he continued his Jewish learning, particularly the study of the kabbalah as well as secular studies. He was known through his work Sefer ha-Berit. This work was widely circulated and was well received in Haskalah circles in Galicia and Berlin. When the work was attributed to ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN and to Moses Mendelssohn, Elijah had the second edition published under his own name with additions and emendations. The work is divided into two parts. The first consists of 21 treatises dealing with science and philosophy; the second comprising 14 treatises deals with ethics and kabbalah. The section on science embodies a conception of the universe based on medieval Aristotelian philosophy and the kabbalah of ISAAC LURIA. Elijah ignored the principles of Galileo and Newton in physics and Lavoisier in chemistry. The section on ethics and kabbalh is the main part of the work; it is modelled after H . AYYIM VITAL’s Sha’arei Kedushah. In this section Elijah accepts Judah Halevi’s view that the Jewish people are on the fifth level in the ascending scale of creation: mineral vegetable, animal, rational and Israel. He makes use of the kabbalistic concept of the five souls inherent in rational begins, and the doctrine of the SEFIROT. He also discussed the means by which one can prepare oneself for communion with the Holy Spirit. Since the principle requisite is the fulfillment of the commandments for their own sake, he provides guidance for the observance of the commandments according to the teachings of ISAAC LURIA. The love of one’s neighbour, he argued, is one of the foundations of the service of God. However, higher than the love of human beings is love of God. Elimelech of Lyzhansk (1717–1787) Galician H . ASID. He was a disciple of DOV BAER of MEZHIRECH. He and his brother Zusya of Haniopol travelled from village to village; their travels were identified with the wanderings of the SHEKHINAH (divine presence). According to tradition, the purpose of their travels was the promotion of repentance. After the death of DOV BAER in 1772, Elimelech settled in Lyzhansk, Galicia, which had become an important centre of H . ASIDISM. He was the head of a court financed by pidyonot (ransoms), a system of taxation paid to the Z.ADDIK. Letters published under his name concern the quarrels between the H . ASIDIM and MITNAGGEDIM. He is mentioned in the indictments against the H . ASIDIM. In his letters he defends himself against objections raised to H asidic practices. Although he was . an ascetic, he did not advocate asceticism as a pattern for all Jews. In his view, asceticism corresponds to the breaking of the vessels in Lurianic kabbalah – its purpose is TIKKUN (restoration of the world). However, it is not the only path to TIKKUN. According to Elimelech, the Z.ADDIK possessed the tasks of leadership in all spheres. He had to live a life in tension between the spiritual life of DEVEKUT and the requirements of society. According to legend, Elimelech was unable to withstand the pressures of life as a Z.ADDIK and toward the end of his life he withdrew from his disciples. According to Elimelech, the Z.ADDIK possesses a higher spiritual status than the seraphim and is the foundation of the world. He has the power to influence the higher spheres. The authority of such a 73

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leader comes from his direct connections with higher powers whose assistance he is able to receive for worldly concerns. The Z.ADDIK lives on earth, but in reality he dwells in higher worlds. There are two types of falls in the status of the Z.ADDIK – descent for the purpose of TIKKUN and descent because of Satan. Descent for the purpose of TIKKUN is understood as a voluntary process; the Z.ADDIK knows he is obliged to improve his community and descends to its level to uplift it. The ascent of the Z.ADDIK, which follows this fall is higher than the level he attained in previous ascents. Central to this notion is the belief that the Z.ADDIK must overcome the dualism of coexistent good and evil by transforming evil into a good, a process which will bring about the coming of the MESSIAH when all will be returned to its original unity.

Elisha ben Avuya see Ah. er Emanation According to kabbalistic sources, the EN SOF revealed itself through emanation. This was not a necessary process, but an act of will.

Emanation is brought into being and is not pre-existent. Nor is it created ex nihilo. Rather, it is a process within the Divine, and the ten SEFIROT are stages in this phenomenon. Opinions were divided as to the position of the first SEFIRAH in relation to emanation. Some Spanish kabbalists believed that this SEFIRAH alone was pre-existent, like the EN SOF. In their opinion, the SEFIROT emanated not from the EN SOF but from the first SEFIRAH. This view was later superseded, and the first SEFIRAH was conceived as being subject to emanation. Emanation is not a temporal process, even though a few kabbalistis did agree that some SEFIROT emanated in time. According to MOSES CORDOVERO, emanation exists in a time, which is no time. It appears that emanation ceased at the last SEFIRAH, but in fact the continuous chain of being stretches through without a break into the other worlds. The world of emanation. ATZILUT is the domain of the SEFIROT, which is above the other three worlds of BERIYAH, YEZ.IRAH and ASIYAH. This theory was developed in kabbalah at the end of the 13th century. In Lurianic kabbalah ADAM KADMON preceded these four worlds.

Emden, Jacob [Yavez] (1697–1776) German kabbalist. He was regarded as one of the most distinguished scholars of his generation. His father Z.EVI HIRSCH ASHKENAZI was his teacher. He disassociated himself from the method of pilpul and was familiar with sciences and languages. He served as rabbi of Emden from 1728 to 1733. His most important works are Leh.em Shamayim on the Mishnah; a collection of responsa, Sheelat Yavez. ; and Mor u-Kez.iah on the Shulh.an Arukh. He also published an important edition of the prayer book.

His main importance concerns his campaigns against the SHABBATEANS. He became an expert at uncovering any allusions to SHABBATEANISM in literary works particularly in the field of kabbalah. His most important controversy was with JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ, the rabbi of the Three Communities 74

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(Altona, Hamburg, Wandsbek). It began in 1751 when EYBESCHUETZ came to Altona and divided German Jewry. The conflict initially concerned several AMULETS, which EYBESCHUETZ circulated in Metz and Hamburg.

Emden interpreted them as SHABBATEAN AMULETS. As a result, Emden escaped to Amsterdam where he published an anthology of documents on SHABBATEANISM. EYBESCHUETZ denied these accusations, and the majority of the most distinguished rabbis in Poland, Moravia and Bohemia as well as leaders of the Three Communities supported him. Emden disregarded such claims and continued with his campaign and he later criticized the ZOHAR which was revered by the SHABBATEANS. En Sof In kabbalistic sources the En Sof (infinite) refers to God transcendent in his pure essence. The En Sof is God in himself apart from his relationship to the cosmos. Since all names which were given to God refer to one of the characteristics or attributes by which he revealed himself, there is no name of God from the point of view of his own being. As a result, when kabbalistis sought to be precise in their language they abstained from using any traditional names for God such as Elohim, the Holy One, etc. Instead, the term En Sof was employed. This term appears in kabbalistic sources after 1200. Possibly its source is found in those phrases stressing God’s sublimity which is infinite (ad le-en sof), or which emphasize the characteristics of divine thought which has no end (ad leen sof). The use of En Sof in early kabbalistic literature proved that the term grew out of this kind of expression. It originated apparently in the circle of ISAAC THE BLIND and his disciples. In the view of some kabbalists the name En Sof was also applicable to the first product of emanation, the SEFIRAH KETER, because of its completely concealed nature. Initially there was no definite article used in conjunction with En Sof, and it was treated as a proper name. But after 1300 there were kabbalists who spoke of ‘the En Sof ’. At first the term was used only rarely, but from about 1300 it was widely employed.

End of Days This refers to a time when all that is possible in this cosmic cycle has been achieved. According to tradition, every being, especially humans, are assessed regarding to their performance. In the next shemiitah or cosmic cycle all creatures will be assigned to places that are appropriate for them to evolve.

According to kabbalah, this process goes on for ten cosmic cycles of shemittot.

The ultimate End of Days is the resolution and fulfilment of the divine plan, in which God beholds God in the mirror of existence.

Epstein, Aryeh Leib ben Mordecai (1705–1755) Polish rabbi and kabbalist.

Born in Grodno, he was a pupil of Isaac of Grodno and Aryeh Leib ben Nathan of Slutsk. After working as a merchant, he became a preacher in Grodno.

In 1741 he served as rabbi in Berestovista and Golynka. In 1745 he went to Koenigsberg where he developed an extensive educational system. He sided with JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ in his dispute with JACOB EMDEN. 75

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Two inquiries, which he sent to EYBESCHUETZ in 1758, are extant: one deals with a halakhic issue, the other with the liturgy. Epstein was responsible for the introduction of a number of important takkanot in the Koenigsberg community as well as the founding of the Great Synagogue.

Epstein, Isaac ben Mordecai (c. 1780–1857) Talmudist and kabbalist from Gomel. He wrote halakhic works in his youth and in opposition to his grandfather was influenced by H . ABAD H . ASIDISM. He devoted himself to the study of kabbalah and H ABAD teaching.

He believed that only his teacher .

SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY was capable of revealing the innermost secrets of the divine law. Epstein served as rabbi of Gomel. In his old age he adopted the role of a Z.ADDIK. He produced ten studies on H . ABAD teaching including Ma’amar ha-Shiflut ve ha-Simh.ah and Ma’amar Yez.i’at Miz.rayim. He also wrote homilies for the weekly portions of the law and festivals.

Epstein, Kalonymus Kalman (d. 1823) H . asidic Z.ADDIK. He was a disciple of ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK and JACOB ISAAC HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN. He was known noted for his ecstatic mode of prayer. In 1785 he organized groups of H . ASIDIM in Cracow and arranged minyanim where they prayed with DEVEKUT (cleaving to God) employing bodily movements.

The Cracow community opposed them; this opposition resulted in an excommunication issued by Isaac ha-Levi of Cracow. Epstein, however, ignored his opponents and propagated H . ASIDISM throughout Western Galicia. His Ma’or va-Shemsh is a commentary on the Pentateuch.

Ergas, Joseph ben Emanuel (1685–1730) Rabbi and kabbalist from Leghorn. Born in Leghorn, he appears to have belonged to a noble Spanish family. He was the student of Samuel of Fez and Benjamin ha-Kohen Vitale of Reggio. In his youth he travelled throughout Italy preaching repentance. He stayed in Pisa where he founded a yeshivah, Neveh Shalom. Later he became rabbi in Leghorn. His Tokhah.at Megullah is a polemic against the SHABBATEAN NEHEMIAH H . AYON. His kabbalistic writings include Shomer Emunim in which he explains the principles of the kabbalah. This takes the form of a dialogue between Shaltiel (who believes only in revealed Torah) and Jehoiada (the victor who believes also in the esoteric meaning of the Torah). Shomer Emunim includes Mevo Petah.im, which deals with ISAAC LURIA’s teaching and includes an introduction to kabbalah, and Minh.at Yosef, which contains an ethical religious anthology and the rules for studying kabbalistic doctrines. Ergas believed in the importance and sanctity of the kabbalah in general and the ZOHAR in particular.

He was an opponent of philosophy, which he viewed as alien to Judaism.

Eschatology Doctrine concerning the last things. Concerning life after death, various kabbalistic sources stress the differing fates of the three parts of the soul which are separated from one another after death. In kabbalistic 76

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literature there are a large number of descriptions of the details and the various degrees of punishment in the abodes of GEHINNOM and of pleasure in GAN EDEN. Regarding the concept of the MESSIAH, some kabbalists held that the MESSIAH receives a special emanation from the SEFIRAH MALKHUT. According to the ZOHAR, the MESSIAH dwells in GAN EDEN in a special place. Some kabbalists believed that the soul of the MESSIAH had not suffered transmigration but was new; others argued that it was the soul of ADAM KADMON, which had previously transmigrated to King David. In some sources, the birth pangs of messianic redemption are stressed. However, in later kabbalah their importance declined. On the other hand, the mystical basis of redemption was emphasized. Here redemption was conceived as a restoration or a renewal. Creation at the time of redemption would assume the form that was intended from the beginning by the eternal intellect. In the divine realm, the state of redemption is expressed as the end of the exile of the SHEKHINAH. The messianic age was to last a thousand years, but many kabbalists believed that these years would not be identical with human years.

The kabbalah does not cast any doubt on the physical redemption of the dead, which will take place at the end of the days of redemption. The expositions of the kabbalists revolved around the question of the fate of those who were to be resurrected.

Ethical Literature Early European kabbalists tended to confine themselves to their closed circles and did not seek to turn the kabbalish into popular literature. However, the centre of kabbalistic learning established in SAFED during the 16th century created a body of moral writings which were directed toward Jewry at large and which began the 300-year period of kabbalsitic ethical literature. These writings drew on the ZOHAR as well as Ashkenazi-H . asidic ethics and rabbinic ethical thought. Using the kabbalah and its mystical system as a basis, these ethical teachings focused on two related concepts: (1) an ethical dogma in which the commandments are viewed symbolically, and (2) the idea that the temporal world reflects the eternal world and vice versa and that there is an interdependence between human actions and the processes in the divine mystical world. Kabbalistic literature, which from the 17th century continued to develop in Eastern Europe, was based on Lurianic doctrine, emphasizing the power of Satan and the consequences that sin has in the divine world.

During the 18th century kabbalism and messianism gave rise to the kabbalistic writings of MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATO. Literature of the 19th century focused on ethics, using homilies in which moral behaviour is stressed. The MITNAGGEDIM also based their teachings on Lurianic ethical literature; from their ranks emerged the Musar movement.

Evil For the kabbalists the problem of evil was of paramount significance.

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maintained that the SEFIRAH of power is conceived as an attribute whose name is evil. Drawing on this conception, ISAAC THE BLIND argued that there must be a positive root of evil. In the ZOHAR there is a detailed depiction of the SITRA AH . RA, which has ten SEFIROT of its own.

Evil Eye The notion that some persons may produce malevolent effects on others by looking at them. Belief in the evil eye and the various means of averting it was prevalent in kabbalistic circles. The use of a metal AMULET in the form of an open palm of the hand was common in the Middle Ages and in subsequent centuries.

Evil Inclination According to H . AYYIM VITAL, the soul is engendered by the SEFIROT, whereas a person’s good impulses derive from the angelic realm.

The soul and the SEFIROT constitute a person’s essence and impel him to the good. However, his body and the evil impulse propel him towards evil.

According to VITAL, an individual’s action has cosmic implications.

Exorcism The expulsion of foreign spirits that have possessed an individual.

Mention of exorcism is rare in early Jewish literature. However, with the spread of kabbalah and its doctrine of transmigration of souls, especially the variety defined as IBBUR (the impregnation of a living person or soul by another soul or spirit), the belief in exorcism became widespread especially in Eastern Europe.

Eybeschuetz, Jonathan (1690–1764) Polish kabbalist. He studied in Poland, Moravia and Prague. After the death of his father, he studied in Prossnitz under Meir Eisenstadt and his uncle Eliezer ha-Levi Ettinger, and in Vienna under Samson Wertheimer. He married the daughter of Isaac Spira the av bet din of Bunzlau. He eventually settled in Prague and became the head of a yeshivah.

When he was in Prague he became friendly with Cardinal Hassebauer. Through his help, he received permission to print the Talmud with the omission of passages which contradicted Christianity. Disturbed by this policy, the rabbis of Frankfurt had the license to print the Talmud revoked. The people of Prague held Eybeschuetz in high esteem and in 1725 he was among the Prague rabbis who excommunicated the SHABBATEANS. After the death of David Oppenheim, he was elected dayyan of Prague. In 1741, he became rabbi of Metz, and later was appointed rabbi of the Three Communities: Altona, Hamburg and Wandsbek.

JACOB EMDEN, a rival candidate for rabbinical leadership of the Three Communities, who alleged that he had SHABBATEAN leanings, challenged his position. While most German rabbis opposed Eybeschuetz, rabbis from Poland and Moravia supported him. Ezekiel Landau, rabbi of Prague, made an unsuccessful attempt at mediation. Most of Eybeschuetz’s community remained loyal and accepted his refutation of charges made against him. Eventually both sides appealed to authorities in Hamburg, and the government of Denmark.

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The king favoured Eybeschuetz and he was re-appointed rabbi of the Three Communities. Yet the polemic against him continued. After his re-election, some rabbis of Frankfurt, Amsterdam and Metz challenged him to appear before them and answer charges. Eybeschuetz refused, and when the matter was raised before the Council of the Four Lands in 1753, the council ruled in his favour. In 1760 the quarrel broke out again when SHABBATEAN elements were discovered among the students of his yeshivah. At the same time, his son, Wolf, presented himself as a SHABBATEAN prophet.

Ez. H . ayyim In the 16th century the greatest mystic of SAFED, ISAAC LURIA transformed kabbalistic speculation. Originally brought up in Egypt, where he studied the Talmud and engaged in business, LURIA withdrew to an island on the Nile where he meditated on the ZOHAR for seven years. In 1569 he arrived in SAFED, and died two years later after having passed on his teachings to a small group of disciples. His disciple, H . AYYIM VITAL, recorded his teacher’s doctrines in his Ez. H ayyim. .

Ezekiel (6th century BCE) Biblical prophet. According to Scripture, the prophet Ezekiel began his ministry during the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s exile, seven years before the conquest of Jerusalem. Dwelling in Babylon, Ezekiel prophesied about the state of affairs of Judah; during the first part of his ministry, the Temple in Jerusalem was functioning and most of the book deals with this period. For Ezekiel the nation’s sinfulness will bring about its destruction. Yet following the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, Ezekiel offered words of comfort to his people. The book begins in chapter 1 with Ezekiel’s call. In this chapter, Ezekiel sees a great cloud with brightness surrounding it; in its midst there was something resembling a flash of amber. From this emerged four living creatures; each resembled a man in form with four faces of a man, a lion, an ox and an eagle. In addition, each of these had four wings. There were also wheels full of eyes and wheels within wheels. Above the living creatures was a firmament on which rested the great throne, which supported God’s glory. Subsequently in Jewish mystical reflection the first chapter of Ezekiel played a pivotal role – Ezekiel’s vision of the MERKAVAH (divine chariot) was described in detail, and this scriptural source served as the basis for speculation about the nature of the Deity.

Ezra of Gerona (d. 1238 or 1245) Spanish kabbalist. He was confused with AZRIEL OF GERONA. According to ABRAHAM ABULAFIA, he wrote a commentary to the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. He also wrote a commentary on the Song of Songs. Both he and AZRIEL wrote commentaries on Talmudic legends.

His works illustrate the influence of his teacher ISAAC THE BLIND. Ezra influenced his contemporaries and kabbalists of the 13th and 14th centuries.

His contemporary JACOB GERONDI referred to him as the sage Rabbi Ezra.

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provided alternative interpretations. NAH . MANIDES cited Ezra’s works on several occasions. His also influenced other figures including BAH . YA BEN ASHER IBN H LAVA. JOSHUA IBN SHUAIB cited his work in his Derashot al . ha-Torah as did ISAAC OF ACRE. Traces of his commentary on the Song of Songs are found in the ZOHAR.

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F Falk, Jacob Joshua ben Z.evi Hirsch (1680–1756) Rabbi and halakhic authority from Cracow. Born in Cracow, he was a descendent of Joshua Heschel ben Joseph of Cracow. He studied in Polish yeshivot and lived in Lemberg after his marriage to the daughter of Solomon Segal Landau. He became inspector of the talmud torah. As a wealthy man, he served as leader of the community.

In 1702 the explosion of a gunpowder storehouse killed his wife, daughter, mother-in-law and her father. As a result he vowed to apply himself to the study of the Torah and the Codes. He left Lemberg and served as rabbi in Tarlow, Kurow and Lesko. In 1717 he became rabbi of Lemberg, succeeding Z.EVI HIRSCH ASHKENAZI. His yeshivah became the central yeshivah of Poland. Falk was one of the most extreme opponents of the SHABBATEAN movement.

He excommunicated the SHABBATEANS in 1722. As a consequence of the opposition he aroused, he was forced to leave Lemberg in 1724 and settled in Buczacz. Between 1730 and 1734 he served as rabbi of Berlin, and later succeeded Jacob Reischer as rabbi of Metz. From Metz he went to Frankfurt where he was rabbi. In the controversy concerning JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ, he sided with JACOB EMDEN. This led to his resignation and departure from the city; he later lived in Mannheim and Worms. He continued his campaign against EYBESCHUETZ. In response to the demands of the Altona community that he rescind his ban, he demanded that EYBESCHUETZ appear before a bet din of three ordained rabbis to answer for his action. HAYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI praised Falk’s wide knowledge and visited him in Worms in 1754.

From Worms Falk went to Offenbach where he died.

Falk, Samuel Jacob H . ayyim [Ba’al Shem Tov Of London] (c. 1710–1782) Kabbalist and adventurer from Galicia. Born in Galicia, he was intimately connected with the leaders of the SHABBATEAN sectarians. He was known as a magician. He escaped burning as a sorcerer in Westphalia and was banished by the archbishop elector of Cologne. In about 1742 he went to England where he achieved notoriety in both Jewish and non-Jewish circles for his kabbalistic 81

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practices based on the use of the name of God. Hence he was known as Ba’al Shem (Master of the Divine Name). He had a private synagogue in his house in Wellclose Square. He also established a kabbalistic laboratory on London Bridge where he carried out alchemical experiments. Among those who were attracted to him was the adventurer Theodore De Stein who claimed to be King of Corsica. He hoped to obtain through Falk’s alchemical experiments sufficient gold to enable him to regain his throne. He was also in touch with the Duke of Orleans, the Polish Prince Czartoryski and the Marquise de la Croix.

He was reputed to have saved the Great Synagogue from destruction by fire by means of a magical inscription, which he inscribed on the doorposts. He was denounced as a Shabbatean heretic and fraud by JACOB EMDEN. Fano, Ezra ben Isaac (16th–17th centuries) Italian rabbi and kabbalist. He lived in Mantua and Venice and owned Hebrew manuscripts which he annotated and published. He also wrote works on kabbalah.

Fano, Menahem Azariah (1548–1620) Italian kabbalist. He was a recognized authority on rabbinic law and an exponent of the kabbalistic system of MOSES CORDOVERO. He was influenced by ISRAEL SARUG, who during his stay in Italy taught about the mystical system of ISAAC LURIA. He was a student of Ishmael H . anina of Valmontone in Ferrara. With his brothers he helped the victims of the earthquake of 1570. He was a patron of Jewish scholarship, contributing funds for the publication of CORDOVERO’s PARDES RIMMONIM (The Orchard of Pomegranates), JOSEPH CARO’s commentary Kesef Mishneh and MAIMONIDES’ Code. He composed 130 responsa which were published in 1600 in Venice and in 1788 in Dyhernfurth. He was popular as a teacher, attracting students from throughout the Jewish world. His works include a summary of the legal decisions of Isaac Alfasi; a study of the kabbalah, Kanfei Yonah; a kabbalistic work on prayer; and Gilgulei Neshamot, a kabbalistic discussion of the transmigration of the soul.

Fatiyah, Judah (1859–1942) Kabbalist from Baghdad. Born in Baghdad, he was a student of the Ben Ish Chai. He was a kabbalist and wrote two books of kabbalah: one is a commentary on the ZOHAR while the other deals with the kabbalistic interpretation of the Tanach. He claimed to have been the reincarnation of EZEKIEL LANDAU. Regarded as a master of Jewish necromancy, he devoted much writing to the difference between dreams emanating from heaven and from demons.

Ficino Marsilio (15th century) Italian humanist philosopher. He was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He was an astrologer, a reviver of NEOPLATONISM, and the first translator of Plato’s complete works into Latin. His Florentine Academy was an attempt to revive Plato’s school; it had enormous influence on the direction of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy. His main work was 82

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his treatise on the immortality of the soul: Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae.

In 1499 he was accused of practising magic before Pope Innocent VIII. Fludd, Robert (1574–1637) English mystic. The son of Sir Thomas Fludd, a high-ranking official in the government of Queen Elizabeth I. He studied medicine, chemistry and the occult on the European mainland. He is best known for his research in occult philosophy.

Foa, Eliezer Nah. man (d. after 1641) Italian kabbalist. He was a disciple of Menahem Azariah da Fano. He lived at Reggio Emilia where he became chief rabbi of the ducy of Modena. He was the head of H . evrat ha-Aluvim, which sponsored the printing of the commentary on the Passover Haggadah. He also wrote a philosophical and kabbalistic commentary on the Pentateuch, Goren Ornan.

Forti, Jacob Raphael Hezekiah ben Abraham Israel (1689–1782) Italian kabbalist. He studied under Mordecai Bassani in Verona and later under MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATO in Padua. He served as chief rabbi of Padua; Shabbetai Medini and Ariel Alatino were his pupils. His glosses to the Shulhan Arukh as well as a methodology of the Talmud and the posekim and a collection of sermons remained in manuscript. Others published some of his responsa. The records of his halakhic dispute with the rabbis of Venice regarding the business methods of its merchants are contained in Mishpat Shalom of Isaac ben Asher Pacifico.

Foundation and Root of Divine Worship A work by the 18th-century Lithuanian kabbalist ALEXANDER SUSSKIND in which he reflected on the nature of a person’s willingness to face death in order to honour God’s name. In his view it is obvious that every Jew will allow himself to be slain rather than be false to the Jewish faith. Such a soul will be willing to be slain in actuality rather than abandon the Jewish people.

Frank, Jacob (1726–1791) Polish founder of the Frankist movement. Born Jacob ben Judah Leib in Korolowka, Polodia. His father was a merchant and was educated in Czernowitz and Sinatyn. He lived for some time in Bucharest.

He initially worked as a dealer in cloth and precious stones; he began to study the ZOHAR and was involved in SHABBATEAN circles. He became a prominent SHABBATEAN and was viewed as the reincarnation of the soul that had previously resided in SHABBATAI Z.EVI and BARUCHIAH RUSSO. He announced he was the second person of the Trinity. In 1755 he made his first public appearance in Podolia as the leader of a new movement which attracted numerous followers. In a scandal in which a several Frankists were arrested, it was alleged that the sect practised redemption through sin by means of sexual orgies. After the rabbinic establishment excommunicated Frank and his followers, he appealed to the Bishop of Kamenetz-Podolski, seeking 83

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his protection on the grounds that his group were anti-Talmudic Jews. In a disputation between Jews and Frankists ordered by the bishops and held in Lvov in 1757, Frank enumerated the principles of the sect. As a consequence, the Frankists were declared victors and the Talmud was burned in Lvov. After another disputation in 1759 some of the Frankists were baptized. However Frank aroused the hostility of the authorities when they discovered that his followers regarded him as the MESSIAH, and he was arrested. He was exiled in 1772. After living in Bruen in Moravia, he settled in Offenbach in 1786. In both places he attracted numerous followers who pretended to follow Catholicism but remained loyal to the practices of the sect. On Frank’s death, his daughter Eva, who was proclaimed the female principle of the faith, succeeded him. She died in 1816 leaving enormous debts. The sect persisted for a number of years, but was eventually absorbed into Polish Jewish society.

Frankists Followers of JACOB FRANK. They took the decisive step of baptism in Lemberg in 1759. FRANK himself was baptized in the Warsaw Cathedral, having chosen Emperor Augustus III as his godfather. He was accused of heresy against the church a year later and imprisoned for thirteen years. In 1786 he settled in Offenbach, near Frankfurt. There he and his daughter Eve presided over the sect and indulged in orgiastic rituals. After his death, the sect ceased to exist.

Free Will This is unique to human beings. It was granted to them because they are the most perfect image of God. While the angels have enormous powers, like animals on earth, they perform certain preset functions in the ecology of existence. Like animals, they have a limited range of choice; this has to be the case, otherwise there would be cosmic chaos. With Adam and Eve came the notion of free will. They were told that they could eat anything in the Garden of Eden except of the Tree of Knowledge. This meant they were free to break the first commandment they were given. The result is what the kabbalah calls ‘measure for measure’, in current cultural language ‘karma’. This is the key to the essence of free will. Human beings have the choice to keep or break the law. Its consequence can be seen both an the individual and collective level of history. This means, as the Bible states, we can go higher than the angels or lower than the animals. Free will is an enormous privilege and responsibility.

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G Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel Ibn (1480–after 1540) Spanish kabbalist. The details of his life are not known. He appears to have lived in Turkey and possibly died in Erez. Israel. He wrote three books dealing with the problems of the kabbalah: Tola’at Ya’akov on the prayers; Derekh Emunah, an explanation of the doctrine of the SEFIROT in the form of questions and answers (this was based on Sha’ar ha-Sho’el by AZRIEL OF GERONA and incorporated views of the ZOHAR) and Avodat ha-Kodesh, on the doctrine of the kabbalah. This is in four parts dealing with the unity of God, the worship of God, the purpose of human beings in the universe, and an explanation of esoteric aspects of the Torah. This latter work is the most comprehensive and organized summary of the doctrine of the kabbalah prior to the SAFED period. It was one of the most popular books on kabbalah. Gabbai was one of the most important exponents of the theurgical approach in kabbalah.

Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn (1020–c. 1057) Spanish Jewish philosopher.

Originally from Malaga, he lived in Saragossa where he acquired an extensive Jewish education. He was orphaned at an early age. In 1038 he composed an number of elegies on the death of Hai ben Sherira Gaon. At the age of 19 he compiled a didactic poem ‘Anak’. There is some uncertainty about his age at the time of his death, but it appears that he died when he was between 35 and 38. He was the first Jewish thinker to produce a work in the NEOPLATONIC tradition. In the Fountain of Life he argued that God and matter are not opposed as two ultimate principles – instead matter is identified with God. It emanates from the essence of the Creator forming the basis of all subsequent emanations. For ibn Gabirol the universe consists of cosmic existences flowing out of the superabundant light and goodness of the Creator; it is a reflection of God though God remains in Himself and does not enter his creation with his essence. In a religious poem ‘Kingly Crown’, he used NEOPLATONIC images to describe God’s activity.

Gadlut A state of higher consciousness. The kabbalist constantly seeks to achieve this goal.

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Galante, Abraham (second half of the 16th century) Kabbalist in SAFED. He was the brother and a pupil of Moses ben Mordecai Galante and a disciple of MOSES CORDOVERO. He was a noted scholar known as Ha-Kadosh. He was the first to cite JOSEPH CARO’s Maggid Mesharim. His works include Yare’ah. Yakar, a commentary on the ZOHAR; Kinat Setarim, a kabbalistic commentary on Lamentations; Zekhut Avot, a kabbalstic commentary on the tractate Avot; and Minhagei H . asidut.

Galante, Moses ben Jonathan II [Ha-Rav ha-Magen] (1620–1689) A Jerusalem rabbi. He was the grandson of Moses ben Mordecai Galante. He studied in SAFED and later moved to Jerusalem where he was a leading rabbi and the head of the yeshivah Bet Ya’akov. His students included Hezekiah ben David Da Silva, Israel Jacob H . agiz (the father of MOSES H . AGIZ) and Abraham Yiz.h.aki. He and other scholars instituted an ordinance (takkanah) that the scholars of Jerusalem would not use the title ‘rabbi’. From 1667 to 1668 he served as emissary of Jerusalem to the cities of Turkey and Hungary. In 1673 he was again in Jerusalem. The SHABBATEAN movement influenced him. In 1665 he and other rabbis from Jerusalem went to Gaza in order to seek purification of the soul from NATHAN OF GAZA. At the end of 1665 (or early in 1666) he was in Aleppo where he was among the leading SHABBATEAN prophets.

According to the testimony of a letter from Aleppo, Galante was the ‘hakham Moses Glanate’ who accompanied SHABBATAI Z.EVI to Smyrna at the end of 1665; he was appointed by him ‘King Yeshoshaphat’. Galante accompanied SHABBETAI Z.EVI to Constantinople.

Galante, Moses ben Mordecai (fl. 16th century) Palestinian kabbalist.

Born in Rome, he was acquainted with H . AYYIM VITAL’s disciples and was a disciple of JOSEPH CARO who ordained him. His teacher was MOSES CORDOVERO. From 1580 he was av bet din in SAFED as the successor of Moses di Trani. His works include responsa; Mafteah. ha-Zohar, an index of biblical passages interpreted in the ZOHAR; and Kohelet Ya’akov, a kabbalistic commentary on Ecclesiastes.

Galatinus, Pietro Columna (1460–1540) Italian theologian and Christian kabbalist. He was a Franciscan friar who believed himself to the ‘Angel Pope’ prophesied by the followers of Joachim of Fiore in the 13th century. He wrote a work of Christian mysticism, De arcanis catholicae veritatis. Even though this work was anti-Jewish in nature, it was published in defence of the German humanist Johann Reuchlin and promoted Christian Hebraism. This work, which collected together a number of polemical texts, inspired later Christian kabbalists, including Guillaume Postel of Paris. It was prefaced by Hebrew verses and emphasized the importance of numerology. The most popular work of its kind in the 16th century, it was praised by Amatus Lusitanus. Galatinus anticipated Daniel Bomberg by advocating the publication of the Talmud. He explained early Christianity’s lack of reference to the kabbalah by citing a passage in the 86

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Babylonian Talmud, which forbids the indiscriminate dissemination of doctrines about creation and chariot mysticism.

Gallico, Elisha ben Gabriel (c. 1583) Talmudic scholar and kabbalist in SAFED. He was a pupil of JOSEPH CARO and a member of his bet din. After Caro’s death, he became a member of Moses Trani’s bet din. Gallico was the teacher of SAMUEL UCEDA. His signature appears on several responsa. After CARO’s death, Gallico banned Azariah dei Rossi’s Me’or Einayim. The collection of Gallico’s responsa has been lost, however several of them are quoted in the work Kenest ha-Gedolah and in the responsa Ba’ei H . ayyei by H . ayyim Benevenisti.

Gallico wrote homiletical and kabbalistic commentaries on the five scrolls. At the end of his life he was the head of a yeshivah in SAFED. Gallico, Samuel (17th century) Italian kabbalist. He published a summary of MOSES CORDOVERO’s PARDES RIMMONIM under the title Asis Rimmonim in Venice in 1601.

Gan Eden A garden planted by the Lord, which was the dwelling place of Adam and Eve (Gen. 2–3). In rabbinic sources it is depicted as Heaven, in contrast to GEHINNOM (Hell). According to the Talmud and midrash there are two Gardens of Eden: the terrestrial garden of fertility and vegetation, and the celestial Garden which is the habitation of the righteous. The location of earthly Eden is traced by the boundaries delineated in Genesis 2. In the Talmud its location is given as the centre of Africa. It is related that Alexander of Macedon located the door to the Garden, but he was not permitted to enter.

The Midrash ha-Gadol states that Eden is a unique place on earth, but no creature is permitted to know its exact location. In the future, during the messianic age, God will reveal to Israel the path to Eden. In rabbinic literature, the Garden of Eden is described in detail as a heavenly abode.

Gehinnom Place of torment for the wicked after death. Gehinnom was a valley south of Jerusalem on one of the borders between the territories of Judah and Benjamin, between the Valley of Rephaim and En-Rogel. During the monarchy, it was the site of a cult which involved the burning of children.

Jeremiah condemned this cult and predicted that on its account Topheth and the Valley of the Son of Hinnom would be called the Valley of the Slaughter. In Jewish sources the name Gehinnom is used to denote the place where punishment will take place for the wicked in the hereafter.

Gematria Science of interpreting a sacred text according to the numerical value of the letters of the words. There are various different systems of gematria. It was much used in the Middle Ages, and later by the kabbalists and the followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. It derives from the 2nd century CE when Rabbi Judah argued that Jeremiah 9:10 (‘No one passes through . . . and the beasts are fled’) implies that Judah was deserted for 52 years. This is because the numerical value of the Hebrew word for beasts is 52.

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Gerona City in Catalonia, Spain. Its community dated back to the 9th century.

In 1160 Jews were permitted to lease shops outside the city walls. The community was concentrated in an area called Jews Mount. In the 13th century priests of the local cathedral chapter instituted the custom of casting stones from the cathedral tower on the Jewish quarter at Easter. In 1331 rioters broke into the Jewish quarter. In the 1391 pogrom the majority of Jews chose martyrdom rather than convert to Christianity. The Jews of Gerona were compelled to send representatives to the disputation of Tortosa. Gerona was a centre of learning and produced a number of celebrated scholars. In the 1230s Gerona was one of the centres of the movement opposing the teachings of MAIMONIDES. Distinguished scholars active there included NAH . AMANIDES who wrote an account of the disputation of Barcelona. The primary significance of Gerona in Jewish history is that it became the first centre of kabbalah in Spain. A group was formed there in the 13th century in which EZRA BEN SOLOMAN, Azriel ben Menahem and their contemporaries were leading personalities.

NAH . AMANIDES also had connections with their Havurah Kedoshah (sacred association) which was of importance in the development of kabbalah. Other important figures in the cities history included Zerahiah ha-Levi Gerondi, Jonah Gerondi the younger, Nissim ben Rueben Gerond, David Bonjorn, Abraham ben Isaac ha-Levi, Bonastruc Desmaystre and Bonjudah Yeh.asel Hakashlari.

Gerondi, Jacob ben Sheshet (mid-13th century) Kabbalist in Gerona.

Even though is works are not widely mentioned in kabbalistic literature of the 13th and early 14th centuries, they had an important influence on this literature.

Gerondi was an opponent of what he believed to be the heretical tendencies of his day, which he believed deny the creation of the cosmos, divine providence, and retribution. In Meshiv Devarim Nekhoh.im he formulated his own theories.

A central part of the work is devoted to the question of creation. Like other kabbalists Gerondi was far from holding the traditional conception of creation ex nihilo. However, his commentary to Genesis differs from other contemporary kabbalists. Gerondi posits a continuous emanation from the realm of the SEFIROT to the physical world. To construct this continuity, heavenly matter and earthly matter are found in the world of the SEFIROT. These evolved until the heavenly and the earthly hylic substances were formed. In this way, Genesis should be understood as a continuous description beginning with the creation of the world of the SEFIROT and ending with the physical stage of the primal divine element.

Gevurah (Strength) It is the fifth of the SEFIROT. It sits below BINAH, across from H . ESED and above HOD. Gikatilla, Joseph ben Abraham (1248–c. 1325) Spanish kabbalist. Born in Medinaceli, Castile, he lived in Segovia. He studied with ABRAHAM ABULAFIA from 1272 to 1274. Before composing GINNAT EGOZ (The Nut Garden), he wrote a commentary on the Song of Songs, which endorses the 88

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doctrine of Shemitot, a theory of cosmic development based on the sabbatical year as expounded in the Sefer ha-Temunah. His GINNAT EGOZ was written in 1274; it is an introduction to the mystic symbolism of the alphabet, vowel points and the Divine names. The title derives from the initial letters of the kabbalistic elements of GEMATRIA, NOTARIKON and Temurah. Like ABULAFIA, he linked this mystical approach with the philosophical system practised by MAIMONIDES. This work does not deal with the doctrine of SEFIROT, later adopted by Gikatilla. Rather the SEFIROT are identified with ‘intelligences’. Nonetheless, Gikatilla was familiar with the mystical approach of JACOB BEN JACOB HA-KOHEN even though he is not mentioned by name. Several of Gikatilla’s other writings also deal with the theory of letter combinations and alphabetical mysticism. However, in the 1280s, Gikatilla appears to have made contact with MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON. As a result, they both influenced each other. Gikatilla’s most influential kabbalistic work written before 1293 is SHAAREI ORAH . (The Gates of Light), a detailed explanation of kabbalistic symbolism and the designations of the ten SEFIROT. Here he adopted a system intermediate between the Genoese school of kabbalists and the ZOHAR. His Shaarei Z.edek also provides another explanation of the SEFIROT. Other published works by Gikatilla are Shaar ha-Nikkud, a kabbalistic commentary on vocalization; and Perush Haggadah shel Pesah., a kabbalistic commentary on the Passover Haggadah. Kabbalistic works remaining in manuscript include mystical treatises on mitzvot and a commentary on the Vision of the Divine Chariot. He was the originator of the doctrine equating the infinite EN SOF with the first of the SEFIROT. Gilgul (transmigration of souls or metempsychosis) There is no evidence of this doctrine during the Second Temple period, and in the Talmud there is no reference to it. In the post-Talmudic period, Anan ben David, the founder of Karaism, upheld the belief although it did not become a feature of the Karaite movement. A number of medieval Jewish philosophers such as Saadiah Gaon, Abraham ibn Daud and Joseph Albo rejected the doctrine. Judah Halevi and MAIMONIDES do not mention it. However, in contrast with Jewish philosophy, metempsychosis is taken for granted in such kabbalistic works as the SEFER HA-BAHIR. Later the doctrine of gilgul became a major doctrine of the Kabbalah. Early kabbalists such as the disciples of ISAAC THE BLIND and the kabbalists of GERONA spoke of the secret of IBBUR (impregnation).

It was only in the late 13th or 14th centuries that gilgul and IBBUR began to be differentiated. Biblical verses and commandments were interpreted in terms of gilgul. For the kabbalists the point of departure and proof for gilgul was the commandment of levirate marriage: the brother of the childless deceased replaces the deceased husband so that he may merit children in his second gilgul. Later, other mitzvot were interpreted on a similar basis. The belief in metempsychosis also served as an explanation for the apparent absence of justice in the world. According to this explanation, the reason why the righteous suffer in this world is because of their sins in a previous life. The Book of Job 89

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was interpreted in terms of transmigration. Most of the early kabbalists did not regard transmigration as a universal law governing all living things, but viewed it rather as connected essentially with offences against procreation and sexual transgression. Transmigration was seen as a harsh punishment for the soul, which must undergo it. At the same time, it is an expression of the mercy of the Creator. Gilgul provides an opportunity for restitution. Its main purpose was to purify the soul and provide an opportunity for moral improvement. In the BAHIR it is stated that transmigration may continue for l,000 generations, but the general view was that the soul transmigrates three more times after entering its original body. The relationship between transmigration and Hell was a matter of dispute. BAH . YA BEN ASHER argued that transmigration occurred only after the acceptance of punishment in Hell, but the opposite view is found in the Raaya Meheimna, the ZOHAR and among most kabbalists. Transmigration into the bodies of animals is first mentioned in the Sefer ha-Temnunah, which originated in a circle associated with the kabbalists of GERONA. In the ZOHAR this idea is not found, but some references in Tikkunei Zohar (Emendations on the Zohar) attempt to explain this concept. A more general elaboration of the concept of gilgul appeared in the works of Joseph ben Shalom Ashkenazi and his colleagues in the 14th century. They stressed that transmigration occurs in all forms of existence from the SEFIROT to inorganic matter. According to this view, everything in the world is constantly changing, descending to the lowest form and ascending to the highest. In SAFED, particularly among those who subscribed to Lurianic kabbalah, the belief in sparks of the souls was elaborated. Each main soul is built in the spiritual structure of mystical limbs from which many sparks spread, each of which can serve as a soul or life in a human body. The gilgulim of all the sparks together are aimed at the restitution of the hidden spiritual structure of the root of the principal soul; it is possible for one person to possess several different sparks belonging to one root. All the roots of the souls were in fact contained in Adam’s soul, but they fell and were scattered. The souls must be reassembled in the course of their gilgulim.

Later kabbalah developed the idea of the affinity of souls, which belong to the common root. In kabbalistic commentaries on the Bible, events were explained by such hidden history of the transmigration of various souls, which return in a later gilgul.

Ginnut Egoz Kabbalistic work by the 14th-century writer JOSEPH GIKATILLA. Gikatilla studied under ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFIA and later developed his own style of kabbalah. In this work he discussed the hidden meanings of the names of God. Ginsberg, Christian David (1831–1914) Biblical scholar. Born in Warsaw, he converted to Christianity in 1846 and moved to England. He engaged in the study of the masoretic text of the Bible. His magnum opus, The Massorah, was published between 1880 and 1905 in four volumes. His other writings include The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development and Literature.

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Giorgio, Francesco [Fransicus Georgius Ventus] (1460–1540) Franciscan kabbalist. He was the author of De Harmonia Mundi and In Scripturam Sacram et Philosophos Tria Millia Probelmata. He was the cousin of Martin Sanudo and a friend of Gershom Soncino. His Hebrew library inspired H. C. Agrippa. He was one of the intermediaries in the divorce case of Henry VIII of England.

Gnosticism Religious movement which flourished in the Hellenistic East in the 2nd–3rd centuries. It contained oriental mythological motifs combined with Greek philosophical ideas having a monotheistic basis. According to the Gnostics, the material world is not due to a benevolent creator, but the result of a primeval fall. It is the work of an intermediary fallen from the divine sphere.

Gnosticism is known primarily in its Christian form. Polemical utterances against minim (heretics) appear to refer to heretical Gnostics. It is not known whether Gnosticism originally appeared in Jewish circles or penetrated from outside.

Although officially condemned by Jewish scholars, Gnosticism influenced Jewish mysticism. It was a major element of the MERKAVAH mysticism of the tannaitic and later periods, of classical kabbalism, and of Lurianic kabbalah.

God Kabbalistic texts stress that God should be understood in two ways: (1) God as He is in himself is hidden in the depths of his being; (2) the revealed God is He who has created and sustains the cosmos. For kabbalistics these two aspects of the divine were not contradictory; rather they complement one another. Kabbalists emphasized the unfathomable nature of God by applying to him various names such as temira de-temirin (the hidden of the hidden), and attika de-attikin (the ancient of ancients) to indicate his eternity. They also borrowed from philosophy such terms as sibbat kol ha-sibbot, illat kol ha-illot (first cause) or EN SOF (eternal). In addition, there is mention in kabbalistic sources of the forty-five lettered name derived from Proverbs 30:4 (‘What (mah) is his name’), 45 being the numerical equivalent of mah. There is also mention of a 72-lettered name. A combination of the numbers of letters in the names of the twelve tribes, the patriarchs, and the nine letters of the words shivtei Yisrael (tribes of Israel) arrived at this number. In kabbalistic literature there is a certain dualism in the realm of the revelation of the divine. On the one hand, there is EN SOF which is transcendental. On the other hand, God is manifest in the world of the SEFIROT. God is thus outside creation, and within it. The domain of the SEFIROT is the region of divine revelation per se, for the flow of divine life rises and descends in the stages of SEFIROT. Golem Creature, particularly a human being, made by magic through the use of holy names. The development of the idea of the golem is connected with the magical exegesis of the SEFER YEZ.IRAH and with the ideas of the creative power of speech and of the letters. The word appears only once in the Bible in Ps. 139:16; from this verse originated the Talmudic usage of the term. During the Middle Ages the SEFER YEZ.IRAH was interpreted in some circles in France and Germany as a guide to magical usage. Later legends were first found 91

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at the end of the commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH by JUDAH BEN BARZILLAI. There the legends of the Talmud were interpreted in a new fashion: at the conclusion of intensive study the sages were able to create living beings.

Yet the purpose of such creation was symbolic and contemplative. When they wanted to eat the calf, which was created by the power of their contemplation, they forgot all they had learned. From these legends there developed among the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ in the 12th and 13th centuries the idea of the creation of the golem as a mystical ritual. In the view of these mystics, the creation of the golem had only a symbolic meaning – it was an ecstatic experience, which followed a festive ritual. Those who engaged in such an act took earth and made a golem out of it and walked around it as in a dance combining the alphabetical letters and the secret name of God. As a result of this, the golem arose, but when they walked in the opposite direction and said the same combination of letters in reverse order, the vitality of the golem disappeared and he sank or fell. According to some legends, the word emet (truth) was written on his forehead, and when the letter alef was erased, there remained the word met (dead). In popular legend the golem became an actual creature who served his creators. Legends of this nature began to appear among German Jews in the 15th century. The latest form of this popular legend is connected with JUDAH LOEW BEN BEZALEL of Prague.

According to tradition, he created a golem so that it would serve him, but was forced to restore him to dust when the golem began to endanger people’s lives.

Gordon, Jekuthiel ben Leib (18th century) Kabbalist from Vilna. He went from Vilna to study medicine at the University of Padua. He was acquainted with MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO there. At that time, Luzzatto was organizing his group for study and messianic activity. Gordon became his foremost disciple and one of the first seven who signed the regulations of LUZZATTO’s circle in about 1728. The following year Gordon wrote a letter in which he related the activities of LUZZATTO, particularly the revelation of the MAGGID, the agent who disclosed the Zohar Tinyana to LUZZATTO. Gordon depicted LUZZATTO’s mystical powers and related how various Z.ADDIKIM were revealed to him. MOSES H . AGIZ obtained this letter, believing that the activities described were close to SHABBATEAN practices. As a result, H . AGIZ asked the rabbis of Venice to curtail them. Gordon supported LUZZATTO in the ensuing controversy. It is possible that Gordon discontinued his medical studies to support the activites of the group. A poem written by LUZZATTO appears to indicate that Gordon was believed by LUZZATTO and his circle to be a reincarnation of the soul of Samson who would be revealed during the messianic age as Serayah from the tribe of Dan. In their view, he would be one of the leaders of the Israelite army in the apocalyptic wars. Gordon returned to Eastern Europe after LUZZATTO had ceased his activities in Padua.

Graetz, Heinrich (1817–1891) Jewish historian from Poznan. Born in Xions, Poznan, he was the son of a butcher. From 1831 to 1836 he pursued rabbinic studies in Wolstein. Later he studied under Samson Raphael Hirsch. In 1840 he 92

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left Oldenburg and worked as a private tutor. In 1842 he obtained permission to study at Breslau University. He failed to obtain a position as rabbi and preacher, and became head teacher of the Orthodox religious school in Breslau and later in Ludenburg, Moravia. In 1852 he went to Berlin where he lectured on Jewish history to theological students. He contributed to the Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums founded by Zecharias Frankel. In 1853 he was appointed lecturer in Jewish history and Bible at the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau, and in 1869 became honorary professor at the University of Breslau. His major work was History of the Jews. He was a major critic of kaballah.

Guadalajara The foremost cultural centre of Spanish Jewry and the birthplace of the kabbalah of Castile. MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON and other important scholars of the 13th century were active there.

Guide for the Perplexed Philosophical work by MAIMONIDES composed in the 13th century, which seeks to harmonize Aristotelianism with the Bible.

The book caused considerable consternation in the Jewish community and was condemned by a number of traditionalists who were alarmed by its arguments.

In subsequent centuries it was widely studied and remains of central importance in the history of medieval Jewish philosophy.

Guttmacher, Elijah (1795–1874) Rabbi and forerunner of the H . ibbat Zion movement from Borek. Born in Borek Osen, Guttmacher studied at various yeshivot including that of Akiva Eger in Posen. He also studied kabbalah and gained a good knowledge of German and general subjects. From 1822 he served as rabbi of Pleschen; from 1841 he was rabbi in Grodzisk Wielkopolski. His erudition and way of life, akin to that of the H . ASIDIM of Eastern Europe, made his name famous throughout the Jewish world. Visitors went on pilgrimage to him as a H . asidic rebbe to obtain AMULETS for the cure of diseases and the solution of personal problems. Guttmacher published a request to refrain from approaching him on such matters, but this was of little avail and he became the Rebbe of West European H . ASIDIM. His inclination to mysticism and his preoccupation with problems affecting Jewry led him to consider the idea of redemption and its practical realization as a solution to Jewish misery. He was among a small number of rabbis who despite their belief in the coming of the MESSIAH, did not believe that the Jewish people should wait for the coming of redemption passively. Rather, he argued that they should do all in their power to hasten the redemption by engaging in constructive work in Erez. Israel. He supported Zevi Hirsch Kalischer’s efforts to organize potential settlers in the Holy Land. In his view, it is a mistake to believe that suddenly the gates of mercy will open, miracles will happen in heaven and earth, and all biblical prophecies will be fulfilled. Settling in the Holy Land and observing the commandments there, he believed, will serve as a foundation to Jewish renewal. He provided considerable support to the H . ibbat Zion movement, which was opposed by Orthodox and assimilationist rabbis. Guttmacher produced works dealing with Talmudic and kabbalistic study.

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H H . abad H . asidic movement. It was established by SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY, a disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRICH and MENAHEM MENDEL OF VITEBSK. When MENAHEM MENDEL emigrated to Erez.

Israel in 1777, SHNEUR ZALMAN replaced him as the leader of the H . ASIDIM of Belorussia. It was at this time that he began to formulate his own doctrine, which he embodied in his Likkutei Amarim also known as the TANYA. His thesis developed a systematic theosophical doctrine dealing with the conception of God and the world and of human beings and their religious obligations based on the kabbalah of ISAAC LURIA combined with the teaching of the BAAL SHEM TOV. H . abad stresses intellectuality; this notion is the source of its name (HOKHMAH, BINAH, DAAT). In H . abad the leadership of the Z.ADDIK is mainly spiritual. In 1812 the founder of H . abad fled with the Russian armies before Napoleon’s advance and he instructed his followers to support the Russian side. All H . abad Z.ADDIKIM (with the exception of MENAHEM MENDEL who lived in the United States) were imprisoned by the Russian authorities and liberated only after special intervention. The H . abad H . ASIDIM were the first H asidic teachers to establish yeshivot and they developed their own . literary tradition. Until the First World War the first centre of H abad was in .

Belorussia; from there it spread to isolated areas. H abad established a settlement . in Erez. Israel and even reached central Russia. In the Soviet Union, leaders of H . abad conducted underground activities and during the period between the two world wars transferred their centre first to Latvia, then to Poland, and eventually to the United States. Another centre of H . abad H . ASIDISM is located in Israel, but H abad emissaries have been active in many countries. .

Habillo, David (d. 1661) Kabbalist from Erez. Israel. He was a kabbalist in SAFED and Jerusalem. He was the pupil of the kabbalist Benjamin ben Meir ha-Levi of SAFED whom he accompanied when he moved to Jerusalem.

HAYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI stated that the rabbis of Jerusalem told him that Habillo lived there in 1662 and had a heavenly MAGGID. He 94

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wrote a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. During the 1650s he went to Turkey as an emissary from Jerusalem. He met Abraham Yakhini in Constantinople before 1600 and also SHABBATAI Z.EVI, who appears to have studied kabbalah under Habillo. When SHABBATAI Z.EVI was forced to leave Constantinople, he went to Smyrna with Habillo who died there on the ninth of Av. After his death, a dispute arose between his son Judah Habillo, who claimed the inheritance left in Smyrna by his father, and the heads of the Jerusalem community who claimed the money as the proceeds of the mission on their behalf. The av bet din, H . ayyim Benveniste, ruled in their favour.

H . agiz, Moses (1672–?1751) Palestinian kabbalist. Born in Jerusalem, he was the son of Jacob H . agiz. He studied with his grandfather MOSES BEN MORDECAI GALANTE. He appears to have quarrelled with the rabbis in Jerusalem. When in 1694 he left Erez. Israel to found a yeshivah in Jerusalem, letters were sent after him to the communities he visited. Moses visited Egypt and then Italy. In 1704 he published his father’s H . alakhot Ketannot. He travelled by way of Prague to Amsterdam; there he made contact with Z.EVI HIRSCH ASHKENAZI, the rabbi of the Ashkenazi community. He collaborated with him in the struggle against SHABBATEANISM. In 1713 Ashkenazi and Moses refused to retract the excommunication of the SHABBATEAN NEHEMIAH H . AYON; this brought about a major dispute between them and the elders of the Portuguese community. The next year Ashkenazi resigned his rabbinical position and left Amsterdam. Moses joined him; they went first to London where Moses continued his dispute with H . AYON and his supporters. Then he went to Altona, where Ashkenazi’s son JACOB EMDEN lived and resumed his dispute. Among those he attacked were Abraham Miguel Cardozo and JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ. He also attacked MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO. This induced the rabbis of Venice to excommunicate him. In 1638 he returned to Erez. Israel and settled in SAFED. Haiot ha-Kodesh These are the four holy creatures: a man, an eagle, a lion and a bull. The man is ADAM KADMON, the divine image that represents the world of EMANATION. The eagle, which is a creature of the air, symbolises the spirit or the heavenly world of creation. The bull represents the earth in its solidity, whereas the lion, as the symbol of the heart, is the watery intermediary of the soul between physicality and the higher worlds. They are said to cluster around the Heavenly Jerusalem, where the three upper worlds meet.

Halberstam, H . ASID and . ayyim [Divrei Chaim] (1793–1876) Polish H founder of the Sanz dynasty. He was a pupil of Moshe Yehoshua Heshl Orenstein and Naftali Zvi of Ropshitz. His first rabbinic position was in Rudnik. In 1830 he was appointed as the rabbi of Sanz where he founded a H . asidic dynasty.

He attracted numerous followers as well as students. He was succeeded by the Sanz-Klausenberg and the Bobov H . asidic dynasties among others. Halberstam was acclaimed by the leading rabbis of his generation as one of the foremost 95

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Talmudists and kabbalistic scholars of his generation. He received queries from rabbis and communities throughout the Jewish world. His responsa, as well as his Torah commentaries, were published under the title Divrei H . ayyim. He was a champion of the poor and established aid societies. During his years as rabbi of Sanz, the city was transformed into a centre of H . ASIDISM, attracting tens of thousands of followers.

Halevi, Z’ev ben Shimon (Warren Kenton) Born 8th January 1933 into a Sefardi Levite family in London. He went to St Martin’s School of Art and the Royal Academy School of Painting. He then spent twelve years studying psychology, cosmology, philosophy, mysticism and kabbalah with two esoteric schools, besides visiting various historic kabbalistic centres in Europe, North Africa and Israel. While teaching the Toledano Tradition of universal understanding of existence all over the globe, he wrote about kabbalah in clear modern terms. His major contribution is the integration of JACOB’S LADDER of four worlds with science, psychology, spiritual development and schools of the soul. Fourteen of his books have been translated into many languages, including Hebrew. These have become the basis of study groups world wide. He is the Principal Tutor of the Kabbalah Society, which has published a revised set of this works. Halevi was invited to become a Fellow of the Temenos Academy, which promotes co-operation between spiritual traditions. His works include Adam and the Kabbalistic Tree, A Kabbalistic Universe, Psychology and Kabbalah, School of the Soul, The Way of Kabbalah, Kabbalah and Exodus, Introduction to the World of Kabbalah and a kabbalistic novel The Anointed.

Hamiz, Joseph (d. c. 1676) Italian physician, philosopher and kabbalist.

Born in Venice, he devoted himself to Torah and scholarship and was one of the outstanding pupils of Leone Modena. In 1624 gained a doctorate in medicine and philosophy from the University of Padua. At the same time he was ordained a rabbi. To Modena’s distress, he came under the influence of esoteric teachings and joined the kabbalistic circles of MOSES ZACUTO and AARON BERECHIAH BEN MOSES OF MODENA. In 1658 he and ZACUTO published an edition of the Zohar Hadash with glosses on the ZOHAR entitled Derekh Emet. During the same period he began to write a commentary on the ZOHAR, but ceased this work when he decided to move to Jerusalem.

Hannover, Nathan Nata (d. 1683) Polish kabbalist. During the Chmielnicki massacres, which began at the end of 1648, he had to leave his birthplace in Volhynia. He wandered through Poland, German and Holland; his sermons delivered during this period covered the entire Pentateuch. In 1653 he went to Italy. In the same year in Venice, he published Yeven Mez.ulah (Miry Pit) which deals with the Chmielnicki persecutions. He was an associate of SAMUEL ABOAB and MOSES ZACUTO as well as H . ayyim Cohen, Nathan Shapira and Benjamin ha-Levi of SAFED. He studied kabbalah for a number of years. In 1660, in Prague, Hannover published Safah Berurah (Clear Language), 96

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a Hebrew–German–Latin–Italian conversation lexicon, text and guidebook; in 1662 he published Shaarei Z.iyyon (The Gates of Zion), a collection of prayers. In 1662 he became av bet din and head of the yeshivah in Jassy, Walachia. In 1666 he was in Jassy when the MESSIAH was due according to the SHABBATEANS. He is mentioned among those who wrote to Lithuania to announce this event.

He spent about ten years there and in Pascani. He later moved to Ungarisch Brod, Moravia, where he was a religious judge and preacher. Turkish soldiers who raided the town killed him while praying with the community. Most of his writings on the kabbalah were lost. Apart from a sermon printed in 1652 and kabbalistic writing on Purim, only three books published in his lifetime remain. The subject matter and style of these works is diverse, but they had a considerable influence. His prayer book was reprinted repeatedly.

The book served to introduce elements of Lurianic kabbalah into the prayer book.

Hanokh of Aleksandrow (1798–1870) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Aleksandrow.

He was the son of Phinehas ha-Kohen of Lutomirsk. He was a disciple of SIMH . AH BUNIM OF PRZYSUCHA and Menahem Mendel of Kotsk.

He served as rabbi in Aleksandrow near Lodz, and later in Nowy Dwor and Pressnitz. He spent most of his life in the circles of the H . ASIDIM of Przysucha and their successors in Kotsk and Gur. In 1866 he succeeded Isaac Meir Alter as leader of Gur H . ASIDISM. He lived in Aleksandrow, which had become a centre for Kotsk-Gur H . ASIDIM. He continued the Kotsk trend in a mystical religious interpretation, emphasizing the value of Torah study. He taught that every mitzvah must be performed from within and not merely externally. Human beings, he believed, should dedicate their entire being to the performance of a mitzvah; in return they are able to receive strength as well as a transformation in the world order which causes a divine emanation. Hanokh taught that while a person should occupy himself with the entire Torah and the mitzvot, he should choose one mitzvah for his particular attention. Hanokh believed that everyone could follow the path of H . ASIDISM by his own efforts and that the Z.ADDIK was merely a guide. Nonetheless, a compelling attachment exists between the Z.ADDIK and his community. Only a few of his writings have survived; his disciples recorded most of his teachings.

Harlap, Jacob Moses ben Zebulun (1883) Erez. Israel rabbi. Born in Jerusalem, he was a dayyan in the bet din of Moses Joshua Judah Leib Diskin. His main teacher was Z.evi Michael Shapira. After his teacher’s death, he published Zevi la- Zaddik in his memory. When ABRAHAM ISAAC KOOK arrived in the country in 1904, he came under his influence. Harplap was particularly attracted

by KOOK’s views, which stressed the special role of the Jewish people, the sanctity of the Holy Land, and the Zionist movement. In 1908 he became the rabbi of the H . esed district of Jerusalem. In 1912 he was appointed to the Ez H ayyim yeshivah.

When KOOK founded the Merkaz ha-Rav yeshivah in Jerusalem, .

Harlap became its head. When the State of Israel was established, he claimed 97

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that the beginning of redemption had occurred. His main halakhic work was Bet Zevul. His writings on Jewish thought and religious meditations bear the title Mei Merom. In his view, the aim of the Torah is the perfection of human beings in thought and action, and the penetration of the light and spark of holiness that dwells within the people Israel.

Hart, Jacob (1745–1814) English kabbalist and grammarian. He was the first English scholar of this type in the modern period. A jeweller by profession, he took an active part in London communal affairs. He received rabbinical ordination in Europe between 1800 and 1804. Under his Hebrew name ‘Elakim ben Abraham’ he published various works on religion, kabbalah and grammar.

H . asidei Ashkenaz Medieval religious movement fostering an awareness of morality and its practical application. The teachings of the H . aside Ashkenaz were assembled in the SEFER H ASIDIM, which contains anecdotes, sayings and . practical advice on the topics of religious and social morality. The basis of the movement was asceticism involving the expurgating of sin; doing penance and physical moritification; humility as expressed in the rejection of honours and the acceptance of insults; and moral law based on ethical consideration. Its major figures included JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-H . ASID OF REGENSBURG and ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS. H . asidim Religious and social movement founded by the BAAL SHEM TOV in Volhynia and Podolia in the 18th century. He taught that all human beings are created equal before God, purity of heart is superior to study, and devotion to prayer and God’s commandments is of fundamental importance. He was succeeded by DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH, who systematized H . asidic teachings. Although the H asidim were opposed by the MITNAGGEDIM, the . movement spread throughout Eastern Europe and beyond. The major centres of H . ASIDISM were destroyed during the Second World War, but several dynasties emigrated to the USA, such as the Lubavitcher and the Satmar. These groups established their own training colleges and schools, and through them the movement continues to exert an important influence on world Jewry.

H . asidism A religious and social movement founded by the BAAL SHEM TOV in the 18th century. The BAAL SHEM TOV taught that all are equal before the Almighty, the ignorant no less than the learned. In his view purity of the heart was superior to study; further, he stressed that devotion to prayer and the divine commandments was to be encouraged as against asceticism. This new movement appealed to many that had been disappointed by the failure of messianic movements. The BAAL SHEM TOV was succeeded by DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH who systematized H . asidic teaching, bringing it into line with the kabbalistic doctrines of ISAAC LURIA. Fierce opposition to H . ASIDISM took place within traditional Orthodox circles. The Gaon of Vilna, who regarded H . asidic teaching as heretical, led his antagonists, the Mitnaggedim.

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Eventually the H . asidic world was divided into a number of sects, each with its own leadership and traditions.

Hayon, Nehemiah H . iyya ben Moses (c. 1655–c. 1730) Palestinian kabbalist. Born in Egypt, he went to Jerusalem as a child and studied under H . AYYIM ABULAFIA. At the age of 18 he went to Sarajevo with his father where he married. He travelled through the Balkans and lived in Belgrade.

Later he served as a rabbi in Skoplje, Macedonia. In c. 1695 he settled in Erez. Israel and lived in Shechem. After his wife’s death, he married the daughter of one of the scholars of SAFED. From his youth, he was attracted to kabbalah, and he was on intimate terms with SHABBATEANS. His kabbalistic doctrines avoid the issue of SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s messianic claims, but were based on SHABBATEAN principles. When Hayon received Raza de-Meheimanuta (The Mystery of the True Faith), which was attributed to SHABBATAI Z.EVI, he claimed he wrote it and that Elijah or the angel METATRON revealed it to him.

Changing its name to Meheimanuta de-Khula, he began to write a commentary.

During this period he lived in Rosetta, Egypt; from this time he became known as one who engaged in practical kabbalah. On his return to Jerusalem, hostility broke out between him and Abraham Yizhaki who levelled various accusations against Hayon. Later he went to SAFED and from there to Smyrna, intending to publish his commentary to Meheimanuta de-Khula and to find supporters for a yeshivah, which he wished to establish in Jerusalem. When he arrived in Jerusalem, the rabbis harassed him and he was forced to leave the country. According to JOSEPH ERGAS, Hayon disclosed to him his belief in SHABBATAI Z.EVI. In 1711 in Venice, he published Raza de-Yih.uda on the meaning of the verse Shema Yisrael. Later, Hayon went to Prague where he was greeted with great honour by other scholars for his Oz le-Elohim and Divrei Neh.emyah. He travelled via Moravia and Silesia to Berlin where in 1713 supported by wealthy Jews he published Oz le-Elohim. In some passages he criticized the views of NATHAN OF GAZA and ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO. Hayon’s propounded a new formulation of the principles of EMANATION and the difference between the First Cause, which he refers to as Soul of All Living Beings, and the EN SOF. In his opinion, the EN SOF is only an extension of the essence of God, but paradoxically this essence is finite and possesses a definite structure, Shinur Komah (measure of the body of God). Hayon maintained that ISAAC LURIA’s doctrine of Z.IMZ.UM must be understood literally. His doctrine of the three superior PARTZUFIM differs from the theories of other SHABBATEANS only in details. His book should be understood as a mixture of SHABBATEAN theology and exegetical acumen by which he read new ideas into the ZOHAR and the writings of LURIA. In 1713 he left Berlin for Amsterdam. It appears that he knew about the SHABBATEAN tendency of Solomon Allyon, rabbi of the Sephardi congregation. However, a dispute soon developed between the supporters of Hayon and those of Z.EVI ASHKENAZI, the rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, and of MOSES HAGIZ. This dispute provoked strong emotions and spread to other countries.

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H . ayyat, Judah ben Jacob (c. 1450–c. 1510) Spanish kabbalist. Born in Spain, he studied kabbalah under Samuel Ibn Shraga. Around 1482, he addressed questions on kabbalah to JOSEPH ALCASTIEL who responded at length. After Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, he suffered hardships on sea voyages; in 1494 he arrived in Italy where he lived for several years in Mantua. At the request of Joseph Jabez he wrote a commentary on Ma’arekhet he-Elohut, an early kabbalistic work that was circulated among contemporary kabbalists in Italy.

This commentary, Minh.at Yehudah, was published together with the Ma’arekhet in Ferrara in 1558. It is considered one of the most important works of kabbalah in the generation of the Spanish expulsion. H . ayyat was a representative of the kabbalah of the ZOHAR, in contrast with the approach of ABRAHAM ABULAFIA as well as the philosophical kabbalistic system of ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM IBN LATIF. H . ayyat was one of the first to quote at length passages of the ZOHAR and the tikkunim. He had reservations about the philosophical commentaries on the kabbalah, which circulated in Italy. He also disputed against the Iggeret H . amudot of Elijah of Genazzano, which identified the EN SOF with the first SEFIRAH. Regarding the essence of the SEFIROT, H . ayyat agreed with the view of MENAHEM RECANATI. The process of creation, he argued, occurs by the double movement of expansion and contraction of the divine will. Creation is a realization into actuality through the divine will of the potential hidden unity of the EN SOF. H . ayyat had a profound influence on the development of 16th- and 17th-century kabbalah.

H . ayyim, Abraham Raphael ben Asher (d. 1772) Jerusalem rabbi and kabbalist. He was a member of the bet din of Raphael Meyuhas. Later he was av ben din in Jerusalem. In 1771 he was appointed rishon le-Zion. In 1731 (or 1734) he published the Sha’arei Kedushah of H . AYYIM VITAL. Between the years 1734 and 1765 he travelled as an emissary of Jerusalem, seeking contributions in Constantinople, Italy, France and Egypt. He was a signatory of the Shetar Hitkasherut of the society of kabbalists. He served as head of the yeshivah Yefaer Anavim in Jerusalem. He died during a famine and plague there.

H . ayyim ben Abraham ha-Kohen (c. 1585–1655) Kabbalist from Aleppo.

After the Spanish expulsion in 1492, his ancestors went to Erez. Israel and later settled in Aleppo. He was the disciple of H . AYYIM VITAL during his last years in Damascus. Later he served as one of the rabbis of Aleppo. H . ayyim wrote numerous works in the course of twenty years. During a long sea voyage he sought to bring these manuscripts to print, but pirates off Malta attacked the ship. He saved himself by jumping into the sea near the coast, but his manuscripts were lost. He stated that he decided to write them again. Around 1650 he set out again for Constantinople where he remained for two or three years.

The first part of his Mekor H . ayyim is a detailed kabbalistic commentary on the rules of the Shulhan Arukh. At the end of 1652 he was in Smyrna; later he went to Venice and returned through Zante to Aleppo. Through the mediation of SAMUEL ABOAB of Verona he published, in Venice, a large volume of 100

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sermons, Torat H . akham, with the kabbalist MOSES ZACUTO acting as a proofreader. In 1654 he set out again for Italy where he published additional parts. He died in Leghorn during the publication of his last book. All his commentaries on the Shulhan Arukh have been published in two volumes. In Leghorn he introduced NATHAN HANNOVER to the kabbalah of ISAAC LURIA. HANNOVER included in his She’arei Z.iyyon a lament by H . ayyim for the Tikkun H azot (midnight prayer), Kol be-Ramah Nishma, which has since become . part of every edition of this midnight liturgy. In his writings H ayyim quoted . portions from the ZOHAR, and sometimes also the sayings of his teacher VITAL, but most of his presentation is not based on other sources. A prayer book with kabbalistic meditations by H . ayyim is extant in several manuscripts.

H ayyim was careful not to write AMULETS and was opposed to those who . spent too much time in prayer. Among kabbalists he is viewed as more of a theoretical scholar than a practical mystic.

H . ayyim of Volozhin (1749–1821) Rabbi and educator from Vilna. He became the disciple of ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Vilna Gaon.

He eventually succeeded him as spiritual leader of the MITNAGGEDIM in Eastern Europe, in 1753 he was appointed rabbi of Volozhin, Lithuania. He was opposed to H . ASIDISM and against the form of argumentation popular in yeshivot. He founded the Volozhin Yeshivah in 1803, in which he stressed the examination of the plain meaning of the Talmud. He also introduced secular subjects. He was the author of Nefesh ha-H . ayyim which challenged H . ASIDISM. H . ayyim Z.evi Teitelbaum of Sighet (b. in the 1870s–1926) Rabbi and Z.ADDIK from Sighet. Born in Sighet, he wrote Azei H . ayyim on the Torah and the festivals as well as responsa and a work on tractate Gittin. His son, Jekuthiel Judah of Sighet, was the last rabbi to serve in Sighet, and perished in the Holocaust at Auschwitz in 1944.

Heavenly Ascent In kabbalistic literature, there are numerous descriptions of heavenly ascent in which the mystic seeks to gain an experience of the divine.

HEKHALOT sources provide graphic depictions of the nature of the heavenly halls through which the mystic passes on his journey.

Heavens It is said that there are seven heavens. These correspond to the seven days of creation and are the seven levels within the the realm of the spirit. They can be seen as cosmic dimensions or seven spiritual states, which are called by the kabbalists the upper halls. There is much discussion about their nature, which is closely guarded by the great archangels. Only highly advanced mystics have access to these cosmic chambers, which are full of the forces that govern the universe.

Heilprin, Jehiel ben Solomon (1660–1746) Lithuanian scholar and historian. He was the son of the rabbi of Sokolow. He studied kabbalah and according to legend performed miracles. He served as rabbi in Glussk where his compilation of rules and regulations for the h.evra kaddisha were preserved 101

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in his own manuscript. In 1711 he was appointed head of the yeshivah in Minsk.

His method of teaching the Talmud was contrary to pilpul; this caused friction between him and Aryeh Leib ben Asher Gunzberg who was a rosh yeshivah in Minsk. Aryeh Leib later left Minsk and Heilprin was able to continue in his own yeshivah undisturbed. He was famous for his historical chronological book Seder ha-Dorot, which consists of a chronology of events and personages dated from creation to 1696, the biographies and chronologies of the tannaim and amoraim, and the names of Hebrew authors and books up to Heilprin’s perod.

Hekhalot Heavenly Halls. According to Jewish mysticism, the mystic can ascend the heavenly heights; on this journey he enters a series of heavenly halls (hekhalot). HEKHALOT literature describes the nature of this journey.

Hekhalot Rabbati An early HEKHALOT text which contains a detailed explanation of the experiences of the Riders of the Chariot. In this work NEH . UNYA BEN HA-KANAH discoursed on the MERKAVAH. The text also provides instructions for passage through the gates of the palaces as well as requirements for descent to the MERKAVAH. Hesed (Love) The fourth SEFIRAH. It is below HOKHMAH across from GEVURAH and above NETZAH . . It is associated with kindness and love.

Hillel ben Samuel (c. 1220–c. 1295) Italian physician, Talmudic scholar and philosopher. The grandson of Eliezer ben Samuel, a tosafist and av bet din in Verona, he lived in Naples and then in Capua. He practised medicine there and studied philosophy with ABRAHAM ABULAFIA. He played a major role in the controversies of 1289–90 concerning the works of MOSES MAIMONIDES whom he defended. His major work was Tagmulei ha-Nefesh, which dealt with the soul and the intellect. According to Hillel, the soul is a formal substance, which is spiritual and emanates directly from God. The ultimate aim of the soul is to unite with the active intellect. In Hillel’s view, the soul’s retribution is spiritual rather than physical; its reward consists in drawing near to God whereas its punishment is separation from the divine source.

Hirschfeld, Ephraim Joseph (c. 1755–1820) Freemason from Karlsruhe, Born in Karlsruhe, he was the son of the cantor Joseph Hirschel Darmstadt.

In his youth his talents came to the attention of Prince Charles Frederick of Baden; this enabled him to be a student in the high school of Karlsruhe. He then studied medicine in Strasbourg. He did not complete his studies but acquired a general background in addition to a traditional Jewish education. From 1779 to 1781 he was a tutor in the house of David Friedlander, frequented the home of Moses Mendelssohn, and was in contact with the Haskalah. In 1782 he worked in Innsbruck where he met with the founder of the order of masons of a theosophic orientation, the Asiatic Brethren. One of its founders was a Frankist convert to Christianity, Franz Thomas von Schoenfeld, who introduced into 102

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the writings of the order portions of SHABBATEAN literature. Hirschfeld was received into the order and became secretary to its founder, Hans Ecker von Eckhofen, who opened the order to Jewish financiers, members of the Enlightenment who sought to form closer ties with Christian society. As was customary in the mystical order of Freemasons, Hirschfeld took a pseudonym, Marcus ben Binah Hirschfeld. He occupied an important role in the order.

Until 1786 he lived in Vienna and later until 1791 in Schleswig which had become the centre of the order. Because of a quarrel with von Eckhofen, Hirschfeld was expelled from the order, and in 1790 placed under house arrest for several months. However, several important Jews in the organization came to his defence. During this period Hirschfeld was active as translator of the mystical writings of the order, making it appear as if they had originally been written in Hebrew or Aramaic. In 1791 his former friend Schoenfeld took him to Strasbourg, but Hirschfeld left him and returned to Germany. From 1792 until his death he lived alternatively in Frankfurt and Offenbach, maintaining close contact with the FRANKISTS who had their centre there. His aim to create a religious fusion of Judaism and Christianity within a kabbalistic framework was close to the spirit of FRANKISM. However, Hirschfeld never converted to Christianity. In 1796 he and his brother Pascal published Biblisches Organon, a kabbalistic-theosophical translation and commentary on the beginning of Genesis. This work was intended to be the start of a large work elaborating mystical insights on biblical topics. Hirschelfd was close to the Catholic professor Franz Joseph Molitor who later became a distinguished student of kabbalah in Frankfurt.

H . iyya [Rabba] (2nd century CE) Babylonian tanna during the period from the tannaim to the amoraim. Born in Kafri, near Sura in Babyonia, he emigrated to Erez. Israel from Babylonia. He studied in Judah ha-Nasi’s bet midrash and transmitted statements in his name. He was authorized by Judah ha-Nasi to act as a dayyan. He had his own bet midrash which was famous for its preoccupation with beraitot. The most distinguished of his pupils was Rav, the son of his brother on his father’s side and of his sister on his mother’s side. H . iyya discoursed in public on halakhah and aggadah. In the aggadah a graphic description is given of his great merit in the heavenly academy.

H . iyya, Rofe (1550?–1618) SAFED rabbi. Born in SAFED, he studied in Solomon Sagis’s yeshivah. He was instructed in kabbalah by H . AYYIM VITAL, and ordained by JACOB BERAB II before 1599. He re-established the yeshivah of Tiberias in 1587 and headed it for several years. However, between 1590 and 1593 he again lived in SAFED where he was viewed as one of the outstanding scholars. In 1607 he lived in Jerusalem, but in about 1612 returned to SAFED where he died. Various contemporaries quote his views. Most of his writings have been lost. The little that remains were published by his son, Meir ben Hiyya Rofe, a scholar in Hebron, in Ma’aseh H . iyya. This work is a valuable source for the method of Talmudic study employed by the scholars of 103

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SAFED as well as for quotations from many manuscripts of the Talmud which the author kept in the yeshivah in SAFED. Hod (Splendour) It is the eighth SEFIRAH in the kabbalistic system. Hod sits below GEVURAH, across from NETZAH . and YESOD. Within sources, it is connected with Jewish prayer.

Hokhmah (Wisdom) It is the second of the SEFIROT, opposite BINAH. It denotes the first intermediate step between KETER and the rest of the SEFIROT. Holiness The term is used to define a state of purity, associated with the seven heavens. These are seven degrees rising out of the lesser halls of YEZ.IRAH, the world of formation, up through the world of creation to have a direct encounter with the divine. Only people with this degree of holiness can safely ascend and enter the presence of the Creator. An image of holiness was seen in the countenance of Moses when he came down from Mount Sinai. He had to cover his face as it was too radiant for the Israelites.

Horodezky, Samuel Abba (1871–1957) Ukrainian scholar and historian of Jewish mysticism and H . ASIDISM. Born in Malin (Kiev region), he studied in the courts of Z.ADDIKIM in Malin and Chernobyl. He was attracted to the Haskalah and at the age of 20 lived in Berdichev where he changed from a rabbinic author to a Hebrew writer and began to correspond with other authors.

The pogroms of 1905–6 persuaded him to leave the Ukraine. He was a delegate to the Eighth Zionist Congress in The Hague in 1907. From 1908 to 1938 he lived in Switzerland and Germany. He was a contributor to the Encyclopaedia Judaica and a founder of the archives of the Schocken Press. In 1938 he immigrated to Palestine and lived in Tel Aviv. His writings consisted of studies of the great H . ASIDIM and their doctrines as well as monographs on sources and teachers of mysticism. He also made compilations of the writings of kabbalists and H . ASIDIM including MOSES CORDOVERO, ISAAC LURIA, H . AYYIM VITAL, NAH MAN OF BRATSLAV and DOV BAER THE MAGGID OF .

MEZHIRECH. Horowitz, Isaiah ben Abraham ha-Levi [Ha-Shelah ha-Kadosh] (1565?– 1630) Rabbi, kabbalist and communal leader from Prague. Born in Prague, he moved to Poland with his father who was his teacher. He studied under Solomon ben Judah of Cracow, Meir of Lublin and Joshua Falk. In 1597 he published his father’s Emek Berakhah with the addition of his own glosses in which the influence of kabbalistic doctor is discernible. He became av bet din of Dubno in 1600, and two years later av bet din and head of the yeshivah of Ostraha. In 1606 he was appointed av bet din of Frankfurt on the Main. After Jews were expelled from there in 1614, he returned to Prague where he was a rabbi. After the death of his wife the same year, he moved to Jerusalem where 104

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he remarried and became the rabbi of the Ashkenazi community. In 1625 he was imprisoned together with other scholars by the pasha and later ransomed.

He died in Tiberias. In Erez. Israel, the manuscript notes of ISAAC LURIA, MOSES CORDOVERO, and JOSEPH CARO impressed him. For Horowitz, kabbalah was the teaching of the sages of truth. He believed that the time had come to reveal the secret wisdom of the ZOHAR as a preparation for redemption. His major work was Shenei Luh.ot ha-Berit in which halakhah, homily and kabbalah are combined for the purpose of giving direction how to lead a moral life.

Horowitz, Jacob ben Abraham (d. 1622) Polish kabbalist. The brother of Isaiah Horowitz, he studied under Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague. In c. 1590 he lived in Szczebrzeszyn. Together with his brother he published in Cracow in 1597 the Emek Berakhah of his father Abraham Horowitz. In 1615 he published glosses to his father’s Yesh Noh.alin. It is written in a style of a testament to his children. He encourages his children to study it during the High Holidays as a spiritual stimulation for the fulfilment of the Torah. Both these works achieved a wide circulation. ISAIAH HOROWITZ made use of these glosses for his Shenei Luh.ot ha-Berit. Jacob stressed that there is a spiritual content to all human actions. He was opposed to casuistry in the study of the Talmud. In contrast to his father, who under the influence of Moses Isserles tended to philosophical inquiry, Jacob embraced a kabbalistic approach.

Horowitz, Samuel Shmelke of Nikolsburg (1726–1788) Rabbi and kabbalist in Poland and Galicia. He was the elder brother of Phinehas ben Z.evi Hirsch Horowitz. In their youth both were disciples of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. Samuel fostered the spread of H . ASIDISM in Poland and Galicia and served as a rabbi in Rychwal and Sieniawa. From 1773 he officiated in Nikolsburg, Moravia, first as av bet din and later as rabbi of the province.

This last appointment caused bitter opposition. However, Empress Maria Theresa confirmed him in office by virtue of his H . ASIDISM and Orthodoxy.

He was considered one of the pioneers of H ASIDISM and miraculous stories . are told about him. In fact he did not wholly accept the H . ASIDISM taught by the BAAL SHEM TOV. Even though he surrounded himself with young scholars and educated them in H . ASIDISM, he was an ascetic who remained in his home and kept people at a distance. An undertone of protest against the prevailing attitudes of levity amongst the H . ASIDIM is found in his writings.

Among his works are Divrei Shemu’el, which contains homiletic and kabbalistic commentaries and novellae on Bava Batra and on the laws concerning festivals in Orah. H . ayyim, as well as Nezir ha-Shem, which includes novellae on the Shulh.an Arukh, Even ha-Ezer. Samuel took part in the literary controversy concerning H . ASIDISM, requesting that the rabbis of Brody refrain from imposing the Vilna ban on H . ASIDISM and also discount the accusation that H ASIDISM opposes tradition. .

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Horowitz, Z.evi Hirsch ben H . ayyim Aryeh Leibush ha-Levi (1872–1945) Rabbi and scholar from Cracow. Born in Cracow, his father was a rabbi. At the outbreak of the First World War, Horowitz and his family fled to Moravia.

He settled in Bruenn where he officiated as rabbi and av bet din of the Mah.azikei ha-Dat community, founded by Galician refugees. In 1916 he moved to Scheveningen, Holland; there he took part in communal activities and established a yeshivah. In 1919 the Orthodox community Shomerei ha-Dat was founded in Dresden and Horowitz became its rabbi. In 1920 he was also appointed chief rabbi of Dresden. As a consequence of the Nazi persecution, he went to Antwerp in 1939. After the German invasion of Belgium in the spring of 1940 he settled in Nice. His publications included Kitvei ha-Ge’onim, containing many letters of Jewish scholars with details on their genealogies. He discovered these letters after a prolonged search in Scheveningen. He also wrote Le-Korot ha-Kehillot be-Polanyah, which contains material left by him in manuscript; it was arranged and prepared for publication after the Holocaust and contains studies of eleven well-known Polish towns. These two works are invaluable sources of information about the history of the rabbinate and its literature in Europe during the last centuries. They contain biographies of many rabbis and their families.

Among his other works is a pamphlet containing the letters written by Saul ben Z.evi Hirsch Berlin to his brother-in-law Jacob Moses Lowenstamm of Amsterdam during the period that Berlin was compelled to leave Germany on account of the storm raised by his Besamim Rosh. Horowitz’s research into the arrangement of the editing of the Jerusalem Talmud, (together with his work on Toledot Mishpahat Horowitz) was added for the first time to the Tov Ayin, on the tractate Yevamot of the Jerusalem Talmud by his brother Eleazar Moses Horowitz.

Hosts of Heaven This is a term used for the archangels, angels, archdemons and demons. According to tradition, they are organized in a military fashion.

There are angels of mercy and justice of the upper and lower levels of the worlds of YEZ.IRAH and BERIYAH. All angels and demons are kept within their bounds by the laws of the sefirotic Trees associated with these two realms.

Humility Humble estimate of one’s own qualities. For many kabbalists, humility was a cardinal virtue. It was regarded as the peak of moral perfection, and in the ladder of virtues superior to saintliness.

Hymn of Glory According to the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, prayer is like Jacob’s Ladder extending from earth to heaven; it is a process of mystical ascent. It was in this milieu that the Hymn of Glory was composed – a prayer that subsequently gained a central place in the Ashkenazi liturgy. Here the unknowablity of God is suffused with a longing for intimacy with the Divine.

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I Ibbur (impregnation) Alongside GILGUL (transmigration of souls), the doctrine of ibbur developed from the second half of the 13th century. Ibbur refers to the entry of another soul into a man during his life. In general, such an additional soul dwells for only a limited period of time in order to perform certain acts and mitzvot. In the ZOHAR it is alleged that the souls of Nadab and Abihu were added temporarily to Phineas in his zeal over the act of Zimri, and that Judah’s soul was present in Boaz when he begat Obed. This doctrine was current in the teachings of the SAFED kabbalists, especially in the Lurianic School. According to this doctrine, a righteous individual who fulfilled almost all of the mitzvot but did not have the opportunity to fulfil a special mitzvah could be temporarily reincarnated in a person who had the opportunity to fulfil it. Hence, the souls of righteous men are reincarnated for the benefit of the universe and their generation. The ibbur of a wicked individual into the soul of another person is called a DYBBUK in later usage. The prevalence of the belief in GILGUL in the 16th and 17th centuries brought about new debates between its critics and adherents. A detailed debate about the doctrine of transmigration of souls took place in 1460. Abraham ha-Levi ibn Migash disputed the concept of GILGUL in Sefer Kevod Elohim. Leone Modena wrote Ben David against the doctrine of transmigration. In defence Manasseh ben Israel wrote Sefer Nishmat H . ayyim.

Ibn Ezra, Abraham (1089–1164) Spanish scholar. Born in Spain, he was a rabbi, scholar, poet, philosopher and astrologer. He travelled widely all over the Middle East and Western Europe. Besides being the first to analyse the Bible in a new way, he wrote texts on astrology and introduced a newish version of NEOPLATONISM to every rabbinic school he visited. This, like the work of SOLOMON IBN GABIROL, had a profound influence on the formulation of kabbalah, which was developing a metaphysical scheme to match the symbolism of the Bible.

Ibn Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel see Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel Ibn 107

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Ibn Gabriol, Solomon ben Judah see Gabriol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn Ibn Gaon, Shem Tov ben Abraham (late 13th–14th centuries) Spanish kabbalist and halakhist. Born in Soria, Spain, he emigrated to Erez. Israel in 1312. His teachers were SOLOMON BEN ADRET and Isaac ben Todros.

He was influenced by NAH . MANIDES in which he saw the synthesis between rational reflection and the mystical quest. He sought to set the writings of SOLOMON BEN ADRET in a similar perspective, citing a tradition to the effect that MAIMONIDES became an admirer of kabbalah at the end of his life. He was best known for his Migdal Oz, a commentary on the Mishneh Torah of MAIMONIDES, including a polemic on the views of ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIÈRES. It was the first systematic attempt to determine MAIMONIDES’ sources and an important contribution to halakhic research.

His other works include Keter Shem Tov, a kabbalistic super-commentary on NAH . MANIDES’ commentary on the Pentateuch; an illuminated Bible codex; Baddei ha-Aron u-Migdal H . ananel, a kabbalistic text completed in SAFED in 1325; and Shitot, commentaries and novellae on Talmudic treatises.

Ibn Latif, Isaac ben Abraham (c. 1210–1280) Spanish kabbalist. In all likelihood he lived in Toledo. He had a good knowledge of philosophy and also knew Arabic. He had personal connections with kabbalist circles and studied kabbalah intensively. In his Iggeret ha-Teshuvah he complained that he suffered persecution, was expelled from his home, spent years wandering, and eventually settled in another country. It is not possible to determine whether he left Spain altogether, or only his native Castile. Although Latif ’s language is philosophic in nature, his disposition was kabbalistic. As a result of his disappointment in philosophy and kabbalah, he formulated his own system, which is a synthesis of the two. He established a new school in Spanish kabbalah of a philosophicalmystical character uniting NEOPLATONISM with traditional kabbalah. Latif combined IBN GABIROL’s theory of the will with the kabbalist doctrine of the ten SEFIROT. From the will emanated the ten SEFIROT in which the upper world is comprehended. Although the will is eternal, the ten SEFIROT are temporal. In describing the process of emanation from the will, Latif used the NEOPLATONIC analogy of a mathematical point from whose motion a line develops, then a surface, and finally a volume. The will, however, is also the first divine emanation. As such, it is referred to as the ‘first Creation’, which Latif called by the symbolic name ‘esh’ (fire). Latif focused his discussion on the first three SEFIROT, and introduced into kabbalah the concept of the three worlds (upper, intermediate and lower), identifying the upper world with the world of the SEFIROT. Latif stressed the principle of the multiple meanings of Scripture, and presented the kabbalistic theory of Shemittot, consecutive periods of cosmic evolvement each of which lasted 7,000 years.

Ibn Motot, Samuel ben Saadiah (active c. 1370) Philospher, kabbalist and translator in Spain. He came from a well-known family in Guadalajara 108

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and was a member of the circle of Jewish intellectuals in Castile who were friendly with Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet. In his writings he engaged in numerous philosophical and kabbalistic speculations. For his essential material he used the ‘Treatise of Reconciliation’ by JOSEPH IBN WAQAR as well as the ZOHAR. Of the authors of his generation, he made use of Judah ben Nissim ibn Nakla.

Along with knowledge of Abraham ibn Ezra and MAIMONIDES, his Jewish sources included the commentary of DUNASH IBN TAMIM on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, and the Olam Katan of JOSEPH IBN Z.ADDIK. It was through the Arab philosoher al-Farabi as well as through Ibn al-Sid al-Bat.alyawsi, the Spanish Muslim philosopher, that he became acquainted with Muslim philosophy. It is likely that he knew the works of the Brethren of Sincerity and Avicenna. In his theories of cosmology and prophecy Samuel combined the teachings of kabbalah with those of philosophy, taking for granted the affinities between the two. Under the influence of Muslim and Jewish NEOPLATONISTS and astrologers, he advanced the thesis of the correspondence between the MICROCOSM and the MACROCOSM. Ibn Pakuda, Bah. ya (c. 1050–1120) Spanish theologian. Born in c. 1050, he lived in Saragossa. In addition to religious poetry, he composed Duties of the Heart in about 1090. In the introduction Bah.ya divided human obligations into two types: duties of the members of the body and duties of the heart. The first category includes ritual and ethical practices, which are prescribed by the Torah.

The second type consists of beliefs. Bah.ya went on to explain that he composed this treatise because such inner obligations had been largely neglected by previous thinkers as well as by his contemporaries who concentrated instead on outward acts. The structure of this work was borrowed by Arab mystical tracts which lead the reader through ascending stages in the inner life toward spiritual perfection and, ultimately, union with the Divine. Each of its ten chapters is devoted to a particular duty; the subjects treated include the unity of God, the nature of the world which reveals God’s handiwork, divine worship, trust in God, sincerity of purpose, humility, repentance, self-examination, asceticism and the love of God. The starting point of this spiritual journey is an awareness of God’s unity. Bah.ya argued that the Deity is neither substance nor accident – thus we cannot know God as He is in himself. Rather, it is only through his creatures that we can gain an apprehension of the Divine. This theological investigation provides the metaphysical background to Bah.ya’s examination of the duties of the heart.

Ibn Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon see Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon Ibn Ibn Shuaib, Joshua (first half of 14th century) Spanish scholar. Little is known of his life. He was a student of SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET whose statements and customs he frequently cited. He lived in Navarre where Menahem ben Arbon ibn Zera was his pupil. According to legend he resided in Tudela. Ibn Shuaib’s fame rests upon his Derashot, containing sermons on the 109

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Pentateuch. The first edition appeared in Constantinople in 1523; the second in Cracow in 1573. The work is full of halakhah, Jewish thought, kabbalah and musar. Ibn Shuaib was familiar with the works of IBN GABIROL, Judah Halevi, Abraham ibn Ezra, MAIMONIDES, and BAH . YA IBN PAKUDA as well as halakhic works from the geonic period to his own day. He was well versed in kabbalah as well, and his interest in it is evident in his writing. He quoted from the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, SEFER HA-BAHIR, and the ZOHAR, as well as from the kabbalist EZRA BEN SOLOMON OF GERONA. He also referred to kabbalistic passages in the Bible commentary of NAH . MANIDES. He viewed NAH MANIDES’ writings as the ideal combination of philosophy . and kabbalah. As a result, he frequently quoted NAH MANIDES. In addition . he made extensive use of the two Talmuds, as well as aggadic midrashim. He delivered his sermons largely before 1310. His chief aim in his sermons was to urge the observance of the commandments. He also stressed the importance of the synagogue and the need to have recourse to Jewish courts of law. Ibn Shuaib wrote a commentary on kabbalistic passages in NAH . MANIDES’ commentary.

Some pupils of SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET similarly commented on NAH . MANIDES’ writings and criticized Ibn Shuaib’s commentary.

Ibn Shem Tov, Isaac ben Shem Tov (15th century) Spanish rabbi and philosopher. He was the son of the anti-Aristotelian mystic SHEM TOV IBN SHEM TOV. He was an Aristotelian rationalist even more than his elder brother Joseph Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov, and as much as his nephew Shem Tov ben Joseph Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov. He taught philosophy in Aguilar de Campo, Castile. He wrote in Hebrew on Aristotelian topics, specializing in commentaries on philosophical classics. His writings include commentaries on Averroes’ Intermediate Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics, and a commentary on the book decried by his father: MAIMONIDES’ GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED. He was a critic of H . asdai Crescas.

Ibn Shem Tov, Shem Tov (c. 1380–c. 1441) Spanish rabbi, kabbalist and anti-Mamonidean author. He was a witness to the persecutions and conversion movements in the late 14th and 15th centuries. He held Maimonidean Aristotelianism responsible for fostering apostasy. In his Sefer ha-Emunot, he attacked Jewish rationalists from Abraham ibn Ezra through Levi ben Gershom and ISAAC ALBALAG as well as MAIMONIDES. He wrote against the esoteric doctrine of the GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED. Even though he valued MAIMONDIES’ halakhic works, he viewed his philosophy as a great danger. Unlike H . asdai Crescas, he did not seek to undermine philosophically the foundations of Maimonidean Aristotelianism, nor did he seek to provide an alternative philosophical system. Instead, he argued from faith. According to Shem Tov, MAIMONIDES taught that (1) The soul is non-substantial; (2) There is neither divine reward for the righteous nor punishment for the wicked; (3) There will be no resurrection; (4) Human immortality is of the intellect and can be attained only by philosophers; (5) There is no providence except 110

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that occasioned by intellectual conjunction with God; (6) The world is eternal and immutable; (7) There have been no miracles; (8) The commandments are merely means for the development of the intellect; (9) Human excellence is attained only upon mastery of logic, mathematics, natural sciences and metaphysics; (10) The stories in the Torah were designed for the multitude.

Shem Tov was unsuccessful in winning many adherents. His sons Joseph ben Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov, and ISAAC BEN SHEM TOV IBN SHEM TOV, and his grandson Shem Tov ben Joseph ben Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov adhered to MAIMONIDES’ views. Shem Tov was often viewed as championing faith against reason. Yet his zeal does not invalidate his claim that MAIMONIDES’ teaching facilitated Jewish apostasy in Spain. In the history of kabbalah, Shem Tov is known for asserting that KETER is not one of the ten SEFIROT but above them and consequently H . OKHMAH is the first SEFIRAH, and that DAAT is a SEFIRAH. Ibn Tabul, Joseph see Tabul, Joseph Ibn Ibn Tamim, Dunash see Dunash Ibn Tamim Ibn Tibbon A family of generations of Andalucian scholars, who translated texts from Arabic into Hebrew in Lunel, southern France. These translations of philosophical books greatly influenced the formulation of kabbalistic metaphysics in Provence and Spain.

Ibn Waqar, Joseph ben Abraham (14th century) Spanish philosopher and kabbalist. He was a member of a distinguished family in Toledo. His poem Shir ha-Yih.ud contains his kabbalistic ideas. In Al-maqala aljamia bayn al-falsafa wa-alsharia he attempted to reconcile philosophy and astrology with the revealed law.

The purpose of this quest was not to make the kabbalah conform to rational principles, but to make it triumphant. He sought to demonstrate that Jewish theosophy which introduced a series of intermediary entities (SEFIROT) between the unknown God and the intelligible world of the philosophers could be linked to the philosophical concept of an intermediary being between the first cause and the prime mover. Ibn Waqar believed that he could through dialectic establish an agreement between astrology, philosophy and kabbalah.

Astrology, he argued, provides information concerning events in the sub-lunar world; philosophy is valid in its teachings concerning the structure of the world intermediary between the separate intelligences and the celestial bodies; kabbalah is authoritative as a symbolic expression of the knowledge that is available concerning the divine world. In his writings, Ibn Waqar used the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, the SEFER HA-BAHIR, the writings of the GERONA school, and the responsum ascribed to Hai Gaon. But he was suspicious of the ZOHAR. Ibn Yah.ya, Gedalliah ben Joseph (1526–1587) Italian historiographer and Talmust. Born in Imola, he lived in the papal cities of Italy. He studied at several 111

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yeshivot including those of Jacob Finzi and Ovadia Sforno. He was ordained as rabbi and dayyan. When Pious V expelled Jews from his domains in 1569, he wandered from city to city. In 1575, after living in Ferrara for several years, he settled in Alexandria in Piedmont where he became the local rabbi. He was a master of rabbinic literature and was also interested in magic and history. His Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah has three parts: (1) The first part is a short history of the Jewish people from the creation to the present. Most of the information about medieval sages and scholars is taken from other Hebrew historiographies; however, some biographical notes are included which are not known from any other source. Historically the importance of this work lies in the many biographical and bibliographical facts it contains. As such, Ibn Yah.ya’s work is one of the main sources for Renaissance Jewish history. (2) The second part of the work consists of a collection of short scientific tractates including such subjects as angels, heaven and hell, ghosts, medicine, heavenly spheres, coins and measurements, the formation of the embryo, and the making of paper.

(3) The third part of this work is a chronicle from the creation to the 16th century, with the emphasis on the history of other nations. Much of the material in this part is mythological and legendary in nature. It is one of the earliest Hebrew works in the field of world history.

Ibn Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob see Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob Ibn Iggeret ha-Kodesh A work by the 18th-century H . ASID SHNEUR ZALMAN in which he asserted that the soul’s yearning to cleave to God grows out of love.

Irin They are called the watchers who never sleep. This is because of their direct contact with the world of ATZILUT. These watchers include archangels Michael and Gabriel on the central column on the Tree of BERIYAH, which carry divine will, grace and consciousness. The Irin watch over the workings of creation and supervise the complex Hosts of Heavens maintaining the delicate balance in BERIYAH and the worlds below. They are also seen as the spiritual elite who watch over mankind.

Isaac ben Abraham of Posen (d. 1685) Rabbi and author in Posen. He was a pupil of Jonah Teomim and Abraham Meir of Bar. He was on friendly terms with the kabbalist MOSES ZACUTO. He was a rabbi in Lutsk; later he was appointed rabbi of Vilna and from there went to Posen in 1667. His knowledge of the Talmud and kabbalah earned him the title of Isaac the Great.

Contemporary scholars frequently sought his opinion on halakhic matters. His novellae are mentioned in Sha’arei Shamayim of Jeheiel Michael ha-Levi; in Lev Aryeh of Judah Aryeh Hotchke; in Leket Shemu’el of Samuel Feivush Katz; and in Even ha-Shoham u-Me’irat Einayim of Eliezer Goetz ben Meir.

Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen (second half of 13th century) Spanish kabbalist.

Born in Soria, he was related to Shem Tov ben Abraham ibn Gaon. He travelled 112

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through Spain and Provence with his brother Jacob and also on his own collecting traditions of the kabbalists there. Isaac was among the leading spokesmen of the Gnostic circle of kabbalah. His books contain important material having no parallel in his colleagues’ works. However, some of this information was incorporated as well as edited by his pupil MOSES BEN SOLOMON OF BURGOS. His writings include a treatise of ATZILUT; a commentary on EZEKIEL’s chariot; a work on vowels and accents; an explanation of the mystery of the chariot; a commentary on the Torah; and a speculative work explaining the doctrine of the SEFIROT connecting it with NEOPLATONIC ideas. Isaac ben Jacob was mentioned by ISAAC ALBALAG as among the three most famous and authoritative kabbalists of his generation. His work on emanation contains the first formulation of the doctrine of left emanation according to pseudepigraphic texts. Isaac ha-Kohen had a complete system on the hierarchy of the worlds, which came to him from NEOPLATONIC sources.

Isaac ben Latif see Ibn Latif, Isaac ben Abraham Isaac Meir Alter of Gur (1789–1866) Polish H . ASID and founder of the Gur dynasty. His father Israel was a disciple of LEVI YITZHAK OF BERDICHEV. He grew up under the tutelage of Israel Hofstein, the maggid of Kozienice.

He later studied under Aryeh Leib Zinz, rabbi of Polotsk. After the death of the maggid of Kozienice, he became a disciple of SIMH . AH BUNEM OF PRZYSUCHA, and after his death MENAHEM MENDEL OF KOTSK. After MENDEL’s death in 1859, the majority of the Kotsk H . ASIDIM acknowledged him as their rabbi. His period of leadership had an important influence on the development of H . ASIDISM in Poland.

Isaac of Acre (late 13th century–mid-14th century) Palestinian kabbalist. He studied in the yeshivah of Solomon Petit in Acre. He left Acre in 1291 for Italy and went on to Spain where he met numerous kabbalists. Of particular significance was his meeting with MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON. After MOSES DE LEON’s death, he continued his investigations, which were described in Divrei ha-Yamin. He was close to the circle of SOLOMON BEN ADRET. His writings include: Meirat Einayim, a commentary on NAH . MANIDES’s mysticism; and Ozar H ayyim, a mystical diary of visions.

In this work he dealt with Zerufim which he . considered essential for prophecy. Many of his revelations took place while Isaac was in a state of trance. He was especially interested in outlining the way to attain prophecy, a subject he had dealt with in Meirat Einayim. Here he noted three states in the ladder of ascent: (1) Devotion, which consists of the performance of visual actions. In a person’s mind he should see the letters YHWH as if they were written in a book while at the same time he should concentrate his thoughts on EN SOF. (2) Indifference involving the acceptance of any occurrence in earthly life except what is concerned with divinity. Only a person who has reached this level and is insensitive to the views of others can attain the state in which his soul unites with divinity. (3) Solitude involving a complete emptying of the mind 113

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except for what is divine. Other works by Isaac include Sefer ha-Yamim, which contains a large section concerning the composition of the ZOHAR. Isaac the Blind [He-H . ASID] (c. 1160–1235) Kabbalist from Provence.

He was the son of ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIÈRES. It is not known whether he was born blind. Possibly he became blind later in life since he was familiar with written sources. Although his disciples did not mention his blindness, a kabblistic tradition dating from the 13th century states that his eyes never saw anything during his lifetime. Several fragments of his writings contain long discussions about the mysticism of lights and colours. The fragments of his writings about KAVVANAH and various forms of meditation which should be employed in different prayers are constructed on a complete system of the SEFIROT. They emanated from Divine Thought (Mah.ashavah) as found in the BAHIR (Book of Light). His views on EN SOF are devoid of positive attributes.

In his view, EN SOF cannot be conceived in thought. It is transcendent even in relation to Divine Thought (Mah.ashavah). His system was based on the theory that Divine Thought should not be included among the SEFIROT, and he adds Intellect (Haskel) to complete the number of ten SEFIROT. It is placed between the levels of Mah.ashavah and Wisdom (H . okhmah). Thought is the sphere with which all mystics aspire to unite and derive sustenance. It is the object of KAVVANAH. Thought is the revelation of God; it is called the Ayin (nothingness). Here Ayin is understood as the higher existence of the Divine in its most hidden manifestation as well as the annihilation of human thought which seeks to comprehend it. The world of Dibbur begins with the SEFIRAH HOKHMAH. Isaac often used the concept devarim (words) or dibburim (speeches) as a synonym for the SEFIROT. This view sees the development of the world as linguistic in character: in creation the materialization of Divine Speech occurred. The apparent letters are simply a manifestation of the inner letters by which the Divine Words came into existence.

They form the bases of the world. The SEFIROT are not the only attributes of God but are the principles of the world outside the world of the SEFIROT. There is a stream of emanation from the Divine Transcendence to the world of the separables. Issac’s central aim was to illustrate the way to communicate with the world of the Divine Attributes. This is the secret of the Torah and of prayer.

The internal connection between all essences and states of creation is zippiyyah (contemplation). All things contemplate one another and are connected with each other. There thus is a universal dialectical process of emanation, spreading out to the limit of lower existence along with contemplating upward movement.

The return of things to their origins is thus an ontological process from unity to plurality and vice versa. This exists in every movement of creation, and it contains within itself an eschatological significance. God understands creation as an act of contemplation within Himself.

Isaiah H . asid from Zbarazh (17th–18th centuries) SHABBATEAN scholar.

He was the son-in-law of JUDAH BEN SAMUEL OF REGENSBERG. In 1700 he immigrated to Jerusalem with his father-in-law and companions.

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When the kabbalist ABRAHAM ROVIGO arrived in Jerusalem in 1702 and founded a bet midrash, he took ISAIAH H . ASID’s advice as to who should be admitted. Isaiah’s name occurs among the signatories of a letter sent from Jerusalem to Breslau seeking help for the Ashkenazi community in Jerusalem.

Due to the influence of SHABBATEAN beliefs, Isaiah was compelled to leave Jerusalem. He went to Mannheim, Germany, where he installed himself in the SHABBATEAN bet midrash of the philanthropist Asher Lemmle. From there he spread SHABBATEAN doctrine in Germany and Poland. He became a follower of the SHABBATEAN leader JUDAH PROSSNITZ, whom he believed to be the MESSIAH. In 1725 when Moses Meir Kamenker, the emissary of the Polish SHABBATEANS, came to Mannheim, he entered into a conspiracy with Isaiah. These two figures disseminated writings condemning the Talmud and hinting that adherents of the Talmud were not true believers in God. They even sought to proclaim JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ as the MESSIAH. When their teaching became known, the rabbis of Frankfurt excommunicated them; this ban was similarly proclaimed in Altona, Amsterdam, Mannheim and other communities.

Ishmael ben Elisha 2nd-century Palestinian scholar. He lived in Kephar Aziz near the Idumean border. He is known for his 13 rules of exegesis.

Israel ben Eliezer see Baal Shem Tov Israel ben Jonathan from Leczyca (first half of 17th century) Kabbalistic author from Leczyca. He lived in Leczyca and Shklov where he was a rabbi.

Around 1650 he had to leave his country and became an exile in Italy. He had contact with Abraam Joseph Solomon ben Mordecai Graziano in Modena. Israel published Or Israel containing kabbalistic homilies in the spirit of the ZOHAR in verse form. The ten chapters are arranged according to the order of the Ten Commandments.

Israel Harif of Satanov (d. 1781) Homilist and kabbalist of Satanov. He was a famous rabbi of his time, known for his knowledge of halakhah and kabbalah. Israel was a member of the first group of H . ASIDISM to follow the BAAL SHEM TOV. He wrote several works, some of which were lost and others accidentally burned. His Tiferet Yisrael contains kabbalistic homilies delivered during 1747–80. The book was published in Lemberg in 1865 by his grandson Abraham Isaiah Yaffe who added an introductory note. Israel was a Lurianic kabbalist whose concepts of the world, redemption, and ethics were derived from the teachings of that school. His work emphasizes the expectation of the redemption and gives several calculations when the MESSIAH will arrrive and the process of redemption begin. The latest date is 1788. However, this messianic interest did not bring Israel into alliance with the followers of SHABBETAI Z.EVI and JACOB FRANK. Rather, his book contains polemical expressions opposing the SHABBATEAN movement.

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Israel of Kozienice (1733/7–1815) Polish Hasid. In the early 19th century he was one of the pioneers of H . ASIDISM in Poland. He founded the first major Polish H asidic centre in Kozienice.He was a follower of the MAGGID .

OF MEZHIRICH; on his death, he transferred allegience to ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK. He was a preacher in Kozience and his fame attrached members of the Polish aristocracy. According to legend, he was physically frail but spiritually mighty. His teachings display his mastery of normative legalistic methods and classical kabbalah.

Israeli, Isaac (c. 855–955) North African philosopher. He lived in Kairouan where he served as court physician. His medical writings were influential while his philosophical writings gained the attention of Christian scholars. His most important work, Sefer ha-Gevulim, defined major philosophical concepts. Other works include Sefer ha-Yesodot, which discusses Aristotle’s theories of the elements, and Sefer ha-Ruah ve ha-Nefesh, the only book in which he refers to the Bible. It was written specifically for Jewish readers. His works were composed in Arabic, but his philosophical writings are known only in Hebrew and Latin.

Israeli was a pioneer of Jewish NEOPLATONISM, and he introduced a number of Aristotealian ideas. He sought to synthesize religious and philosophical concepts, combining the Biblical account of creation with NEOPLATONIC ideas of EMANATION. Issachar Dov Baer ben Aryeh Leib of Zloczow (d. c. 1810) Rabbi and H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Zloczow. He was a grandson of Naphtali ben Isaac ha-Kohen of Frankfurt. He served as a rabbi in Zloczow. As a noted rabbinic scholar, he wrote novellae on the Torah and responsa. He was one of the most important disciples of the H . asidic leader DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. His Mevasser Z.edek is written in the H . asidic manner and contains the teachings of such H ASIDISM as LEVI YITZITAK OF BERDICHEV, JEHIEL MICHAEL .

OF ZLOCZOW. Toward the end of his life he settled in Erez. Israel and died in SAFED.

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J Jacob ben Jacob ha-Kohen (mid-13th century) Spanish kabbalist. Born in Soria, he lived in Segovia. He wandered among Jewish communities in Spain and Provence, looking for remnants of kaabbalistic writings and traditions. He stayed in Provence with his brother Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen and died in Beziers. He adopted pietistic ways and was influenced by the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. He was also in contact with the last members of the kabbalist circle of the Sefer ha-Iyyun. He claimed to have been granted numerous revelations in the form of visions. These, he said, were all associated with the function of METATRON as the first creation and with details of the mysteries relating to this figure and its connection with the secrets of the Torah and the commandments. He drew a distinction between revelation-inspired and other writings. To the latter belonged his collection of commentaries inspired by ELEAZAR OF WORMS and material dealing with Gnostic traditions. His major pupil was MOSES BEN SOLOMON BEN SIMEON OF BURGOS. His writings include: a commentary on the forms of the letters of the alphabet; a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH; a commentary on Merkevet Yehezkel; Sefer ha-Orah., a collection of all the secrets revealed to Jacob through his visions; explanations of the divine names and the alphabets in SEFER YEZ.IRAH, an explanation of certain mitzvot linking these with the mysteries connected with METATRON, and explanations of certain prayers and cosmological exegesis.

Jacob Isaac ben Asher Przysucha [Ha-Yehudi ha-Kodesh] (1766–1814) Polish H . ASID and founder of Pshishkhah H . ASIDISM. Born in Przedborz, where his father, Asher, was a preacher. He studied under Aryeh Leib Harif whom he followed to Opatow; he studied at the yeshivah of Leszno under David Tevele ben Nathan of Lissa. As a youth, he excelled in physical strength, but he was weakened due to his withdrawal from worldly matters as well as prolonged fasts and ecstatic supplications. He first attempted to hide his spiritual qualities and charitable deeds. However, when the Z.ADDIK Moses Leib of Sasov settled in Opatow, he persuaded Jacob Isaac to join the H . ASIDIM. He was 117

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especially influenced by the Z.ADDIK David of Lelov from whom he gained an insight into the importance of loving one’s fellow Jew. He became famous as a Torah scholar and person of intense devotions. He performed charitable deeds dispensing money among the poor. As his own fortune diminished, he was forced to work as a village schoolmaster. A turning point in his life occured when he met Jacob Isaac Horowitz, the Seer of Lublin. He became his disciple and was appointed spiritual counsellor of the young scholars. In this role he advised pupils to cast off pride and feelings of self-importance. He maintained that a Z.ADDIK always sees his friend’s virtues and his own weaknesses. A person who recognizes that he is not a Z.ADDIK of high rank is more worthy. Better than both is the true Z.ADDIK who holds that he is yet to attain perfection. Jacob Isaac stressed that the quest for self-perfection through the performance of the mitzvot should be untarnished by an interest in honour or personal gain. The emphasis on the service of God through study together with prayer constituted a new path in H . ASIDISM. Jacob Joseph thereby founded a Polish version of H ABAD H ASIDISM, which assigned importance to Torah study and the role . . of scholars. He opposed wonder-workers and the Z.ADDIKIM who occupied themselves with material concerns. He stressed that anyone who had attained a certain spiritual level could perform wonders; however, it is a more difficult task to fulfil one’s obligations as a Jew. This new approach combined with the delay in the set time of prayer aroused the opposition of contemporary Z.ADDIKIM who were the disciples of Jacob Isaac Horowitz. This resulted in a schism between Pshiskhah H . ASIDIM and the popular H . ASIDIM. The followers of the Seer of Lublin viewed Jacob Isaac as a competitor of their master and harassed him. Jacob Isaac Horowitz himself joined in this criticism.

Eventually Jacob Isaac requested Mendel of Rymanow to intervene but the conflict continued. During the final years of his life, world events in the wake of the Napoleonic wars encouraged some Z.ADDIKIM to expect the coming of the MESSIAH. Accordingly on Passover in 1814 they sought to bring the MESSIAH through mystical means, but Jacob Joseph refused to participate in this endeavour.

Jacob Isaac ha-H . ozeh of Lublin [Ha-H . ozeh mi-Lublin] (1745–1815) Polish H ASID. He was a pupil of Samuel-Shmelke Horowitz of Nikolsburg, .

DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH and LEVI YITZHAK OF BERDICHEV. His main teacher was ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK. He was active in Lancut, and later in Rozwadow. Subsequently he went to Chekhov, a suburb of Lublin, and later settled in Lublin. He was a well-known Z.ADDIK and miracle worker.

The majority of Polish and Galician Z.ADDIKIM were his disciples. Following ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK, he emphasized the practical work of the Z.ADDIK. Near the end of his life, he suffered a crisis about his leadership due to a split in the Lublin H . asidic centre between those who emphasized the aspiration toward spiritual perfection and constant DEVEKUT, and those who emphasized the Z.ADDIK’s need to care for his followers. Jacob Isaac’s belief in practical zaddikism was opposed by those who regarded the Z.ADDIK as a guide 118

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to divine worship rather than a miracle worker. This led to a controversy with his disciple, JACOB ISAAC PRZYSUCHA who was opposed to the practical approach of H . ASIDIM in Lublin.

Jacob of Margève (late I2th–I3th century) French scholar. He was given the epithet ‘hasid’ (pious), ‘kadosh’ (holy) and ‘mekubbal’ (kabbalist). He was the author of Sheelot u-Teshuvot min ha-Shamayim (Responsa from Heaven). He sought answers from Heaven about Jewish law and about what decision should become acceptable practice. The replies he received were cited as halakhic rulings by those who came after him. His work was first published in David Ibn Zimra’s responsa.

Jacob Joseph of Ostrog (1738–1791) Pietist preacher from Ostrog. He was the son of a MAGGID and succeeded his father in 1766 after his death. Jacob Joseph’s son testified that his father esteemed the teachings of the disciples of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Jacob Joseph lived in poverty and had a deep awareness of social ethics. His sermons reflected the social unrest confronting Jews in Eastern Europe in the 18th century. Jacob Joseph attacked perversions of justice, informing and bribery. He was highly critical of communal leaders and rabbis who gained their appointments through their relations with authorities rather than Torah learning. He taught that the pooor are closest to God and worthy of attaining mystical knowledge of the Torah. There exists, he believed, a form of social-spiritual division in the world in which the learned profess the unity of God above and obtain the provision of abundance below although only gaining a meagre livelihood. By contrast the ignorant collect the abundance that pours down from Heaven. Despite this distinction, he insisted on the principle of internal Jewish unity since the Jewish people are lined with one another. In his view, the Z.ADDIK’s devotion to God draws all his followers to holiness.

Jacob Joseph of Polonnoye (b. 1782) H . asidic writer and ideologist. He was a rabbi at Sharagrod, but was forced to leave this position after becoming an adherent of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Later he served as a rabbi at Rashkov, Nemirov and Polonnoye. He attacked his fellow rabbis for their remoteness from the community and was persecuted by the MITNAGGEDIM. His Toledot Yaakov Yoseph caused ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Vilna Gaon, to issue a ban on H . ASIDISM. This work is the primary source for the teachings of the BAAL SHEW TOV. Other of his works include Ben Porat Yoseph, Tzaphenat Paneah and Ketonet Passi. Jacob Joseph taught that everything exists in a unity – nothing is separate from divinity. Human beings, he argued, must raise themselves above the material and visible world and achieve DEVEKUT with the hidden divinity.

Jacob Koppel ben Moses of Mezhirech (d. c. 1740) Polish kabbalist. He was influenced by the SHABBATEAN movement in Poland, and he himself influenced H . ASIDISM. His main publications are Sha’arei Gan Eden, a kabbalistic 119

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treatise dealing with kabbalistic theosophy following the school of ISAAC LURIA, and Ha-Kol Kol Ya’akov, a formulation of the Lurianic KAVVANOT (mystical intentions and meditations during prayer). This work served as a basis for later H . asidic prayer books. Besides these, he appears to have written Nahalot Ya’akov, an extensive commentary on the ZOHAR. In this work he denounced the followers of SHABBETAI Z.EVI as well as messianic speculation in general. Nonetheless, it appears that he was the brother and pupil of H . ayyim Ostraha who influenced his work. A study of Jacob’s kabbalistic doctrine demonstrates that his works included at least one part of a credo of NATHAN OF GAZA. In addition, his writings contain ideas and expressions similar to those of JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ. The SHABBATEAN elements in his theology are found in three areas: (1) His theosophic doctrine which describes the processes that led toward the creation within the Godhead itself. This does not follow the Lurianic view but uses a group of terms and processes introducted into kabbalah by NATHAN OF GAZA. (2) In his descriptions of development within the SEFIROT, he uses a series of radical sexual symbols found only in SHABBATEAN sources, mainly those used by EYBESCHUETZ. (3) Some hints allude to a heretical antinomian concept of the Torah and the commandments following the SHABBATEAN distinction between the laws governing the world before the coming of the MESSIAH, SHABBETAI Z.EVI, and the laws following his appearance. Jacob and his writings were highly praised by the early H . ASIDIM. His SHABBATEAN writings form a link between Eastern European Shabbateanism and early H . ASIDISM. Jacob Naz.ir [Jacob ben Saul of Lunel] (late 12th century) He lived in the French town of Lunel where there was a group of Jewish mystics. They practised various meditations in order to gain access to the higher worlds. Tradition records that Jacob made contact with the prophet Elijah. However, it is also known that he went to Israel where he encountered various esoteric groups of rabbis who were considering the NEOPLATONIC view of existence. Out of this came many innovations and the beginning of reformulation of kabbalah in metaphysical terms to counterbalance the more Aristotelian philosophy of MAIMONIDES. Jacob Samson of Shepetovka (d. 1801) Rabbi and H . asidic leader from Shepetovka. He served as rabbi of Shepetovka, Slavuta and Bar. He was a disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH and Phinehas Shapiro of Korets.

His reputation for scholarship advanced the cause of the H . asidic movement among rabbis and scholars. Legendary stories attest the impression he made on the greatest rabbis of his generation. He helped spread H . ASIDISM by selling the books of his teacher JACOB JOSEPH OF POLONNOYE. In later years he became a follower of BARUCH BEN JEHIEL OF MEDZIBEZH. In c.

1799 he went to Erez. Israel, settling in Tiberias. Some of his halakhic works are referred to by contempories. A booklet describing a dialogue between him and EZEKIEL LANDAU OF PRAGUE was popular among the H . ASIDIM. 120

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Jacob’s Ladder The Tree of ATZILUT is extended down in a specific sequence through BERIYAH, YEZ.IRAH and ASIYAH. In this scheme the lower part of the superior world relates to the upper part of the world below, with their SEFIROT and triads defining points of interaction; thus there is a correspondence between them, even through they are quite separate realities. The Great Tree runnning down the central column from the highest Crown is also called the Kav or Divine Line, which integrates all the worlds into a unified chain of being. It also generates what are known as the Fifty Gates between the top and bottom of existence defined by the highest KETER and lowest MALKHUT. Jaffe, Israel ben Aaron (c. 1640-after 1703) Ukrainian kabbalist. Born in Uman, Ukraine, he fled to Glussk in Belorussia at the age of eight on the oubreak of the Chmielnicki persecutions. He studied with Isaac ben Abraham of Posen and later continued his studies with his friends Aryeh Loeb Epstein and Jacob H . ayyat. Later he served as rabbi at Shklov. He claimed to see heavenly visions, among which were revelations from Elijah. He felt himself called upon to work for the advent of the MESSIAH. He went to various communities to gain adherents for his kabbalistic theories and to discourage misdeeds. He went to Frankfurt on the Oder to have his writings printed. His Or Yisrael contains interpretations of the ZOHAR and kabbalistic commentaries on Orah. H . ayyim. This work evoked a hostile reaction in rabbinic circles, since Jaffe was suspected of SHABBATEAN leanings due to his repeated use of the word z.evi in this work. This was viewed as referring to SHABBETAI Z.EVI. In his apology, Jaffe attributed the incriminating passages to an alien insertion.

By this he contradicted the testimony of his son Aaron, who had corrected the entire work. His grandson had this apology printed at the beginning of his excerpt from his grandfather’s work Tiferet Yisrael to clear him of the accusations of SHABBATEANISM. Although rabbinic authorities confirmed the groundlessness of these accusations against Jaffe, the suspicion was upheld

by JACOB EMDEN. However, David of Makow, who was close to the circle of Elijah Gaon of Vilna, took Jaffe’s part in his anti-H . asidic pamphlet Zemir Arizim.

Jaffe, Mordecai ben Abraham (c. 1535–1612) Talmudist, kabbalist and communal leader from Prague. Born in Prague, he was sent as a boy to Poland to study under Solomon Luria and Moses Isserles. He devoted himself to astronomy and philosophy. At the same time he studied kabbalah under MATTATHIAS BEN SOLOMON DELACRUT. After several years, he returned to Prague. In 1553 he became head of the yeshivah. Quickly he discovered that the students were not interested in gaining a true understanding of the Talmud, but preferred pilpul. Jaffe decided to concentrate on writing books. At this time JOSEPH CARO’s Bet Yosef appeared. Joffe thought it was overly long and began to write Levush Malkhut. In this work he presented the laws in abbreviated form, taking as a basis the principle followed in the Bet Yosef of relying on Alfasi, MAIMONIDES and Asher ben Jehiel. While he was engaged 121

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in this work, Jews were expelled from Bohemia in 1561. Jaffe left Prague for Italy and settled in Venice where he resumed his writing. The appearance of Caro’s Shulh.an Arukh – a digest of his Bet Yosef – led Jaffe to consider whether he should continue with his own work. He concluded that there was room for it since it would contain laws observed by the Ashkenazi Jews of Bohemia.

However, word reached him that Moses Isserles had been spurred in the same direction; as a result, he set aside his project (although he resumed it at a later stage). Instead, he decided to put down in writing interpretations that he had acquired in his youth of the GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED and the Treatise on the Laws of the Jewish Calendar by MAIMONIDES and the kabbalistic Bible commentary of MENAHEM RECANATI. After a stay of ten years, he went to Poland. There he became av bet din and head of the yeshivah of Grodno in Lithuania. Later he had a similar role in Lublin. Finally he moved to Kremeniec in Poland. Jaffe was active in the Council of the Four Lands. In 1592 he returned to Prague and became av bet din in successsion to Judah Loew ben Bezalel when he was appointed to Posen. In 1599 Jaffe switched posts with Loew, who returned to Prague. Jaffe remained in Posen until his death.

Jehiel, Michael ben Eliezer (d. 1648) Rabbi and kabbalist from Nemirov in the Ukraine. His cousin Isaac praised his Talmudic and kabbalistic knowledge as well as his mastery of secular subjects. Jehiel viewed the Chmielnicki persecutions as a sign of the coming messianic era. As the Cossacks came nearer to his community, he exhorted his fellow Jews to stay firm in their faith. During the massacre at Nemirov he and his mother were dragged to the Jewish cemetery and murdered. Jehiel’s martyrdom is mentioned in the elegies composed by Shabbetai ben Meir ha-Kohen and Yom Tov Lipmann Heller in memory of the 1648 persecutions. Jehiel was the author of a work on the Al-Tikrei interpretations of the Talmud.

Jehiel Michael ben Judah Leib he-H . asid [Rabbi Michel H . asid] (1680– 1728) Polish rabbi. He served as rabbi of Zlotow and other Polish communities.

He then became head of the Berlin yeshivah. In 1714, with the approval of King Frederick William I, he was appointed to succeed his brother-in-law, Aaron ben Isaac Benjamin Wolf, as rabbi of Berlin. When Aaron died in 1721, Jehiel was also appointed to the rabbinate of Frankfurt on the Oder and its district, which had been separated from Berlin. In 1718 Frederick William I was present at the consecration of the new synagogue in Berlin – Jehiel recited a special prayer in his honour. Jehiel was drawn to kabbalah and copied kabbalstic manuscripts.

Initially he favoured NEHEMIAH H . AYON, one of the adherents of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. But later he became an opponent of SHABBATEANISM. At a conference of rabbis in Frankfurt on the Oder in 1726 over which he presided, he placed the SHABBATEANS and their literature under a ban. Jehiel refrained from giving esoteric interpretations of the aggadot for fear of heresy.

He wrote novellae on the tractates Megillah and Rosh Ha-Shanah, glosses in the Kol Yehudah of Judah of Glogau and in the Asefat H . akhamim of Israel Isserl, and 122

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Yom Mikhal, notes and comments to Samuel Jaffe’s commentary, Yehfeh Mareh on the aggadot of the Jerusalem Talmud.

Jehiel, Michael of Zloczow (c. 1731–1786) One of the early advocates of H . ASIDISM in Galicia. Born in Brody, he was the son of Isaac of Drogobych. It is related that on his first visit to the BAAL SHEM TOV, the latter commanded that Jehiel be honoured. After the death of the BAAL SHEM TOV, Jehiel was one of the disciples who accepted the leadership of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. He was a preacher in Brody where he was among the members of the kloiz. Later he became a preacher in Zloczow. Toward the end of his life, he settled in Yampol, Podola. Jehiel was esteemed among the H . ASIDIM. Miraculous tales are related of his saintliness and asceticism. He was strongly opposed to the MITNAGGEDIM. His particular spirituality is recalled by one of his disciples who stated that it mattered little whether he had before him a Gemara or a kabbalistic text. Jehiel saw in them only the means of serving God. In accordance with H . asidic views, he considered the principle of DEVEKUT as of major significance. He remarked that the way to attain this state is through the negation of reality. There are two roads to DEVEKUT. The positive way is to stand in fear and shame before the Creator. Hence through prayer, study and good deeds, it is possible to find the state of true love. Diligence in these practices leads eventually to DEVEKUT. The negative way is through a denial of physical desires. Jehiel constantly preached the need to uproot evil characteristics and destroy lust. He knew that this way to DEVEKUT was difficult. Since the danger of a person sinking into his physical nature was anticipated, God had imbued human beings with the will to achieve union. The human task is to conquer the material world and view it as a means of discovering divinity. Jehiel followed DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH but he saw that this way was the most perilous. He did not believe that constant DEVEKUT was possible for every person while he was engaged in physical activity. Therefore he advised that physical acts be preceded by meditation on the Creator. The true preacher, Jehiel believed, was a person who felt that he was merely a mouthpiece for the SHEKHINAH. Jehiel did not leave any writings, but selections from his sermons were published in the anthology Likkutei Yekarim as the sermons of the Maggid Mesharim of Yampol. Stories about his wonderous deeds are found in various collections. Jehiel was the founder of a dynasty of Z.ADDIKIM, which spread throughout Galicia and the Ukraine.

Joel, David Heymann (1815–1882) Rabbi and scholar from Inowroclaw.

Born in Inowroclaw, Poznan province, he studied under his father and Akiva Eger. In 1836 he went to Berlin to continue his studies and took courses at the university. In 1842 he was ordained a rabbi; the following year he became rabbi in Swarzedz, Poznan region. There he wrote Midrash ha-Zohar Die Religionsphilosophie des Sohar und ihr Verhaeltnis zur allegemeinen juedischen Theologie. This work was one of the first scholarly studies of kabbalah. Critical of the work of A. Frank, he attempted to demonstrate that there is no essential difference between kabbalah as formulated in the ZOHAR and Jewish theology current in the Middle Ages.

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The differences, he believed, amount only to the choice of metaphors in the kabbalah. Joel denied the influence of the Persian religion on kabbalistic doctrine as well as Platonism, NEOPLATONISM, Christianity and Gnosis. From 1859 to 1879 he served as rabbi in Krostoszy and from 1880 until his death he was a teacher of Talmud and rabbinic literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau.

Johanan ben Zakkai (fl. 1st century) Palestinian scholar. He was the pupil of Hillel. As a Pharisaic leader, he frequently engaged in controversy with the Sadducees. Most of his sayings are in the fields of aggadah and ethics. During the rebellion against Rome in 70 CE, he was among the peace party in Jerusalem, and was conveyed from the city by his pupils in a coffin. According to tradition, he approached Vespasian and predicted his accession to the Imperial throne. As a reward he was permitted to teach and founded the academy at Jabneh which became the spiritual centre of Judaism after the fall of Jerusalem.

Jolles, Jacob Z.evi ben Naphtali (c. 1778–1825) Galician Talmudic scholar and kabbalist. Born in Przemysl, he served as rabbi in Glogow and Dinow. He was influenced by H . ASIDISM and was among the disciples of JACOB ISAAC HA-H OZEH OF LUBLIN. His most important work was Melo ha-Ro’im, an . encyclopedic work on the rules and principles of rabbinic law. His other works include Kehillat Ya’akov, an encyclopedic treatment of kabbalistic topics, Emet leYa’akov, a homiletic work on H . asidic style, and Yashresh Ya’akov on kabbalah.

Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi (c. 1200–1263) Spanish rabbi, author and moralist. He studied at various French yeshivot under Moses ben Shneur and his brother Samuel of Evreux. Later he was a student of Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier. When in 1232 Solomon began a campaign against MAIMONIDES’ philosophical works, Jonah followed his teacher and became embroiled in this conflict. This ended with the burning of these books by the Inquisition. Several years later, in the same square where MAIMONIDES’ writings were burnt, tractates of the Talmud were also cast to the flames. Jonah viewed this as divine retribution. According to tradition, he repented. Jonah was in contact with ISAAC THE BLIND, the son of ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSQUIERÈS, concerning the kabbalah. NAH . MANIDES was his cousin and in-law. Jonah returned from France to Gerona and began to preach publicly his torat ha-musar. Later he left Gerona and lived in Barcelona, where pupils from Spain and elsewhere travelled to be his students. These included some of the outstanding scholars of the next generation including SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET and HILLEL BEN SAMUEL OF VERONA. Later he left for Erez. Israel, but on passing through Toledo, he was approached by the Spanish community and asked to stay in the city. He subsequently established a yeshivah there. Jonah was known as a ‘father of the virtues’ of piety, humility and asceticism. He was famous for his ethical works in which he protested against the many Spanish Jews who disregarded the mitzvot as well as engaged in sexual immorality. He proclaimed a ban on concubines. In his view, communal duties 124

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should be imposed on every Jew. It appears that Jonah was familiar with the teachings of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, but his ethical doctrine differed from theirs – it was based on halakhah and aggadah rather than mystical speculation.

Jonah, Moses (16th century) SAFED kabbalist. He was one of the most important disciples of ISAAC LURIA. H . AYYIM VITAL placed him in the second group of LURIA’s disciples and stated that this was his first transmigration as a human being, and therefore he is a great jester and his conduct is not seemly. These remarks reflect some degree of conflict between the two kabbalists, which is also born out by a story quoted in Menahem Lonzano’s book, Omer Man, concerning LURIA’s last words before his death.

According to legend, Jonah asked LURIA if VITAL understood his doctrine.

LURIA answered, ‘a little’. Jonah headed a yeshivah in SAFED and also lived in Egypt and Constantinople. His signature occasionally appears on letters sent from SAFED to Worms. His notes on LURIA’s kabbalah are in an autograph in the Schocken collection. However, several years earlier, possibly in the 1570s, he wrote a systematic treatise on his teacher’s kabbalah. In 1582 he copied this book and dedicated it to one of the rich men of Constantinople. This work is superior in several respects to VITAL’s different editions of Ez H . ayyim.

Menahem Azariah da Fano compiled extracts of this book in five parts. Jonah taught Jacob Schweinfurt who brought some of his kabbalistic traditions to Germany in 1613. A summary of Jonah’s major work was printed as Sha’ar haKelalim at the beginning of published editions of the editions of Ez. H . ayyim.

Joseph ben Shalom Ashkenazi [Joseph ha-Arokh] (14th century) Spanish kabbalist. According to his own testimony, he was a descendant of JUDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-H . ASID. Two of his works have survived: (1) a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH; and (2) a commentary on the portion of Genesis in Midrash Rabbah. Although Ashkenazi made use of Talmudic, philosophical and kabbalistic sources, he cited very few. Nor did he regard the ZOHAR as an authentic work. Despite his opposition to Aristotelians, he admired MAIMONIDES, and his work has a tendency to merge philosophy and kabbalah. Ashkenazi’s philosophical study led him to the view that there must be one cause for all causes which cannot exist in potentiality, in change, or in motion. This Ashkenazi calls the cause of causes and sometimes EN SOF. By using this causal term, he wished to stress the revelatory aspect, even though he viewed the cause of all causes as being above the world of emanation. Even the first SEFIRAH (KETER) is neither identical nor coexistent with the cause of all causes despite certain resemblances. Hence Ashkenazi opposed a number of Spanish kabbalists who identified EN SOF with KETER. At a certain point, the EN SOF intended to elevate the SEFIROT hidden within it, which served as manifestations of the concealed divinity. The SEFIROT constitute inclusive unity and variegated activity into which human beings are integrated.

The principle of paradigma is valid for the entire structure of existence. The emanating element in the SEFIROT is described in the image of male and 125

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female. Just as the MICROCOSM was created as an amorphous mass, the MACROCOSM began as hylic matter. It preceded the SEFIROT. There was an amorphous mass called havayot (essences) and omakim (depths), a notion similar to Platonic ideas. The force of evil is considered a real entity, deriving from a supernal source and dependent on good. Evil’s central tasks are provocation, accusation and punishment. In the World-to-Come, human beings inevitably fulfil the mitzvot and evil will be abolished. Ashkenazi approved of magic as a science, but was critical of those who practised it. In his opinion, all existence is merely a system of layers. He posited as a cosmic rule that all that exists (including the seven lower SEFIROT) will undergo transmigration. Through this process, a being changes form. Death is thus a metamorphosis and not the cessation of existence. Human beings may be reincarnated into any entity in the world. Ashkenazi was the source of the idea that the MESSIAH is a reincarnation of Moses.

Joseph ben Uzziel Name of the grandson of Ben Sira according to two pseudepigraphical sources. In the first, the Alphabet of Ben Sira, the unknown author used the literary device of a dialogue between several characters; his aim was to create a satirical imitation of midrashic forms. These characters were Ben Sira, his son Uzziel, and Uzziel’s son Joseph ben Uzziel. The second source, The Baraita of Joseph ben Uzziel, is a treatise found in several manuscripts. It is usually followed by a religious poem, which might be part of the pseudepigraphical work.

The Baraita was written by one or more of the early H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, probably in the 12th century. It contains revelations, which the prophet Jeremiah handed to his great-grandson. The treatise is a commentary on SEFER YEZ.IRAH and contains a number of ideas of Ashkenazi esoteric doctrines as well as ideas unknown from any earlier text. The Baraita of Joseph ben Uzziel served as an important source for a group of Ashkenazi thinkers. The most extensive of these works is the commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH attributed to Saadiah Gaon. Some quotations from a lost commentary on the Baraita by Avigdor ha-Zarefati are found in the writings of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. ELHANAN BEN YAZKAR used the Baraita extensively.

Joseph Della Reina Hero of a kabbalistic legend who sought to bring an end to Satan’s power and hereby usher in redemption. The earliest version of the story, which evolved between the 15th and 16th centuries, is recorded by ABRAHAM BEN ELIEZER HA-LEVI in his treatise Iggeret Sod ha-Ge’ullah.

The author used terms current only in kabbalistic literature of the period of the expulsion from Spain in 1492. The story provides a detailed description of Satan and his hosts. Its most important feature is Joseph’s burning of incense before Satan. This act amounted to idolatry, and caused Joseph’s failure and undoing.

ABRAHAM used this story to explain that Joseph’s crime was the cause of redemption, which should have taken place in 1490, but was postponed for 40 years to 1530. According to the author’s calculations, this was the proven year of the beginning of redemption and the coming of the MESSIAH. ABRAHAM 126

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stated that Joseph undertook his task about 1470. This was a conclusion attested by various sources, which illustrate that Joseph was actually a known kabbalist, in the 15th century, probably from the Ibn Gabbai family. The story was known in the 16th century SAFED. MOSES CORDOVERO and H . AYYIM VITAL mention Joseph’s name in descriptions of the dangers of messianic and magical activity. H . AYYIM VITAL also recalls that his teacher ISAAC LURIA once recognized Joseph’s soul in the body of a black dog. This was Joseph’s punishment for his crime. However, until the mid-17th century, a detailed written account of Joseph’s deeds and fate did not exist despite the fact that it was repeated orally in Erez. Israel. Solomon Navarro was the author of the most complete version. Sent as an emissary to Italy, Navarro married a Christian, converted to Christianity, and was involved in the SHABBATEAN movement. He composed a book predicting that redemption would occur in 1676. Navarro claimed that in SAFED he had discovered an ancient manuscript of the story, written by a surviving disciple of Joseph. However, it is clear that he himself was the author. Navarro’s version is the first that contains a description of Joseph’s fate after his failure to bring about redemption: he became an ally of Satan and a lover of Lilith, and later fell in love with the wife of the King of Greece. After some time, this was revealed to the King and Joseph had to commit suicide. In Navarro’s version, the tale may be interpreted as encouragement to follow Joseph’s example as well as a demonstration of the dangers of such practice. This was an aspect which interested SHABBATEANS. Solomon Ayylon, a leading SHABBATEAN thinker after SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s conversion to Islam, composed a version of the story.

It reveals a more sympathetic attitude toward Joseph. The SHABBATEANS noted the similarity between Joseph and their converted MESSIAH. In the late 17th century, a SHABBATEAN Jew who belonged to the DOENMEH wrote a mythical biography of SHABBETAI Z.EVI using a motif found in this story to describe his struggle against the forces of evil.

Joseph H . ayyim ben Elijah al-H . akam (1833 or 1835–1909) Baghdad rabbi.

He was the son of Elijah al-H akham and the father of Jacob al-H . . akam. Born in Baghdad, he studied with his uncle, David H ai ben Meir.

In 1848 he began to . study under Abdallah Somekh. He succeded his father as preacher in 1859. In 1869 he visited Erez. Israel. He is best known for Ben Ish H . ai, homilies blended with halakhah and kabbalah.

Joseph Issachar Baer ben Elhanan [Baer Frankfurter] (c. 1642– 1705) Author of rabbinical and kabbalistic works from Frankfurt on the Oder. He was the son of the kabbalist Elhanan ben Z.evi. He served in his youth as rabbi in Moravia, but then settled in Frydek in order to devote his time to the study of Torah. In 1677 he was living in Eibenschitz. Around 1680 he was the rabbi of Frankfurt on the Oder, and from 1687 to 1694 he served as district rabbi of Kremsier where he signed (with David Oppenheim) the resolutions prepared by the synod there in 1694. In 1696 he left Kremsier to travel to Palestine, but during his journey made lengthy stays in Nikolsburg, in 127

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Vienna, where he enjoyed the hospitality of Samson Wertheimer, and in Venice.

His writings include Arba H . arashim, an anthology of kabbalistic homilies.

Joseph Joske ben Judah Judel of Lublin (1659?–1706) Talmudist and kabbalist from Lemberg. He studied with his father, who was rabbi at Lemberg and later at Kowel. He became rabbi of Minsk and later of Dubnow, where he lived until his death. Z.evi Hirsch Koidanover, who was one of his students, mentions in his Kav ha-Yashar the kabbalistic teaching he received from him.

Joseph was the author of various works dealing with ethics and moral conduct.

Joseph Meir Weiss of Spinka (1838–1909) Z.ADDIK from Spinka. He was the son of Samuel Z.evi of Mukachevo, and the disciple of Shalom of Belz Mendel of Viznitsa, Isaac Eizik of Zhidachov and H . ayyim Halberstam of Zanz. On numerous occasions he visited Isaac of Zhidachov and viewed himself as his successor. He was known for his ecstatic prayers; he also practised self-mortification. From 1876 he was regarded as a Z.ADDIK by thousands of followers. His writings include an anthology of H . asidic teachings.

Joseph Moses ben Jekuthiel Zalman (d. 1781) Rabbi and kabbalist from Pinsk. He served as rabbi in Drohiczyn, near Pinsk, and later in Pinsk itself. From 1746 he was a rabbi in Sambor, Galicia. In his old age he settled in Erez. Israel and died in SAFED. He was the author of Maggid Mishneh, a commentary on Mafte’ah. ah-Olamot, the first part of Mishnah H . asidim, the kabbalistic treatise of Immanuel H . ai Ricchi; Kiryat Araba, a kabbalistic commentary to the Shema together with a supplement to his Maggid Mishneh; and H . illukei de-Rabbanan, talmudic novellae.

His H . okhmat ha-Tekhunah is a commentary on the astronomical portions of MAIMONIDES’ Code.

Joseph Moses of Salositz (c. 1735-c. 1815) H . asidic preacher from Salositz.

He was active in spreading H . ASIDISM in Zborov and Salositz. Following DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH, he emphasized the theory that absolute evil does not exist; rather there are different levels of good. In his view, justice in itself is mercy. Z.IMZ.UM – the creation of the world according to justice – is the equivalent of mercy, which enables those created to receive and attain divine emanation. This is so since human beings are unable to attain divine emanation and God’s mercies alone. His Berit Avraham is a commentary on the Pentateuch.

He also wrote Be’er Mayim on the Passover Haggadah.

Judah ben Barzillai al-Bargeloni (late 11th and early 12th century) Spanish rabbi. NAH . MANIDES claimed descent from him. It appears that he was a pupil of Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona. He was the author of a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH in which he quotes extensively from the Twenty Tractates of Al-Mukammis.

Judah ben Kalonymus ben Meir (d. 1196/99) German scholar and dayyan from Speyer. His father was a communal leader in Speyer, responsible to the king 128

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for the collection of community taxes. His mother was the daughter of Judah, the brother of SAMUEL BEN KALONYMUS HE-H . ASID. Judah frequently quoted Abraham ben Samuel He-H asid, the brother of Judah He-H . . asid. Meir ben Kalonymus, Judah’s elder brother, was a well-known scholar quoted by Talmudic scholars. Ephraim of Regensburg was one of Judah’s teachers; one of his important pupils was ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS. Judah lived in Speyer at the time of the anti-Jewish decree of 1196 and wrote an elegy on the event. He was known for his Seder Tanna’im re-Amoraim. This work is a Talmudic lexicon of the names of the tannaim and amoraim. Statements of those scholars found in the works available to Judah are listed, often in the context of the discussion where the quoted statements are found and with an extensive exposition. The book is critical in character. Throughout the author sought to establish the correct reading by comparing parallel sources and manuscripts.

Judah had a sense of historical perspective and noted various historical details found in the sources. The book is infused with the spirit of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. It appears that Judah obtained much of his kabbalistic knowledge from JUDAH HE-H . ASID. He was also the author of Sefer ha-Agron, a dictionary concerning the names of the minerals, vegetables and animals in the Talmud.

Judah ben Samuel he-H . asid of Regensburg (d. 1217) German rabbi and mystic. He was a distinguished scholar and devoted himself primarily to kabbalistic studies. He thereby became the subject of various contemporary legends. His chief work is the Sepher H . asidim, one of the major medieval Hebrew ethical works. The book is a compilation based chiefly on the writings of his pupil, ELEAZAR OF WORMS, the author of the Rokeah., and his father, Samuel.

Judah ben Samuel also edited the itinerary of Pethahiah of Regensburg.

Judah Leib ben Baruch (fl. 1800) Talmudic scholar and kabbalist. He was the brother and disciple of SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY, the founder of the H . ABAD movement. He recorded his brothers’ teaching in Hebrew, including homilies which appeared later as Torah Or. Some contributions by Judah are included in the siddur of SHNEUR ZALMAN. After his brother’s death, Judah corrected SHNEUR ZALMAN’s Shulhan Arukh and approved a new edition.

He was involved in a dispute with SHNEUR ZALMAN’s son and Aaron of Starosielce over who was to succeed SHNEUR ZALMAN. Judah, in a letter addressed to Aaron, supported his nephew. After Judah’s death, his grandson, Ze’ev Wolf, published a tract by Judah entitled She’eirt Judah, which contains instructions for the salting of meat as well as responsa and clarifications of his brother’s teachings.

Judah Loew ben Bezalel [Der Hohe Rabbi Loew] [Ma-Ha-Ra-L mi-Prag] (c. 1525–1609) Rabbi, Talmudist, moralist and mathematician from Prague.

He was from a noble family from Worms. His father was the brother-in-law of Isaac Kaluber of Posen, the grandfather of SOLOMON LURIA. From 1553 to 1573 he was Landesrabbiner of Moravia in Mikulov after which he went 129

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to Prague where he founded a yeshivah and organized circles for the study of the Mishnah. He left Prague and became a rabbi in Moravia in 1588, eventually returning to Prague. He was known for his piety and asceticism. He appears to have been the forerunner of H . ASIDISM in that he popularized kabbalistic ideas. He stressed that philosophy and esoteric love are diametrically opposed to each other and associated himself with the world of kabbalah.

Judah Zevi Hirsch of Stetyn (d. 1854) He was the founder of a H . asidic dynasty in eastern Galicia, the scion of a prominent family of rabbis and Z.ADDIKIM. He was the outstanding disciple of Uri ben Phinehas of Strelisk. After the death of his teacher, he left his work as a shohet and became Uri’s successor as leader of the Strelisk H . ASIDIM. Like Uri, he stressed the importance of ecstatic prayer. Judah Z.evi did not deliver many H . asidic teachings, and only a few were collected in Degel Mananeh Yehudah. His name is included in a list of twelve important Z.ADDIKIM in Galicia appended to a detailed memorandum on the H . asidic movement, which the chief of police in Lember sent to the provincial authorities. As evidence of the negative elements in the H . asidic cult of the Z.ADDIK, the chief of police forwarded a remedy formula that had been found during a search in the house of a H . ASID which Judah Z.evi had written for a follower whose wife was having difficulties with childbirth. His descendents included JUDAH Z.EVI BRANDWEIN, a kabbalistic author and rabbi of the Histradrut.

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K Kallo, Yizh.ak Isaac (1751–1821) Hungarian H . ASID. According to legend, ARYEH LEIB SARAHS recognized his talents. SARAHS sent him to be educated by SAMUEL SHMELKE HOROWITZ of Nikolsburg who served as his teacher in Talmud and H . ASIDISM. Kallo also studied under ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK. In 1781 he became rabbi of Kallo and district where he lived for 40 years. Kallo was the first H . asidic leader to live permanently in Hungary; he helped to further the spread of the H . asidic movement there. He was highly regarded for his Talmudic learning and H . asidic teaching as well as musical talent.

He wrote songs in Yiddish and Hungarian and composed many melodies, some of which were adaptions of Hungarian folk songs.

Kamenka, Z. evi Hirsch of (d. 1781) Founder of a H . asidic dynasty in the Ukraine. He was one of seven brothers who were disciples of the BAAL SHEM TOV. The eldest brother was Samuel of Kamenka. A grandson of Z.evi Hirsch, Samuel of Kamenka was a H . asidic admor, a disciple of BARUCH OF MEDZHIBEZH and ABRAHAM JOSHUA HESCHEL OF APTA, and a disciple of LEVI YITZAK OF BERDICHEV. His grandson, Abraham David of Miropolye, a noted scholar and admor of many H . ASIDIM, continued the dynasty.

Kara, Avigdor ben Isaac (d. 1439) Prague kabbalist. Of German origin, his father, Isaac Kara, was martyred. About 1389 he became dayyan in Prague. He and Yom Tov Lipmann Muelhausen were among the most important rabbis in Prague. He is the author of the elegy Et Kol ha-Tela’ah asher Mez.a’atnu which commemorates the sufferings that took place in Prague on the last day of Passover, 1389, due to the accusation that Jews had desecrated the host. This elegy is recited by the Jews of Prague during the Minh.ah service on the Day of Atonement. Like Yom Tov Lipmann Muelhausen, he became famous for his polemics with Christians. According to the tradition of Jacob Moellin, he was a favorite of Wenceslaus IV, King of Bohemia, and played a role in his 131

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court. It appears that Kara had discussions with important Christian theologians, and that John Huss and others were influenced by his views. The Hussite sect opposed the authority of the Church. Probably due to this, Catholics persecuted the Jews in the war that took place between the Hussites and Catholics. Huss made use of a poem by Kara on the unity of God. Kara was also known as a kabbalist, and was one of the first to cause the spread of Spanish and German kabbalah. MOSES CORDOVERO and MENAHEM AZARIAH FANO wrongly attributed to him the authorship of Kanah, a kabbalistic work on the reasons for the precepts, and Peli’ah, a commentary on the first six chapters of Genesis. Kara’s kabbalistic works include a kabbalistic commentary on Psalm 150 and a biblical commentary based on GEMATRIA. He also appears to have composed the kabbalistic work Sefer ha-Emet.

Katz, Naphtali ben Isaac [Naphtali ben Isaac ha-Kohen] (1645–1719) Rabbi and kabbalist from Volhynia. Born in Stepan, Volhynia, his father was a rabbi there. In his youth he was taken captive by Tartars but escaped. He succeeded his father as av ben din of Stepan and later served as rabbi of Ostrow, Posen and Frankfurt on the Main. In 1711, a fire broke out in his house, destroying the entire Jewish quarter of Frankfurt. He was charged with preventing the extinguishing of the fire because he wanted to test his AMULETS, and he was imprisoned and forced to resign his position as rabbi. He went to Prague, staying in the house of David Oppenheim, where he met NEHEMIAH H . AYON. From 1713 to 1715 he lived in Breslau, where together with Z.EVI HIRSCH ASHKENAZI he excommunicated H . AYON. In 1715 King Augustus of Poland rejected his application to be restored as rabbi of Posen; he then returned to Ostrow where his son Bezalel was rabbi. While journeying to Erez. Israel he became ill in Constantinople and died there. He was one of the most important halalkhic authorites of his generation and one of the greatest kabbalists of Poland. There were numerous legends and tales about him which circulated for generations.

Kavvanah (Intention) The kavvanah involved in mystical prayer is seen as a necessary element in the mystery of heavenly unification that brings the SEFIROT to the lowest realm and ties them to each other and to the EN SOF. Kavod Glory of God. This is based on the idea of a vast humanoid figure made of light, which represented the Divine, defined in the SHIUR KOMAH. Its huge measurements were designed to give it a cosmic dimension. It was later perceived as ADAM KADMON, who corresponds to the fiery man of EZEKIEL’s vision. This being said to contain the sparks or cells of humanity who were later to descend into the lower worlds. At the end of time, these self-realized human beings will return to their places in ADAM KADMON. According to kabbalah, the Kavod is a reflection of the Absolute; it is divine by nature, which means it is not God, but only an image of the Deity.

Kelippot

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side shell of any organism or the universe. Here is the demonic aspect of existence where extreme contraction, expansion or anything in excess is held by the limits of creation. In the cosmic scheme the demons are the forces and functions of destruction. They are necessary like woodlice eating a dead tree, so that the elements contained in wood may return to their original simplicity before returning as part of life and growth.

Keter (Crown) The first of the SEFIROT. Since its meaning is crown, it is understood both as the topmost of the SEFIROT and the regal crown. It is between HOKHMAH and BINAH and sits above TIFERET. It is so sublime that in the ZOHAR it is referred to as the most hidden of all hidden things.

Khalaz, Judah ben Abraham (d. before 1537) Spanish rabbi and kabbalist.

In 1477 he fled from anti-Jewish excesses in Castile and settled in Granada where he lived for five years. Acting as a teacher, he then proceded to Malaga where he spent another four years in a similar position. In 1486 he arrived in Honain, and then proceeded to Tlemcen, Algeria, where he became resident tutor to the son of the wealthy Joseph ben Sidon. There he wrote Mesi’ah. Illemim, on Rashi’s Bible commentary, and Sefer ha-Musar, an ethical work with both rational and kabbalistic expositions. In his writing Judah interpreted kabbalistic explanations of the commandments and prayers by his relative Moses ben Eleazar Khalaz.

Judah may also have been the author of Maggid Mishneh, a commentary on the laws of sheh.itah of MAIMONIDES. He also wrote an introduction to the Talmud, containing 58 rules of Talmudic methodology.

Kiddush ha-Shem Martyrdom. Kiddush ha-Shem was considered a central virtue, particularly in the Middle Ages when Jews sacrificed themselves rather than desecrate the faith.

Kimh.i, Raphael Israel ben Joseph (first half of the 18th century) Emissary of SAFED. Born in Constantinople, he studied under H . AYYIM BEN ISAAC RAPHAEL ALFANDARI. When his teacher moved to Erez. Israel in 1713, he followed him and settled in SAFED. There he studied under Jacob Vilna Ashkenazi. In 1728 he travelled to Italy as an emissary of the SAFED community; the next year he was in Mantua. In Padua he was a guest of the father of MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO, where he immersed himself in LUZZATTO’s works. During the polemic of 1730 against LUZZATTO, he sought to justify LUZZATTO’s views. A responsum written by him to Raphael Meldola during this visit in Venice on 1730 is on the laws of writing a Sefer Torah and is included in Mayim Rabbim. From Venice, Kimh.i sent a letter to Corfu complaining about discrimination against SAFED in the matter of contributions assigned to Erez.

Israel. He stressed the critical situation of the SAFED community, and pleaded for greater interest. Kimh.i was requested by the SAFED community to go to Corfu, but the Venetian rabbis persuaded him to delay. He died during this mission, apparently before 1737.

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Koidonover, Z.evi Hirsch (d. 1712) Rabbi and ethical writer. Born in Vilna, he spent his childhood in Kurow near Lublin. In 1648, when his father’s house was pillaged, his two sisters were killed. The rest of the family escaped to Austria, and later lived in Nikolsburg. There his father, Aaron Samuel, became rabbi.

Koidonover received his religious education from his father as well as from Joseph ben Judah, rabbi of Minsk and Dubnow. In Frankfurt, where his father became rabbi in 1667, he married the daughter of Isaac Ganz. Several years later he returned to Vilna, where he prospered in business and was prominent in the community. He was imprisoned on a false charge, however on his release he returned with his family to Frankfurt. There he published Kav ha-Yashar, a work he had written in Vilna. The book contains folktales depicting the punishment of evil and the reward of righteousness. The work reflects the suffering and persecution of European Jews, and the despair wrought by SHABBATEAN disillusionment. It also depicts aspects of communal life during this period.

Most of Koidonover’s ideas were drawn from Yesod Yosef; his main contribution lies in his engaging style, which made the work popular with the masses.

Kook, Abraham Isaac (1865–1935) Palestinian theologian of Latvian origin.

Born in Greiva, Latvia, he became rabbi of Zaumel in 1888. Later he was rabbi of Bausk. In 1904 he emigrated to Palestine where he was the rabbi of Jaffa. During this period he wrote a variety of works. In 1914 he travelled to Europe, but was stranded in Switzerland at the outbreak of war. From 1916– 1919 he was a rabbi in London, and eventually returned to Palestine where he became chief rabbi of the Ashkenazi Jews in Jerusalem. In 1921 he became Ashkenazi head of the new rabbinic court of appeals. Unlike secular Zionists, who encouraged practical activity to secure a Jewish state, Kook engaged in the task of reinterpreting the religious tradition so as to transform religious messianic anticipation into the basis for collaboration with the aspirations of modern Zionism. In Kook’s view, Israel is fundamental to the Jewish faith and a crucial element in Jewish religious consciousness. According to Kook, the land of Israel is not something apart from the soul of the Jewish people. Erez.

Israel is part of the very essence of nationhood. The fact that Jews have been separated from their ancestral home is a central difficulty. Kook states that Jews in the Diaspora are capable of observing all the mitzvot. But because they reside outside Erez. Israel, a major dimension of Jewishness is absent from their lives.

For Kook, a divine spark is apparent in the efforts of secular Zionists who sacrificed themselves to create a Jewish settlement in Palestine. The redemption of Israel, Kook argued, is part of the universal process involving all humanity.

The salvation of the Jewish people is not simply an event of relative importance; instead, it provides the basis for the restoration of the entire world (tikkun olam).

Through the rebirth of the Jewish nation in their previous homeland, all human beings will be redeemed. This is the true significance of the creation of Israel.

Kotsk, Menahem Mendel of (1787–1859) H . asidic leader from Bilgoraj, near Lublin. He was born into a non-H asidic family but was attracted to H . . ASIDISM in 134

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his youth. He became a disciple of JACOB ISAAC HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN, JACOB ISAAC OF PRZYSUCHA and SIMH AH BUNEM OF PRZYSUCHA. .

Even though his teachings were H asidic in character, they were opposed to the . teachings of the BAAL SHEM TOV. While the BAAL SHEM TOV focused on love, joy and compassion for this world, Kotsk demanded constant tension and struggle against egocentricity. The BAAL SHEM TOV was notoriously kind; Menahem Mendel was harsh to everyone. Classical H . ASIDISM tried to reach all Jews; Menahem Mendel was only interested in the elite. He inscribed on his banner one word: emet (truth). To achieve this goal, he was prepared to sacrifice everything. There is only one truth, he believed, and the path is tortuous. It can be sought only if one discards emotional needs and outward appearances. Every day a person must try to discover the truth as if he had not known it before. In his view, truth could only be reached through utmost freedom. Such freedom means not to give into any outside pressures. It means not to conform, nor to try to please oneself or anyone else. Like other H . ASIDIM, Menahem Mendel did not preach asceticism or negate this-worldliness. He merely said that in order to get to the truth, human beings often have to go against themselves and society.

Disciples of Menahem Mendel practised this approach, They left behind their studies, their homes, wives and children and flocked to Menahem Mendel. True worship of God, he asserted, is not finding the truth, but rather in the search for it. This requires total abandonment of the self. The safest way in the search for ultimate truth is through the study of the Talmud and the book of the law.

In this emphasis on study, he parted from classical H . ASIDISM, and came closer to the way of the Gaon of Vilna, the main opponent of H . ASIDISM. Menahem Mendel pointed out, however, that while the study of Torah may be the safest way for the Jew, it is still a dangerous route. Travelling on it, human beings may be filled with themselves, with conceit and self-satisfaction. Such feelings are nothing less than idol-worship. About 20 years before his death, Menahem Mendel decided to leave the world. He locked himself in a room near the study house where his disciples were learning. Food was passed to him through a window. Except on rare occasions, he was not seen by anyone except his closest friends.

Kranz, Jacob ben Wolf [Maggid of Dubno] (1741–1804) Preacher from Zietil. Born in Zietil, in the province of Vilna, he showed homiletical skill at an early age and was known as a preacher to his fellow yeshivah students in Mezhirech.

There he received his halakhic education and possibly studied kabbalah. He became darshan in Mezhirech at the age of 20. From there he wandered through other cities, holding the post of preacher in Zilkiew, Wlodawa near Lublin, Kalisz and Zamosc. He was famous as a preacher in Dubno where he lived for 18 years. He came into contact with some of the most prominent rabbis of the period such as ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN. All of his works were printed posthumously by his son, Isaac, and his pupil, Baer Plahm. His major homiletical work, Ohel Ya’akov, was printed in four parts. In addition his homilies on the five scrolls, Kol Ya’akov, were printed in Warsaw in 1819. His other 135

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homiletical works include an exegesis of the Passover Haggadah. Baer Plahm edited Kranz’s Sefer ha-Middot which was modelled after the 11th-century H . ovot ha-Levavot by BAH YA IBN PAKUDA and included such subjects as the fear of .

God, love of God, knowledge of God, and prayer. Although Kranz made use of Jewish ethical, homiletical, halakhic and kabbalistic material, he succeeded in composing homilies containing parables, fables, stories and epigrams, which the Jewish layman could easily understand.

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L Labi, Simeon (16th century) Moroccan kabbalist. Her grew up in Fez. In 1549, on his journey to Erez. Israel, he reached Tripoli in North Africa. There he found the Jewish community ignorant of Torah and he stayed as a teacher.

He was considered the greatest scholar in Tripoli. According to a tradition of Spanish kabbalists, he wrote a detailed commentary to the ZOHAR on Genesis and Exodus which includes several of his piyyutim. His poem Bar Yohai Nimshahta Ashrekha was written in honour of SIMEON BAR YOHAI; this is still sung by Oriental Jews on the Sabbath even and on Lag Ba-Omer, at the tomb of BAR YOHAI in Meron in Galilee. Other kabbalists imitated this song, which was also adopted by the H . ASIDIM. His commentary on the ZOHAR was taken to Venice by JOSEPH HAMIZ and became the basis for his own work on the ZOHAR, Yodei Binah.

Lachowicze, Mordecai ben Noah of (1742–1810) Lithuanian H . asidic Z.ADDIK. He was a disciple of Solomon ben Meir ha-Levi of Karlin with whom he went into exile from Lithuania due to persecutions by the MITNAGGEDIM. In 1793 he returned to Lithuania and established a dynasty of Z.ADDIKIM in Lachowicze. This became an important H . asidic centre. His activities to spread H ASIDISM evoked opposition from the MITNAGGEDIM who began to . persecute him. Through their influence he was imprisoned in 1798, however the day of his liberation (on the fifth day of Hanukkah) became a H . asidic holiday. Mordecai was among the main collectors of funds for the H . ASIDIM in Erez. Israel.

In a dispute between SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY and Abraham ben Alexander Katz of Kalisk, he supported Katz. He attached great importance to the role of the Z.ADDIK. Mordecai’s connections by marriage with the Z.ADDIK Asher of Stolin led to the establishment of the Koidanov dynasty of Z.ADDIKIM. ‘The Land of Israel’ Born in Latvia in 1865, Abraham Isaac Kook received a traditional Jewish education, became a rabbi, and eventually served as Chief 137

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Rabbi of Palestine. In his mystical writings, Kook transformed religious messianic expectations into a basis for collaboration with modern Zionists. Life in the Diaspora, he believed, involves one in unholiness, whereas by settling in Palestine it is possible to live a spiritually unsullied life. In ‘The Land of Israel’, he argued that return to Zion is thus imperative for Jewish existence.

Landau, Ezekiel [Noda bi-Yhudah] (1713–1793) Polish halakhic authority. Born in Opatow, Poland, he received his Talmudic education in Vladimir-Volinski and Brody. He came from a wealthy and distinguished family tracing its descent to Rashi. At the age of 21 he was already dayyan of Bordy; at 30 he became rabbi of Yampol. In 1754 he went to Prague to become the rabbi there and over the whole of Bohemia. His Noda bi-Yhudah contains some 860 responsa. He played an important role in the Jewish community, identifying himself with the traditional way of life. He advocated ending the controversy concerning JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ even though he believed that the accusations against him could not be easily dismissed. On the other hand, he persecuted SHABBATEANS and FRANKISTS. He was also adverse to the study of kabbalistic literature and opposed to the H . ASIDIM. Landau, Israel Jonah ben Joseph ha-Levi (d. 1821) Rabbi and author from Lubomil. He belonged to an important rabbinic family. In his youth he was av bet din of Lubomil; from 1786 he served in Kempen, in the Posen region. He was a well-known kabbalist. A request to him from Akiva Eger for an AMULET for the sick of Posen has been preserved.

Landauer, Meyer Heinrich Hirsch (1808–1841) Writer on the philosophy of religion and kabbalah from Kappel. Born at Kappel, near Buchau, he was the son of a cantor. He became rabbi of Braunsbach, but he had to abandon this position due to ill health. On the basis of the study of Hebrew manuscripts in the Munich Library, he wrote several studies on the history of medieval Hebrew literature and the kabbalah. This was the first attempt at a scholarly study of the development of Jewish mysticism. Covering such topics as the SEFER HA-BAHIR, the concept of kabbalah, and the history and literature of kabbalah, these works were published posthumously in incomplete form. Under the influence of Schelling, Landauer sought a symbolic mystical interpretation of the Torah and its commandments. This was to serve as a basis for a religious philosophy of Judaism connected with kabbalistic ideas. Of crucial significance in this respect was the philosophical-metaphysical meaning of the names of God. YHWH was viewed as a designation for the first basic idea of the consciousness of God in its unified being in itself and the divine government and management of the world. Elohim is the designation of that aspect of YHWH, insofar as it is split into different conceptions by experience and contemplation. The three main forms of God’s primary activities are expressed in the three ancient names of God: El Shaddai, El Ro’i and El Koneh.

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Landsofer, Jonah ben Elijah (1678–1712) Rabbi and author from Prague. He was an opponent of the SHABBATEANS. He lived in Prague and like his father and grandfather was a professional scribe. He studied both Talmud and kabbalah.

His teacher, Abraham Broda, sent him to Vienna to engage in disputations with the SHABBATEANS. His works include Me’il Z.edakah, responsa; Benei Yonah, a comprehensive work on the rules of writing the Sefer Torah; and Kanfei Yonah, novellae on the Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De’ah, up to chapter 110. He was viewed as one of the outstanding scholars of Prague.

Laniado, Solomon ben Abraham (d. after 1714) Rabbi in Aleppo. He was the grandson of Samuel ben Abraham Laniado. It appears that he succeeded his father as rabbi and dayyan after his father emigrated to Jerusalem. He wrote Midrash Shelomo. Known as a SHABBATEAN, he became friendly with SHABBATAI Z.EVI when he visited Aleppo in 1665. Solomon and Nathan ben Mordecai propagated the messianic claims of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. Two of their letters are extant: one was sent to the Jews of Ancona; the other to Kurdistan in 1669. They contain information about the activities of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and NATHAN OF GAZA. Laniado is cited in the list of kings appointed

by SHABBATAI Z.EVI in Smyrna. After SHABBETAI Z.EVI’s conversion, Laniado continued to serve as a rabbi in Aleppo.

Lara, H . iyya Kohen De (d. after 1753) Rabbi and kabbalist in Amsterdam.

He was the pupil of the Moroccan rabbi Solomon Amar II. He was one of a group of scholars from the bet midrash Ez. H . ayyim Amsterdam. He compiled Mishmerot Kehunnah, a Talmudic lexicon. Lara included in his work various criticisms of scholars of the south of France and Germany. He apologized, however, if he thereby spoke disrespectfully against distinguished rabbis. He was opposed to the method of pilpul, which was used by German rabbis at the time. Critical of their hairsplitting distinctions, he argued that the Talmud stated that if we are overly meticulous we should not be able to study. There are several responsa by Lara dating from 1741. He complained about his economic difficulties, describing himself as embittered, busy with temporal cares as well as the problems of gaining a livelihood, and troubling himself with domestic responsibilities. His kabbalistic writings include Kanfei Yonah.

Lawat, Abraham David ben Judah Leib (1835–1890) H . asidic rabbi and author from the Ukraine. From his youth Abraham David was attracted to H . ABAD. He was a follower of MENAHEM MENDEL SCHNEERSOHN. Urged by his teacher, he founded a H . asidic yeshivah in Nikolayev. He also became rabbi of the H asidic community of the town in about 1870. After MENAHEM .

MENDEL’s death, he became one of the chief supporters of his son, Samuel of Lubavich. Abraham David wrote manuals and reference books in various fields dealing with halakhah as well as the clarification of the H . ABAD system of kabbalah and halakhah. His writings include Kav Naki, dealing with the laws of divorce and the writing of the names in divorce bills; Beit Aharaon ve-Tosafot, an 139

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enlargement of the Beit Aharon of Aaron of Pesaro giving additional references to biblical verses in Talmudic and midrashic literature and adding references from the ZOHAR and H . ABAD literature. In 1887 he published a new edition of the Torah Or Siddur, according to the prayer book of SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY. Lekhah Dodi (‘Come my beloved’) Song of greeting for the Sabbath. It was composed in c. 1540 in SAFED by SOLOMON ALKABETZ. It was soon incorporated in the Sabbath evening service in almost every rite and is sung to a variety of tunes. The custom of greeting the Sabbath developed in the 16th century and was derived from the saying: ‘Come, let us go out to meet Queen Sabbath’ in the Talmud. It is customary for the congregation to turn toward the entrance while reciting the last verse.

Levi Yitzhak of Berdichev (1740–1809) H . asidic master. He was one of the leading disciples of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. His notebooks contain his master’s writings and have served as a source for several published collections of DOV BAER’s teaching. Levi Yitzhak served as rabbi of Ryczwol, and later Zelechow and Pinsk. He had to leave both of the latter communities because of opposition to H . ASIDISM. Identified as the leader of a new movement, he engaged in debate with Avraham Katzenellenbogen in 1781. In 1785 he became rabbi and H . asidic rebbe of Berdichev in the Ukraine. He was the leading representative of the Mezhirech school of H . ASIDISM. His Qedsuhat Levi is a collection of homilies that continues DOV BAER’s thought, including the insubstantiality of the corporeal world, the concept of worshipping God through all things, and the identity of Torah with the innermost self of every Jew. The figure of the Z.ADDIK is found frequently in this work. Other teachings are included in Shemu’ah Tovah. There are several Yiddish collections of tales devoted to him. He became one of the favourite H . asidic masters in Jewish legend.

Levin, Menahem Mendel (1749–1826) Early Haskalah author, translator and educator from Podolia. Born in Satanov, Podolia, he had a traditional Jewish education but also studied secular subjects. From 1780 to 1783/4 he lived in Berlin where he met Moses Mendelssohn. Through this contact, he met leaders of the Haskalah. His first literary success was a Hebrew translation of Tissot’s Manual of Popular Medicine and Hygiene undertaken with Mendelssohn’s encouragement. He was acquainted with one of Poland’s leading statesmen, Prince Adam Czartoryski, who later became his patron. Levin taught mathematics and philosophy to Czartoryski’s children and dedicated his unpublished philosophical treatise to his wife. When the Sejm met in Warsaw in 1788–92, Levin participated in discussions on contemporary problems. Toward the end of the 18th century, he lived in Ustye and St Petersburg in the home of the philanthropist J. Zeitlin, serving as a tutor to his grandson. After 1808 he lived in Brody and Tarnopol and influenced the maskilim. He was convinced that the Haskalah depended upon making books available to the general public. As 140

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a result, he dedicated himself to the publication of both secular and religious works. His religious views were derived primarily from MAIMONIDES and he prepared a new version of the GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED, which he wrote in Mishnaic Hebrew so as to make the work accessible. He himself directed a number of Haskalah writers toward a popular Hebrew style. To render certain books of the Bible more easily comprehensible to Yiddish speakers, he produced an idiomatic Yiddish translation of the ethical and poetic books of the Hagiographa. However, some maskilim such as Tobias Feder objected to the use of Yiddish, denouncing it as a betrayal of the ideals of the Haskalah.

Despite strong opposition to the H . ASIDIM, he did not hesitate to request help from the leaders of the H asidic community to achieve common reforms. .

Levin, Z.evi Hirsch ben Aryeh Loeb [Hart Lyon] (1721–1800) Rabbi from Galicia. Born in Rzeszow, Galicia, he had a traditional Jewish education and was also familiar with Hebrew grammar, Jewish history, philosophy, physics and geometry. In his youth he took part in the EMDEN-EYBESCHUETZ controversy, siding with JACOB EMDEN, his maternal uncle. In 1758 he became rabbi of the Great and Hambro synagogues in London. In 1764 the leaders of the London community prevented him from publishing a defence of the sneh.itah in London in reply to the attack of Jacob Kimhi. This action and his dissatisfaction with the state of Talmudic studies caused him to relinquish his post and move to Halberstadt, Germany, where he became rabbi and rosh yeshivah. In 1770 he became rabbi of Mannheim; in 1773 he became rabbi of Berlin. Levin was a friend of Moses Mendelssohn. When the Prussian government requested Levin to write in German an account of Jewish commercial and matrimonial law, Levin asked Mendelssohn to compose it under his supervision. Published in Berlin in 1778, it was entitled Ritualgestze der Juden. His friendship with Mendelssohn was disrupted when Levin attempted to prevent N.H. Wessely from publishing Divrei Shalom ve-Emet and have him expelled from Berlin. When Mendelssohn defended Wessely, Levin sent in his resignation although he did not act on it and remained in Berlin. Levin supported his son, Saul Berlin, in disputes in which he was involved, especially the forged response Besamim Rosh. His commentary on Avot was published with that of JACOB EMDEN. Levinas, Emmanuel (1906–1995) French philosopher. Born in Kaunas Lithuania, he came to France in 1923. From 1928–1929 he studied with Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger at Friebourg. In 1939 he served as an officer in the French army. The next year he was a prisoner of war. After the war he taught at the Ècole Normale Israelite and later became its director. During this period he met with the Talmudic scholar Chouchani with whom Levinas studied.

This resulted in a series of volumes of Talmudic readings. Levinas began to develop his own philosophy in the 1950s and 1960s and became increasingly critical of Heidegger. He aimed to go beyond the accepted and ethically neutral conception of ontology. In 1961 he published Totalité et infini. Influenced by Franz Rosenzweig and MARTIN BUBER, he sought to address the problem of 141

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ontology by exploring the face-to-face relation with the Other. In his writings on the Talmud, he analyzed human situations as they appear in the Talmud and expressed them in philosophical terms.

Light of the Eyes A work by the 13th-century kabbalist ISAAC OF ACRE who was a master of letter combinations. According to ISAAC OF ACRE, indifference to all external influences is a prerequisite to true meditation. In his view, one should constantly have the letters of the TETRAGRAMMATON (God’s name) before one’s eyes in pursuing the path of enlightenment.

Lightning Flash This is a metaphyscial description of the descent of the divine will coming down from KETER to HOKHMAH, crossing to BINAH and so on down in a zigzag fashion, until the impulse reaches MALKHUT. This means that the right and left pillars and the central column form a balanced unity as seen in the sefirotic Tree of Life. It may also be seen as the original octave, which runs throughout existence manifesting in a series of octaves in the scales of both energy and matter. All processes, whether they be descending or ascending, follow this Lightining Flash path, except those going directly up and down the seven levels, known as the Kav or line of divine will, grace and consciousness.

Lipschitz, Baruch Mordecai ben Jacob (1810–1885) Polish rabbi and author. He was a rabbi in Siemiatycze, Volkovysk, and Vogrudok, later becoming rabbi of Siedlce in 1876. He was a halakhic authority. Even though Siedlce was aH . asidic community, Libschitz was opposed to H . ASIDISM and came into conflict with the members of the community who were familiar with H . asidic rabbis. He was one of the first to support the Hovevei Zion movement and was a supporter of the establishment of the Ez. H . ayyim yeshivah in Jerusalem. His writings include Berit Ya’akov, responsa on the Shulhan Arukh, and Beit Mordekhai, consisting of sermons and memorial addresses.

Lipschutz, Aryeh Leib (d. c. 1849) Talmudist and H . asidic rabbi from Jaroslaw. Born in Jaroslaw, he was the pupil of Aryeh Leib ben Joseph ha-Kohen Heller and of Jacob Isaac Horowitz of Lublin. He was the son-in-law of Moses Teitelbaum, rabbi of Ujhely. He served as rabbi in several Galician communities including Brigal. He was the author of two books of novellae.

Loanz, Elijah ben Moses (1564–1636) German kabbalist. Born in Frankfurt on the Main, he was the grandson of Joseph Joselmann ben Gershom of Rosheim. His teachers included Akiva Frankfurter, Jacob Guenzberg of Friedberg, JUDAH LOEW BEN BEZALEL of Prague, and Menahem Mendel ben Isaac of Cracow. He was a rabbi in Fulda, Hanau, Friedberg and hazzan in Worms, and was also a rosh yeshivah, preacher and hazzan in Worms. Because he was well known as a writer of kabbalistic AMULETS and incantations, he acquired the name Elijah Ba’al Shem. One of his works, Rinnat Dodim, is a kabbalistic commentary on the Song of Songs. Other works include Mikhlol 142

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Yofi, a commentary on Ecclesiastes. Some of his kabbalistic AMULETS and formulae are included in Toledot Adam and Mifalot Elohim.

Loebel, Israel (late 18th century) Preacher, dayyan and opponent of H . ASIDISM from Slutsk. He was probably born in Slutsk or at least lived there as a child. He served as a preacher in Mogilev; in 1787 he became permanent preacher and dayyan in Novogrudok. While he was in Mogilev, his opposition to the H . ASIDIM grew as a result of his brother’s joining their circle. When ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Vilna Gaon, issued a proclamation against the H . ASIDIM in 1797, Loebel obtained from Saadiah, an emissary and disciple of the Gaon, a letter of recommendation authorizing him to preach against the sect. He was also granted the approval of the parnasim of the Slutsk community. At a gathering of the leaders of Lithuanian communities at Zelva, he was authorized to travel throughout Poland and beyond to disseminate anti-H . asidic material. His booklets against H . ASIDISM (Sefer Vikku’ah. and Kivrot ha-Ta’avah) were printed in Warsaw in 1798. He was granted an audience with Emperor Francis II at Vienna in 1799; as a consequence, public meetings of H . ASIDIM were prohibited throughout Poland. Sefer Vikku’ah. depicts a disputation between a H . ASID and a MITNAGGED. The author compared the H asidim with heretical sects that had emerged within Judaism throughout . its history. He denied the H . asidic principle that prayer is more important than Torah study as well as the H . asidic emphasis on joy. He also objected to such H asidic customs as the acceptance of the Sephardi prayer rite and not observing . fixed times of prayer. He also attacked H . asidic leaders, claiming that they were ignorant individuals who exploited the masses. He argued that they deluded their followers with the belief that the Z.ADDIK atoned for the community’s sins.

Loebel was attacked by the H . ASIDIM for his views and they tried to destroy his writings.

Lonzano, Abraham ben Raphael de (late 17th–early 18th century) Kabbalist and Hebrew grammarian probably from Zakinthos. He seems to have been a descendant of Menahem De Lonzano. He was well known through his Kinyan Avraham, a study of Hebrew grammar from which it appears that he was from Zakinthos, one of the Greek isles. Following attacks of the local inhabitants against the Jews, he began to wander from country to country. He studied at the Ez. H . ayyim yeshivah in Amsterdam. Later he appears to have been in Prague where scholars of the yeshivah persecuted him because he criticized them for studying Torah without knowledge of Hebrew. He wrote a declaration against NEHEMIAH H . IYYA H . AYON in Genoa in 1715. He was in Lemberg in about 1723. He wrote H amishah Kinyanim, a commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. .

Later he converted to Christianity in the town of Idstein and adopted the name Wilhelm Heinrich Neumann.

Lonzano, Menahem ben Judah de (1550–before 1624) Linguist, poet and kabbalist, probably from Constantinople. Little is known about his life, but it 143

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is assumed that he was born in Constantinople. At the age of 25, he went to Jerusalem and later settled in SAFED. Forty years later he went to Turkey and Italy. In 1618 he returned to Jerusalem. He was known for Shetei Yadot, which is divided into two sections (Yad Ani and Yad ha-Melekh). The first contains his original writings: the second the midrashic literature he sought to edit. Each section is referred to as ‘yad ’ (hand) and has five ‘ez.ba’ot’ (fingers). His writings include Imrei Emet, a critique of ISAAC LURIA’s interpretation of Sifra deZ.eniuta and repudiations of H . AYYIM VITAL. According to Lonzano, LURIA wrote his commentary before he received divine inspiration. He also wrote a commentary on the ZOHAR and comments on Tikkunei Zohar.

Luria, Isaac [Ari Ashkenazi] (1534–72) Palestinian kabbalist. Isaac Luri’s father, a member of the Ashkenazi family of Luria in Germany and Poland, emigrated to Jerusalem where he married into the Sephardi Frances family. Isaac Luria was born in Jerusalem in 1534, but his father died when he was still and child, and his mother took him to Egypt. There he studied under David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra and Bezalel Ashkenazi. During this period he collaborated with his teacher Ashkenazi in writing a number of leagal works. While still in Egypt, Luria began his study of kabbalah, retiring to a life of seclusion on an island on the Nile near Cairo. In his mystical study Luria concentrated on the works of early Jewish mystics, the ZOHAR, and the writings of MOSES CORDOVERO. In 1569 Luria moved to SAFED in Israel with his family where he embarked on the study of kabbalah with MOSES CORDOVERO. In SAFED Luria gathered around himself a group of disciples to whom he imparted his teachings about theoretical kabbalah and the way to attain communion with the souls of the righteous. This was achieved by unifying the SEFIROT and by meditating on the divine names. Of primary importance in Luria’s system is the mystery of creation. According to Luria, creation was a negative act – the EN SOF had to bring into being an empty space in which creation could take place since divine light was everywhere leaving no room for creation to occur. This was accomplished by the process of Z.IMZ.UM. Hence the first act was not positive, but one that demanded divine withdrawl. After this stage of withdrawal a line of light flowed from the Godhead into the empty space and took the shape of SEFIROT in the form of ADAM KADMON. In this process divine lights created the vessels – the eternal shapes of the SEFIROT – which gave specific characteristics to each emanation. Nonetheless these vessels were not strong enough to contain such pure light and shattered. This breaking of the vessels resulted in the upheaveal of the emerging emanations. The lower vessels broke down and fell – the three highest emanations were damaged, and the empty space was divided into two parts. The first consisted of the broken vessels with many sparks clinging to them. The second part was the upper realm where pure divine light escaped to preserve its purity. For Luria, humanity was designed to serve as the battleground for the conflict between good and evil. What is ultimately required is tikkun (cosmic repair). This concept refers to the mending of what was broken during the shattering of the vessels. After the catastrophe in the divine 144

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realm, the process of restoration began and every disaster was seen as a setback in this process. In this battle, keeping God’s commandments was understood as contributing to repair – the divine sparks which fell can be redeemed by ethical deeds. According to Luria, a spark is attached to all prayers and moral actions.

If a Jew keeps the ethical and religoius law these sparks are redeemed and lifted up. In the varous systems of kabbalah formulated since the early modern period, Luria’s conception of the contraction of God, the shattering of the vessels, the exiled sparks, and cosmic repair have played a major role.

Luria, Soloman ben Jehiel [Maharlshal] (?1510–1574) Polish Talmudic commentator. Possibly he was from Poznan. His family was related to many important families of the time. He was orphaned in his youth, and educated by his maternal grandfather. Isaac Klober. When he was forty he became Rabbi and rosh yeshivah of Ostrog. His writings include a wide range of literary sources from the geonic period to his own time. His interests encompassed many fields including kaballah to which he was inclined although he made little use of it in his halakhic decisions.

Luzzatto, Moses H . ayyim [Ramhal] (1707–1747) Italian mystic. Born and raised in Padua, he received a traditional Jewish education and was in touch with Italian culture. In 1727 he received a mystical revelation in which a MAGGID appeared to him. From then on such experiences occurred frequently The MAGGID instructed him to write kabbalistic works. Over the next few years he composed several mystical treatises, many of them in the form and language of the ZOHAR which he referred to as Zohar Tinyana. Redemption is the main theme of these works. A circle of disciples motivated by messianic enthusiasm gathered around him. It appears that this group viewed SHABBATAI Z.EVI as the MESSIAH. Luzzatto himself was viewed as the reincarnation of Moses.

Luzzatto concieved his marriage in 1731 as the culmination of the messianic process and the union of the male and female elements in the divine world.

Information about this group reached MOSES HAGIZ who regarded its members as a SHABBATEAN conspiracy and brought his accusations before the court of the rabbis of Venice. In 1730 Luzzatto accepted the rabbis’ demand that he stop writing kabbalistic texts dictated by the MAGGID. In 1735 he was forced to flee Padua, and went to Amsterdam. There he concentrated on completing his ethical works, especially the Mesillat Yesharim which described the path of ethical and spiritual ascension of the individual. In this and other writings Luzzatto refrained from using kabbalistic concepts, but the mystical dimensions of the work are evident. In 1743 Luzzatto emigrated to Erez. Israel and settled in Acre. Luzzatto’s writings were influential in both H . asidic and non-H asidic circles. .

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M Maaseh Bereshit (‘Work of Creation’) Kabbalistic cosmological study, concerning the nature of creation. According to tradition, God created the cosmos by means of the Hebrew letters and through the process of emanation.

Maaseh Merkavah (‘Work of the Chariot’) Kabbalistic exegesis of the divine chariot as depicted in the Book of EZEKIEL. According to tradition, it is possible for kabbalists to make a heavenly ascent as chariot riders.

Macrocosm In kabbalistic theology, the macrocosm and the MICROCOSM are interrelated and interconnected. The macrocosm represents the universe whereas the MICROCOSM represents a human being.

Maggid Name given to a popular preacher by Jews in Poland. The maggid preached frequently, on both Sabbaths and weekdays, encouraging Jews to study the Torah and observe the commandments. Within H . ASIDISM maggidim or itinerant preachers influenced the people through sermons expounding their theories about the basic principles of H . ASIDISM and through their ethical manner of living. Outstanding maggidim included DOV BAER OF MEZHIRICH, Judah Leib of Polonnoye, Nahum of Chernobyl, and JACOB JOSEPH OF OSTROG. The term ‘maggid’ was also applied to an angel or heavenly force that passed secrets to a kabbalist, speaking words from his mouth or dictating to him when he is writing. This revelation is one of the outstanding phenomena in kabbalah from the 16th to 18th centuries.

Maggid Devarav le Yaakov Among the leaders to the H . ASIDIM, the 18thcentury scholar DOV BAER OF MEZHIRICH played a central role in the development of later mystical thought. In his mystical writing DOV BAER formulated doctrines that furnished H . ASIDISM with a speculative-mystical system. In his view, God’s presence is manifest in all things. His disciple Shlomo of Lutsk recorded his teacher’s theory in his Maggid Devarav le Yaakov.

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Maggid Mesharim A major figure of the post-medieval period was JOSEPH CARO, who emigrated to Turkey after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.

Believing himself to be the recipient of a heavenly mentor (MAGGID), he identified this MAGGID with the soul of the Mishnah and the SHEKHINAH. In the Maggid Mesharim, he described the revelations he received from the MAGGID. Magic Some elements of magic are found in kabbalistic sources such as HEKHALOT and MERKAVAH literature. According to these texts, when the angels revealed heavenly mysteries to Talmudic sages they also made esoteric magic disclosures in which they described the divine worlds and eschatological secrets. The H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ also discussed magic in their works and became famous for their magic knowledge. Magic in kabbalistic sources is touched upon in the discussion of earthly and demonological matters.

Nonetheless, there are few magic elements in the ZOHAR, and even less in later sources.

Mahalalel ben Shabbatai Hallelyah (d. after 1675) Italian rabbi, kabbalist and poet. Born in Civitanova, he suffered hardship in his youth in Italy; this led him to wander to various places. Before 1660 he became rabbi of Ancona. He was known for his collection of poems and piyyutim, Hallelyah, recited in synagogues on Sabbaths and festivals. This collection includes prayers of a kabbalistic nature.

Mahalalel and his community were supporters of SHABBATAI Z.EVI even after he converted to Islam. Two different versions of his hymn to SHABBATAI Z.EVI and NATHAN OF GAZA appear in Hallelyah; the first appears to have been composed before his apostasy and the other subsequently. It appears he had close ties with a number of important scholars in Italy.

Maimonides [Moses ben Maimon] [Rambam] (1135–1204) Spanish philosopher and codifier. Born in Spain, he lived most of his life in Egypt where he served as a physician to the court and leader of the Jewish community. At the age of 23 he completed a work on logic. His Mishneh Torah is a systematic presentation of Jewish law. His major philosophical work, GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED, was designed for those who followed both the Torah and philosophy and were perplexed by the seeming contradictions between the two. In this work Maimonides argued that the anthropmorphisms in Scripture should be understood figuratively. In his view, God is a pure unity who cannot be described by positive attributes. For Maimonides only negative attributes should be attributed to God. Makhon

One of the seven heavenly halls.

Malakh, H . ayyim ben Solomon (between 1650 and 1660–1716 or 1717) Leader of a SHABBATEAN sect from Kalish. Born in Kalish, nothing is known of his early career. He became a respected rabbinic scholar, kabbalist and preacher.

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Attracted by the SHABBATEAN movement, he was closely associated with the SHABBATEAN prophet JOSHUA HESHEL ZOREF in Vilna. In 1690 he went to Italy and stayed there several months with ABRAHAM ROVIGO and Benjamin Cohen, the heads of the Italian SHABBATEANS. They studied the writings of ISAAC LURIA and NATHAN OF GAZA, and H . ayyim received their secret traditions about SHABBATAI Z.EVI. From 1692 to 1694 he was in Poland serving as a SHABBATEAN missionary among rabbinic circles.

One of his students was the Talmudist Mordecai Suskind Rotenburg, rabbi of Lublin. During this time he attracted the attention of Z.EVI ASHKENAZI, the father of JACOB EMDEN, who became his bitter enemy. Possibly because of a ban due to his heretic activity, or because of his own doubts concerning SHABBATEAN theology, he settled in Turkey where he stayed for two or three years with SAMUEL PRIMO in Adrianople. He became his follower and received traditions and secrets of the circle of SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s pupils.

He then went to Bursa in Turkey where a number of SHABBATEANS lived.

Towards the end of his stay, he had a vision which caused him to return to Poland and join with another SHABBATEAN leader, JUDAH HE-H . ASID. In 1696 he arrived in Zolkiew where he stayed for some time. From there he sent a letter to his Italian masters informing them that he was leaving their camp since he had found the authentic source of SHABBATEAN teaching in Turkey. Possibly he returned to Italy in 1697 where he appears to have met ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO in Adrianople. H . ayyim took sides in the discussions with CARDOZO. It is not clear whether at this time or later he came into contact with BARUCHIAH RUSSO, the leader of the most radical wing of the DOENMEH. Several of RUSSO’s sayings were quoted by H . ayyim to one of his pupils in a SHABBATEAN notebook. After his return he became a founder of the new ‘Association of H . asidim’ which advocated an emigration of ascetic scholars to Jerusalem to await the coming of the MESSIAH. Privately this was understood to refer to SHABBATAI Z.EVI whose return in 1706 had been predicated by H . ayyim. During these years, H . ayyim acquired the name ‘Malakh’ (angel) – from the late 1690s he was known by this name. He spent some time in Germany and Moravia, where at the end of 1698 he attended a council of SHABBATEAN leaders in Nikolsburg. He also went to Vienna and announced that he would discuss SHABBATEAN belief and teaching with any kabbalist. Abraham Broda, the chief rabbi of Prague, sent his pupils Moses H . asid and JONAH LANDSOFER to meet with him; however, the dispute which lasted two weeks ended inconclusively. H . ayyim then went to Erez. Israel where, after the death of JUDAH HE-H ASID, he became the leader of a faction of .

H ASIDIM. He was eventually expelled from Erez. Israel and possibly went to .

Constantinople and Salonika, meeting with BARUCHIAH RUSSO. Due to his association with SHABBATEANISM rabbinic authorities persecuted him. He returned to Poland where he founded a radical sect in Podolia from which the FRANKIST sect emerged. After being forced to leave Poland, he wandered through Germany and Holland. He died shortly after his return to Poland in 1716 or 1717.

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Malkhut (Kingship) The tenth SEFIRAH, meaning kingdom. Malkhut completes the chain of the SEFIROT; it is the emanation furthest from the divine source. As the receiving SEFIRAH of all the other SEFIROT above it, it gives tangible form to the other emanations. In divine terms, Malkhut is the world that which we experience filled with SHEKHINAH (God’s presence).

Maor va-Shemesh At the beginning of the 19th-century KALONYMUS KALMAN ESPTEIN, the leader of a H . asidic group in Cracow, was attacked for his enthusiasm in worship. In his Maor va-Shemesh, he depicted his own ecstatic experiences as well as those of others.

Marcus, Aaron (1843–1916) Scholar from Hamburg. He was born and educated in Hamburg, studied at the yeshivah of Boskovice and acquired a philosophical education. In 1861 he left for Cracow where he became a H . ASID. Between 1862 and 1866 he made several visits to the H asidic rabbi of Radomsk, .

Solomon Rabinowicz. Later he maintained close contact with H . asidic leaders in Poland and Galicia. An important part of his literary work was devoted to the defence of H . ASIDISM and an explanation of H . asidic doctrine and kabbalah.

In his writings he defended traditional Judaism against modern Bible criticism and scientific materialism. At the same time he tried to find confirmation for new insights in philosophy and science in Jewish sources particularly the writings of H . AYYIM BEN MOSES ATTAR, MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO and H ABAD H ASIDISM. . .

Margoliouth, Meir of Ostraha (d. 1790) H . asidic rabbi in Poland. He was a disciple of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Descended from a celebrated rabbinic family, he and his elder brother became followers of the BAAL SHEM TOV at an early age. Meir was regarded as one of the greatest scholars of his age, served as a rabbi in Jaslo and later Horodenka. In 1755 he became rabbi in the Lvov region; in 1777 he was appointed rabbi Ostraha, a title officially confirmed by the King of Poland, Stanislas II Augustus. He wrote works on halakhah and kabbalah as well as didactic poems.

Meditation Term which first appears in kabbalistic literature from the middle of the 13th century. It refers to an intense concentration of thought on supernal lights of the divine world and of the spiritual worlds in general.

Megillat Setarim Born in 1806 the H . ASID ISAAC JUDAH JAHIEL SAFRIN described visions and revelations as well as his quest for the ‘root’ of individual souls in Megillat Setarim. At the beginning of this work, he described his marriage and the progress of his study. During these years he believed demonic forces attempted to persuade him to desist from such activity; in addition, he fell into a state of melancholy. During this time he consumed only a little water and bread and could derive no pleasure form study or prayer. The cold was so severe and the demonic forces so strong that he became totally confused. Nonetheless, in the midst of such despair he was overwhelmed by a sense of God’s presence.

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Meir ben Simeon Ha-Me’ili (first half of the 13th century) Provençal Talmudist and communal leader. His main centre of activity was Narbonne. He was a pupil of Meshullam ben Moses. Meir frequently cited him and his customs.

He also studied under Nathan ben Meir of Trinquetaille. There are references to connections with NAH . MANIDES, another pupil of Nathan ben Meir. Among other activities, Meir engaged in disputations with the cardinal of Narbonne concerning discriminating laws, which it was proposed to issue against the Jews.

He served as a spokesman of the community at the court of the emperor, and before ministers and church leaders. His Milh.emet Mitzvah was written between 1230 and 1240. The work contains an account of Meir’s disputation with the bishop of Narbonne, a defence of Judaism against the claims of Christians, explanations of biblical verses dealing with the coming of the MESSIAH, and a commentary on the Shema and the 13 divine attributes. Meir was a vehement opponent of a certain circle of kabbalists to whom he attributed heretical views.

Questioning the authenticity of SEFER HA-BAHIR, he criticized its contents, together with other kabbalistic sources. These criticisms were included in an epistle sent to rabbis in various towns. His work was also directed against the ideas of some kabbalistis based on works, which he believed were forgeries attributed to well-known scholars.

Meir Jehiel ha-Levi of Ostrowiec (1851–1928) H . asidic rabbi and scholar from Ostrowiec. Born to a poor family, he became one of the most important leaders of Orthodox Jewry. He studied with Elimelech of Grodzisk and settled in Ostrowiec where thousands of H . ASIDIM became his disciples.

He was regarded as one of the greatest scholars of his age; for a period no important decision on halakhah or Jewish life was made without consulting him. His interpretation of H . ASIDISM was original; his sermons contained complicated equations from GEMATRIA in which he interpreted numerous texts dealing with Jewish law as well as aggadah. He was ascetic in orientation and made a long series of fasts over forty years. Since he did not permit his books to be printed during his lifetime, only a limited number of his sayings and writings have been preserved. His son Ezekiel, rabbi of Nasielsk, became his successor.

Meisels, Uzziel ben Z. evi Hirsch (1743–1785) Polish H . asidic rabbi. He was a member of an old rabbinic family in Poland and a descendant of Moses Isserles. He served as av bet din in Rychwal, Ostrowiec and Nowy Dwor. He became a disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH; together with his brother he was one of the main propagators of H . ASIDISM in Poland. His writings were collected posthumously by his grandchildren in Tiferet Uzzi’el, which contains selections on the Bible and moralistic H . asidic sermons combined with kabbalistic themes.

Mekhavvenim The members of BET EL were known as mekhavvenim (those who pray with meditaiton). Unlike the Ashkenazic H . ASIDIM who were 150

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embroiled in controversies with the MITNAGGDIM (supporters of rabbinical Judaism), BET EL welcomed both H . ASIDIM and Rabbanites.

Menahem Mendel of Kotsk see Kotsk, Menahem Mendel of Menahem Mendel of Peremyshlany (b. 1728) H . ASID from Peremyshlany.

He joined the group of the BAAL SHEM TOV in his youth; in the late 1750s he is mentioned as a participant at a third Sabbath meal gathering. In 1764 he went to Erez. Israel with NAH . MAN OF HORODENKA, and settled in Tiberias. Before he emigrated, he visited Cekinowka and occupied himself in the redemption of captives. Menahem Mendel represents the extreme enthusiast among the first generations of the H . asidic movement. His teachings aroused intense opposition. In his view, devotion to God is the central feature of H . asidic doctrine and conduct. In contrast to others, however, he regarded Torah study and the practice of devotion as incompatible. Study, he believed, should therefore be restricted. In his view, prayer is the most suitable manner in which to achieve devotion. He argued that devotional conduct should be based on contemplative concentration attainable by seclusion from society and the cessation of all occupation. His teachings were published in Darkhei Yesharim ve-hu Hanhagot Yesharot.

Menahem Mendel of Shklov (d. 1827) Scholar from Shklov. Born in Shklov, his father was the MAGGID Baruch Bendet. He was a pupil of ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Vilna Gaon. After the death of his teacher in 1794, he worked with ELIJAH’s sons on the arrangement and publication of his works. In 1808 he went to Erez Israel and settled in SAFED where he established battei midrash for study and prayer and became the leader of the community of Ashkenazim-Perushim (followers of the Vilna Gaon). From SAFED he maintained a correspondance with Israel of Shklov and asked him to act on behalf of the economic consolidation of the community and encouraged him to emigrate to Palestine. As a result of conflicts with the H . asidic community of SAFED, he drew close to the Sephardi rabbis and their bet midrash. When a plague broke out in 1812 he fled to Jerusalem. He rented a courtyard of the yeshivah of H . ayyim ibn Attar as a place for Torah study and prayer. This action symbolized the renewal of the Ashkenazi community of Jerusalem after a lapse of about 100 years. He maintained friendly relations with the rishon-le-Z.ion, Solomon Moses Suzin, who helped him with the consolidation of his community. After his death, his son Nathan Nata was appointed in his place. He wrote about ten books dealing with the teachings of kabbalah and mysticism.

Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk (1730–1788) Lithuanian H . asidic leader.

He was a disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH and was the head of a congregation in Minsk. During the first wave of opposition to H . ASIDISM, he visited Vilna. Accompanied by his disciple SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY, he sought to meet ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Gaon of Vilna.

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According to H . asidic tradition, he was one of the leading spokesmen at the meeting, which was convened in Rovno in the house of DOV BAER after the imposition of the herem on the H . ASIDIM in 1772. He left Minsk, and in 1773 settled in Gorodok. In 1777 he went to Erez. Israel at the head of a group of 300 persons. He became the leader of the H . asidic yishuv and sent emissaries to Russia to raise funds for its support. Eventually he moved to Tiberias where he built a H . asidic synagogue. Although he lived in Erez Israel, he was the spiritual leader of the H . ASIDIM of Belorussia. In his teachings he remained faithful to those of DOV BAER. Following his teacher, he regarded the Z.IMZ.UM of divine EMANATION and its restriction as a condition for revelation. It is the duty of each person to adhere to God and to redeem the divine presence from its exile in the material world. Menahem Mendel emphasized prayer with devotion and KAVVANAH. DEVEKUT, he believed, can be attained through self-denial and self-abnegation. By following a spiritual path, a person can knit together the whole of the world and exert his influence in the heavenly spheres.

Menahem Nahum of Chernobyl see Twersky, Menahem Nahum ben Z. evi of Chernobyl Menahem Z. iyyoni (late 14th–early 15th century) Kabbalist and exegete from Cologne. The son of Meir Z.iyyoni, he is known through his major work, Z.iyyoni, a homiletical commentary on the Torah, and Z.efunei Z.iyyoni, an early kabbalistic text dealing with the powers of evil and demonology. Menahem Z.iyyoni was one of the few kabbalists in 14th-century Germany, and his work demonstrates that he was heir to the Spanish kabbalah, the exegetical works of NAH . MANIDES, and the esoteric theology of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. Merkavah The divine chariot in the Book of EZEKIEL. Merkavah mysticism refers to the complex speculations, homilies and visions connected with the Throne of Glory and the Merkavah.

Meshullam ben Moses (c. 1175–c. 1250) Scholar of Béziers. Born in Lunel, he went to Béziers with his father, Moses ben Judah. He typified the Provençal blending of Torah and general culture. He is known to have taken a stand against the new trend favoring the study of kabbalah. His Sefer ha-Hashlamah was designed to complete the halakhot of Isaac Alfasi, explaining its difficult passages, adding halakhot that do not appear in it, updating it with the Provençal tradition of scholarship, and dealing with criticism of the work.

Messiah The Anointed One. The concept of the Messiah developed in the biblical period and was elaborated in rabbinic sources. He is to bring about the transformation of history, the deliverance of the Jewish people, and the period of redemption. Throughout Jewish history there have been a series of false messiahs, including SHABBATAI Z.EVI in the 17th century who electrified the Jewish world, but eventually converted to Islam.

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Metatron Angel who was accorded a special position in esoteric doctrine from the tannaitic period. In MERKAVAH literature, Metatron was almost entirely absent. The descriptions of the heavenly hierarchy in Massekhet Heikhalot and Sefer ha-Razim make no mention of such an angelic figure. However, Metatron is a conspicuous figure in the Book of the Visions. This work includes a number of other secret names of Metatron, lists of which appeared later in special commentaries or were added to the Hebrew Book of Enoch. Explanations of these names in accordance with H . asidic tradition are given in the Sefer Beit Din of Abraham Hamoy and in another version in the Sefer ha-H . eshek. According to the traditions of certain MERKAVAH mystics, Metatron takes the place of Michael as the high priest who serves in the heavenly Temple. This is emphasized particularly in the SHIUR KOMAH. The SHIUR KOMAH records that the name Metatron has two forms written with six letters and with seven letters.

The kabbalists regarded these different forms as signifying two prototypes.

The seven-lettered Metatron was identified with the Supreme EMANATION from the SHEKHINAH whereas the six-lettered Metatron was Enoch who ascended to heaven and possessed only some of the splendour of the primordial Metatron.

Microcosm In kabbalistic theology each human being is a microcosm, in contrast with the universe (macrocosm) – both the microcosm and macrocosm are interrelated and interconnected.

Miracles These occur when the laws of a higher world override the laws of a lower world. Thy originate in the creative world of BERIYAH, change the forms of YEZ.IRAH and manifest as unusual or impossible events in ASIYAH. Performing miracles is credited to many mystics who operate from the level of BERIYAH. Mitnaggedim Opponents of H . ASIDISM. They emerged after the Vilna Gaon issued a ban against H ASIDIM in 1772. The reasons for their opposition were . the pantheistic tendencies of the H . ASIDIM, their use of the Sephardi liturgy, the establishment of separate synagogues, and their belief in Z.ADDIKIM. As a result of the ban, SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY was arrested and held in the St Petersburg fortress in 1798. After his release, the conflict died down.

During the 19th century the two groups were largely reconciled.

Mitzvot Commandments. According to tradition, there are 613 mitzvot in the Torah. Rabbinical law as formulated by Jewish sages through the centuries supplemented these commandments.

Molcho, Solomon (1500–1532) Portuguese false MESSIAH. Born a Marrano in Portugal as Diogo Pires, he became a royal notary. His imagination was fired by the appearance in 1525 by David Reuveni. He had himself circumcised and made his way to the Levant where he engaged in kabbalistic study. When he travelled to 153

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Italy, he made a profound impression on Pope Clement VII who welcomed him in the Vatican and protected him from the inquisition. Eventually he regarded himself as the MESSIAH. He joined Reuveni and went to Regensburg in order to meet Emperor Charles V. He was arrested, handed over to the inquisition and burned at Mantua. Nonetheless, his followers believed that he had survived this ordeal and was later seen in Italy. No record of his trial remains.

Molitor, Franz Joseph (1779–1860) German Christian philosopher and kabbalist. Born into a Catholic family at Oberursel near Frankfurt, he studied law and later the philosophy of history. He moved in liberal intellectual circles and came into contact with various Jews. He advocated the establishment of the Jewish school in Frankfurt and became a teacher there. He joined the Freemasons and in 1808 became a member of the Jewish lodge. He headed the lodge in 1812, but finally succumbed to the opposition of the Masonic leaders and closed it in 1816. He eventually engaged in the study of kabbalah.

His ascetic life weakened his body and he was paralyzed for over 40 years.

From 1816 he concentrated on the study of Judaism and the kabbalah. In his view, kabbalah contains ultimate truths of primeval religion. His main work was a four-volume study: Philosohie der Geschichte oder ueber die Tradition. The first volumes are devoted to the principles of Judaism in the light of kabbalah; the fourth volume emphasizes the importance of kabbalah for Christianity.

Mordecai ben H . ayyim of Eisenstadt (1650–1729) SHABBATEAN preacher from Eisenstadt. He regarded SHABBATAI Z.EVI as the MESSIAH after SHABBETAI’S conversion to Islam. As an extreme ascetic, he wandered throughout Hungary, Moravia, Italy and Poland spreading the view (first declared

by NATHAN OF GAZA) that SHABBETAI had to undergo conversion and that his death was an illusion. In three years, he stated that the MESSIAH would reappear. Invited to Italy in 1682 by Issachar Behr Perlhefter and ABRAHAM ROVIGO of MODENA (who were secret SHABBATEANS) he argued that while SHABBETAI had been the MESSIAH ben Ephraim, he himself was the Messiah ben David. Writings from ROVIGO’s circle possibly composed

by Perlhefter portray Mordecai as the forerunner of the MESSIAH. In this work reference is made to Mordecai’s plan to go to Rome to make messianic preparations. Upon meeting him in Modena, Perlhefter recognized signs of madness and turned against him. This apparently caused Mordecai’s departure from Italy some time before 1682. He then travelled throughout Bohemia and Poland.

Mordecai of Neskhiz (1752–1800) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Neskhiz. He was the founder miracle-workers of his generation. A disciple of JEHIEL MICHAEL OF ZLOCZOW. He was friendly with ARYEH LEIB OF SHPOLA. His name appears in the list of famous Z.ADDIKIM of 1798–1820, which the MITNAGGEDIM included in their works against the H . ASIDIM. He served as rabbi in Leshnev, in the province of Brody where a H asidic group flourished in .

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1772. He settled in Neskhiz near Kovel in Volhynia around 1790. There he was known as a miracle-working Z.ADDIK. According to tradition, he was familiar with the mysteries of creation. A wealthy individual, he commissioned the scribe Moses of Przeworsk to copy a Torah scroll for him.

Moses ben Shem Tov de Leon (c. 1240–1305) Spanish kabbalist. He was the principal author of the ZOHAR. Born in Leon, Castile, he lived in other communities in Castile including Guadalajara, Avila, Valladolid and Arevalo. During his travels he met adherents of various kabbalistic schools. He was familiar with the teachings of ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFIA. Some of the great kabbalists of the day were his friends. He was also familiar with MAIMONIDES’ GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED. He wrote a number of kabbalistic treatises in Hebrew. The sequence of these works and their chronological and ideological relationship with the ZOHAR has been variously interpreted. Moses himself claimed that the ZOHAR sections which he published were copied from an old manuscript which reached him from Erez. Israel. His widow and daughter, however, claimed that there was no such manuscript and that Moses wrote them himself.

Moses ben Menahem Graf [Moses Praeger] (1650–1700/1710) Kabbalist from Prague. Born in Prague, he moved to Nikolsburg after the destruction of the Prague ghetto in 1689. There he studied under the kabbalist Eleizer Mendel ben Mordecai. David Oppenheim, who encouraged the publication of his writings, supported him. After leaving Nikolsburg, he sought to settle in various European cities, reaching Fuerth in 1696 and Dessau two years later. It is not certain whether he died there or whether he returned to Prague. His writings include Zera Kodesh, a kabbalistic text with an appendix describing the exorcism of a DYBBUK in Nikolsburg; and Va-Yakhel Moshe, a kabbalistic discussion of various portions of the ZOHAR and of the Adam de-Az.ilut. In this latter work he criticized the teachings of MOSES CORDOVERO and his followers.

Moses ben Solomon ben Simeon of Burgos (1230/1235–c. 1300) Spanish kabbalist. Born in Spain, he served as a rabbi in Burgos from about 1260.

Known as Moses Cinfa, he came from a distinguished family. He was the pupil and spiritual heir of Isaac ha-Kohen and JACOB BEN JACOB HA-KOHEN. He began to teach about kabbalah as soon as he assumed office in Burgos. His pupils included ISAAC BEN SOLOMON IBN SAHULA and TODROS BEN JOSEPH ABULAFIA. ISAAC ALBALAG viewed him as the most important kabbalist of his generation. ABRAHAM ABULAFIA met him and his pupil Shem Tov ben Maor between 1271 and 1274 and sought to attract him to his doctrine of prophetic kabbalism. Toward the end of his life Moses met ISAAC OF ACRE who recounts the event in his Me’irat Einayim. Isaac heard Moses utter a harsh statement expressing the relationship of philosophy to kabbalah: ‘The position attained by their heads reaches only the position of our feet’, indicating that the kabbalist has access to higher realms closed to philosophers.

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His works consist of a commentary on the Song of Songs; a commentary on the ten ‘left’ SEFIROT, commentaries on the three haftarot – Merkevet Yeshayahu (Throne and Chariot Vision of Isaiah), Merkevet Yeh.ezkel (Throne and Chariot Vision of Ezekiel), and Mareh ha-Menorah shel Zekharyah (Zechariah’s Vision of the Candelabrum); a commentary on the 42 letter name of God; an amplification of the treatise by his teacher Isaac ha-Kohen on emanation; a kabbalistic explanation of the early tract SHIUR KOMAH; and diverse mystical compositions.

Moses H . asidic preacher and . ayyim Ephraim of Sudylkow (c. 1740–1800) H Z.ADDIK. He was the son of Adel, the daughter of the BAAL SHEM TOV, and the eldest brother of Baruch ben Jehiel of Medzibezh. He was praised in a letter from the BAAL SHEM TOV to his brother-in-law, Abraham Gershon of Kutow. Even though Moses H . ayyimwas aware that a Z.ADDIK is an important individual, he did not gather many H . ASIDIM around him. Instead he lived in humility and poverty. He served as a preacher in Sudylkow and popularized H . ASIDISM through his Degel Mah.aneh Efrayim. This work is composed of sermons on the weekly portions from the Torah. At the end of the book is a collection of dreams from 1780–5 describing mystical visions. It also contains stories, parables and teachings of the BAAL SHEM TOV and his disciples. In addition, the volume expresses social criticism of scholars who boast of Torah learning in contrast with H . ASIDIM who are distinguished by their humility.

According to the author, the Torah can serve as a focus for meditation and concentration and that the light of the EN SOF (Infinite) shines through the letters of the text. Since every generation interprets the Torah according to its needs, the Z.ADDIK as the representative of Torah may be permitted to break particular laws when necessary. Moses H . ayyim warned H . ASIDIM against superficial imitation of the Z.ADDIKIM. The obligation to elevate the divine sparks in Lurianic kabbalah was expanded by Moses H . ayyim to everything including animals and slaves. Hence he advocated the elevation of undesirable thoughts. Moses H . ayyim also held that human beings would enter the palace of truth and redemption of the soul only by constantly thinking about God. In his view, the end of exile would occur when the teachings of the BAAL SHEM TOV were accepted. Yet, due to the spiritual decline of the current age, he believed the possibility of the advent of the messianic age had become less likely.

Mother Letters In addition to the ten SEFIROT, the SEFER YEZ.IRAH 3:2–10 depicts the process of creation as taking place through the Hebrew letters. The twenty-two letters are divided into three groups, beginning with the three mother letters – aleph, mem, shin. ‘Three mothers, aleph, mem, shin. A great secret, wonderful and hidden. He seals them with six rings. From them go out: air, fire and water. From them the fathers are born. From the Fathers, the progeny are born. Three mothers: aleph mem, shin. He engraved them. He hewed them. He combined them. He weighed them. He set them at opposites.

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He formed through them: three mothers – aleph, mem, shin in the universe; three mothers – aleph, mem, shin in the year; three mothers – aleph, mem and shin in the body of male and female. Three mothers: aleph, mem, shin. The product of fire is heaven; the product of air is air; the product of water is earth. Fire is above; water is below; air tips the balance between them. From them, the fathers were generated, and from them, everything is created. Three mothers: aleph, mem, shin are in the universe – air, water and fire. Heaven was created first from fire; earth from water; air from air. Three mothers: aleph, mem, shin are in the year – cold, heat and temperate state from air. Three mothers: aleph, mem, shin are in the body of male and female – head, belly and chest. Head was created from fire; belly from water; chest from air. He caused the letter aleph to reign over air . . . He combined them with one another. He formed through them: air in the universe, the temperate-state in the year, the chest in the body of male with aleph, mem, shin, and female with aleph, mem, shin. He caused the letter mem to reign over water. He combined them with one another. He formed through them: earth in the universe; cold in the year; the belly in the body of male with mem, aleph, shin, and female with shin, mem, aleph. He caused the letter shin to reign over fire.

He combined them with one another. He formed through them: heaven in the universe, heat in the year; head in the body of male with shin, aleph, mem and female with shin, mem, aleph.’

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N Nah.man of Bratslav (1772–1811) Polish H . ASID. Born in Medzibezh, he was the great grandson of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Brought up in a H . asidic environment, he married at an early age. Later he moved to Medvedevka in the province of Kiev and became the leader of a circle of followers. In 1798 he travelled to Israel; later he moved to Zlatopol near Shpola in the province of Kiev.

After his arrival he engaged in controversy with ARYEH LEIB OF SHPOLA, the aged H . asidic leader who exerted an important influence on Jewry in Podolia and other parts of the Ukraine. According to ARYEH LEIB, Nahman’s teachings contained SHABBATEAN and FRANKIST heretical views. In 1802 he went to Bratslav in Podolia, where the Z.ADDIKIM came into conflict with him.

In 1810 he left Bratslav and settled in Uman where he died. Nearly all existing Bratslav literature was compiled by Nathan ben Naphtali Hertz Sternhartz, Nahman’s scribe. The first volume of Nahman’s writings, Likkutei Moharan, was published during his lifetime. The second volume, Likkutei Moharan Tinyana, appeared after his death. The stories Nahman related during the last years of his life were collected in Sippurei Maasiyyot. Although Nahman maintained that his teaching was based on tradition, his theories contain numerous innovations.

In his view the EN SOF sought to reveal its mercy by creating the world which it rules in accordance with its absolute will. Thus divinity inheres in all things, even in the demonic realm. Hence, even if a person is evil, he can find God and repent of his sins. For Nahman, the Lurianic notion of Z.IMZ.UM gives rise to a paradox – it postulates the withdrawal and disappearance of the Divine so as to create a vacuum while simultaneously assuming divine immanence.

According to Nahman, Z.IMZ.UM can be achieved only in the future, yet he was less concerned with this contraction than with the space which is devoid of the divine presence. This, he believed, generates doubts regarding the existence of the Creator. Thus the formulation of a question serves as an important feature of his doctrine, depending on the first created act in relation to human beings. In addition to the question that arises in connection with Z.IMZ.UM, there is another difficulty regarding the breaking of the vessels. In line with his 158

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understanding of Lurianic kabbalah, Nahman contended that the KELIPPOT emerged as a result of the breaking of the vessels, denoting a separate reality for their destructive action. Further, they serve as the source of secular studies and hence of heretical questioning. Nonetheless because the holy sparks fell into this sphere, it is possible to find salvation and arise from that place. Discussing the concept of the Z.ADDIK, Nahman argued that such a figure provides redemptive force to the prayers of the Jewish people.

Nah.man of Horodenka (d. 1780) H . ASID from Horodenka. He was a disciple of the BAAL SHEM TOV. His son married Feige, the granddaughter of the BAAL SHEM TOV, and their son was NAH . MAN OF BRATSLAV. Little is known about him and his teachings. From various quotations in early H . asidic literature attributed to him, it appears that he was primarily concerned with practical questions concerning the method of divine worship. His encounter with the BAAL SHEM TOV was the turning point of his life. He emigrated to Erez. Israel in 1764 with MENAHEM MENDEL OF PEREMYSHLANY at the head of a group of H . ASIDIM. He settled in Tiberias.

Nah.man of Kosov (d. 1746) H . ASID and kabbalist from Kosov. He was a land contractor and grain dealer and lived for a time in Ludomir where he built a bet midrash with an adjoining bathhouse. He was associated with a group of spiritual leaders in Kutow, which was active even before the appearance of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Initially Nah.man was opposed to the BAAL SHEM TOV. Later he recognized the BAAL SHEM TOV’s authority, yet he preserved his spiritual independence. It is known that among the Kutow group there was a condition that none of them should prophesy, but Nah.man did not always observe this rule. He was viewed as a man of the spirit, possessing contemplative power and known for his ecstatic manner of praying. He was the first to introduce the prayer rite of ISAAC LURIA into public prayer. Nah.man was one of the most important teachers of DEVEKUT, emphasizing constant contemplation of God. In his view, DEVEKUT does not contradict the requirements of social life and is not confined to times of spiritual concentration or a propitious occasion. It should be carried out by a visual technique, the letters of the TETRAGRAMMATON and other names of God appearing before the eyes of the person meditating. He recognized the importance of the masses and men of the spirit, maintaining that a person’s spiritual elevation will take place by his association with the great and pious. All individuals should aim toward perfection and a gradual ascent through completeness and unity of will and intention. Nahman recognized the struggle in a person’s soul between the powers of good and evil. He was suspected of SHABBATEANISM, and since he supported JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ, JACOB EMDEN publicly censured him.

Nah.manides [Moses ben Nahman] [Ramban] (1194–1260) Biblical exegete, kabbalist, halakhist and physician in Catalonia. His glosses on the 159

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Talmud were similar to those of the French tosaphists. His Torat ha-Adam on the rites of mourning were basically halakhic. Opposed to the study of philosophy (but not to the works of MAIMONIDES), he sought to mediate between MAIMONIDES’ supporters and detractors. In 1263 Pablo Christiani challenged him to a public disputation which took place at Barcelona in the presence of King James I. Later he was tried for blasphemy and was forced to leave Spain. From 1267 he lived in Palestine. He settled in Acre and reorganized the Jewish settlement there. His commentary on the Bible combines a rational interpretation with kabbalistic concepts.

Najara, Jacob ben Moses (17th century) The son of MOSES BEN ISRAEL NAJARA, he succeeded his father and is known to have been a fervent believer in SHABBATAI Z.EVI. When SHABBATAI Z.EVI reached Gaza in 1665, he stayed with Najara whom he appointed ‘High Priest’ even though Najara was not of priestly descent. In 1666 Jacob Najara sent propagandistic letters abroad supporting the claims of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and the prophecy of NATHAN OF GAZA. Even after SHABBETAI converted to Islam, Najara continued to support him and visited him in Adrianople in 1671.

Najara, Moses ben Israel (17th century) Kabbalist from Gaza. He was the grandson of MOSES BEN LEVI NAJARA. He succeeded his father Israel Najara as the head of the Jewish community in Gaza. Kabbalistic sermons preserved in manuscript were attributed to him, but it is possible that his grandfather wrote them.

Najara, Moses ben Levi (?1508–1581) Rabbi and kabbalist from Damascus.

He lived in Damascus and in SAFED. Apparently before 1546 he served as a rabbi in Damascus and corresponded with Moses di Trani. He stayed in Damascus until after 1555. He spent some time in SAFED as a student of ISAAC LURIA and wrote a commentary on the Torah: Lekah Tov. Sh’ar ha-Kelalim, published in the beginning of Ez. H . ayyim of H . AYYIM VITAL, is attributed to him. Various discourses on Lurianic Kabbalah are found in his name in manuscripts and in published works of H . AYYIM VITAL. According to SHABBATEAN tradition, BARUCHIA RUSSO is reputed to be a reincarnation of Maharam Nayar (Moses Najara). Near the end of his life, he continued to serve as a rabbi in Damascus where he died. His son was the poet Israel Najara.

Nathan of Gaza (1643–1680) Egyptian follower of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. After studying in his native Jerusalem, he settled in Gaza where he devoted himself to kabbalah and ascetic practices. Under the influence of a vision he met SHABBATAI Z.EVI in Gaza and proclaimed him the long-awaited MESSIAH. His belief in SHABBATAI was not shaken by SHABBATAI’s conversion to Islam. Rather, Nathan wandered through the Balkans and Italy developing a special theology of SHABBATEANISM based on Lurianic kabbalah. He taught that the soul of the MESSIAH had to descend to the KELIPPOT (husks) to redeem the scattered sparks of divine light. But with the act of TIKKUN it will 160

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reappear in a great light. He was expelled by the rabbis of Venice and returned to the Balkans. He was venerated by SHABBATEANS after his death.

Nefesh There is some debate about this term. MAIMONIDES used it to define a high level of the soul. Kabbalists equated it with the insticts, that is, the vegetable and animal levels of the soul. This difference is de to the varying designation of nefesh in different places and points in history. There are several definitions for the insticts, the soul, the spirit and the divine levels within a human being.

Nehemiah ha-Kohen (17th century) Polish kabbalist. Born in Lvov, he arrived at the fortress in Gallipoli, Turkey, where SHABBATAI Z.EVI was imprisoned. He visited SHABBATAI in the month of Ellul. Loeb ben Ozer quoted information he heard from Nehemiah concerning his dispute with SHABBATAI; it appears that Nehemiah rejected SHABBATAI’s messianic claims. According to Christian sources, however, Nehemiah declared that he was the Messiah ben Joseph and criticized SHABBATAI for announcing his own messiahship before the Messiah ben Joseph had embarked on his journey of tribulations. It appears that after several days Nehemiah despaired of SHABBATAI and notified the authorities of the fortress that he had decided to convert to Islam. He then went to Adrianopole where he complained to the civil authorities that SHABBATAI was an imposter. SHABBATAI was then brought before the sultan, and under threat of death converted to Islam. Having passed on this information to the Turkish authorities, Nehemiah returned to Lvov and lived as an observant Jew. Nehemiah’s activities caused considerable consternation throughout Poland: he was condemned by some for bringing an end to the messianic awakening; others, who were critical of SHABBATAI, praised him for calling SHABBATAI’s messianic claims into question. Subsequently Nehemiah wandered from place to place, eventually leaving Poland in about 1675.

Neh.unya ben ha-Kanah (second half of the 1st century) Born in Emmaus in Judea, he is referred to as Nehunya ben ha-Kanah of Emmaus by the Tanh.uma, which cites a discussion between him and Josehua ben Hananiah.

The Tosefta quotes a halakah in his name, and he is mentioned as disputing with Eliezer and Joshua in H . ullin. His pupils included Ishamel who received from him rules for interpreting the Torah. Like Nehunya, he interpreted the Torah in accordance with the hermeneutical rule of kelal u-ferat (general propositions and particulars) in contrast with AKIVA who used the principle of ribbui u-mi’t (extension and limitation) following the practice of Nahum of Gimzo. His noble character, acts of benevolence, and relations distinguished Nehunya with colleagues. When his pupils asked what virtue he had attained in old age he said: ‘Never in my life have I sought honour through the degradation of my fellow, nor has the curse of my fellow gone up with me upon my bed, and I have been generous with my money.’ In his view, the study of the Torah is a bulwark against the tragedies of life. Scholars of the kabbalah attributed to him several mystical works including the BAHIR. According to 161

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tradition, he is the author of the prayer Anna be-Kho’ah. (based on the Divine Name of 42 letters).

Neoplatonism A modification of Platonism intiated by the 3rd century thinker PLOTINUS and his successors. Jewish Neoplatonists identified the Platonic forms with the creative thoughts of God. God was defined as the Good, the First Principal, and the one who is singular and self-sufficient. From this source emanated the world of ideas and the material world. The human soul was conceived as a particle from a higher realm of being to which it longed to return. Neoplatonism provided a philsophical basis for the rational as well as the spiritual and mystical life. Its aim was to reach the ultimate One lying beyond all concrete experience. Beginning with ISAAC ISRAELI in the 10th century, Jewish Neoplatonism reached its heights with SOLOMON IBN GABIROL in the philosophical sphere, and BAH . YA IBN PAKUDA and Judah Ha-Levi in the theological sphere. Neoplatonism was eclipsed by Aristotealianism in philosophy, but it continued to exert an influence on Jewish mysticism.

Neshamah This term, like NEFESH, has been used for different levels. Some see it as the transpersonal spirit, others as the personal soul. But other kabbalistis have argued that the neshamah has a distinct character indicating that it is psychological rather than spiritual in nature.

Netzah. (Victory) It is the seventh SEFIRAH located beneath H . ESED. No’am Elimelech A work by the 18th-century H . ASID ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK in which the Z.ADDIKIM are depicted as able to ascend the heavenly realms through the formulation of YICHUDIM. Notarikon A system of abbreviation. The method was used in interpreting the Torah and is the 30th of the 32 hermeneutical rules of the BARAITA OF 32 RULES. The term is derived from the system of shorthand used by notarii in recording the proceedings in the Roman courts of justice. The word appears only once in the Mishnah (Shab. 12.5). Even though there is the view that the hermenutic law of notarikon has biblical authority (Shab. 105a), the Talmud does not use it for halakhic interpretations. It is used only in the aggadah and asmakhta (support for the halakhah). Yet, there were rabbis who objected to its excessive use in aggadic sources. There are two types of notarikon: (1) every letter in a particular word is understood as the abbreviation of separate words (for example the word nimz.eret (grievous) stands for no’ef, mo’avi, roz.e’ah., z.orer, to’evah (adulterer, Moabite, murderer, oppressor, despised); (2) segments of particular words stand for other words (for example the word Re’uven (Ruben) stands for re’u, ven (see the son).

Sometimes letters are transposed, for example karmel (fresh corn) is understood as rakh, mel (tender and easily crushed). At other times, a word is transposed even though the letter of one of the derived words is missing, for example mez.ora (leper) is understood as moz.i, shem, ra (slanderer) even though there is no 162

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letter shin in the original word. Words were interpreted through the principle of notarikon even when the derived words did not correspond to the original word.

Hence nazuf (under divine censure) is connected with the phrase, nezem zahav be-af h.azir (a ring of gold in the snout of a pig). Rabbinic scholars made extensive use of notarion as did kabbalists in the medieval period. For example the word bereshit (in the beginning) is understood as referring to the cosmological order: bara, raki’a, erez., shamayim, yam tehom’ (He created the firmament, the earth, the heavens, the sea and the abyss).

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O Old Souls In kabbalah the concept of reincarnation or the transmigration of souls after death into rebirth is a central doctrine. It is called the gilgulim or wheels of incarnation. Prophets, saints and sages have been reborn in order to help humanity progress, some individuals remember formal lives. For most old souls it is their destiny to be reborn at certain times and in certain places to remind Israel, or the mass of humanity, of the Torah or eternal teaching.

Onyx Stone One of the most important kabbalists of the 16th-century was JOSEPH TZYACH. Born in Jerusalem, he served as a rabbi in Damascus and frequently travelled to Jerusalem, where he wrote The Onyx Stone. This work was designed as a meditative text containing complex numerical calculations, associating the ten SEFIROT with the fingers.

Or ha-Sekhal Work by the 13th-century mystic ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFA. After mastering the technique of letter manipulation, the next step in ABULAFA’s system involved the pronunciation of God’s name. This method was presenteted in this work. The system involved the pronunciation of the four letters of God’s name (yod, hey, vav, hey) with the letter aleph pronounced with the five vowel’s.

Or Neerav In this mystical work, MOSES CORDOVERO defended kabbalistic study against those who were critical of it.

Oral Tradition An esoteric teaching transmitted directly from teacher to student over many generations. Some mystics received teaching from a MAGGID or directly from Elijah.

Ornstein, Mordecai Ze’ev ben Moses (d. 1787) Polish rabbi and kabbalist.

His father, Moses ben Joske, was a member of the community council of 164

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Zolkiew. Previously rabbi of Satinov, Kamenka, and Yampol, Podolia, Ornstein became rabbi of Lvov in succession to Solomon ben Moses of Chelm. Ornstein engaged in the study of kabbalah and was close in spirit to the H . ASIDIM. He is reputed to have studied under DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. Although he did not publish any halakhic works, his novellae were quoted by his descendents.

His sons included Jacob Meshullam Ornstein, the author of Yeshu’ot Ya’akov, and Moses Joshua Hoeschel, rabbi of Taringrad and author of Yam ha-Talmud.

For over a century nearly all the incumbents of the rabbinate of Lvov were his descendants.

Outpouring of the Soul H . asidic masters themselves defended their forms of prayer meditation. The 18th-century H . asidic rebbe, NAH . MAN OF BRATSLAV, for example, taught a form of meditation in which the mystic concentrates on an external object such as a name or a mantra. In his Outpouring of the Soul, he discussed such prayer.

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P Pardes Mneumonic meaning ‘garden’ which represents the four types of scriptural exposition: peshat (literal), remez (allegorical), derash (homiletical), and SOD (mystical).

Pardes Rimmonim MOSES CORDOVERO, a student of JOSEPH CARO. He was one of the most impotant kabbalists of 16th-century SAFED. A member of ascetic circle of mystics, he composed several important mystical treatises including Pardes Rimmonim. In this work he advocated a system of meditation whereby one can bind oneself to the SEFIROT. Pargod A vast curtain that hangs down in front of the Throne of Heaven as described in the Book of Enoch. It is made of different threads, each representing a destiny of a human soul interwoven into patterns of historical events.

Partzufim After being shattered, the SEFIROT were rectified and rebuilt.

Partzufim (configurations) each consists of 613 parts. They parallel the 193 parts of the body as well as the 613 commandments. Subsequently they were able to interact with each other anthroporphically, as well as with human beings, through the Torah. According to H . AYYIM VITAL in ETZ. H . AYYIM, in their rectified state as partzufim the vessels were able to receive divine light.

Peremyshlyany, Meir ben Aaron Leib of (1780?–1850) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Peremyshlyany. He was the grandson of Meir of Peremyshlyany, a disciple of the BAAL SHEM TOV. According to tradition, he assisted the BAAL SHEM TOV in his struggle against the FRANKISTS. Born in Peremyshlyany, Galicia, he was a disciple of Mordecai of Kremenets. In 1813 – the year of his father’s death – he became rabbi in Peremyshlyany and the leader of a H . asidic community there. Due to a slander against him, he left for Lipkany, Bessarabia, where he served as a rabbi. He lived in Lipkany for three years and was involved in a dispute with the H . ASIDIM of ABRAHAM JOSHUA HESCHEL OF APTA. 166

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According to Abraham Baer Gottlober, Meir lived in border towns and changed his residence several times. From Lipkany he went to Peremyshlyany; in 1843 he moved to Nikolayev. In 1826 Joseph Perl applied to the Austrian authorities for permission to reprint the Sefer Vikku’ah. of Israel Loebl. At the end of this volume was a list of H . ASIDIC leaders including Meir of Shebsh. Perl changed the name to Meir Shebseir. The Austrian censorship wrongly identified Meir Shebseir with Meir of Peremyshlany; as a consequence they ordered an inquiry to determine whether he and other H . asidic leaders were in opposition to the government and encouraged their followers to disobey the law. The result of this inquiry was negative. In 1839 the police of Lvov submitted to the government an indictment against miracle workers which contained the name of Meir Peremyshlyany. This led to an investigation. Meir was on friendly terms with Israel of Ruzhin whom he helped to cross the border when Israel was persecuted by the authorities. Solomon ben Judah Aaron Kluger of Brody eulogized Meir upon his death. In Megalleh Temirin by Joseph Perl some of Meir’s actions such as healing the sick and childless women are described with derision. Meir spent his money freely among the poor according to H . asidic legend. He was known for his seemingly mad behaviour, which his H ASIDIM interpreted as being merely external. He . was a popular Z.ADDIK. Reports of his miracles were reported orally and later in writing.

Philadelphia, Jacob (b. 1720 or 1735–after 1783) Colonial American physicist, mechanic and kabbalist. He may have been educated by Christopher Witt, a Rosicrucian mystic and anchorite survivor of the German Pietist mystic sect known as the ‘Women of the Wilderness’. Witt was a correspondent of the Duke of Cumberland, who later became Philadelphia’s patron in England.

After the Duke’s death in 1758, he toured England, lecturing and conducting experiments. Later he lectured throughout Europe. He was regarded as a powerful magician by the ignorant. Nonetheless, he refused to lecture at the University of Goettingen after a satirical poster campaign derided him as a miracle worker and magician. He supposedly lectured in Switzerland in 1781. Two years later he applied to the Prussian court for a licence to form a Prussian–American trading company.

Philo (c. 20 BCE–50 CE) Hellenistic philosopher from Alexandria. He belonged to a noble family of Alexandrian Jewry. His brother, the high official and rich banker Alexander, is known through Josephus’ writings, and his nephew, Alexander’s son (Tiberius, Julius Alexander) was a well-known historical personage. Little is known about Philo’s life. His works were written in Greek and show a great knowledge of classical literature and contemporary philosophy as well as broad familiarity with general science. His writings include an allegorical and philosophical exposition of the Pentateuch as well as a group of treatises devoted to philosophical topics. The philosophical substructure of Philo’s worldview can be characterized as Stoicism with a strong Platonic orientation as well as neo-Pythagorean influences. In his view, the ultimate 167

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destination of a person consists in lifting up his soul to a contemplative life, thereby freeing himself from bodily needs and pleasures.

Pico della Mirandola Giovanni (1463–1494) Italian thinker and father of Christian kabbalah. He was associated with Elijah Delmedigo, Flavius Mithridates, Johanan Alemanno, Marsilio Fincino, Angelo Poliziano and Girolamo Savonarola. The most important outcome of Pico’s encounter with Jewish esoterism are his kabbalistic theses which set out to confirm the truth of the Christian religion from the foundations of Jewish kabbalah.

Pinheiro, Moses (17th century) SHABBATEAN from Izmir. Born in Izmir, he was a contemporary of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He studied Talmudic and kabbalistic literature with SHABBATAI in his youth. It is not clear whether he supported SHABBATAI’s messianic claims in 1648. About 1650 he left Izmir and settled in Leghorn where he was known as a respected scholar. When news of the SHABBATEAN awakening reached Italy, he became one of its most ardent supporters. He believed SHABBATAI was the MESSIAH long after SHABBATAI’s conversion to Islam. As a delegate of the Leghorn community, he went to see SHABBATAI in the summer of 1666, but arrived in Izmir after his conversion. There he received communications from both SHABBATAI Z.EVI and NATHAN OF GAZA. In March 1667 he retured to Italy with a delegation of three other communities. NATHAN stayed in his house on his visit to Italy the following year. As the centre of a SHABBATEAN group in Leghorn, he maintained a correspondence with SHABBATAI and also took an interest in ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO. As illustrated by ABRAHAM ROVIGOU’s notebook on SHABBATEAN matters, he was still viewed as a believer in about 1690. His daughter was the mother of the kabbalist JOSEPH ERGAS who kept quiet about his grandfather’s SHABBATEAN tendencies.

Malachi ha-Kohen of Leghorn, Ergas’s pupil, praised Pinehrio for his piety and ascetic life in his forward to Ergas's responsa, Divrei Yosef.

Pinto, Jacob (d. c. 1750) Spanish kabbalist. He was a disciple of ABRAHAM AZULAI and a well-known kabbalist. He wrote a lengthy commentary on the ZOHAR. Pinto, Josiah ben Joseph (1565–1648) Talmudist and kabbalist from Damascus. Born in Damascus he served as a rabbi there. In about 1617 he went to Jerusalem: in 1625 he decided to settle in SAFED. However, when his son died the following year, he returned to Damascus. His teacher in subjects other than the kabbalah was Jacob Abulafia who ordained him. In kabbalah he adhered to the system of H . AYYIM VITAL whose son, Samuel, was his pupil and later married his daughter. Pinto is best known for his Me’or Einayim, a commentary on Ein Ya’akov by Jacob ibn H . abib. He also wrote Kesef Nivh.ar, containing sermons on the weekly scriptural readings.

Plotinus (205–270 CE) NEOPLATONIC philosopher. Born in Alexandria in Egypt, he studied philosophy; his teacher was Ammonius Saccas. In 244 168

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he went to Rome where he lived the rest of his life. The influence of his NEOPLATONIC teaching on theology was immense. He brought together opposing perceptions of revelation and reason into a mystical and metaphysical form that set out the doctrine of the chain of being. This was adapted by later kabbalists.

Poppers, Meir ben Judah Loeb ha-Kohen (d. 1662) Kabbalist of Ashkenazi descent who was active in Jerusalem. A pupil of JACOB ZEMAH . . he became the last editor of Lurianic writings. He divided the mass of H . AYYIM VITAL’s different versions of LURIA’s teachings into three parts. His version became the one most in use in Poland and Germany. After 1640 he composed a large number of his own kabbalistic works in the same style as Lurianic kabbalah. Several parts of this work have been preserved, including commentaries on SEFER HA-BAHIR, on NAH . MANIDES’ Torah commentary on the ZOHAR, and on LURIA’s writings according to his own edition. In this work Poppers stated that he had studied LURIA for 17 years. Poppers is credited with the authorship of a description and summary of the Lurianic system. This, however, shows the distinct influence of ISRAEL SARUG’s version of Lurianic teaching.

Primo, Samuel (c. 1635–1708) SHABBATEAN leader from Cairo. Born in Cairo, he studied under Judah Sharaf. Later he lived in Jerusalem, and in 1662 represented the Jewish community there in a dispute with the heirs of the kabbalist DAVID HABILLO. Primo was regarded as an important Talmudist and kabbalist. He met SHABBATAI Z.EVI during SHABBATAI’s stay in Jerusalem, and joined the first group of followers at the outbreak of the messianic movement. He was present at the height of the messianic excitement in Gaza in May and June 1665. Later he joined SHABBATAI in Constantinople. While SHABBATAI was imprisoned in the fortress of Gallipoli, Primo served as his scribe and secretary. It was he who composed the letters and pronouncements about SHABBATAI’s messiahship; he also received delegations visiting SHABBATAI. After SHABBATAI’s apostasy, Primo remained faithful. He remained in Sofia, making frequent visits to SHABBATAI in Adrianople and later in Dulcigno. He maintained close contact with NATHAN OF GAZA and other SHABBATEANS. SHABBATAI initiated him into his later kabbalistic teachings concerning the mystery of the Godhead. Subsequently Primo disclosed these teachings to those whom he deemed trustworthy. He accepted SHABBATAI’s theory of divine apotheosis while outwardly returning to his Talmudic studies.

After 1680 Primo moved to Adrinople where he became rabbi of the Apulian synagogue and later its av bet din. He did not join the DOENMEH sect, but is known to have said to confidants that the amoraim did not really understand the secrets of the faith. Among his chief pupils was H . AYYIM ALFANDARI. Prossnitz, Judah Leib ben Jacob Holleschau (c. 1670–1730) SHABBATEAN prophet from Uhersky Brod. Born in Uhersky Brod, he settled in Prossnitz after his marriage. He was an uneducated person and made his living as a peddler.

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About 1696 he underwent a spiritual awakening and studied the Mishnah and later the ZOHAR and other kabbalistic sources. Believing that he was visited by the souls of the deceased, he claimed that he had studied kabbalah with ISAAC LURIA and SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He first taught children but later his followers in Prossnitz provided for him and his family. He took up residence in the bet midrash in Prossnitz, led an ascetic life, and was known as Leibele Prossnitz. He began to divulge kabbalistic and SHABBATEAN mysteries and preached in public. He attracted many followers including Meir Eisenstadt, a famous rabbinic authority who served as rabbi there. At the same time his SHABBATEAN propaganda aroused strong opposition. Between 1703 and 1705 he travelled through Moravia and Silesia. Along with other SHABBATEAN leaders, he prophesied the return of SHABBATAI Z.EVI in 1706. The rabbinical establishment, who threatened him with excommunication unless he returned to Prossnitz and stayed there, opposed his teaching. As 1706 approached, his agitation reached a high pitch, and he assembled a group of ten followers who studied with him and practised mortifications. Judah Leib was widely credited with magical practices connected with his attempt to bring an end the dominion of SAMAEL. He served as the head of a secret SHABBATEAN group in Prossnitz and maintained connections with other SHABBATEANS. JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ, a student of Meir Eisenstadt, is reputed to have studied secretly with Judah Leib who was propagating teachings close to the radical wing of SHABBATEANISM. Later Judah Leib claimed to be the Messiah ben Joseph, the precursor of the Messiah ben David. His last years were believed to have been spent in Hungary. After his death a group of SHABBATEANS continued in Prossnitz during the 18th century.

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Q Querido, Jacob (c. 1650–1690) SHABBATEAN precher in Salonika. He was the son of Joseph Filosof. His sister became SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s last wife.

When she returned to Salonika after SHABBATAI’s death in 1676, she claimed that her brother was the recipient of her husband’s soul. Querido’s father and Solomon Florentin supported his assertions, which led to the mass apostasy of a large group of Salonika families. Together with the earlier converts to Islam among SHABBATAI’s followers, this group formed the early nucleus of the DOENMEH. Taking the name Abdullah Yacoub, Querido became the leader of these sectarians. However, his leadership led to dissension within the group as early converts became dissatisfied with his innovations. Insisting on an outward demonstration of Muslim piety, Querido went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1688 accompanied by Mustafa Effendi. Returning from Mecca, he died in Egypt.

When his companion returned, the schism among Querido’s followers became final. According to tradition, 43 families formed a sect called the Jacobites. As Querido had no male heirs, his adherents were led by a number of chiefs who treasured relics of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and Querido. They administered the personal fortunes left by SHABBATAI. No writings by Querido or his followers have survived. His followers took no part in the further divisions within the DOENMEH movement.

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R Radomsko, Solomon ha-Kohen Rabinowich of (1803–1866) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Radomsk. He studied in the yeshivah of Piotrkow under Abraham Z.evi. His father educated him in H . ASIDISM. In his youth he joined Meir of Apta, leader of the popular trend in Polish H . ASIDISM after the death of JACOB ISAAC HA-H OZEH OF LUBLIN. In 1834 he became rabbi of .

Radomsk; from 1843 he was accepted as a H asidic rabbi. His teachings were . in the spirit of the popular trend of Polish H ASIDISM. He engaged in public . affairs and worked on behalf of the poor. He attracted many disciples including Aaron Marcus and H . ayyim David Bernard of Piotrkow. His Tiferet Shelomo is considered one of the classic works of Polish H . ASIDISM. Radoshitser, Issachar Baer (1765–1843) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Radoszyce.

Known as ‘the holy old man’, he was a miracle worker. He lived in great poverty as a village schoolmaster in Checiny and Chmielnik. He frequented the courts of various Z.ADDIKIM and was a disciple of JACOB ISAAC HA-H . OZEH OF LUBLIN, JACOB ISAAC OF PRZYSUCHA, ABRAHAM JOSHUA HESCHEL OF APTA and ISRAEL OF KOZIENICE. From 1815 he was a Z.ADDIK in Radoszyce. He believed that the year of redemption would take place in 1840.

Recanati, Menahem ben Benjamin (late 13th–early 14th centuries) Italian kabbalist and halakhic authority. He wrote three kabbalistic works: Perush al ha Torah, Ta’amei ha-Mitzvah and Perush ha-Tefillot. In his view, the SEFIROT are not the essence of God but coverings in which God enfolds himself and instruments through which he acts.

Reuben Hoeshke ben Hoeshke Katz (d. 1673) Rabbi and kabbalist from Prague. He lived in Prague and was the grandson of Ephraim Solomon of Luntshits. He wrote a compilation of midrashim based largely on kabbalistic literature in four parts: (1) Ha-Kaz.ar, consisting of a collection of kabbalistic 172

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legends in alphabetical order; (2) Ha-Gadol, based on the weekly portions of the Pentateuch containing kabbalistic lore; (3) Oneg Shabbat, a short compilation of Sabbath laws with mystical intentions and kabbalistic sayings; and (4) Davar she-bi-Kedushah, a lengthy treatment in a kabbalistic manner dealing with sin.

Reuchlin, Johann (1455–1522) German humanist. In 1490 he met Pico della Mirandola who introduced him to kabbalah. His De Verbo Mirifico and De Arte Cabbalistica brought kabbalah to the mainstream of European culture.

Reunification According to DOV BAER OF MEZHIRICH, the divine EMANATION that is manifest throughout creation offers the basis for contact with God. The aim of human life is to reunite creation with the Creator. This is possible by focusing one’s life and all worldly aspects on the divine dimension.

This can be achieved by motivation that inspires action – all acts when motivated by the ultimate purpose of serving God become acts of unification.

Ricchi, Raphael Immanuel ben Abraham H . ai (1688–1743) Italian rabbi, kabbalist and poet. He was born in Ferrara; at the age of two his family moved to Rovigo. When he was six his father died, and his mother’s brother, Jedidiah Rabbino, provided for the family and the education of the children. On Rabbino’s death, his son took charge of the family and married Ricchi’s sister. At the age of 20 Ricchi began to travel around various Italian cities serving as a teacher. He desired to study kabbalah with Benjamin ben Eliezer ha-Kohen Vitale of Reggio.

However, he was compelled to abandon this plan. In 1717 Hillel Ashkenazi of Canea ordained him a rabbi in Trieste. He emigrated to Erez. Israel in 1718 and settled in SAFED where he studied Lurianic kabbalah. There he was ordained

by H . AYYIM ABULAFIA, the rabbi of SAFED. Due to a plague, he left Erez.

Israel. On his way back to Italy, his ship was captured and taken to Tripoli, but he was released after a month. He then settled in Leghorn, but later went to Smyrna, Salonika, Constantinople and London. He spent two years in Aleppo and in 1731 he arrived in Jerusalem where he stayed three years. In 1741 he returned to Leghorn. While on a trip he was murdered by robbers. His Mishnat H . asidim is an exposition of Lurianic kabbalah. His other writings include Yosher Levav, which deals with basic kabbalistic problems of Z.IMZ.UM, creation and KAVVANOT. In this work Ricchi discussed whether Z.IMZ.UM was a real act.

While believing that God withdrew into himself to make space for the created worlds, Ricchi argued that it is impossible for humans to understand how God could withdraw into his own being.

Riders of the Chariot Term used of those mystics who, as MERKAVAH riders, ascended to the heavenly heights.

Rokeah., Eleazar ben Shmelke (1665–1741) Rabbi from Cracow. Born in Cracow, he was a rabbi in Rakov and Tarnow where he became av bet din.

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Klaus, which was composed of kabbalists and Talmudic scholars. During his period of office there, the first group of adherents of the BAAL SHEM TOV was established. In 1735 Rokeah. went to Amsterdam; in 1740 he emigrated to Erez. Israel and settled in SAFED where he became the head of the small Ashkenazi community. Rokeah. was an opponent of SHABBATEANISM. When in Brody he was a critic of MOSES H . AYYIM LUZZATTO whom he accused of this heresy. In SAFED he became so involved in a conflict with a group of SHABBATEANS that he thought of leaving. Among his works are Ma’asheh Roke’ah..

Ropshitser, Naphtali Z. evi (1760–1827) H . asidic Z.ADDIK in Galicia. He was a participant in the ‘holy company’ whose mentor was ELIMELECH OF LYZHANSK. He was one of the most important leaders of H . ASIDISM in Galicia after the death of JACOB ISAAC HA-H OZEH OF LUBLIN. He was . also regarded as a pupil of ISRAEL OF KOZIENICE and Menahem Mendel of Rymanow. Recollections of him were preserved in folktales and stories.

His admirers found esoteric and symbolic allusions in his words and deeds.

According to H . asidic legend, he feared that the rise of Napoleon would have negative effects on Jews in Poland such as military service, attendance at gentile schools, and the spread of disbelief. His teacher, Menahem Mendel, however, disagreed; in Menahem Mendel’s view, Napoleon’s victory would bring about deliverance.

Roth, Aaron (1894–1944) H . asidic leader from Ungvar. In his youth he attended yeshivot in Galicia and Hungary. He was attracted to H . ASIDISM at an early age. He studied under several Z.ADDIKIM including Issachar Dov of Belz. His main teacher was Z.evi Elimelech of Blazowa who told him to establish a H . asidic community. The H . asidic community which gathered around him in Satu Mare and Beregszasz followed many of the characteristics of early H . ASIDISM. The major elements of his system were complete adherence to a simple faith and the rejection of modernism. At the end of his life he settled in Erez. Israel and established a small H . asidic community. He viewed the sufferings of the Jews and the Holocaust in particular as a punishment for abandoning the Jewish faith.

Rovigo, Abraham ben Michael (c. 1650–1713) Italian kabbalist and SHABBATEAN. Born in Modena, he studied in Venice and was a pupil of MOSES ZACUTO. He formed a life-long friendship with Benjamin ben Eliczer ha-Kohen Vitale. Since he was from a rich family, Rovigo was able to devote himself exclusively to his studies. He was a supporter of pious enterprises and later of SHABBATEAN activities. In his youth, he was influenced by messianic expectation and retained his belief in the messianic mission of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He was an important supporter of SHABBATEANISM, and attracted numerous followers. He corresponded with a number of the movement’s leaders beginning with a letter to NATHAN OF GAZA whom he regarded as a 174

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prophet. He collected information about SHABBATAI Z.EVI and others active in the movement and assembled their writings. He also encouraged claimants to heavenly revelations. In association with Benjamin ben Eliczer ha-Kohen, he prepared to emigrate to Jerusalem, although at this stage he did not make this voyage. In 1700–1 he spent a year seeing through the press the ZOHARIC commentaries of MORDECAI ASHKENAZI. In 1702 he travelled to the Holy Land, accompanied by his family and a group of scholars. He founded a yeshivah in Jerusalem, most of whose members were SHABBATEANS. He was regarded as a person of great influence and independent means and was prevailed upon by the Jerusalem rabbis to serve as an emissary to Europe, first in 1704–7, and then in 1710–13. He travelled through Poland, Germany, Holland and Italy and died on his last mission while passing through Mantua.

Runkel, Solomon Zalman (d. before 1426) Rabbi and kabbalist from Mainz. He served as rabbi in Mainz, and later in Worms. He was the teacher of Jacob Moellin, and the author of H . atan Damim, a kabbalist commentary on the Pentateuch based on GEMATRIA and NOTARIKON. Russo, Baruchiah (18th century) SHABBATEAN leader from Turkey.

During the 18th century the DOENMEH were joined by various SHABBATEAN groups, particularly from Poland. Internal conflicts brought about a split in the organization and resulted in the formation of two sub-sects: one was called Izmirlis and consisted of members of the original community; the other was known as the Jacobites. Later a new leader, Baruchiah Russo, appeared and was proclaimed by his disciples to be the reincarnation of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. Ruzhin, Israel (1797–1850) H . asidic leader from Ruzhin. He was the great grandson of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. His uncle was Mordecai of Chernobyl who declared that the child had the soul of the BAAL SHEM TOV. At the age of six he lost his father. When he was 13 he married and moved to Botosani. When he was 16 his brother Abraham died and he was appointed to succeed him as the leader of the H . ASIDIM. He established a large H . asidic centre, which attracted thousands of followers. He then moved to Ruzhin where he established a court where he reigned in splendour. In 1838 he was accused of having given the order to put to death two Jewish informers, Isaac Ochsman and Samuel Schwartzman. For some time the H . ASIDIM hid the affair, but an extensive investigation was initiated and the case was transferred to a higher authority. Hundreds of individuals were imprisoned and subjected to torture.

Eight were brought to a military court in a trial that lasted for over a year.

Six lay leaders were sentenced to hard labour for life and flogging. Israel was imprisoned for 22 months. On the conclusion of the investigation in 1840, Israel was released but put under surveillance. He moved to Kishinev; he subsequently settled in Jassy in Rumania, and later Shatsk in Bukovina. He moved from town to town until he was permitted to live in Sadgora in Bukovina. There thousands of H . ASIDIM visited him and he built a splendid palace. On the death of the 175

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rabbi of Apta, Israel was appointed head of the Volhynia Kolel in Erez. Israel and he did much for the Jewish community in the Holy Land. The synagogue Tiferet Yisrael in Jerusalem, which was destroyed by the Jordanians after 1948 was named after him. Six of his sons established H . asidic dynasties, which attracted numerous followers.

Rymanower, Menahem Mendel (d. 1815) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Rymanow. Born in Przytyk, he spent most of his life in Rymanow. According to tradition, he attended various yeshivot in his youth. He finally settled at that of Shmelke of Nikolsburg. Legends about him are included in stories concerning his pupil, NAPHTALI Z.EVI ROPSHITSER. He was an ascetic and was known for his regulations concerning women’s dress. He also instituted regulations about weights and measures. According to legend, he saw the Napoleonic wars as the battles of Gog and Magog which will precede messianic redemption.

He prayed for Napoleon’s victory. He appears in David of Makow’s list of the cursed Z.ADDIKIM of the generation.

Rymanower, Z.evi Hirsch (1778–1847) H . asidic leader from Dombrowa.

Known as ‘Hirsh Mesharet’, he was born in Dombrowa. He learned tailoring as a boy. Under the influence of Moses of Przeworsk, he became a H . ASID and a disciple of MENAHEM MENDEL RYMANOWER. After MENAHEM MENDEL’s death he stayed with NAPHTALI Z.EVI ROPSHITSER for about 12 years and was recognized as his successor in 1827. He was known as a miracleworker. His only son, Joseph ha-Kohen Rymanower was his successor.

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S Safed Town in Upper Galilee. In the 16th century it became a major centre of Jewish life. Among the prominent leaders of the community, JACOB BERAB tried to re-establish the Sanhedrin there and renew rabbinical ordination.

Other prominent rabbis included JOSEPH CARO. The leading kabbalist ISAAC LURIA lived in Safed, and his disciple H . AYYIM VITAL resided there as well. During this period Safed became the centre of Jewish mysticism.

Safrin, Isaac Judah Jehiel (1806–1874) H . asidic leader. The son of Alexander Sender, he made his living as a stonecutter and bookkeeper. His teachers in H . ASIDISM were his father, his uncle Moses of Sambor, his father-in-law Abraham Mordecai of Pinczow and Isaac Eizik of Zhidachov. His diary, Megillat Setarim, is a book of visions similar to H . AYYIM VITAL’s Sefer ha-H . ezyonot. It contains dreams, revelations and his search for the root of individual souls. In this work Safrin hints that he is the MESSIAH, the son of Joseph, even though he considered that his soul was the reincarnation of SIMEON BAR YOH . AI, ISAAC LURIA and the BAAL SHEM TOV. Central to his teaching was the necessity to bring about the restoration of the world order. He viewed himself as one who would bring about the imminent end of days and redemption. His attitude toward SHABBATEANISM combined both attraction and criticism.

Safrin recorded in his diary that from the age of two he had marvellous visions.

The Holy Spirit filled him and he spoke words of prophecy, seeing from one end of the world to the other. He spoke about his poverty and asceticism. He maintained the idea of constant devotion to God, which he integrated into his daily life. In his view, DEVEKUT is a state of dialectical tension between the ego and the divine mystic nothingness. While aiming at self-denial and lack of consciousness, one remains aware of one’s own identity and self. Safrin reached radical conclusions regarding the doctrine of impure and foreign thoughts: the struggle to banish such thoughts entirely from consciousness is a heresy, being the denial of the presence of God at every level of existence. Human beings are obliged to elevate impure thoughts and abolish the evil that is in them by 177

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confronting them without utter rejection despite the moral danger resulting from involvement with the SITRA AH . RA. To dismiss impure thoughts means cutting out the divine spark present in evil.

Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon Ibn (b. 1244) Hebrew poet, scholar and kabbalist from Castile. He lived in GUADALAJARA in Castile and was a disciple of Moses of Burgos. He was acquainted with MOSES BEN SHEM-TOV DE LEON. His Meshal ha-Kadmoni was written to displace such light literature as Kalila and Dimna and the Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor – these works were read extensively by Jews in the Middle Ages in Hebrew translations. Thus Sahula imitated these books in structure and in the form of presentation and even added illustrations to his book. The manuscripts and all the printed editions of this work are embellished with miniatures or woodcuts.

Sahula, Meir ben Solomon Abi (1260? perhaps 1261–after 1335) Spanish kabbalist. He was the younger brother of ISAAC SAHULA. During the 1280s and 1290s he lived in GUADALAJARA. Responsa were addressed to him by SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET. His teacher in kabbalah was JOSHUA IBN SHUAIB. He began to compose kabbalistic works in his later years. It is not clear whether his commentary on the esoteric material in NAH . MANIDES’ commentary on the Bible is his own or that of his teacher. Sahula himself reedited one of the commentaries on the kabbalitic work of NAH . MANIDES’, criticizing its author and supplanting the original comments with his own.

He began this commentary in 1320, but by 1325 he had only completed the section on Genesis. During the same year he began a commentary on SEFER YEZ.IRAH, which he completed several years later. The preface to this work is a lengthy commentary on Midrash Shimon ha-Z.addik, a kabbalistic work of the circle of Sefer ha-Iyyun. The commentary on SEFER YEZ.IRAH is a criticism of NAH . MANIDES’ comments on the first chapter of SEFER YEZIRAH. It also contains a long passage dealing with the mystical account of creation.

Sahula’s approach to kabbalah differed from NAH . MANIDES, SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM ADRET, and the ZOHAR. It was based instead on his own speculations, which he ascribed to Midrash Shimon ha-Z.addik, a kabbalistic work of the circle of Sefer Ha-Iyyun. In addition, he focused on the sayings of the kabbalists of Gerona and Asher ben David. When his commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH was completed, he began another on SEFER HA-BAHIR. SAHULA also wrote a commentary on Pirkei de-R Eli’ezer. The kabbalists of Salonika in the early 16th century were acquainted with his writings.

Samael From the amoraic period onward it was the major name of Satan in Judaism. The term is frequently used in magical literature and practical kabbalah.

Sambatyon Legendary river across which part of the ten tribes was exiled by the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser, and which rested on the Sabbath. This river figured in various kabbalistic works. In 1260 ABRAHAM ABULAFIA travelled to Erez. Israel where he searched for the Sambatyon. He tried to contact the Ten Lost Tribes. Sambatyon was also associated with SHABBATAI Z.EVI. The 178

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students of NATHAN OF GAZA spread the theory that after SHABBATAI’s death he had gone to the Ten Lost Tribes that live on the other side of Sambatyon. There he married the daughter of Moses. The students were to wait for SHABBATAI Z.EVI to return after the seven-day wedding celebrations and to redeem them if they were worthy. If they were not worthy, he would stay beyond the Sambatyon and great troubles would befall Israel.

Samuel ben Eliezer of Kalwaria (mid-18th century) Preacher and kabbalist from Kalwaria. His only extant work is a homiletical work, Darkhei No’am.

Among the recommendations in the foreword to this work is one by ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN, the Vilna Gaon. This work is a homiletical expositon of Lurianic kabbalah in the form of an interpretation of the aggadot of Rabbah ben Bar Hana in the Talmud, which he explains by the four methods of PARDES. This book contains calculations regarding the time of redemption.

It appears that Samuel expected it to begin in 1781. Some of his moralistic admonitions appear to be directed against early groups of H . ASIDIM. Samuel ben Kalonymus of Speyer (12th century) Tosafist, liturgical poet and philosopher living in Spain and France. He was the author of a commentary on the treatise Tamid and of a liturgical poem Shir ha-Yihud, a philosophical hymn on the unity of God. Samuel ben Saadiah Ibn Motot (c. 1370) Spanish philospher, kabbalist and translator. He was from a well-known family in GUADALAJARA and was a member of the circle of Jewish intellectuals in Castile. In his works he engaged in philosophical and kabbalistic speculations. He combined the teachings of kabbalah with those of philosophy, taking for granted affinities between the two fields. Influenced by Muslim and Jewish NEOPLATONISTS and astrologers, he advanced the thesis of the correspondence between the MICROCOSM and the MACROCOSM. Sandalfon One of the most exalted angels. Ezekiel 1.15 was interpreted in the Babylonian Talmud as referring to an angel who stood on the earth with his head reaching up to the living creatures (h.ayyot). This figure is called Sandalfon, who is said to stand so far above his colleague (possibly METATRON) that a journey between them would take 500 years. His place is behind the MERKAVAH, the heavenly chariot, and he fashions crowns for his creator. According to various sources of MERKAVAH literature, these crowns are made from Israel’s prayers.

Sandalfon is also mentioned as one of the highest angels in the story of Moses’ ascension to heaven. His mysteries are found in MERKAVAH literature such as ‘The Mystery of Sandalfon’, where he has the power to nullify hostile decrees against Israel. In other sources he is described as the angel set over birds, particularly in the writings of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ and in the ZOHAR. Spanish kabbalists of the 13th century interpreted the name as a composition of two elements: sandal (an unformed embryo according to the Talmud), and fon (a formation of a face). These two elements were understood as representing 179

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matter and form, brought together in Sandalfon. Other kabbalists declared that Sandalfon was an angelic transfiguration of the prophet ELIJAH. Some kabbalists viewed him as the teacher of Moses. Others ascribed to him a special sphere of mystical being which was essentially more than a pure angelic host.

Sandzer, H . ayyim ben Menahem (d. 1783) Talmudist and kabbalist from Sandz. Born in Sandz, he was one of the most important scholars of Brody. Aside from his Talmudic scholarship, he was considered one of the main kabbalists of his age. In 1744 he was counted with EZEKIEL LANDAU and Moses Ostrer among the kabbalists of the Klaus in Brody. According to legend, the BAAL SHEM TOV said that H . ayyim’s soul was a spark of the soul of JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI while Jacob, the son of EZEKIEL LANDAU commented in the preface to his father’s Noda bi-Yhudah that H . ayyim was his father’s teacher in kabbalah. In 1752 he condemned JONATHAN EYBESCHUETZ’s AMULETS as SHABBATEAN. Even though he was an adversary of H . ASIDISM, he was respected in H . asidic circles.

Saragossa City in Aragon, north-east Spain. There was an important Jewish community in Saragossa during the period of Muslim rule.

Sarfaty, Abner Israel (1827–1884) Morrocan rabbi and dayyan in Fez. He was knowledgable about philosophy and other sciences and held disputations with Muslim scholars. A pietist and kabbalist, he was beloved by the masses who continued to visit his tomb into the 20th century. His writings include Morrocan rabbi and dayyan in Fez. He was knowledgable about philosophy and other sciences and held disputations with Muslim scholars. His writings include Yah.as Fez. Sarfaty, Vidal ha- (c. 1550–1620) Moroccan scholar. According to family tradition, the Sarfatys were descendents of Rabbenu Tam. A branch of the family settled in Fez. A disciple of Abraham Uzziel, his commentaries are outstanding for their originality. He quoted the ZOHAR and appears to have been a kabbalist. Many of the works of Spanish rabbis are cited in his writings.

Sarug, Israel (fl. 1590–1610) Egyptian kabbalist. He belonged to an Egyptian family of rabbinic scholars with kabbalistic tendencies. He may have known ISAAC LURIA when LURIA was in Egypt and have become familiar with his teaching. Although he was not one of LURIA’s students in SAFED, he later claimed to have been one of his disciples. He had access to some of the writings of LURIA’s disciples including H . AYYIM VITAL, Moses Jonah, and JOSEPH IBN TABUL. His whereabouts between 1570 and 1593 are unknown, but he must have spent some time during the 1580s in SAFED. Between 1594 and 1600 he taught his version of Lurianic kabbalah in Italy and founded a school of kabbalists. Among them were important kabbalists including MENAHEM AZARIAH FANO, EZRA BEN ISAAC FANO, and AARON BERECHIAH BEN MOSES OF MODENA. Several manuscripts written between 1597 and 180

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1604 contain summaries of his teachings and copies of works, which he had brought with him. According to Leone Modena, Sarug’s teachings in Venice were influenced by philosophic ideas. After Sarug left Italy, he taught Abraham Herrera in Ragusa and spent some time in Salonika. There is some evidence that Sarug spent some time in Poland after 1600. Later legend antedated his stay and made him the kabbalistic teacher of SOLOMON LURIA in Cracow. His Limmudei Az.ilut, published erroneously under the name of H . AYYIM VITAL, contains two of his works: an exposition of his version of LURIA’s teachings about Z.IMZ.UM and a commentary on the portion of the ZOHAR. In all his writings, Sarug referred to LURIA as ‘the master’. Most of the first published presentations of Lurianic kabbalah were based on Sarug’s version, even though they were attacked as inauthentic by H . AYYIM BEN ABRAHAM HA-KOHEN of Allepo and other kabbalists.

Sasportas, Jacob (c. 1610–1698) North African rabbi and opponent of the SHABBATEAN movement. Born in Oran, North Africa, he was known for his Talmudic erudition. After he became rabbi of the Tlemcen community, the neighbouring communities recognized his authority. When he was 37 he was dismissed by the government; he then wandered throughout Europe, visiting communities in Germany, Italy and England. He became rabbi in Amsterdam when he was 83. Personal bitterness deriving from his lack of a congregation coloured his attitude in many disputes. He was a defender of the rabbinate and traditional halakhah. His responsa were collected in Ohel Ya’akov. He is known for his collection of letters, Z.iz.atNovel Z.evi, comprising his answers to various SHABBATEAN letters and pamphlets. This work became one of the main sources for the study of the SHABBETEAN movement during the lifetime of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. The work covers the years 1666–7 and consists of letters received by Sasportas, his answers to them, some letters he wrote on his own initiative and some comments on the development of the SHABBATEAN movement. The early half of the work concerns the year 1666 when SHABBETAI’s messiahship was proclaimed until his conversion at the end of the year. The second part concerns he events following his conversion.

The third part consists of letters written in 1668–9, and is generally directed against renewed SHABBATEAN propaganda which sought to justify the conversion of SHABBATAI Z.EVI and introduce new forms of behaviour suitable for the period of messianic fulfilment. The final four pages deal with the period from 1673 to 1676.

Schneerson, Menahem Mendel (1902–1994) Lubavicher rebbe. He was one of the major Jewish leaders of the 20th century. He studied with his father, Levi Yitzhak, in the Ukrainian town of Ekaterinoslav; later he studied engineeering in Europe. He settled in America in 1941 and assisted his father-inlaw, Yosef Yitzhak, the sixth Lubavitcher rebbe. In 1950 he became the head of Lubavicher H . ASIDIM and led the movement until his death. He founded the H ABAD International Educational Network, which dispatched envoys and .

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insured religious instruction for all Jewish communities throughout the world.

In his latter days there was considerable controversy about the claim that he was the MESSIAH. Scholem, Gershom Gerhard (1897–1982) Israeli scholar and leading authority in the field of kabbalah and Jewish mysticism. Born into an assimilated Jewish family in Berlin, he joined the Zionist movement as a young man. He acquired a thorough knowledge of Hebrew and Jewish sources through the influence and friendship of H. N. Bialik, S. Y. Agnon, S. Z. Rubashov and others. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Jena, Berne and Munich. In 1922, he submitted his doctoral thesis: a translation of and commentary on the SEFER HA-BAHIR. He subsequently published a range of works dealing with the kabbalah. In his view, the history of the kabbalah was misrepresented and misjudged through ignorance and rationalist prejudice. In 1923 he joined the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and served as librarian at the University and National Library. He was a lecturer from 1925, and from 1933 to 1965 was professor of Jewish mysticism and kabbalah. His research consisted of philological, bibliographical and other studies as well as works of synthesis.

Among his writings are Major Trends of Jewish Mysticism, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition, and On the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism.

Secret of Secrets Kabbalistic work by ELEAZAR BEN JUDAH OF WORMS. In this work he described the fear and love of God. Part of this work was later incorporated into a mystical collection, The Book of Raziel. In his view, the life of piety is a necessary stage in the quest for divine enlightenment through the study of the MERKAVAH. Sefer ha-Bahir see Bahir, Sefer haSefer ha-Ot Kabbalistic work composed by the 13th-century kabbalist ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFIA. After becoming disillusioned with more conventional subjects, he engaged in kabbalistic study in an attempt to unravel the mystery surrounding God and the universe. In this work he explained that there were two levels of kabbalistic study. The first deals with knowing God through the method of the ten SEFIROT; the other involves knowing God through the method of the 22 letters of the alphabet. This second route, he argued, is the more important. Advancing a theory of prophetic mysticism, he believed that through the technique of combining the letters of various divine names, one could receive an outpouring of the Holy Spirit and thereby become a prophet.

Sefer ha-Olam ha-Ba A kabbalistic work by the 13th-century mystic ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULFIA. Influenced by the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ and the Sufi traditions of Islam, he wrote mediative texts concerning the technique of combining the letters of the alphabet as a means 182

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of realizing human aspirations towards prophecy. In this work he explained the technique of such numerical calculations.

Sefer H . asidim A classic text of the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ. In their mystical reflections the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ were preoccupied by prayer – the Jewish liturgy was compared to the sacrificial offerings of the biblical Temple.

The perfection of this service required intense concentration. Yet, in this text these pietists emphasized that the prayers of simple people – even if they were not in Hebrew or in the required form – were acceptable as long as they were motivated by the right intention. The Sefer H . asidim was also concerned with the importance of ensuring that God’s commands were followed. According to the Sefer H . asidim, a life of piety embraces moral living in all its dimensions.

Sefer Yez. irah Mystical cosmological work (Book of Creation). It is the earliest extant Hebrew text of systematic thought, dating from possibly the 2nd century CE. The work explains the process by whereby God created the cosmos through the process of emanation. In addition the text includes a detailed exposition of the means whereby the cosmos came into being through the permutation and combination of the 22 Hebrew letters. Later Jewish mystics developed these ideas in a wide range of kabbalistic sources.

Sefirot The ten emanations through which the Divine is manifest. Kabbalistic theology used the term to describe the dualism between the hidden Godhead (EN SOF) and the creative aspect of God. The concept parallels NEOPLATONIC and Gnostic ideas about divine emanation. Within kabbalistic thought various synonyms are used to designate the sefirot such as crowns, attributes, steps, principles and names. The precise nature of the sefirot is a matter of debate in kabbalistic sources. Kabbalistic writings up until the 16th century were primarily concerned with the symbolism of the sefirot and the mystery of the Godhead.

They normally distinguished between the higher three sefirot which are too remote and exalted for contemplation, and the lower seven sefirot. The doctrine of the sefirot has been subjected to frequent criticism as heretical and incompatible with strict monotheism.

Shaarei Tzedek A kabbalistic text by an anonymous follower of ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ABULAFIA in which the author explained that his master taught him the method of letter combination.

Shabbateans Followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. After his death in 1676, belief in his messianism revived. His adherents believed SHABBATAI would reappear as the saviour of Israel. The movement divided into various sects.

SHABBATAI was succeeded by JACOB QUERIDO who, together with his son BARUCHIAH RUSSO, adopted Islam while retaining Shabbateanism.

This led to the formation of the DONMEH sect. ABRAHAM MIGUEL CORDOZO travelled through various North African countries preaching belief in 183

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SHABBATAI. Meanwhile, Mordecai Mokhiah of Eisenstadt spread Shabbatean belief in Germany and Italy. Many shabbateans joined JUDAH H . ASID who organized a pilgrimage to Erez. Israel. The most extreme wing of the Shabbateans were the FRANKISTS. Shabbatianism Movement composed of the followers of SHABBATAI Z.EVI who continued to believe in his messiahship after his conversion to Islam. Numerous sects and groups of SHABBATEANS emerged during the generations following SHABBATAI Z.EVI’s death, including the DOENMEH and the FRANKISTS. Shabbatai Z.evi (1626–1676) False messiah from Smyrna. Born in Smyrna, he received a traditional Jewish education and later engaged in the study of the ZOHAR. After leaving Smyrna in the 1650s he spent ten years in various cities in Greece as well as in Istanbul and Jerusalem. Eventually he became part of a kabbalistic group in Cairo and travelled to Gaza where he encountered NATHAN OF GAZA who believed Shabbatai was the MESSIAH. In 1665 his messiahship was proclaimed, and NATHAN sent letters to Jews in the Diaspora asking them to repent and recognize Shabbatai as their redeemer. After a brief sojourn in Jerusalem, Shabbatai went to Smyrna where he encountered strong opposition on the part of some local rabbis. In response he denounced the disbelievers and declared that he was the Anointed of the God of Jacob. This action provoked a hysterical response – a number of Jews fell into trances and had visions of him crowned as King of Israel. In 1666 he journeyed to Constantinople, but on the order of the grand vizier he was arrested and put into prison. Within a short time the prison quarters became a messianic court.

The same year, Shabbatai spent three days with the Polish kabbalist, NEHEMIAH H . A-KOHEN, who denounced him to the Turkish authorities.

Shabbatai was brought to court and given the choice between conversion and death. In the face of this alternative, he converted to Islam. Many of his followers refused to give up their belief. NATHAN sought to justify Shabbatai’s apostasy on the basis of Lurianic kabbalah. According to NATHAN, the soul of the MESSIAH had been struggling against the power of evil; his purpose was to allow divine light to penetrate this domain and bring about TIKKUN. In order to do this, the soul of the MESSIAH was not obliged to keep the law, but was free to descend into the abyss to liberate divine sparks and thereby conquer evil.

Shabbetai of Raszkow (1655–1745) H . ASID. He was a disciple of the BAAL SHEM TOV. Living in Raszkow, he was regarded as a kabbalist in the circle of the early H . ASIDIM and possessed a wide range of knowledge of kabbalistic sources. Little is known of his life. He edited a prayer-book with the KAVVANOT (meditations) according to ISAAC LURIA, as well as an anthology of LURIA’s writings (Seder Kelaut Tikkun ve-Aliyyat ha-Olamot). He also published in the Nagid u-Mezaveh of JACOB ZEMAH ..

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Shamayyim One of the seven heavens.

Sharrei Orah. Work by the 14th-century writer JOSEPH GIKATILLA. In this work GIKATILLA outlined the significance of the names of God on the bais of categories derived from the ten SEFIROT. The names of God, he argued, stem from the primary name, YHVH. This work also contains an exposition of the ten SEFIROT and the divine names that are associated with them. According to GIKATILLA, the words and divine names associated with the SEFIROT serve as guides, enabling one to ascend through meditations on the ladder of the SEFIROT. Sharabi, Shalom (1729–1777) Jerusalem kabbalist from Yemen. He was born in Sana in Yemen where the study of Jewish mysticism was widespread.

In his youth, he settled in Erez. Israel via Damascus. In Damascus he was involved in a controversy with the local rabbis concerning the meaning of the minimum quantity prescribed for eating of maz.z.ah on Passover night.

When he arrived in Jerusalem, he prayed and studied at the kabbalistic yeshivah BET EL. He studied Lurianic kabbalah as transmitted thorough the writings of H . AYYIM VITAL, LURIA’s outstanding student. He soon became known as a distinguished kabbalist and he succeeded Gedaliah H . ayon as head of the yeshivah. During his leadership, he initiated important regulations and arranged the order of prayer. He was regarded as one of the greatest rabbis in Jerusalem. After his death, he was revered among the Jews of Jerusalem and the kabbalists of BET EL. The members of BET EL used to prostrate themselves on his grave on the Mount of Olives on the commemoration of his death. His writings deal with Lurianic kabbalah. Particularly famous is his prayer book, Nehar Shalom, which includes the secrets and mystical meditations on prayers and mitzvot according to Lurianic kabbalah.

Shehakim The heavenly hall which contains the rebuilt Jerusalem, the Temple, the Sanctuary, the Testimony, the Ark, the Menorah, the Table, the sacred vessels and all the adornments of the Temple together with the manna that was eaten by the Israelites. It is a five-hundred-year journey from ARAPHEL to Shehakim, and a five-hundred-year journey from Shehakim to ARAVOT. Shekhinah Divine presence. The term refers to God’s dwelling in the midst of Israel. According to the H . ASIDEI ASHKENAZ, the Shekinah is equated with KAVOD (divine splendour). In the kabbalistic doctrine of the SEFIROT, the shekinah plays an important role as the tenth SEFIRAH, making the point of contact between the divine and lower spheres. It also represents the feminine aspect of the Deity.

Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov (c. 1380–c. 1444) Spanish rabbi, kabbalist and anti-Maimonidean polemicist. He regarded Maimonidean Aristotelianism as responsible for engendering apostasy. He was a severe critic of the GUIDE 185

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FOR THE PERPLEXED. In his Sefer ha-Emunot he attacked Jewish rationalists from Abraham ibn Ezra through Levi ben Gershom and Isaac Albalag as well as MAIMONIDES. In the history of kabbalah he was known for maintaining that KETER is not one of the ten SEFIROT, but above them. Consequently, HOKHMAH is the first SEFIRAH and that DAAT is a SEFIRAH. He wrote a treatise on the SEFIROT as well as a commentary on Avot.

Shemei ha-Shamayyim One of the heavenly halls where the angels say the kedushah (holiness prayer). It is a five-hundred-year journey from the sea to Shemei ha-Shamayyim, and a five-hundred-year journey from this heavenly hall to ZEVUL. Shemittah in kabbalah there are said to be ten great cosmic cycles. Each cycle is related to one of the SEFIROT so that there is, for example, a shemittah of GEVURAH, in which strict laws prevail. Likewise, there is a shemittah of HESED, in which expansion, growth and mercy are prevalent.

Shiur Komah Mystical work from the gaonic period or earlier. It seeks to convey the greatness and majesty of God by attributing to him gigantic dimensions and magnitude. Some authorities denounced the work as grossly anthropomorphic. According to MAIMONIDES, it should be burned.

However, defenders of the text claimed that it is esoteric and not meant to be understood literally.

Shneur Zalman of Lyady (1745–1813) Founder of H . ABAD H . ASIDISM from Belorussia. Born in Liozna, Belorussia, he was married in 1760 and devoted himself to Torah study. In 1764 he began to learn about H . ASIDISM from DOV BAER, the Maggid of Mezhirech. In Mezhirech he became one of the inner circle of the Maggid’s pupils. He also studied with Abraham ben Dov Baer. In 1770 the Maggid delegated to him the task of composing a new shulhan Arukh. In 1774 Shneur Zalman and MENAHEM MENDEL OF VITEBSK went to Vilna to meet with ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON, the Gaon of Vilna, to reach some understanding between the H . ASIDIM and the MITNAGGEDIM but the Vilna Gaon did not agree to meet them. When MENAHEM MENDEL went to Erez. Israel with his followers, Shneur Zalman became a deputy leader in Rydzyna. In 1778 MENAHEM MENDEL appointed Shneur Zalman as a H . asidic leader of Reisen. During this period Shneur Zalman had created a distinct kind of H . ASIDISM known as H . ABAD. In 1797 he published his Likkutei Amarim, which became known as the TANYA and served as the principal source of H . ABAD H . ASIDISM. Shneur Zalman was one of the great personalities of his age, as great a scholar in Talmud as in kabbalah.

Shomer Emunim Born in 1894 AARON ROTH attended yeshivot in Galicia and Hungary, becoming an important H . asidic figure. At the end of his life he settled in Palestine where he established a small H . asidic community. His Shomer Emunim contains a mystical tract ‘Agitation of the Soul’ in which he discussed 186

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the quest for divine illumination. In his view, such illumination takes place as a result of the unification that occurs in heaven due to a good deed’s ascent.

Heaven, he believed, is beyond time; thus, a good deed, Torah study, or prayer can ascend long after its actual performance. According to Roth, only a fool would wish to study Torah in its simple meaning and offer prayers in a similar spirit. Such a person would not believe in the possibility of new illuminations, but this understanding is mistaken since God affords illumination to every generation that yearns for him.

Shulkhan Arukh Shel Ari A kabbalistic work by the 16th-century mystic JACOB ZEMAH . , a disciple of ISAAC LURIA, in which he describes LURIA’s kabbalistic system.

Simeon bar Yoh.ai (2nd century CE) Palestinian scholar. A pupil of AKIVA, he was imprisoned for teaching Torah in public. He was among the five pupils of AKIVA who survived the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Simh.ah Bunem of Przysucha (1765–1827) Polish H . asidic Z.ADDIK. His father was an itinerant preacher in Poland and Western Europe. In his youth, he studied at the yeshivot of Mattersdorf under Jeremiah ben Isaac and of Nikolsburg under Mordecai Benet. He returned to Poland and formed associations with H . ASIDIM including ISRAEL OF KOZIENICE and Moses Leib of Sasov. He was employed as a clerk in a timber firm. At that time he spoke Polish and German, dressed in non-H . asidic clothes, and attended the theatre. Later he graduated in pharmacology in Danzig and opened a pharmacy in Przysucha in Radom province. At the same time he continued his H . asidic studies under David of Lelov who influenced him to visit JACOB ISAAC HAH . OZEH OF LUBLIN – he subsequently became his pupil and succeeded him as Z.ADDIK. Simh.ah Bunem’s approach to H . ASIDISM was based on Torah study. He gathered around him young men who sought to live as H . ASIDIM in Przysucha; they studied Talmud and scholarly works especially those of JUDAH LOEW BEN BEZALEL of Prague. Simh.ah Bunem taught a spiritual, internalized attitude toward the performance of the mitzvot, thereby carrying on the teachings of JACOB ISAAC OF PRZYSUCHA. His H . ASIDIM prayed only when they were spiritually ready for prayer. Opposed to the external forms of the H . asidic life-style, they were criticized by leading scholars. Simh.ah Bunem played an active part in the communal and political life of Polish Jewry; he was elected representative of the Jews of the Sandomierz province and a member of the government commission on Jewish affairs. In his later years he went blind but continued studying and teaching. The essence of his approach was conscious sincerity with oneself. His son Abraham Moses succeeded him, but MENAHEM MENDEL OF KOTSK assumed real leadership of the group.

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counter-SEFIROT, a realm of dark, unclean powers opposed to holiness and goodness.

Sod The mystical method of interpreting scripture. It is the fourth of the four types of biblical exposition represented by the mneumonic PARDES: peshat (literal), remez (allegorical), derash (homelitcal) and sod (mystical).

Sorcery This is the misuse of esoteric knowledge for personal gain and power.

If one understands certain universal principles, it is possible to manipulate circumstances for good or evil. Thus, the practice of sorcery was considered dangerous by kabbalists as one effect distorts the balance of the universe.

Susskind, Alexander (18th century) Lithuanian kabbalist. He lived in seclusion in Grodno; his major work The Foundation and Root of Divine Worship is a guide to the meaning and intention of prayer. For Susskind the purpose of meditation is to enable the worshipper to serve God and perform TIKKUNIM in the higher realms. In this work he also reflected on the nature of a person’s willingness to face death in order to honour God’s name. In his view, such an intention does not mean anything until the believer makes a firm resolve that he will persevere even in the face of great danger. It is obvious, he stated, that every Jew would allow himself to be slain rather than be false to the Jewish faith.

Such a soul will be willing to be slain in actuality rather than abandon the Jewish people. In contemplating these events the worshipper should depict to himself the nature of such martyrdom.

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T Tabul, Joseph Ibn (c. 1545–beginning 17th century) North African kabbalist and one of the foremost students of ISAAC LURIA. He came from North Africa and went to SAFED, joining the disciples of LURIA in 1570.

After LURIA’s death, he remained in SAFED and began to spread his teacher’s theories. There was tension between him and H . AYYIM VITAL. Eventually he settled in Egypt. Apparently at the beginning of the 17th century he returned to Erez. Israel and died in Hebron. His expositions of the Lurianic system served as a primary source of information. Several of his kabbalistic works, sermons and commentaries have been preserved in manuscript.

Taitazak, Joseph (16th century) Kabbalist of Salonika. From 1520 he was recognized as an outstanding scholar and halakhic authority of Salonika. His extant halakhic works are confined to his responsa which appear in the works of his contemporaries. His Porat Yosef is a philosophical commentary. As a kabbalist, he indulged in ascetic practices and is said never to have slept in a bed for 40 years apart from Sabbaths. He gathered around him a circle of kabbalistic scholars. Solomon Molcho corresponded with him after he left Salonika, informing him of his visions. To Taitazak is ascribed the first formulation of the idea of the MAGGID, a divine voice which spoke or dictated to scholars. According to legend, Taitazak had such a MAGGID which claimed to be the Divine Voice itself and not an angelic personification of the Mishnah as was the case with JOSEPH CARO. Tamim, Dunash (c. 890–after 955/6) North African scholar. From Kairouan, he studied with ISAAC ISRAELI. The philosophical and theological parts of his commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH reflect the NEOPLATONIC aspects of ISRAELI’s thinking. Dunash probably also received his medical knowledge from ISRAELI. In addition to astronomy, Dunash’s commentary illustrates that he had read treatises derived from Greek sources on physics and the natural sciences. His commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH was written between 955 189

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and 956. Attempts have been made to attribute this work to ISAAC ISRAELI or Jacob ben Nissim, but they should be disregarded. Dunash’s exegetical approach in this work is scientific. He succeeded in incorporating in his commentary much of the knowledge of his day. He dealt with such issues as an incorporeal God, creator of a perfectly regulated universe; a hierarchy of souls of the spheres; and prophetic inspiration, which he viewed as coinciding in its highest degree with Plotinian ecstasy. Dunash criticized Saadiah Gaon’s commentary on the SEFER YEZ.IRAH. Yet these criticisms have been attentuated or suppressed in some Hebrew versions. Dunash’s commentary was used by JUDAH BEN BARZILLAI, JOSEPH IBN Z.ADDIK and possibly Judah Halevi; it was also mentioned in the 13th century by ABRAHAM ABULAFIA. Tanya H . asidic work by SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY, the founder of the H ABAD movement. It directs believers to the attainment of DEVEKUT . and is based on kabbalah as well as talmudic literature and medieval Jewish philosophy.

Tayyib, Isaac ben Benjamin (d. 1830) Rabbi, kabbalist and author from Tunis. No biographical details are known about him. His writings include Sefer ha-Zikkaron, a kabbalistic commentary on Avot, and the Passover Haggadah.

Tehiru Of primary importance in the Lurianic system is the mystery of creation. According to ISAAC LURIA, the EN SOF had to bring into being an empty space, tehiru, in which creation could occur. This was accomplished by the process of Z.IMZ.UM – the contraction of the Godhead into itself. In LURIA’s view, after the act of withdrawal a line of light flowed from the Godhead into the tehiru and took the shape of the SEFIROT in the form of ADAM KADMON. Teitelbaum, H . ayyim Z.evi of Sighet (b. in the 1870s–1926) Rabbi and Z.ADDIK from Sighet. Born in Sighet, he wrote Azei H . ayyim on the Torah and the festivals as well as responsa and a work on tractate Gittin. His son, Jekuthiel Judah of Sighet, was the last rabbi to serve in Sighet, and perished in the Holocaust at Auschwitz in 1944.

Teitelbaum, Joel of Satmar (1887–1979) H . ASID from Satmar. He was the son of Hananiah Yom Tov Lipa Teitelbaum, and served in communiites in the Carpathians and northern Transylvania. From 1928 he was at Satmar.

He became involved in fierce controversies with Zionist circles and H . ASIDIM attached to other Z.ADDIKIM who opposed him. During the Holocaust, he was saved in the rescue train through the arrangements of R. R. Kasztner. From Bergen-Belsen reached Erez. Israel. In 1947 he settled in the Williamsburg quarter of Brooklyn, which was the centre of a H . asidic congregation that continued the way of life of a H asidic town in Hungary.

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he remained in New York and only visited Israel every few years. Later his ties with the community there weakened. Teitelbaum was a vigorous opponent of Zionism and the State of Israel, which he criticized on halakhic grounds. In his view, Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel constitute a violation of the three oaths, which the people of Israel were made to swear. This, he believed, delayed the coming of the MESSIAH and resulted in the afflictions facing the Jewish people in the modern world. The Holocaust, he argued, was a punishment for the sins of Zionism and the State of Israel. Teitelbaum was also opposed to the use of Hebrew as the spoken language since this secularized the holy tongue. Nonetheless, he was not an opponent of settlement in the Holy Land provided it was not through a mass aliayh movement. According to Teitelbaum, it should be carried out by individuals only. Citing the view of NAH . MANIDES, Teitelbaum believed that settling in Erez. Israel was a positive commandment as long as the settler observed the mitzvot. However, a person living in the country who is not observant defiles the land. He forbade the H . ASIDIM living in his community to participate in state institutions and ordered those living in Israel not to take the oath of loyalty to the state, nor participate in parliamentary elections or use the law courts or legal system.

Temerls, Jacob ben Eliezer [Jacob Ashkenazi] (d. 1666) Polish kabbalist.

Born in Worms, he went to Poland in his youth. He taught in Lublin, but later settled in Kremenets. He spent his final years in Vienna. He was revered as a Tamudist and kabbalist. Scholars throughout Europe turned to him for advice.

He was the author of a kabbalistic commentary on the Torah, Sifra di-Zeni’uta de-Ya’akov. Eliezer Lipmann, who added to the volume rules for the study of the kabbalah, expressed the hope that it would fall to him also to publish Temerls’ other writings. These included a larger commentary on the Pentateuch and the Five Scrolls, a commentary on the expositions of passages in the Prophets and the Hagiographa, the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds, and the ZOHAR, including the Idrot, as well as commentaries to the works of ISAAC LURIA. However, none of these works was published, nor was a collection of Temerls’ responsa.

Temunah, The Book of A kabbalistic work whose method represents a particular trend in Jewish mysticism. Written around the 1270s, when printed it was attributed to Ishamel, a high priest, but in the numerous early manuscripts of the book this attribution is absent. Temunah is one of the most difficult works in kabbalistic literature. The author concealed his opinions behind obscure phraseology. Some degree of penetration in understanding the central ideas in the book is possible due to an excellent commentary, written apparently soon after its appearance. The main importance of Temunah is its theory of SHEMITTOT (cosmic cycles). This theory is a commentary on the forms of the alphabet, which is an expression of the manifestations of God in his SEFIROT and his creative power.

Tetragrammaton YHVH is the name of God. It is often used in kabbalistic sources.

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Throne of Glory Heavenly hall which contains the hooves of the H . ayyot (living creatures) and part of their wings. Therein is a great chariot on which the Holy One will descend in the future to judge all the nations.

Tiferet (Beauty) It is the sixth SEFIRAH. Tiferet is the force that integrates the SEFIRAH of H . ESED and GEVURAH. It is in the middle of the kabbalistic tree surrounded by five SEFIROT. Above are H . ESED at the right, and GEVURAH at the left; below are NETZAH . at the right, HOD at the left, and YESOD directly below.

Tikkun Cosmic harmony. The soul has a central role in the cosmic drama of repairing the disharmony in the world that was due to Adam’s sin. Through the cutting off of the SEFIRAH kingdom for the other SEFIROT, the SITRA AH . RA attained dominance. Yet human beings can bring about TIKKUN since their souls can ascend towards the angels. As the ZOHAR explains, human action has a profound effect on the higher worlds.

Tishby, Isaiah (1908–1992) Israeli scholar of kabbalah, SHABBATEANISM and H . ASIDISM. Born as Sandor Schwartz in Sanislo, Hungary, he received a traditional rabbinic education, but became interested in secular literature and scholarly work. He wrote stories, articles and poems in Hungary. He settled in Palestine in 1933 and studied at the Hebrew University. He joined the department of Hebrew literature in 1951. His writings include ZOHAR anthologies, studies in the fields of kabbalah and SHABBATEANISM, an anthology of ethical works as well as studies of H . asidic thought, and works dealing with kabbalistic messianism and the messianic theology of MOSES HAYYIM and his circle.

Togarmi, Barukh (13th century) Spanish kabbalist. He was a kabbalist and cantor who served as ABRAHAM ABULAFIA’s teacher during the three years Abulafia lived in Barcleona (1270–73). Togarmi, who wrote a commentary to the SEFER YEZ.IRAH, used the methods of GEMATRIA, NOTARIKON and Temurah in his quest for mystical knowledge of the name of God. ABULAFIA made use of his methods of interpretation.

Toledo A province of central Spain. After the expulsion of the Moors, Toledo was bereft of a large part of the educated population. This void was filled by Jews fleeing from Muslim lands. They lived peacefully with their non-Jewish neighbours until the 14th century.

Tract of Ecstasy The system advanced by the 18th-century H . ASID SHNEUR ZALMAN was redefined by his son and successor Dov Baer of Lubavich who placed an even greater emphasis on meditation in his Tract of Ecstasy, Dov Baer sought to guide his disciples in the matter of contemplation 192

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leading to ecstasy. The majority, he believed, are incapable of attaining a state of ecstasy because they are absorbed with daily affairs. Even when these individuals are moved to ecstasy this state quickly disappears. In Dov Baer’s view, it is possible to overcome the disinclination to attain a permanent state of ecstasy by recognizing one’s own spiritual inadequacy. From such a state of melancholy joy can spring forth.

Treasure House of Souls The place where most of humanity resides when it is not incarnated on earth. Here soul-mates and soul-groups meet in between lives. Over the centuries it has been gradually emptying and at some point all the souls will have descended to earth to begin a long journey of their evolution.

Tree of Life A metaphysical diagram that arranges the emanated SEFIROT in three columns, the right side being masculine or active, the left feminine or passive, with the column of equilibrium or will in the centre. The SEFIROT are connnected with 22 paths, relating to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The construction of the lower worlds repeats the pattern of this primordial tree.

Twersky, Aaron (1787–1872) H . ASID from Chernobyl. He was the grandson of MENAHEM NAHUM BEN Z.EVI OF CHERNOBYL and the son of Mordecai of Chernobyl. He lived in Chernobyl and was educated by his grandfather. Already during his father’s lifetime, he was considered to have a saintly inclination. He based his sermons on his grandfather’s teachings and the commentary Or ha-H . ayyim by H . AYYIM BEN MOSES ATTAR. Thousands of H ASIDISM came to be with him.

He was convinced that the MESSIAH would . come in his lifetime. He headed the Volhynia kolel in support of settlement in Erez. Israel. A dispute regarding the presidency of the kolel took place between him and one of his brothers; Aaron was successful. His two sons, Zusia and Baruch, continued the dynasty in Chernobyl.

Twersky, Menahem Nahum ben Z.evi of Chernobyl [Menahem Nahum of Chernobyl] (1730–1787) Educated in Lithuanian yeshivot, he worked as a teacher. Influenced by the kabbalistic teaching of ISAAC LURIA, he practised self-mortification. With the spread of H . ASIDISM, he went to Medzhibozh to visit the BAAL SHEM TOV. After the BAAL SHEM TOV’s death, he became one of the most prominent disciples of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH. He was one of the first to propagate H . ASIDISM. He was accepted as a MAGGID at Chernobyl where he lived in poverty. The MITNAGGEDIM, however, were hostile toward him. It is doubtful whether he became a H . asidic Z.ADDIK. As an itinerant preacher he wandered among the towns of the Ukraine, engaging in pious deeds and the redemption of Jewish tax farmers who had been imprisoned for failing to pay rents to landowners. His Me’or Einayim deals with the Torah and aggadah. He did not add any innovations to his teachers’ expositions of H . ASIDISM, but among the principles he stressed was the purification of ethical attributes.

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Twersky, Mordecai of Chernobyl (1770–1837) H . ASID from Chernobyl.

The son of MENAHEM NAHUM BEN ZEVI TWERSKY of Chernobyl, he replaced his father as MAGGID of Chernobyl. He was the founder of the Chernobyl dynasty of Z.ADDIKIM. Unlike his father who had spread the teachings of H . ASIDISM while wandering and living in poverty, Mordecai resided in a splendid house and lived opulently. While maintaining a high standard of living, he introduced the payment of ma’amadot, a financial contribution which every H . ASID paid to the Z.ADDIK to maintain his court. Emissaries sent from Chernobyl collected this money. Mordecai was revered by H . ASIDIM who travelled to visit him in their thousands. His writings include Likkutei Torah on the Bible and sermons. He added nothing new to the teachings of H . ASIDIM. His most important pupil was Israel Dov Baer, the MAGGID of Weledniki whose She’erit Yisrael was an important H . asidic text.

Tzayach, Joseph (1505–1573) Palestinian kabbalist. Born in Jerusalem, he became rabbi in Damascus. He commuted frequently between Jerusalem and Damascus. In Jerusalem, he wrote his main kabbalistic work, Even ha-Shoham, in 1538. A year later he wrote a second book, Tzeror ha-Chaim, a mystical commentary on the Talmud. His Sheirit Yosef is an expansion of Even ha-Shoham, composed in 1549. Tzayach was influenced by ABULAFIA’s school and many ideas that he discusses seem to be taken verbatum from ABULFIA’s writings. One book he mentions several times is the BAHIR. Tzayach’s Even ha-Shoham as well as Sheirit Yosef were written as meditative texts. These works contain an extremely complex meditative system. There are numerous numerical manipulations in the Even ha-Shoham as well as sophisticated numerology. Of particular importance is Tzayach’s discussion of magic squares. The work explores the relationship between magic squares and the planets, and his system is similar to that of ancient astrology and alchemy – all this is connected with his explanation of the SEFIROT which are represented by magic squares. It appears that he was the last kabbalist to advocate the use of the prophetic position, where one places the head between the knees.

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U Uceda, Samuel ben Isaac (1540–?) Talmudist, preacher and kabbalist from SAFED. Born in SAFED, he studied kabbalah under ISAAC LURIA. After Luria’s death, he studied under H . AYYIM VITAL and ELISHA GALLICO. At the age of 40, he established a yeshivah in SAFED where Talmud and kabbalah were taught. The Nasi family of Constantinople supported the yeshivah. Uceda also worked as a merchant in Aleppo. In 1597 he went to Constantinople to raise funds for the yeshivah. There the philanthropist Abraham Algazi helped him. It appears that Uceda was the owner of a large library.

Uri of Strelisk (19th century) H . asidic leader from Strelisk. He was the student of the H asidic rabbi, Shlomo of Karlin. He was famous for his style of . prayer, full of extraordinary fervour and enthusiasm. Thousands of Jews visited his minyan, and he joined them in prayer. He taught his followers to work on their hearts and cancel any kind of lust for money. His foremost student was Judah Z.evi of Stretin.

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V Vidas, Elijah ben Moses de (1518–1592) Medieval rabbi from Palestine. He was a disciple of MOSES BEN JACOB CORDOVERO and ISAAC LURIA. He is known for his work on the kabbalah. He wrote the Reshit H . okhmah, an important study of Jewish morals. In contrast with previous authors in the field, he included kabbalistic theories in his work. In particular, he quoted all that was said in the ZOHAR on the question of morals and religious conduct. Quotations from the ZOHAR were annotated from manuscripts still found in SAFED. The work is encyclopedic in character and divided into five chapters: fear, love, repentance, holiness and humility. Vidas added chapters from Israel Alnakawa’s Menorat ha-Ma’or. Vida’s study was accepted as one of the most important works on ethics and was printed repeatedly.

Vilna Gaon see Elijah ben Solomon Zalman Vision of Ezekiel The earliest HEKHALOT (heavenly hall) source from the 4th or 5th century describing the heavenly halls. The work is a commentary on the first verse of the book of EZEKIEL (‘In the thirteenth year, in the fourth month, on the fifth day of the month, as I was amoung the exiles by the river Cheba, the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God’). This early midrash is typical of the MERKAVAH mystics.

Vital, H . ayyim ben Joseph (1542–1620) Kabbalist from Erez. Israel. Born in SAFED, his father, Joseph Vital Calabrese was a scribe in SAFED. H . ayyim studied in yeshivot in SAFED, especially under MOSES ALSHEIKH. In 1564 he began to study kabbalah according to the system of MOSES CORDOVERO. He was also attracted to other esoteric studies and spent two years in the practice of ALCHEMY. After ISAAC LURIA’s arrival in SAFED, he became his principal disciple. Later he began to arrange LURIA’s teachings in written form and elaborated them according to his own understanding. Vital tried to 196

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prevent LURIA’s other disciples from presenting their versions of his doctrine in writing. He gathered around him several that accepted his spiritual authority, but he did not entirely succeed. In 1575 twelve of LURIA’s disciples signed a pledge to study LURIA’s theory only from Vital. This study group ceased to function when VITAL moved to Jerusalem where he was rabbi and head of a yeshivah from 1577 to 1585. In Jerusalem he wrote the last version of his presentation of the Lurianic system. He returned to SAFED in early 1586, staying there until 1592. According to tradition, he fell seriously ill there around 1587. In 1590, Vital was ordained as rabbi by his teacher MOSES ALSHEIKH. He was in Jerusalem once more in 1593, and possibly stayed there several years, returning to SAFED occasionally. According to the tradition of the rabbis of Jerusalem, he moved from Jerusalem to Damascus; in any case he was in Damascus in 1598 and remained there until his death. After a severe illness in 1604, his sight was impaired. During his final years a kabbalistic group gathered around him. While he was in Damascus, mainly between 1609 and 1612 he assembled autobiographical notes, Sefer he-Hez.yonot, including stories and testimonies as well as his dreams and those of others. According to his son, Vital assembled his major writings into two vast works: Ez. ha-H . ayyim and Ez. ha-Daat.

Vital, Samuel ben H . ayyim (1598–c. 1678) Kabbalist from Damascus. He was the son of H AYYIM VITAL. He grew up in Damascus where he studied . under his father and other rabbis. He married a daughter of Josiah Pinto. He was regarded as one of the important Talmudic authorities of Damascus. From many years he re-edited his father’s writings and added his own annotations.

Many kabbalists went to Damascus to study these writings at his home, but they were not allowed to copy them. From 1650 Samuel prepared copies.

Around 1664 he went to Cairo where he served as rabbi. During the rise of the SHABBATEAN movement, he was responsible for the tikkun of repentance of the faithful in Egypt.

Vizhnitz, Baruch (1845–1893) H . asidic rabbi from Vizhnitz. He served as aH . asidic rabbi in Vizhnitz for eight years and attracted many H . ASIDIM. A collection of his writings was published as Imrei Barukh. Seven of his nine sons and three of his sons-in-law were H . asidic rabbis; this led to divisions among the H . ASIDIM and various controversies.

Vizhnitz, Israel (1860–1938) Hungarian H . asidic rabbi. He was the son of BARUCH VIZHNITZ and the grandson of MENAHEM MENDEL BEN H . AYYIM HAGER VIZHNITZ. He was a popular figure attracting thousands of H . asidic followers. He founded a yeshviah, Bet Israel, and moved to Grosswardein, which became a centre of H . ASIDISM in Hungary.

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Vizhnitz, Menahem Mendel ben H . ASID . ayyim Hager (1830–1884) H from Vizhnitz. After the death of his father, the Z.ADDIK of Kosov, in 1854, Menahem Mendel began to lead the community of Vizhnitz where he served as av bet din. He was a miracle-worker and a distributor of AMULETS. He was the head of Kolel Vizhnitz and Marameuresh, a fund for the poor in Erez. Israel.

He attempted to settle the dispute between H . AYYIM HALBERSTAM of Zanz and the sons of Israel of Ruzhin. His Zemah Z.addik was composed in the spirit of H . asidic kabbalah.

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W Wahrmann, Abraham David ben Asher Anschel (c. 1771–1840) Ukrainian H . asidic rabbi. Born in Nadvornya, Ukraine, he was a disciple of LEVI YITZHAK OF BERDICHEV and Moses Leib of Sasov. He was a rabbi in Jazlowce from 1791. When his father-in-law, Z.evi Hirsch Kro, author of Neta Sha’ashu’im and av bet din, died in Buchach, Abraham took over his position. While living in Buchach, he began to behave like a Z.ADDIK. He prayed according to the Sephardi custom and prolonged the morning prayer until noon. Scholars in the town opposed him, but many were drawn to him to enjoy his teachings and blessings. He trained a number of disciples and wrote various halakhic and H . asidic works.

Walden, Aaron ben Isaiah Nathan (1838–1912) H . asidic author and bibliographer in Poland. Born in Warsaw, he was a H ASID OF MENAHEM .

MENDEL OF KOTSK and ISAAC MEIR ALTER OF GUR. He worked as a proofreader at Ephraim Baumritter’s publishing house in Warsaw. He was well known for his bio-bibliographical work Shem ha-Gedolim he-H . adash, which followed the same structure and augmented the Shem ha-Gedolim of H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI. The first part of this work contains an alphabetical list of over 1,500 rabbis and authors; the second part lists over 1,600 works also in alphabetical order with additions and corrections by Walden’s son Joseph Aryeh Leib.

Wanneh, Isaac ben Abraham (mid-17th century) Yemenite kabbalist. His works and the kabbalistic books, which he copied, assisted the propagation of kabbalah in Yemen. His most important work was the arranging of the Yemenite mah.zor on the bases of kabbalah and its interpretations. With the penetration of the printed mah.zorim of the Sephardi rite into Yemen, Wanneh was among the faction which was inclined toward the newer version that was inspired by the sanctity of Erez. Israel and the mystic ideas of the SAFED kabbalists. He enlarged the text of the prayers of Yemenite Jewry with numerous additions 199

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of prayers and piyyutim written by kabbalists. The mah.zor, which he introduced, is a synthesis of the old and the new. His commentary, based on the plain and homiletic meanings of kabbalah, is the first commentary to have been written to the Yemenite prayer book. According to legend, he was a miracle-worker.

Wilna, Jacob ben Benjamin Wolf (d. 1732?) Rabbi and SHABBATEAN kabbalist from Vilna. He was part of the circle of Judah H . asid ha-Levi. It is not clear whether he joined this group in Europe and went with them to Erez Israel in 1700, or possibly travelled there earlier. In any event, he studied kabbalah in Vilna. While in Jerusalem, he sought to join the Sephardi community and was active in the bet ha-midrash of ABRAHAM ROVIGO and a member of the Yeshivah Bet Ya’akov Ferrera of the Sephardim. In 1707 he signed the ordination of David Oppenheim with the leaders of the Ashkenazi community in Jerusalem.

In Jerusalem he associated with Nathan Nata Mannheim, who belonged to the circle of Judah H . asid. The two collaborated in the writing of Me’orot Natan, which includes the Me’orei Or of Meir Poppers with their commentary Ya’ir Nativ. Between 1702 and 1725 he left Jerusalem three times, twice as an emissary of the Ashkenazi community. Jacob visited Turkey, Germany, Holland and Italy propagating kabbalah. In 1726 he returned to SAFED and served as head of a yeshivah. He was a moderate SHABBATEAN and material on his conviction is included in SHABBATEAN manuscripts. His contemporaries in Turkey, Erez.

Israel, Italy and Poland considered him the authoritative kabbalist. His eminence in kabbalah is attested by ABRAHAM GERSHON OF KUTOW. He died in SAFED at an advanced age.

Wormser, Seckel (1768–1847) German Talmudist and kabbalist. Born in Michelstadt in Hessen, he received a Talmudic education in Frankfurt on the Main in the yeshivah of Nathan Adler. He adopted an ascetic way of life and turned to kabbalistic studies. After his first marriage, he returned to Michelstadt where he maintained a yeshivah and served as a recognized district rabbi. About 1810, after the death of his wife, he lived in Mannheim. For years his asceticism and vegetarianism created tension between him and his small community. Yet his reputation as a master of occult powers spread and he became known as the Baal Shem of Michelstadt. He denied having supernatural power but agreed to receive individuals who sought his advice and natural remedies including AMULETS. He was particularly known for his treatment of lunatics. Legends about his cures and feats spread among the Jews of southern Germany.

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Y Yakhini, Abraham ben Elijah (1617) Kabbalist and preacher from Constantinople. Born in Constantinople, he was a pupil of Joseph di Trani and a preacher in the community. From a young age he was attracted by Lurianic kabbalah and wrote books and sermons based on Lurianic tradition. He would note his dreams in books. Yakhini was also a rhetorician and poet. In 1665 he published Hod Malkhut, an imitation of the Psalms. He knew of SHABBATAI Z.EVI when SHABBATAI was in Constantinople in 1658. His notes on kabbalah from 1658 to 1663 are preserved in Sefer Razi Li and contain no indication of SHABBATEANISM. However, with the outbreak of the SHABBATEAN movement in 1665 Yakhini joined the believers and became its leading disciple and spokesman in Constantinople. He also travelled to Smyrna and was appointed by SHABBATAI as King of Israel. After SHABBATAI’s apostasy, Yakhini persisted in his belief and remained head of the SHABBATEAN minority in Constantinople. He maintained contact and corresponded with SHABBATAI and the rest of the movement’s leaders. His relations with the rabbis of Constantinople who took a negative view of SHABBATEANISM were fraught. He circulated books and poetry in honour of SHABBATAI and the SHABBATEAN faith. In the last year of his life he contacted ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO. Even after his death, Yakhini continued to influence SHABBATEANS, especially the DOENMEH of Salonika.

Yesod (Foundation) It is the ninth SEFIRAH below HOD and NETZAH ..

It anchors the world to its spiritual bedrock.

Yez.irah worlds.

The world between BERIAH and ASIYAH in the system of the four

Yichudim For ISAAC LURIA, the aim of meditation is to attain yichudim (unifications) where one manipulates the letters of God’s name. In some cases the names are intertwined and various vowel points are added. Since the divine 201

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names reflect spiritual forces, which have counterparts in the human psyche, the yichudim can have a powerful psychological impact.

Yizhaki, Abraham ben David (1661–1729) Rabbi, halakhic authority, and kabbalist. Born in Jerusalem, he was the grandson of ABRAHAM BEN MORCEAI AZULAI, and the son-in-law of Abraham Israel Z.evi, a scholar of Hebron. He studied Talmud under Moses ben Jonathan Galante, and kabbalah together with Joseph Bioaler, grandfather of H . AYYIM JOSEPH DAVID AZULAI. He served as chief rabbi of Jerusalem by 1708 and held the position until his death. He also headed a yeshivah. His disciples included Moses H . agiz, Isaac ha-Kohen Rapoport and Isaac Zerahiah Azulai. At the beginning of his rabbinate, the residents of Jerusalem suffered from heavy taxation. To ameliorate their situation, he went to various European countries and Turkey as an emissary of the community. In 1708 he signed a declaration against the SHABBATEAN NEHEMAIH H . AYON. During his journey he opposed the propaganda conducted by H AYON and ABRAHAM MIGUEL CARDOZO. .

When he reached Amsterdam in 1712 he encouraged MOSES H . AGIZ and Z.EVI ASHKENAZI to oppose H AYON. His father, David Yizhaki, however, . was a supporter of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. When he returned to Jerusalem, he devoted himself to teaching and writing. He later fled from Jerusalem to Hebron, but subsequently returned. He was the author of Zera Avraham.

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Z Zacuto, Moses ben Mordecai (c. 1620–1697) Portuguese kabbalist and poet. He was born into a Portuguese Marrano family in Amsterdam. He studied Jewish topics under Saul Levi Morteira as well as secular subjects. He was a student in the bet midrash of Amsterdam and in his youth travelled to Poland to study in the yeshivah there. He was attracted by kabbalah and refers in his letters to his teacher Elhanan. He moved to Italy, remaining for some time in Verona.

From 1645 he lived in Venice and served as a preacher under Azariah Figo. Later he became a rabbi in the city and a member of the Venetian yeshivah. Between 1649 and 1670 he was a proofreader of books printed in Venice, especially kabbalistic sources. He edited the Zohar H . adash in 1658 and also wrote poems for celebrations and special occasions. He tried to acquire the manuscripts of the SAFED kabbalists, especially those of MOSES CORDOVERO, and the different version of the works of H . AYYIM VITAL. He befriended the kabbalist Nathan Shapiro of Jerusalem and the kabbalist Benjamin ha-Levi. At the onset of SHABBATEANISM, he tended to give credence to the movement, but was opposed to various innovations such as the abolition of tikkun h.az.ot. After the apostasy of SHABBATAI Z.EVI, he turned his back on the movement and joined the Venetian rabbis in their action against NATHAN OF GAZA when he came to Venice in 1668. At the same time he opposed the SHABBATEANS in a letter to Meir Isserles in Vienna. In subsequent years he rejected SHABBATEAN propaganda. In 1671 he was invited to serve as rabbi in Mantua, but he did not go until 1673.

Z.addik Term meaning ‘righteous man’; amongst the H . ASIDIM it refers to aH asidic leader, also known as a rebbe, who is invested with spiritual authority. .

Amongst the H ASIDIM, a Z addik is viewed as a charismatic and spiritual leader . . who possesses a channel to God. In the writings of JACOB JOSEPH OF POLONNOYE and other early H . asidic works, the Z.addik is the conduit through which the divine grace flows to bring blessings to his followers. The prayers of the Z.ADDIK can produce results that the prayers of followers could never 203

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achieve. Even the food, which the Z.addik has tasted, is charged with spiritual power. This resulted in the H . asidic practice of snatching pieces of the food over which the Z.addik had recited grace before meals. The MITNAGGEDIM seized on the doctrine of the Z.addik to attack H . ASIDISM. Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob Ibn (d. 1148) Philospher and poet. Little is known of his life. From 1138 he was dayyan in Cordoba. His main philosophical work is Sefer ha-Olam ha-Katan, which was deeply influenced by NEOPLATONISM. Zadok ha-Kohen of Lublin (1823–1900) H . asidic Z.ADDIK from Kruezburg, Courland. He received a halakhic education and became a H . ASID after meeting with the rabbis of Poland. He was a disciple of Mordecai Joseph Leiner of Izbica Lubelska. He wrote a number of works and was an exponent of H . ASIDISM. His knowledge of halakhah enriched his H . asidic teachings.

He illuminated halakhah with kabbalistic and mystical elements. The principle subjects of his teaching included the affinity between the Oral and Written Law, the merits of the scholars, and the importance of holidays.

Zahzahot These are the three hiddden lights that lie beyond the sefirotic Tree. They have been added by some kabbalists, who thought they should match the thirteen attributes of God. In the Middle Ages there was considerable speculation about what lies beyond the KETER. Zalman Schachter-Shalomi (1924–) American leader of Jewish renewal.

Born in Poland in 1924, he was raised in Vienna and interned in detention campus under the Vichy French. He fled the Nazis by emigrating to the United States.

He was ordained as an Orthodox rabbi in 1947 within the H . ABAD Lubavitch H . asidic community. He served H . ABAD congregations in Massachusetts and Connecticut. He was sent to speak on college campuses by the Lubavitcher rebbe, but was eventually expelled from H . ABAD for praising the sacramental value of lysergic acid. Eventually he was drawn into the havurah movement and founded his own organization known as B’nai Or. This led to the creation of the Jewish Renewal movement. In later years Shachter-Shalomi held the World Wisdom Chair at the Naropa Institute and became a major figure in the quest to revitalize Judaism. His books and lectures present the central teachings of H . ASIDISM and kabbalah in contemporary terms. He founded a seminary based on renewal principals, which has produced rabbis and cantors.

Zayyah, Joseph ben Abraham ibn (16th century) Rabbi and kabbalist from Jerusalem. Born in Jerusalem, he composed Even ha-Shoham in 1538.

From Jerusalem he went to Damascus to serve as a rabbi of the Mostarabian community, but frequently travelled to Jerusalem. He was viewed as an important posek. A number of his responsa have been published in some of his contemporaries’ collected responsa such as those of JOSEPH CARO, Moses di Trani, and Levi ben Habib. A number of his books have remained in manuscript, including a collection of responsa. In Even ha-Shoham he combined 204

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the kabbalistic doctrine of the combination of letters of the Hebrew alphabet with that of emanation. His She’erit Yosef is a supplement and commentary on Even ha-Shoham.

Zelem A human psyche is represented as zelem or image, that is, the form of an individual’s personal characteristics.

Z. emah., Jacob ben H . ayyim (d. after 1665) Kabbalist and physician from Portugal. He was a member of a Converso family in northern Portugal. He first served as a physician. He decided to go to Erez. Israel and passed through Salonika where he studied Torah. Some time between 1610 and 1620 he settled in SAFED and learned Talmud and kabbalah. In about 1623 he left Damascus and studied Lurianic kabbalah under SAMUEL BEN H . AYYIM VITAL. Around 1640 he settled in Jerusalem where he was a leading kabbalist. He was among the Jerusalem opponents of SHABBATAI Z.EVI who excommunicated SHABBATAI when he first claimed to be the MESSIAH. His works rely on H . AYYIM VITAL’s kabbalistic system. Nevertheless, his contribution to the literary consolidation of Lurianic kabbalah is important. His works include Zohar ha-Rak’ia, Zer Zahev, Leh.em min ha-Shamayim, Nagid u-Mez.avveh, Zemah Zaddik and Kol ba-Ramah.

Z.evi Hirsch Friedman of Lesko (d. 1874) H . ASID from Lesko, Poland. He was the son of Aaron of Ujhely. He made journeys to visit the Z.ADDIKIM of his time. He studied primarily under H . ayyim Halberstamm of Zanz who wrote an approbation to Z.evi Hirsch’s work Akh Peri Tevu’ah consisting of homilies on the Pentateuch in which he quoted sayings of the Talmud, teachings of the TANYA and of SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY. Also works written on Lurianic kabbalah. Like other H . ASIDIM, he considered creation to be the result of Z.IMZ.UM. The paradox involved in this theory is that contraction must tolerate the dialectic duality of good and evil because though the world was created with justice, the actual creation shows mercy to its creatures. Similarly, the evil inclination was created for the benefit of humanity.

Zevul A heavenly hall where the Prince is located. Before him there are thousands of angels who minister to him. It is a five-hundred-year journey from SHEMEI HA-SHEMAYYIM to Zevul, and a five-hundred-year journey from Zevul to ARAPHEL. Z.imZ.um A term from Lurianic kabbalah refering to the contraction of the EN SOF to form a space into which all of creation would be formed.

Zohar Medieval kabbalistic text. This work was regarded by kabbalists since the 14th century as the most important work of mystical teaching. It is composed of several literary units, possibly by different authors. The largest section consists of a mystical commentary on parts of the Bible, delivered in 205

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the form of discussions by 2nd-century rabbis and scholars in Palestine led

by SIMEON BAR YOCHAI. Other sections, such as the Idra Rabba and the Idra Zuta, depict scenes in the life of SIMEON BAR YOH . AI and his disciples. Another section, the Midrash ha-Ne’eman, is a mystical interpretation of biblical passages. The Ra’aya Meheimana is a kabbalistic interpretation of the commandments and prohibitions in the Torah. The Raza de-Razin contains material dealing with physiognomy and chiromancy. Traditional kabbalists ascribe all or most of these books to the authorship of SIMEON BAR YOH .

AI and his contemporaries. Modern scholars, however, have demonstrated that the main part of the Zohar was written toward the end of the 13th century by MOSES BEN SHEM TOV DE LEON, a Castilian kabbalist. The Zohar is a mixture of theosophical theology, mystical psychology and anthropology, myth and poetry.

Zohar H . adash The ZOHAR consists of a number of tracts of various sizes.

The bulk of the ZOHAR is a running commentary on the Torah into which the numerous shorter tracts have been incorporated, added in the margins or compiled as addenda to the various chapters. Some of the shorter tracts are in a separate section called the Zohar H . adash.

Zoref, Joshua Heshel ben Joseph (1633–1700) SHABBATEAN prophet from Lithuania. Born in Vilna, he was a silversmith. During the persecutions in the wake of the Polish–Swedish War, he took refuge in Amsterdam but later returned to Vilna where he studied moral and mystical writings, but remained without Talmudic learning. During the messianic upheaval of 1666 he had visions and became a spokesman of the believers in SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He continued his ascetic behaviour, and over several years was said to have never left his home except for the synagogue or the ritual bath. After 1666 he started to put down the revelations he received in five books, intended to correspond to the books of the Pentateuch. He assembled around him a circle of ferevent followers who viewed him as an oracle. He used to make pronouncements about messianic developments and related mysteries as well as political events of his time. People flocked to him from all over Poland. He considered himself the Messiah ben Joseph and SHABBATAI Z.EVI the true MESSIAH. His written revelations centre around the esoteric meanings of the Shema. By the time of his death they were said to have covered about 5,000 pages. These speculations are founded on the GEMATRIOT of SHABBATAI Z.EVI. He maintained a correspondence with SHABBATEANS in Italy and Turkey. During the last years of his life, he went to Cracow where he married the daughter of Jacob Eleazar Fischhof. Parts of his collections of revelations were passed on to the BAAL SHEM TOV who held them in high esteem without being aware of their SHABBATEAN character.

Zusya of Hanipol (d. 1800) Early H . asidic leader. He was an outstanding disciple of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH, brother of ELIMELECH OF 206

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LYZHANSK, and one of the heroes of H . asidic folktales. Born near Tarnow, Galicia, he joined the disciples of DOV BAER OF MEZHIRECH and interested his brother ELIMELECH in H . ASIDISM. During their youth the two brothers wandered from place to place. Many folk legends tell of their wandering and show Zusya as a simple, modest and kind man who despite his meager knowledge of Torah, attained merit because of his innocence and righteousness. In addition to his close attachment to his brother, he formed a friendship with SHNEUR ZALMAN OF LYADY. Apparently after the death of DOV BAER, he settled in Hanipoli and attracted numerous H . asidic followers. After ELIMELECH’s death, some of the H ASIDIM accepted Zusya as their rabbi. .

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F U RT HE R R E A D I N G

ABELSON, J. 1969. Jewish Mysticism. Brooklyn, NY, Sepher-Hermon Press ARIEL, D. 1992. The Mystic Quest: An Introduction to Jewish Mysticism. New York, Pantheon Books BAILE, D. and S. Gershom 1978. Kabbalah and Counter-History. Cambridge, Harvard University Press BAND, A.J. 1978. Nahman of Bratslav, the Tales. Mahwah, NJ, Paulist Press BEN-AMOS, D. and J.R. Mintz 1994. In Praise of the Baal Shem Tov, Northvale, J, Jason Aronson BERG, Michael, 2001. The Way, New York, John Wiley and Sons.

BLUMENTHAL, D.R. 1978, 1983. Understanding Jewish Mysticism: A Source Reader, vols 1 and 2. Hoboken, NJ, Ktav Publishing House BOKSER, B.Z. 1994. From the World of the Kabbalah, Northvale, NJ, Jason Aronson 1993, The Jewish Mystical Tradition. Northvale NJ, Jason Aronson trans. 1978. Abraham Isaac Kook. Mahwah, NJ, Paulist Press BUBER, M. 1991. Tales of the H . asidim. New York, Pantheon Books 1988. Hasidism and Modern Man. Atlantic Highlands, JN, Humanities Press International 1988. The Tales of Rabbi Nachman. Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Humanities Press, International 1960. The Origin and Meaning of Hasidism, New York, Horizon Press CHANAN, M.D. 1983. The Zohar. Mahwah, NJ, Paulist Press DAN, J.L 1987. Gershom Scholem and the Mystical Dimension of Jewish History. New York, New York University Press DRESNER, S. 1994. The Zaddik. Northvale, NJ, Jason Aronson EPSTEIN, Perle, Kabbalah, Boston, Shambhala, 2001 FINE, L., trans. 1984. Safed Spirituality: Rules of Mystical Piety, the Beginning of Wisdom.

Mahwah, NJ, Paulist Press GOTTLIEB, E., 1976. Studies in Kabbalistic Literature. Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv University GREEN, A. 1992. Tormented Master: A Life and Spiritual Quest of Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav.

Woodstock, VT, Jewish Lights Publishing HALEVI, Ze’ev ben Shimon. 2000. Astrology and Kabbalah. London: The Urania Trust HALPERIN, D.J. 1980. The Merkabah in Rabbinic Literature. New Haven, CT, American Oriental Society IDEL, M. 1988. Kabbalah: New Perspectives. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 208

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JACOBS, L. 1981. The Palm Tree of Deborah by Moses Cordovero. Brooklyn, NY, SepherHermon Press 1977. Jewish Mystical Testimonies. New York, Schocken Books 1972.

H . asidic Prayer. Washington, DC, B’nai B’rith Book Service trans. 1963. Tract on Ecstasy

by Dov Baer of Lubavich. London, Vallentine, Mitchell and Co. KALISCH, I. 1987. The Seher Yezirah. Berkeley Heights, NJ, Heptangle Books KAPLAN, A. 1995. Meditation and Kabbalah. Northvale, NJ, Jason Aronson KATZ, S.T., ed. 1978. Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis. Oxford, Oxford University Press KRAMER, S.G. 1966. God and Man in the Sefer H . asidim. New York, LANGER, J. 1993. Nine Gates to the Chasidic Mysteries. Northvale, NJ, Jason Aronson LEVIN, M. 1975. Classic H . asidic Tales. New York, Viking Penguin NEWMAN, L.I. 1987. The H . asidic Anthology, Northvale, NJ, Jason Aronson PARRINDER, G. 1995. Mysticism in the World’s Religions. Oxford, Oneworld RABINOWICZ, H.M. 1970. The World of H . asidism. London, Valentine, Mitchell and Co. SCHAYA, L. 1973. The Universal Meaning of the Kabbalah. trans. Nanch Pearson. New York, Viking Penguin SCHOLEM, G.G. 1995. Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. New York, Schocken Books 1995. The Messianic Idea in Judaism. New York, Schocken Books 1995. Zohar: The Book of Splendour. New York, Schocken Books 1990. Origins of the Kabbalah. trans.

Allan Arkush. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press 1978. Kabbalah. New York, NAL Dutton 1969. On the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism. New York, Schocken Books 1960. Jewish Gnosticism, Merkavah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition. Hoboken, NJ, Ktav Publishing House SELTZER, R.M., 1982, Jewish People, Jewish Thought. New York, Macmillan SINGER, S.A., 1971. Medieval Jewish Mysticism Book of the Pious. Northbrook, Whitehall TISHBY, I. 1991. The Wisdom of the Zohar: Anthology of Texts, vols. 1 to 3. Oxford, Oxford University Press WAITE. A.E., 1976. The Holy Kabballah. New York, Carol Publishing Group WEINER, H. 1992. Nine and One Half-Mystics: The Kabbala Today. New York, Macmillan WERBLOWSKY, R.J.Z. 1977. Karo: Lawyer and Mystic. Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society

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INDEX

INDEX

Aaron ben Moses ha-Levi of Starosielce 3 Aaron ben Samuel 3 Aaron Berechiah ben Moses of Modena 4 Aaron Selig ben Moses of Zolkiew 4 Abbreviations 4 Abi-H . asira, Jacob II ben Masoud 4 Aboab, Samuel ben Abraham 4 Abracadabra 5 Abraham ben Alexander of Cologne 5 Abraham ben Azriel 5 Abraham ben David of Posquières 6 Abraham ben Dov of Mezhirech 6 Abraham ben Eliezer ha-Levi 7 Abraham ben Eliezer ha-Levi Berukhim 7 Abraham ben Isaac of Granada 7 Abraham ben Israel of Brody 8 Abraham ben Jehiel Michal ha-Kohen 8 Abraham ben Josiah Troki 8 Abraham Gershon of Kutow 9 Abraham Joshua Heschel of Apta 9 Absaban, Solomon 9 Abulafia, Abraham ben Samuel 10 Abulafia, H . ayyim ben Jacob 11 Abulafia, Todros ben Joseph ha-Levi 11 Abyss 12 Academy on High 12 Adadi, Abraham H . ayyim ben Masoud H ai 12 .

Adam Baal Shem 13 Adam Kadmon 13 Adani, Mizrah.i Shalom 14 Adeni, Solomon bar Joshua 15 Adret, Solomon ben 15 Afterlife 15 Agla 15 Ah.er 15 Akedah 16

Akiva 16 Akiva Baer ben Joseph 17 Albalag, Isaac 17 Albaz, Moses ben Maimon 18 Albotini, Judah ben Moses 18 Alcastiel, Joseph 18 Alchemy 18 Aldabi, Meir ben Isaac 19 Alexander Susskind ben Moses of Grodno 19 Alfandari, H . ayyim ben Isaac Raphael 20 Algazi, Israel Jacob ben Yom Tov 20 Algazi, Yom Tov ben Israel Jacob 20 Al Hakim Elijah ben H . akkim Moses 21 Alkabetz, Solomon ben Moses ha-Levi 21 Alkalai, Judah ben Solomon H . ai 22 Allegory 22 Almoli, Solomon ben Jacob 22 Almosnino, Joseph ben Isaac 23 Alphabet 23 Alroy, David 23 Alsheikh, Moses 24 Alsheikh, Shalom ben Joseph 24 Amarillo, Aaron ben Solomon 24 Amulet 24 Angel, Baruch 25 Angels 25 Ankawa, Abraham ben Mordecai 26 Anna Be-Kho’ah. 26 Antinomianism 27 Anthropomorphism 27 Apta, Meir 27 Araphel 27 Aravot 28 Archangels 28 Arh.a, Eliezer ben Isaac 28 Arikh Anpin 28

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INDEX

Aryeh Leib of Ozarow 28 Aryeh Leib of Shpola 28 Aryeh Leib Sarahs 29 Arzin, Joseph ben Jacob 29 Asceticism 29 Asher ben David 29 Asher ben Jehiel 30 Ashkenazi, Bezalel ben Abraham 30 Ashkenazi, Joseph 31 Ashkenazi, Malkiel 31 Ashkenazi, Mordecai ben Isaac Kohen 31 Ashkenazi Naphtali ben Joseph 32 Ashkenazi, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jacob 32 Ashlag, Yehuda 32 Asiyah 33 Astrology 33 Attar, H . ayyim ben Moses 33 Attia, Shem Tov 34 Atz.ilut 34 Avodat ha-Kodesh 34 Ayllon, Solomon ben Jacob 34 Azikri, Eleazar ben Moses 35 Azriel of Gerona 36 Azubib, Joseph Nehorai 36 Azubib, Saadiah ben Nehorai 36 Azulai, Abraham ben Israel 37 Azulai, Abraham ben Mordecai 37 Azulai, H . ayyim Joseph David 37 Azulai, Masud 38 Baal Shem Tov 39 Bacharach, Jair H . ayyim ben Moses Samson 40 Bahir Sefer ha- 40 Bahlul, Daniel ben Judah 41 Bah.ya 41 Bah.ya ben Asher Ibn H . lava 42 Bah.ya ibn Pakuda see Ibn Pakuda, Bah.ya Baraita of 32 Rules 42 Barazani, Samuel ben Nethanel ha-Levi 43 Baruch ben David Yavan 43 Baruch ben Jehiel of Medzibezh 43 Baruch of Kosov 44 Bashiri, Yaha 44 Basilea, Solomon Avid Sar-Shalom 44 Bavli, Menahem ben Moses 45 Belz, Aaron 45 Belz, Issachar Dov 45 Belz, Joshua 45 Belz, Shalom Roke’ah. 46

Ben Azzai 46 Ben Zoma 46 Benevento, Immanuel ben Jekuthiel 46 Benjamin, Baruch ben Israel 46 Benjamin, Moses 47 Berab, Jacob 47 Berg, Philip 47 Beriyah 47 Berit Menuh.ah 48 Bet El 48 Bikayam, Meir ben H . alifa 48 Binah 49 Bittul ha-Yesh 49 Bloch, Mattathias ben Benjamin Ze’ev Ashkenazi 49 Bloom, Harold 50 Bonafaux, Daniel ben Israel 50 Book of Kana 50 Book of Raziel 51 Book of Visions 51 Boshal, Moses ben Solomon 51 Botarel, Moses ben Isaac 51 Boton, Jacob ben Abraham Di 52 Brandwein, Judah 52 Brudo, Abraham ben Elijah 52 Buber, Martin 53 Busal, H . ayyim ben Jacob Obadiah De 53 Buzaglo, Shalom ben Moses 53 Canpanton, Isaac ben Jacob 55 Canpanton, Judah ben Solomon 55 Cardozo, Abraham 56 Carlebach, Shlomo 56 Caro, Isaac ben Joseph 57 Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim 57 Castelnuovo, Menahem Azariah Meir ben Elijah 57 Chariot Riders 57 Chotsh, Z.evi Hirsch ben Jerahmeel 58 Ciechanow, Abraham ben Raphael Landau of 58 Cordova 58 Cordovero, Gedaliah ben Moses 58 Cordovero, Moses 59 Cosmology 59 Creation 59 Cuenque, Abraham ben Levi 59 Daat 60 Dan, Joseph 60

211

INDEX

Danzinger, Jerahmeel Israel Isaac 60 Danzinger, Shraga Feivel 61 Dato, Mordecai ben Judah 61 David ben Judah he-H . asid 61 David of Makow 61 David of Talna 61 Delacrut, Mattathias ben Solomon 62 Demons 62 Devekut 62 Divination 63 Doenmeh 63 Donnolo, Shabbetai 64 Double Letters 64 Dov Baer of Mezhirech 65 Dualism 66 Dunash Ibn Tamim 66 Duties of the Heart 67 Dybbuk 67 Dynow, Z.evi Elimelech 67 Eleazar ben Arakh 69 Eleazar ben Judah of Worms 69 Eleazar ben Moses ha-Darshan of Wuerzburg 70 Elhanan ben Yakar 70 Eliashov, Solomon ben H . ayyim 70 Eliezer Fischel ben Isaac of Strzyzow 71 Elijah 71 Elijah ben Kalonymus of Lublin 71 Elijah ben Moses De Vidas 72 Elijah ben Solomon Zalman 72 Elijah Phinehas ben Meir 72 Elimelech of Lyzhansk 73 Elisha ben Avuya see Ah.er Emanation 74 Emden, Jacob 74 En Sof 75 End of Days 75 Epstein, Aryeh Leib ben Mordecai 75 Epstein, Isaac ben Mordecai 76 Epstein, Kalonymus Kalman 76 Ergas, Joseph ben Emanuel 76 Eschatology 76 Ethical Literature 77 Evil 77 Evil Eye 78 Evil Inclination 78 Exorcism 78 Eybeschuetz, Jonathan 78 Ez. H . ayyim 79

Ezekiel 79 Ezra of Gerona 79 Falk, Jacob Joshua ben Z.evi Hirsch 81 Falk, Samuel Jacob H . ayyim 81 Fano, Ezra ben Isaac 82 Fano, Menahem Azariah 82 Fatiyah, Judah 82 Ficino Marsilio 82 Fludd, Robert 83 Foa, Eliezer Nah.man 83 Forti, Jacob Raphael Hezekiah ben Abraham Israel 83 Foundation and Root of Divine Worship 83 Frank, Jacob 83 Frankists 84 Free Will 84 Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel Ibn 85 Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn 85 Gadlut 85 Galante, Abraham 86 Galante, Moses ben Jonathan II 86 Galante, Moses ben Mordecai 86 Galatinus, Pietro Columna 86 Gallico, Elisha ben Gabriel 87 Gallico, Samuel 87 Gan Eden 87 Gehinnom 87 Gematria 87 Gerona 88 Gerondi, Jacob ben Sheshet 88 Gevurah 88 Gikatilla, Joseph ben Abraham 88 Gilgul 89 Ginnut Egoz 90 Ginsberg, Christian David 90 Giorgio, Francesco 91 Gnosticism 91 God 91 Golem 91 Gordon, Jekuthiel ben Leib 92 Graetz, Heinrich 92 Guadalajara 93 Guide for the Perplexed 93 Guttmacher, Elijah 93 H . abad 94 Habillo, David 94

212

INDEX

H . agiz, Moses 95 Haiot ha-Kodesh 95 Halberstam, H . ayyim 95 Halevi, Z’ev ben Shimon 96 Hamiz, Joseph 96 Hannover, Nathan Nata 96 Hanokh of Aleksandrow 97 Harlap, Jacob Moses ben Zebulun 97 Hart, Jacob 98 H . asidei Ashkenaz 98 H . asidim 98 H . asidism 98 Hayon, Nehemiah H . iyya ben Moses 99 H . ayyat, Judah ben Jacob 100 H . ayyim, Abraham Raphael ben Asher 100 H . ayyim ben Abraham ha-Kohen 100 H . ayyim of Volozhin 101 H . ayyim Z.evi Teitelbaum of Sighet 101 Heavenly Ascent 101 Heavens 101 Heilprin, Jehiel ben Solomon 101 Hekhalot 102 Hekhalot Rabbati 102 Hesed 102 Hillel ben Samuel 102 Hirschfeld, Ephraim Joseph 102 H . iyya 103 H . iyya, Rofe 103 Hod 104 Hokhmah 104 Holiness 104 Horodezky, Samuel Abba 104 Horowitz, Isaiah ben Abraham ha-Levi 104 Horowitz, Jacob ben Abraham 105 Horowitz, Samuel Shmelke of Nikolsburg 105 Horowitz, Z.evi Hirsch ben H . ayyim Aryeh Leibush ha-Levi 106 Hosts of Heaven 106 Humility 106 Hymn of Glory 106 Ibbur 107 Ibn Ezra, Abraham 107 Ibn Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel see Gabbai, Meir ben Ezekiel Ibn Ibn Gabriol, Solomon ben Judah see Gabriol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn Ibn Gaon, Shem Tov ben Abraham 108 Ibn Latif, Isaac ben Abraham 108

Ibn Motot, Samuel ben Saadiah 108 Ibn Pakuda, Bah.ya 109 Ibn Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon see Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon Ibn Ibn Shem Tov, Isaac ben Shem Tov 109 Ibn Shem Tov, Shem Tov 110 Ibn Shuaib, Joshua 110 Ibn Tabul, Joseph see Tabul, Joseph Ibn Ibn Tamim, Dunash see Dunash Ibn Tamim Ibn Tibbon 111 Ibn Waqar, Joseph ben Abraham 111 Ibn Yah.ya, Gedalliah ben Joseph 111 Ibn Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob see Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob Ibn Iggeret ha-Kodesh 112 Irin 112 Isaac ben Abraham of Posen 112 Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen 112 Isaac ben Latif see Ibn Latif, Isaac ben Abraham Isaac Meir Alter of Gur 113 Isaac of Acre 113 Isaac the Blind 114 Isaiah H . asid from Zbarazh 114 Ishmael ben Elisha 115 Israel ben Eliezer see Baal Shem Tov Israel ben Jonathan from Leczyca 115 Israel Harif of Satanov 115 Israel of Kozienice 116 Israeli, Isaac 116 Issachar Dov Baer ben Aryeh Leib of Zloczow 116 Jacob ben Jacob ha-Kohen 117 Jacob Isaac ben Asher Przysucha 117 Jacob Isaac ha-H . ozeh of Lublin 118 Jacob of Margève 119 Jacob Joseph of Ostrog 119 Jacob Joseph of Polonnoye 119 Jacob Koppel ben Moses of Mezhirech 119 Jacob’s Ladder 121 Jacob Nazir 120 Jacob Samson of Shepetovka 120 Jaffe, Israel ben Aaron 121 Jaffe, Mordecai ben Abraham 121 Jehiel, Michael ben Eliezer 122 Jehiel Michael ben Judah Leib heH . asid 122 Jehiel, Michael of Zloczow 123

213

INDEX

Lekhah Dodi 140 Levi Yitzhak of Berdichev 140 Levin, Menahem Mendel 140 Levin, Z.evi Hirsch ben Aryeh Loeb 141 Levinas, Emmanuel 141 Light of the Eyes 142 Lighting Flash 142 Lipschitz, Baruch Mordecai ben Jacob 142 Lipschutz, Aryeh Leib 142 Loanz, Elijah ben Moses 142 Loebel, Israel 143 Lonzano, Abraham ben Raphael de 143 Lonzano, Menahem ben Judah de 143 Luria, Isaac 144 Luria, Soloman ben Jehiel 145 Luzzatto, Moses H . ayyim 145

Joel, David Heymann 123 Johanan ben Zakkai 124 Jolles, Jacob Z.evi ben Naphtali 124 Jonah ben Abraham Gerondi 124 Jonah, Moses 125 Joseph ben Shalom Ashkenazi 125 Joseph ben Uzziel 126 Joseph Della Reina 126 Joseph H . ayyim ben Elijah al-H . akam 127 Joseph Issachar Baer ben Elhanan 127 Joseph Joske ben Judah Judel of Lublin 128 Joseph Meir Weiss of Spinka 128 Joseph Moses ben Jekuthiel Zalman 128 Joseph Moses of Salositz 128 Judah ben Barzillai al-Bargeloni 128 Judah ben Kalonymus ben Meir 128 Judah ben Samuel he-H . asid of Regensburg 129 Judah Leib ben Baruch 129 Judah Loew ben Bezalel 129 Judah Zevi Hirsch of Stetyn 130 Kallo, Yizh.ak Isaac 131 Kamenka, Z.evi Hirsch of 131 Kara, Avigdor ben Isaac 131 Katz, Naphtali ben Isaac 132 Kavvanah 132 Kavod 132 Kelippot 132 Keter 133 Khalaz, Judah ben Abraham 133 Kiddush ha-Shem 133 Kimh.i, Raphael Israel ben Joseph 133 Koidonover, Z.evi Hirsch 134 Kook, Abraham Isaac 134 Kotsk, Menahem Mendel of 134 Kranz, Jacob ben Wolf 135 Labi, Simeon 137 Lachowicze, Mordecai ben Noah of 137 Land of Israel 137 Landau, Ezekiel 138 Landau, Israel Jonah ben Joseph HaLevi 138 Landauer, Meyer Heinrich Hirsch 138 Landsofer, Jonah ben Elijah 139 Laniado, Solomon ben Abraham 139 Lara, H . iyya Kohen De 139 Lawat, Abraham David ben Judah Leib 139

Maaseh Bereshit 146 Maaseh Merkavah 146 Macrocosm 146 Maggid 146 Maggid Devarav le Yaakov 146 Maggid Mesharim 147 Magic 147 Mahalalel ben Shabbatai Hallelyah 147 Maimonides 147 Makhon 147 Malakh, H . ayyim ben Solomon 147 Malkhut 149 Maor va-Shemesh 149 Marcus, Aaron 149 Margoliouth, Meir of Ostraha 149 Meditation 149 Megillat Setarim 149 Meir ben Simeon ha-Me’ili 150 Meir Jehiel ha-Levi of Ostrowiec 150 Meisels, Uzziel ben Z.evi Hirsch 150 Mekhavvenim 150 Menahem Mendel of Kotsk see Kotsk, Menahem Mendel of Menahem Mendel of Peremyshlany 151 Menahem Mendel of Shklov 151 Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk 151 Menahem Nahum of Chernobyl see Twersky, Menahem Nahum ben Z.evi of Chernobyl Menahem Z.iyyoni 152 Merkavah 152 Meshullam ben Moses 152 Messiah 152

214

INDEX

Metatron 153 Microcosm 153 Miracles 153 Mitnaggedim 153 Mitzvot 153 Molcho, Solomon 153 Molitor, Franz Joseph 154 Mordecai ben H . ayyim of Eisenstadt 154 Mordecai of Neskhiz 154 Moses ben Shem Tov de Leon 155 Moses ben Menahem Graf 155 Moses ben Solomon ben Simeon of Burgos 155 Moses H . ayyim Ephraim of Sudylkow 156 Mother Letters 156 Nah.man of Bratslav 158 Nah.man of Horodenka 159 Nah.man of Kosov 159 Nah.manides 159 Najara, Jacob ben Moses 160 Najara, Moses ben Israel 160 Najara, Moses ben Levi 160 Nathan of Gaza 160 Nefesh 161 Nehemiah ha-Kohen 161 Neh.unya ben ha-Kanah 161 Neoplatonism 162 Neshamah 162 Netzah. 162 No’am Elimelech 162 Notarikon 162 Old Souls 164 Onyx Stone 164 Or ha-Sekhal 164 Or Neerav 164 Oral Tradition 164 Ornstein, Mordecai Ze’ev ben Moses 164 Outpouring of the Soul 165 Pardes 166 Pardes Rimmonim 166 Pargad 166 Partzufim 166 Peremyshlyany, Meir ben Aaron Leib of 166 Philadelphia, Jacob 167 Philo 167 Pico della Mirandola Giovanni 168

Pinheiro, Moses 168 Pinto, Jacob 168 Pinto, Josiah ben Joseph 168 Plotinus 168 Poppers, Meir ben Judah Loeb haKohen 169 Primo, Samuel 169 Prossnitz, Judah Leib ben Jacob Holleschau 169 Querido, Jacob 171 Radomsko, Solomon ha-Kohen Rabinowich of 172 Radoshitser, Issachar Baer 172 Recanati, Menahem ben Benjamin 172 Reuben Hoeshke ben Hoeshke Katz 172 Reuchlin, Johann 173 Reunification 173 Ricchi, Raphael Immanuel ben Abraham H . ai 173 Riders of the Chariot 173 Rokeah., Eleazar ben Shmelke 173 Ropshitser, Naphtali Z.evi 174 Roth, Aaron 174 Rovigo, Abraham ben Michael 174 Runkel, Solomon Zalman 175 Russo, Baruchiah 175 Ruzhin, Israel 175 Rymanower, Menahem Mendel 176 Rymanower, Z.evi Hirsch 176 Safed 177 Safrin, Isaac Judah Jehiel 177 Sahula, Isaac ben Solomon Ibn 178 Sahula, Meir ben Solomon Abi 178 Samael 178 Sambatyon 178 Samuel ben Eliezer of Kalwaria 179 Samuel ben Kalonymus of Speyer 179 Samuel ben Saadiah Ibn Motot 179 Sandalfon 179 Sandzer, H . ayyim ben Menahem 180 Saragossa 180 Sarfaty, Abner Israel 180 Sarfaty, Vidal ha- 180 Sarug, Israel 180 Sasportas, Jacob 181 Schneerson, Menahem Mendel 181 Scholem, Gershom Gerhard 182

215

INDEX

Secret of Secrets 182 Sefer ha-Bahir see Bahir, Sefer haSefer ha-Ot 182 Sefer ha-Olam ha-Ba 182 Sefer H . asidim 182 Sefer Yez.irah 183 Sefirot 183 Shaarei Tzedek 183 Shabbateans 183 Shabbatianism 184 Shabbatai Z.evi 184 Shabbetai of Raszkow 184 Shamayyim 185 Sharabi, Shalom 185 Sharrei Orah. 185 Shehakim 185 Shekhinah 185 Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov 185 Shemei ha-Shamayyim 186 Shemittah 186 Shiur Komah 186 Shneur Zalman of Lyady 186 Shomer Emunim 186 Shulkhan Arukh Shel Ari 187 Simeon bar Yoh.ai 187 Simh.ah Bunem of Przysucha 187 Sitra Ah.ra 187 Sod 188 Sorcery 188 Susskind, Alexander 188 Tabul, Joseph Ibn 189 Taitazak, Joseph 189 Tamim, Dunash 189 Tanya 190 Tayyib, Isaac ben Benjamin 190 Tehiru 190 Teitelbaum, H . ayyim Zevi of Sighet 190 Teitelbaum, Joel of Satmar 190 Temerls, Jacob ben Eliezer 191 Temunah, The Book of 191 Tetragrammaton Throne of Glory 192 Tiferet 192 Tikkun 192 Tishby, Isaiah 192 Togarmi, Barukh 192 Toledo 192 Tract of Ecstasy 192 Treasure House of Souls 193

Tree of Lofe 193 Twersky, Aaron 193 Twersky, Menahem Nahum ben Z.evi of Chernobyl 193 Twersky, Mordecai of Chernobyl 194 Tzayach, Joseph 194 Uceda, Samuel ben Isaac 195 Uri of Strelisk 195 Vidas, Elijah ben Moses de 196 Vilna Gaon see Elijah ben Solomon Zalman Vision of Ezekiel 196 Vital, H . ayyim ben Joseph 196 Vital, Samuel ben H . ayyim 197 Vizhnitz, Baruch 197 Vizhnitz, Israel 197 Vizhnitz, Menahem Mendel ben H . ayyim Hager 198 Wahrmann, Abraham David ben Asher Anschel 199 Walden, Aaron ben Isaiah Nathan 199 Wanneh, Isaac ben Abraham 199 Wilna, Jacob ben Benjamin Wolf 200 Wormser, Seckel 200 Yakhini, Abraham ben Elijah 201 Yesod 201 Yez.irah 201 Yichudim 201 Yizhaki, Abraham ben David 202 Zacuto, Moses ben Mordecai 203 Z.addik 203 Z.addik, Joseph ben Jacob Ibn 204 Zadok ha-Kohen of Lublin 204 Zahzahot 204 Zalman Schachter-Shalomi 204 Zayyah, Joseph ben Abraham ibn 204 Z.elem 205 Zemah., Jacob ben H . ayyim 205 Z.evi Hirsch Friedman of Lesko 205 Zevul 205 Z.imZ.um 205 Zohar 205 Zohar H . adash 206 Zoref, Joshua Heshel ben Joseph 206 Zusya of Hanipol 206

216