2022 Summer Summit Session 1 Digital Binder by cvanderberg

7th Annual Executive Function Summer Summit Session 1: Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners Date: Tuesday, July 26th, 2022, 11:00 AM -1:00 PM EST Presented by: Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. and Suellen Inwood, M.Ed. Description: Over the past three years, the pandemic has created new challenges for teachers and has highlighted the importance of teaching executive function strategies at all grade-levels. Students who understand their strengths and challenges and who learn to set goals, organize, prioritize, think flexibly, and self-monitor, are more motivated and are able to become independent learners. Metacognition, when integrated with executive function strategies, promotes academic success and lays the foundation for improved school performance, growth mindsets, reduced stress, and increased resilience. This presentation will provide an overview of executive function and metacognition and will focus on the what, why, how of teaching executive function across the grades and content areas. Attendees will learn practical strategies for promoting students’ self-understanding and use of executive function strategies and for reducing stress in the classroom. Presenters will also address techniques for assessing students’ use of EF strategies and for integrating these components into student rubrics and report card systems. Throughout, we will focus on the connections between students’ use of executive function strategies and their motivation, self-confidence, persistence, and resilience across the grades and content areas.

7th Annual Executive Function Summer Summit Session 1: Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners TABLE OF CONTENTS Session Overview ……………………………………………………………………………..1 Additional Resources List……………………………………………………………………..3 Session PowerPoint Slides – Lynn Meltzer ………………………………………….….…..4 Session PowerPoint Slides – Suellen Inwood …………………………………...….……35 Additional Reading – Creating Strategic Classrooms ……………………………..…40 Executive Function and Equity White Paper ……………………………….………..…79 SMARTS Feature in Attention Magazine…………………………………………………87 SMARTS Elementary Feature in Attention Magazine………………………….………90 EF and School Performance White Paper………………………………………………93 Executive Function Checklist for Remote Learning……………………………………96 Executive Function Readings………………………………………………………………99 SMARTS Secondary Curriculum Overview……………………………………………..101 SMARTS Elementary Curriculum Overview…………………………………………….105

Session 1: Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners Additional Resources Chapter that Accompanies Presentation: •

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools, chapter from Executive Function in Education (2018).

Metacognition Resources: • • • • • •

Dr. Lynn Meltzer’s explanation of Metacognition (video) Overview of the SMARTS approach to teaching Metacognition (video) Metacognitive strategies for math - Webinar (video) Metacognitive strategies for math - Blog Metacognitive strategies for reading - Webinar (video) Metacognitive strategies for reading comprehension - Blog

Additional Executive Function Links and Resources: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

SMARTS Feature in Attention Magazine Executive Function White Paper Executive Function and Equity White Paper Further Reading – Executive Function Remote Learning Checklist Webinar: Executive Function, Achievement, and Equity Webinar: Executive Function and Reading Webinar: Getting to Know SMARTS SMARTS Secondary Curriculum Overview SMARTS Elementary Curriculum Overview Elementary Free Lesson Secondary Free Lesson Contact a SMARTS Staff Member

www.researchild.org SMARTS-ef.org © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Summer Summit

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D.

President & Co-Founder

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed.

Director and Co-Founder, Easton Country Day School

Donna Kincaid, M.Ed.

Assistant Director; Director of Outreach & Professional Development

Elizabeth Ross, M.A. Media Manager

Michael Greschler, Ed.M. Director, SMARTS Programs

Jamie Cutler, M.S.

Director of Marketing & Communications

Wendy Stacey, M.S.

Director of Reading & Language

Kim Davis, M.Ed. Caitlin Vanderberg, Ed.M. Senior Associate for Research and Teacher Training

SMARTS Associate

© RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 © © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students Across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. President and Director, RESEARCHILD Research Institute for Learning and Development

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Executive function processes are essential for most daily activities

www.researchild.org www.ildlex.org www.smarts-ef.org © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

SMARTS Across the U.S.A

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

2020-2022: Have you been on overload?

My brain feels clogged

I don’t know where to begin

I’m so frustrated

I feel stuck

I can’t figure out what to focus on This is too much for me-I’m giving up

Overview PART 1: • WHAT is Executive Function? •

WHY are EF strategies so important?

•

WHAT is Metacognitive Awareness?

•

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote students’ selfunderstanding?

•

HOW do we assess Metacognitive Awareness?

•

HOW do we teach EF strategies & develop strategic classrooms?

PART 2: • HOW do we integrate EF strategies easily into he daily lives of teachers and students in schools?-Suellen Inwood

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

“There is so much emphasis placed in our society on being “smart” and “successful” and for kids with learning and executive function difficulties who feel like learning is outside of their control, this can feel like a death sentence.” (Billy, 24yrs) © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Resilience Academic Success

Metacognition Effort Self-concept Emotional Regulation

Executive Function Strategies

(Meltzer, 2007, 2010) © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

WHAT is Executive Function?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHAT is Executive Function? An umbrella term for all the complex cognitive processes that control: • Flexible, goal-directed behavior. • The coordination and synthesis of multiple processes and subskills.

WHAT is Executive Function?

Shifting Flexibly Goal Setting SelfMonitoring Organizing & Prioritizing

Memorizing/ Working Memory © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHY are EF strategies critically important for in-class as well as remote learning and teaching?

EF Strategies are critical for learning

Structure the minutes and hours each day

Learn independently

Estimate time for schoolwork, sports, activities, friends Schedule & pace learning & reading

Executive Function Paradigm (Meltzer, 2007, 2010)

• Goal Setting •Organizing & Prioritizing

• Cognitive Flexibility/ Thinking Flexibly •Remembering/Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring & Checking © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Clogged Funnel… Anxiety

“I get so frustrated. I have all these ideas in my mind but I can’t figure out how to start writing… I just get stuck and I give up.” © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Attention

Effort

Executive Function

Emotional Regulation © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Executive Function & Emotion

“When I got a big assignment that I didn’t understand, I got so angry because I just spent an hour staring at a blank word document and couldn’t figure out how to start….it was really tough and incredibly stressful.” (Billy, 7th grade)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHAT is Metacognitive Awareness?

Metacognitive Awareness

Self-understanding: • HOW do I think? •

HOW do I learn?

• HOW do my strengths and weaknesses affect my learning? • WHAT strategies work best for me?

Thinking about my Thinking

I’m not sure what this is about…

How do I figure out the main idea…

What do I know about this topic…

Where did I get stuck on this math problem…

How do I get started with my writing…

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote self-understanding in students so they learn HOW to learn?

Metacognition and Executive Function: Keeping the Funnel Unclogged Goal-Setting: How do I set doable goals?

Cognitive Flexibility: What is another way that I can solve this math problem?

Organization: How do I organize my time and my ideas?

Working memory: How do I remember all these details for my quizzes and tests?

Prioritizing: How do I figure out what’s most important for my reading &writing?

Self-monitoring: How do I find my mistakes when I check my work. © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

“My teacher and parents tried dozens of approaches to help me stay organized and engaged in the classroom but I still struggled. I felt so anxious and frustrated and I kept hoping that somebody could help me understand how to learn more easily.” (Billy, 24yrs)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Surveys Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets Ø Strategy Boards using social media (e.g. Pinterest)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Metacognitive Awareness: Know Yourself Activity

My Strengths

My Weaknesses

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Billy’s Know Yourself Venn Diagram

My Strengths:

My Challenges:

1. Working hard.

1. Paying attention.

2. Remembering things for tests.

2. Organizing my things.

3. Understanding what I read.

3. Organizing my time.

4. Learning new strategies.

5. Taking notes on what I read. 6. Checking my work.

5. Solving math problems.

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Surveys Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets Ø Strategy Boards using social media (e.g. Pinterest)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: MetaCOG Surveys • MERS (Motivation, Effort, and Resilience Survey) • STRATUS-R (Strategy Use Survey) • TPSE-R (Teacher Perceptions of Students’ Effort Survey-R) ResearchILD, 2004, 2014

Metacognition: MetaCOG Billy’s MERS:

Items:

Teacher’s TPSE

Difference

1. In general, I am a hard worker.

2. Doing well in school is

important to me. 3. I spend as much time as needed to get my work done. 4. I keep working, even when the work is difficult.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Teacher’s Comments: Billy works hard when the task is structured. However, he has no self-confidence and his concentration is erratic. His grades are poor and I’m not sure how to help him. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Summary:

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

ü ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. ü MetaCOG Surveys: Help students understand HOW they learn. Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets & Strategy Boards.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Strategy Reflection Sheets

Strategy boards or walls for Ben and other students to share their strategies. © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Strategy Reflection Sheets

Foster Metacognitive Awareness

“When you know what your strengths and weaknesses are, it gives you a different understanding of the work you have to do. It helps you reevaluate what you’re doing. If I know I have a paper to write, I’ll spend more time planning it out and figuring out how to attack it differently. I will also feel calmer and not so stressed out about my homework.” (Billy,16 yrs)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Strategy Reflection Share •

What strategy did you use?

•

How did you use the strategy?

•

Was the strategy helpful?

•

How did you know that it was helpful?

RESEARCHILD,2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©©RESEARCHILD,

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Ben/Billy and Chace LD Con 2020 Billy clip https://youtu.be/zoGBXZebvMU LD Con 2020 Chace clip https://youtu.be/zUXeS5WsUJ8

HOW do teachers easily assess Metacognitive Awareness?

MetaCOG Online Promote self-understanding in every student using a developmental model: • HOW do I learn? • HOW do I think? • HOW do my strengths and weaknesses affect my learning? • WHAT strategies work best for me? © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

MetaCOG: Student, Teacher, and Parent Survey System

Student Surveys • MERS (Motivation, Effort, & Resilience Survey); R= .91 • STRATUS (Strategy Use Survey); R=.945 • MAQ (Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire) Teacher Surveys • TPSE Teacher Perceptions of Students’ Effort; R=.98 • TIQ (Teacher Information Questionnaire) Note: R=reliability (alpha values)

MetaCOG Online: SAMPLE QUESTIONS

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

MetaCOG Online NEXT STEPS Suggested ways you can improve Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking • Put a post-it note by your desk with a reminder to read over your work before handing it in. • Before you leave for school in the morning, ask yourself if you have all the items you need. • When logging out of your computer for the day, quickly check if you completed all your tasks for the day.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

After reviewing their EF Profiles, students reported one thing they learned:

r ou fo a nk y say th allenges. to e ch ld lik fix my I w ou g me helpin der 6th gra

I ha v t o re e t h e c a v wha ise and pacity a b e t I d o t o re f o rm tte r b ec lear 10 th n e r! o m e gra der

I that k n ow I now to make re e futu n eed for th ve to goals gs I ha in on th ve on. impro der 8th gra

I need to work on my memory for assignments to help me get better grades and not miss assignments. 6th grader

What does executive function mean to you? • Strategies that can be used to make decisions. • Executive function, like a team, works together to solve problems. • Executive function means goals that you set personally and ones that you don't even realize. You can use them in school, workplace, or even at home. • I associate executive function with organization skills.

HOW do we teach EF strategies and promote resilience in students?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Teach EF Strategies Explicitly Executive Function Paradigm

• Goal Setting

(Meltzer 2007, 2010)

• Cognitive Flexibility/ Thinking Flexibly •Organizing & Prioritizing •Remembering/Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring & Checking © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

• *

Teach EF Strategies Explicitly

Use metacognitive prompts for teaching all strategies: • WHAT is the strategy? • WHEN is the strategy most helpful? • HOW should the strategy be used? © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

What is Metacognition? WHAT are my strengths/ challenges

WHY/ WHEN does this strategy work best? Lesson 1.1

Metacognition

HOW does a strategy help me learn/perform best?

© RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2021 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

What is Metacognition?

WHAT are my strengths and challenges? “I know I’m great at thinking about new solutions but I’m not great at organizing my binder and I’m also not so great at organizing my time. I’m always running late!”

Lesson 1.1

What is Metacognition?

HOW does a strategy help me learn/perform best? “I do better when I use dividers to keep my binder organized and when I clean out and check the binder regularly.”

Lesson 1.1

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

What is Metacognition?

WHY/WHEN does this strategy work for me? “Cleaning out and checking my binder is best for me at the end of the week when I have time to do it; otherwise it takes too long and I don’t get to my other schoolwork.”

Lesson 1.1

Goal-Setting Strategies

SMARTS Goal-setting

CANDO Goals C= Clear A=Appropriate N=Numerical D=Doable O=Obstacles considered

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Identifying CANDO Goals CANDO Goals Help make your goal doable by listing 3 steps needed to achieve it. “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Steps for reaching the goal:

Lesson 2.1

Identifying CANDO Goals This goal is doable because there are 3 steps listed to help achieve it.

Study 30 minutes a day Lesson 2.1

Review my notes from class every night

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Improve math score by 10 points!

Identifying CANDO Goals What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching the goal? I got busy with other work and didn’t review my flash cards. I left my notes at home.

I couldn’t do the HW because I didn’t understand it! Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Study 30 minutes a day

Lesson 2.1

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Teachers’ Comments rc e , so re so u n lin e as a eek o A R TS w M 4 S ey g d id a so th h a v in h e rs ild in g c u a b I lo v e r te to ou of ie s p g so u h te ro m uc TS stra hag g w it SM A R tra in in b rin g th e v e l. c o u ld le e g ra d each

e k e th lu m . lly li ic u I re a c u rr S T out R u re SM A u fig ry e yo 's v e it O nc , p et u th e s e. s u to e a sy

G en e ra liz a Nee tio n d : to te to w o rk o ach nh s tu d gen e n ts o w e ra liz e to a fte EF r th e y h a s k ills , le a r ve b ned een .

I highly recommend the SMARTS program. I hope the district invests in it and counselors and mildmoderate teachers can access it.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Resilience Survey Rate yourself on these items on a 1-5 scale. Try not to answer with a 3, if at all possible. • I’m good at bouncing back if I have a problem. • I don’t let problems stop me from reaching my goals. • When I have a setback, I remain optimistic that I can figure it out. • When I’m in a challenging situation, I’m determined to find a way to get around it.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Promote Effort and Persistence to Reduce Stress

EF Strategies Reduce Stress Resilience Academic Success

Metacognition Effort Self-concept Emotional Regulation

Executive Function Strategies

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Overview PART 1: • WHAT is Executive Function? •

WHY are EF strategies so important?

•

WHAT is Metacognitive Awareness?

•

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote students’ selfunderstanding?

•

HOW do teachers easily assess Metacognitive Awareness?

•

HOW do we teach EF strategies & develop strategic classrooms?

PART 2: • HOW do we integrate these strategies effectively into the daily lives of teachers and students in schools?-Suellen Inwood

APPENDIX

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul. © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD, 2021; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

7/21/22

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed., 2022

7/21/22

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed., 2022

7/21/22

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed., 2022

7/21/22

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed., 2022

7/21/22

Suellen Inwood, M.Ed., 2022

7th Annual Executive Function Summer Summit Session 1: Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners

Additional session reading: “Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools,” chapter from Executive Function in Education (2018).

11 Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools Embedding Executive Function Strategies in the Curriculum LYNN MELTZER

cademic performance in our 21st-century digital schools is increasingly dependent on students’ ability to set goals, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, access working memory, and self-monitor, all processes that are critically important from elementary school through college (Barkley, 2012; Brown, 2006, 2014; Denckla, 2007; Meltzer, 2007, 2014). These executive function (EF) processes are the underpinnings for accurate and efficient performance in school, especially for those academic tasks that require students to integrate and synthesize multiple subskills, namely, reading comprehension, writing, studying, test taking, and long-term projects (Brown, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). This chapter provides an overview of research-based EF strategies that are important for all students and are critically important for students with learning and attention difficulties. These strategies are most effective when they are taught explicitly and integrated into the classroom curriculum. The first section focuses on a theoretical framework 263

264 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

for understanding metacognition and EF processes and their impact on students’ effort, resilience, and academic performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Basho, Reddy, & Kurkul, 2015). The second section addresses techniques for promoting metacognitive awareness and embedding EF processes into the curriculum in five core areas: goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. The connections between students’ self-understanding and use of EF strategies, on the one hand, and their attention and emotional regulation in the classroom, on the other hand, are also discussed briefly. The third and final section describes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) a research-based EF curriculum that provides teachers with procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, & Stacey, 2015).

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE I’m naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. Executive function strategies helped me shift perspectives and understand myself better. I wish I had learned this stuff when I was younger. I could have used it throughout school. —Kyle , 10 th grader

As discussed in Part I of this book, EF is a multifaceted construct or “umbrella term” for the complex cognitive processes that underlie flexible, goal-directed responses in novel or difficult situations (Anderson, 2002; Barkley, 2010, 2012; Denckla, 2007; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2007, 2010). The core EF processes that influence academic performance include goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, working memory, and self-monitoring (Meltzer, 2007, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) (see Table 11.1 for definitions). These EF processes often affect students’ ability to complete academic tasks that involve synthesis and integration such as initiating writing assignments, summarizing information, taking notes, completing projects with multiple parts, studying, and submitting work on time (Barkley, 2010; Dawson & Guare, 2010; Denckla, 2007; Denckla & Mahone, Chapter 1, this volume; Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). Academic tasks that are often challenging for students with EF weaknesses are listed in Table 11.2.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 265 TABLE 11.1. EF Processes Defined Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term objectives. Figuring out a purpose and end-point. Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting: Switching easily between approaches. Looking again, in a brand new way. Prioritizing and Organizing: Ordering based on relative importance and arranging information systematically. Identifying what’s most important and sorting and categorizing information. Accessing Working Memory: Juggling information mentally. Juggling information and ideas in one’s mind. Self-Monitoring: Identifying errors and self-correcting. Finding and fixing one’s own mistakes. Note. Copyright 2014 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Students who struggle with these EF processes often experience frustration and failure, and begin to feel that their brains are “clogged” with information. The paradigm that we use to explain these difficulties is based on the analogy of a “clogged funnel,” as is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.1, repeated here as Figure 11.1). Instruction that emphasizes EF strategies can help students to “unclog the funnel,” and prevent increasing difficulties as the complexity and pace of the curriculum intensify. A comprehensive discussion of these EF weaknesses can be found in my book, Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Meltzer, 2010), and strategies for teaching specific EF processes can be found in our recently launched SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org).

PROMOTING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION ACROSS THE GRADES Executive function strategies helped me learn that, even when things are hard, I can do them. I can use strategies to make things easier. If there is a really hard word problem in math, I can read the problem and then rewrite the problem in my own way. Then it’s easy. —Jordan, eighth grader

Explicit strategy instruction benefits all students and is essential for students with learning and attention difficulties (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014; Meltzer 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi,

266 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS TABLE 11.2. Impact of EF Processes on Academic Performance Goal Setting •• Setting realistic short-term goals for homework completion and projects. •• Setting realistic monthly, quarterly, or year-long goals for academic and outof-school activities. •• Breaking down long-term goals into smaller, manageable steps. Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility •• Shifting approaches flexibly during reading comprehension, writing, and math tasks. •• Shifting between major themes or key concepts and relevant details. •• Problem-solving flexibly to get “unstuck” in academic and social situations. Organizing and Prioritizing •• Time: ▫▫ Allocating adequate time to important tasks and major goals. ▫▫ Planning and allocating time to the multiple steps in assignments, for example, writing papers, taking notes (history, science), completing longterm projects. •• Workspaces: ▫▫ Reducing distractions and clutter in work areas. •• Materials: ▫▫ Using class notes, textbooks, and study guides strategically. ▫▫ Creating systems for categorizing and finding materials easily. •• Ideas: ▫▫ Organizing and prioritizing ideas on the basis of the main themes or key concepts (reading comprehension, writing). ▫▫ Prioritizing details that are important versus details that are irrelevant and can be ignored (reading comprehension, writing, math). •• Information: ▫▫ Dividing time between reading and research versus output, such as writing a paper, layout, editing. Accessing Working Memory •• Following multistep directions. •• Completing math calculations, especially mental computation. •• Studying effectively so that critical information is retained over time to prevent the “Friday spelling test effect” (Meltzer, 2010). •• Remembering to hand in completed homework and other assignments on time, for example, students with EF difficulties often leave school with their homework still in their bags. •• Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again. Self-Monitoring •• Checking and correcting work strategically, for example, use of personalized error checklists. •• Monitoring progress systematically on classwork, papers, projects, and tests.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools

267

Key Executive Function Processes • • • • •

Goal Setting Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility Organizing and Prioritizing Accessing Working Memory Self-Monitoring

2004; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). When classroom instruction promotes students’ metacognitive awareness so that they understand their own profiles of strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to generalize their strategy use across content areas. Students also need to develop an understanding of the goals and benefits of using specific strategies for tasks so that they make the effort to adapt these strategies to fit their personal learning profiles. For example, the strategies needed to study for a math test that emphasizes procedural knowledge will differ from the strategies needed to study for a Spanish test that emphasizes memorization of vocabulary. This section highlights selected approaches for teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of the curriculum. The initial focus is on the critical role of metacognitive awareness, with suggestions for promoting metacognitive awareness in the classroom. This is followed by subsections on each of the five key EF processes, namely, goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. Within each subsection, we discuss the role of the specific EF process in the context of the academic curriculum, specifically, reading, writing, math, and the other content areas. Each subsection also includes a brief overview of a few relevant teaching strategies, many of which are core components of the SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (www.smarts-ef. org; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The last subsection briefly summarizes the important connections between these EF strategies and students’ emotional regulation in the classroom.

268 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS When you know what your strengths and weaknesses are, it gives you a different understanding of the work you have to do. It helps you reevaluate what you’re doing. If I know I have a paper to write, I’ll spend more time planning it out and figuring out where to attack differently. —Bob , 10 th grader

Metacognitive awareness, a concept originally defined by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about how he or she thinks and learns, as well as the strategies that can be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ self-understanding about their learning profiles, as well as their strengths and weaknesses in academic and social situations, influence their selection of specific strategies on academic tasks (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004). Metacognitive awareness also boosts students’ motivation to master and use these strategies in their daily classwork and homework so that their academic performance improves beyond a single task (Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, & Roditi, 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004).

PROMOTING METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN THE CLASSROOM Teachers can promote students’ metacognitive awareness when they build a culture in their classrooms that helps students to understand their learning profiles as well as the importance of using strategies for their academic work. More specifically, they can teach students explicitly what strategies are, why they should use strategies, and which strategies are effective for which tasks. Formal and informal assessment methods can help teachers to understand each student’s self-perceptions and use of EF strategies. Three practical approaches that are easy to implement in classrooms are discussed briefly below: the MetaCOG survey system, the Know Yourself Venn Diagrams system, and strategy reflection sheets. 1. MetaCOG-R Survey System (Metacognitive Awareness System— Revised) (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Kurkul, Reddy, & Basho, 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, & Sayer, 2014). The MetaCOG-R, for use with 9- to 18-year-olds, is a criterion-referenced assessment system. As is discussed in greater detail in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume), the MetaCOG-R compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of students’ effort, strategy use, and academic

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 269

performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; see also Meltzer, 2010, available at www.researchild.org and smarts-ef.org). These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend heavily on EF processes—for example, reading comprehension, written language, homework, and studying (see Table 5.3 in Chapter 5 on p. 130); Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller, Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, & Houser, 2001). The MetaCOG is described in greater detail by Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume). Survey systems such as the MetaCOG-R can be used for a variety of purposes over the course of the school year: a. To understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance. b. To help educators and clinicians to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-perceptions as well as parents’ perceptions. c. To develop a system for teaching strategies to help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work. d. To track students’ understanding and implementation of these strategies over time. Completion of the three MetaCOG surveys helps students to develop an understanding of their own learning profiles. This self-understanding is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness and their use of EF strategies (see Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume, for additional information). A sample of the qualitative items on one of the students’ surveys in the MetaCOG, the MERS (Motivation, Effort, and Resilience Survey) is provided in Figure 11.2 to illustrate the often differing perceptions of students and their teachers. On another MetaCOG questionnaire, the STRATUS Strategy Use survey, students are required to rate their use of strategies in their academic work (see Table 11.3). 2. “Know Yourself” Venn Diagrams System (www.smarts-ef.org). Students’ self-understanding can be promoted by using the SMARTS “Know Yourself” Venn Diagram strategy, which provide a structured method for encouraging students to think about their strengths and weaknesses so that they begin to understand their learning profiles and to recognize which strategies work best for them (see Figure 11.3). The Venn Diagram strategy helps students to make their learning profiles

270 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

Teacher’s Comments: Ben works hard when the task is structured. However, he has no self-confidence and his concentration is erratic. His grades are poor and I’m not sure how to help him. FIGURE 11.2. MERS Survey: Sample of sixth-grade student’s self-understanding of his effort and academic performance.

TABLE 11.3. Sample Items from the MetaCOG STRATUS Strategy Use Survey •• I have trouble breaking down my homework into smaller, more manageable parts. •• I have trouble organizing my thoughts before I write. •• When I read or write, I struggle to figure out the main ideas. •• When I am learning something new, I connect it to something I already know. •• When I do my work, I ask if my answers make sense. •• If the method I am using to solve a problem is not working, I use another way of solving it. Note. The STRATUS comprises 30 items. Items from Meltzer, Reddy, et al. (2014).

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 271

FIGURE 11.3. Know Yourself Venn Diagram strategy for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of their strengths and weaknesses (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

explicit so that they recognize and embrace their strengths and understand that their weaknesses are not all-encompassing. 3. Strategy Reflection Sheets. Strategy reflection sheets require students to reflect on and describe the processes and strategies they use for their classwork, homework, and test preparation. These comprise a multiple-choice format, structured questions, and an open-ended format and can be adjusted based on each student’s specific needs. As is illustrated in Figures 11.4a and 11.4b, completing and sharing strategy reflection sheets helps students to understand which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies to their schoolwork.

272 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Strategy Reflection Sheet: Multiple-Choice Format

(a)

What strategies did you use for your writing assignment and preparing for your test? ___ Mapping and Webbing ___ Graphic Organizer ___ Linear Outline ___ BOTEC*

___ Sentence Starters ___ Personalized Editing Checklist ___ Triple Note Tote* ___ Other

FIGURE 11.4. Strategy reflection sheets for writing and test preparation. (a) multiple-choice format (asterisks indicate SMARTS strategies) (b) openended format. Copyright 2004 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Metacognitive awareness and effective strategy use are promoted when teachers provide incentives to make strategy use count. When grades for homework and tests include points for completing strategy reflection sheets, teachers promote strategic learning in all students. Furthermore, daily or weekly strategy shares allow students to discuss their use of strategies with one another. This process is strengthened by grouping students into “executive coaching teams” who support one another so that a culture of strategy use develops in the classroom. A summary of easy-to-use techniques for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and use of EF strategies, is provided in Table 11.4. In summary, when teachers create a classroom culture that promotes metacognitive awareness and self-understanding, they can maximize the effectiveness of teaching EF strategies in the context of the curriculum.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 273 TABLE 11.4. Easy-to-Use SMARTS Techniques for Promoting Students’ Metacognitive Awareness and Use of EF Strategies in Classroom Activities Strategy reflection sheets for homework Students are graded for completing strategy reflection sheets for selected homework and test preparation assignments. This activity builds metacognitive awareness and strategic habits of mind. Strategy shares Brief daily or weekly discussion times for students to share their favorite personalized strategies from the week’s homework. Personalized strategy note cards and/or notebooks Students record their favorite strategies on strategy note cards or in strategy notebooks to make practice easier at school and at home. Strategy-of-the week display board and strategy wall Students’ favorite strategies are showcased in different content areas on display boards. Students vote for a Strategy of the Week for display. By year’s end, students’ favorite personal strategies cover classroom walls. Note. SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Goal Setting We talked about goals, long-term goals and short-term goals. I learned that one of my weaknesses is that I don’t plan ahead for things, so I always do that at the last minute. SMARTS taught me how to break apart my work into pieces, so I can do one piece at a time. —John, ninth grader

Goal setting involves the selection of specific, realistic objectives and goal-relevant activities in all aspects of students’ lives including their classwork, homework, and after-school activities. When students set their own goals, they are more motivated to make the effort to attain these goals (Krishnan, Feller, & Orkin, 2010; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Goal setting also enhances motivation and self-efficacy and requires students to: • Understand their learning strengths and weaknesses as well as their learning profiles. • Understand the “big picture” and envision the end point of a task. • Value the task. • Recognize that goals need to be attainable. Students who are able to set goals and to shift from the “big picture” to the details are usually more successful with the complex tasks that are

274 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

typical of our 21st-century schools (Meltzer, 2007, 2014). In contrast, students with poor self-understanding of their learning profiles often fail to set short-term and long-term goals, which often compromises their performance and their involvement in after-school activities (Krishnan et al., 2010). The foundations of effective goal setting and planning are often developed when parents use daily schedules, calendars, and agendas. In the early grades, these strategies are important for schoolwork, longterm projects, and after-school activities. These strategies are even more critical in the middle and high school grades when students are required to understand the goals of their assignments and to plan their study time, as well as their approaches to projects and papers. As students juggle multiple deadlines for different ongoing assignments and projects, they often underestimate the amount of work involved in major projects and open-ended tasks. As a result, they need strategies for breaking down tasks into manageable parts. Students also need to build goal-oriented schedules for planning their homework and study time after school when there is less structure. As is evident from Table 11.5, goals should be clear, appropriately realistic, and structured in a step-wise fashion. Furthermore, likely obstacles should be considered, together with potential solutions that are clearly identified. When students analyze their goals systematically, they are more likely to achieve their goals, especially in view of the fact that they often set goals that are vague and unrealistic (e.g., “I want to go from C’s to all A’s this semester”; “I want to be the best student in the class”). Strategies such as the SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy (see Table 11.5; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015) can help students to set realistic, achievable goals and to identify the steps needed to achieve these goals as well as the potential obstacles that can interfere with the process (see Table 11.5). Students can set academic and nonacademic goals early in the school year and can be taught to review these at specific times throughout the year.

Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting Learning about cognitive flexibility was my favorite part of SMARTS. That’s not something you see in school a lot. Usually it’s like, “Here’s a question, now find the answer.” It was so interesting to think about problems in a different way and to begin to understand how important it is for school. —Jen, ninth grader

Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches, is a critically important EF process that is often challenging

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 275 TABLE 11.5. The SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy Mnemonic

Purpose

Example

Clear

Avoids the use of vague words

“I want to earn at least a B on my science tests.”

Appropriate

States a goal that is attainable and realistic

“I will improve by at least one letter grade.”

Numerical

Quantifies the goal so that progress is measurable

“I will study science for 2 hours a week.”

Doable

Breaks down the steps needed to achieve the goal

“In order to get an A or B on the next test, I will study for 1 hour every day over the next 5 days.”

Obstacles Considered

Anticipates likely obstacles and incorporates potential solutions

“I feel like I’m stuck on my research paper, I need to schedule a meeting with my science teacher to get help.”

for students, especially for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to shift mind-sets and problem-solving approaches, and to integrate different representations, develops across the lifespan and varies across individuals (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Deák, 2008; Dweck, 2008; Elliott & Dweck, 2005). In fact, developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage complex academic tasks and to process many components simultaneously (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of shifting flexibly and using a range of different approaches and strategies than do middle and high school students. As students advance into the higher grades, their ability to learn new concepts is often connected to their willingness to abandon previously successful approaches and to shift flexibly to alternative methods (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Futhermore, students’ motivation, interest, passion, and attention also influence their willingness to try using different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to rely on the same approach to tasks (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Overall, this ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information

276 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problem solving, note taking, studying, and test taking. In the reading area, accurate and efficient decoding requires students to flexibly coordinate the letter–sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and the role of cognitive flexibility in reading comprehension is even more important. Specifically, reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Scornavacco et al., 2015). When reading text that incorporates complex or figurative language, students need to shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and the relevant details. Furthermore, reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to flexibly manage many different types of linguistic information at the word level, sentence level, and paragraph level (Klingner, Vaughn, Boardman, & Swanson, 2012). Similarly, when writing, students must shift between their own perspective and that of the reader, and between the important concepts and supporting details. Writing also requires students to shift flexibly between genres, topics, formats, and core concepts (Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, computational procedures, and word problems depends on their cognitive flexibility. Students are required to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve the problems (Steinberg & Roditi, Chapter 12, this volume). They also need to learn how and when to shift problemsolving schemas so that their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In content-area subjects, including science and history, students are required to differentiate main ideas from details in their textbooks. Students’ understanding of the material depends on their ability to shift from the main themes to the details and to use context clues to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings of words and phrases (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012, 2014). Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the new language they are learning. Finally, studying and test taking require students to shift among multiple topics or problem types, as they are often presented with information that is formatted differently from the ways in which they have learned or studied it before. Similarly, students are required to shift flexibly when tasks require them to apply their knowledge to novel tasks or situations—for

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 277

example, applying their background knowledge or theoretical understanding to solving a math equation or answering a history question on a test (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). For students who struggle to shift flexibly between perspectives and to process multiple representations easily, academic tasks often become progressively more challenging beyond the first few grades in school (Meltzer, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014). Furthermore, these students experience mounting difficulty as the curriculum demands increase in complexity and require them to interpret information in more than one way, change their approach when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

Strategies for Promoting Cognitive Flexibility A variety of instructional approaches can be used to promote flexible thinking across different grades and content areas. First, when teaching emphasizes systematic approaches to thinking critically and to solving problems creatively, students are required to think flexibly about ways in which their solutions could lead to different possible outcomes. Second, when teaching encourages peer discussion and collaborative learning, students are exposed to multiple viewpoints and can be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their peers (Yuill, 2007). Strategies for shifting flexibly can also be embedded into daily activities at home and in school. Activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking in the early grades has been demonstrated in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007). Their findings indicated that an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. As one example, students’ reading comprehension and interpretation of text can be improved by presenting different scenarios that teach them to analyze language and to shift among different interpretations. When they come across words or sentences that do not make sense to them, they can be taught to stop reading and to ask themselves the following questions: • Does the word have more than one meaning? • Can the word be used as both a noun and a verb?

278

PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

• Can a different syllable be emphasized in the word to give it a different meaning? • Can a different part of the sentence be emphasized to change its meaning? • Does the passage contain any figurative language, such as metaphors or expressions that may be confusing? Shifting strategies are critically important for improving students’ reading comprehension, written language, and understanding of content-area material. In the area of reading comprehension, students can be taught to shift flexibly between and among major themes and relevant details based on the goals and content requirements of the reading tasks (Meltzer & Bagnato, 2010; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). For example, the SMARTS Skim and Scoop strategy can be used to teach students to skim text systematically and to identify the main idea and important details in a passage (see Figure 11.5). As is evident from Figure 11.5, students fi nd the main idea by

FIGURE 11.5. The SMARTS Skim & Scoop Strategy: A strategy for shifting flexibly from the main ideas to the details and back.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 279

scanning the passage and circling the key words that are repeated most frequently. They then jot down the other key words in the margin of the passage; this helps them to visualize the subtopics of the passage and reinforces the idea that the main idea can be broken down into subtopics. Students then skim each paragraph looking for repeated words, synonyms, and common ideas, restating the common theme as the topic of that paragraph. This structure helps students to shift between the main ideas, subtopics, and supporting details and to begin to develop a broad outline of the passage. Similar shifting strategies can be used to improve written language. For example, three-column note-taking systems and graphic organizers make explicit connections between the main ideas and supporting details and help writers to shift more fluidly between the two. Using the SMARTS Triple Note Tote strategy, students record the major themes, core concepts, or key questions in the first column, the relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy in the third column (see Figure 11.6). The Triple Note Tote strategy helps students to differentiate between important concepts and details and also to separate relevant information from details that are irrelevant and should be ignored. This strategy can also be used to organize and prioritize information and terms as is shown in Figure 11.7 in the next section.

Organizing and Prioritizing When I learned strategies for organizing, it helped me to get my work done, to cut it up so it doesn’t seem so daunting any more. I learned to focus on the main idea, then the supporting details. It has made the work simpler and it’s way better than just jumping right in without a plan and messing up a lot. —Victor , seventh grader

Organization, or the ability to systematize and sort information, is an EF process that underlies most academic and life tasks. Students need to learn strategies for systematically organizing their time, their materials, and their ideas. They also need to learn how to apply these strategies to their writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. These strategies become increasingly important in the upper elementary grades when students are presented with an increasingly large volume of detailed information that they are required to organize for effective learning. How well they learn and remember information depends on how effectively they use strategies for organizing and prioritizing the concepts and details so that working memory is less cluttered. While many students successfully participate in class and accurately complete

280 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

FIGURE 11.6. Triple Note Tote: A SMARTS strategy for shifting flexibly between main ideas and details for reading and writing.

structured homework assignments, they may have more difficulty with independent, open-ended tasks. Reading and note taking, studying for tests, and completing written assignments all require students to impose their own structure on information. When organizational strategies are taught systematically in the context of schoolwork, students are more likely to generalize these strategies and to succeed academically (Krishnan et al., 2010). Improved academic performance and higher grades, in turn, increase students’ motivation to use these strategies independently and to generalize them across different contexts (Meltzer, 2010).

Strategies for Promoting Organizing and Prioritizing Strategies for organizing and prioritizing information all underlie efficient reading comprehension, writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. Strategies such as templates, thinking maps, and graphic

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 281

organizers provide a structured format for helping students to read for meaning, extract major themes, and relate new with known information (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004). Graphic organizers are also effective for improving students’ reading comprehension across subject areas, in particular language arts, math, science, social studies, and foreign languages. Most importantly, these organizational strategies can be taught across multiple grade levels from elementary school through high school and beyond (Krishnan et al., 2010). For example, three-column note-taking systems guide students to ask themselves active questions about the text they are reading and writing about and help them with reading, writing, summarizing, note taking, and studying. Three-column note-taking systems also encourage students to identify the main ideas, “chunk” information into manageable parts, organize and prioritize information, and develop strategies for memorizing the information for quizzes and tests (see Figure 11.6). Similar organizational strategies are also important for complex writing and note taking, which require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously including listening, organizing, prioritizing, separating main ideas from details, and then writing down these ideas (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). Many students read their textbooks and articles without taking notes, or they take notes in a random, scattered way that does not reduce the information load. Other students have difficulty deciding which information should be recorded and struggle to separate the key concepts from the supporting details, so they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly by using organizers and templates that match their learning profiles. For example, the SMARTS BOTEC strategy uses a mnemonic and a visual image to help students to organize and prioritize a large volume of information and to focus on the important steps when they are completing homework, studying, or taking tests. As is evident from Figure 11.7, the BOTEC strategy helps them to Brainstorm, Organize their thoughts, generate a Topic Sentence or thesis statement, Elaborate by providing Evidence, and draw a Conclusion. Students’ academic performance generally improves when they use the organizational strategies discussed above for writing, taking notes, studying, and completing tests.

Accessing Working Memory I used to think I was really bad at math. I could never remember anything! Then I learned to create crazy phrases and acronyms to help me remember and also to calculate things in my head . . . It’s so much easier now! —K atie , fifth grader

282

PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

Essay Question: How do you feel about homework? BRAINSTORM your ideas here: A lot of people feel that being tired is the reason why they more focused on playing video games than on doing homework. People have trouble listening and paying attention in class. ORGANIZE: Choose three ideas from your list above that relate best to the essay question. 1. Being tired 2. More important things 3. Understanding TOPIC SENTENCE: There are obstacles that prevent kids in school from doing their homework.

FIGURE 11.7. BOTEC: A SMARTS strategy for organizing and prioritizing information for writing.

”Working memory” refers to the ability to store information for short time periods while simultaneously manipulating the information mentally, for example, holding the major themes in mind while sorting through the details, or calculating a math problem mentally. Working memory is a critically important process that focuses the mind, directs mental effort, and also helps students to ignore distractions and to accomplish tasks (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). In fact, Baddeley (2006) and Swanson & Kong (Chapter 9, this volume) emphasize that working memory often functions as the central executive that directs the other cognitive processes, including the individual’s ability to inhibit impulses, shift attention, and direct effort to the task at hand (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). Working memory therefore plays a critical role in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, written expression, mental computation, math problem solving, as well as efficient and accurate long-term learning. Students who use strategies to access working memory efficiently are generally more successful with tasks that require them to focus on multiple processes simultaneously such as following directions, responding to oral questions, completing multistep directions, and mental computation in math (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Reading comprehension and written language are also heavily dependent on working memory as students need to remember and manipulate

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 283

multiple details (e.g., spelling, punctuation, rules of grammar) as they remember the main ideas, organize their ideas, prioritize important information, and figure out which details to ignore. Similarly, summarizing, taking notes, and studying for tests require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously and to remember key ideas, formulate notes while listening, and identify major themes while writing (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Memorizing information in the classroom is heavily dependent on students’ ability to focus and sustain their attention in order to make connections, retain information, and retrieve relevant details. In fact, attention and memory are so strongly linked that the two processes are often viewed as part of the same executive process (Swanson & Sáez, 2003; Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). To remember, retain, and retrieve information, students benefit from learning strategies for sustaining their attention, attaching meaning to information, chunking information, as well as rehearsing and reviewing. When students are able to make meaningful associations, they are more successful with transfer of information into long-term memory and its later retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012).

Strategies for Enhancing Working Memory Teaching students to use working memory strategies is linked with the process of teaching them strategies for organizing and prioritizing information in meaningful ways so that they can reduce the large volume of information they are required to memorize, especially in the content areas such as science, biology, and history. Mnemonics comprise one of the most effective methods for chunking information and retaining important details so that information can be mentally manipulated in working memory (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012; Regan, Evmenova, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2015). Mnemonic strategies (e.g., keywords, pegwords, acronyms, acrostics) encourage students to connect new information to what they already know, make meaningful connections to seemingly disconnected details, and improve retention of information (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000; Regan et al., 2015). For example, students can be taught to remember the states and their capitals by region using crazy phrases that help them to organize, sequence, and chunk the information so that there are fewer details to memorize. Some students prefer to use visual strategies, such as personalized diagrams, cartoons, graphic organizers, and templates (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Chants, rhymes, and songs are also important to teach to students who rely on verbal or auditory strategies to memorize. As students learn and practice memory strategies, they benefit from modeling and support from

284 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

teachers and peer mentors, who can encourage them to create their own memory strategies that match their individual learning profiles and to practice applying these strategies to their schoolwork (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010).

Self-Monitoring/Self-Regulation If a kid keeps getting D’s on his test, but he doesn’t stop to think about why he’s getting a D, he can’t do any better. You have to look at your tests and find patterns in your mistakes, then you can see the hard stuff coming and be prepared. —Jake , 11th grader

“Self-monitoring” refers to the ways in which learners manage their cognitive and metacognitive processes to track their own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). When students self-monitor, they review progress toward their goals, evaluate the outcomes, and redirect their efforts when needed. The ability to self-monitor depends on students’ metacognitive awareness, as well as their flexibility in shifting back and forth from the themes to the details. Therefore, students’ self-monitoring strategies relate to their ability to recognize when, how, and why to use specific strategies; to check the effectiveness of their strategy use; to evaluate and revise their strategy use; and to continually adjust their use of strategies based on the task demands (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Many students, especially students with learning and attention problems, have difficulty reflecting, monitoring their own learning, and evaluating the connections between their effort, strategy use, and performance. As they focus their effort on reading, writing, math problem solving, and content learning, they may struggle to monitor their attention and performance, and may have difficulty shifting among a range of problem-solving approaches or strategies that are available to them (Klingner et al., 2012; Montague, 2003). Students therefore need systematic, structured, and scaffolded instruction in using self-monitoring strategies flexibly so that they can become independent learners who do not need the assistance of others to complete academic tasks successfully (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that teaching self-monitoring strategies systematically to students can improve their performance significantly (Graham & Harris, 2003). Explicit, structured teaching encourages students to slow down and allocate the necessary time to spiral back and forth between the task demands and their own output (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Students also need to be

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 285

taught self-regulation strategies such as asking themselves questions as they go through the steps of problem solving as well as monitoring their own performance systematically (Montague, 2003). Explicit and systematic instruction therefore helps students to gain access to strategic knowledge, apply strategies, and regulate their use of strategies and overall performance. For example, in the writing domain, students need to be taught strategies for shifting mind-sets from that of the “writer” to that of the “editor” as they often have difficulty identifying their own errors. A “one-size-fits-all” generic editing checklist is often ineffective, as different students make different types of errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). While one student may consistently make spelling errors but have no difficulty with organization, another may have the opposite profile. When students develop explicit and personalized checklists for particular assignments, they know what to check for and they make fewer errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Self-monitoring and editing are often easier if students edit their work using a different colored pen, if they read their written work aloud, or if they write the original draft on a computer, print it out, and edit a hard copy. Peer editing is also extremely powerful if a systematic process is implemented in the classroom (see Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume).

Strategies for Improving Self-Monitoring and Self-Regulation Students often realize that their writing is weak but they do not know how to revise their writing to improve the content, structure, and organization using specific strategies. Even when they are given a rubric that outlines the expectations for the assignment, they may have difficulty determining whether their writing meets the criteria. They benefit from a guided process for analyzing several of their writing samples to determine their most common mistakes and using this process to develop personalized editing checklists (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). They also benefit from creating personalized checklists to help them to check their work systematically. Figure 11.8 provides one example of a personalized strategy that a sixth grader developed to cue him to check his writing for errors he commonly made, particularly the extent to which he mixed his tenses and used awkward sentence structure. Finally, when taking tests, students also benefit from developing personalized strategies and checklists for editing their work before handing in their tests. Personalized self-checking cards and mnemonics to remember the core ideas are most beneficial (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). For example, Figure 11.9 illustrates a strategy for checking tests that incorporates a visual image for those who more easily remember

286 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

STOPS S– Sentence Structure T– Tenses O–Organization P– Punctuation S– Spelling

visual information as well as a “crazy phrase” for those students who more easily remember verbal information. Overall, effective self-monitoring requires students to reflect on their progress toward a goal, select strategies that work, and alter ineffective strategies (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). The quality of students’ academic work improves when they are able to recognize the value of reviewing their work and shifting mind-sets so that they know what to look for and how to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010). As discussed in the next section, students’ motivation and emotional mind-sets frequently affect their willingness to make the often superhuman effort needed to stop, reflect, check, and correct multiple drafts of their work, processes that are critically important for long-term academic success.

Emotional Regulation Students’ self-understanding and their ability to engage actively in the learning process through the use of EF strategies is strongly connected with their ability to regulate their emotions in and outside the classroom (Stein, 2010). The effects of emotion on the learning process range along a continuum. Specifically, moderate emotional arousal has a positive influence on students’ attention and use of EF processes including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Gross, 2007; Stein,

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools

287

Checking Strategies for Tests Name Did I write my name on the test? Direc�ons Did I follow the direc�ons? Strategies  Did I use my strategies? Correc�ons Did I check and make correc�ons? Never Drink Sour Cocoa! FIGURE 11.9. Self-checking strategy for tests. Copyright 2010 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

2010). In contrast, extreme emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, anger) often disrupt students’ attention and ability to shift flexibly in academic and social situations as well as their ability to learn and remember new information (Stein, 2010). More specifically, the relationship between anxiety and performance is characterized by a U-shaped curve so that a moderate level of anxiety is optimal for most students so that they make the effort to organize and prioritize information and to use strategies flexibly. In contrast, test performance is often poor when students either are not anxious at all and have consequently not studied, or are excessively anxious, which interferes with attention, working memory, and overall performance (Goleman, 1995). In the classroom, students’ self-understanding as well as their ability to regulate and shift their emotions are important processes underlying efficient learning. As students develop strategies for regulating their emotional responses in the classroom, they more easily attend to instructions, sustain their effort, and curb their frustration in response to difficult tasks (Stein, 2010). They also learn how to collaborate with peers and to adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. More specifically, when students regulate their emotions they can more easily focus attention on the academic content rather than their feelings, use self-talk to encourage themselves when anxious, ask for help when needed, and express their feelings in socially acceptable ways (Stein, 2010). As discussed by Stein (2010), a proactive approach to

288 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

addressing students’ emotional regulation in the classroom involves four critical components: • Understanding each student’s learning profile and emotional vulnerabilities. • Understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student. • Developing individualized prevention and intervention plans for vulnerable students. • Telling students ahead about upcoming changes, transitions, challenges, or requests for participation in classes. Prevention approaches for teachers focus on helping students to avoid frustration and get started by providing structure, breaking down tasks into smaller steps, giving alternative assignments or test formats if needed, or providing flexible due dates (Stein, 2010). Intervention approaches also focus on avoiding judgment, anger, or blame; providing a system of collaborative supports; and offering choices to students (e.g., safe places to reduce stress; quiet rooms for taking tests). The next and final section of this chapter provides a brief overview of a systematic EF curriculum that includes procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: A SYSTEMATIC PROGRAM FOR TEACHING EF STRATEGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CURRICULUM I am naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. SMARTS helped me shift perspectives and develop strategies to understand myself better. I wish I had learned these SMARTS strategies when I was younger. I could have used it during my entire academic career. —Kyle , 12th grader

As has been emphasized throughout this chapter, all students benefit when EF strategies are taught explicitly and are embedded systematically into the daily curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The final section of this chapter briefly summarizes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program, a research-based program that is designed to foster metacognitive awareness and EF strategy instruction in combination with peer mentoring and peer coaching (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). SMARTS is an acronym for Strategies, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, and Success, and each of these strands is

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 289

a core component of this program (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2012; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The SMARTS program is anchored in a theoretical paradigm that is designed to promote the key processes that are the underpinnings for resilience and success, namely, metacognition, EF strategies, persistence, and academic self-concept (see Figure 5.2 and discussion in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). When students understand how to learn, they can become flexible thinkers and problem solvers who can be taught strategies to help them organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, and self-monitor when they complete their classwork, homework, and tests (Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Once this foundation of metacognitive awareness has been established, EF strategies can be taught explicitly and systematically so that students learn to set their own goals, organize and prioritize information, shift flexibly in both academic and social situations, use effective strategies for accessing working memory, and self-monitor effectively. Students’ academic selfconcept, effort, and resilience can be enhanced further by building a supportive peer-mentoring and peer-coaching community in schools, when this is logistically feasible. As is discussed below, the SMARTS program has been designed to promote metacognitive awareness, to teach EF strategies explicitly and systematically, and to promote academic selfconcept and resilience using explicit instruction that is complemented by peer mentoring, if possible (see Figure 11.10). To help teachers provide explicit teaching of EF strategies that are linked with the academic curriculum, SMARTS Online has been developed, pilot-tested, and evaluated in public, private, charter, and home school settings over the past 8 years (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). SMARTS Online explicitly addresses the important processes that have been discussed in this chapter, namely, metacognitive awareness, goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. This year-long curriculum comprises 30 lesson plans, PowerPoint presentations for the classroom, handouts and worksheets, and training videos, all of which focus on teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically from the late elementary grades into high school (see Figure 11.11 for selected lessons from the SMARTS Curriculum) (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). These EF strategies are designed to help students to become active learners who can begin to use strategies effectively for their classwork, homework, and studying. In summary, the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program is designed to help teachers to implement EF instruction in their

290

PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

classrooms in the most practical, efficient, and effective manner possible, as is summarized briefly below (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Bascho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Teachers to Promote Flexible Learning in Students SMARTS was a lifeline for us. My main job is to get kids to be successful in school, and SMARTS has been a great support. It’s given me a whole new perspective, and respect for the fact that not every kid thinks or performs the same way. —11tH- gradE tEacHEr

Our work with educators who have implemented the SMARTS Executive Function curriculum in their classrooms has consolidated a number of principles than can guide the practice of teachers who strive to promote flexible thinking in their students and to embed EF strategies into the curriculum. These principles include the following:

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 291

• Teachers foster metacognitive awareness in their students by integrating activities that promote self-understanding into classroom tasks. • Teachers foster flexible thinking and strategic mind-sets in their students using a strengths-based approach to instruction. • Teachers develop a best practices model of EF strategy instruction that takes account of students’ strengths and challenges when they assign classwork, homework, and tests. FIGURE 11.11. The SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum: Selected units and lessons. Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

• Teachers develop an awareness of ways in which their own teaching styles affect the EF demands they place on their students. • Teachers create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms by embedding EF strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices.

292 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

• Teachers create classroom activities that take account of the interactions among EF strategies, effort, academic self-concept, and academic performance as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic success. • Teachers integrate EF strategies into students’ homework assignments, long-term projects, and tests and they make strategy use count by assigning grades and extra credit for strategy use. • Teachers create opportunities for students to share their strategies in groups and to showcase strategies that they have created independently. • Teachers and schools create a strategic and reflective learning environment across grades and content areas that integrates EF into all aspects of learning while promoting a strengths-based approach to instruction for all students. • Teachers implement peer mentoring or peer coaching in their classes to increase the impact of these EF strategies on students’ learning. • Teachers recognize that a systematic peer support system provides a powerful forum for helping students to understand their learning profiles, to develop metacognitive awareness, and to apply EF strategies to their schoolwork and homework (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Students to Learn HOW to Learn The SMARTS strategies really helped me a lot. Once I learned about goal setting and other strategies in SMARTS, I created a schedule for getting my homework done, I finished my homework more quickly, and I got better grades. SMARTS was a great program for me. —Jenny, eighth grader

As teachers implement practices and strategies that promote flexible thinking, students learn HOW to learn and benefit in the following ways: • Students increase their metacognitive awareness and their selfunderstanding so that they can identify their strengths and weaknesses as well as their personal and academic goals. • Students understand that EF strategies and focused effort are important for academic success. • Students begin to value the process of learning as they become cognitively flexible and learn to shift flexibly during problemsolving and other academic tasks. • Students learn how to set attainable academic goals, organize and

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 293

prioritize information, and think flexibly when they read, take notes, write, and study. • Students begin to recognize that their own effort, persistence, and determination are critical for fostering academic and life success. • Students view themselves as part of a community of learners who can help one another through peer mentoring and peer coaching, a process that also strengthens emotional self-regulation (see Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015, for details).

SMARTS Intervention Studies: Summary of Findings Our school-based studies over the past 8 years have consistently demonstrated that SMARTS benefits general education as well as special education students by helping them to understand their strengths and weaknesses while building their motivation to work hard and to use learning strategies in their schoolwork (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Sayer, Reddy, & Greschler, 2015). In our most recent SMARTS intervention study, sixth- and seventh-grade teachers were trained to use the SMARTS curriculum to teach EF strategies to 200 general and special education students while the control group teachers continued to provide the usual curriculum to another 200 students. Compared to nonSMARTS students, special education and general education students in the SMARTS program used significantly more EF strategies in their classwork. They were also more flexible, worked harder when they completed their classwork and homework, and showed higher levels of self-understanding (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer, Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Stacey, 2015). These students were also more resilient and optimistic in their approach to the many academic challenges they faced on a daily basis (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015). One of our most interesting findings was that students with learning difficulties in the intervention group showed significant increases in cognitive flexibility over the course of the school year. In contrast, students with learning difficulties in the control group declined in their cognitive flexibility so that they were less flexible in their approach to problem-solving and learning tasks despite the fact that they were receiving individualized remediation in school. In other words, students with learning difficulties who were receiving small-group pull-out services in the learning center at least once or twice weekly were nevertheless deteriorating in their ability to shift flexibly. In contrast, the students in these learning centers who were taught EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of their academic work showed improvements over the course of the year. Teachers also reported that the breadth and depth

294 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

of the SMARTS program made a major difference to the quality of students’ classwork and homework. In a series of other school-based intervention studies, our findings highlighted the importance of strengthening students’ cognitive flexibility and teaching students strategies for thinking flexibly. Specifically, SMARTS students with higher cognitive flexibility scores were more goal-oriented, more persistent, and worked harder in school (Meltzer et al., 2011). Students who were flexible thinkers also used more strategies in their schoolwork and were more organized. Classroom teachers rated these students as having stronger academic performance and as checking their work more frequently (Meltzer et al., 2011). Overall, students’ cognitive flexibility, academic self-concept, and goal orientation all influenced their effort, persistence, and academic performance. When a mentoring component was included in the SMARTS intervention, our findings from four studies with middle and high school students in four low-income inner-city schools in Boston showed that positive mentoring relationships increased students’ motivation, effort, and strategy use, resulting in improved self-concept and self-efficacy (Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Kurkul, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014). More specifically, students in stronger peer mentoring relationships displayed significantly higher levels of effort and strategy use in comparison with students in weak peer mentoring relationships (Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). These students also used strategies more frequently and consistently in their classwork, homework, projects, studying, and tests. Interestingly, students in stronger peer-mentoring relationships showed higher levels of metacognitive awareness as evidenced on their completed strategy reflection sheets as well as by their ability to identify and correctly apply EF strategies. Furthermore, they showed significantly higher levels of resilience in comparison with students in weak peer-mentoring relationships (e.g., “I do not let problems stop me from reaching my goals”) (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). Findings also showed that the intervention had positive effects on teachers’ self-understanding and approaches to teaching (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015). Prior to the SMARTS intervention, teachers reported that they did not use consistent approaches to teaching strategies in special education or general education classes. At the end of the school year, the special education and the general education teachers reported that they were able to collaboratively develop unique, interactive ways to embed the SMARTS EF strategies into the curriculum. Most importantly, teachers reported that they and their students developed stronger metacognitive awareness and began to value the importance of using EF strategies (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015).

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 295

CONCLUSIONS The growing presence of technology and the increased pace of our 21stcentury classrooms have increased the pressure on students to set goals, problem-solve flexibly, organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. As a result, schools are placing more emphasis on the importance of promoting metacognitive awareness in students and teaching EF processes explicitly and systematically. When school programs integrate explicit instruction in EF strategies and emotional regulation into the curriculum, they provide students with a strong foundation for developing self-confidence, a positive work ethic, and resilience, the gateways to academic and life success. Our SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum has been developed as one step toward meeting this critical need by promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of why, where, and how to use specific strategies to help them succeed with the academic curriculum across the grades and content areas. Hopefully, the next decade will see many more programs that build EF strategies into students’ daily work, thereby promoting positive self-concept, persistence, resilience, and academic success in all students. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We offer our thanks to the dedicated staff and interns at the Research Institute for Learning and Development for their help and support and for their invaluable suggestions, in particular, Michael Greschler, Kim Davis, and Sylvie Wong. Thanks, too, to Bee Keswa and Thelma Segal for their help with the manuscript preparation. Thanks to Stacy Parker Fischer and the Oak Foundation for supporting our work on EF and SMARTS for many years and for helping so many teachers and students to become flexible, strategic learners.

REFERENCES Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive functioning (EF) in childhood. Child Neuropsychologia, 8(2), 71–82. Baddeley, A. (2006). Working memory: An overview. In S. Pickering (Ed.), Working memory and education (pp. 3–26). Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Bagnato, S., & Meltzer, L. (2010). Self-monitoring and self-checking: The cornerstones of independent learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 160–174). New York: Guilford Press. Barkley, R. (2010). Evaluating executive functioning deficits in everyday life. ADHD Report, 18(6), 9–10. Barkley, R. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. New York: Guilford Press.

296 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Block, C. C., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (2002). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices. New York: Guilford Press. Brown, A. L., Bransford, J. D., Ferrara, R. A., & Campione, J. C. (1983). Learning, remembering and understanding. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 77–166). New York: Wiley. Brown, T. (2006). Executive functions and ADHD: Implications of two conflicting views. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(1), 35–46. Brown, T. (2014). Smart but stuck: Emotions in teens and adults with ADHD. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cartwright, K. B. (Ed.). (2008a). Literacy processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching (ix–xii). New York: Guilford Press. Cartwright, K. B. (2008b). Concluding reflections: What can we learn from considering implications of representational development and flexibility for literacy teaching and learning? In K. B. Cartwright (Ed.), Literacy processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching (pp. 359–371). New York: Guilford Press. Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2010). Executive skills in children and adolescents: A practical guide to assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Deák, G. O. (2008). Foreword for Literacy Processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching. In K. B. Cartwright (Ed.), Literacy processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching. New York: Guilford Press. Denckla, M. B. (2007). Executive function: Binding together the definitions of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 5–19). New York: Guilford Press. Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House. Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (2005). Competence and motivation: Competence as the core of achievement motivation. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 3–15). New York: Guilford Press. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. Goldstein, S., & Naglieri, J. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of executive functioning. New York: Springer. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2003). Students with learning disabilities and the process of writing: A meta-analaysis of SRSD studies. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning disabilities (pp. 383–402). New York: Guilford Press. Gross, J. J. (Ed.). (2007). Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford Press. Harris, K., & Graham, S. (2009). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Premises, evolution, and the future. British Journal of Educational Psychology (Monograph Series), 6, 113–135. Kim, B. A., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., & Shangjin, W. J. (2004). Graphic organizers

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 297 and their effects on the reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 105–119. Kincaid, K., & Trautman, N. (2010). Remembering: Teaching students how to retain and mentally manipulate information. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 110–139). New York: Guilford Press. Klingner, J., Vaughn, S., Boardman, A., & Swanson, E. (2012). Now we get it!: Boosting comprehension with collaborative strategic reading. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Krishnan, K., Feller, M. J., & Orkin, M. (2010). Goal setting, planning, and prioritizing: The foundations of effective learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 57–85). New York: Guilford Press. Mastropieri, M. A. & Scruggs, T. E. (1998). Enhancing school success with mnemonic strategies. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33, 201–208. Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2012). How can teacher attitudes, co-teaching and differentiated instruction facilitate inclusion? In C. Boyle & K. Topping (Eds.), What works in inclusion? (pp. 153–163). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2014). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective differentiated instruction (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Meltzer, L. (2004). Executive function in the classroom: Metacognitive strategies for fostering academic success and resilience. Paper presented at the Learning Differences Conference, Cambridge, MA. Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2007). Executive function in education: From theory to practice. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive function and metacognition in students with learning disabilities: New approaches to assessment and intervention. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 1(2), 31–63. Meltzer, L. (2014). Teaching executive functioning processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In J. Naglieri, & S. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 445–474). New York: Springer. Meltzer, L. (2015, October). Executive function and flexible thinking: The foundations of academic success and resilience. J. L. Wiederholt Award and Distinguished Lecture Keynote Address presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Meltzer, L., & Bagnato, J. S. (2010). Shifting and flexible problem solving: The anchors for academic success. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 140–159). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., & Basho, S. (2010). Creating a classroom wide executive function culture that fosters strategy use, motivation, and resilience. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 28–54). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function, effort, and academic self-concept. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 2(2), 91–123.

298 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 1–32). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. J., Greschler, M., Stacey, W., Kurkul, K., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum. Available at www.smarts-ef.org. Meltzer, L., Katzir, T., Miller, L., Reddy, R., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic self-perceptions, effort, and strategy use in students with learning disabilities: Changes over time. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(2), 99–108. Meltzer, L. J., Katzir-Cohen, T., Miller, L., & Roditi, B. (2001). The impact of effort and strategy use on academic performance: Student and teacher perceptions. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 24(2), 85–98. Meltzer, L., & Krishnan, K. (2007). Executive function difficulties and learning disabilities: Understandings and misunderstandings. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 77–106). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Kurkul, K., Reddy, R., & Basho, S. (2014, February). Executive function strategies: The link between effort and academic self-concept. Paper presented at the Pacific Coast Research Conference, San Diego, CA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Brach, E., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., & Ross, E. (2011, April). The SMARTS Mentoring Program: Fostering self-concept, motivation, and executive function strategies in students with learning difficulties. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Kurkul, K. (2013, June). In L. Meltzer (Chair), Executive function and effort: The effects of peer mentoring in students with learning differences. Paper delivered at the 37th annual conference of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities, Boston, MA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Pollica, L., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic success in students with learning disabilities: The roles of self-understanding, strategy use, and effort. Thalamus, 22(1), 16–32. Meltzer, L. J., Reddy, R., Sales, L., Roditi, B., Sayer, J., & Theokas, C. (2004). Positive and negative self-perceptions: Is there a cyclical relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of effort, strategy use, and academic performance? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(1), 33–44. Meltzer, L., Reddy, P., & Sayer, J. (2014). Metacognitive Awareness System, Revised (MetaCOG-R). Lexington, MA: Research Institute for Learning and Development. Meltzer, L., Sayer, J., Reddy, R., & Greschler, M. (2015, October). Executive function, effort, and resilience in the classrooom: What does our research tell us? Paper presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Miller, L., Meltzer, L., Katzir-Cohen, T., & Houser, R. (2001). Academic heterogenity in students with learning disabilities. Thalamus, 19(1), 20–33.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 299 Montague, M. (2003). Solve it: A mathematical problem-solving instructional program. Reston, VA: Exceptional Innovations. Montague, M., & Jitendra, A. K. (2006). Teaching mathematics to middle school students with learning difficulties. New York: Guilford Press. Regan, K., Evmenova, A., Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2015). Peer interactions in the content areas: Using differentiated instruction strategies. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 33–68). New York: Guilford Press. Reid, R., & Lienemann, T. O. (2006). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. New York: Guilford Press. Sayer, J., Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Stacey, W. (2015, October). Metacognitive awareness and executive function in the classroom: The impact on students and teachers. Paper presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Scornavacco, K., Moore, B., Boardman, A., Lasser, C., Buckley, P., & Klingner, J. (2015). Using collaborative strategic reading to promote student discourse. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 102–142). New York: Guilford Press. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2000). The effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students with learning and behavior problems: An update and research synthesis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 163–173. Shanahan, C. H., & Shanahan, T. (2008). Content-area reading/learning: Flexibility in knowledge acquisition. In K. B. Cartwright (Ed.), Literacy processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching (pp. 208–234). New York: Guilford Press. Stein, J. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 175–201). New York: Guilford Press. Swanson, H. L. (2001). Research on intervention for adolescents with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of outcomes related to high-order processing. Elementary School Journal, 101, 331–348. Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis: Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16(2), 109–119. Swanson, H. L., & Sáez, L. (2003). Memory difficulties in children and adults with learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 182–198). New York: Guilford Press. Yuill, N. (2007). Visiting Joke City: How can talking about jokes foster metalinguistic awareness in poor comprehenders? In D. MacNamara (Ed.), Reading comprehension (pp. 325–345). New York: Erlbaum. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Copyright © 2018 The Guilford Press. No part of this text may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Purchase this book now: www.guilford.com/p/meltzer

Guilford Publications 370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200 New York, NY 10001 212-431-9800 800-365-7006 www.guilford.com

7th Annual Executive Function Summer Summit Session 1: Metacognition and Executive Function: Empowering Students across the Grades to Become Independent, Resilient Learners

Additional resources

Executive Function and Equity How Executive Function Curricula Can Help Level the Playing Field in Education Abstract Executive function (EF) processes–goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, memorizing, self-checking and monitoring–are critically important for learning and social behavior. This white paper explores the connections between EF development and equitable student outcomes. For the purpose of clarity, we examine equity through the lens of socio-economic status while recognizing the multi-faceted and intersectional nature of equity in education.

Key Takeaways: • Executive function mediates the relationship between academic achievement and socio-economic status. • When teachers address students’ executive function deficits this helps to decrease SES related achievement gaps. • A structured, systematic, and explicit approach to teaching executive function strategies empowers students to learn how to learn and fosters self-understanding.

Executive Function Processes: The Foundation of Academic Success From the earliest grades, academic tasks require the coordination and integration of numerous processes as well as the ability to think flexibly and to self-check. Reading for meaning, solving math problems, elaborating in writing, summarizing, note-taking, and studying all require students to set 1 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

goals, organize and prioritize information, shift perspectives, think and problem-solve flexibly, memorize, and self-monitor. These executive function processes therefore have a major impact on the accuracy and efficiency of students’ performance in academic and social situations (Meltzer, 2010, 2013, 2018; Meltzer et al., 2021). Poverty and other socio-economic factors create toxic stress that affects many areas of executive function (Aran-Filippetti & Richaud de Minzi, 2012) such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Rosen et al., 2020). In fact, substantial gaps in working memory and cognitive flexibility among students from lower socio-economic backgrounds have been identified as early as second grade (Little, 2017; see Figure 1). A recent meta-analysis of 299 studies showed that there is a significant relationship between executive function skills and academic outcomes throughout elementary school (Spiegel et al., 2021).

Figure 1. Executive function (EF) scores by SES quintile (Little, 2017). Note: The Numbers Reversed Task was used for working memory and Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) for cognitive flexibility.

Why It Matters for Educators Research has shown that executive function mediates SES disparities in school achievement; therefore, interventions targeting executive function could help to close the SES-related achievement gap (Lawson & Farrah, 2017). In this regard, explicit, systematic teaching of EF strategies in the context of the academic curriculum can make a significant difference for children across the SES spectrum. Furthermore, EF strategy instruction can 2 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

promote improved school performance throughout childhood and adolescence (Best et al., 2011) as well as increased persistence and resilience (Lawson & Farrah, 2017; Meltzer, 2013, 2018). Data suggest that addressing students’ EF deficits may help decrease SES related achievement gaps (Lawson & Farah, 2017). Working memory, for instance, actually mediates the association between parent education and math performance (Waters et al., 2021). Similarly, the ability to plan in third grade mediates the income-achievement gap in math and aspects of reading (Crook & Evans, 2014). Figure 2: 37% of the SES gap in middle schoolers’ math achievement is accounted for by EF (Albert et al., 2020).

What Educators Can Do: The SMARTS Approach Teachers can address their students’ executive function challenges by using a structured, systematic, and explicit approach to help students develop an understanding of their own learning profiles and executive function strategies that match their profiles. Explicit instruction in executive function strategies is critically important for improving students’ effort, resilience, and academic performance (Meltzer, 2010, 2013, 2018; Meltzer et al., 2021). The SMARTS Executive Function strategy curriculum is a research-based program that is designed to foster metacognitive awareness and executive function strategy use (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). SMARTS Online addresses metacognitive awareness, goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. The SMARTS curriculum provides a structured, systematic curriculum that helps educators teach students effective executive function 3 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

strategies. Hundreds of schools in 45 states and 25 countries utilize SMARTS as a tool to teach their students to learn how to learn.

SMARTS School Spotlight: The Arapahoe Schools Two administrators from the Arapahoe Schools in Wyoming—Dr. Julie Jarvis, Director of Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment, and Veronica Miller, Instructional Facilitator—emphasized how explicit teaching of SMARTS EF strategies has helped their schools serve “the whole child” and address the educational inequities their students face. According to Dr. Jarvis, 99% of students who attend the Arapahoe Schools are from the Northern Arapaho and the Eastern Shoshone tribes. She noted that the Native American population is the most underserved in Wyoming as well as in the United States. While the rest of Wyoming maintained in-person schooling throughout the pandemic, the Arapahoe Schools were fully virtual until February of 2021, widening the gap between students at the Arapahoe Schools and their peers. At the Arapahoe Schools, language and culture preservation are priorities. It is vital that educators are aware of and sensitive to the historical trauma and language erasure that the Northern Arapaho tribe has faced. Dr. Jarvis commented that the Arapahoe schools use trauma-informed strategies to support students’ academic and emotional needs when students’ “fight-or-flight” responses are activated in order to engage students in learning and social activities.

Veronica Miller highlighted the ways in which SMARTS executive function lessons have helped Arapahoe Schools address socio-economic inequities. Goal setting exercises help students and teachers to create shared visions of continual academic progress. Lessons on planning and organizing teach students how to manage their workloads, and instruction on metacognition and recall strategies help students focus on important details while reading and learning. Dr. Jarvis and Ms. Miller’s comments illustrate the tremendous potential of addressing executive function challenges to empower students to understand their own learning profiles and to develop the persistence and resilience needed for success in school and in life. With greater self-understanding and a toolkit of customized executive function strategies, students can find their personalized pathways to success.

What Teachers Can Do ➢ Promote students’ self-understanding by having them brainstorm a list of their strengths and challenges. ➢ Teach students to set goals and track their progress so they can visualize their improvement. ➢ Help students develop personalized toolkits of strategies they can use to succeed inside and out of the classroom.

Learn more about ResearchILD Under the leadership of Dr Lynn Meltzer, ResearchILD has become a leader in the field of executive function strategies. Executive function represents a powerful tool for developing equitable and anti-racist educational systems. Through our longstanding work in underserved communities, we have worked closely with teachers and administrators to integrate executive function strategy instruction into project-based learning with an emphasis on student and community empowerment. In 2020, ResearchILD launched the Executive Function and Equity Fellowship, with the goal of helping educators from across the US and globe to address students’ executive function needs through an equity lens. Learn more about SMARTS and ResearchILD’s commitment to supporting educators in leveraging executive function strategy development as a tool for equity.

Sources Albert, W. D., Hanson, J. L., Skinner, A. T., Dodge, K. A., Steinberg, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Bornstein, M. H., & Lansford, J. E. (2020). Individual Differences in Executive Function Partially Explain the Socioeconomic Gradient in Middle-School Academic Achievement. Developmental Science, 23(5). Aran-Filippetti, V., & Richaud de Minzi, M. C. (2012). A Structural Analysis of Executive Functions and Socioeconomic Status in School-Age Children: Cognitive Factors as Effect Mediators. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 173(4), 393–416. Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample. Learning and individual differences, 21(4), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007 Crook, S. R., & Evans, G. W. (2014). The Role of Planning Skills in the Income-Achievement Gap. Child Development, 85(2), 405–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12129 Lawson, G. M., & Farah, M. J. (2017). Executive Function as a Mediator between SES and Academic Achievement throughout Childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(1), 94–104. Little, M. (2017). Racial and Socioeconomic Gaps in Executive Function Skills in Early Elementary School: Nationally Representative Evidence From the ECLS-K:2011. Educational Researcher, 46(2), 103–109. Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive Function and Metacognition in Students with Learning Disabilities: New Approaches to Assessment and Intervention. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 1(2), 31–63. Meltzer, L. (2018). Creating strategic classrooms and schools: Embedding executive function strategies in the curriculum. In Executive function in education: From theory to practice, 2nd ed (pp. 263–299). The Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Greschler, M. A., Davis, K., & Vanderberg, C. (2021). Executive Function, Metacognition, and Language: Promoting Student Success With Explicit Strategy Instruction. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 6(6), 1343–1356. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_PERSP-21-00034 Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program. www.smarts-ef.org. Rosen, M. L., Hagen, M. P., Lurie, L. A., Miles, Z. E., Sheridan, M. A., Meltzoff, A. N., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2020). Cognitive Stimulation as a Mechanism Linking Socioeconomic Status with Executive Function: A Longitudinal Investigation. Child Development, 91(4). Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021). Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 329–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000322 7 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Waters, N. E., Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Morrison, F. J., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2021). Pathways from socioeconomic status to early academic achievement: The role of specific executive functions. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 54, 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.09.008

PROMISING PRACTICES

by Mark Katz, PhD

Tailored for Young Learners: SMARTS Elementary OW DO WE EMPOWER CHILDREN to tackle

difficult problems and achieve personal goals, both in school and in life? Lynn Meltzer, PhD, president and director of the Institutes for Learning and Development, says one possible way is to immerse them in a school culture that values, fosters, and celebrates metacognitive awareness. “Metacognitive awareness is the foundation for understanding our strengths and challenges and how they impact our learning,” says Meltzer. “And that’s the key ingredient for identifying and then using executive function strategies that will work best for us when tackling problems and striving toward our goals.” She adds, “This is true for all of us, whether or not we experience ADHD.” The exciting part is that we now know how to teach metacognitive awareness to students of all ages, she says,

SHUTTERSTOCK/ VECTORFUSIONART

even young school-aged children. Meltzer and her team at the Institutes for Learning and Development have created a curriculum that does just that—and more. It’s called SMARTS Elementary (SMARTS = Strategies, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, Success).

Fostering metacognitive awareness SMARTS Elementary comprises thirty lessons, all designed to teach, foster, and celebrate the use of executive function strategies in ways that lead to greater school success. They do this by helping children become more metacognitively aware. Designed for grades 3 to 5, the user-friendly, strengths-based curriculum weaves highinterest activities throughout to help children continually explore their strengths and challenges. At the same time the curriculum also weaves in the specific executive func-

August 2019

tion strategies that will be most helpful when it comes to performing better in school and in life. In a SMARTS classroom, learning effective executive function strategies no longer pertains only to children with ADHD. We all have unique learning profiles. And we all benefit from learning more about how we learn so that we can determine which executive function strategies will help us do better throughout our day. Says Meltzer, “When students develop metacognitive awareness so that they understand their strengths and weaknesses as well as how they learn, they can become flexible thinkers and problem-solvers who can succeed academically and in life.” Meltzer and her team are also the authors of the original SMARTS curriculum, which was the recipient of CHADD’s 2018 Innovative Program of the Year Award. The original curriculum is designed for middle school and high school students. ResearchILD’s elementary school version is intended to teach younger students similar strategies but at an earlier age. “Teachers have long been asking us to create a curriculum for elementary school students,” says Michael Greschler, MEd, director of SMARTS. “We agree. Extending our curriculum to earlier grades helps to prepare students for future school and life demands that place increasing emphasis on executive function.” He adds, “SMARTS Elementary will not only help elementary students perform better today, it’ll help them perform better down the road as well.”

Tailored to younger students All SMARTS Elementary lessons are developmentally tailored to the needs of students in grades 3 to 5. Some lessons are similar to those in the original curriculum, others are new. As with the original curriculum, all still target five areas under the executive function umbrella: ●● cognitive flexibility: the ability to think flexibly and shift focus ●● goal setting: the ability to set realistic goals and a step by step plan for achieving them ●● organization and prioritizing: knowing how to manage and prioritize day-to-day school responsibilities, such as completing assignments when due, turning in completed homework ●● accessing working memory: learning to access information efficiently ●● self-monitoring and self-checking: asking oneself questions such as, Am I on task right now? How can I readjust my strategies to get back on task? Have I re-checked my test responses? According to Meltzer, “The SMARTS curriculum has 6

Attention

been designed to promote metacognitive awareness, to teach executive function strategies explicitly and systematically, and to promote academic self-concept and resilience.” The thirty SMARTS lessons are divided into six separate units: ●● an introductory unit that familiarizes students with metacognitive and executive function terms and practices ●● a second unit that includes strategies for teaching students how to set goals and then achieve them ●● a third unit that includes strategies to help students learn to shift flexibly between multiple perspectives ●● a fourth unit that includes strategies to help students organize materials and information, and to develop an understanding of time, including how to estimate it, how to measure it, and how to prioritize it ●● a fifth unit that includes strategies to improve working memory, lock information into long-term memory, and remember unfamiliar information ●● a sixth unit that includes strategies to help students to stay on task for longer periods of time, self-monitor their work, and better regulate their emotions. The units conclude with a wrap-up lesson, where students review SMARTS strategies and create a Strategies for Success sheet they can use moving forward. (These unit descriptions represent only a brief overview of areas covered; find a more detailed description at www.smarts-ef.org.) Each SMARTS Elementary lesson is divided into four twenty-minute modules: ●● an activity designed to directly engage students in the lesson and increase their interest (referred to as a “metacognitive activator”) ●● guided instruction, where teachers model the strategy and guide students through its successful implementation ●● independent practice, where students practice the strategy in class on their own ●● reflection, where students spend time reflecting upon how the strategy worked (referred to as a “metacognitive wrap-up”). All SMARTS lessons provide teachers with specific learning objectives, methods of instruction (such as discussion, direct PowerPoint instruction, guided and independent practice), necessary materials for implementing the lesson, and specific teacher preparation instructions. Lessons are also well scripted and easy to follow, with each flexibly tailored so that it can be integrated into academic lessons throughout the school day. “When teachers create a classroom culture that promotes metacognitive awareness and self-understanding, they can maximize the effectiveness of teaching execu-

tive function strategies in the context of the curriculum,” says Meltzer. She observes that when classroom instruction promotes metacognitive awareness so that students understand their profiles of strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to generalize their strategy use across content areas. SMARTS Elementary also provides ongoing updates for parents on executive function strategies their children are learning at school, so that strategies can be practiced and reinforced at home as well. School study teams will find that SMARTS Elementary lessons can be easily incorporated into 504 Plans and IEPs. The curriculum includes a series of measures that can help school study teams, parents, and students assess progress toward any or all of the five executive function processes described earlier. The curriculum is also compatible with Response to Intervention (RtI). All students can benefit from executive function strategies—strong students with no learning issues, as well as students just starting to exhibit attentional, executive function and/or other learning-related challenges, and students whose challenges in these areas have already grown more serious.

Creating a culture of executive function strategy users Meltzer and her team are well aware of the role that executive function strategies will play in the children’s lives down the road. That’s why their curriculum is designed to create a culture of executive function users. In a SMARTS classroom, teachers and students celebrate their use. Students, in fact, will actually earn credit for using them. Meltzer reminds us, however, that simply teaching executive function strategies alone is not the answer. Students have to link their use of executive function strategies to specific academic tasks (reading, math and writing), and practice using them throughout the school day so that they come to see the benefits. Meltzer also reminds us that new pathways to greater success at school and in life begin when we become metacognitively aware, a necessary first step in empowering all children to tackle difficult problems and achieve personal goals. A clinical and consulting psychologist, Mark Katz, PhD, is the director of Learning Development Services, an educational, psychological, and neuropsychological center in San Diego, California. As a contributing editor to Attention magazine, he writes the Promising Practices column and serves on the editorial advisory board. He is also a former member of CHADD’s professional advisory board and a recipient of the CHADD Hall of Fame Award. FOR MORE INFO Meltzer and members of her team will present a workshop for parents, teachers, and others interested in executive function strategies and the SMARTS Elementary curriculum—as well as the original curriculum for older students—at the Annual International Conference on ADHD in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania this November. Learn more about the Annual International Conference on ADHD at www.chadd.org. Learn more about SMARTS Elementary at www.smarts-ef.org.

August 2019

EA RC HI

RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

The Executive Function and School Performance:

A 21st Century Challenge

Academic success in our 21st century schools is increasingly linked with children’s mastery of a wide range of skills that rely on their use of executive function strategies. The crucial role of executive function processes begins in the preschool years and increases as students progress through middle and high school when they are expected to master complex skills that involve summarizing, notetaking and writing. Success depends on students’ ability to plan, organize and prioritize tasks, materials, and information, separate main ideas from details, think flexibly, memorize content and monitor their progress. It is important to help children to understand how they think and learn, and to teach them to use strategies in five major executive function areas.

The Impact of Executive Function Weaknesses on Academic Performance

Mike’s performance has been unpredictable all year! He is so bright and creative and his teachers report that he participates in classes. However, homework is a daily battle that I dread. Mike’s teachers recently told me that he is often late with papers and projects and that he is lazy. (Parent of a 5th grader)

When I have to write a paper, I try to write but I can’t figure how to get my mind Major EF Function Areas:

unstuck. I get so frustrated when I have written only a few sentences after an hour so I give up. (John, 7th grade)

writing or completing long-term projects, they often become “stuck,” the information gets “clogged,” and they struggle to produce. This model* of a “clogged funnel” (Meltzer, 2007, 2010, 2018) best explains the challenges faced by students with executive function weaknesses who often: •

struggle with open-ended tasks (e.g., organizing their calendars) because they are unable to prioritize and organize the various steps; have difficulty shifting between different components of the task (e.g., switching from outlining to writing, from one academic subject to another, or from calculating a math fact to checking the answer);

•

over-focus on the details, ignoring the bigger picture;

•

struggle to take notes or to outline because they lose track of the main ideas; have difficulty checking their work without structure or guidance;

•

forget to hand in completed work.

•

Students who cannot “unclog the funnel” may have difficulty showing what they know. Their grades often do not reflect their ability and, in spite of their effort, they may be labeled as “lazy.” As they enter middle and high school, where the demands for independence and efficiency increase, they often become frustrated, lose self-confidence, and, as a result, make less effort in school.

When students like John need to coordinate the skills required for tasks such as

3 4

Shifting/Thinking flexibly

Organizing

Prioritizing

Accessing working memory

Self-monitoring/Self-checking

Without EF strategies, students face challenges of too much information without adequate coping mechanisms.

Executive Function Strategies: An Overview Executive function strategies provide an important foundation for improving students’ academic performance, confidence and effort. When students like Sarah use effective strategies, they develop a deeper understanding of their unique strengths and weaknesses and begin to see improved grades. Encourage your child or teen to use strategies and, in doing so, keep the following principles in mind: •

Don’t assume that your child already knows how to use a strategy.

•

Children and teens need to learn when to use which strategies and in what contexts. Not all strategies work for everyone all the time.

I learned and the confidence and

You know your child! Help your child to personalize the strategies that work best so that these techniques become more meaningful.

used the strategies and got higher

•

My success is due to the strategies self-understanding I gained after I grades. (Sarah, 11th grader)

SOME EF STRATEGIES TO USE AS STARTING POINTS: Goal setting • Help your child to set attainable goals that are well-defined. • Break goals down into smaller steps and talk about alternative approaches.

• Provide space at home to file old tests and study guides that may be needed at a later date.

Accessing Working Memory

Shifting/Thinking Flexibly

• Encourage your child to create his or her own silly sentences, acronyms or cartoons to remember information.

• Expose your child to jokes, riddles and puns which are enjoyable ways of learning to shift between different meanings.

Prioritizing

• Teach your child to think flexibly when solving math problems by comparing their estimates with their answers to word problems or discussing a variety of approaches to a problem.

Organizing Ideas • Encourage your child to use outlines, graphic organizers or webs to organize ideas for large projects. • Encourage your child to use two- or threecolumn notes when reading or studying.

Organizing Materials • Work with your child to develop a system for organizing materials in folders, backpacks, and lockers. • Make sure your child has a designated place for completed assignments. Encourage your child to clean out his or her backpack once a week.

• Have your child “divide and conquer” upcoming assignments and projects by planning to complete larger assignments in steps in order to avoid last-minute panics. • Help your child to create songs, stories and acronyms to remember the steps involved in completing and checking written papers and math problems.

Self-monitoring/Self-Checking • Children need to learn to check their schoolwork before turning it in. Help your child to develop personalized checklists to correct his or her most common mistakes. Encouraging children and teens to use executive function strategies puts them on the path to success in school and in life. See our SMARTS Executive Function program for more strategies: www.smarts-ef.org.

S M

R T S

SMARTS Executive Function Program

Developed by Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. and her team of educational therapists, psychologists, researchers, and methodologists at ResearchILD, SMARTS is an online, downloadable, ready-to-use executive function curriculum for middle school and high school students. SMARTS teaches practical strategies that help students to understand their own learning profiles. Easy-to-teach lessons help students access strategies that match their learning styles. SMARTS, for use in both general education and special education settings, integrates executive function strategies into existing curricula. SMARTS can be applied flexibly across subject areas and academic settings, from 1:1 tutoring and small groups, to large classrooms. SMARTS teaches students how to reflect and understand their strengths and challenges, promoting metacognitive awareness, the key to life-long learning. Since the fall of 2015, more than a thousand teachers around the world have joined the SMARTS community. To learn more, and to try out a free lesson, visit: www.smarts-ef.org.

Winner of the CHAD Innovative Program award, SMARTS Online makes EF strategies accessible and affordable worldwide.

Resources: Publications: Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The New Psychology Of Success. New York, NY: The Random House.

Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (What works for special needs learners series). New York: Guilford Press.

Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J. (2015) (Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer.

Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success.

Meltzer, L.J. (Ed). (2018) (2nd Ed.) Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2014). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J.(Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 445-474.

Harris, K., & Meltzer, L. (Eds.) The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press, 1-32. Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D.

Audio: Meltzer, L. (speaker). (2017, September,26). Project Runaway [Audio blog post]. http://cerebralmatters.com/podcast/podcast/episode-12/ Meltzer, L. (speaker). (2017,October,3). From Pimples to Projects: Taking Charge of How to Learn [Audio blog post] http://cerebralmatters.com/podcast/?s=from+pimples+to+projects-299. Michael Greschler, M.Ed.

Authors: Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. is the President and Director of the Institutes for Learning and Development (ResearchILD & ILD) in Lexington, MA. She is a Fellow and Past-President of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. She is the Founder and Program Chair of the Annual Learning Differences Conference which she has chaired for the past 34 years. For 30 years, she held positions as Associate in Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Child Development at Tufts University. Her 40 years of clinical work, research, publications, and presentations have focused on understanding the complexity of learning and attention problems. Her extensive publications include articles, chapters and books, most recently, Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice (2018), Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (2010) and The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills (2015), co-edited with Karen Harris. Together with her ResearchILD staff, she has developed SMARTS, an evidence-based executive function and peer mentoring/ coaching curriculum for middle and high school students (www.smarts-ef.org). Michael Greschler, M.Ed. is the Director of the SMARTS program at ResearchILD. Over the past 5 years, he has worked on expanding the SMARTS program, refining the SMARTS Online Curriculum, and providing SMARTS Trainings to administrators and teachers across the U.S.A. Since the launch of SMARTS in the fall of 2015, Michael has supported more than 1,000 SMARTS educators around the world, helping them to bring the power of executive function strategies into their classrooms.

SEA

RC HI

RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT 4 Militia Drive, Suite 20 Lexington, Massachusetts 02421 781-861-3711

Executive Function Checklist for Remote Learning Now more than ever, teachers need executive function strategies as they learn to navigate and adjust to the rapidly changing pace of remote and home-based learning. Learn from Dr L nn Melt er and ResearchILD s Executive Function experts everything you need to know about supporting the executive function needs of your students from elementary school through college as they learn at home (Meltzer, 2018, 2010). ResearchILD s mission is to empo er all students to find their unique pathways to academic success and ResearchILD s SMARTS E ecuti e Function Curriculum for grades 3-12 is designed to help teachers to teach these life-changing strategies systematically( www.researchild.org, www.smarts-ef.org). Best Practices when teaching Executive Function Strategies ❏ TEACH EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES EXPLICITLY: Make sure you are taking time to model the strategies your students need! Use the checklist belo to think about ho to address our students e ecuti e function needs at this time. ❏ PROMOTE SELF-REFLECTION: Give students a chance to think about their strengths and challenges and their learning profiles as they shift to working remotely. This will promote engagement and self-understanding in students so that they are able to apply strategies independently in novel situations. ❏ PROMOTE GOAL-SETTING & TIME MANAGEMENT: One of the biggest challenges for students working at home is that they cannot ask you for help in real time! For any assignment or class, help students to plan and persevere if they get stuck. Use the following checklist to integrate SMARTS executive function strategies into your teaching, ensuring that all students are able to keep up during these challenging times. Weekly planning ❏ BREAK IT DOWN: Give students time to break down assignments into meaningful parts either during class or as part of their assignments. ❏ WRITE A PLAN: Make sure that students are writing down their work plans, whether on paper, using electronic calendars, or with to-do lists. All the assignments are online, but if students do not write out their own individual work plans, they will not reflect on the work they have done and what they still have to complete. ❏ PROMOTE CANDO GOALS (www.smarts-ef.org): Consider engaging students in goal- setting, whether for academic goals, social goals, exercise goals etc. Teach students to make sure goals are personalized and achievable goals by following the CANDO acronym. CANDO goals are Clear, Appropriate, Numerical, Doable, and with Obstacles considered (CANDO) (SMARTS Executive Function curriculum Unit 2 Lesson 1). © ResearchILD, 2020 | www.researchild.org | Lexington, MA | 781-861-3711

Daily planning ❏ ASSIGN PRODUCTION TIME: Help your students set a specific chunk of time each day during which all distractions are removed and work is the priority i.e. their production time Check out our free SMARTS lesson A Weekly Planning for more on production time. ❏ WRITE IT DOWN: Help students create a daily plan with tasks clearly labeled as ha e to s obligations and ant to s aspirations Ho can the ensure they get all their ha e to s done ❏ ESTIMATE AND REFLECT: As students are expected to work independently, accurate time estimation is essential. Include time estimates with your assignments and have students reflect on how accurate these estimates are. Ho does this influence the amount of production time the need daily? Procrastination and Motivation ❏ STAYING ON TASK: Provide your students with strategies they can use to help them self-monitor their productivity (e.g., productivity apps, etc.) Ask them to reflect on what helps them to be productive and identify top distractors that get in their way. ❏ CREATE SPACE: Help students analyze their workspaces. Are there too many distractors? Is there enough light? Each week, ask them how they change their workspace to help them focus. See the Manage Your Focus lesson in the SMARTS Elementary Executive Function curriculum for more. ❏ WE ALL PROCRASTINATE: Normalize procrastination by discussing how procrastination has affected you in the past. Brainstorm strategies and solutions to overcome procrastination together. Below are some academic tasks with high executive function demands. Use the checklist to make sure you are supporting students in these areas. Reading/Writing ❏ GET TO THE POINT: When asking students to read independently, make sure they understand the purpose of the assignment. This will help them highlight, annotate, or take notes more purposefully. ❏ MODEL ACTIVE READING: Pre-reading strategies, such as the SMARTS Skim and Scoop strategy, help students distinguish main ideas from details. Make sure you model how to use these strategies explicitly. ❏ ORGANIZE INFORMATION: Students are often unaware that reading and writing require a great deal of organization! Make teach strategies that help students organize ideas and information when taking notes, outlining papers, or summarizing. One such strategy for sorting and categorizing is the SMARTS BOTEC strategy (Brainstorm, Organize, Topic Sentence, Conclusion) © ResearchILD, 2020 | www.researchild.org | Lexington, MA | 781-861-3711

❏ Triple-Note-Tote - SMARTS three column note-taking strategy ❏ Summarizing stories to help ou understand the h and ho of a te t

hat

here

hen

Math ❏ CHECKLISTS ARE KEY: Students are often overwhelmed by directions. Teach strategies that help students understand the directions, whether on a test or a word problem, by turning them into checklists that they can follow. ❏ PREDICT ERRORS: Help students analyze their own work by asking them to identif their Top Hits i e the most common errors the make The can use this knowledge to study for tests and quizzes and to check work. ❏ THINK FLEXIBLY: Many students struggle to approach math problems flexibly. Model strategies for thinking flexibly about math. Written by: Dr. Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., President and Director Michael Greschler, M.Ed., Director, SMARTS Programs Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S., SMARTS Curriculum Coordinator & Trainer Institutes of Learning and Development Resources Meltzer, L.J. (Ed) (2018). Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed.) (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015) Executive Function and Peer Mentoring: Fostering Metacognitive Awareness, Effort, and Academic Success. In Harris, K., & Meltzer, L. (Eds.) The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press. For additional information, visit www.researchild.org. and www.smarts-ef.org, or www.ildlex.org, or Lynn Meltzer at lmeltzer@ildlex.org

Executive Function Readings Barkley, R. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. New York: The Guilford Press. Brown, T. (2014). Smart but stuck: Emotions in teens and adults with ADHD. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Brown, T. (2006). Executive functions and ADHD: Implications of two conflicting views, International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(1), 35-46. Diamond A. (2012) Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 21: 335-341. Denckla, M. B. (2007). Executive function: Binding together the definitions of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 5-19). New York: Guilford Press. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. NY: Random House. Elliot, A. & Dweck, C. (2005). Handbook of competence and motivation. N.Y: Guilford . Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J. (Eds.) (2014). Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 2014. Harris, K. & Meltzer, L.J. (Eds.) (2015). The Power of Peers: Enhancing Learning, Development, & Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press. Kincaid, D., & Trautman, N. (2010). Remembering: Teaching students how to retain and mentally manipulate information. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 110-139). New York: Guilford Press.

Krishnan, K. and Feller, M. (2010). Organizing: The heart of efficient and successful learning. In L. Meltzer, Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom, New York, NY: The Guildford Press. Meltzer, L. (2018). (Ed.) Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2010) (Ed.) Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2014). Executive function processes: The foundation of academic and life success. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 2013, 1(2), 31-63. Meltzer, L.J. (2014). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J. (Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 445-474. Meltzer, L.J., & Basho, S. (2010). Creating a classroom-wide executive function culture that fosters strategy use, motivation, and resilience. In Meltzer, L.J. (ed.) Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2105). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function, effort, and academic self-concept. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015) Executive Function and Peer Mentoring: Fostering Metacognitive Awareness, Effort, and Academic Success. In Harris, K., & Meltzer, L. (Eds.) The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program, ResearchILD, www.smartsef.org. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Levy, S., Stacey, W., and Button, K. (2019). SMARTS Elementary Executive Function Curriculum, ResearchILD, www.smarts-ef.org. Stein, J. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Meltzer, Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom, New York, NY: The Guildford Press.

For additional information, visit www. researchild.org, www.ildlex.org, and www.smarts-ef.org, or contact me at lmeltzer@ildlex.org

THE SMARTS ONLINE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION CURRICULUM OVERVIEW Welcome to SMARTS Online, an evidenced-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been What Is Executive Function? successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the United States. SMARTS provides you with 30 lessons you can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes—goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. With SMARTS, students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their homework, to plan long-term projects, and to study for tests. Designed for students in grades 6–12, SMARTS works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, learning centers and tutoring sessions. You can teach SMARTS in its entirety or select key lessons to reinforce specific strategies. Your SMARTS subscription connects you to:

Executive function is an umbrella term for the complex cognitive processes students use to set goals, plan their time, organize and prioritize, think flexibly, access their working memory, self-monitor, and selfcheck. The model of a funnel helps to explain the importance of executive function processes for learning. When students learn to use executive function strategies, they are able to coordinate (or “funnel”) the various processes required to complete complex academic tasks such as taking notes or writing. When students have executive function weaknesses, the funnel becomes blocked and they are unable to produce work that reflects their true potential. SMARTS lessons are grouped by five executive function processes that affect learning: Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term goals

•

30 evidence-based lessons with supporting handouts, PowerPoint presentations, and videos.

•

Surveys to help you and your students understand their learning profiles.

Organizing and Prioritizing: Sorting and ordering information based on relative importance

•

SMARTS Digital Training Sessions to help learn more about executive function and your students.

Accessing Working Memory: Remembering and manipulating information mentally

•

SMARTS Planning Tools to help you get started and plan your year.

Cognitive Flexibility: Switching easily between approaches; thinking flexibly

Self-Monitoring and Checking: Identifying and correcting personal errors

By fostering a culture of strategy use in your classroom, you can help your students do more than just improve academically; they will increase their academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of executive function strategies are critically important for a student’s success in school and beyond. SMARTS Overview

Page 1

SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum Unit 1. Introduction to Executive Function Strategies Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will understand their 1.1 What is metacognition? Students will be able to: learning strengths and weakThinking about thinking • Define metacognition nesses and learn about execu1.2 What is cognitive flexibility? • Understand the core executive function processes. Defining how to think flexibly tive function processes • Apply their knowledge of ex1.3 What is executive function? ecutive function strategies to The EF Wheel their understanding of themselves as learners 1.4 I-SEE a strategy: What makes a “strategy” a strategy? Unit 2. Goal Setting—Identifying short-term and long-term goals Learning Goals Lessons Students will learn to develop 2.1 Identifying CANDO goals appropriate goals with defin2.2 Thinking through individual able outcomes. goals Students will develop strategies for implementing their goals throughout the school year.

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Define CANDO goals • Describe the elements of “good goals” • Use a rubric to assess goals • Design CANDO goals that demonstrate reflective thinking

Unit 3. Cognitive Flexibility—Shifting problem-solving approaches; thinking flexibly Learning Goals Students will learn that multiple strategies can be used to solve a given problem and will, through repeated practice, develop a variety of strategies to support flexible thinking and problem solving.

Lessons 3.1 Being flexible and shifting expectations

Students will learn how to distinguish the main ideas from the less important details.

3.4 Purposeful highlighting

SMARTS Overview

3.2 Shifting perspectives in writing 3.3 Skim and scoop strategy

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Explain the importance of shifting approaches flexibly • Write according to multiple perspectives • Shift between the main idea and details

3.5 Shifty math

Page 2

Unit 4. Organizing and Prioritizing Materials and Time—Creating categories to work efficiently Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to 4.1 The 4 C’s strategy Students will be able to: organize their materials for 4.2 Developing an under• Explain strategies for orgaschool and schedule their time appropriately. standing of time nizing belongings and the importance of planning 4.3 Prioritizing time • Use calendars and tools for daily, weekly, and monthly 4.4 Monthly planning planning • Apply their knowledge of 4.5 Weekly planning planning to breaking down assignments into meaningful parts

Unit 5. Organizing and Prioritizing Ideas and Information— Sorting information based importance Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will gain the knowl5.1 Sorting and categorizing Students will be able to: edge and the strategies necesusing BOTEC • Describe strategies for orsary to organize information for 5.2 Bottom-up vs. top-down reading, writing papers, taking ganizing thoughts for notethinkers taking, essay writing, and notes, and studying for tests. studying 5.3 Note-taking from a lesson • Integrate memory strategies with organizational strategies 5.4 Using the Triple-Note-Tote to enhance understanding of topics 5.5 Studying with the PPCQ strategy Unit 6. Remembering—Manipulating information mentally Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn and imple6.1 Why is working memory Students will be able to: ment strategies to efficiently important? • Define memory strategies inand accurately store and recall 6.2 Using cartoons and associaimportant information. cluding acronyms, cartoons, tions to remember and crazy phrases • Apply memory strategies to 6.3 Using funny phrases and important information across stories to remember academic content areas 6.4 Creating strategies for remembering

SMARTS Overview

Page 3

Unit 7. Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking—Identifying errors and self-correcting Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to monitor 7.1 What is self-monitoring? Students will be able to: their behavior in the moment to 7.2 What is self-checking? • Identify strategies for selfensure that they stay on task. monitoring and self-checking Students will become aware of 7.3 The Top-3-Hits strategy • Explain and reflect upon their the types of errors they often use of executive function make and learn strategies to 7.4 Breaking down directions strategies avoid repeating these mistakes in the future. 7.5 Stop, review, reflect: completing checklists of all the executive function strategies

SMARTS Overview

Page 4

Elementary School Curriculum Overview

SMARTS Online is an evidence-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the US. SMARTS provides elementary grade teachers with 30 lessons that they can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes—goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. Students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their work. The SMARTS Elementary School Curriculum works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, and learning centers and is designed for students in grades 2-5. Since each lesson is divided into four 20-minute sessions, teachers have the flexibility to integrate lessons into the daily practice of their elementary school classroom. Unit 1: Introduction: Building a Community of Metacognitive Learners • Lesson 1: How do I think about my thinking? o Students engage in a discussion about “metacognition” and identify their personal strengths and challenges and the strategies they use in their everyday lives. • Lesson 2: How can I manage my work? o Students complete an activity that introduces them to the five executive function processes and helps them to identify their strengths and challenges in three of these processes. • Lesson 3: How do I think flexibly? o Students discuss the concept of cognitive flexibility and its importance for strategy use. They complete an activity that illustrates how words can have multiple meanings. • Lesson 4: How can I use strategies to help me? o Students identify how to make strategies individualized, systematic, efficient, and effective (I-SEE). Then, they examine their own strategies, refining them to ensure they fit the I-SEE model. Copyright © 2019 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview Unit 2: Goal Setting: Understanding the Big Picture and Breaking it Down • Lesson 1: I CANDO my goals! o Students learn to create personalized and achievable goals that are Clear, Appropriate, Numerical, Doable, and with Obstacles considered (CANDO). • Lesson 2: Thinking through individual goals o Students review common obstacles that prevent them from achieving their goals. Building off of Lesson 2.1, students take the goals they have already set and develop strategies to achieve these goals (e.g., students break goals into steps and think about the obstacles they may face when trying to achieve their goals). Unit 3: Thinking Flexibly • Lesson 1: Being flexible and shifting expectations o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in reading and writing. • Lesson 2: I’m wearing your shoes o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in social situations. • Lesson 3: Skim and Scoop o Students learn how to comprehend what they read efficiently and how to differentiate between the main ideas and details of a text. • Lesson 4: Purposeful Highlighting o Students use highlighting to identify multiple perspectives when reading and taking notes. This strategy also helps students highlight effectively and to avoid over-highlighting (the “yellow page syndrome”). • Lesson 5: Shifty math o Students identify multiple methods for solving a problem and understand how the same problem can be analyzed in multiple ways. Unit 4: Organizing Materials and Time ● Lesson 1: Organizing your materials (The 4 C’s) o Students learn the 4 C’s strategy for organizing and then apply the strategy to the organization of their own belongings. ● Lesson 2: Developing an understanding of time o Students examine their understanding of time and see the importance of measuring time.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview

● Lesson 3: Estimating time o Students learn to improve their ability to estimate time while completing tasks, as well as gain an understanding of the importance of time estimation. ● Lesson 4: Prioritizing time o Students learn to think in terms of Have To’s (obligations) and Want To’s (aspirations) while expressing their intentions visually in a daily planner. ● Lesson 5: Planning production time o Students employ strategies to practice short-term planning and to identify ‘production time’ then apply them for use in their own planners/calendars. Unit 5: Organizing Information ● Lesson 1: Sorting and categorizing using BOTEC o Students learn strategies for organizing information to improve their writing. The BOTEC strategy will help students learn to brainstorm, organize, write topic sentences, provide evidence, and reach a conclusion. ● Lesson 2: Note-taking o Students learn why taking notes is important and how to effectively organize information from a text. ● Lesson 3: Triple-Note-Tote o Students learn “Triple-Note-Tote,” a three-column strategy for note-taking and organizing information, which can be used across content areas. ● Lesson 4: Summarizing stories o Students learn to create summaries using the Star strategy, which helps them to understand the “who, what, where, when, why and how” of a text. Unit 6: Remembering ● Lesson 1: Why is memory important?

●

o Students will identify their own strengths and challenges in working memory and learn how memory connects to following directions and completing school related tasks. Lesson 2: Using cartoons and associations o Students learn two mnemonic strategies that help support working memory, using pre-existing knowledge to create cartoons and associations to remember important information.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview ● Lesson 3: Acronyms and crazy phrases o In this lesson, students learn to use acronyms and phrases in order to lock information into long-term memory. ● Lesson 4: Visualizing and storytelling o Students will practice remembering unfamiliar processes or information through visualization and storytelling. Unit 7: Self-monitoring and checking ● Lesson 1: Focus and distraction o Students discuss and define what it means to be focused and not distracted. They will identify the situations that do and do not help them focus, and they will practice monitoring their behavior to stay on task. ● Lesson 2: Check your sources o Students discuss the danger of using information from unreliable sources and learn the 2 T Test strategy to determine whether a given source is trustworthy. ● Lesson 3: Top 3 hits o Students use their own work to check for their most common errors. Students generate a list of their personal Top-3-Hits for checking their own future assignments. ● Lesson 4: Manage my mood o Students learn to develop an awareness of their mood in different situations and the impact it has on learning. ● Lesson 5: What hat am I wearing? o Students will check their behavior to ensure that it matches the situation they are in and the task at hand. ● Lesson 6: Wrap-Up: Stop, Review, Reflect o Students review the SMARTS strategies they have learned and then they create a Strategies for Success sheet they can use in the future. By fostering a culture of strategy use in their classrooms, teachers can help students do more than just improve academically; they will increase their students’ academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of executive function strategies are critically important for a student’s success in school and beyond.

2022 Summer Summit Session 1 Digital Binder

Articles inside

Session Overview

SMARTS Elementary Curriculum Overview

SMARTS Secondary Curriculum Overview