Preparation Guide CYP's Preliminary Round '14 by Cygnus Youth Parliament (CYP)

Table of Contents

1. Links to general sources about the European Union

2. Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO)

3. Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL)

4. Committee on Environment, Health and Food Safety (ENVI)

5. Committee on Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM)

6. Committee on International Trade (INTA)

7. Committee on Industry, Energy and Research I (ITRE I)

8. Committee on Industry, Energy and Research II (ITRE II)

9. Committee on Legal Affairs

10. Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs

11. Committee on Security and Defence

Links to general sources about the European Union

Clear and fun video about the EU, its constitution and its functioning: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUF5t1kRlI. The institutions of the EU explained by their (ex-) Presidents: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0diZ48_q7U. Legislative procedure of the EU: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnHer1szjrg. Table on the division of competences of the EU: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:EU_competences.

Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO) Equality)is)a)basic)principle)of)democracy)yet)not)reflected)in)the)EU’s)democratically)elected) institution.)How)can)the)EU)ensure)an)equal)and)fair)representation)of)Member)States)in)the) distribution)of)seats)in)the)European)Parliament?)

1. Key Terms •

European) Parliament:) The$ only$ directly$ elected$ institution$ of$ the$ European$ Union$ consisting$ of$ 750$ members$ and$ one$ president.$ Each$ country$ is$ allocated$ a$ certain$ number$of$seats$which$its$inhabitants$can$vote$for$during$the$European$elections.$) )

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Council)of)the)European)Union:)The$Council$(of$the$European$Union)$is$a$legislative$ body$ of$ the$ EU$ that$ meets$ in$ various$ configurations$ depending$ on$ the$ topic$ discussed.$ The$ Council$ always$ comprises$ 28$ national$ ministers$ with$ the$ same$ portfolio$ area.$ Not$ to$ be$ confused$ with$ the$ European$ Council$ or$ the$ Council$ of$ Europe,$which$are$both$completely$different$institutions.$ $ $

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Degressive) Proportionality:$ The$ current$ system$ used$ in$ allocating$ seats$ of$ the$ European$ Parliament$ to$ countries.$ While$ not$ all$ countries$ have$ the$ same$ amount$ of$ seats,$smaller$countries$are$allocated$more$seats$than$they$would$get$based$solely$on$ their$population.1$$ $

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Treaty)of)Lisbon:)$ This$ treaty$ –$ which$ came$ into$ effect$ in$ December$ 2009$ –$ defined$ and$ expanded$ the$ powers$ of$ the$ European$ Parliament,$ giving$ it$ equal$ footing$ with$ the$Council$in$most$areas$of$policymaking.2$$

2. Social Relevance The$ European$ Parliament$ serves$ as$ the$ only$ directly$ elected$ EU$ institution,$ thus$ making$ it$ the$only$organ$in$which$all$Europeans$have$a$direct$say.$It$cannot$propose$any$laws$itself$–$ the$right$to$do$so$is$reserved$for$the$European$Commission$P$but$has$to$reach$an$agreement$ with$ the$ Council$ on$ whether$ or$ not$ to$ pass$ proposals$ for$ new$ laws3.$ Together$ with$ the$ Council$ and$ the$ Commission,$ the$ European$ Parliament$ is$ amongst$ the$ most$ important$ EU$ institutions$and$its$decisions$on$legislation$affect$our$everyday$lives.$This$makes$it$of$utmost$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1

EU election will reshuffle, reduce seats in parliament, Deutsche Welle, 2014, http://www.dw.de/eu-election-willreshuffle-reduce-seats-in-parliament/a-17501569. 2 Treaty of Lisbon, EUROPA, http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm. 3 About Parliament, European Parliament, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/0081f4b3c7/Lawmaking-procedures-in-detail.html.!

! importance$to$ensure$that$the$seats$in$Parliament$are$divided$fairly$amongst$Member$States$ and$that$the$voice$of$every$country$is$heard.$

3. Stakeholders The$ stakeholders$ in$ this$ question$ are$ the$ citizens) of) Member) States,) represented) by) their) respective) governments.$ In$ the$ European$ Parliament,$ EU$ citizens$ are$ represented$ by$ their$ Member$States’$Members$of$European$Parliament$(MEPs).$The$citizens’$representation$in$the$ European$ Parliament$ determines$ their$ indirect$ say$ on$ European$ politics.$ Therefore,$ the$ governments$ each$ have$ an$ interest$ in$ getting$ a$ fair$ share$ of$ the$ seats$ allocated$ to$ them$ in$ order$ to$ influence$ policymaking$ and$ legislation.$ Moving$ away$ from$ degressive$ proportionality$ to$ standard$ proportionality$ would$ be$ in$ the$ interest$ of$ the$ larger$ Member$ States,$ who$ would$ earn$ more$ seats,$ while$ it$ would$ be$ disadvantageous$ for$ the$ smaller$ Member$ States.$ As$ a$ result,$ it$ is$ mostly$ the$ larger$ Member$ States$ who$ demand$ a$ more$ proportional$ distribution,$ while$ the$ smaller$ states$ generally$ want$ a$ more$ degressive$ allocation$of$seats.4$$

4. Conflicts The$ European$ Parliament$ currently$ uses$ a$ system$ of$ degressive) proportionality,$ meaning$ that$ in$ order$ to$ give$ them$ a$ say,$ smaller$ countries$ are$ overrepresented$ in$ Parliament.$ This$ reduces$ the$ risk$ of$ small$ countries$ not$ being$ heard$ and$ the$ European$ Union$ being$ dominated$by$only$a$few$large$countries.$However,$it$is$also$in$strong$contradiction$with$the$ basic$ principle$ of$ democracy$ that$ all$ votes$ are$ equal.$ Moving$ away$ from$ degressive$ proportionality$ would$ mean$ that$ democratic$ principles$ are$ more$ adhered$ to,$ while$ it$ also$ entails$the$risk$of$smaller$EU$countries$losing$their$voice$in$European$politics.$ One$other$important$aspect$is$that$there$is$always$a$multitude$of$political$views$in$a$country.$ Having$ only$ a$ few$ seats$ might$ not$ be$ enough$ to$ represent$ all$ the$ different$ opinions$ of$ the$ population$of$a$Member$State$and$might$lead$to$the$voice$of$some$political$groups$not$being$ heard.$ Opinion$on$the$method$is$divided,$with$some$MEPs$vehemently$protesting$and$criticising$it,$ while$others$are$applauding$it.$Proponents$of$degressive$proportionality$often$refer$to$it$as$ an$act$of$’European$solidarity’,$while$the$main$argument$of$its$opponents$is$that$it$is$unjust$ and$undemocratic.$5$$ Apart$ from$ MEPs,$ other$ institutions$ have$ also$ voiced$ their$ opinion$

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Composition of the European Parliament after European elections in June 2009, European Parliament, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IMPRESS+20071008IPR11353+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN. 5 Idem.

! about$ the$ allocation$ of$ seats,$ with$ the$ German$ Federal$ Constitutional$ Court$ and$ the$ ’Deutsche$Welle’$claiming$that$it$increases$the$EU’s$democratic$deficit.6$7$

5. Facts and Figures •

The$ European$ Parliament$ has$ the$ right$ of$ codecision$ with$ the$ Council$ in$ most$ policymaking$ areas,$ meaning$ that$ almost$ all$ proposed$ new$ legislation$ has$ to$ be$ approved$of$by$both$the$European$Parliament$and$the$Council.$$

•

The$ seats$ in$ the$ European$ Parliament$ are$ unevenly$ distributed,$ with$ each$ Member$ State$being$allocated$between$six$and$96$seats.$

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The$ number$ of$ votes$ required$ for$ one$ seat$ varies$ strongly$ per$ Member$ State.$ Germany,$ as$ the$ EU^s$ most$ populous$ country$ with$ 80.5$ million$ people,$ is$ given$ the$ highest$ number$ of$ seats,$ one$ for$ every$ 838,000$ inhabitants.$ Malta,$ the$ EU^s$ least$ populous$ country,$ with$ 412,655$ inhabitants,$ has$ six$ seats$ in$ parliament,$ or$ one$ seat$ for$every$68,775$people8.$

6. Legislative Background The$ Treaty) of) Lisbon$ –$ which$ came$ into$ effect$ in$ December$ 2009$ –$ limits$ the$ number$ of$ MEPs$to$750$with$one$president.$Apart$from$this$the$treaty$also$stipulates$that$the$Council,$ which$ is$ made$ up$ of$ delegates$ from$ each$ Member$ State,$ has$ to$ come$ to$ a$ unanimous$ decision$regarding$the$apportionment$of$seats9.$This$treaty$replaces$all$previous$treaties$and$ gives$the$European$Parliament$equal$footing$with$the$Council$of$the$EU$in$most$policy$areas,$ meaning$that$almost$all$proposed$legislation$have$to$pass$both$the$European$Parliament$and$ the$Council$of$the$EU.$$

7. Key Questions •

Is$ it$ necessary$ for$ the$ European$ Union$ to$ move$ towards$ a$ more$ proportional$ distribution$of$seats?$ o

If$ so,$ how$ can$ the$ EU$ achieve$ this$ without$ disenfranchising$ the$ smaller$ Member$States?$

•

Will$all$political$opinions$in$a$Member$State$be$represented$if$it$only$has$a$few$seats?$

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What$will$be$the$legal$implications$of$the$change$towards$standard$proportionality?$

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How unequal is the European Parliament’s representation, Bruegel, 2014, http://www.bruegel.org/nc/blog/detail/article/1334-how-unequal-is-the-european-parliaments-representation/. 7 Cf. footnote 1. 8 Cf. footnote 1. 9 The European Parliament, EUROPA, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/lisbon_treaty/ai0010_en.htm.!

8. Recommended links A$video$made$in$2013$explaining$the$composition$of$the$Parliament$and$some$of$the$issues$at$ the$time:$http://europarltv.europa.eu/en/player.aspx?pid=2b9288a9Pe7d4P$4f5fP9197P a1690128038b.$ EU)elections)will)reshuffle,)reduce)seats)in)parliament,)Deutsche$Welle,$2014,$ http://www.dw.de/euPelectionPwillPreshufflePreducePseatsPinPparliament/aP$17501569.$ How)unequal)is)the)European)Parliamentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s)representation?,)Bruegel,$2014,$ http://www.bruegel.org/nc/blog/detail/article/1334PhowPunequalPisPtheP$europeanP parliamentsPrepresentation/.$

Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL) With)soaring)numbers)of)youth)unemployment)and)the)recently)implemented)Youth) Guarantee,)what)additional)measures)should)the)EU)adopt)to)build)on)its)current)strategy?)

1. Key Terms •

Youth)unemployment:)The$unemployed$youth$comprise$all$persons$between$the$age$ of$ 15$ and$ 24$ who$ are$ without$ work.$ You$ are$ deemed$ eligible$ for$ this$ if$ you$ are$ currently$available$for$work$and$are$actively$seeking$work$but$have$not$been$able$to$ secure$ it,$ not$ even$ for$ one$ hour$ in$ any$ economic$ activity$ (paid$ employment,$ selfP employment,$or$unpaid$work$for$a$family$business)10.$

$ •

Labour)Market:$ All$ the$ people$ who$ are$ able$ to$ work$ and$ want$ jobs$ in$ a$ country$ or$ area,$in$relation$to$the$number$of$jobs$there$are$available$in$that$country$or$area.$

$ •

Youth) Labour) force:) All$ persons$ between$ the$ age$ of$ 15$ and$ 24$ who$ were$ either$ employed$or$unemployed$over$a$specified$reference$period.$

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Youth)Unemployment)rate:)The$ number$ of$ young$ unemployed$ persons$ divided$ by$ the$youth$labour$force.$It$represents$the$percentage$of$youth$that$is$unemployed.$

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Relax)youth)unemployment)rate:)A$measure$of$the$utilised$youth$labour$potential.$It$ is$the$standard$measure$of$youth$unemployment,$only$without$calculating$those$who$ are$ not$ technically$ unemployed$ because$ they$ do$ not$ meet$ the$ active$ job$ search$ criteria.$The$latter$group$is$called$economically$inactive.$

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Lost) Generation:) Referring$ to$ the$ youth$ who$ are$ seemingly$ ‘forgotten’$ and$ lost$ in$ their$struggle$to$find$gainful$employment.$

$ •

Youth) Guarantee:) the$ European$ Commission’s$ approach$ to$ tackling$ youth$ unemployment,$by$making$sure$that$all$youth$under$25$get$a$goodPquality,$concrete$ offer$within$4$months$of$leaving$formal$education$or$becoming$unemployed.$

2. Social Relevance Currently$the$youth$unemployment$rates$are$at$an$allGtime)high.$In$the$last$four$years,$the$ overall$ employment$ rate$ of$ European$ youngsters$ fell$ three$ times$ more$ than$ the$ adult$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10

Youth unemployment, Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Youth_unemployment.

! employment$rate.$More$than$one$in$five$youngsters$on$the$labour$market$are$unable$to$find$ work.$ $ Youth$ unemployment$ demolishes$ social$ mobility$ within$ a$ society$ and$ is$ economically$ depleting.$ The$ European$ Foundation$ for$ Living$ and$ Working$ Conditions$(Eurofound)$ has$ estimated$ the$ economic$ loss$ in$ the$ EU$ of$ having$ 7.5$ million$ young$ people$ out$ of$ work$ or$ education$or$training$at$over$€150)billion)each)year,)which)is)1.2%)of)EU)GDP,$in$terms$of$ benefits$ paid$ out$ and$ lost$ output 11.$ It$ is$ also$ scarring$ for$ the$ individuals$ involved,$ as$ unemployed$youth$is$at$higher$risk$of$being$unemployed$at$later$stages$of$life.$ $ Young) people) are) also) three) times) more) likely) to) be) unemployed) compared) with) their) older)counterparts.)The$basis$for$this$is$their$lack$of$relevant$work$experience,$which$could$ potentially$be$solved$by$getting$organisations$to$support$young$people.$However,$due$to$the$ global$economic$crisis$fewer$organisations$are$able$to$spend$money$recruiting$and$training$ young$ workers$ when$ they$ can$ just$ as$ easily$ get$ more$ experienced$ and$ able$ workers$ elsewhere.$

3. Stakeholders Needless$to$say,$youth$unemployment$affects$the$‘youth’$of$Europe,$that$is$all)persons)aged) between)15)and)24.$ It$ can$ often$ deter$ of$ shift$ decisions$ about$ higher$ education$ or$ possible$ career$ choices.$ Yet,$ such$ decisions$ have$ a$ wider$ impact$ than$ just$ the$ youth$ of$ Europe.$ It$ transcends)both)age)and)generational)gaps$ as$ parents$ are$ forced$ to$ support$ their$ children$ for$ longer.$ This$ prolonged$ care$ diverts$ spending$ and$ postpones$ retirement$ plans,$ all$ of$ which$alter$the$consumer$society$hindering$economic$growth.$ $ Governments) are) key) actors) in$ trying$ to$ ease$ youth$ unemployment,$ forcing$ employers$ to$ take$on$more$workers$or$by$pushing$universities$and$colleges$to$offer$more$vocational$skills$ to$students.$Member$States$are,$however,$limited$as$to$how$much$they$can$do$on$a$European$ wide$ scale.$ There$ are$ examples$ where$ states$ have$ come$ together$ to$ provide$ a$ utilised$ approach$to$enhance$students’$skills.$The$Erasmus$scheme,$for$instance,$supports$students$to$ travel$abroad$as$part$of$their$education$with$the$aim$of$enhancing$their$skills$and$ultimately$ making$ them$ more$ employable.$ Yet,$ there$ is$ no$ major$ student$ &$ skills$ approach$ and$ as$ a$ result$ there$ is$ space$ for$ the$ European) Parliament$ and) Commission$ to$ come$ to$ a$ greater$ consensus$ on$ a$ strategy$ to$ tackle$ the$ problem.$ Thus,$ from$ policy) makers) to) employers,) sovereign$ states$ are$ forced$ into$ a$ more$ paternalistic$ frame$ of$ mind$ to$ accommodate$ this$ issue.$ $ $ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11

The EU Youth Guarantee, European Commission, 2014, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-14530_en.htm.

4. Conflicts Not$ all$ European$ youngsters$ are$ economically) active.$ This$ means$ we$ can$ divide$ our$ European$ youth$ into$ three$ categories:$ employed,$ unemployed$ and$ economically$ inactive,$ unemployed$ meaning$ not$ able$ to$ find$ work$ within$ 4$ months$ after$ leaving$ prior$ form$ of$ education.$Being$economically$inactive$means$that$a$person$is$not$actively$looking$for$a$job.$ A$question$is$why$these$people$or$not$searching$for$a$job$and$whether$these$people$should$ nevertheless$be$provided$with$one.$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ Another$problem$is$that$the$youth$mainly$receives$shortGterm)contracts,$which$makes$them$ part$ of$ the$ flexible$ labour$ market.$ Therefore$ their$ employers$ will$ not$ invest$ a$ lot$ in$ their$ training,$which$means$that$when$meat$comes$to$end,$the$youth$will$be$first$to$lose$their$jobs.$ The$youth$therefore$finds$itself$between$jobs$more$often$than$the$older$generation12.$ $ It$thus$seems$logical$for$the$EU$to$invest$in$trainings$and$education$to$make$the$youth$more$ skilled$and$attractive$to$employers.$However,$this$does$result$in$an$immense$cost$for$the$EU$ or$the$Member$States.$Alternatives$for$trainings$and$education$are,$amongst$others,$benefit$ systems$ that$ provide$ subsidy$ to$ companies$ that$ hire$ youngsters.$ Which$ of$ the$ possible$ alternatives$is$most$cost$effective?$ $ Apart$from$cost,$reducing$youth$unemployment$by$financial$methods$or$setting$quota$could$ affect$the$relationship)that)the)young)employees)have)with)the)rest)of)the)labour)market.$If$ there$ is$ a$ big$ advantage$ for$ companies$ to$ start$ hiring$ young$ employees,$ the$ young$ employees$will$be$prioritised$over$the$older$employees.$This$brings$a$great$disadvantage$to$ older$ workers,$ even$ worsened$ by$ the$ lowering$ of$ the$ retirement$ age$ that$ brings$ more$ competition$on$the$labour$market.$It$raises$the$question$whether$it$is$right$to$select$a$young$ employee$ rather$ than$ an$ older$ employee$ for$ the$ greater$ good:$ stimulating$ the$ future$ economy.$$ $ Lastly,$ existing$ measure$ mostly$ include$ providing$ the$ youth$ working$ experience$ through$ internship)schemes.$Although$youngsters$do$gain$experience$in$the$working$field$through$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!Youth unemployment in Europe and the World: Causes, Consequences and Solutions, Kiel Institute for the World Economy, 2013, https://www.ifw-kiel.de/wirtschaftspolitik/politikberatung/kiel-policy-brief/kpb2013/KPB_59.pdf.!

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! these$internships,$few$of$these$internships$result$in$a$permanent$job.$The$internship$schemes$ make$it$actually$easier$for$employers$to$gain$labour$force$without$creating$new$jobs13.$ $

5. Facts and Figures In$ the$ following$ figure$ you$ will$ be$ able$ to$ see$ the$amount$of$unemployment$within$Europe.$ ) Nonetheless,$youth$unemployment$is$not)a)big) problem) in) all) of) the) EUG28) countries.$ Three$ different$countries$have$managed$to$keep$their$ unemployment$rates$low14.$ $ In$ the$ Netherlands,$ for$ instance,$ due$ to$ great$ investment) in) the) flexible) labour) force,$ there$ has$been$a$reasonable$stability$among$the$youth$ unemployment$ ratio$ since$ the$ 1980’s.$ It$ seems,$ if$you$take$the$Netherlands$as$an$example,$that$ investing$ in$ a$ flexible$ labour$ market$ paired$ with$social$security$can$keep$the$figures$down.$ Compared$

to$

other$

countries,$

in$

the$

Netherlands$ temporary$ workers$ enjoy$ better$ employment$ protection,$ as$ well$ as$ rights$ to$ training,$ wage$ guarantees$ and$ supplementary$ pensions.$ $ Another$ country$ that$ has$ managed$ to$ keep$ its$ youth$unemployment$rate$below$EUP28$average$is$Germany.$Since$2008$the$Unemployment$ rates$ in$ Germany$ have$ been$ plunging.$ Germany$ is$ renowned$ for$ its$ Vocational)Education) and) Training) (VET)) system.$ It$ is$ a$ system$ that$ offers$ a$ variety$ of$ tracks$ for$ the$ youth$ to$ balance$education$with$work$(internships$etc.).$ $ Lastly,$ Denmark$ also$ invests$ in$ an$ active) labour) market) policy) (ALMP)$ with$ the$ aim$ to$ reduce$structural$unemployment$and$thereby$Denmark$keeps$its$youth$unemployment$rates$ low.$ ALMP$ strives$ to$ ease$ the$ transition$ from$ unemployment$ and$ inactivity$ to$ work$ by$ means$of$supporting$job$search$and$improving$qualifications$and$employability.$$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13

EU’s Youth Guarantee is unlikely to dramatically help Slovakia’s young unemployment, Vise Grade Revue, 2013, http://visegradrevue.eu/?p=1398. 14 International Lessons: Youth unemployment in the global context, The Work Foundation, 2013, http://www.theworkfoundation.com/DownloadPublication/Report/329_International%20Lessons.pdf.

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6. Legislative Background Though$the$Netherlands,$Germany$and$Denmark$are$doing$fairly$well$in$employing$youth,$ Europe$ is$ still$ in$ need$ of$ lowering$ its$ unemployment$ rate$ average.$ So$ far$ the$ Commission$ has$ launched$ two$ major$ programmes.$ The$ Youth$ guarantee$ programme$ (2014)$ and$ the$ European$Alliance$of$Apprenticeships$(2013).$ $ The)Youth)Guarantee$is$a$programme$that$ strives$ to$ lower$ the$ youth$ unemployment$ rates$ by$means$of$providing$youth$with$education,$internships$or$a$job$within$4$months$after$they$ left$their$last$form$of$education.$On$the$basis$of$a$Commission$proposal,$to$complement$the$ youth$ guarantee$ programme,$ the$ Council$ of$ Ministers$ adopted$ a$ Quality$ Framework$ for$ Traineeships$to$enable$trainees$to$acquire$highPquality$work$experience$under$safe$and$fair$ conditions$and$to$increase$their$chances$of$finding$a$good$quality$job.$ $ The) European) Alliance) for) Apprenticeships15,) established$ in$ 2013,$ brings$ together$ public$ authorities,$ businesses,$ social$ partners,$ vocational$ education$ and$ training$ providers,$ youth$ representatives,$ and$ other$ key$ actors$ in$ order$ to$ improve$ the$ quality$ and$ supply$ of$ apprenticeships$across$the$EU$and$change$mindPsets$towards$apprenticeshipPtype$learning.$

7. Key Questions •

Is$there$sufficient$knowledge$sharing$of$research$innovations$and$new$scientific$ discoveries$within$the$borders$of$the$EU,$or$could$it$be$improved?$

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How$can$the$youth$keep$up$with$the$needs$of$EU$citizens$within$the$current$labour$ market?$$

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What$can$the$EU$do$to$uphold$a$competitive,$yet$balanced$labour$market$whilst$ keeping$the$measures$in$place$in$mind?$$

8. Recommended Links Youth)unemployment)in)Europe)and)the)World:)Causes,)Consequences)and)Solutions,)Kiel$Institute$ for$the$World$Economy,$2013,$https://www.ifwP kiel.de/wirtschaftspolitik/politikberatung/kielPpolicyPbrief/kpbP2013/KPB_59.pdf.) Youth)Guarantee,)European$Commission,$2014,$ http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1079.) EU)measures)to)tackle)youth)unemployment,)European$Commission,$2013,$ http://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/youth_unemployment_leaflet_en.pdf.$

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European Alliance for Apprenticeships, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/alliance_en.htm.

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! The)EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s)misdiagnosis)of)youth)unemployment,)Euractiv,$2014,$ http://www.euractiv.com/sections/socialPeuropePjobs/eusPmisdiagnosisPyouthP unemploymentP301323$ $ $

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Committee on Environment, Health and Food Safety (ENVI) Green)urban)transport:)with)3)out)of)4)citizens)in)the)EU)living)in)cities)and)an)increased) demand)for)urban)mobility,)how)should)the)EU)further)develop)its)Urban)Mobility)Package)to) ensure)a)sustainable)and)a)resourceLefficient)transport)system?)

1. Key Terms •

Urban)mobility:$The$capability$of$people$living$in$cities$and$the$surrounding$area$to$ move$around$with$all$modes$$and$forms$of$transport.$

2. Social Relevance Over$ 60%$ of$ European$ citizens$ live$ in$ urban$ areas$ populated$ by$ over$ 10,000$ inhabitants.$ Everyday$they$share$the$same$space$and$infrastructure.$Urban$transport$accounts$for$40%$of$ all$CO2$emissions$of$road$transport$and$up$to$70%$of$other$pollutants$from$transport16.$It$is$ also$estimated$that$by$2050$the$average$amount$of$time$European$citizens$spend$in$a$traffic$ jam,$will$triple$to$106$hours$per$year.17$This$will$cause$European$citizens$not$only$to$spend$ significantly$ more$ time$ on$ small$ journeys$ then$ they$ do$ now,$ as$ well$ as$ triggering$ serious$ health$ issues$ due$ to$ air$ pollution.$ Hence,$ one$ of$ the$ EU’s$ main$ objectives$ lies$ in$ finding$ feasible$ solutions$ to$ improve$ the$ general$ quality$ of$ life$ as$ well$ as$ mitigating$ the$ negative$ effects$of$climate$change.18$$

3. Stakeholders The$ ones$ that$ are$ directly$ affected$ by$ urban$ mobility$ are$ urban)citizens.$ These$ citizens$ benefit$ from$a$smooth$traffic$flow19$and$less$pollution,$as$smog$and$polluted$air$can$severely$harm$one’s$ health20.$ Citizens$ on$ the$ other$ hand$ are$ also$ the$ consumers$ of$ urban$ transport$ and$ thus$ the$ causers$ of$ congestion$ and$ pollution.$ Moreover,$ consumers$ can$ make$ the$ decision$ whether$ to$ travel$ by$ car$ or$ public$ transport$ and$ whether$ to$ choose$ for$ greener$ means$ of$ transport.$ These$ means$of$transport$are$provided$either$by$national)institutions$(e.g.$nationalised$train$systems)$ or$private)companies,$such$as$car$manufacturers$or$privatised$public$transport$providers.$In$the$ case$ of$ private$ transport$ providers,$ market$ competition$ takes$ part$ in$ a$ central$ position$ with$ regard$ to$ their$ products$ and$ prices.$ Therefore,$ greener$ products$ and$ services$ are$ not$ always$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16

Clean transport, Urban transport, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/index_en.htm. 17 The Future of Urban Mobilisation, Arthur D. Little (management consultancy), 2011, http://www.adlittle.com/downloads/tx_adlreports/ADL_Future_of_urban_mobility.pdf. 18 Benefits sustainable urban mobility plans, ELTIS 2013, http://www.mobilityplans.eu/index.php?ID1=6&id=6 19 Risk factors for road traffic injuries, World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_traffic/activities/roadsafety_training_manual_unit_2.pdf. 20 “Urban transport and health”, World Health Organisation 2011, http://www.who.int/hia/green_economy/giz_transport.pdf.

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! lucrative$ for$ a$ company$ to$ produce.$ Lastly,$ the$ EU$ has$ great$ interest$ in$ reducing$ the$ environmental$damage$that$is$inflicted$by$its$Member$States.$Policies$with$regard$to$health$and$ consolidation,$to$name$some$examples,$cannot$accomplish$their$objectives$without$taking$urban$ specificities$including$urban$mobility$into$account.21$

4. Conflicts As$ the$ EU^s$ cities$ annually$ grow$ with$ no$ sign$ of$ stopping,$ urbanisation$ and$ economic$ growth$ go$ hand$ in$ hand.$ Although$ the$ European$ Commission$ has$ been$ very$ eager$ in$ initiating$ and$ supporting$ all$ kinds$ of$ initiatives$ that$ promote$ and/or$ help$ create$ strategies$ for$ more$ sustainable$ urban$ transportation,$ there$ are$ still$ areas$ where$ this$ is$ lacking.$ Innovation$ in$ the$ field$ of$ urban$ transportation$ is$ scarce.$ Urban$ management$ systems$ are$ very$often$still$overregulated,)do$not$allow$market$players$to$compete,$and$fail$to$establish$ business$models$that$allow$supply$and$demand$to$stabilise.$$ Another$ big$ issue$ is$ that$ the$ competencies$ to$ make$ innovations$ in$ the$ field$ of$ urban$ transport$ lies$ primarily$ with$ local$ authorities,$ whilst$ the$ need$ to$ solve$ transport$ issues$ is$ primarily$a$concern$on$national$or$even$European$level.$The$EU$is$particularly$interested$in$ developing$sustainable$transport$systems$in$order$to$reach$the$20P20P20$targets22.$Transport$is$ a$shared)competence,$thus$the$EU$has$resolved$to$promote$innovation$in$the$urban$transport$ sector$ through$ providing$ funds.$ However,$ EU$ transport$ auditors$ have$ observed$ that$ a$ significant$amount$of$EU$funded$urban$transportation$projects$are$underutilised23.$ Lastly,$ financial) disparities24$affect$ the$ green$ sector.$ For$ urban$ transport$ to$ become$ green,$ externalities$need$to$be$paid.$Externalities$are$costs$that$affect$parties$that$did$not$choose$to$ incur$ that$ cost.$ For$ example,$ a$ driver$ causes$ environmental$ damage,$ and$ in$ this$ way$ contributes$to$the$intensified$greenhouse$effect.$Eventually,$this$has$to$be$financed$through$ governments$ by$ building$ higher$ dams.$ This$ can$ be$ achieved$ by$ making$ users$ pay$ for$ the$ external$ costs,$ which$ they$ cause$ according$ to$ the$ polluter$ pays$ principle.$ In$ order$ to$ deal$ with$ jammed$ infrastructure,$ the$ internalisation$ of$ external$ costs$ can$ encourage$ transport$ users$ to$ switch$ over$ time$ to$ cleaner$ vehicles$ or$ transport$ modes.$ However,$ when$ internalising$ external$ costs,$ other$ problems$ remain.$ Competition$ between$ companies$ that$ provide$ transport$ services$ will$ favour$ the$ ones$ that$ offer$ products$ that$ are$ as$ cheap$ as$ possible,$whilst$internalising$external$costs$would$make$products$more$expensive.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21

“Action Plan on urban mobility”, European Commission 2012, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/action_plan_en.htm. 22 “The 2020 climate and energy package”, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/package/index_en.htm. 23 “EU funded urban transport projects underutilized”, European Court of Auditors 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nhe8TPTN3jg, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_ECA-14-11_en.htm. 24

Disparities explained, http://economics.about.com/cs/economicsglossary/g/externality.htm.

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5. Legislative Framework In$ recent$ years,$ EU$ policy$ and$ legislation$ relevant$ to$ urban$ mobility$ has$ been$ developed.$ Significant$ funding$ has$ been$ provided$ through$ the$ Structural$ and$ Cohesion$ Funds.$ EUP funded$ initiatives,$ often$ supported$ by$ the$ Framework$ Programmes$ for$ research$ and$ technological$development,$have$helped$to$develop$a$variety$of$innovative$approaches.$EUP wide$allocation$and$replication$of$these$approaches$can$enable$public$authorities$to$achieve$ more,$better$and$at$lower$cost.$$ Different$ approaches$ to$ Sustainable) Urban) Mobility) Planning$ (SUMP)$ already$ exist$ throughout$Europe.$EnergyGefficient)driving$is$already$a$mandatory$part$of$the$training$and$ testing$of$professional$drivers.$The$Commission$will$discuss$with$Member$States,$within$the$ regulatory$ committee$ on$ driving$ licenses,$ if$ and$ how$ energyPefficient$ driving$ could$ be$ included$ in$ driving$ tests$ for$ private$ drivers,$ and$ will$ consider$ followPup$ actions$ and$ give$ respective$ support.$ This$ topic$ will$ also$ be$ addressed$ in$ the$ next$ Road$ Safety$ Action$ Programme25.$$ Environmentally) friendly) policies$ have$ been$ introduced$ in$ many$ cities$ across$ the$ EU.$ Action$ at$ EU$ level$ can$ help$ to$ strengthen$ markets$ for$ new,$ clean$ vehicle$ technologies$ and$ alternative$fuels.$ $ The$ Commission$ will$ continue$ its$ support$ for$ research$ and$ demonstration$ projects$ funded$ through$ the$ Seventh) Framework) Program) for) research) and) technological) development) (FP7)$designed$to$facilitate$the$market$introduction$of$lower$and$zero$emission$vehicles$and$ alternative$fuels.$This$was$done,$for$example,$through$the$CIVITAS$Initiative$–$an$initiative$ to$help$cities$innovate$their$public$transport$and$to$support$projects$on$the$use$of$hydrogen,$ biofuels$and$hybrid$vehicles$in$urban$transport.$In$the$framework$of$the$European$Economic$ Recovery$Plan,$the$Commission$has$launched$the$European)Green)Cars)Initiative$

6. Recommended Links Europe’s)transport)infrastructure,)The$Guardian,$2013,$http://www.theguardian.com/publicP leadersPnetwork/2013/oct/30/europesPtransportPinnovationsPprivate.$ Clean)transport,)Urban)transport,)European$Commission,$2012,$ http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/action_plan_en.htm.$ Innovation)in)Urban)Mobility,)European$Commission,$2013,$http://www.transportP research.info/Upload/Documents/201304/20130417_132707_15935_PB03ENWEB.pdf$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25

“Road Safety Programme”, European Commission 2010, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-10343_en.htm.

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Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM) A)31%)difference)in)income)per)year)between)men)and)women)in)the)EU:)as)the)gender)pay$ gap)remains)despite)undertaken)measures,)what)further)steps)should)the)EU)take)to)ensure)a$ fair)and)equal)payment)regardless)of)gender?$

1. Key Terms •

The)gender)pay)gap:$The$difference$between$male$and$female$earnings$expressed$as$ a$percentage$of$male$earnings.$ $

•

Glass) ceiling:) The$ term$ used$ to$ describe$ the$ unseen$ barrier$ hindering$ (mostly)$ women$ despite$ their$ job$ qualifications,$ from$ advancing$ to$ top$ positions$ in$ the$ corporate$world.$$$

$ •

AtGriskGofGpoverty) rate:) The$ amount$ of$ people$ with$ an$ income$ below$ 60%$ of$ the$ national$median$income26.$

$ •

Labour)Market:$the$place$where$workers$and$employees$interact$with$each$other.$$

•

Unskilled)Labour:)A$segment$of$the$work$force$associated$with$a$low$skill$level$or$a$

$ limited$ economic$ value$ for$ the$ work$ performed.$ Unskilled$ labour$ is$ generally$ characterized$by$low$education$levels$and$small$wages.$

2. Social Relevance The$ European$ Union$ (EU)$ has$ been$ aspiring$ to$ achieve$ gender$ pay$ equality$ ever$ since$ the$ creation$ of$ the$ founding$ Treaty$ of$ Rome$ in$ 1957.$ Nowadays$ the$ principle$ of$ equal$ pay$ is$ enshrined$in$The$Treaty$on$the$functioning$of$the$European$Union.$In$addition$the$Charter$of$ Fundamental$ Rights$ of$ The$ European$ Union27$dictates$ that$ equality) between) women) and) men) must)be)ensured)in)all)areas,)including)employment,)work)and)pay.$ In$ 2010$ women$ made$ up$ for$ 51,2%$ of$ the$ total$ European$ population$ and$ the$ amount) of) female) graduates) is) averagely) higher$ than$ male.$ Still$ women$ make$ up$ for$ less$ than$ 14.6%$ of$ all$ top$ positions.$ With$ the$ European$population$ageing$and$workingPage$population$shrinking,$it$is$now$of$the$utmost$ importance$ that$ the$ human$ capital$ base$ is$ widened$ and$ all$ skills$ are$ properly$ exploited.$ Furthermore$this$underutilization$of$women’s$talents$would$interfere$with$The)Europe)2020) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26

People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, Eurostat, 2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/People_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion# Methodology. 27 Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 23, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0389:0403:en:PDF.

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! strategy$whose$main$pillars$are$knowledge,$competence$and$innovation.$Moreover,$from$an$ economic$ standpoint,$ research$ has$ shown$ that$ a$ more$ gender$ diverse$ management$ team$ is$ beneficial$for$a$company’s$performance.$ Over$the$years$the$European$Commission$(EC)$has$implemented$various$directives$to$tackle$ inequality$in$pay,$but$the$fact$remains$that$women$averagely$earn$16.4%$less$than$men$when$ executing$ the$ exact$ same$ profession.$ The$ predicted$ decrease$ in$ the$ gender) pay) gap) (GPG)$ turned$ out$ lower$ than$ expected,$ in$ some$ member$ states$ it$ has$ even$ increased.$ This$ discrepancy$ causes$ women$ to$ exhibit$ a$ higher) atGriskGofGpoverty) rate) than$ men$ and$ will$ very$likely$enlarge$the$existing$pension)gap)as$well.)Lower$incomes$could$result$in$a$larger$ dependence$ on$ one^s$ partner^s$ income$ or$ the$ state’s$ provisions,$ which$ would$ eventually$ negatively$affect$the$economy$as$a$whole.$$$

3. Stakeholders The$ European) Commission) plays$ a$ crucial$ role$ in$ tackling$ gender$ inequality$ by$ creating$ new$ and$ intensifying$ existing$ policies.$ As$ the$ EC$ lacks$ the$ power$ to$ force$ measures$ upon$ national)governments,$it$is$up$to$them$to$put$laws$into$practice.$Their$role$could$vary$from$ monitoring$ companies$ in$ obeying$ pay$ policies$ to$ setting$ quotas$ in$ gender$ diversity.$ Alongside$ there$ is$ room$ for$ a$ company’s$ own$ initiative$ to$ follow$ through$ on$ the$ EC$ directives$ and$ in$ the$ end$ they$ play$ the$central$ role$ as$ this$ is$ where$ change$ is$ needed.$Most$ companies’$ main$ incentive$ is$ profit$ and$ will$ direct$ their$ strategies$ towards$ attaining$ that$ profit.$In$companies$where$mostly$men$fulfil$the$managing$positions,$a$shift$towards$a$more$ feminine$ board$ may$ be$ seen$ as$ needless$ or$ at$ may$ at$ least$ be$ less$ prioritised$ than$ other$ internal$ strategy$ changes$ in$ the$ company.$ However,$ the$ change$ does$ matter$ for$ women)as$ they$benefit$from$fairer$salaries$and$positions.$Additionally,$impacts$of$a$gender$balance$in$ the$boards$of$the$same$companies$discussed$before$must$be$considered.$

4. Conflicts In$2012,$women$earned$16.4$%$less$than$men,$on$average.$This$indicator$has$been$defined$as$ unadjusted$ (e.g.$ not$ adjusted$ according$ to$ differences$ in$ individual$ characteristics$ or$ other$ observable$ characteristics$ that$ may$ explain$ part$ of$ the$ earnings$ difference)$ because$ it$ gives$ an$ overall$ picture$ of$ gender$ discrimination$ and$ the$ inequalities$ in$ the$ labour$ market$ that$ explain$gender$differences$in$pay.$From$the$new$Eurostat$estimates,$it$appears$that$there$are$ considerable$ differences$ between$ the$ Member$ States$ in$ this$ regard,$ with$ the$ GPG$ ranging$ from$ less$ than$ 10%$ in$ Slovenia,$ Malta,$ Poland,$ Italy,$ Luxembourg$ and$ Romania,$ to$ more$ than$ 20%$ in$ Hungary,$ Slovakia,$ the$ Czech$ Republic,$ Germany$ and$ Austria,$ and$ reaching$ 30%$in$Estonia.$ However,$ the$ GPG$ is$ not$ an$ indicator$ of$ the$ overall$ inequality) between) women) and) men) since$it$only$concerns$salaried$people.$The$gender$pay$gap$must$be$looked$at$in$conjunction$ with$ other$ indicators$ linked$ to$ the$ labour) market,$ in$ particular$ those$ ones$ that$ reflect$ the$

18!

! different$working$patterns$of$women.$In$countries$where$the$female$employment$rate$is$low$ (e.g.$ Italy),$ the$ pay$ gap$ is$ lower$ than$ average.$ This$ may$ be$ a$ reflection$ of$ the$ small$ proportion$of)lowGskilled)or)unskilled$women$in$the$workforce.$A$high$pay$gap$is$usually$ characteristic$of$a$labour$market$which$is$highly$segregated,$meaning$that$women$are$more$ concentrated$ in$ a$ restricted$ number$ of$ sectors$ and/or$ professions$ (e.g.$ Czech$ Republic,$ Estonia$ and$ Finland),$ or$ in$ which$ a$ significant$ proportion$ of$ women$ work$ partPtime$ (e.g.$ Germany$ and$ Austria).$ Finally,$ institutional$ mechanisms$ and$ systems$ on$ wage$ setting$ can$ influence$the$pay$gap.$

5. Facts and Figures Between$October$2010$and$January$2012,$it$can$be$said$that$the$best$progress$in$many$years$ was$ made$ in$ improving$ the$ gender$ balance$ on$ company$ boards.$ This$ development$ is$ certainly$ linked$ to$ the$ intensified$ public$ debate$ initiated$ by$ the$ Commission’s$ and$ the$ European$ Parliament’s$ calls$ for$ action,$ which$ were$ followed$ in$ some$ Member$ states$ by$ concrete$steps$to$accelerate$the$pace$of$change.$ However,$this$report$shows$that$progress$continues$to$be$very$limited.$In$January$2012,$the$ average$ number$ of$ female$ board$ members$ in$ the$ largest$ companies$ listed$ in$ the$ EU$ was$ 13,7%$ compared$ to$ 11,8%$ in$ 2010.$ Moreover,$ only$ 3,2%$ of$ chairpersons$ were$ women$ in$ January$2012$compared$to$3,4%$in$2010.$ The$overall$trend$does$not$show$significant$improvement.$So$far,$only$24$companies$across$ Europe$ have$ signed$ the$ ‘Women$ on$ board$ Pledge$ for$ Europe’$ and$ have$ committed$ to$ achieving$ quantitative$ targets.$ With$ progress$ at$ the$ same$ pace$ as$ in$ recent$ years,$ it$ would$ take$more$than$40$years$to$arrive$at$genderPbalanced$boards.$ $

The unadjusted gender pay gap in 2012. Source: Eurostat. $

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! $

6. Legislative Background In$ 2011$ the$ European) Pact) For) Gender) Equality$ was$ adopted$ to,$ amongst$ others,$ ensure$ equal)pay)for)equal)work$and$to$promote$the$equal$participation$of$women$in$decisionPmaking.$ To$intensify$the$current$directives$and$realize$the$objectives$set$in$the$Women’s$Charter$the$ EC$adopted$the$Strategy)for)Equality)Between)Women)and)men)2010G2015.$Its$aims$are$to$ raise$the$women’s$employment$rate$to$75%$by$2020$and$to$improve$the$position$of$woman$ on$the$labour$market.$This$strategy$is$also$aligned$with$The)Europe)2020)Strategy)in$which$ the$action$plan$for$the$advancement$of$the$European$economy$is$described.$Various$member$ states$ have$ adopted$ legislation$ prescribing$ quotas) for) gender) balance$ in$ company$ boards.$ For$example$the$Netherlands$has$set$a$quota$of$40%$women$in$the$100$largest$companies$and$ state$ owned$ companies.$ Lastly$ there$ are$ initiatives$ to$ raise$ awareness$ amongst$ the$ public$ such$as$the$Equal)Pay)Day28.$

7. Key Questions •

What$ are$ the$ causes$ of$ the$ gender$ pay$ gap?$ Why$ are$ women$ on$ average$ paid$ less$ than$men?$

•

How$can$the$female$employment$rate$be$increased?$

•

What$measures$can$be$taken$to$decrease$the$gender$gay$gap?$

•

What$is$the$effect$of$gender$roles$on$the$gender$pay$gap?$

8. Recommended Links An$ overview$ on$ the$ gender$ pay$ gap,$ issues$ by$ the$ European$ Commission:$ http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderPequality/genderPpayPgap/index_en.htm$$ $ A$ 2014$ European$ Commission$ publication$ on$ tackling$ the$ gender$ pay$ gap$ in$ the$ EU:$ http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderP equality/files/gender_pay_gap/140227_gpg_brochure_web_en.pdf$$ $ $ $ $ $

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28

Closing the gender gap, Equal Pay Day, 2014, http://equal-pay-day.com/.

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Committee on International Trade (INTA) Human)rights)and)global)competitiveness:)Now)that)trade)agreements)are)an)exclusive)EU) competence,)how)can)the)EU)maintain)a)competitive)position)on)the)markets)whilst) advocating)good)governance)and)the)protection)of)human)rights)in)its)trade)agreements?)

1. Key Terms ●

Trade)agreements:)A$ trade$ agreement$ (also$ known$ as$ trade$ pact)$ is$ a$ widePranging$ tax,$ tariff$ and$ trade$ treaty$ that$ often$ includes$ investment$ guarantees.$ The$ most$ common$ trade$ agreements$ are$ of$ the$ preferential$ and$ free$ trade$ types$ and$ are$ concluded$in$order$to$reduce$(or$eliminate)$tariffs,$quotas$and$other$trade$restrictions$ on$items$traded$between$the$signatories29.) $

●

Foreign)Trade)Association)(FTA):)The$FTA$is$Europe^s$premier$association$for$trade$ policy$ and$ global$ supply$ chains.$ It$ brings$ together$ over$ 1200$ retailers,$ importers,$ brand$ companies,$ and$ national$ associations$ to$ improve$ the$ political$ and$ legal$ framework$for$trade.$) $

●

World) Trade) Organization) (WTO):) The$ WTO$ is$ a$ memberPdriven$ organization$ composed$ of$ governments$ and$ customs$ territories$ (such$ as$ the$ EU).$ It$ sets$ the$ framework$for$trade$between$its$members$with$decisions$taken$on$a$consensus$basis.) $

●

Tariff:$A$government$duty$imposed$on$imports$of$certain$products.$ $

●

NonGtariff) barriers:) Trade$ barriers$ that$ restrict$ imports,$ and$ which$ are$ not$ in$ the$ form$of$tariffs.)

2. Social Relevance The$ EU$ is$ both$ the$ largest$ exporter$ and$ the$ largest$ importer$ in$ the$ world.$ Imports$ have$ always$played$a$vital$role$in$keeping$an$economy$running.$Especially$in$the$present,$while$ we$ are$ rebuilding$ Europe’s$ economy,$ it$ is$ more$ important$ than$ ever$ to$ establish$ and$ maintain$ a$ healthy$ and$ optimal$ functioning$ trading$ relationship$ with$ countries$ outside$ of$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29

Free trade agreements, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/international/facilitating-trade/free-trade/.

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! the$EU.$However,$trade$agreements$are$often$negotiated$without$reference$to$their$impact$on$ the$rights$to$health,$education,$food,$work,$and$water30.$ $ On$24$April$2013,$Rana$Plaza,$an$eightPstory$commercial$building,$collapsed$in$the$capital$of$ Bangladesh.$With$a$death$toll$of$1129$it$is$considered$to$be$the$deadliest$accidental$structure$ failure$ in$ modern$ human$ history.$ The$ building$ housed$ several$ factories$ that$ manufactured$ garments$for$28$brands.$One$of$these$factories$acted$as$a$supplier$to$Primark.$Primark$is$an$ Irish$company,$and$therefore$has$to$deal$with$European$legislation$when$it$comes$to$import$ and$ labour$ conditions.$ However,$ in$ countries$ like$ Bangladesh$ the$ legislation$ regarding$ labour$conditions$is$not$as$strict$as$in$the$EU$and$consequently$Bangladeshi$product$can$be$ manufactured$for$a$lower$price.$By$outsourcing$manufacturing$to$countries$like$Bangladesh,$ Primark$ saves$ costs;$ but$ it$ does$ not$ save$ lives.$ Importing$ goods$ from$ less$ developed$ countries$ thus$ has$ two$ sides.$ The$ responsibility$ to$ take$ action$ and$ prevent$ future$ disasters$ like$ the$ collapse$ of$ Rana$ Plaza$ from$ happening$ lies$ on$ the$ one$ hand$ with$ companies.$ Additionally,$ the$ EU$ can$ make$ a$ big$ difference$ by$ using$ its$ power$ in$ forms$ of$ import$ legislation.$ $ In$a$world$where$one$cannot$operate$properly$without$allies,$it$would$be$unwise$to$cut$off$ countries$ that$ do$ not$ meet$ up$ to$ our$ standards$ and$ stop$ exchanging$ our$ goods.$ However,$ that$ does$ not$ mean$ that$ we$ cannot$ and$ should$ not$ do$ anything.$ The$ fact$ remains$ that$ in$ some$of$the$countries$we$trade$with$human$rights$are$not$regarded$as$highly$as$they$are$in$ the$EU.$

3. Stakeholders The$European)Commission$acts$on$behalf$of$all$Member$States$and$represents$the$interests$ of$the$EU$as$a$whole.$In$the$case$of$trade$negotiations,$the$European$Commission$delivers$a$ negotiating$proposal,$which$must$be$approved$before$starting$negotiations$by$the$Council)of) the) European) Union.$ It$ is$ also$ the$ EU$ Commission$ that$ has$ the$ ability$ to$ implement$ initiatives$ such$ as$ Generalised$ Scheme$ of$ Preferences$ (GSP,$ see$ “Legislative$ background”)$ for$example.$Furthermore,$the$European)Parliament$has$the$right$to$express$its$opinion.$All$ final$agreements$must$be$approved$by$the$Council$and$the$Parliament.$Together,$these$three$ EU$institutions$represent$the$wishes$and$incentives$of$the$Member$States.$It$is$in$the$Member$ States’$ benefit$ to$ on$ the$ one$ hand$ be$ able$ to$ buy$ cheap$ products$ abroad,$ and$ on$ the$ other$ hand$ be$ able$ to$ sell$ the$ products$ produced$ in$ the$ EU.$ To$ make$ sure$ that$ competition$ from$ cheap$ nonPEU$ products$ does$ not$ render$ European$ producers$ incapable$ of$ selling$ their$ products$ on$ the$ European$ market,$ the$ European$ Commission$ has$ set$ import$ tariffs.$ These$ tariffs$are$to$be$paid$by$the$trading)partners.$It$is$in$their$interest,$as$well$as$in$the$EU’s,$to$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30

Human rights in the trade arena, Joint report from the UN Human Rights office (OHCHR) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2011, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx. !

22!

! establish$an$optimal$functioning$exchange$of$products$to$benefit$from$each$other’s$expertise$ resulting$ in$ economic$ growth.$ Therefore,$ it$ is$ as$ beneficial$ for$ them$ to$ retain$ the$ EU$ as$ a$ trading$partner,$as$it$is$the$other$way$around.$ $ Another$party$involved$is$comprised$of$the$companies$that$fabricate$products.$Their$aim$is$ to$ produce$ their$ products$ for$ the$ lowest$ costs$ possible$ in$ order$ to$ compete$ with$ other$ companies.$They$are$mostly$interested$in$keeping$customers$interested$in$their$products,$in$ order$to$make$as$much$profit$as$they$can.$$

4. Conflicts Conflicts$ arise$ when$ we$ maintain$ our$ trading$ relationship$ with$ countries$ that$ do$ not$ meet$ the$ European$ standards$ in$ the$ field$ of$ human$ rights31.$ Take$ China,$ for$ example.$ The$ EU$ is$ China’s$greatest$trading$partner$and$China$is$the$EU^s$biggest$source$of$imports32.$Yet,$China$ is$a$country$child$labour$has$still$not$been$put$to$an$end.$We$simply$cannot$stop$trading$with$ China,$as$this$would$result$in$a$tremendous$loss$of$income$for$Europe.$Though,$when$China$ joined$the$WTO$in$2001$they$were$obliged$to$start$social$reforms$in$their$economy.$In$order$ to$help$China$and$advertise$our$own$standards,$the$EUPChina$Trade$Project$II$(EUCTP)$was$ developed$and$implemented.$The$aim$of$the$project$is$for$the$Chinese$government$to$reform$ its$ trade$ economy$ and$ to$ work$ towards$ sustainable$ development$ with$ help$ from$ the$ EU.$ This$project$however$will$end$in$2015$and$China$still$has$a$long$way$to$go$before$they$can$ meet$the$EU$standards.$ Another$example$is$the$trading$relationship$between$Europe$and$India.$It$can$be$argued$that$ the$difference$with$China$is$that$the$trade$with$India$is$less$important$to$the$economy$of$the$ EU,$as$it$accounts$for$only$less$than$2%$of$its$trade33.$Does$this$mean$that$the$EU$should$put$ an$end$to$its$trading$relationship$with$India$until$it$starts$to$improve$the$working$conditions$ there$and$lives$up$to$the$WTO$standards?$$ The$same$applies$to$Vietnam.$A$country$much$weaker$than$the$EU$economically$speaking,$ especially$when$it$comes$to$trade,$Therefore,$Vietnam$needs$the$EU$much$more$as$a$partner$ than$the$other$way$around.$The$EU$needs$to$decide$whether$it$should$establish$new$FTAs$in$ both$India$and$Vietnam.$How$far$should$the$EU$go$in$supporting$these$FTAs,$and$if$a$deal$is$ finally$reached,$how$can$the$EU$make$sure$that$it$is$being$respected?$$$ These$three$examples$demonstrate$the$difficulties$that$arise$when$setting$up$a$trade$strategy$ for$ the$ EU,$ as$ the$ needs$ vary$ with$ different$ trade$ relationships.$ Firstly,$ the$ question$ is$ whether$the$EU$should$have$the$incentive$to$help$developing$countries$improve$their$labour$ standards,$with$regard$to$the$EU’s$development$policy.$The$second$question$addresses$how$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31

Human rights in the trade area, United Nations, 2011, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx. 32 Countries and regions: China, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-andregions/countries/china/. 33 Idem.

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! the$EU$should$help$or$not$help$the$country$with$which$the$EU$undergoes$a$specific$relation.$ One$ of$ the$ problems$ is$ that$ the$ expected$ relationship$ between$ trade$ agreements$ and$ governance$ is$ almost$ entirely$ based$ on$ assumptions34.$ It$ is$ therefore$ not$ clear$ whether$ liberalisation$ of$ trade$ increases$ or$ increases$ corruption$ in$ the$ respective$ country,$ so$ ‘oneP sizePfitsPall’$trade$agreements$will$not$be$effective.$

5. Facts & Figures •

There$are$approximately$168$million$child$labourers$worldwide35.$

•

China$ is$ the$ EU^s$ biggest$ source$ of$ imports$ by$ far,$ and$ has$ also$ become$ one$ of$ the$ EU^s$fastest$growing$export$markets.$The$EU$has$also$become$China’s$biggest$source$ of$imports.$China$and$Europe$now$trade$well$over$€1$billion$a$day36.$

•

The$value$of$EUPIndia$trade$grew$from$€28.6$billion$in$2003$to$€72.7$billion$in$201337.$$

•

Workers^$ rights$ and$ privacy$ are$ contentious$ human$ rights$ issues$ in$ China.$ There$ have$ been$ several$ reports$ of$ core$ International$ Labour$ Organization$ conventions$ being$ denied$ to$ workers.$ One$ of$ these$ reports$ was$ released$ by$ the$ International$ Labour$Rights$Fund$in$October$2006;$it$states$that$factories$in$China$are$characterized$ by$ harsh$ conditions$ and$ mistreatment$ of$ workers.$ It$ also$ states$ that$ many$ factories$ are$unsafe,$do$not$pay$a$living$wage,$force$workers$to$work$overtime$without$extra$ pay,$do$not$offer$vacations$or$maternity$leave$and$are$run$by$managers$who$verbally$ abuse$workers38.$$

•

Over$ the$ next$ ten$ to$ fifteen$ years,$ 90%$ of$ world$ demand$ will$ be$ generated$ outside$ Europe.$That$is$why$it$is$a$key$priority$for$the$EU$to$tap$into$this$growth$potential$by$ opening$ up$ market$ opportunities$ for$ European$ businesses$ abroad.$ One$ way$ of$ ensuring$this$is$through$negotiating$agreements$with$our$key$partners39.$

6. Legislative Background First$ of$ all,$ the$ World) Trade) Organisation$ (WTO)40$is$ one$ of$ the$ biggest$ organisations$ that$ promotes$ and$ supervises$ international$ trade.$ The$ WTO$ makes$ sure$ that$ erga$ omnes$ legal$ obligations$ are$ met.$ Erga) omnes$ rights$ or$ obligations$ are$ universal$ in$ the$ international$ community,$ which$ means$ that$ every$ state$ can$ be$ held$ accountable$ for$ violations$ by$ other$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34

Trade and governance, APRODDEV, 2008, http://www.aprodev.eu/files/Trade/trade-and-gov.pdf. Child labour, International Labour Organization, 2013, http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/child-labour/lang-en/index.htm#a1. 36 Cf. 3. 37 Cf. 4. 38 Justice for all: the struggle for worker rights in China, Cornell University ILR School, 2004, http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=reports. 39 Trade: Agreements, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-andregions/agreements/. 40 What we do, WTO, 2014, http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/what_we_do_e.htm. 35

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! countries.$In$the$WTO,$the$EU$Member$States$are$represented$by$the$European$Commission$ and$therefore$are$seen$as$a$single$party.$$$ It$is$important$to$emphasise$once$again$the$fact$that$trade)agreements)are)an)exclusive)EU) competence,$and$therefore$can$only$be$made$by$the$Commission$(though$it$must$be$agreed$ upon$ by$ the$ Parliament$ and$ the$ Council).$ The$ EU$ has$ no$ say$ in$ agreements$ that$ were$ already$in$place$before$the$Lisbon$treaty.$Therefore,$she$can$only$wait$until$they$expire.$She$ must$be$aware$at$all$times$of$the$fact$that$there$are$agreements$in$place$that$may$contradict$ an$agreement$that$the$EU$wants$to$fabricate.$ Furthermore,$the$EU$has$its$own$set$of$legal$tools$to$regulate$the$amount$of$imports.$It$is$not$ too$ hard$ to$ imagine$ that$ for$ example$ tariff$ as$ well$ as$ nonPtariff$ barriers$ have$ a$ negative$ impact$on$the$amount$of$goods$imported$into$the$EU,$as$it$is$more$expensive$for$companies$ to$get$them$within$our$borders.$Mostly,$this$is$done$to$protect$the$EU’s$own$producers$from$ failing$to$compete$on$the$international$market,$as$labour$costs$are$lower$outside$of$the$EU.$ The$EU$can$also$make$use$of$GSP41$in$order$to$support$third$world$countries$in$competing$ with$the$rest$of$the$world;$this$is$an$example$of$a$measure$that$has$a$positive$effect$on$the$ amount$of$goods$imported$into$the$EU.$$ Lastly,$it$must$be$recognized$that$the$EU$has$no$legal$power$in$nonPEU$countries$in$which$ products$are$made.$They$are$only$able$to$check$whether$the$laws$and$agreements$are$being$ lived$up$to$once$the$country$has$permitted$them$to$do$so.$

7. Key Questions •

What$ is$ the$ EU’s$ right$ balance$ between$ the$ protection$ of$ human$ rights$ in$ other$ countries$and$its$competitive$position?$ o

How$can$the$EU$secure$its$strong$economic$position$when$other$countries$that$ import$goods$maintain$lower$import$standards?$ $

•

How$can$the$EU$make$it$appealing$for$countries$from$which$goods$imported$into$EU$ territory$originate$to$fabricate$goods$in$a$manner$that$reaches$our$ethical$standards?$ o

How$ can$ the$ EU$ make$ sure$ that$ trading$ agreements$ are$ being$ lived$ up$ to,$ when$the$production$takes$place$thousands$of$miles$away?$ $

•

How$ can$ the$ EU$ make$ sure$ it$ does$ not$ destroy$ trading$ relationships$ by$ refusing$ products$to$be$imported?$

$ •

What$ is$ the$ EU$ to$ do$ about$ the$ trading$ agreements$ made$ by$ its$ Member$ States$ previous$ to$ the$ Lisbon$ Treaty,$ which$ sometimes$ contradict$ or$ overlap$ with$ the$ trading$agreements$the$EU$now$wants$to$implement?$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41

Generalised Scheme of Preferences, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countriesand-regions/development/generalised-scheme-of-preferences/.!!

25!

8. Recommended Links Towards)a)Comprehensive)European)International)Investment)Policy,$European$Commission,$ 2010,$available$at$http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2011/may/tradoc_147884.pdf.$ Overview)of)FTA)and)other)trade)negotiations,$European$Commission,$2014,$ http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/december/tradoc_118238.pdf.$ The)WTO)canâ&#x20AC;Ś)encourage)good)governance,)World$Trade$Organisation,$2014,$ http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/10thi_e/10thi05_e.htm.$ Human)rights)in)the)trade)area,)United$Nations,$2011,$ http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx.$ $

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Committee on Industry, Energy and Research I (ITRE I) Establishing)the)app)economy:)with)the)air)of)a)gold)rush)in)the)current)application)technology) market,)how)can)the)EU)develop)its)technological)capacities)and)ensure)an)accessible)platform)for) developers?$

1. Key Terms • StartGup:$ A$ startPup$ is$ a$ company$ that$ is$ newly$ created.$ These$ companies$ are$ mostly$ exploring$a$new$market,$so$they$are$in$a$state$of$development.$ $ • Application:$An$application,$also$known$as$‘app’,$is$usually$used$on$mobile$devices,$they$ support$ social$ networks$ or$ they$ are$ for$ other$ connected$ devices$ like$ smart$ TVs.$ Consumers$ download$ an$ app.$ They$ either$ buy$ it,$ or$ download$ it$ for$ free.$ Apps$ can$ be$ for$any$purpose.$They$differ$from$weather$forecast,$finances,$communication,$to$PayPal$ purchases.$$

2. Social Relevance With$Internet$becoming$more$and$more$important,$the$globe$gets$connected.$There$is$a$growing$ amount$of$time$people$spend$on$their$phones$and$social$networks.$Shopping,$banking,$playing$ games,$ all) this) is) on) their) apps.$ Developers$ build$ these$ apps.$ In$ a$ time$ where$ the$ youth$ unemployment$ numbers$ are$ high,$ Neelie$ Kroes$ stated 42 $that$ developing$ could$ create$ an$ opportunity)for)jobs$in$Europe.$And$not$only$that:$apps$could$also$make)the)lives)for)people)in) Europe)so)much)easier.$However,$developers$are$still$dealing$with$a$lot$of$bottlenecks.$In$an$era$ where$ digitalization$ could$ do$ so$ much$ for$ a$ continent$ as$ Europe$ the$ EU$ should$ help$ the$ developers,$tackle)the)bottlenecks$for$developers,$and$get$connected.$

3. Stakeholders The$ civil) society$ P$ the$ consumers$ of$ the$ appsP$ has$ a$ large$ influence$ on$ whether$ an$ app$ is$ successful$ or$ not.$ Developers$ make$ money$ because$ consumer$ buy$ apps$ (approximately$ €3,100$ million$is$made$out$of$that43),$do$inPapp$purchases$(app.$€1,600$million$is$made$out$of$that4)$and$ consumers$rate$the$apps$of$developers.$If$an$app$is$rated$really$well,$advertisers$are$more$likely$ to$ advertise$ in$ an$ app.$ About$ €1,500$ million$ revenue$ comes$ from$ that4.$ A$ bottleneck$ for$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42

Speech: The app opportunity, European Comission, 2014, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-14-128_en.htm. 43 Sizing the EU app economy, Gigaom Research, 2014, p. 8.

27!

! developers$ is$ that$ consumers$ mostly$ donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t$ want$ to$ pay$ for$ apps,$ which$ makes$ it$ harder$ for$ developers$ to$ gain$ revenue.$ The$ appGdevelopers$ are$ the$ people$ involved$ in$ the$ process$ of$ developing$ apps.$ Developers$ can$ have$ different$ jobs.$ They$ can$ work$ for$ large$ companies$ (contract$labour),$whose$primary$business$is$not$necessarily$selling$apps.$For$instance,$a$media$ company$wants$to$publish$their$articles$on$an$app.$Developers$who$work$for$these$companies$ are$ called$ inPhouse$ developers.$ Finally$ there$ are$ two$ other$ groups:$ large$ independent$ developers$ and$ small$ independent$ developers.$ Large$ independent$ developers$ usually$ have$ people$ who$ work$ for$ them,$ while$ small$ independent$ developers$ are$ mostly$ hobbyists.$ AppP developers$earn$their$money$from$the$sales$of$apps$and$inPapp$sales$and$advertising$(6.0$billion$ EUR44)$but$mostly$from$contractPlabor$(11.5$billion$EUR5).$Additionally,$the$appPeconomy$offers$ growth$ to$ the$ nonGdeveloper) workforce.$ Not$ only$ developers$ work$ in$ the$ appPindustry,$ but$ there$is$a$broader$variety$of$jobs$generated$by$the$European$app$economy.$Large$independent$ developers$ can$ for$ instance$ have$ an$ account,$ HR$ and$ management$ but$ jobs$ like$ testers$ and$ designers$of$also$related$to$the$appPeconomy.45$ Yet$ other$ stakeholders$ on$ the$ supply$ side$ of$ the$ story$ are$ the$ American) giants$ P$ Facebook,$ Google$ and$ Apple.$ They$ are$ the$ dominant$ platforms$ people$ design$ apps$ for.$ These$ platforms$ are$ so$ huge$ that$ itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s$ hard$ for$ developers$ to$ get$ discovered.$ Even$ though$ the$ apps$ may$ be$ European,$ the$ platforms$ are$ certainly$ not.$ In$ a$ lot$ of$ cases$ these$ companies$ take$ a$ certain$ percentage$ of$ the$ gaining$ of$ the$ app46,$ which$ makes$ it$ even$ harder$ for$ developers$ to$ make$ a$ good$living$out$of$developing.$Other$(European$or$multinational)$companies$feel$the$benefits$of$ apps.$ Brands$ like$ McDonalds$ use$ apps$ for$ marketing,$ but$ there$ are$ also$ companies$ who$ use$ developers$to$create$apps$in$order$for$their$employees$to$work$more$efficiently.$$ Finally,$ the$ EU$ is$ maximising$ the$ benefits$ of$ the$ appPeconomy$ by$ the$ Digital) Agenda.$ The$ Digital$ Agenda$ aims$ to$ boost$ the$ economy$ in$ Europe$ by$ getting$ most$ out$ of$ the$ digital$ technologies.47$Neelie$ Kroes,$ vice$ president$ of$ the$ European$ Council$ and$ leader$ of$ the$ Digital$ Agenda$agreed$in$a$speech3$that$in$light$of$the$Digital$Agenda$and$a$Connected$Continent$the$ App$Economy$is$important$for$Europe.$$

4. Conflicts Because$ there$ is$ not$ a$ single$ market$ for$ telecom$ providers$ in$ Europe,$ there$ is$ a$ lack$ of$ harmonisation$in$consumer$protection$rules$and$connectivity.$Each$country$has$different$rules:$ there$ is$ no$ standardisation,$ no$ coordinated$ spectrum,$ and$ no$ common$ consumer$ protection$ rules.$This$all$makes$it$harder$for$developers$in$Europe$to$get$their$apps$launched,$since$there$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44

Cf. footnote 4, p. 2. Cf. footnote 4, p.11. 46 Cf. footnote 4, p.13. 47 Digital Agenda for Europe, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/our-goals. ! 45

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! are$ so$ many$ policies$ to$ take$ into$ account.$ Furthermore,$ LongPTerm$ Evolution$ Internet$ (4G)$ in$ Europe$is$far$from$fully$developed,$especially$when$compared$to$the$United$States$or$Korea.$In$ Europe$ only$ six$ per$ cent$ of$ the$ mobile$ devices$ are$ connected$ through$ 4G,$ whereas$ in$ Japan/Korea$this$is$40%,$and$in$the$U.S.$even$50%.48$$ Additionally,$ there$ are$ hardly) any) other) platforms$ apart$ from$ Facebook,$ Google$ and$ Apple$ where$ developers$ can$ show$ their$ applications.$ Since$ there$ are$ so$ many$ apps,$ it$ is$ hard$ for$ the$ consumer$ to$ become$ well$ informed$ due$ the$ vast$ supply$ of$ these$ platforms.$ Arguably$ an$ even$ more$important$issue$is$that$large$developers,$such$as$the$aforementioned$corporations,$want$a$ percentage$of$the$revenue$as.$For$example,$Apple$and$Google$want$a$30$per$cent$revenuePshare.$ Moreover,$financial$problems$form$an$obstacle$for$European$developers.$Firstly,$consumers)are) reluctant)to)pay)for)apps,$although$most$of$the$developers$make$most$revenue$from$sales.$This$ is$ seen$ as$ problematic$ for$ the$ supply$ and$ demand$ of$ the$ application$ market.$ Moreover,$ the$ acquisition$ costs$ are$ considerably$ high$ which$ makes$ it$ even$ harder$ for$ the$ developers$ to$ get$ their$applications$sold.$49$Developers$find$it$hard$to$compete$with$U.S.$salaries.$Lastly,$a$solution$ has$to$be$found$for$developers$that$miss)the)relevant)education)in$business$skills$and$network$ skills$in$order$to$manage$their$companies.6$

5. Facts & Figures â&#x20AC;˘

Only$six$per$cent$of$the$people$in$Europe$are$connected$through$4G.50$

â&#x20AC;˘

Labour$ in$ EU$ app$ developing$ is$ projected$ to$ grow$ from$ 1$ million$ in$ 2013$ to$ 2.7$ million$ in$ 2018.$ This$ workforce$ consists$ out$ of$ 39$ per$ cent$ small$ independent$ developers,$ 37$ per$ cent$ large$independent$developers$and$24$per$cent$inPhouse$developers.11$

â&#x20AC;˘

EU$app$companies$attribute$42$per$cent$of$the$app$revenue$across$the$U.S.$and$EU.$51$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48

Connected continent: a single telecom market & growth jobs, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/digitalagenda/en/connected-continent-single-telecom-market-growth-jobs 49

Cf. footnote 4, p. 12. A Telecom Single Market for #Connected Continent, DigitalAgendaEU YouTube, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thJ2AelUVkQ&list=UUYBQQU7VCu8M6djxI4dvpIg#t=20. 51 Cf. footnote 4, p. 4-5.! 50

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$ $ $

30!

6. Legislative Background Eurapp$ was$ launched$ by$ the$ European$ Commission’s$ startPup$ initiative.$ Eurapp$ investigates$ how$to$overcome$the$bottlenecks$in$the$European$application$market.$They$generate$highPlevel$ knowledge$about$the$application$market$in$Europe$and$organise$workshops$for$stakeholders.$52$ Furthermore,$there$has$been$a$proposal$by$the$European$Union$intended$to$make$Europe$more$ connected,$ called$ Connected) Continent.$ The$ goal$ is$ to$ secure$ the$ freedom$ to$ provide$ and$ to$ consume$(digital)$services$wherever$one$is$in$the$EU.$Currently$however$this$proposal$is$more$ focused$ on$ the$ consumer$ and$ less$ on$ the$ developers.$ Telecom$ providers$ cannot$ charge$ additional$costs$for$incoming$calls$and$are$required$to$allow$their$consumers$to$roam$on$cheaper$ services$ within$ the$ EU.$ The$ aim$ of$ the$ proposal$ can$ be$ exemplified$ by$ the$ policies$ for$ the$ regulation$of$companies$and$further$expanding$4G$technology.53$

7. Recommended Links Speech:)The)app)opportunity,$European$Comission,$2014,$http://europa.eu/rapid/pressP release_SPEECHP14P128_en.htm.$ Sizing)the)EU)app)economy,$Gigaom$Research,$2014,$p.$8.$ A)Telecom)Single)Market)for)#Connected)Continent,$DigitalAgendaEU$YouTube,$2013,$ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thJ2AelUVkQ&list=UUYBQQU7VCu8M6djxI4dvpIg#t=20

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52

“Brief”, Eurapp, http://eurapp.eu/about. “Connected Continent Legislative Package”, European Comission, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/connectedcontinent-legislative-package. 53

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Committee on Industry, Research and Energy II (ITRE II) Conscious)uncoupling:)As)an)overall)energy)dependence)of)53,4%)in)the)EU)causes)many) potential)threats)on)to)the)economic)and)political)stability,)what)can)the)EU)do)to)reduce)its) reliance)on)imported)energy?

1. Key Terms •

Final) energy) consumption:$ The$ energy$ finally$ consumed$ in$ transport,$ industrial,$$ commercial,$ agricultural,$ public,$ and$ household$ sector,$ excluding$ deliveries$ to$ the$$ energy$transformation$sector$and$to$the$energy$industries$themselves.$ $

•

Primary)energy)production:$The$extraction$of$energy$from$a$natural$source.$

•

Energy)import)dependency:$The$extent$to$which$a$country$relies$upon$imports$in$order$$

$ to$meet$its$energy$needs.$$ $ •

Renewable) energy:$ Energy$ that$ is$ produced$ using$ a$ source$ that$ is$ not$ depleted$ when$$ used,$such$as$hydroelectric,$biomass,$wind,$solar,$tidal$and$geothermal$power.$

$ •

OPEC) Countries:$ The$ 12$ countries$ that$ are$ members$ of$ the$ Organisation$ of$ the$$ Petroleum$Exporting$Countries$(OPEC),$including$Algeria,$Angola,$Ecuador,$Iran,$Iraq,$ Kuwait,$Libya,$Nigeria,$Qatar,$Saudi$Arabia,$United$Arab$Emirates,$and$Venezuela.$The$ OPEC$ is$ a$ permanent$ intergovernmental$ organisation$ that$ coordinates$ and$ unifies$ the$$ petroleum$policies$of$its$member$countries.$

2. Social Relevance A$secure$supply$of$energy$in$our$society$nowadays$is$more$crucial$than$it$has$ever$been$before.$ Our$modernPday$society$is$driven$by$energy,$as$all$of$our$machines$and$equipment$are$powered$ by$ it.$ Therefore$ a$ fluctuation$ in$ our$ energy$ supply$ could$ result$ in$ households$ not$ getting$ the$ amount$of$energy$they$need.$Thus,$our$everyday$life$can$be$affected$by$it,$illustrated$by$the$gas$ crisis$ of$ 2006P200954$in$ Ukraine.$ Furthermore,$ a$ scarce$ supply$ of$ energy$ will$ cause$ a$ rise$ in$ energy$ prices$ at$ the$ same$ time.$ This$ could$ cause$ poverty$ among$ European$ citizens,$ as$ purchasing$ expensive$ energy$ will$ deal$ a$ heavy$ blow$ to$ their$ economic$ status.$ In$ worse$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54

Gas crisis: 2006, 2009... 2015, Budapest Times, 2014, http://budapesttimes.hu/2014/07/18/gas-crisis-2006-20092015/.

32!

! situations$ it$ could$ lead$ to$ exclusion$ of$ energy,$ as$ citizens$ will$ not$ be$ able$ to$ afford$ energy$ anymore.$To$ensure$that$energy$will$remain$affordable$and$available,$the$European$Union$has$to$ take$ steps$ in$ becoming$ less$ energy$ reliant$ on$ few$ other$ countries,$ especially$ when$ those$ few$ countries$ have$ a$ monopoly$ over$ a$ particular$ energy$ source.$ For$ example,$ Russia$ has$ almost$ complete$monopoly$over$gas.$

3. Stakeholders There$are$two)main)stakeholders$in$this$problem.$On$one$side$there$are$the$exporters,$such$as$ the$OPEC$countries$and$Russia.$Because$these$exporters$decide$whether$they$sell$their$oil$and$ gas$or$keep$it$to$themselves,$they$control$the$supply$side$of$the$market.$On$the$other$side$there$ are$the$consumers,$the$importers.$In$this$case$those$are$EU$member$states.$At$the$moment$they$ have$ to$ rely$ on$ the$ exporters$ for$ their$ energy$ needs.$ To$ secure$ enough$ energy,$ the$ Member$ States$want$to$become$less$energy$dependent.$Two$ways$to$accomplish$this$are$by$reducing$the$ Member$ Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;$ consumption$ of$ energy$ and$ by$ exploiting$ the$ Member$ Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;$ capacity$ to$ generate$energy$their$selves.$ These$two$parties$relate$very$closely$as$more$consumption$will$mean$more$need$for$exporting$ and$ less$ exporting$ will$ mean$ less$ energy$ available$ for$ consumption.$ Therefore,$ both$ parties$ cannot$ make$ sudden$ moves$ to$ increase$ consumption$ or$ decrease$ exporting.$ They$ both$ rely$ on$ each$other.$

4. Conflicts Considering$ the$ effect$ of$ the$ gas$ crisis$ in$ 2006P200955,$ when$ Ukraine$ became$ unable$ to$ sustain$ the$energy$needed$by$its$citizens$due$to$Russia$stopping$the$export$of$gas,$the$main$conflict$is$ that$ our$ current$ supply$ of$ energy$ is$ not$ stable$ enough$ to$ rely$ on.$ Any$ political$ escalation$ can$ evolve$ into$ Member$ States$ losing$ their$ energy$ supply.$ Not$ only$ can$ the$ exporter$ shut$ off$ the$ supply,$ they$ can$ also$ make$ use$ of$ it$ as$ leverage$ to$ earn$ more$ benefits$ and$ financial$ support56$ from$ the$ consumer$ countries.$ Furthermore,$ in$ 2013,$ the$ EU$ imported$ oil$ up$ to$ a$ total$ value$ of$ 291$billion$EUR57$in$just$one$year.$This$is$an$enormous$expense$and$fluctuation$in$yearly$income$ of$Member$States$could$result$in$them$being$unable$to$afford$these$costs.$However,$producing$ stable$ energy$ sources$ of$ our$ own$ will$ also$ need$ great$ investments,$ as$ new$ facilities$ should$ be$ researched$ and$ built.$ Therefore$ the$ EU$ has$ to$ make$ a$ choice$ between$ importing$ energy$ or$ boosting$their$energy$production.$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55

Idem. Conscious uncoupling, The Economist, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111-reducingeuropes-dependence-russian-gas-possiblebut-it-will-take-time-money-and-sustained. 57 EU crude oil imports, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/oil/import_export_en.htm. 56

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5. Facts & figures •

Finland,$Estonia,$Lithuania$and$Latvia$are$completely$dependent$on$Russia$for$their$gas$ supply.58$$

•

The$EU$imports$39%$of$their$gas$supply$and$33%$of$their$oil$supply$from$Russia.59$

•

Denmark$is$the$only$EU$member$state$that$exports$oil.$Denmark$and$the$Netherlands$are $the$only$gas$exporters.60$

•

Cyprus,$Malta$and$Luxembourg$are$completely$dependent$on$energy$import$for$their$en ergy$supply.61$

6. Legislative background For$ several$ years,$ the$ EU$ has$ attempted$ to$ increase$ the$ security$ of$ energy$ supply.$ In$ order$ to$ secure$ supply$ of$ energy,$ the$ European$ Commission$ has$ published$ an$ EU) energy) security) strategy62$on$28$May$2014.$This$strategy$contains$both$shortPterm$measures$and$medium$to$longP term$measures.$In$the$shortGterm,$the$Commission$proposes$energy)security)stress)tests.$These$ tests$will$simulate$a$disruption$in$the$gas$supply$to$check$how$well$the$EU’s$energy$system$can$ manage$ with$ security$ of$ supply$ risks,$ and$ to$ develop$ emergency$ plans$ and$ backPup$ mechanisms.$Furthermore,$the$strategy$suggests$actions$in$five)key)areas$for$in$the$medium)to) longGterm.$ Next$ to$ the$ abovePmentioned$ steps$ to$ secure$ the$ energy$ supply,$ the$ EU$ has$ also$ taken$ steps$ to$ make$ its$ energy$ more$ sustainable.$ The$ EU$ has$ adopted$ a$ set$ of$ binding) legislation,$ the$ climate$ and$ energy$ package,$ to$ reach$ the$ 20G20G20) targets63)for$ 2020.$ These$ targets$aim$to$have$a$20%$reduction$in$EU$greenhouse$gas$emissions$from$1990$levels,$a$raise$to$ a$ 20%$ share$ of$ EU$ energy$ consumption$ produced$ from$ renewable$ sources,$ and$ a$ 20%$ improvement$in$the$EU’s$energy$efficiency$by$2020.$Several$measures$have$already$been$taken$ to$reach$those$targets.$Finally,$the$2030)policy)framework)for)climate)and)energy64)also$aims$at$ making$ the$ EU$ economy$ and$ energy$ system$ more$ competitive,$ secure,$ and$ sustainable.$ The$ objectives$are$to$cut$greenhouse$gas$emissions$even$more,$to$raise$the$share$of$renewable$energy$ consumption$and$to$create$a$more$efficient$energy$system.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58

Conscious uncoupling, The Economist, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111-reducingeuropes-dependence-russian-gas-possiblebut-it-will-take-time-money-and-sustained.!! 59 Security of energy supply, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/security_of_supply_en.htm 60 Energy Key Figures, European Commission, 2011, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/countries/doc/key_figures.pdf 61 Idem. 62 European Commission op.cit. 63 The 2020 climate and energy package, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/package/index_en.htm. 64 2030 framework for climate and energy policies, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/2030/index_en.htm.!!

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7. Key Questions •

How$can$the$EU$secure$a$stable$energy$supply?$

•

Is$it$necessary$to$completely$stop$importing$energy?$

•

Is$there$a$possibility$for$the$EU$to$diversify$its$energy$import,$rather$than$importing$$ mostly$from$Russia?$

•

Are$there$alternatives$for$renewable$energy$sources$or$nuclear$energy$for$the$EU$to$$ create$a$stable$energy$supply?$

8. Recommended Links Key)figures)of)Energy)in)the)EU,$European$Commission,$2011,$ http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/countries/doc/key_figures.pdf.$$ The)struggle)to)reduce)dependence)on)Gazprom,$The$Guardian,$2009,$ http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/02/russiaPukrainePgazprom.$$ Energy:)Security)of)Energy)Supply,$European$Commission,$2014,$ http://ec.europa.eu/energy/security_of_supply_en.htm.$$ Concious)Uncoupling,$The$Economist,$2014,$http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111P reducingPeuropesdependencePrussianPgasPpossiblebutPitPwillPtakePtimePmoneyPandPsustained.$ Oil)prices:)Energy)Investment,)Political)Stability)in)the)Exporting)Countries)and)OPEC’s)dilemma,) Chatham$House,$2012,$ http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Energy,%20Environm ent%20and%20Development/1012pp_opec.pdf.$$ The)Past,)Present)and)Future)of)Russian)Energy)Strategy,$Stratfor$Global$Intelligence,$2013,$ http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/pastPpresentPandPfuturePrussianPenergyP strategy#axzz3CjZWclRL.$$ $

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Committee on Legal Affairs (JURI) The)line)between)freedom)of)speech)and)the)right)to)online)privacy:)as)the)European)Court)of) Justice)has)recently)ruled)that)citizens)have)the)“Right)to)be)Forgotten”,)how)can)the)EU)ensure) this)verdict)is)complied)with)adequately)whilst)maintaining)a)free)and)accessible)Web?)

1. Key Terms •

Freedom)of)speech:$The$political$right$to$communicate$one^s$opinions$and$ideas$using$one^s$ body$ and$ property$ to$ anyone$ who$ is$ willing$ to$ receive$ them.$ The$ term$ freedom$ of$ expression$is$sometimes$used$synonymously,$but$includes$any$act$of$seeking,$receiving$and$ imparting$information$or$ideas,$regardless$of$the$medium$used.$$

•

Right)to)oblivion/right)to)be)forgotten:$The$right$to$oblivion,$equally$called$the$right$to$be$ forgotten,$is$the$right$for$natural$persons$to$have$information$about$themselves$deleted$after$ a$certain$period$of$time,$when$those$data$are$inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$ for$the$purposes$of$the$data$processing.$$

•

Right)to)object:$The$right$to$object$to$the$processing$of$data.$The$data$subject$should$have$ the$ right$ to$ object,$ on$ legitimate$ grounds,$ to$ the$ processing$ of$ data$ relating$ to$ him/her.$ He/she$ should$ be$ informed$ before$ personal$ data$ are$ disclosed$ to$ third$ parties$ for$ the$ purposes$ of$ direct$ marketing,$ and$ be$ expressly$ offered$ the$ right$ to$ object$ to$ such$ disclosures.$$

•

Personal) data:$ Any$ information$ relating$ to$ an$ individual,$ whether$ it$ relates$ to$ his$ or$ her$ private,$ professional$ or$ public$ life.$ It$ can$ be$ anything$ from$ a$ name,$ a$ photo,$ an$ email$ address,$ your$ bank$ details,$ to$ your$ posts$ on$ social$ networking$ websites$ and$ your$ medical$ information.$$

•

Data)protection:$Legal$obligations$to$protect$personal$information$about$individuals.$

2. Social Relevance Rapid$ technological$ developments$ and$ globalisation$ of$ the$ Internet$ have$ brought$ new$ challenges$ for$ data$ protection.$ With$ social$ networking$ sites,$ cloud$ computing,$ locationPbased$ services$and$smart$cards,$we$leave$digital$traces$with$every$move$we$make.$In$this$“brave$new$ data$world”$we$need$a$robust$set$of$rules$in$order$to$keep$our$data$private.$

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! In$ 1998$ a$ Spanish$ citizen$ had$ hit$ financial$ difficulties.$ Later$ in$ his$ life$ he$ discovered$ not$ any$ bank$ would$ grant$ him$ a$ loan$ and$ his$ reputation$ was$ damaged$ because$ whenever$ you$ would$ search$ for$ his$ name$ in$ any$ search$ engine$ the$ first$ hit$ would$ be$ an$ article$ about$ his$ financial$ difficulties$ in$ the$ past.$ This$ was$ impossible$ to$ erase$ and$ he$ started$ to$ pursue$ the$ case.$ The$ European$Court$of$Justice$(ECJ)$shared$his$concern$establishing$that$even$though$the$newspaper$ acted$in$the$public$interest$in$publishing$the$piece,$Google$was$violating$his$privacy$by$making$ the$ information$ available.$ The$ control$ over$ who$ you$ are$ disclosing$ your$ information$ to$ is$ problematic$and$once$something$has$been$published$online$it$will$be$available$permanently.$The$ ECJ$ stated$ it$ was$ not$ clear$ whether$ the$ Data$ protection$ Directive$ of$ 199565$applied$ to$ search$ engines$ such$ as$ Google$ and$ whether$ an$ individual$ has$ the$ right$ to$ request$ that$ his$ or$ her$ personal$data$would$be$removed$from$accessibility$via$a$search$engine66.$In$its$ruling$of$13$may$ 2014$ the$ ECJ$ created$ the$ “Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten”:$ individuals$ have$ the$ right$ P$ under$ certain$ conditions$P$to$ask$search$engines$to$remove$links$with$personal$information$about$them.$This$ applies$where$the$information$is$inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$for$the$purposes$ of$the$data$processing.$The$ECJ$found$that$in$this$particular$case$the$interference$with$a$person’s$ right$ to$ data$ protection$ could$ not$ be$ justified$ merely$ by$ the$ economic$ interest$ of$ the$ search$ engine.$ At$ the$ same$ time,$ the$ ECJ$ explicitly$ clarified$ that$ ‘the$ right$ to$ be$ forgotten’$ is$ not$ absolute$ but$ will$ always$ need$ to$ be$ balanced$ against$ other$ fundamental$ rights$ such$ as$ the$ freedom$of$expression$and$media.$ Therefore,$inevitably,$the$victory$is$pyrrhic:$the$ECJ$ruling$has$huge$implications,$and$is$hugely$ contentious.$It$could$add$significant$burdens$to$online$businesses,$and$could$even$lead$to$tech$ giants$closing$European$offices$to$escape$the$law’s$reach.$

3. Stakeholders As$the$European)citizens$are$mostly$involved$in$what$personal$data$is$put$on$the$web,$they$play$ a$big$role$in$the$protection$of$their$data.$Even$more$so,$now$citizens$are$partly$able$to$take$their$ personal$ data$ down$ from$ search$ engines,$ individuals$ have$ a$ powerful$ tool$ to$ put$ forward$ against$ search$ engines$ that$ allow$ accessibility$ of$ their$ data.$ This$ is$ also$ where$ the$ conflict$ lies.$ Search$engines$have$a$commercial$interest$and$want$to$maximise$their$profits$by$a$high$amount$ of$visits$to$their$engine.$Nowadays,$any$search)engine)inside)the)EU$has$to$process$the$requests$ of$ individuals$ to$ take$ down$ any$ personal$ data.$ If$ too$ much$ information$ is$ removed$ from$ the$ search$engine$through$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten,$the$search$engine$is$risking$to$be$considered$as$ insufficient$and$censored$by$the$public.$Also$search)engine)outside)the)EU$will$be$affected$by$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65

Protection of personal data, Europa Summaries of EU Legislation, 2011, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/information_society/data_protection/l14012_en.htm. 66 Free speech vs. Internet Privacy, Commerce Times, 2014, http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/80567.html.!

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! the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten,$ as$ the$ information$ on$ the$ Internet$ is$ mostly$ provided$ by$ large$ multinationals$such$as$Google$and$Yahoo!.$Finally,$the$European$Court$of$Justice$has$to$decide$ whether$the$information$is$indeed$inaccurate,$irrelevant,$inadequate$or$excessive$and$must$not$ be$visible$to$the$public$in$search$engines.$

4. Conflicts In$ a$ world$ where$ everyone$ can$ be$ found$ online,$ it$ is$ difficult$ to) balance) the) needed) privacy) with)the)freedom)of)speech)and)expression.$Which$is$more$important:$the$right$to$be$forgotten$ or$ the$ right$ to$ know?$ In$ order$ to$ protect$ its$ citizens$ the$ ECJ$ has$ taken$ on$ a$ law$ that$ enables$ individuals$ to$ erase$ their$ personal$ data$ under$ certain$ circumstances.$ However,$ the$ court$ decision$ has$ not$ brought$ enough$ clarity$ on$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten$ yet.$ The$ ECJ$ has$ outsourced)the)decision)to)grant)the)removal$of$personal$data$to$the$search$engines67.$Although$ Google$and$Yahoo!$have$now$officially$recognised$the$court’s$decision,$European$citizens$are$not$ guaranteed$ that$ their$ request$ for$ removal$ will$ be$ granted$ on$ the$ right$ grounds.$ The$ exact$ implementation$of$the$law$has$not$yet$been$clarified$and$so$it$leaves$room$for$search$engines$to$ decide$on$their$own$view$on$the$interpretation$of$the$law.$$ A$second$problem$of$the$ECJ’s$decision$is$the$impact$it$might$have$on$international)freedoms)of) expression)and)media.$As$the$biggest$search$engines$like$Google$and$Yahoo!$are$companies$cited$ in$ United$ States,$ EU$ laws$ on$ data$ protection$ directly$ influence$ policies$ abroad.$ It$ must$ be$ explored$ whether$ the$ court’s$ decision$ conflicts$ with$ foreign$ policies$ and$ if$ it$ does,$ how$ these$ clashes$can$be$solved.$Although$Google$and$Yahoo!$have$confirmed$to$take$into$account$the$ECJ’s$ decision,$ there$ remain$ other$ search$ engines$ that$ do$ not$ yet$ comply$ with$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten.$Furthermore,$the$ECJ’s$decision$may$not$only$affect$EU’s$internal$transparency,$but$ also$international$transparency$as$important$information$is$hidden$from$the$public.$

5. Legislative Background Directive)95/46/EC$is$the$reference$text,$at$European$level,$on$the$protection$of$personal$data.$It$ sets$up$a$regulatory$framework$that$seeks$to$strike$a$balance$between$a$high$level$of$protection$ for$ the$ privacy$ of$ individuals$ and$ the$ free$ movement$ of$ personal$ data$ within$ the$ European$ Union.$ To$ do$ so,$ the$ Directive$ sets$ strict$ limits$ on$ the$ collection$ and$ use$ of$ personal$ data$ and$ demands$ that$ each$ Member$ State$ sets$ up$ an$ independent) national) body) responsible) for) the) protection) of) these) data.$ However,$ it$ was$ not$ clear$ whether$ the$ Directive$ applied$ to$ search$ engines$such$as$Google,$whether$it$applied$to$a$data$processing$server$which$is$located$in$the$US$ and$ whether$ an$ individual$ has$ the$ right$ to$ request$ his$ or$ her$ data$ to$ be$ removed$ from$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67

The Solace of Oblivion, The New Yorker, 2014, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/29/solace-oblivion.

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! accessibility$ via$ a$ search$ engine.$ The$ Ruling)of)May)the)13th)2014)of)the)EU)Court)of)Justice$ ruled$ that$ citizens$ have$ the$ “Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten”68.$ Big$ search$ engines$ such$ as$ Google$ and$ Yahoo$ have$ accepted$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten,$ and$ now$ have$ the$ task$ of$ dealing$ with$ the$ requests$of$citizens$to$remove$specific$personal$data.$

6. Key Questions •

How$can$the$EU$assure$the$online$privacy$of$its$citizens$whilst$maintaining$the$freedom$ of$expression?$

•

How$ does$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten$ conflict$ with$ foreign$ and$ international$ policies$ on$ data$protection$and$freedom$of$expression?$How$can$the$EU$make$sure$search$engines$ located$outside$of$Europe$follow$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten?$$

•

How$can$the$ECJ$make$sure$the$court$persuasions$are$most$accurate?$How$can$the$EU$ make$sure$the$ECJ’s$decision$will$be$clarified$so$that$it$can$be$applied$for$all$future$cases$ regarding$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten?$

•

Who$should$make$the$decisions$for$granting$the$requests$of$removal$of$personal$data?$ Who$ should$ perform$ the$ checks$ whether$ the$ personal$ data$ to$ be$ removed$ is$ indeed$ inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$for$the$purposes$of$the$data$processing?$

7. Recommended Links The)Right)to)be)Forgotten,$Stanford$Law$Review,$2012,$ http://www.stanfordlawreview.org/online/privacyPparadox/rightPtoPbePforgotten?em_x=22.$$ EU)invites)Google,)Microsoft,)to)discuss)“Right)to)be)Forgotten”,)Wall$Street$Journal,$2014,$ http://online.wsj.com/articles/euPregulatorsPinvitePgooglePmicrosoftPtoPdiscussPrightPtoPbeP forgottenP1405592730.$ Costeja)González)and)the)memorable)fight)for)the)‘right)to)be)forgotten’,)The$Guardian,$2014,$ http://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2014/may/14/marioPcostejaPgonzalezPfightPrightP forgotten.$$ Factsheet)on)the)‘Right)to)be)Forgotten’)ruling,)European$Commission,$2014,$ http://ec.europa.eu/justice/dataPprotection/files/factsheets/factsheet_data_protection_en.pdf.) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68

Factsheet on the ‘Right to be Forgotten’, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/justice/dataprotection/files/factsheets/factsheet_data_protection_en.pdf.

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! EU)Court)backs)“right)to)be)forgotten”:)Google)must)amend)results)on)request,)The$Guardian,$2014,$ http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/may/13/rightPtoPbePforgottenPeuPcourtPgoogleP searchPresults.) Protection)of)personal)data,)European$Commission,$2014,$http://ec.europa.eu/justice/dataP protection/.$$ $

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Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) With)more)refugees)than)ever)crossing)external)borders)into)Europe,)how)can)the)rights)of) refugees)be)safeguarded)while)respecting)Member)Statesa)sovereignty?)

1. Key Terms •

Refugee:)A$person$who,$owing$to$a$wellPfounded$fear$of$persecution$for$reasons$of$race,$ religion,$ nationality,$ membership$ of$ a$ particular$ social$ group$ or$ political$ opinions,$ is$ outside$the$country$of$his$or$her$nationality$and$is$unable$or$unwilling,$due$to$such$fear,$ to$avail$himself$of$the$protection$of$that$country69.$ $

•

Asylum) seeker:) A$ person$ who$ seeks$ safety$ from$ persecution$ or$ serious$ harm$ in$ a$ country$ other$ than$ his$ or$ her$ own$ and$ awaits$ a$ decision$ on$ the$ application$ for$ refugee$ status$

under$

relevant$

international$

and$

national$

apparatuses.$

$ •

Irregular)migrant:)A$person$who,$owing$to$unauthorized$entry,$breach$of$a$condition$of$ entry,$ or$ the$ expiry$ of$ his$ or$ her$ visa,$ lacks$ legal$ status$ in$ a$ transitory$ or$ host$ country.$ The$ term$ uirregularu$ is$ preferable$ to$ uillegalu$ because$ the$ latter$ carries$ a$ criminal$ connotation$and$is$seen$as$denying$migrants^$humanity.$ $

•

Burden) sharing:) The$ need$ for$ sharing$ responsibility$ for$ protection$ of$ refugees$ in$ situations$of$mass$influx$from$a$financial$as$well$as$a$physical$point$of$view,$in$this$case$ by$the$Member$States.$

) •

Principle) of) nonGrefoulement:) A$ principle$ of$ law$ that$ forbids$ the$ rendering$ of$ a$ true$ victim$of$persecution$to$their$persecutor.$In$refugee$law,$this$mostly$applies$to$refugees$ coming$from$war$zones$and$other$disaster$areas.) )

•

Dublin)system70:)This$system$serves$to$determine$which$EU$member$state$is$responsible$ for$ examining$ an$ asylum$ application$ lodges$ in$ one$ of$ the$ Member$ States.$ The$ Dublin$ system$contains$EURODAC$and$the$Dublin$Regulation.) )

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69

Key migration terms, International Organisation for Migration, 2011, http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/about-migration/key-migration-terms-1.html#Irregular-migration. 70 “Dublin” cases, European Court of Human Rights, 2014, http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Dublin_ENG.pdf.!!

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2. Social Relevance The$ Lampedusa$ disaster,$ which$ took$ place$ in$ October$ 2013,$ is$ known$ as$ the$ biggest$ refugee$ disaster$to$have$ever$taken$place$on$the$Mediterranean$Sea.$A$boat$packed$with$approximately$ 500$African$migrants$sank$before$the$coast$of$the$Italian$island$of$Lampedusa.$The$very$few$that$ were$lucky$to$survive$underwent$further$victimization$as$they$were$confronted$with$the$Bossi$ Fini$act71,$an$Italian$law$that$makes$it$an$offense$to$aid$and$abet$illegal$immigrants.$As$a$result$of$ this$ act,$ irregular$ migrants$ may$ face$ prosecution$ and$ a$ fine$ up$ to$ €5000$ and$ risk$ being$ sent$ home$before$the$application$process$for$asylum$even$begins.$As$this$law$also$treats$giving$of$aid$ to$ migrants$ on$ Italian$ waters$ as$ an$ offence,$ which,$ in$ this$ particular$ case,$ kept$ boat$ captains$ from$helping$the$migrants$in$distress$in$order$to$avoid$persecution.$ With$ the$ EU$ being$ the$ recipient$ of$ 48,9%$ of$ all$ asylum$ applications$ made$ worldwide,$ a$ great$ stream$ of$ migrants$ has$ to$ be$ dealt$ with$ by$ the$ EU$ border$ police$ on$ a$ daily$ basis.$ Recent$ developments$in$Eritrea,$Iraq$and$Syria$have$resulted$in$vast$streams$of$migrants$to$the$EU$and$ more$migrants$are$risking$the$dangerous$journey$across$the$Mediterranean$Sea.$The$EU$believes$ the$ right$ of$ asylum$ should$ be$ granted$ to$ those$ in$ need,$ a$ right$ laid$ down$ in$ the$ 1951$ Geneva$ Convention$ Relating$ to$ the$ Status$ of$ Refugees72.$ The$ combination$ of$ this$ fact$ and$ the$ vastly$ growing$ number$ of$ irregular$ migrants$ has$ led$ to$ a$ situation$ in$ which$ the$ EU$ is$ facing$ the$ challenging$task$of$safeguarding$irregular$migrants’$human$rights.$The$necessity$of$a$system$in$ which$ human$ rights$ are$ safeguarded$ whilst$ having$ a$ minimum$ amount$ of$ red$ tape$ is$ higher$ than$ever.$ $

3. Stakeholders Asylum$ seekers$ arrive$ in$ the$ EU$ in$ irregular$ streams,$ their$ number$ varying$ each$ year.$ Their$ exact$ place$ of$ arrival$ is$ not$ always$ the$ same$ either.$ In$ 2013) Member) States) have$ seen$ a$ considerable$ increase$ in$ the$ number$ of$ new$ asylum$ requests$ compared$ to$ previous$ years73.$ Unstable$ political$ situations$ in$ the$ proximity$ of$ the$ EU$ have$ played$ a$ significant$ role$ in$ this$ influx.$ These$ asylum$ requests$ are$ not$ divided$ evenly$ across$ Member$ States,$ which$ results$ in$ some$countries$being$unable$to$properly$process$them.$Moreover,$Member$States$located$at$the$ EU’s$ external$ border$ are$ having$ great$ difficulty$ accommodating$ the$ vast$ numbers$ of$ refugees$ arriving$on$their$territory.$At$the$same$time,$Member$States$are$under$international$obligation$to$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71

Italy: Bossi-Fini immigration law sparks controversy, France 24, 2013, http://www.france24.com/en/20131010-italylampedusa-bossi-fini-immigration-law/. 72 The 1951 Refugee Convention, The United Nationa Refugee Agency, 2011, http://www.unhcr.org/4ec262df9.html. 73 Asylum Statistics, Eurostat, 2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-24032014-AP/EN/324032014-AP-EN.PDF.!

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! take$in$people$fleeing$persecution$or$serious$harm$in$their$own$country,$and$grant$them$certain$ rights$as$laid$down$in$the$1951$Convention$Relating$to$the$Status$of$Refugees.$$ $ Large$numbers$of$asylum)seekers)originate$from$areas$where$they$are$in$constant$danger,$and$ attempt$to$reach$the$safe$haven$of$the$EU.$These$people$have$an$incredibly$hard$time$reaching$ the$EU$to$seek$asylum$there.$Many$of$them$try$to$reach$EU$soil$by$crossing$the$Mediterranean$ Sea$with$vessels$departing$from$the$North$African$coast.$Most$of$these$crossings$are$organised$ by$human$traffickers$and$smugglers$on$unseaworthy$vessels,$often$leading$to$great$loss$of$life.$ Those$who$do$arrive$often$find$themselves$in$poor$living$conditions$while$waiting$for$the$result$ of$their$asylum$application$process.$$ $ In$ the$ EU,$ asylum$ seekers$ rights$ are$ protected,$ amongst$ others,$ by$ the$ European) Council) on) Refugees)and)Exiles)(ECRE).$This$umbrella$organisation$of$82$NGOs$protects$and$advances$the$ rights$of$refugees,$asylum$seekers$and$displaced$persons.$Their$methods$are$research,$advocacy$ and$the$sharing$of$knowledge$and$expertise.$ $ Taking$a$look$outside$of$the$EU$one$may$find$that$the$massive$streams$of$asylum$seekers$affect$ not$ only$ European$ countries.$ The$ surges$ of$ refugees$ heading$ to$ EU$ territory$ pass$ by$ states) outside)the)EU)on$their$journey.$Northern$African$coasts$are$crowded$with$refugees$waiting$for$ their$chance$to$travel$to$the$EU.$These$countries,$which$act$as$refugee$hubs,$often$lack$asylum$ systems$in$compliance$with$international$standards,$and$can$therefore$not$adequately$deal$with$ all$of$these$people74.$ $

4. Conflicts As$ stated$ in$ the$ Dublin$ system,$ the$ bulk$ of$ asylum$ requests$ have$ to$ be$ filed$ in$ the$ country$ in$ which$an$asylum$seeker$arrives.$Member$States$at$the$external$border$of$the$EU$are$the$easiest$to$ reach$ for$ asylum$ seekers,$ and$ therefore$ have$ to$ process$ vast$ amounts$ of$ these$ requests.$ This$ places$ great)strain)on)their)asylum)systems$ and$ sometimes$ leads$ to$ inadequate$ conduction$ of$ the$ process.$ The$ problem$ is$ even$ greater$ in$ new$ Member$ States$ as$ their$ asylum$ systems$ are$ often$not$equipped$to$handle$the$increasing$number$of$refugees.$ $ There$ have$ been$ attempts$ to$ increase$ burden$ sharing,$ but$ the$ Dublin$ Regulation$ makes$ this$ difficult.$ At$ the$ same$ time$ Member$ States$ are$ obliged$ to$ take$ in$ refugees$ who$ are$ at$ risk$ of$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 74

2014 UNHCR regional operations profile â&#x20AC;&#x201C; North Africa, UNHCR, 2014, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e45ac86.html.

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! prosecution$ or$ severe$ violence$ in$ their$ former$ country$ of$ residence.$ Major$ groups$ of$ refugees$ come$from$conflict$zones$such$as$Syria$and$Iraq,$or$repressive$states$such$as$Eritrea.$$ $ Not$every$Member$State$applies$the$same$criteria$when$determining$whether$or$not$an$asylum$ seeker$has$to$be$granted$refugee$status,$even$though$there$has$been$some$improvement$in$this$ area$ in$ recent$ years$ with$ the$ development$ of$ the$ Common) European) Asylum) System$ (CEAS,$ see$ “Legislative$ Background”)75,$ which$ aims$ to$ establish$ common$ minimum$ standards$ for$ asylum.$ $ Despite$the$introduction$of$the$CEAS,$it$still$takes$many$Member$States$an$incredible$long$time$ to$ process$ asylum$ requests,$ due$ to$ the$ complexity)of)the)process)and)the)amount)of)requests) filed.$ This$ means$ that$ asylum$ seekers$ often$ have$ to$ spend$ long$ periods$ of$ time$ in$ retention$ centres,$in$which$conditions$are$frequently$poor.$Because$of$the$huge$influx$of$asylum$seekers$in$ recent$years,$these$facilities$are$often$overcrowded.$Even$more$shocking$is$the$fact$that$in$some$ of$ these$ centres$ asylum$ applicants$ are$ detained$ in$ prisonPlike$ conditions$ with$ their$ freedom$ severely$restricted,$as$reported$by$Amnesty$International76.$ $ In$the$past$few$years,$xenophobic)and)racist)movements$have$sprung$up$and$gained$support$all$ across$ the$ EU.$ A$ particularly$ extreme$ example$ of$ such$ a$ movement$ is$ the$ neoPfascist$ Golden$ Dawn$party$in$Greece.$The$supporters$of$this$group$go$as$far$as$to$physically$attack$minorities.77$ The$ rise$ of$ these$ movements$ shows$ that$ xenophobic$ sentiments$ are$ flourishing$ amongst$ some$ parts$of$the$EU$population.$The$image$of$immigrants$is$often$rather$negative,$even$as$evidence$ shows78$that$ immigration$ has$ positive$ effects$ on$ the$ economic$ and$ social$ situation$ of$ Member$ States$as$well.$$ $

5. Facts and Figures •

Only$5$Member$States$handle$70%$of$all$asylum$applications$in$the$EU.79$

• One$third$of$all$asylum$applications$made$in$the$EU$result$in$a$positive$decision.80$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75

Common European Asylum System, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-wedo/policies/asylum/index_en.htm. 76 Abusive detention of migrants and asylum seekers flouts EU law, Amnesty International, 2014, http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/cyprus-abusive-detention-migrants-and-asylum-seekers-flouts-eu-law-2014-03-18. 77 Greece’s Golden Dawn party describes Hitler as ‘great personality’, the Guardian, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/16/greece-golden-dawn-hitler. 78 Immigration has a positive impact, says Office for Budget Responsibility head, Telegraph, 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10570839/Immigration-has-a-positive-impact-says-Office-forBudget-Responsibility-head.html. 79 Asylum in the EU, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/elibrary/docs/infographics/asylum/infographic_asylum_print_a_en.pdf. 80 Idem.

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! •

On$ the$ 2nd$ of$ December$ 2013$ Eurosur$ (see$ “Legislation”)$ became$ operational$ for$ the$ 19$ Schengen$ Member$ States$ located$ at$ the$ southern$ and$ eastern$ borders$ of$ the$ EU$ and$ on$ the$1st$of$December$2014$it$will$become$operational$for$the$remaining$11$Member$States.81$

6. Legislative Background The$ main$ framework$ of$ legislation$ concerning$ refugee$ rights$ and$ process$ is$ the$ Common) European)Asylum)System)(CEAS)82.$It$consists$of$numerous$directives$and$regulations,$aimed$ at$all$facets$of$refugee$law.$ First$ of$ all,$ the$ Reception) Conditions) Directive8384)sets$ out$ the$ standard$ living$ conditions$ of$ asylum$ applicants.$ The$ revised$ version$ of$ this$ directive$ has$ added$ some$ clarifications$ and$ benefits$for$unaccompanied$minors$and$victims$of$torture,$as$well$as$a$time$limit$of$nine$months$ in$which$access$to$employment$must$be$granted$to$asylum$seekers.$However,$it$is$still$very$hard$ for$asylum$seekers$to$challenge$any$decisions$made$concerning$the$outcome$of$their$application$ in$practice.$$ Furthermore,$ there$ is$ the$ Dublin) III8586$regulation,$ which$ outlines$ the$ criteria$ that$ determine$ which$Member$State$is$responsible$for$examining$the$asylum$procedure.$In$essence,$it$states$that$ the$ first$ EU$ country$ of$ entrance$ is$ responsible$ for$ the$ asylum$ procedure.$ That$ means$ that$ refugees$end$up$sleeping$on$the$streets$more$often$than$not.$This$is$because$of$the$overcrowded$ detention$ centres$ in$ the$ country$ in$ question$ in$ combination$ with$ being$ denied$ movement$ outside$ of$ the$ country.$ In$ order$ to$ make$ the$ identification$ process$ of$ asylum$ seekers$ more$ manageable$for$the$Member$States,$asylum$seekers’$fingerprints$are$being$taken$and$put$into$an$ EUPwide$database$under$the$Eurodac$regulation.$Interpol$and$national$police$forces$can$use$the$ fingerprints$obtained$by$the$EU$in$this$way$for$refugee$identification$at$the$border$or$in$case$of$ criminal$investigation$such$as$murder$investigation.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81

Eurosur, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/elibrary/docs/infographics/eurosur/eurosur_en.pdf.!! 82 A Common European Asylum System, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/elibrary/docs/ceas-fact-sheets/ceas_factsheet_en.pdf. 83 Reception Conditions, European Commission, 2013, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-wedo/policies/asylum/reception-conditions/index_en.htm. 84 Analysis: The EU Directive on Reception Conditions: A weak compromise, Statewatch, 2012, http://www.statewatch.org/analyses/no-184-reception-compromise.pdf. 85 Dublin Regulation, Official Journal of the European Union, 2013, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:180:0031:0059:EN:PDF. 86 Exploiting a tragedy: the securitization of EU borders in the wake of Lampedusa, Border Criminologies, 2013, http://bordercriminologies.law.ox.ac.uk/exploiting-a-tragedy/.

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! On$ the$ other$ hand,$ there$ is$ the$ framework$ for$ border$ security$ and$ surveillance,$ which$ is$ Eurosur.$ Originally,$ its$ main$ goals$ were$ purely$ focused$ on$ the$ protection$ of$ the$ EU.$ $ Some$ might$argue$that$it$still$lacks$humanitarian$right$protection$insurance$today,$as$demonstrated$by$ the$pushbacks$occurring$under$Frontex8788)(see$the$following$paragraph),$which$are$in$violation$ of$ the$ nonPrefoulement$ principle.$ However,$ its$ official$ goals$ are$ to$ reduce$ the$ number$ of$ undetected$irregular$migrants,$to$decrease$the$number$of$deaths$at$the$maritime$border$and$to$ prevent$crossPborder$crime.$$ Frontex$ is$ mostly$ the$ executive$ body$ of$ Eurosur.$ It$ operates$ through$ joint$ operations$ with$ national$ border$ police$ and$ EU$ associated$ forces$ such$ as$ Europol.$ Collaboration$ between$ EU$ institutions$ and$ national$ stakeholders$ is$ highly$ necessary$ in$ developing$ an$ effective$ asylum$ system$ in$ Europe.$ However,$ Frontex$ does$ not$ own$ many$ of$ its$ own$ resources$ and$ personnel$ and$is$therefore$very$reliant$on$national$resources.$As$a$result,$national$governments$can$have$a$ reluctant$ approach$ towards$ their$ obligations$ towards$ Frontex,$ and$ hereby$ the$ collaboration$ aimed$at$is$not$fully$established$yet.$ $

7. Key Questions •

How$can$the$EU$deal$with$asylum$requests$more$efficiently?$ o

•

How$can$burden$sharing$between$the$Member$States$be$ensured?$

Is$ the$ balance$ between$ EU$ external$ border$ protection$ and$ the$ rights$ of$ asylum$ seekers$ adequate$at$the$moment?$ o

Should$Frontex’s$objectives$and/or$measurements$be$changed?$

Is$the$Eurodac$system$secure$enough?$

Is$the$principle$of$nonPrefoulement$implemented$in$practice$enough?$

•

What$is$the$impact$of$immigration$on$the$European$civilization?$

•

What$should$the$EU’s$stance$be$on$cooperation$with$Northern$African$countries?$ o

How$do$streams$of$asylum$seekers$affect$European$citizens?$

Is$ there$ need$ to$ revise$ the$ Member$ States’$ application$ processes$ in$ terms$ of$ number$of$applicants$that$are$granted$asylum?$

Should$ the$ EU$ intend$ to$ enlighten$ the$ burden$ on$ the$ few$ Member$ States$ that$ handle$asylum$applications$nowadays,$by$cooperating$with$the$Northern$Arfican$ countries$where$the$asylum$seekers$pass$by?$ $

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87

Mission and tasks, Frontex, 2014, http://frontex.europa.eu/. Ombudsman calls on Frontes to deal with complaints about fundamental rights infringements, EUROPA, 2013, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_EO-13-17_en.htm.! 88

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8. Recommended Links Asylum)Statistics,$Eurostat,$2014,$http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3P 24032014PAP/EN/3P24032014PAPPEN.PDF.$ Abusive)detention)of)migrants)and)asylum)seekers)flouts)EU)law,$Amnesty$International,$2014,$ http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/cyprusPabusivePdetentionPmigrantsPandPasylumPseekersP floutsPeuPlawP2014P03P18.$ Exploiting)a)tragedy:)the)securitization)of)EU)borders)in)the)wake)of)Lampedusa,)Border$Criminologies,$ 2013,$http://bordercriminologies.law.ox.ac.uk/exploitingPaPtragedy/.) Analysis:)The)EU)Directive)on)Reception)Conditions:)A)weak)compromise,)Statewatch,$2012,$ http://www.statewatch.org/analyses/noP184PreceptionPcompromise.pdf$

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Committee on Security and Defence (SEDE) In)light)of)developments)close)to)the)EU’s)borders,)an)increasing)number)of)international) conflicts)and)Member)States)rethinking)cuts)to)military)spending,)how)far)should)the)EU)go)in) developing)its)military)capacities?)

1. Key Terms • ))))Treaty)of)Lisbon:)Signed$in$October$2007$and$came$into$force$on$1$December$2009,$the$ Lisbon$ Treaty$ is$ a$ treaty$ that$ amends$ two$ already$ existing$ treaties:$ the$ Treaty$ of$ the$ European$ Union$ (TEU)$ and$ the$ Treaty$ on$ the$ Functioning$ of$ the$ European$ Union$ (TFEU).$Among$other$reforms,$it$contains$important$provisions$related$to$the$Common$ Security$ and$ Defence$ Policy$ (CSDP),$ along$ with$ the$ creation$ of$ the$ European$ External$ Action$ Service$ (EEAS).$ The$ Treaty$ of$ Lisbon$ added$ the$ possibility$ for$ those$ members$ whose$ military$ capabilities$ fulfil$ higher$ criteria$ and$ which$ have$ made$ more$ binding$ commitments$to$one$another$in$this$area$to$establish$permanent$structured$cooperation$ within$the$EU$framework.$ $ • ))))Common)Foreign)and)Security)Policy)(CFSP):$Organised$foreign$policy$of$the$EU$that$ deals$with$international$issues$of$diplomatic$or$political$nature.$It$is$based$on$diplomacy$ and$ backed$ where$ necessary$ by$ trade,$ aid$ and$ security$ and$ defence.$ The$ aims$ of$ the$ CFSP$are$to$preserve$peace$and$strengthen$international$security,$promote$international$ cooperation$and$develop$and$consolidate$democracy,$the$rule$of$law,$respect$for$human$ rights$and$fundamental$freedoms.$ $ • $$$$Common)Security)and)Defence)Policy)(CSDP):)Draws$on$the$EU’s$military$and$civilian$ assets$to$play$a$role$in$conflict$management,$peacekeeping$and$international$security.$ $ • $$$$European) Union) Military) Staff) (EUMS):) Department$ of$ the$ European$ Union$ responsible$ for$ supervising$ operations$ within$ the$ realm$ of$ the$ Common$ Security$ and$ Defence$Policy,$and$is$part$of$the$EEAS.$ ) • $$$$European) External) Action) Service) (EEAS):) The$ EEAS$ is$ the$ European$ Union^s$ diplomatic$ service.$ It$ helps$ the$ EU^s$ foreign$ affairs$ chief$ –$ the$ High$ Representative$ for$ Foreign$ Affairs$ and$ Security$ Policy$ –$ carry$ out$ the$ Union^s$ Common$ Foreign$ and$ Security$Policy.$ $

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! $

2. Social Relevance Since$ its$ establishment,$ the$ EU$ has$ kept$ the$ area$ of$ security$ and$ defense$ exclusive$ to$ Member$ States.$This$means$that$decisions$made$in$the$terrain$of$military$missions,$military$development$ and$military$structure$can$be$made$by$the$Member$State$without$consulting$institutions$of$the$ EU.$Nowadays$the$common$foreign,$security$and$defense$policies$do$give$the$EU$opportunity$to$ coordinate$policies$on$these$areas$to$a$certain$level:$“The)Union)coordinates)Member)States)policies) or)implements)supplemental)to)theirs)common)policies,)not)covered)elsewhere”89.) The$ development$ of$ EU’s$ military$ capacities$ would$ thus$ mean$ that$ some$ supplementary$ laws$ would$be$revised$and/or$created.$Political$developments$in$countries$close$to$the$EU’s$borders$ require$the$attention$of$many$Member$States’$defense$ministries.$Some$Member$States$have$sent$ or$ are$ sending$ military$ forces$ to$ the$ areas$ where$ intervention$ is$ needed,$ demonstrated$ by$ the$ current$situation$in$Syria.$Not$only$are$soldiers$sent$away$from$their$home$country,$the$whole$of$ the$ European$ population$ indirectly$ pays$ for$ these$ missions$ through$ taxation.$ Supplementary$ laws,$created$by$the$EU,$can$–amongst$others$–$result$in$more$cooperation$in$military$missions$ of$individual$Member$States.$This$could$influence$the$amount$of$missions$happening,$but$most$ of$ all$ it$ could$ influence$ the$ coordination$ of$ missions$ and$ the$ amount$ of$ teamwork$ between$ forces$of$different$Member$States.$

3. Stakeholders Currently,$ missions$ are$ coordinated$ solely$ by$ the$ Member) States$ themselves$ or,$ more$ specifically,$ their$ defence) ministries.$ Member$ States$ greatly$ differentiate$ in$ their$ approach$ to$ defence.$Some$Member$States$have$an$enormous$military$expenditure$but$some$have$decreased$ theirs90.$ Member$ States$ need$ to$ balance$ their$ limited$ budgets$ between$ different$ ministries.$ Member$ States’$ citizens$ benefit$ from$ security$ and$ defence$ against$ terrorism$ and$ regional$ instability.$ Because$ European$ countries$ are$ now$ united$ in$ the$ European$ Union,$ some$ Member$ States$ feel$ there$ is$ little$ risk$ at$ war$ and$ thus$ little$ need$ to$ invest$ in$ armed$ forces.$ However,$ Member$States$currently$do$use$their$military$expenditure$to$protect$human’s$rights$outside$the$ EU.$ When$ and$ where$ a$ Member$ State$ sends$ its$ forces$ is$ also$ influenced$ by$ the$ NATO’s$ agreements.$The$North)Atlantic)Treaty)Organization$(NATO)$is$an$intergovernmental$military$ alliance$where$its$members$cooperate$in$defence91.$Its$purpose$is$to$safeguard$the$freedom$and$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 89

Template: EU competences, Wikipedia, 2013, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:EU_competences. The European Army: It might be European. It won’t be an army, The Telegraph, 2013, http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/finance/matspersson/100026307/the-european-army-it-might-be-european-it-wont-be-anarmy/. 91 What is the NATO?, NATO, http://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/index.html. 90

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! security$ of$ its$ members$ through$ political$ and$ military$ means.$ The$ NATO$ also$ takes$ an$ active$ role$ in$ crisisPmanagement$ operations$ and$ missions.$ These$ missions$ can$ be$ called$ for$ by$ a$ UN$ mandate.$The$United)Nations$(UN)$can$establish$peacekeeping$operations$and$the$UN)Security) Council$ can$ give$ peacekeeping$ mandates92.$ Although$ the$ UN$ has$ 193$ member$ states,$ the$ UN$ Security$ Council$ only$ exists$ of$ 15$ countries:$ 5$ permanent$ members$ (China,$ France,$ Russian$ Federation,$the$United$Kingdom$and$the$United$States)$with$veto$power$and$ten$nonPpermanent$ members.$ The$ 5$ permanent$ members$ can$ thus$ veto$ mandates,$ with$ reasons$ such$ as$ keeping$ their$ trading$ relation$ with$ the$ affected$ country.$ The$ UN$ does$ not$ have$ its$ own$ army$ and$ member$ states$ can$ send$ their$ soldiers$ on$ a$ UN$ mission$ on$ a$ voluntary$ basis.$ The$ countries)in) which)the)UN,)NATO)or)national)missions)take)place,$ or$ the$ countries$ in$ which$ they$ should$ take$place,$are$greatly$affected$by$the$amount$of$forces$or$political$diplomats$from$abroad$enter$ the$ country.$ Bad$ governance$ or$ civil$ war$ often$ plagues$ these$ countries.$ Military$ missions$ to$ return$the$peace$in$the$country$are$beneficial$when$successful.$However,$sometimes$missions$do$ not$change$the$situations$in$the$country$and$can$even$worsen$it.$Another$aspect$to$point$out$is$ that$ the$ incentives$ and$ interests$ of$ countries$ where$ missions$ are$ directed$ to$ are$ often$ hard$ to$ deduce.$ As$ most$ of$ these$ countries$ suffer$ from$ political$ division$ or$ its$ citizens$ suffer$ from$ suppression,$it$is$hard$to$find$out$what$the$actual$needs$are$of$these$countries$

4. Conflicts European$ defence$ outlays$ have$ declined$ significantly$ since$ the$ end$ of$ the$ Cold$ War93.$ At$ the$ EU–US$ summit$ on$ 26$ March,$ President$ Barack$ Obama$ voiced$ his$ concerns$ over$ diminished$ levels$ of$ defence$ spending$ in$ many$ NATO$ European$ states,$ warning$ that:$ ‘The) situation) in) Ukraine) reminds) us) that) our) freedom) isn’t) free,) and) we’ve) got) to) be) willing) to) pay) for) the) assets,) the) personnel,)the)training)that’s)required)to)make)sure)that)we)have)a)credible)NATO)force)and)an)effective) deterrent)force.’$$

Europe$ faces$ a$ great$ variety$ of$ threats$ in$ the$ form$ of$ terrorism,$

international$piracy$and$regional$instability.$Combined$with$uncertainties$on$the$EU$periphery$ and$long$term$strategic$issues$at$play$in$Ukraine,$Turkey,$the$Middle$East$and$Northern$Africa,$ the$EU$is$in$need$of$a$strong$security$and$defence$strategy.$Although$both$European$countries$ and$the$United$States$join$the$NATO,$the$United$States$can$no$longer$provide$what$the$EU$lacks$ and$is$no$longer$prepared$to$act$as$a$‘backPup’$where$the$EU$comes$up$short.$As$a$result$of$this,$ ‘it) is) of) great) importance) that) the) EU) assumes) greater) responsibility) for) its) own) security’,$ as$ said$ by$ Catherine$Ashton,$EU$High$Representative$of$the$Union$for$Foreign$Affairs$and$Security$Policy$ for$the$EU.$$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92!The!Security!Council,!United!Nations,!http://www.un.org/en/sc/.!! 93!Giri!Rajendran:!What!now!for!European!defence!spending?,!International!Institute!for!Strategic!Studies,!2014,! http://www.iiss.org/en/militarybalanceblog/blogsections/2014H3bea/aprilH7347/whatHnowHforHeuropeanH defenceHspendingHe70e.!!

50!

! These$ arguments$ could$ lead$ to$ the$ more$ concrete$ development$ of$ the$ EU’s$ military$ capacities.$ However,$ the$ EU$ has$ always$ been$ known$ for$ advancing$ the$ causes$ of$ peace,$ reconciliation,$ democracy$ and$ human$ rights$ in$ Europe$ and$ even$ won$ the$ Nobel$ Peace$ Prize$ 2012$ due$ to$ the$ latter.$How$acceptable$is$it$for$a$paragon$of$peace$to$further$expand$its$military$power?$$ Furthermore,$it$is$hard$for$the$EU$to$make$any$drastic$steps$towards$the$integration$of$military$ systems.$Although$the$EU$has$some$competence$to$act$within$the$CSDP,$Member$States$are$free$ to$withdraw$in$the$permanent$structured$cooperation$proposed$in$the$CSDP94.$Additionally,$as$ many$ Member$ Sates$ are$ cutting$ their$ military$ expenditure,$ it$ remains$ a$ question$ whether$ Member$States$actually$do$want$to$invest$in$EU’s$military$capacities.$Some$Member$States$have$ already$formed$alliances$that$result$in$multinational$forces95.$Do$the$missions$the$EU$undertakes$ suffice?$And$if$they$do$not,$how$can$the$EU$develop$its$military$capacities$successfully?$

5. Facts and Figures •

In$2011,$the$total$cuts$to$military$spending$in$the$EU$amounted$to$45$billion$US$dollars96.$

•

In$ most$ of$ Europe$ military$ spending$ is$ declining,$ with$ only$ three$ EU$ countries$ now$ above$NATO’s$recommended$2$per$cent$of$GDP$threshold97.$

•

The$Nobel$Peace$Prize$2012$was$awarded$to$European$Union$(EU)$ufor$over$six$decades$ contributed$ to$ the$ advancement$ of$ peace$ and$ reconciliation,$ democracy$ and$ human$ rights$in$Europe”98.$

6. Legislative Background Over$ the$ years$ the$ Political$ and$ Security$ Committee$ (PSC),$ which$ monitors$ the$ international$ situation$ in$ the$ areas$ covered$ by$ the$ CSDP$ and$ the$ CFSP,$ coordinated$ many$ missions$ in$ and$ outside$Europe99.$These$missions$have$proven$that$the$EU$and$its$Member$States$still$need$a$lot$ of$ improvement$ on$ defence$ and$ security.$ As$ a$ result$ the$ EEAS$ has$ published$ an$ EU$ policy$ document$ in$ June$ 2013.$ This$ document$ was$ widely$ misinterpreted) as) advocating) a) European) army.$The$EEAS$have$made$clear$that$proposal$was$only$related$to$civilian$capabilities$and$that$ the$capabilities$are$only$owned$and$operated$by$the$Member$States,$supported$by$the$European$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 94

Common Security and Defence Policy, EUROPA, 2010, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/lisbon_treaty/ai0026_en.htm. 95 Idem. 96 Shrinking Europe Military Spending Stirs Concern, New York Times, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/world/europe/europes-shrinking-military-spending-underscrutiny.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 97 Cf. footnote 2. 98 The Nobel Peace Prize 2012, Nobel Media, 2014, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/. 99 Politica land Security Committee, EUROPA, 2011, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/foreign_and_security_policy/cfsp_and_esdp_implementation/r00005_en.htm.!!

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! Defence$ Agency.$ The) European) Defence) Agency$ was$ constituted$ in$ 2004$ and$ supports$ the$ European$Council$and$the$Member$States$in$their$effort$to$improve$the$EU’s$defence$capabilities$ through$cooperative$projects$and$programs100.$$ $ Since$the$establishment$of$the$CSDP)under)the)Treaty)of)Lisbon,$three$more$tasks$are$added$to$ the$ competencies$ of$ the$ EU$ in$ calling$ for$ missions,$ namely$ joint$ disarmament$ operations,$ military$advice$and$assistance$tasks$and$tasks$in$postPconflict$stabilisation101.$Although$this$does$ enlarge$the$EU’s$capabilities$to$a$certain$extend,$Member$States$are$still$free$to$cooperate$in$and$ withdraw$ from$ specific$ missions.$ The$ Treaty$ of$ Lisbon$ also$ laid$ some$ fundaments$ on$ the$ establishment$of$a$permanent$structured$cooperation$in$defence,$but$without$any$restrictions$to$ the$Member$States.$$

7. Key Questions •

Does$the$EU$need$to$increase$its$military$capacities?$ o

If$ so,$ how$ would$ this$ be$ justified$ against$ the$ demonstrated$ decline$ in$ military$ expenditure$by$the$Member$States?$

•

How$can$the$EU$maintain$its$role$as$peacekeeper$whilst$ensuring$global$security$through$ military$actions?$

•

Is$ a$ more$ intensive$ cooperation$ between$ the$ military$ capacities$ of$ Member$ States$ necessary?$ o

What$form$would$a$possible$cooperation$take?$

8. Recommended Links What)now)for)European)Defense)Spending?,)International$Institute$for$Strategic$Studies,$2014,$ http://www.iiss.org/en/militarybalanceblog/blogsections/2014P3bea/aprilP7347/whatPnowPforP europeanPdefencePspendingPe70e.$ Shrinking)Europe)Military)Spending)Stirs)Concern,$New$York$Times,$2013,$ http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/world/europe/europesPshrinkingPmilitaryPspendingPunderP scrutiny.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.$$ $ The)European)Army:)It)might)be)European.)It)won’t)be)an)army,)The$Telegraph,$2013,$ http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/finance/matspersson/100026307/thePeuropeanParmyPitPmightPbeP europeanPitPwontPbePanParmy/.$$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 100 101

About Us, European Defence Agency, 2014, http://www.eda.europa.eu/Aboutus. Cf. footnote 6.!

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! $ EU)debate:)A)European)Air)Force?,)Full$Fact,$2014,$ https://fullfact.org/europe/european_air_force_drones_army_farage_cleggP31052.$ http://eeas.europa.eu/csdp/webdoc/index.html%23milestones%23english.$ $

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