2022 WM APRIL-MAY

Perfectly

24 INERT GASES FOR WINEMAKING

There are four gases often used in winemaking, each with its own unique advantages. Learn more about what sets carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, and beer gas apart, and which is best for each chore where gas can be of assistance in the home winery.

by Bob Peak

30 LA VIE EN DRY ROSÉ

Pink wines may have gotten a bad rap due to sweet versions that dominated in the 80s and 90s, however, dry rosé is becoming more and more popular among winemakers and consumers alike. Whether a dry rosé was always the goal or you have grapes that better suit pink than red wine — we’ll supply the advice to craft an excellent summer sipper.

by Phil Plummer

36 KIMCHI

Among the few bright spots caused by the worldwide pandemic is that many people stuck at home got into home fermentations — and those aren’t limited to beverages. Kimchi is a Korean dish that gets the mouth watering and can spice up just about any dish. Learn how to make your own!

by Ashton Lewis

42 DIY NETTING APPLICATOR

Vineyard netting is often critical to protect your grapes from birds and other predators; however, applying and removing it can be a real pain. Here is a solution for home winemakers with a utility vehicle that allows netting to mostly be installed by just one person without the net ever touching the ground.

by Ken and Leah Stafford

departments

8 MAIL

We answer reader questions on humidifiers for wine cellars, the sur lie aging timeline, and freezing grapes from an initial harvest when the rest of the vineyard lags behind.

10 CELLAR DWELLERS

If you’ve got a wine aging in your cellar you would like unbiased, expert opinions on, then entering it in a competition for judging is one of the best options. Get some pointers for getting the best feedback. Also check out these retro wine labels and catch up on the latest news, products, and upcoming events.

14 TIPS FROM THE PROS

When you want to make wines from grapes but it isn’t harvest season, one option home winemakers have is purchasing buckets of frozen must or juice. Three industry experts share their coolest tips.

16 WINE WIZARD

A winemaker is left scratching their head when a wine that seemingly has fermented dry is still producing bubbles. The Wizard also provides suggestions for vinegar storage and the possible cause of odd-colored speckles on a cantaloupe wine.

20 VARIETAL FOCUS

A grape of Mediterranean origins, Malvasia grapes spread throughout the region under the umbrella name. Get the scoop on this unusual family of grapes and the variety brought to North America under the title Malvasia Bianca.

48 TECHNIQUES

Approaching food-wine pairings can be complex given the nearly endless options available . . . but there is a science to it. Learn the basics to matching a wine with a food course to impress even the sticklers in the group.

50 ADVANCED WINEMAKING

Many of us in winemaking were trained to trust Saccharomyces yeast and not leave our wines to chance with wild strains. But winds of change are in the air and yeast companies are now turning to many non-Saccharomyces yeasts for certain purposes.

56 DRY FINISH

A group of wine lovers in Kenya turned to traditional winemaking when the world around them slowed to a crawl and imports of wines from Europe and the U.S. nearly stopped. Check out the story of muratina wine — a wine made from a potentially poisonous fruit.

71B

RC212

FOR PINOT NOIR STYLES

EDITOR

Dawson Raspuzzi

ASSISTANT EDITOR

Dave Green

DESIGN

Open Look

TECHNICAL EDITOR

Bob Peak

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS

Chik Brenneman, Alison Crowe

Dominick Profaci, Wes Hagen

Bob Peak, Phil Plummer, Alex Russan, Jeff Shoemaker

CONTRIBUTING ARTISTS

Jim Woodward, Chris Champine

CONTRIBUTING PHOTOGRAPHERS

Charles A. Parker, Les Jörgensen

EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

Steve Bader Bader Beer and Wine Supply

Chik Brenneman Baker Family Wines

John Buechsenstein Wine Education & Consultation

Mark Chandler Chandler & Company

Wine Consultancy

Kevin Donato Cultured Solutions

Pat Henderson About Wine Consulting

Ed Kraus EC Kraus

Maureen Macdonald Hawk Ridge Winery

Christina Musto-Quick Musto Wine

Grape Co.

Gene Spaziani American Wine Society

Jef Stebben Stebben Wine Co.

Gail Tufford Global Vintners Inc.

Anne Whyte Vermont Homebrew Supply

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Albariño. I enjoyed my first ones at WineMaker’s 2014 conference in Virginia and since then I have made an effort to seek them out. Crisp acidity, citrus and stone fruit flavors, and often a hint of salinity. I find it pairs great with many foods as well as warm summer evenings!

My choice for most underappreciated varietal is counterintuitive, big surprise from me, right?! It’s Chardonnay. I know what you’re thinking. It’s so darned ubiquitous in the U.S. as to be synonymous with white wine! But anything that gets popular enough gets maligned, and I will say without a moment’s hesitation that Chardonnay is the most noble and expressive white varietal on the planet (sorry Riesling, if I was in Germany this might go a different way), and is certainly the greatest grape we grow in the Santa Maria Valley and Sta Rita Hills AVAs.

An underappreciated varietal is Petit Verdot. While typically used for blending, I find the intense black fruit character, firm tannins, and mild astringency of Petit Verdot should be valued more as a single varietal wine. I do use a small percentage in many of my commercial blends to help fortify rich color, but seek out producers who bottle it as a single varietal for my personal enjoyment.

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ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER & ADVERTISING DIRECTOR

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Dave Green

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Phenolics & Tannins in White, Sparkling & Rosé Styles

Polyphenolics are usually associated with red wines, but there are definitely processing choices and stylistic options where polyphenolics play a role in whites, rosé, and sparkling wines also. https://winemakermag. com/article/phenolics-tannins-inwhite-sparkling-rose-styles

MEMBERS ONLY

The Winemaker’s Pantry: Supplies to keep on hand

For those that are regular winemakers, the accoutrements start to add up through the years. Here is a guide for folks to consider what things to keep in their “winemaker’s pantry,” their uses, and their shelf life.

https://winemakermag.com/technique/ the-winemakers-pantry-supplies-tokeep-on-hand

Special Purpose Wine Yeast

All contents of WineMaker are Copyright © 2022 by Battenkill Communications, unless otherwise noted. WineMaker is a registered trademark owned by Battenkill Communications, a Vermont corporation. Unsolicited manuscripts will not be returned, and no responsibility can be assumed for such material. All “Letters to the Editor” should be sent to the editor at the Vermont office address. All rights in letters sent to WineMaker will be treated as unconditionally assigned for publication and copyright purposes and subject to WineMaker’s unrestricted right to edit. Although all reasonable attempts are made to ensure accuracy, the publisher does not assume any liability for errors or omissions anywhere in the publication. All rights reserved. Reproduction in part or in whole without written permission is strictly prohibited. Printed in the United States of America. Volume 25, Number 2: April-May 2022.

Yeast are fairly simple, singlecelled organisms. But their diversity, functionality, and ability to adapt is why humans, and especially winemakers, love these fungi so much. Take a peek at several strains that winemakers should know are available. https://winemakermag. com/technique/special-purpose-wineyeasts

MEMBERS ONLY

Cooking With Wine

Your homemade wine doesn’t have to be simply for the wine glass — it can also be a part of the food on your table! Check out three recipes for a French-inspired feast that count wine among the ingredients. https://winemakermag. com/article/1549-cooking-with-wine

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An underappreciated wine grape varietal. . . choose one and tell us why.

Phil Plummer has been a student of wine since 2004 when he began his formal education in the subject at Rochester Institute of Technology. For the past 11 years, Phil has worked for the Martin Family Wineries (Montezuma, Idol Ridge, and Fossenvue) in New York’s Finger Lakes Region, serving as Head Winemaker since 2013. In his time as Head Winemaker, he has developed a diverse portfolio of unique wines made from grapes, fruit, and honey. Phil’s passion for wine and winemaking is boundless, as evidenced by his constant experimentation with new techniques, materials, and mindsets.

Starting on page 30, Phil details the various ways to make dry rosé wines that are perfect for summer sipping.

HUMIDIFIER HELP

I need some guidance in choosing a humidifier for a small wine chamber. Are there any articles about this, or is there someone who can offer any advice?

John Pocs • via email

WineMaker’s Technical Editor Bob Peak responds: “I actually included a couple of paragraphs on this subject in a previous column ‘Maintaining a Home Wine Cellar’ that is available online at https://winemaker mag.com/technique/maintaining-home-wine-cellar

“I do not need to add humidity in my wine cellar; our coastal climate keeps it between about 50 and 60% all the time. I have had to add humidity to my cheese cave (a small fridge) at times to make moldy cheese (blue or brie). For that, I put water in a shallow tray and then set a large sponge in the water. The large surface area of the sponge facilitates evaporation into the cave space. When I was making more cheese a few years ago, I bought a reptile terrarium humidifier to automate it. The one I bought — Zoo Med Reptifogger Terrarium Humidifier — was about $50 and ideal for a small space. For a larger space, up to whole house, you can get a humidifier with a built-in digital humidistat.

“If you don’t want to keep refilling it and have a nearby water connection, you can install one like this one for less than $300, but you need to add a separate controller to make it automatic: https://amzn. to/3BrqotX”

SUR LIE AGING

I found the article “Sur Lie Aging” by Alex Russan in the June-July 2021 issue very informative and I hope to ask Alex a question on the subject. I’ve always racked off the gross lees and usually allow the fine lees to remain to help with the malolactic fermentation. You mentioned this under the heading “Lees and ML.” A bit further in your article under the heading “Lees and Red Wines” you mention how it is important to separate the fine lees from the red wine early in the process, and later put the lees back around six months after the fermentation, which is the stage when most of the polymerization has taken place. So can you please let me know if it is OK to hold off on removing the fine lees at the moment when I’ve started the ML fermentation so that the ML bacteria can benefit from it for about a month or two for it to complete, without causing less than

Bob Peak is a retired partner of The Beverage People Inc., a home winemaking and homebrewing shop in Santa Rosa, California. Before The Beverage People, he was the General Manager at Vinquiry, a company that provides analytical services to the wine industry. Bob has authored the “Techniques” column that runs in every issue since 2013, frequently writes feature stories, and has been the Technical Editor of WineMaker since 2017. He is also a frequent speaker at the annual WineMaker Magazine Conference.

In addition to his usual “Techniques” column on food and wine pairing (page 48), Bob also explains which gases are best used for different chores in the winemaking process in the feature story beginning on page 24.

Ken and Leah Stafford are award-winning amateur winemakers who have been around the wine industry for most of their lives. Having grown up on a Delano, California winery, Ken began making wines in 2011. Leah has worked in the industry since 1990, servicing and managing tasting rooms and providing wine education. She’s a certified American Wine ExpertTM, WSET 1, 2, 3 educated, a wine judge, and holds other certifications within the wine industry. In 2015, the couple moved to a 5-acre property that had an existing vineyard where they are now growing and making estate wines from Zinfandel, Barbera, Petite Sirah, Grenache Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc. Among those wines produced, the Sauvignon Blanc won Best of Show Estate Grown in the 2021 WineMaker International Amateur Wine Competition.

They make their WineMaker writing debut on page 42 sharing their simple solution to the challenges of applying and removing netting to the home vineyard.

ideal polymers and without suppressing the color? Will waiting for about two months cause any harm? I’m afraid that by removing the fine lees I can starve the bacteria or disturb everything, or should I just wait about five days after racking off the gross lees so the fine lees settles, then remove it, and at that point start the malolactic fermentation without the fine lees?

I have had the two problems you mention happen with a Cab where I had left the fine lees for the first six months, and I have experienced incredible benefits from aging on lees from leaving the lees right from the beginning on a Tempranillo without affecting the color or complexity of the wine. I know I was very lucky with the Tempranillo, and not so fortunate with that particular Cab.

Robert St-Jean • Cantley, Quebec

Alex Russan responds: “To be sure, leaving the lees in the entire time won’t harm or damage anything, they’ll just adsorb color, which would otherwise have gone into your wine’s structure. What you describe wanting to do is totally fine from a do-no-harm point of view. But if the goal is to have as sturdy and long-lived wine as possible, or to maximize softness as the wine ages, it may not be ideal for maximizing what could be done — but it’s not hurting anything. The difference it would have made had you done the fine lees removal earlier is probably subtle, so the decision is not going to make or break the wine. I’d leave it alone, as again, you’re not hurting anything, just sacrificing some color that could have been used by the wine.”

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STORING GRAPES

I have an extremely small hobby vineyard of about 30 vines (mixed varieties) and find it hard to get help here in the U.K. with either advice or supplies and I rely heavily on your magazine. I envy you in North America where you seem to have a lot of amateur growers and resources to match. Last year the weather was very unusual and fruit growth was poor. I had some grapes that ripened early while others of the same variety in a different part of the vineyard were well behind them. Could I have picked the ripe ones and frozen or chilled them and waited until the rest were ready to crush so that I could process them all together?

David Lodge • via email

The short answer is that freezing them would be the best option. But there are some nuances and things to consider in this process, which Alison Crowe covered well in a previous “Wine Wizard” column found here: https://winemakermag.com/wine-wizard/freezing-grapes

SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO WINEMAKER

Do you have a question or comment about something you’ve read in the pages of WineMaker magazine or online at winemakermag.com, or a story or idea to share? Send your letters, photos, story ideas, and projects to edit@winemakermag.com, post them on WineMaker’s Facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/WineMakerMag), find us on Twitter: @WineMakerMag, or share your winemaking photos and videos with us on Instagram: @WineMakerMag.

CHILE & ARGENTINA WINERY & MULTI-SPORT TOUR with WineMaker

March 12 – 19, 2023

Join WineMaker Magazine during the Southern Hemisphere’s grape harvest to explore five wine regions in Chile (Maipo, Apalta, Colchagua, Casablanca, and Aconcagua) and three in Argentina (Maipú, Uco Valley, and Luján de Cuyo). We’ll visit everything from beaches to valley vineyards to the peaks of the Andes. You’ll have insider tours of wineries meeting the people behind the wines, walk through vineyards with breathtaking views, and ride bikes on beautiful side roads surrounded by acres of grapevines. Plus we’ll hike at the base of Mount Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas, horseback ride, and raft the Mendoza River. All along you’ll eat outstanding local food, experience the culture, and enjoy wines like Malbec and Carménère right at the source.

For more details visit: winemakermag.com/trip

RECENT NEWS UPCOMING EVENTS

Great News For California Grape Growers

The 2021 California crush report was released in midFebruary and found that total wine grape production was up 6% over the 2020 harvest, coming in at 3.6 million tons. Red wine production saw the bulk of the increase, up 10.6% over 2020, while white wine grapes were up a marginal 0.3%. Despite the seeming “glut” of grapes, price per ton also saw a marked uptick. Red wine grape prices were up an astounding 32% while white wine varieties were up 19.7%. This is a big reversal in the trends of grape prices over the previous several harvests when overproduction of wine seemed an issue for grape growers.

https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/Publications/Specialty_ and_Other_Releases/Grapes/Crush/Reports/index.php

New Products: Twisted Mist™

A new line of summer wine kits is being offered by Winexpert with a modern twist on wine. These fruit-forward, cocktail-inspired kits will offer six different limited release flavors, with two flavors being released each month through March, April, and May. Flavors include: Piña Colada with pineapple and coconut character; Sex on the Beach with flavors of orange juice, peach, vodka, and cranberry; Pink Lemonade features lemons for a taste of pink lemonade; Strawberry Lemonade mixes strawberry with tart lemonade; Hurricane features flavors of dark rum, orange, lime, and passion fruit; Miami Vice is a blend of strawberry, pineapple, lime, and coconut. All Twisted Mist™ flavors are limited release and available only while supplies last.

MAY 28,

2022

Entry Deadline for the Orange County Fair Home Wine Competition. This competition is only open to amateur winemakers who live in California. The cost is $18 per entry and entries must be received by May 28. For more information about entering your homemade wines, visit: https://homewinecompetition.com

The World’s Largest Collection of Country Wine Recipes

A new book by winemaker and biodynamic wine advocate Chuck Blethen is a comprehensive recipe book for all those winemakers with interest in country wines. Through his decades of business travels, Chuck started work on this book long before he knew it would ever come to fruition, bringing home recipes from far and wide, utilizing all sorts of garden, orchard, or foraged ingredients. Featuring 195 recipes, it also contains useful conversion charts and know-how from his 40 years making wine. You can find out more information about the book or order a copy at https://wp.jeweloftheblueridge.com/

JUNE 2 & 5,

2022

Spots are still available for the 2022 WineMaker Boot Camps taking place Thursday, June 2 and Sunday, June 5 in San Luis Obispo, California. With nine Boot Camps to choose from, there is something for all levels and winemaking styles. Learn more at: https://winemakermag.com/conference/conference-overview

Photo courtesy of Shutterstock.com

Chardonnay

GOLD

RJS Craft Winemaking Australian Chardonnay

SILVER

VineCo Atmosphere Chardonnay

Winexpert Private Reserve Dry Creek Valley Sonoma Chardonnay

Winexpert Select Chardonnay

BRONZE

VineCo Estate Australian

Chardonnay

VineCo Original Series Chardonnay

Pinot Grigio

SILVER

VineCo Original Pinot Grigio

Winexpert Limited Edition Pecorino

Pinot Grigio

Winexpert Vintners Reserve Italian

Pinot Grigio

BRONZE

Winexpert Classic Italian Pinot

Grigio

Sauvignon Blanc

GOLD

Winexpert Private Reserve

Sauvignon Blanc

tradition.

SILVER

Mosti Mondiale AllJuice Sauvignon Blanc

Winexpert Limited Edition Fume Blanc

BRONZE

VineCo Original Series Sauvignon Blanc

Winexpert Classic Chilean

Sauvignon Blanc

Winexpert Private Reserve New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc

Here is a list of medal-winning kits for the Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, and Sauvignon Blanc categories chosen by a blind-tasting judging panel at the 2021 WineMaker International Amateur Wine Competition in West Dover, Vermont:

Iwas looking through my labels bin for this year’s wine label contest and stumbled across these old custom labels I made in the summer of 1995. I recall thinking I was so proud of what I could do on my new computer! It was a brand new Compaq with a 500 MB hard drive and 4 MB of RAM, and a fresh copy of Windows 95. I also bought a new Citizen Dot Matrix Printer. The whole outfit set me back about $4,600, which is about $8,330 in today’s dollars (think about how much technology you can get for that today). It was the luxury coupe in the tech world back then and I couldn’t wait to give it a test drive.

I created these on the built-in Windows Paint program and each one took me about 90 minutes to make. Amazing how far technology has come looking at some of the label contest entries made over the past few years. But if you’re into that retro look (think like the game Minecraft), then I hope you can appreciate these labels. Cheers!

BEGINNER’S BLOCK

BY DAVE GREEN

Prepping Wine For Competition

Generally there are three reasons we enter our wines into a competition. The first is for confirmation that the wine being produced in your winery is good quality and to obtain feedback to see if there are ways to continue to improve them. The second reason is to try to troubleshoot some character flaw in a wine that you can’t route out, whether it’s from a specific batch of wine or a recurring character. A third reason is to compete for medals and recognition against fellow hobbyists to see where your skills stack up. No matter what your reason for entering a specific wine in the next local, national, or international competition may be, there are a few things we should all adhere to when getting ready to send our wines to a competition.

PRE-BOTTLING

There is not much here that is outside your standard sound winemaking practices. A proper aging period is advisable, tasting periodically to track the progress of the wine. During aging both a heat and cold stabilization process should be included. Since your wine may see extreme temperatures out of your control, it’s best to mitigate these problems.

Regularly topping up the vessel while maintaining sulfite levels will give you the best chance of producing a clean wine. Oxidized wine is one of the most common flaws seen in amateur wine competitions and can be best avoided by topping up and keeping up on metabisulfite additions. Use your phone or computer to set monthly, or even bi-weekly, reminders.

Finally, be sure the wine sees an appropriate fining and/or filtration, or even a de-gassing, especially if you would like to enter a younger wine in a competition. Appearance is the first thing judges note when a wine is presented.

BOTTLING

When it comes to bottling, there are a few keys to getting it right. First off, you should not be doing anything to the wine on bottling day other than transferring into the bottle and sealing it up. Any final additions, blends, or other adjustments to the wine should have been done at least a week prior to bottling. (A final sulfite addition may be the only exception to this rule, but even with sulfite, it should be done at least two days prior to bottling.) You want to make sure the wine has time to integrate any of these changes with proper time to settle precipitates that may form.

Make sure your bottles are spotlessly clean; bio-films can easily be removed with the proper cleaning solution such as One-Step. If using corks, double check to make sure that they are the appropriate size for the bottles and they are not dried out if using natural corks. If you are shipping wines for competition, the bottle(s) will be out of your hands for a time. Making sure the closure is properly sealing the wine in and keeping oxygen out can assure you a cleaner assessment of your wine.

ENTERING YOUR WINE

So you’ve got a wine that you want evaluated. Resist the urge to send any wines that have just been bottled. Bottle shock is a real phenomenon and wine should not be evaluated for at least 30 days post-bottling day. Also, if you added too much sulfite near bottling to a red wine, it can have a bleaching effect. This is reversible, so giving the wine proper time in the bottle is important. White and rosé wines may be ready within a few months post-bottling, but you should probably wait upward of a year post-bottling to enter most red wines into a competition.

Selecting the correct category is fundamental to get an appropriate assess-

ment of your wine. Having now worked as part of the team on the WineMaker International Amateur Wine Competition for 14 years, it still surprises me how many times wines will be entered into the wrong category. Make sure you have an understanding of the various categories, the varieties in your wines’ origins, blending requirements; all with an eye towards the category’s key expectations. If you are entering a wine in the Merlot category, expectations are that it is a red wine with at least 75% of the grape blend being Merlot. Blush/ rosé wines have their own categories and should not be entered to be judged against their red counterparts.

WINE SHIPPING

One positive about entering wines in a local competition is that you avoid the cost of shipping. But to enter your wines in larger national or international competitions, this cost is often unavoidable. The first order of business when it comes to shipping wines is the packaging. Since the cost of shipping has gone up as high as it has in recent years, we highly recommend you don’t skimp on your packaging material. Purchasing packaging specifically for shipping wine will spare you the worry of, “Will my wines make it safely?”

Finally make sure all your paperwork is filled out cleanly and both it and the registration payments are easily visible to the person unpacking your wines. Each wine bottle should be properly marked to make it clear to those who process the wines. A Post-It® flag left hanging on the side of a bottle is probably not a smart idea. Also, this task should not be done after opening your second bottle of wine for the night. While this step may not be rocket science, you’re much more apt to miss key details with a foggy mind.

We wish you the best if you plan to enter a wine competition!

BY DAWSON RASPUZZI

TIPS FROM THE PROS WINE FROM FROZEN MUST

An option that is always in-season

Buckets of frozen must or juice allow winemaking season to be any time of the year. These juices are not concentrated and there is minimal intervention beyond flash freezing the grapes on the crush pad. Interested in exploring this option? Heed the advice from these three experts in the business.

Frozen grape buckets allow you to make the wine you want to make, when you want to make it. There is no appreciable difference between the resulting wines made from fresh grapes and those made from frozen must or juice. Several studies have shown a small increase in total phenolics from frozen grapes, but so far none have demonstrated a sensory impact.

The grapes are treated the same way they would be at a winery, except instead of starting fermentation they are put into buckets and flash frozen. Our reds have nothing added to them and only the stems are removed. The whites receive 75 parts per million SO2 at pressing. Our white juice pails contain 5.25 gallons (20 L) of settled juice and yield 5 gallons (19 L) of finished wine. Our red pails contain 5 gallons (19 L) of must and usually yield 3.5 gallons (13 L) of finished wine, but anywhere between 3–4 gallons (11–15 L) is normal depending on varietal and pressing.

Once they’re in the freezer, the pails are held below 0 °F (-18 °C) and the contents don’t change very much from that point — so they have a very long shelf life. After a few years there may be some visible oxidation on the surface, but so far no one has reported a pail “going bad” in the freezer.

Once received, the buckets should be thawed at 65–75 °F (18–24 °C). At this temperature it should take 1–2 days to completely thaw and reach a temperature suitable for fermentation. Thawing at colder temperatures will take longer, which gives wild microbes a better chance at corrupting the juice. Thawing or fermenting at warmer temperatures

can risk cooking off some of the flavors. If you’re in a hurry, a warm water bath is the fastest way to effectively thaw a pail. There is no need to do a cold soak with previously frozen grapes. The freezing process ruptures some of the skin cell walls releasing more polyphenols into juice than cold soaking ever could! After quickly thawing the must or juice, pitch a cultured yeast rather than relying on native yeasts that will survive, but not thrive, the freezing process.

All of the buckets come with the listed Brix, pH, titratable acidity (TA), as well as other measurements and origin information. These measurements we post are an average taken from all the bins. There is usually some variation with the reds because the bins of grapes are individually fed into the destemmer and then flow directly into the buckets. So any bin-to-bin variation would also be reflected in the buckets. Usually the bins are all within +/-1 °Brix of the posted measurement. Also, as the reds soak on the skins some additional sugar and potassium can be released into the juice, causing the Brix and pH to rise. The numbers we post for the white juices are tank samples after all the grapes are blended together so the numbers are quite reliable. But it is always advisable to take your own measurements before making any adjustments.

The buckets the grapes come in are food-grade, however red wine ferments need 30% extra volume in the fermenter for the cap of skins to rise into, which means that a red ferment would overflow in the bucket! There is enough space to ferment whites, but be sure to transfer to a carboy before fermentation is complete to prevent oxidation.

The grapes are treated the same way they would be at a winery, except instead of starting fermentation they are put into buckets and flash frozen.

Brothers Michael and Andrew Crews are the Owners of Wine Grapes Direct, which sources, freezes, and delivers grapes from vineyards across California, Oregon, and Washington to home and commercial winemakers.

Making wine from frozen must or juice has many benefits, none more important than reliability and flexibility. You get grapes that are harvested at their prime for winemaking and have an idea about the chemical analysis of the grape ahead of time. Considerations of logistics for shipping to the ultimate winemaker are done with grapes or juice that is stable, not degraded or compromised in quality.

There are many other benefits too: You can make your wine on your schedule — no need to worry about missing harvest if you want to travel in the fall. It also allows the easy ability to make blends or co-ferment with different varietals, vintages, and vineyards. And you can make the same wine twice if you find out you loved the first batch when it was complete (assuming the juice is still in stock).

Most of these benefits listed so far have been for the convenience of the home winemaker. A benefit to the wine itself, though, is that there is a slight increase in color and yield from the freezing and thawing process. The freezing is basically a cold soak on steroids. Starting cold may be a lot easier than with fruit at 85 °F (29 °C). Frozen juice allows you many more options than fresh juice as well. The ice that forms and floats during the juice thawing is water. An undisturbed pail of thawed juice will be 6 °Brix on top and 40+ °Brix on the bottom. Potassium combined with the tartaric acid will create cream of tartar on the floor of the pail. These natural separations make accurate analysis of the juice or grapes initially difficult, however, it also allows for the production of ice wine or natural acid reduction. One juice — many possibilities.

Our red buckets are 6-gallons (23-L), filled with 5 gallons (19 L) of must and make 3–3.5 gallons (11–13 L) of wine. These grapes are gently destemmed and flash frozen. White grapes are whole bunch pressed at a low pressure in a pneumatic press. The white juice is chilled, settled, and racked off the gross lees into 6-gallon (23-L) buckets filled with 5 gallons

(19 L) of juice.

As a grape grower and grape buyer we prefer vineyards with sustainable, regenerative practices. Certainly what happens in the vineyard goes all the way to your bottle of wine. The basic goal is to provide the winemaker with grapes as they were when harvested. We freeze them in time. The addition of sulfite is seldom used. If used, the addition is noted, and usually quite low. An exception would be grapes heavily infected with Botrytis. This juice will have sulfite and other additives if deemed appropriate. With time, frozen juices that are not sulfited will become dark in color and become oxidized. The freezing process reduces the juice’s fauna and the wine ferments without fear of spoilage. The yeast consume the oxygen and near the end of alcohol fermentation the oxidized color will fall out. There is no aroma impact, and the result is a wine more resistant to oxidation.

When you receive your grapes, take the lids off and inspect them for any freezer burned or moldy grapes. Remove any grapes that are questionable. As soon as possible submerge the skins in the juice at least once per day — if you leave undisturbed and mold forms, pick it out and discard. Keep it covered.

Under no circumstances should you let your grapes thaw slowly in a refrigerated environment. You want to thaw the grapes quickly and evenly. Room temperature, 70 °F (21 °C), is ideal for thawing. Start preparing your yeast early. While there are native yeast that survive the freeze, it is recommended that a strong yeast starter be added to the must or juice. Instead of a 103 °F (39 °C) rehydrated yeast and 80 °F (27 °C) must, you have a 40 °F (4 °C) must. Your goal is to have the temperature of your yeast starter and must within 10 °F (5 °C) of each other. Start your yeast while the grapes thaw. Gradually feed the watery, cold defrosted juice to the starter. As the yeast acclimates to a cold environment the must/juice warms to a temperature within 10 °F (5 °C) of the must/juice, submerge the skins, keep juice agitated. Do not cold shock the yeast.

Peter Brehm has been in the wine industry for more than 40 years and has taught thousands of people the techniques of winemaking. He developed the industry standard for flash freezing grapes and published the results in 1974. A decade later he started Brehm Vineyards, exclusively selling wine grapes from California and the Pacific Northwest, which he continues to operate today.

WINE WIZARD

BY ALISON CROWE

FERMENTATION COMPLETION

Also: Vinegar storage space and cantaloupe wine

QWHAT IS A GOOD RULE OF THUMB TO CONCLUDE WINE FERMENTATION IS COMPLETE? I HAVE RECEIVED THE SAME READING FOR SEVERAL DAYS IN A ROW BUT STILL SEE BUBBLING AT THE TOP OF MY CONTAINER. THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY IS RIGHT BELOW 1.000 BUT I HAVE HEARD IT NEEDS TO GET BELOW 0.995. IS THIS TRUE?

ALSO, WHAT IS GOOD PROTOCOL AFTER FERMENTATION HAS COMPLETED? WOULD YOU RECOMMEND CHILLING DOWN TO 50 °F (10 °C ) THEN RACKING?

AIt certainly sounds like you are getting into the dryness zone. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a liquid in relation to the density of water, calibrated at a specific temperature (usually 60 or 68 °F/16 or 20 °C). Depending on which source you check (various winemaking books, websites, etc.) folks seem to agree that “dry” table wine usually clocks in around 0.990–0.996 specific gravity.

Why the range? Every wine is different and as such, every wine does actually contain a small amount of non-fermentable sugars and it’s unusual for a wine to go so low as to achieve “no sugar” 0.00 g/L glucose + fructose. “Dry” is philosophically defined (in my opinion) as not enough sugar left to taste or that any yeast cell will ferment as well as the place where the fermentation naturally stops and the yeast just can’t ferment anymore. Most professional winemakers I know chemically define this point as 2 g/L residual sugar (RS) or less (<0.2%) though I have seen wines naturally settle at around 3 g/L RS or 0.3%.

Also don’t forget that specific gravity (SG) is a measure of density. There are a lot of things other than water and sugar

that can affect the density of a wine so be sure you’re accounting for as many of those as you can. What is your wine sample’s temperature? As stated earlier, SG is usually calibrated against water at 60 or 68 °F (16 or 20 °C) measuring a specific gravity of 1.000 (check yours to make sure this is correct). If your wine is warm, it’ll be artificially less dense, and your reading will be off. Similarly, if your wine is colder than 60 °F (< 16 °C) it’ll be artificially dense and the hydrometer will float higher than it should. For this reason it’s important to check a hydrometer temperature correction chart to get an accurate reading. Carbon dioxide bubbles can also attach to the hydrometer, floating it artificially high, so do be sure to give it a spin in your measuring cylinder to dislodge them. Also make sure you’re reading the hydrometer line at eye level. If you look down on your hydrometer from above it can give a slightly skewed reading as a result.

If you’re following all of these good hydrometer-use tips and are seeing the same measure day over day, it’s likely your fermentation is finished. Have you ever heard of the Clinitest (sometimes called “the sugar pill”) method for testing for residual/fermentable sugar? You can

BRENT MOONEY FOREST HILL, MARYLAND

Every wine is different and as such, every wine does actually contain a small amount of nonfermentable sugars and it’s unusual for a wine to go so low as to achieve ‘no sugar’ 0.00 g/L glucose + fructose.

Photo courtesy of Tim Vandergrift

While the density of water at room temperature is 1.000 standard gravity, finished dry wine should be less dense than that.

buy little tablets that diabetics use to check their urine for sugar. By dropping a Clinitest tablet into a measured sample of your wine, and comparing the resulting color to a calibrated chart, you can see if there are any residual reducing sugars in your wine. This is a great (and quick, cheap, and easy) way to see if you’re dry or not once you start getting below 0.990 on the good ol’ hydrometer. Do be aware, however, that the tablets (copper sulfate is part of what makes them react) will also react with many of the pigments and phenolics in red wines, so red wine results tend to skew a little higher than white wines. You can help work around this by diluting a sample of red wine and multiplying the result accordingly. Please do realize that Clinitest tablets are *not* meant for internal consumption; they are poisonous so do not drink the test sample and be sure to keep away from pets and curious kids. Even if you’re still seeing bubbles on the top of your fermenter, it could just be carbon dioxide gas that’s escaping naturally or it could also mean you have a simultaneous malolactic fermentation going on, so gas bubbles are not always the best indicator at this stage. Assuming your wine is dry, what’s the best protocol for the

next step? You don’t mention what kind of wine you’re making in your question, but I’ll assume just for fun it’s a dry red table wine that you’d like to go through malolactic fermentation (MLF) and which you’re planning on storing in carboys with oak beans (or chips or sticks) for aging. Chilling the wine down is fine and will help settling, but if you do want it to go through the MLF that’s not a step that I recommend. Malolactic (ML) bacteria are inhibited by cold temperatures below 65 °F (18 °C). If you’re pretty sure the wine is dry, then let it sit for a few days to let the lees settle and rack off the heaviest lees into another clean, gassed container. I often use the phrase, “If it flows, it goes” to describe this phase — taking the light and medium lees (discard the heavy, sticky lees) is good for wine because they will break down later in the wine, helping to create a fuller, rounder mouthfeel. At this stage, in the carboy it’ll be sitting in for a while, I recommend adding about 55 grams of oak chips or beans per 5 gallons (19 L) of wine, which is about 3 g/L. Let the wine sit on the oak for two to three months, then taste it again and see if you’d like to add more. Be sure to keep your containers topped up — a topped wine is a happy wine!

QI AM GOING TO START MAKING SOME RED WINE VINEGAR. I KNOW, HOW DARE I ACTUALLY INTRODUCE VINEGAR INTO MY WINES . . .

SO, I HAVE EVERYTHING SET UP FOR MY VINEGAR STORAGE ( A 5- L/5.3 QT. OAK BARREL ) AND THE WINE’S READY TO GO INTO THE CONTAINER. MY QUESTION IS WHERE CAN I KEEP THIS SET UP? OBVIOUSLY, IT WILL NOT BE IN THE BASEMENT WITH MY WINE ROOM.

IS THE 1ST FLOOR A SAFE OPTION? IN OTHER WORDS, IS THAT FAR ENOUGH AWAY TO KEEP THE WINE ROOM SAFE FROM CONTAMINATION? THE ONLY OTHER PLACE I HAVE IS ON THE SECOND FLOOR IN THE BEDROOM/ EXERCISE AREAS AND I’M NOT TOO EXCITED ABOUT BREATHING VINEGAR THROUGH THE NIGHT. I HAVE A GARAGE, SHED, AND PORCH BUT THEY ARE LIKELY TOO COLD TO BE AN EFFECTIVE STORAGE/MAKING AREA. SHORT OF GOING TO SOMEONE ELSE’S HOME WHO IS NOT MAKING WINE, WHAT WOULD YOU RECOMMEND?

SUSAN HAMMOND EAST GREENWICH, RHODE ISLAND

AYou got a chuckle out of me. Indeed, how dare you introduce vinegar to your wines! I’m actually very happy that you’re writing so you can learn how *not* to introduce vinegar to your wines and in fact it seems like you’ve put a lot of thought into it. As many of my readers will know, wine turns into vinegar through the action of a group of bacteria known as Acetobacter, which eat alcohol and turn it into acetic acid, the sour yet pleasantly palatable acid that gives vinegar its “zing.”

Acetobacter are literally everywhere. They hang out on everyday surfaces, they live on our kitchen counters, they even hang out in the air we breathe. They’re so ubiquitous that it’s unlikely that you’ve got a room anywhere in your house that’s free of them. In fact, I’d wager your own basement wine room is the place with the highest cell count, because Acetobacter will naturally colonize in higher numbers where the “food”, i.e., your wine, is. With that being the case, you ask, why even try to keep the vinegar stored somewhere else? The simple and intuitive answer of which you’re already aware is that your vinegar fermentation area, where you’ll be actively encouraging a flour-

ishing Acetobacter colony, will soon become a population center to outrival even the darkest, dampest corner of your basement.

So yes, it does make sense to make your vinegar far, far away from where you make your wine. Ideally, this would be in a separate building, which could be kept at the temperature needed for good vinegar production, 60–80 °F (16–27 °C). Because the inside of your house will have its interior air in communication with your basement (even if you mostly keep the doors closed) it’s going to be that much harder to keep the “bad” bacteria away from your wine. It’s not just the air that can spread Acetobacter. Every time you (or the dog or cat) pass through the “vinegar room” you’d be colonizing yourself, your hair, and especially the soles of your shoes with Acetobacter, which would get transferred all over the house and eventually to the basement. You say your outbuildings are too cold, but, depending on the time of year, especially if you had an electric blanket or heating pad to help, is it possible to keep your vinegar containers in the temperature “sweet spot” for the three to four weeks typically needed for a vinegar fermentation? I’d hate to have you lose the hard-won produce of your old hobby

in an attempt to try out a new one.

If I had to rank your locations, I’d say first choice would be

your stand-alone shed or porch, with the temperature regulated with the addition of an electric blanket or heating pad. You may also want to think about making vinegar when the conditions are the most conducive to it, possibly during the late spring, summer, or early fall. My next choice for location would be your garage, especially if it’s a garage you don’t enter often and especially if it’s not the way you usually enter your house. If you must choose a room inside your house then choose the spot that’s the farthest away from your wine room in the basement, taking into account how much you pass through, enter, or spend time in that space. The more time you spend in “the vinegar area” the more time the Acetobacter will have to glom onto you and get colonized into other parts of your house.

I hope all of this helps you decide where to locate your vinegar project and doesn’t creep you out with visions of aliens taking over your body or zombies invading your cupboards. Just use common sense and be aware, and you should be fine.

QSO GLAD I JUST FOUND YOUR WEBPAGE ON MAKING MELON WINE ( HTTPS://WINEMAKERMAG. COM/ARTICLE/MAKING - MELON - WINE ).

I STARTED FERMENTING CANTALOUPE JUICE A COUPLE DAYS AGO WITH ORGANIC CANE SUGAR DISSOLVED IN COCONUT WATER. FERMENTATION IS ACTIVE NOW. I SEE SOME RED - COLORED SPECKLES IN A LAYER ON TOP OF THE CONTENTS AND WOULD LIKE TO KNOW IF THAT IS TO BE EXPECTED, TO BE STRAINED, OR WHETHER THE WHOLE BATCH SHOULD BE DUMPED. DO YOU HAVE ANY THOUGHTS ON HOW I SHOULD APPROACH THIS? CHEF

JEM JACKSON, NORTH CAROLINA

ABecause cantaloupes have high pH, my guess is that the red speckles you’re seeing in a layer on top of your wine are bacteria colonies and no, they are not to be expected. According to a fruit pH chart I found online from Clemson University, the pH of cantaloupes usually falls in the range of 6.1–6.6. The pH of water is 7.0, and the pH of most table wines made from grapes fall in the 3.3–3.7 range, so are much more acidic than melon juices. Bacteria tend to thrive in a higher pH (lower acidity) environment, which is one part of the reason most wine in the world is made from grapes, whose lower pHs keep spoilage bacteria at bay better (alcohol being the other part of the equation). Wine made from grapes just naturally “happens” better than wines from other fruits, which sometimes need hefty acid additions.

As the article on making melon wines mentions, because melons grow on the ground (as opposed to grapes that are up off the ground on vines), they can pick up a lot of soil-borne microorganisms. Cut into the skin and you’ve just introduced potentially harmful bacteria into the fruit you’re about to press for the juice to make your wine.

Do you need to throw the wine out? Not necessarily, but you might want to be careful if your pH is high and your wine is still in the juice stage. Foodborne bacteria like E. coli and Salmonella can survive on cut watermelons and cantaloupe, and in the raw juice. Luckily, a pH under 4 will inhibit the

growth of just about all food-poisoning bacteria and increasing alcohol levels will also help eliminate them. Dr. Linda Bisson, Professor of Enology when I was a student at UCDavis often told her classes, “No human pathogen can survive in wine.” There’s a reason that drinking wine was safer than drinking water in the Middle Ages and also why wine was used by ancient civilizations to disinfect and clean wounds. However, cut cantaloupe and raw cantaloupe juice can harbor bacteria harmful to humans so do be careful and practice smart food-handling practices when using them in meals, juices, and in winemaking.

Keep an eye on how your wine is progressing because surface-growing bacterial colonies are rarely good news in winemaking. You also could be experiencing a flush of spoilage yeast; the fact that you’ve got colonies growing on the surface also leads me to include aerophilic (oxygen-loving) “film yeast” in the spoilage-organism suspect pool. “Red-colored speckles” doesn’t sound like any common winemaking yeast or bacteria I’m familiar with and it’s very possible they (and other organisms you can’t see) may throw off the flavor and aroma of the finished product. Melon wines are ephemeral products, with the heady aromas we love dissipating very quickly during fermentation. What remains often just seems like the “ghost” of the fruit, even with sound bacteria-free fermentations. This will be even more so if you’ve got any kind of spoilage organisms in there doing their dirty work.

Producing your own vinegar may be easy to do with the addition of a vinegar mother, but winemakers need to take extra precautions to make sure their wines are not negatively impacted from the Acetobacter activity.

To avoid surface-growing film yeast (and also spoilage bacteria) next time, make sure your sanitation procedure is top-notch and get the alcoholic fermentation going right away with a strong strain of yeast so you get a protective layer of carbon dioxide formed on top of the surface. I also don’t recommend using any kind of coconut meat, milk, or water in winemaking as it will contain fat. Especially if your coconut water is the kind sold with small pieces of coconut pulp in it; those little bits will float to the top, forming a perfect little raft for spoilage organisms to grow on!

If your wine goes dry and you still like how it smells and tastes, I recommend sterile filtering it, if possible, with a unit like those made by the popular Buon Vino brand. They can be

spendy so see if your local home winemaking supply store rents filters or if a local home winemaking club has one you can borrow. Filtration (if done with filtration technology that is 0.45 micron sterile or “nominal”) will exclude all yeast and bacteria from your wine, which will help set it up for sound aging. Be sure to adjust the free sulfur dioxide of your wine to around 25–30 ppm (there is a great sulfur dioxide calculator at winemakermag.com/sulfitecalculator to help you do that) so you know your wine will be further protected from oxidation and microbial spoilage during aging. Speaking of which, melon wine lacks the tannins and antioxidants that grape wines naturally have, so it’s recommended to drink them within a year. I wish you luck!

VARIETAL FOCUS

BY CHIK BRENNEMAN

MALVASIA BIANCA

A Greek grape that has gotten around

Welcome to the New World perspective on Old World varieties. Seems to be a familiar theme over the years of producing this column. Just about every Old World variety we have covered has a unique story to be told. That is not to say the New World varieties, notably the hybrids, don’t have their own stories, but in many cases, their stories are rooted in how they came to be from Old World varieties. The New World perspective focuses on the science of how any variety came to be, and how the science contradicts the traditional knowledge passed down through generations of viticulturists and winemakers.

When tradition contradicts science I liken that to the old game of “telephone,” where something, fact or fiction, is written on a piece of paper. The paper is then sequestered, and the originator whispers into the ear of the person sitting to one side of them and the story moves around the circle. The last person reveals what they heard and the original statement is revealed, to the laughs and giggles of everyone involved. The similarity here is that traditional documentation is hard to follow and sometimes the science is quite different. We’ll focus on Malvasia Bianca this time around, a variety with many aliases.

HISTORY

Malvasia, by itself, is a generic name for a wide range of white, pink, grey, and black-skinned grapes. Tradition derives its origins from the Greek port of Monemvasia, on the east coast of Peloponnese. From there, the various Malvasia grapes supposedly went out to populate other regions around the Mediterranean. The spelling of Monemvasia morphed to Malfasia, and

then to Malvasia in Italy and Portugal. Malvagia (Spain), Malvasier (Germany), Malmsey (England), Malvasijie (Croatia), and Malvoisie (France) were names also reported by Pierre Galet, the famous French ampelographer, in 2000. However, the science-side shows that all these grapes that contain the name Malvasia are in fact at least 19 genetically distinct varietals, and they do not usually have a common origin. Therefore, when it is reported that something belongs to the Malvasia family, that statement is not correct and I found several references to the “Malvasia family” that, prior to researching this further, were some of my trusted sources for varietal information.

Putting that whole train wreck of a story aside, let’s hone in on the grape Malvasia Bianca. It’s an Old World varietal that is mentioned in literature as early as 1606 near Torino, Italy. It was widely cultivated in Italy’s Piemonte where it is known as Malvasia Bianca di Piemonte until the vineyards there were devastated by powdery mildew towards the end of the 19th century. Today, there is a small amount of it planted in the Italian provinces of Alessandria, Asti, Cuneo, and Torino.

VITICULTURE

Viticulturally, it is a vigorous varietal, with early- to mid-budding, making it somewhat susceptible to late spring frosts. The berries are medium sized and found in large but compact bunches. The varietal is susceptible to powdery mildew but less so to Botrytis.

Beyond Italy, the only other place in the world where it is grown with any significance is California, where the name was shortened to simply Malvasia Bianca. It was brought to the state by immigrants from the Piemonte. The California Department of Food and Agriculture reports that there were 1,384 acres planted in 2009, and that fell

It was widely cultivated in Italy’s Piemonte where it is known as Malvasia Bianca di Piemonte until the vineyards there were devastated by powdery mildew towards the end of the 19th century.

MALVASIA BIANCA Yield 5 gallons (19 L)

INGREDIENTS

100 lbs. (45 kg) Malvasia Bianca fruit

Distilled water

10% potassium metabisulfite (KMBS) solution (Weigh 10 grams of KMBS, dissolve into about 75 mL of distilled water. When completely dissolved, make up to 100 mL total with distilled water.)

5 g Lalvin QA23 yeast (Premier Cuvee can also be used as a substitute)

5 g Fermaid K (or equivalent yeast nutrient)

5 g Diammonium phosphate (DAP)

EQUIPMENT

5-gallon (19-L) carboy

6-gallon (23-L) carboy

6-gallon (23-L) plastic bucket

Airlock/stopper

Racking hoses

Equipment cleaning and sanitizing agents (Bio-Clean, Bio-San)

Inert gas (nitrogen, argon, or carbon dioxide)

Refrigerator (~45 °F/7 °C) to cold settle the juice

Ability to maintain a fermentation temperature of 55 °F (13 °C) TIP: Use a 33-gallon (125-L) plastic can as a water bath. Place ice blocks in the water to maintain a relatively constant temperature. This will be your refrigeration system for peak fermentation. If you have other means to keep things cool, of course use that. TIP: You may have a need to keep it warm, in this case wrapping the bucket/carboy with an electric carboy wrap (available at most home winemaking outlets) works well.

Thermometer capable of measuring between 40–110 °F (4–43 °C) in one degree increments

Pipettes with the ability to add in increments of 1 milliliter

Ability to test or have testing performed for sulfur dioxide

STEP BY STEP

1. Crush and press the grapes. Do not delay between crushing and pressing. Move the must directly to the press and press lightly to avoid extended contact with the skins and seeds.

2. Transfer the juice to a 6-gallon (23L) bucket. During the transfer, add 16 milliliters of 10% KMBS solution (This addition is the equivalent of 40 mg/L SO2). Move the juice to the refrigerator.

3. Let the juice settle at least overnight. Layer the headspace with inert gas and keep covered.

4. Measure the Brix.

5. When sufficiently settled, rack the juice off of the solids into the 6-gallon (23-L) carboy.

6. Prepare yeast. Heat about 50 mL distilled water to 108 °F (42 °C). Measure the temperature. Pitch the yeast when the suspension is 104 °F (40 °C). Sprinkle the yeast on the surface and gently mix so that no clumps exist. Let sit for 15 minutes undisturbed. Measure the temperature of the yeast suspension. Measure the temperature of the juice. You do not want to add the yeast to your cool juice if the temperature of the yeast and the must temperature difference exceeds 15 °F (8 °C). To avoid temperature shock, acclimate your yeast by taking about 10 mL of the juice and adding it to the yeast suspension. Wait 15 minutes and measure the temperature again. Do this until you are within the specified temperature range. Do not let the yeast sit in the original water suspension for longer than 20 minutes. When the yeast is ready, add it to the fermenter.

7. Add Fermaid K or equivalent yeast nutrient.

8. Initiate the fermentation at room temperature ~(65–68 °F/18–20 °C) and once fermentation is noticed, (~24 hours) move to a location where the temperature can be maintained at 55 °F (13 °C).

9. Two days after fermentation starts, dissolve the DAP in as little distilled water required to completely go into solution (usually ~ 20 mL). Add the solution directly to the carboy.

10. Normally you would monitor the progress of the fermentation by measuring Brix. One of the biggest problems with making white wine at home is maintaining a clean fermentation. Entering the carboy to measure

the sugar is a prime way to infect the fermentation with undesirable microbes. So at this point, the presence of noticeable fermentation is good enough. If your airlock becomes dirty by foaming over, remove it, clean it, and replace as quickly and cleanly as possible. Sanitize anything that will come in contact with the juice.

11. Leave alone until bubbles in the airlock are about one bubble per minute. Usually about two to three weeks. Measure the Brix every 2–3 days.

12. The wine is considered dry, or nearly dry when the Brix reaches -1.5 Brix or less. Taste the wine, to get a sense of dryness and acidity. Consider a malolactic fermentation (MLF) if acidity is too high.

13. If not opting for an MLF, then add 3 mL of fresh KMBS (10%) solution per gallon (3.8 L) of wine at this point to suppress the bacteria. If opting for MLF, wait until MLF is complete then add 3 mL of fresh KMBS (10%) solution per gallon (3.8 L) of wine. This is the equivalent to ~40 ppm addition. Transfer the wine to the five-gallon (19-L) carboy and lower the temperature to 38–40 °F (3–4 °C).

14. After two weeks, test for pH and SO2. Adjust sulfite as necessary to attain 0.8 ppm molecular SO2. (There is a SO2 calculator available at www. winemakermag.com/sulfitecalculator). Check the SO2 in another two weeks, prior to the next racking and adjust while racking. HINT: Rack to another sanitized five-gallon (19-L) carboy or your bucket. In the case of the latter, clean the original carboy and transfer the wine back to it. This is done at about 4–6 weeks after the first SO2 addition. Once the free SO2 is adjusted, maintain at the target level by monitoring every 3–4 weeks.

15. Consult winemakermag.com for tips on fining and filtration.

16. At about three months you are ready to bottle. Be sure to maintain sanitary conditions while bottling. Once bottled, you’ll need to periodically check your work by opening a bottle to enjoy with friends.

VARIETAL FOCUS

to 988 acres in 2012 where it has pretty much held steady since then. It is mostly grown in the San Joaquin Valley, where it yields approximately four tons to the acre. Given the rich soils of this region, it is certainly not the cash crop growers would hope for, fetching only about $700 per ton ($772 per tonne) in an area that can produce other varieties for more money by weight, and higher tonnage to the acre, like Sauvignon Blanc or Pinot Grigio.

ENOLOGY

What I personally liked about working with Malvasia Bianca when I was the Winery Manager at UC-Davis, was the flavors our climate at the UC-Davis vineyards produced. It is a warmer climate with rich, deep, and loamy soils. We always noted a subtle Muscat character from year-to-year, but depending on the harvest timing it was more floral during the early harvest period, moving to tropical given more time on the vine.

This also translated into somewhat higher viscosity in the resulting wines. My favorite was bringing in the fruit early at lower sugar levels — around 21 °Brix typically. As I reviewed the crush data, it turns out this is the typical Brix for the aforementioned regions. If only I had known that I was onto something! Depending on the variety, harvesting on flavor profile is more important than the actual sugar levels, especially with aromatic white varietals like Malvasia Bianca.

Malvasia Bianca is typically made into a dry style, but there are some off-dry examples as well. My personal favorite is the lower alcohol, fruit-forward version with those hints of Muscat. I am not sure where the Muscat characters come from. Curiously, I looked back though its lineage a few generations and there is no mention of it.

I experimented a little those first few years at UC-Davis making the wine a couple of ways. In one vintage, I minimized the skin contact because the equipment we were using did

The mostly free-run versions were crisp, aromatic, and very refreshing on the palate.

enough damage to the skins through the crusher/destemmer. I affectionately referred to that piece of equipment as the “master of maceration.” As a result, I would only process what I could press within a very short amount of time and collecting mostly free-run juice. I took the remaining must, still quite wet, and let that sit on the skins for several hours more. Then pressed it fairly dry. I took this advice from one of our German students who told me that up to 24 hours of skin contact is acceptable for aromatic whites, since the aroma compounds are located in the skins. The resulting wines were quite different, with the latter having significantly more bitterness and astringency than the former. In hindsight, perhaps some use of enzyme to reduce the skin contact time would have been helpful, but my experience with enzymes is somewhat limited.

The mostly free-run versions were crisp, aromatic, and very refreshing on the palate. They were well-balanced with respect to acidity and flavors. One of the challenges with making wine in California is the natural tendency for the grape berry acidity to decrease during maturation. This acidity reduction can be minimized with an earlier harvest, albeit once those flavors you desire have been achieved. There is generally the subsequent need to supplement the acidity prior to fermentation. This is a challenge to many home winemakers without the proper testing equipment. For those that can’t test, sending a sample to a commercial lab will lead you to a plethora of pre-fermentation steps to properly adjust your juice and must for acidity and nutritional status. This is money well spent.

In order to preserve the acidity that I work hard to start out with I monitor my primary fermentation very closely, and when the Brix goes negative for a couple of days in a row I add sulfur dioxide and chill the wine to inhibit malolactic bacteria. The amount of sulfur dioxide depends on the pH. Refer to winemakermag.com/sulfitecalculator for the optimum amount. Ideally, you want to achieve 0.8 ppm molecular, which will assure a cessation of the malolactic fermentation, but you have to be careful if your wine pH is too high. In this case, 0.5 ppm and keeping

your temperatures low (<45 °F/7 °C) should be sufficient. Once the wine is sufficiently stable, taste the wine. If the acidity is too high by taste, I will consider backsweetening to the off-dry style. Backsweetening can be achieved by setting aside and freezing some of your juice when you pressed it or with the use of white juice concentrates available at your local winemaking supply stores.

The scientific side of Malvasia is

not intended to be a buzz-kill about the traditional lore of the “Malvasia family.” But what it boils down to is your reference source material should be sound and based on fact. With such a long historical account of all the Malvasia-named grape varietals there is bound to be confusion. In this case, the scientists have set it straight. That said, when traveling the Old World, I still love to hear the traditionalists tell their stories too. Enjoy!

FOR WINEMAKING

Exploring the options and functions in the winery

by Bob Peak

n earning a chemistry degree and working in laboratories, I thought of “inert gases” as being the same as the “noble gases” of the periodic table: Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Once I started making wine, though, and got into some more advanced topics, I found winemakers consider the inert gases to include argon, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide is not really inert — more on that later.) One more gas — a blend of two of these— comes up in winemaking as well. That is “beer gas,” a blend of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. As the name suggests, it is most commonly used by brewers (usually for dispensing beers “on nitro”) but it finds use in wineries as well. The gases used in winemaking serve mostly to prevent or minimize oxidation of wine. Even though not fully inert, I’ll call them that in this article since that is common usage in winemaking.

For some winemaking applications, one or another of these inert gases may be clearly superior. For others, you may be able to make substitutions. After we consider the characteristics of the four gases, we will review their principal uses. In roughly the order they might come up during a winemaking cycle, we will look at cold soaking, extended maceration, container purging, wine transfer, sparging, bottling, carbonating, and dispensing.

Photo by Charles A. Parker/Images Plus

GET TO KNOW YOUR GASES ARGON

Argon (Ar) is the lone noble gas of the periodic table used in winemaking. It is resistant to all chemical reactions and is denser than atmospheric air, giving it an advantage in filling vessels or displacing a layer of air. It has a density of about 1.78 g/L, compared with air at about 1.29 g/L. (The density difference is also why noble gas helium is of no interest to winemakers. At less than 0.2 g/L, it would dissipate immediately.) Argon is a pure element in monatomic form: Individual Ar atoms make up the gas.

To use argon in your winery, you will need a compressed gas cylinder, a pressure regulator, and various hoses and fittings. A common size for home use is a 19-cubic foot (538-L) cylinder, named for the volume of gas upon release at atmospheric pressure. The cylinder is about 14 inches (36 cm) tall and 5.25 inches (13.3 cm) diameter. The gas is compressed to about 2,000 psi (pounds per square inch) or 13.8 megapascal. Argon, nitrogen, and beer gas use an inert gas regulator with a connection designated CGA #580 by the Compressed Gas Association. Such a regulator can be used interchangeably on those three gases. Fermentation supply stores and welding gas outlets sell tanks and fittings. Argon costs about $250 for a full 19cu. ft. cylinder and a regulator is about $90. The cylinder can be refilled or exchanged at a lower cost.

NITROGEN

Nitrogen (N2), the diatomic gaseous form of nitrogen, is what we are considering here. As a winemaking gas, it is unreactive and works well in many “inert” applications. As an element, home winemakers know nitrogen as a component in compounds like DAP (diammonium phosphate) and amino acids that do react with other wine components. For inert gas use, molecular nitrogen can be used at a lower cost for most of the same purposes as argon. The gas in contact with juice or wine does not spontaneously react with any other constituents. One drawback for nitrogen in blanketing or inerting operations is a density

slightly lower than air: 1.25 g/L for nitrogen vs. the 1.29 g/L for air. It mixes easily with air and dissipates quickly.

Distributed in the same cylinders as argon, it uses the same regulator. It has a lower cost than argon with a 19cu. ft. (538-L) cylinder selling for about $235, but may add more cost per use because its density makes it a less effective blanket gas. Cylinder refills or exchanges are less expensive as well.

CARBON DIOXIDE

While it is used for many of the same oxygen displacement purposes as argon and nitrogen, carbon dioxide (CO2) is not inert. In contact with water or wine, some molecules combine with water according to the reaction:

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

From there, a fraction of the resulting compound dissociates like this:

H2CO3  HCO3- + H+

Seeing that H+ lets us know that hydrogen ions are present: An acid-forming reaction. In solution, carbon dioxide is sometimes called carbonic acid. Unreacted molecular carbon dioxide remains dissolved as well. Rising temperature or agitation causes gas to leave solution. Wines with noticeable carbon dioxide are considered spritzy, petillant, or sparkling. If you do not want spritzy wine, you must be careful in your use of carbon dioxide as your “inert gas.” It has one clear advantage in its density of 1.98 g/L, making it the heaviest of the winemaking gases. CO2 condenses to a liquid when pressurized in a cylinder. As a result, cylinders are sold by weight rather than nominal volume. Most common for home use is a 5-lb. (2.3kg) cylinder that is about the same size as the 19-cu. ft. cylinders argon and nitrogen come in. A full 5-lb. (2.3-kg) cylinder costs about $125 and will release about 44 cu. ft. (1,250 L) at atmospheric pressure. A refill or exchange costs about $40. Because the contents are in liquid form, a CO2 cylinder must be kept upright in use, presenting only headspace gas to the regulator. If liq-

uid CO2 were to enter the regulator, its sudden evaporation would damage the equipment. CO2 requires a specific CO2 regulator that cannot be used with the other gases mentioned.

BEER GAS

Used primarily for dispensing draft beer, this blend of nitrogen and carbon dioxide is most commonly found in a ratio of 75% nitrogen and 25% CO2 With that blend, beers like Guinness Stout and Boddington’s Pub Ale on draft maintain the cascading bubbles and creamy mouthfeel that drinkers expect from “nitro” beers. For winemaking, beer gas is used for the same purposes as the other inert gases. In contact with wine, some carbon dioxide will dissolve, but not usually enough to carbonate the wine or make it “sparkling.” Blends with a higher carbon dioxide ratio are available, but offer no particular advantage to the home winemaker. Because nitrogen does not condense to a liquid under pressure, the tank and regulator for beer gas are the same high-pressure equipment as for nitrogen or argon. A full 19-cu. ft. (538-L) cylinder costs about $230, offering a small price advantage over argon or nitrogen.

WHAT ELSE YOU’LL NEED

Once you have purchased a full cylinder and appropriate regulator of your chosen gas, you will need some other hardware. Most regulators have an on-off valve already fitted. Have one installed if yours does not. You will also need to buy some beverage-grade tubing that fits your regulator. Between five and 10 feet (1.5 to 3 m) works well for most, but take into account your winery layout. If you intend to use your gas for sparging wine (more on this later), efficiency will be improved if you buy a fritted stainless steel sparging stone. A hose-end spring loaded squeeze valve may be convenient. You may add other fixtures like quick disconnects, inline valves, or a flow meter.

The cylinders described here are small and portable, but keep them secure to prevent falling over, breaking off a valve, and causing a dangerous sudden release of pressure.

Before addressing specific applications, a note of caution. Just as these gases displace oxygen in fermentation vessels, they displace air in a room. Use only in very well-ventilated spaces or outdoors to avoid risk of asphyxiation.

GAS USES IN WINEMAKING COLD SOAKING AND EXTENDED MACERATION

These two techniques use inert gas in the same way. For cold soaking, grapes are crushed into a fermenter and held at a low temperature prior to warming up and initiating fermentation. An extended maceration is done when the wine is finished fermentation, still on the skins and seeds, and allowing it to rest a while before pressing. In both, your juice or wine is at risk for oxidation, browning, and development of aldehydes. To minimize those risks, you can blanket the headspace with an inert gas.

Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and cheaper than the other winemaking gases, so it is a good choice for this application. All three of the other gases discussed here will work well, too, but the light weight of nitrogen may cause it to dissipate more rapidly. Blended beer gas is likely to stay in the fermenter a bit better and poses no risk of over carbonating, as the wine is still in the very early stages of production.

To cold soak, put a tank lid or heavy plastic sheet over the fermenter with the fruit or must in it. Run a hose from your gas regulator under or through the cover, set your regulator to 5 to 10 psi (35 to 70 kpa), and make sure there is an opening in the cover to let displaced air and excess gas out. Open the valve for a minute or two. If you have a flow meter fitted, calculate the volume of headspace in your fermenter and run twice that volume for the purge. Three to four volumes is preferred in commercial inerting, but twice should give you reasonable protection for 24 hours. Renew the inert gas layer daily.

PURGING AND FLUSHING

Container purging or flushing is similar to must blanketing. The goal is

to use your inert gas to displace the atmospheric air in a carboy, tank, or barrel so oxygen contact is minimized when wine is transferred into it. Early in the fermentation cycle, carbon dioxide is a good choice due to its density and cost. Excess CO2 is not a problem as the wine is already high in dissolved carbon dioxide at an early stage. In this operation, place the end of the hose near the bottom of the vessel and open the valve. Flush a 5- or 6-gallon (19- to 23-L) carboy for 30 seconds or so. With a flow meter, three to four volumes of gas is ideal to reduce the residual oxygen level to less than 1%. For a larger vessel, like a 200L (52-gallon) variable capacity tank,

the gas used in three volume changes is substantial. At 3 x 200 L, or 600 L total, you would need more than the entire volume of a 19-cu. ft. (538-L) argon, nitrogen, or beer gas cylinder. With the larger volume of a 5-lb. (44cu. ft., 1250 L) CO2 tank, you would use about half of a full cylinder. As with blanketing, make sure there is an adequate opening for displaced air and excess gas to escape while purging.

TRANSFERRING WINE

The use of inert gas in wine transfer is an extension of purging. Purge the receiving vessel, initiate your siphon or pump, and slowly bleed inert gas into the headspace of the source vessel to prevent air from entering as the wine is drawn out. You can check this by holding a lit match above the opening of the vessel being emptied and make sure the flame is extinguished by an excess of gas flowing out. That will assure that air is not getting in.

Another transfer technique is to pressurize the full container. Do not pressurize glass carboys. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic carboys can be pressurized enough to move wine. A transfer system for such carboys can be easily assembled from supplies found at most home winemaking shops. First, cut off the tip of the center connection on an orange two-port carboy cap. Then thread a 24-inch (60-cm) long by 3⁄8-inch (1cm) diameter racking cane through

Purging or flushing is done by flowing gas through a hose into the bottom of a vessel to displace air prior to adding your wine.

To transfer wine via gas, the gas flows at a very low pressure into the airtight vessel, forcing the wine through the racking cane and into the receiving vessel.

Photo by Bob Peak

Photo by Bob Peak

that opening, arranging it to nearly touch the bottom of the carboy when the cap is snapped on. Attach a length of 3⁄8-inch (1-cm) ID vinyl tubing to the racking cane and drop the end to the bottom of your receiving carboy. Purge the receiving carboy and leave it open. Attach a 3⁄8-inch (1-cm) line from your regulator to the second port on the orange cap. With everything arranged, start with your regulator knob backed all the way out so no pressure is being delivered. Be careful not to over pressurize the carboy! Open the main cylinder valve, then slowly turn the regulator knob in, raising the pressure until the wine begins to flow. Do not exceed 5 psi. When all the wine has been moved and gas enters the racking cane, turn the flow off and disconnect. (This same system can be used to purge a PET carboy using less inert gas than ordinary flushing. Fill the carboy with clean water or no-rinse sanitizer solution, attach the cap and racking cane, and use your gas to push the water out. The carboy is now completely filled with inert gas using only one

volume. If you are processing more than one carboy, you can transfer the water or sanitizer to the next one in line, reusing it instead of pouring it down the drain.

SPARGING

To remove unwanted dissolved gases from your wine you may sparge with inert gas. Common nuisance gases targeted for removal are excess carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen sulfide. The technique involves placing your gas hose outlet near the bottom of the container, opening the top, and running gas bubbles through the wine. As the bubbles rise in the liquid, some of the target gas will transfer to the bubbles and exit. Finer bubbles allow better gas-to-liquid contact, so a fritted sparging stone, available at home winemaking suppliers, will make the operation more efficient.

If your wine is ready for bottling but seems too “spritzy” due to dissolved carbon dioxide, purge for a few minutes with argon or nitrogen. Since some wines are more pleasant

with a small amount of dissolved carbon dioxide, using beer gas may avoid making the wine too “flat.” If you are concerned about oxidation in your wine after racking, any of the inert gases may be sparged through it to remove excess oxygen.

Finally, if you detect the “rotten egg” smell of hydrogen sulfide, you may be able to sparge it out in the same manner. As always, work in a well-ventilated space as hydrogen sulfide is toxic and the inert gases are asphyxiants.

BOTTLING

Some of the previously discussed operations may be combined to assist in bottling your wine with less risk of oxidation. Attach a plastic single-bottle type filler to a hose from your regulator. Gently open the regulator to a very low pressure like one or two psi (7-14 kpa). As you are ready to fill each bottle with wine, push the bottle filler against the bottom for a few seconds to purge the bottle. As the bottles are being filled, slowly add inert gas to the

headspace of the bulk container to minimize oxygen transfer on that end. If you use a 3-spout or 5-spout bottle filler, you can install a fitting with a hose barb in the lid to allow continuous flushing while bottling. For this use, argon and nitrogen are preferred as adding CO2 at bottling may change the wine. Just before corking, you can shoot a pu of inert gas into the bottle’s headspace.

SERVING ON DRAFT

If you serve your wine on draft instead of bottling, you have one more use for inert gas. If you use carbon dioxide, your wine will become carbonated and you will have sparkling wine on tap. This can be a fun and easy way to create a sparkling wine; but you can also dispense still wine on tap by using argon or nitrogen. For either system, you will be dipping into the brewers’ side of your local fermentation store. Originally manufactured as soda syrup tanks before the advent of bag-box packaging, 5-gallon (19-L) stainless steel kegs are still produced and may be used for draft beer or wine. Most common are so-called “ball-lock” kegs, named for the quick disconnect fittings on the top. The “in” fitting is connected to your gas regulator and the “out” fitting is connected to a beverage faucet or a so-called “cobra tap” that does not require a faucet (as pictured above). For sparkling wine you need to keep the keg in a refrigerator, typically at about 36 °F (2 °C) and 11 psi (76 kpa), to assure adequate dissolved gas for a pleasant sparkling wine. For still wine, argon and nitrogen do not significantly dissolve in the wine, so you can chill if you want for white or rosé wine or just leave the keg at room or cellar temperature for red wines. With any of the inert gases pushing the wine, you do not need to be concerned about oxidation as the gas pressure in the keg keeps air out.

The same technique as described earlier for purging a PET carboy can also be used for a keg to minimize air exposure during transfer. Fill the keg with clean water or sanitizer, snap an “out” fitting on the appropriate port with a hose to drain, attach your gas, and flush. If your wine is in a PET carboy, you can then push it into the keg in the same manner.

Some home winemakers are trying to reduce their use of sulfites in winemaking. While sulfite is the cheapest and easiest fighter against premature oxidation, now you have been introduced to four more: Argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and beer gas. Carefully applied, they may allow you to use less sulfite and still make delicious, fresh wine without excess oxidation.

Kegged wine can be served sparkling with carbon dioxide or still if using argon or nitrogen.

Photo courtesy of MoreWine!

Photo by Charles A. Parker/Images Plus

La Vie En Dry Rosé

by Phil Plummer

riends don’t let friends drink white Zinfandel.” Seems like an awfully silly way to evaluate one’s loyalty, but this saying that has popped up in wine-consuming circles for years speaks to the wine world’s palpable fatigue with the sweet, mass-produced blush wines that dominated liquor store shelves in the 80s and 90s. Once a cultural touchstone, these products overshadowed their drier counterparts and colored public perception of what pink wines could be.

Though it was hidden in the background for a few tough decades, dry rosé eventually worked its way back

into the conversation, and has quickly become a favorite of a new generation of winemakers and wine drinkers alike.

In light of its recent renaissance, it may be tempting to think of dry rosé as a younger, less-proven style, but the fact is dry rosés have likely been around as long as wine itself. Prior to the advent of more familiar red winemaking techniques, lightly extracted rosé wines were prized for their drinkability and were long preferred to their darker counterparts, which required extended aging. Even Bordeaux, a region celebrated today for its rich red wines, came to prominence as far back as the Middle Ages producing “clairet,” a dark-hued rosé.

Aside from Bordeaux, the Old World regions most known for dry rosé production are Provence and Tavel, both in southeast France. Provençal rosés, generally produced via direct-pressing or cold maceration, are best drunk young and prized for their sprightly acidity and herbal aromatics. Tavel rosés, on the other hand, are most often vinified via co-fermentation of red and white grape varieties or the saignée method — bleeding juice off of must destined for red wine fermentation — and are thereby more structured and age-worthy. Provence and Tavel may be the Old World’s most notable rosé producers, but the phenomenon is hardly limited to France: Italian rosatos, Spanish rosados, and German roseweins all merit mention in this highly popular category.

With the explosive success of dry rosé, it’s natural that New World winemakers would get in on the action. Long Island has positioned itself as the vanguard of North American pink wines, producing exquisite dry rosés that wouldn’t seem at all

out-of-place if tasted blind against their Provençal counterparts. Even in California, ground zero for the sweet blush craze of the 80s, this drier style is making waves: Some forward-thinking winemakers are even producing them from Zinfandel!

WHY MAKE A DRY ROSÉ?

Aside from its iconic appealing pink hue, the most notable characteristic of dry rosé is its versatility. The vast range of flavor, texture, and aromatic profiles that may be achieved in this category allows for wines that are excellent in a wide variety of seasonal, situational, and culinary contexts. This flexibility extends to the production side of the equation as well; dry rosé can be made from an array of grape varieties and techniques, and is accessible to winemakers of all skill and experience levels.

One somewhat underreported attribute of dry rosé is its utility as a fallback plan in seasons and situations where grape growing and winemaking conditions are challenging. Because of their limited phenolic

extraction, direct-pressed or lightly macerated dry rosés are excellent ways to use red grapes in vintages and vineyards where environmental conditions may impede phenolic ripening. Richer, saignée-based rosé wines may be produced as a byproduct of red wine fermentations where more concentration is desired. Co-fermentation or blending post-fermentation may also be effective methods of utilizing less-than-optimal fruit or repurposing red or white wines that are underwhelming on their own.

Whether made with careful intent or pursued as a response to the sort of challenging circumstances with which all winemakers are occasionally confronted, the ability to make consistently compelling wines under a variety of conditions is reason enough for any amateur winemaker to add dry rosé to their repertoire.

HOW TO MAKE DRY ROSÉ

The first question winemakers new to the game will ask themselves is where to get started in producing a dry rosé. In a typical how-to article, the next

Dry rosé wines are as diverse in color as they are in flavor due to the options winemakers have in their production methods and the grapes used.

Photo by Shutterstock.com

logical step would be a discussion of grape variety selection and ideal fruit parameters, but the variability of rosé production methods means that there aren’t one-size-fits-all solutions for either of these inputs. As such, it makes a bit more sense to first discuss each of the different production techniques, elaborating on the most suitable grape varieties and harvest parameters for each.

Direct Press and Cold Maceration

Popular in Provence, France, the direct press or cold maceration rosé production method results in fresh, pale pink wines, primed for drinking young. In this protocol, whole red grapes are chilled prior to crushing, which limits extraction of texturally rough phenolic compounds during the maceration step. Once the fruit has been sufficiently chilled, it is crushed either to the press or a holding vessel. The must is then held for up to 24 hours prior to pressing. The amount of time the must is allowed to soak with skins is at the discretion of the winemaker and has a direct impact on the color, aroma, and texture of the

resulting wine, as extended maceration time will amplify the amount of pigments, aromatic precursors, and tannins extracted.

Direct pressing (no soak time whatsoever) may be employed with color-rich grape varieties in order to maintain a classic, pale hue, but it may also be used to produce vin gris — an ultra-pale form of rosé that is often indistinguishable from white wine. Darker grape varieties like Marquette, Noiret, Vincent, Chambourcin, Saperavi, and Alicante Bouschet have such concentrated pigment that extended soak time often makes for wines that more closely resemble reds — pressing directly following crush limits extraction and allows for the production of rosés with the familiar pink coloration. Less pigmented varieties like Pinot Noir or Lemberger may be used to produce vin gris — though whole-cluster pressing is advised if that’s the goal.

Some cold maceration may be applied with grape varieties where color isn’t as concentrated or more textural and aromatic complexity is desired. In this case, the soak time may be ad-

justed to suit the stylistic aims of the finished product. For cultivars with richer phenolic profiles, like Cabernet Sauvignon or Tempranillo, a shorter maceration interval of less than 12 hours can be used to keep the resultant wine lean and fresh. For lighter varieties like Pinot Noir or where some herbal complexity is desired — as with the classic Provençal varieties Grenache and Mourvèdre — a longer maceration of greater than 12 hours may be desired.

When sourcing fruit for direct press or cold maceration, a few key harvest parameters must be considered. Given the fresher, more acid-driven profile of wines produced in this style, it may be advantageous to harvest the fruit a few weeks prior to phenological ripeness. This allows the winemaker to prioritize bright acidity and lower potential alcohol, with the foreknowledge that unpleasant, underripe phenolic compounds will be largely excluded. In addition to fruit chemistry, attention must be paid to fruit cleanliness. Fruit rots like Botrytis are equipped with a host of polyphenol oxidase enzymes that are capable

Popular for rosé production in Provence, France, cold maceration of red grapes prior to crushing and then allowing the must to soak on the skins for up to 24 hours allows some color, aroma, and texture to be extracted prior to pressing the juice and fermenting.

Photo by Shutterstock.com

of degrading pigment compounds in wine — leaving the winemaker with a product that is often more orange than pink.

Saignée

French for “to bleed,” saignée is a technique by which liquid is removed from a red wine fermentation in order to increase the ratio of skin-to-liquid in the fermentation vessel, allowing for more concentration in the resultant red wine. The removed fraction, however, may be fermented to produce rich, age-worthy, dry rosés. In this method, red grapes are crushed into a fermentation vessel where they’ll soak for several hours or even days prior to the removal of some juice — generally 10–20% of the total volume. Unlike the cold maceration method, it may be advantageous for the fermentation to start prior to the bleeding process, as the natural capping that occurs in red wine fermentation actually serves to streamline the separation of liquid from pulp. If you do choose to pursue a post-inoculation saignée, be aware that it places some limits on the amount of control you’ll have over the pro-

cess. The wine will already be in the throes of fermentation, so techniques like cold settling your juice, adjusting its composition, or inoculating with a different yeast strain than your red ferment will become difficult if not impossible.

The separated bleed wine produced via saignée may be fermented on its own — perfect for lighter varieties like Pinot Noir or red hybrids like Marechal Foch — or blended into white juice or wine, an excellent use of the drained fraction from richer reds like Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah.

When working in the saignée tradition, the harvest parameters should be scaled to the goals of the desired red wine more than the rosé fraction. In this case, winemakers ought to prioritize phenological ripeness over acidity, as the concentration process will amplify the phenolic and aromatic content of the finished red wine. If more acid or a fresher flavor profile is desired of the rosé portion, it can always be blended with a fresher, more acid-driven wine in order to advance that aim. As always, working with clean fruit will increase the chances of success, as the presence of fungus

or sour rot on the grapes may lead to volatile acidity or other forms of bacterial spoilage in both the red and bled fractions.

Co-Fermentation and Blending

Maybe the simplest and most accessible way to produce dry rosé is by co-fermentation or post-fermentation blending of red and white grape varieties. This technique doesn’t require intervention at any of the fruit processing steps, so it’s a viable option for aspiring pink winemakers who haven’t invested in crush equipment. In co-fermentation, red and white grape varieties may be processed together or blended postpressing/draining, then allowed to ferment together, producing wine with the classic rosé color.

This co-fermentation strategy is popular in France’s other rosé destination, Tavel, where saignée is often blended with less extracted rosé or even white grape juice prior to fermentation in order to produce rich, age-worthy pink wines.

In my experience, co-fermentation is an excellent way to add more complex, floral dimensions to dry rosé, by

Co-fermentation of red and white grape varieties is a popular technique for rosé production in Tavel, France. Co-fermentation can be done post-pressing or, as shown here, by processing the grapes together similar to field blending white and red grapes.

Photo by Dominick Profaci

leveraging aromatic white grape varieties like Traminette, Grüner Veltliner, or Gewürztraminer as blending bases. There are no hard and fast rules about the ratio of white to red juice in this method, but the white portion ought to make up the bulk of the wine’s volume, as a little bit of red can go a long way.

Co-fermentation is also an excellent way to use heavier press fractions of white wine juice: The rounder, more phenolic heavy-press juice that may not be ideal for a varietal Riesling or Chardonnay can be used to make compelling rosé with the addition of a little bit of Cabernet Franc or Marquette. Blending may also be performed post-fermentation, but that can be challenging as finished red and white wines are often more difficult to harmonize. As is often the case in winemaking, early intervention tends toward more integrated, soulful wines; blending for rosé is no exception.

FERMENTATION PARAMETERS

Once the juice is ready for fermentation — owing its pink color to maceration, saignée, or blending — the ideal vinification parameters closely resemble those for white wines. Fermenting rosés at cooler temperatures (55–70 ºF/13–21 °C) ensures the preservation of fresh fruit aromatic profiles. A variety of yeast strains may be chosen to flesh out the desired style of the finished product, but strains that are recommended for use in both red and white wine ferments are often the most effective for producing dry rosé. Lallemand’s Rhône 4600, ICVGRE, and Anchor’s Exotics Mosaic are a few of my personal favorites as they produce wines with vibrant, complex aromatic profiles and textural depth. As with any fermentation, proper attention to yeast nutrition and oxygen saturation go a long way toward maintaining aromatic freshness, limiting off-odors, and preventing stuck fermentations — the goal is to produce dry rosé, after all.

Malolactic fermentation can be an effective tool for shaping acid profiles and promoting richness in rosé wines, where desired. For wines produced

in the saignée method, where concentration of phenolic compounds is higher, some acid management may be necessary to smooth out rough textural edges. If malolactic fermentation is pursued for this purpose, it may behoove the winemaker to select a bacterial strain with limited diacetyl production, as the buttery aromatic compound can intrude on some of the more delicate elements of these wines. Lallemand’s VP41 is a stellar selection for this task as it is both robust (not always a given for malolactic bacteria) and respectful of fruit and herbal aromatics.

AGING CONSIDERATIONS

Aging protocols for dry rosés are as varied as the wines themselves — the stylistic trajectories of wines produced from each of the previously enumerated methods require different aging times, vessels, and treatments. Though much of rosé production closely resembles white winemaking, there are some unique considerations that must be weighed in order to properly respect its trademark pink hue.

For rosés where freshness is prioritized — as with those produced from direct pressing, cold maceration, and white-heavy blending — a quicker-to-bottle approach is desirable. These methods limit phenolic extraction, meaning that the resultant rosés are not only less protected against oxidation, but also not tannic enough to require long-term bulk aging. Wines produced in this style benefit from early racking to limit lees contact and bulk storage in neutral, reductive containers like well-topped glass carboys — this preserves aromatic freshness and lively acidity. It’s not uncommon for dry rosé to be one of the first wines of a vintage to be bottled; the typical turnaround from harvest to bottling is generally in the range of 3–5 months, timing them perfectly for spring sipping.

Richer saignée or co-fermented rosés may require a bit more bulk aging than their cold macerated counterparts. The increased phenolic content of these wines often leads to wines that are awkward in their youth

— clunky in both texture and aroma. In these cases, extended lees contact may be an effective method of harmonizing acid and tannin. Additionally, bulk aging in breathable vessels like FlexTanks or oak barrels may help to round out some of the rougher tannic edges, though the winemaker is cautioned to limit the use of newer oak as it is likely to contribute tannin and intrude on delicate aromatics.

The unique chemical composition of dry rosé wine requires that some care must be taken to preserve its color. In red wines, red-pigmented anthocyanin molecules stabilize themselves to tannins, creating a color that persists against the myriad treatments and chemical changes that may occur over the lives of those wines. In rosés, however, the limited concentration of tannin leaves unstable anthocyanins, sensitive to fining, filtration, and sulfite additions. If the winemaker chooses to employ fining or filtration in the production of dry rosé, they should be aware that color will be lost at each of these steps: Limiting their use where possible is the clearest way to preserve it. Unstabilized anthocyanins also respond dramatically to the addition of sulfites — a bleaching effect that is enough to send even the most experienced winemakers into a panic. However, this bleaching is reversible and the pink coloration is likely to return in the days and weeks following the addition.

CONCLUSIONS

With unmatched versatility and a multitude of production possibilities, it’s easy to see why dry rosé has captured the imaginations of winemakers and wine drinkers alike. Whether it results from careful planning or a clever response to unexpected challenges, rosé is a category open to winemakers with a variety of experience levels and stylistic preferences. Crafting a dry rosé of your own gives you the opportunity to participate in an awakening to pink wines as more than just the dime-a-dozen, sweet offerings of decades past. Dry rosé is having a moment, isn’t it about time you seized it?

Kimchi Expand your home fermentations

imes have certainly been different since the onset of the pandemic in early 2020, to put it mildly. But with bad comes good, and the silver lining of the dark cloud that has lingered over the past two years has been a renewed interest in great homemade foods, especially fermented foods. And within the niche of fermented food, wild fermentations have popped up in homes across the country. I have become interested in a number of these — one of my favorites being kimchi.

Truth be told, with a small investment in equipment and free refrigerator space, the process isn’t very difficult and can expand your home fermentation horizons as well when looking for a new experience as your wines age.

Story and photos by Ashton Lewis

WHAT IS KIMCHI?

Kimchi is a term used in Korea to describe a wide array of fermented vegetables and fruits, and is the national dish of South Korea. Over the past several years, Korean food in the U.S. has experienced a rise in popularity and more Americans are familiar with some of the dishes and condiments popular in Korean restaurants. Bibimbap, bulgogi, japchae, gochujang, and gochugaru are examples of popular Korean foods and condiments. And this list would be totally incomplete without kimchi. The most common kimchi is made from cabbage, with cucumber kimchi being a solid number 2 in the U.S.

Although all kimchi is not spicy, the most popular types are easy to spot because of their red color high-

lights coming from the generous use of gochugaru or dried, ground, red pepper flakes. In basic food science terms, kimchi is a food preserved with a combination of acid and salt and flavored with pungent spices that may have originally been used to cover up unpleasant tastes and aromas. This latter postulate has been used to explain why so many traditional foods, especially those from hotter climates, are hot and spicy.

A quick search about kimchi written by westerners often equates kimchi to spicy sauerkraut. This description is far from useful and does not do justice to kimchi or sauerkraut! The two kimchi types mentioned in this article, tongbaechu (whole cabbage) kimchi and mak kimchi (cut kimchi), traditionally include fish sauce, salt-

kimchi fermenters

Kimchi is traditionally fermented and stored in earthenware crocks called onggi. Still popular today, fermentation crocks allow for easy access from a large mouth at the top and are sometimes equipped with heavy half-moons to keep the contents submerged under liquid, although this style of weight seems to be a feature of German crocks used for sauerkraut, as is the airlock/water seal that the latter have designed into the top of the crock. Korean kimchi onggi were traditionally buried in the ground to provide for steady temperatures.

Onggi permit slow diffusion of gas across the wall and likely result in a different fermentation

profile compared to glass containers that block gas diffusion. Plastics do permit gas transfer and may have some benefits to fermentation in comparison to glass containers. The E-Jen fermenter that I use markets gas-permeability as a feature that improves performance; the moveable inner lid also reportedly minimizes the growth of aerobes on the surface. My normal batch size uses 8.8 lbs. (4 kg) of cabbage, and I also end up with a small amount of kimchi that I ferment in glass, which does result in a different flavor. My wife and I both prefer the kimchi fermented in our plastic fermenter with floating lid. My

I unapologetically use the metric system in my own cooking ingredient lists because it’s easier to use, especially when ingredient additions fall between 5 and 100 grams because this range of weights expressed in ounces requires the use of decimals and I like whole numbers. End of explanation. But, for those who prefer it, I did still include U.S.

ed shrimp, sometimes oysters or fish, and lots of gochugaru. All of these ingredients, including the napa cabbage (nappa in Japanese refers to vegetable leaves, so “napa cabbage” loosely translates to leaf cabbage and has nothing to do with California’s Napa Valley), contain above average levels of free glutamic acid, along with other amines and so-called 5’ (five prime) ribonucleotides that collectively contribute umami to food. The fact that tongbaechu and mak kimchi have a big depth of flavor from these umami ingredients helps explain why these kimchis work so well as ingredients in other dishes.

GETTING INTO KIMCHI

In today’s world of food journalism, picking a popular topic and running

measurement equivalents for this article.

I view units as units and also refer to quarts and gallons when describing the size of pots and buckets because those units are used by the manufacturers; if you head to the hardware store looking for 8-liter buckets you will not find what you are looking to buy, so I have to refer to 2-gallon buckets and 2-quart saucepans as such.

plastic E-Jen fermenter.

into the assignment with teen vigor is not all that uncommon, but the truth is my love of kimchi has nothing to do with 2020 or tinkering in the kitchen because of the COVID-19 blues. I love kimchi because I love Korean food, especially the spectacular dishes deftly crafted by my late motherin-law, Sun. I had eaten some Korean foods before I met the young lady who would later become my wife, but had not been exposed to much variety. That all changed in 1989. And one of my favorite types of Korean food quickly became the amazing range of fermented vegetables that fall under the large umbrella of kimchi. It just so happened that Sun’s kimchis were truly exceptional. I became spoiled, and unfortunately never learned the art of kimchi making from a real master. My wife was also spoiled by her mom’s cooking and did not receive the secrets to Korean cooking. Such is life!

Over the past 25 years, I dabbled with kimchi making and would give up in frustration before forgetting about the frustration and trying again. This cycle waxed and waned for too long until I found a Korean cooking website called Maangchi and was finally able to produce several good batches of kimchi. This gave me the positivity previously denied, and I started applying an analytical approach to kimchi in an effort to make something that both my wife and I liked. Two real challenges with kimchi making is the space required in the refrigerator and the strong aroma that kimchi gives off inside of the refrigerator. Many Korean households in the U.S. have separate refrigerators just for kimchi to address these challenges.

This got me thinking; there must be products on the market specific to kimchi storage, and sure enough I was able to find a line of plastic fermenters/storage containers that reportedly prevent kimchi from making the entire refrigerator smell like kimchi. A clever and useful feature of the design is a floating inner lid that keeps air away from the surface of what is beneath the lid. Maybe it was just the culmination of fine-tuning my recipe and technique, and using my new

fermenter, but my kimchi went from pretty good to excellent. Without further ado, let’s get busy!

The most common type of kimchi, tongbaechu kimchi, is made from whole napa cabbages that are quartered, brined, and coated, one leaf at a time, in a kimchi paste before packing into a fermenter. This type of kimchi is removed from the fermenter (which also acts as the storage container) and cut before serving. A variation on this type of kimchi is called mak kimchi and is easier to prepare

EQUIPMENT

Large cutting board

Sharp chef’s knife

Colander or homemade double-bucket set-up

Mandolin (optional)

2-quart saucepan

Whisk

Kitchen scale

INGREDIENTS

Cabbage and Salt

2 kg (4.4 lbs.) napa cabbage (optionally, you can substitute up to 200 grams (7 oz.) of napa cabbage with baby bok choi)

120 g (4.2 oz.) coarse kosher salt

Porridge

130 g (4.6 oz.) water

20 g (0.7 oz.) sugar

15 g (0.5 oz.) sweet rice flour*

and serve. Mak kimchi is what I will be describing how to make. I encourage folks interested in crafting kimchi at home to follow the procedure in this story to help get the basics down and to become familiar with the flavor and textural changes that occur during fermentation. Just like with winemaking, variations are easier to execute after multiple wins with an established method.

SHOPPING

The best place to gather specialty

Vegetable peeler

Kimchi fermenter (this recipe will yield about 2.5 liters of volume and require at least 3 liters of total vessel volume)

Blender 2–3 mixing bowls

Spatula Kimchi Paste Components

120 g (4.2 oz.) Korean radish*

90 g (3.2 oz.) minced garlic

80 g (32.8 oz.) minced white onion

60 g (2.1 oz.) matchstick carrots

55 g (1.9 oz.) Korean coarse red pepper flakes (gochugaru)*

35 g (1.2 oz.) Three Crabs Brand Fish Sauce (Vietnamese nuoc mam nhi)*

15 g (0.5 oz.) salted fermented shrimp*

10 g (0.4 oz.) whole green onions

5 g (0.2 oz.) minced ginger

* These ingredients are carried in most Korean markets.

kimchi ingredients is a Korean market, but some larger grocery stores with a good selection will have most of the ingredients required for mak kimchi. Napa cabbage is often priced significantly lower in Asian markets, and you will often find it easier to buy large heads of napa cabbage there than in regular grocery stores.

Although very good kimchi can be made from less-than-perfect cabbage, you really want to buy the best looking heads available. This is also true of all of the other fresh vegetables that are used in the kimchi paste.

KIMCHI MAKING

This process takes about three hours from start to finish, and you will not have much downtime between steps. It’s important to set aside enough time to completely finish the process and have your kimchi in the fermenter before settling down for glass of wine, so be prepared to be busy. This is a great team project if you can recruit some help.

CABBAGE PREP

This is the rate limiting part of the process, so get the cabbage prep completed before doing other work. Start by removing any wilted outer leaves and weigh your cabbage. I am a spreadsheet fiend and have developed a calculator to drive my entire ingredient list proportionally to cabbage weight, as well as giving me a few levers for tweaking the spice level and wetness of the finished product. This recipe is based on a single cabbage and you should be able to find one that weighs about 2 kg (4.4 lbs.)

at the store. I usually double this recipe because it doesn’t add much work or time, and also because my 5-liter kimchi fermenter is totally filled, with a bit of extra, when starting with about 4 kg (9.7 lbs.) of cabbage.

Rinse the cabbage, cut lengthwise into eighths, and then cut these wedges into pieces that are about 1.5 inches (4 cm) wide. I cut the wedges from the end opposite the base because the base of the cabbage head holds the leaves together when cutting. Almost all of the cabbage is used except for the solid bit near the base. Using a large, sharp, chef’s knife makes this job relatively easy.

I constantly move cut cabbage from my cutting board into a 2-gallon bucket (2.5 kg max/bucket) during prep. After moving ~500 grams of cabbage (a quarter of it) into the bucket, sprinkle 30 grams (1 oz.) of kosher salt on top of the cabbage, and repeat this layering process until the bucket is filled. Allow this to rest for 30 minutes, give it a gentle stir to move the cabbage pieces around in the developing brine, and let it rest for another 30 minutes. Repeat process for a total brining time of two hours. The purpose of the brining step is to pull water out of the cabbage tissue and to prepare it for fermentation. Don’t worry about the large amount of salt being used in this step (yes, it’s a lot!) because the cabbage will be rinsed before the prep is over.

PORRIDGE PREP (DONE WHILE CUT CABBAGE IS BRINING)

Combine cool water, rice flour, and sugar in a 2-quart (2-L) saucepan. Gently whisk to make a solution, then heat while constantly stirring until starch gelatinizes (solution becomes a translucent gel and the texture turns silky). The transition from starch solution to a gelatinized paste happens very quickly and the feel of the whisk movement will be obvious. Once the starch gelatinizes, turn the heat off and allow the porridge to cool to room temperature before making kimchi paste. Occasional stirs after cooking help speed up the cooling process.

KIMCHI PASTE PREP (DONE AFTER PORRIDGE PREP)

Mince the garlic, onion, ginger (a trick to mincing ginger is to peel the ginger using a vegetable peeler to easily strip the outer peel while minimizing waste), then combine in a blender with the fish sauce and fermented shrimp. Blend on a low-to-medium speed until all solids are pureed. The fish sauce and shrimp have pungent aromas, so be careful not to blow the top off the blender and paint the ceiling. Leave this mixture in the blender until needed.

Wash the green onions, carrots, and radish, and allow to drain in a colander before cutting. Cut the green onions on a bias into 3⁄4-inch (2 cm) pieces. Peel carrots and cut into matchsticks (julienne cut). Peel radish (or part of the radish depending on the size) and julienne into 2–3 inch (5–7 cm) strips; this is easiest to do using a mandolin if you have one as the texture and size of this vegetable is perfect for slicing with a mandolin. I only use my mandolin for the radish prep because carrots and mandolins spell sliced fingers. Please be careful!

Whisk the porridge until the starch gelatinizes.

Allow the cabbage to brine for two hours.

Mix kimchi paste with vegetables until uniform.

Transfer cut green onions, radish strips, and carrots to a large mixing bowl, add the gochugaru, puree from blender, and cooled rice starch porridge. Gently mix with a large spoon or spatula until uniform. This mixture is your kimchi paste; set aside until cabbage is rinsed and ready to be mixed with the paste.

RINSE THE BRINED CABBAGE

Unless you have a very large colander, a bit of ingenuity makes cabbage rinsing easy and manageable. I have two 2-gallon (8-L) buckets that I use for brining and a third 2-gallon (8-L) bucket with a bunch of holes drilled in the bottom that is my kimchi colander (this bucket-colander is shown beside the bucket of soaking cabbage in the image on the bottom left of page 40). The cabbage volume is approximately halved during the 2-hour brining process, so even if you are starting out with 4 kg (8.8 lbs.) of cabbage, you can use one 2-gallon (8L) bucket without holes and the one 2-gallon (8-L) bucket-colander for the rinsing step.

Transfer all salted cabbage into the bucket-colander (with the colander placed in a sink), rinse out the brining bucket(s), and insert the bucket-colander into a bucket without holes. Fill with cold tap water, stir, and allow to rest for about two minutes. To drain, simply lift the bucket-colander out of the solid bucket and put in sink to drain. Empty the rinse water in preparation for the next rinse cycle.

A minimum of four rinses is recommended to prevent kimchi from being too salty. I like to taste pieces of cabbage after the fourth rinse to check the saltiness. If the cabbage seems too salty for your preference, rinse more. Remember, kimchi is a preserved food and the salt does play into that equation, so don’t rinse the cabbage too much. Gently press after the last drain step to remove free water.

BRINGING THE PARTS TOGETHER

Transfer about 1⁄4 of the cabbage to one of your kimchi buckets, add about 1⁄4 of the kimchi paste, then gently mix until uniform. Repeat this pro-

cess three more times until all cabbage and kimchi paste is in bucket.

Transfer the fresh kimchi to your fermenter and pack the mixture so there are no air bubbles. This is fairly simple with mak kimchi. I have made the best batches of kimchi in my E-Jen fermenter and know this container results in a different product compared to a glass bowl with a water lock covering the top. In the past I have used wide-mouth canning jars and never made great kimchi. Whatever you choose as your fermenter, the next couple of days are very important.

One thing to note here is that no starter culture is needed because there are plenty of lactic acid bacteria from the cabbage and other vegetables. There are also plenty of nutrients for these bacteria to consume during fermentation. This is why kimchi is considered a wild fermentation.

Leave your fermenter(s) at roomtemperature (~68 ˚F/20 ˚C) for 2–3 days. If you are using glass bowls or jars, it’s best to place these on plates or a sheet pan because some liquid may be pushed out during fermentation. Kimchi fermentation is nothing like fermenting wine and you will not see foam forming at the top. You may, however, see gas bubbles and changes in the appearance of the kimchi paste. The first couple of days of fermentation builds the bacterial population and sets the stage for continued fermentation in the refrigerator. After 2–3 days, move your fermenters to a 39 ˚F (4 ˚C) refrigerator and allow to continue fermenting for about five days.

Although some commercial kimchi producers reportedly only use cold fermentation, I have had very poor results with this method. Although the kimchi texture and appearance are very nice and acid is produced, the flavor is one-dimensional and lacks the breadth of warm-started kimchi fermentations, in my opinion.

ENJOYING KIMCHI

You can eat your kimchi any time after the brined cabbage is rinsed and mixed with the paste. Some folks really like fresh, unfermented kim-

chi (this type is sometimes hit with a dash of soy sauce and topped with sesame seeds), others like kimchi a couple of days into fermentation, and most folks who eat kimchi on a regular basis like it best somewhere between weeks 1–3. The way I perceive the range of flavors is that young kimchi has not come into its own, the peak flavor and texture is between weeks 1 and 3, and beyond that time frame, as the cabbage tissue becomes very soft and the acidity becomes pretty intense, kimchi is best used for Korean soups, stews, and stir fries.

Koreans eat some sort of kimchi as an accompaniment to almost every meal, and you will always find kimchi served with any dish you eat in a Korean restaurant. So, serving with Korean food is a pretty obvious choice. A bowl of good rice served with a little dried squid or grilled meat and a healthy portion of kimchi makes for a great simple lunch or snack. Thinly sliced kimchi also adds a dimension to hamburgers, fish tacos, omelets, pizza, smoked pork butt sandwiches (as pictured on the opening of this story) or whatever else suits your fancy.

When it comes to choosing a wine to pair with your kimchi dishes, the choices are wide and may be influenced by the rest of the dish. White wines and rosés with some astringency and a light sweetness are a good option — think Riesling or Pinot Grigio. Sauvignon Blancs and wines with solid acidity and tang work well. As do red wines, generally those lighter in tannins like a Pinot Noir. You’ve got some flexibility here.

Fermenter full of fermenting kimchi.

DIY NETTING APPLICATOR

Simplify the task of netting your home vineyard

Story and photos by Ken and Leah Stafford

As any reader who has their own home vineyard can probably relate, making the decision to net is one that is not taken lightly. Netting can be expensive, time-consuming, difficult to apply and then remove, and impacts the routine of wine-grape production.

After having moved to an existing vineyard property, several seasons were spent trying to avoid the application of netting. The acre of vines is in a very rural area with high pressure from birds and mammals. From the standpoint of the bird population, this presented a smorgasbord of tasty treats with an overhead power line running the length of the vineyard for hundreds of birds to gather and decide which variety was going to present the tastiest treat. Having tried many alternatives to netting, the decision was finally made to jump in and make that investment. However, to do so there had to be a way to make it simple to apply and remove, allow one person to manage the application and removal, and make it easy to maintain the vines during ripening.

OUR SIMPLIFIED IMPLEMENTATION

The decision to invest in commercial heavy-duty knitted netting was made to provide multi-season use and the best protection to the vines. This particular netting comes in bundles that measure 17 x 1,250 feet (5 x 380 m). It is not the lighter type of netting that is typically on a roll. One bundle weighs about 80 lbs. (36 kg) and my home vineyard consists of about 3,000 linear feet (915 m) of vines to cover. To facilitate application, the first decision I made was to cut the netting to row length rather than trying to manhandle hundreds of feet of heavy netting at one time. My maximum row length is about 90 feet (27 m). This also enables each varietal block to be netted independently due to the varying times of veraison. Bird pressure begins as soon as veraison starts, so timing of application is critical at this point to avoid berry damage and loss. Canopy manage-

ment activities are also highly compressed at this point of time before netting is applied.

Already having a utility vehicle (UTV) for the property, the netting rig was engineered around its use to facilitate netting application and removal. The rig was originally built using schedule 40 PVC as a proof of concept. This was functional, but the PVC did not hold up well and broke during the first season of use. The subsequent design shown in this article uses structural steel pipe and fittings purchased from the local hardware store. There are only six pieces of pipe and five fittings. The fittings are secured to the pipe with internal Allen screws, which is an improvement over the glued joints of the PVC fittings. An added bonus of these fittings is that the top crossbar can be easily adjusted up or down depending upon the canopy height of head trained or trellised vines. The rig is also easily assembled and dismantled in a matter of minutes

for setup or storage. For the most part, the setup allows a single person to apply and remove the netting without assistance.

HEAD-TRAINED VINES

The picture below reflects a very simple rig that works for both netting installation and removal for headtrained vines. Netting that was previously cut to the row lengths in that block of vines is stacked in the bed of the UTV. To install on the headtrained vine rows, which vary in height from 4 to 5½ feet (1.2 to 1.6 m), the UTV is parked at the end of each row, where netting is then pulled out of the UTV bed, over the top crossbar and then walked down the length of the row. The netting never touches the ground and sits on top of the canopy as it is pulled down the length of the row. Red Solo cups were previously set on top of each vine stake to prevent netting from catching on the stake corners. The netting is then positioned to drape over the sides of the

Netting for the specific varietal blocks is stacked in the bed of the UTV for application on the vine rows.

vine down to the ground rather than wrapping and clipping around the entire vine.

The “burrito wrap” approach was tried first, but in subsequent years experimentation determined that the weight of the heavy-duty netting and its 17-ft. (5-m) width provides complete coverage that minimizes entry from the birds and mammals without a need to clip the bottom sides together.

For removing the netting on head-trained vines the previous steps are simply reversed.

TRELLISED VINES

Netting my Sauvignon Blanc, which is on a vertical shoot positioned (VSP) trellis, requires a modified approach from that used for head-trained vines but utilizes the same rig. These vines do require a second person’s help. In this case the height of the canopy, which is about 8 feet (2.4 m), prevents the netting from being manually dragged down the length of the row. To get set up for netting application, one end of the netting is first run from the UTV bed up to the top cross-bar and then is run back through the outer verticals (see image inset on page 45) that are positioned above the canopy. The outer verticals of the crossbar keep the netting over the canopy. That end of the netting is then tied to the end post. The netting is now ready to be laid out down the length of the canopy. One person drives the UTV down the row while a second person is on the ground positioning the netting.

Once the netting is sitting on top of the canopy,

Red Solo cups on each vine stake prevent the netting from hanging up during installation and removal.

Netting removal: On the VSP trellised vines the top crossbar of the rig is moved up to be well above the canopy. As the driver moves the UTV forward, the crossbar pulls the netting up off the canopy. The person on the ground (not shown here) will pull the netting into the bed of the UTV.

someone walks down each row to extend the netting down the sides of the vines. The bottom edges of the netting are clipped to the drip line wire to prevent birds from getting under the netting. Removal of the netting does not require looping the netting around the main vertical bar/cross-bar (see image to the left), as the netting will go directly into the bed of the UTV. Although laying out the netting can be done with one person, two people make it much easier. Removing the netting is definitely a two-person effort, with one person required to drive the UTV and a second person on the ground to pull the netting into the bed of the UTV.

CONSTRUCTION

As mentioned earlier the materials were obtained from the local hardware store and can also be found online. I used 1¼-inch (3.2-cm) structural steel pipe and fittings, which have proven plenty strong enough. Specific dimensions are not provided as the pipe was cut to fit the dimensions of the UTV roll

cage and canopy height. This same setup can be easily modified to fit the dimensions and configuration of whatever vehicle readers might make use of in their vineyard. As a rule of thumb the top crossbar height should be positioned 3 feet (0.9 m) above the canopy to facilitate netting application and removal. Commercial versions of somewhat similar netting applicators on tractor 3-point hitches and small

Rig design and components. Netting positioned for application on trellised vines.

trailers can be found online for reference, so this simple rig could also be applied to those types of vehicles with modifications engineered for mounting. Whatever vehicle solution is used the application needs to accommodate a place to hold the bundled netting.

The other important aspect of the rig is mounting it to the UTV. There are just four mounting points or connections. J-hooks were installed on each side of the outer wall of the UTV bed. The rig’s vertical sections sit on the hooks thereby maintaining stability. The other two mounting points make use of straps to secure the main and stabilizing vertical bars to the UTV roll cage.

VINEYARD BACKGROUND

Our vineyard is about an acre in size consisting of Zinfandel, Barbera, Petite Sirah, Grenache, and Sauvignon Blanc. The Sauvignon Blanc is on a VSP trellis, while all other vines are head trained in either goblet or vertical cordon style. Vineyard configuration is 6 feet (1.8 m) between vines and 10 feet (4.5 m) between rows. Maximum row length is about 90 feet (27 m). Each block of a different grape variety has a consistent row length, so the netting was cut to match. Netting is bundled and stored separately for each varietal block so each bundle can be pulled from storage when the specific varietal block is ready to net.

Before the netting rig was engineered and implemented the first couple of years of application and removal was done by dragging each net segment down each row on the ground. This tended to be problematic, as prior leaf pulling, pulling interior canopy laterals, and thinning fruit wound up on the vineyard floor, which then tended to collect in the netting when it was dragged out the length of the row. Vineyard material is not collected and disposed of and instead is just left in the vineyard row for discing and composting.

After harvest the removal and collection of the netting was even more adversely affected by in-row material. Previously the netting was dropped off the canopy on the vineyard floor and dragged to the end of the row to fold and bundle. Everything on the vineyard floor seemed to collect in the netting and a lot of additional time was spent removing the material prior to final storage. The simplified netting rig avoids all of these issues, as the netting never touches the ground.

A final tip I’ll leave readers with regarding bird mitigation is the use of a Falcon FrightKite in addition to netting. This is a kite in the shape of a predator bird that is positioned in the middle of the vineyard and flies atop a 28-foot (8.5-m) telescoping pole. This had the most impact to reducing bird pressures prior to netting the vineyard, so its use continues in addition to netting.

We are extremely happy with our simplified netting rig solution and appreciate the fact that most of the netting application and removal can be done with just a single person and the negative impacts of the netting being on the ground are avoided. In addition, setup and breakdown are extremely easy, and storage of the disassembled rig takes up very little space.

J-hook mount

Roll cage attachment strap

TECHNIQUES

BY BOB PEAK

DELICIOUS ENDEAVORS

The science of food-wine pairings

Eat this, drink that!” Such advice sums up many attempts at providing guidance for pairing foods with wines. While the pairings that are offered may be perfectly delicious, they seldom provide guidance for branching out and choosing further matches. So what are you to do when you want to showcase a few of your homemade wines with appetizers or a dinner party? In the best pairings, serving them together elevates the esthetic impressions of both the wine and food.

We all have favorite pairings and my goal here is to make those combinations more predictable using science. One group of factors involves the human physiology of taste and smell, along with what is happening chemically during tasting. Armed with some basics, you can launch into pairing trials with more confidence and precision. There’s nothing wrong with experimenting and do not view these guidelines as limits. As always, drink what you like and don’t let anyone tell you otherwise!

If you are arranging a blind date for someone, make sure you are doing them both a favor. Food-wine pairing is like that, too. You want the food and the wine to show better, raising what we might call the overall “hedonistic index.” Before the 19th century, this subject scarcely existed. When wine was consumed, it was mostly whatever was produced locally. Most available foods would be local and seasonal. Rising wealth in the Industrial Revolution brought options to enjoy more than one wine at a single meal and many of the classic pairings began to develop. As home winemakers, we also have the opportunity to showcase multiple wines.

The first pairing principle is “like with like.” This is seen in regional wines

and foods that support the idea of what grows together goes together. People look for similar characteristics in the food and the wine, with many classic pairings still popular. In Larousse’s Encyclopedia of Wine are such combinations as caviar and Champagne, sole with white Burgundy, and game meats with red Burgundy. Over time, some of these ideas were simplified to white with fish, red with meat. The other great pairing foundation is deliberate contrast. Examples of this approach include such pairings as sweet dessert with even sweeter wine or crisp Champagne served with fatty meats.

To make your pairings, look at features that may show up in both food and wine, and then align them. Examples include aromas and flavors like fruity, meaty, smoky, earthy, and many others. The reasons such combinations bring pleasure side-by-side comes down to the physiology of taste. I am using “taste” to represent the complex interaction of chemical signals from taste receptors in the mouth combined with odor signals from olfactory receptors. While some discussions distinguish “aroma” from “bouquet” and “taste” as exclusively from taste buds, I am combining all of those sensory attributes for pleasurable pairings.

Contrary to what many of us were taught, there is not a “tongue map” of some taste buds over here and others over there. Rather, taste buds are distributed all across the tongue and elsewhere on mucus membranes of the mouth. What remains true from school is the first four basic taste receptor types: Sweet, sour, bitter, and salt. There’s one more, which has become widely recognized in modern times: Umami or “savoriness.”

In addition to these chemical recep-

Matching and contrasting characteristics in wine and food can be daunting for newcomers trying to impress guests, but it doesn’t need to be.

You want the food and the wine to show better, raising what we might call the overall “hedonistic index.”

“

tors of tastes, our mouth tissues provide physical signals like fatty, sticky, “hot” (or irritating), and astringent. In contrast to these few oral features, humans can recognize and identify upwards of 10,000 different odors. By their physical nature, odors are volatile compounds presented to the olfactory bulb, producing a signal. Chewing and warming may increase volatility and ease of detection. There are two routes to the olfactory bulb: Direct sniffing through the nose as well as the retronasal passage at the back of the palate. The brain combines the signals in creating the overall impression of smell.

There are differences between tasting wine and food. One is the presence of alcohol (ethanol) in wine. With a boiling point of 173 °F (78 °C), ethanol adds volatility to wine, helping to lift aromas for detection. Wine also contributes many aromas that help us recognize it as wine or as a particular variety of wine. The ethanol volatility helps transport less volatile compounds to the olfactory sensors. When it comes to the five tastes, all of them may be present in food. Wine, though, generally lacks salt and umami flavors, so those are not available to match in pairings. Instead, look at sweet, sour, and bitter. Sweetness in wine may come from residual sugar, glycerol, or ethanol (at moderate levels). Sour character comes from wine acids including tartaric, malic, and lactic. Bitterness comes from grape polyphenolic compounds called flavonoids and possible tannins from oak aging.

Then there are the physical sensations from wine. In On Food and Cooking, Harold McGee describes the effects of wine tannins in the mouth as they “cross link with the surface proteins and cause the tissues to contract slightly.” That’s the feeling of drying, astringency, that comes from dry red wines. Meanwhile, higher levels of ethanol and other alcohols may cause irritation of the oral membranes and are perceived as “hot.” Together astringency and alcohol produce what we think of as “body” in a wine.

KEYS TO MATCHING WINES AND FOOD

For full-bodied wines, you want similarly full-bodied foods. Look for robust, strongly flavored foods, but stay away from hot-pepper spices, as those may compound the irritation from alcohols. For light-bodied red wines or most white wines, look to lighter foods like vegetables, herbaceous spices, seafood, and other delicate meats. To accommodate your wine’s body, you can measure (or estimate) the alcohol level as one indicator. For the other, the tannin contribution, laboratory testing is available but for home use you can just trust your palate. You can measure your wine’s acidity, so you will know if it is high or low. To match with high-acid wines, look to high-acid foods like salad dressings or sauces with vinegar or citrus. If you want to try a contrast pairing, try fatty foods like meats, cheeses, and cream sauces. To match with low-acid wines, mild foods like hummus, potatoes, or bread can work well. If you want to contrast with low-acid wine, you can try spicy foods, which also play into the next feature: Sweetness. One successful contrast pairing is to use spicy Latin or Asian foods to contrast with a sweet wine. In pairing with very sweet foods like pastries or cream desserts, try pairing an even sweeter wine. Use your testing of your wine’s residual sugar to predict its sweet effects.

For bitterness and astringency, there are no common home tests for your wine. Rely on your palate instead, and if you have a bitter or astringent wine, a contrast pairing usually works best. Go with mild and slightly sweet foods for a pleasing pair. If you want to pair with bitter foods like arugula, walnuts, or blue cheese, try a mild wine or one with some sweetness. Finally, consider the overall character of your wine and match that with the overall character of the food. That is, groups of flavors like fruity, meaty, or earthy can be matched in both food and wine.

Now you are ready for your pairing plan. Consider your wine features of variety, acid, sweetness, body, and overall impression. In your foods, consider sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and overall impression. Choose to match specific food and wine attributes, contrast specific attributes, or match the overall impression of each. For a meeting of our local home winemaking club we had four volunteers bring in wines and we paired each with two different food bites. The bites were selected using the principles laid out here and the winemakers provided the following data about their wines:

1. A Russian River Chardonnay with fairly high acid level, low pH, and 12 months of sur lie aging. Pairings were a chilled, boiled shrimp and a cube of Brie cheese. The goal with the shrimp was to match the delicate flavor with the white wine while still offering enough body to meet the relatively “big” texture of a Chardonnay. The fatty Brie would echo fermented notes from aging and offer fatty mouthfeel to offset moderately high acidity. Both pairings were well received.

2. A Tempranillo rosé with a pH of 3.54, titratable acidity (TA) of 6.2 g/L, and alcohol (ABV) of about 13%. Here one food we paired was a bite of ham, looking for contrast with the brightness of the wine. The other was a strawberry to echo the fruitiness and acid. In this case, the ham worked very well but some tasters found the acid-on-acid tartness of the strawberry did not present well with the wine.

3. A Pinot Noir with a pH of 3.17, TA of 6.3 g/L, and ABV of about 13.5%. We paired it with a sautéed mushroom, looking for an earthy impression match and fatty character to balance acid and tannins. Baked salmon, the other pairing, also had fatty contrast with tannins and acids, but added a meaty impression. The mushroom was good, but not outstanding, perhaps because the Pinot was young and bright, not presenting much varietal earthiness. The salmon proved an excellent pairing, with the young wine presenting very well and contradicting the simple “white wine with fish” rule.

4. A Cabernet Sauvignon with a pH of 3.44 and a TA of 8.2 g/L. The alcohol was about 13.7% and the wine was aged in neutral oak with an addition of medium-plus French oak. Foods were rare roast beef and dark chocolate. The rare roast beef made an excellent pairing, with the juicy and fatty meat contrasting nicely with the acid and tannin in the wine. The chocolate was also a good pairing, but did not outshine the beef. This reinforced the axiom: Red wine with meat!

Ready to try your own pairing? Ahead of time, get out a few of your wines, taste them, and look up your original production data. Choose and prepare two or three foods for each wine as described here, invite a few trusted friends, and see if the science works for you.

ADVANCED WINEMAKING

BY FEDERICO TONDINI

NON-CONVENTIONAL YEASTS

Tailor-made solutions for new challenges

Wine is a natural alcoholic beverage that has accompanied mankind from the dawn of history. It has been called “the nectar of the gods,” however, it does not require a miracle but only human intervention to avoid turning to vinegar, the original outcome of naturally fermented grapes. The resulting wine quality is in fact determined by many elements including the grape variety and ripeness, but it is the winemaking process that shapes the microbial metabolism and has the most profound effects. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the yeast that is primarily responsible for wine’s alcoholic fermentation, thanks to a combination of several “enological” traits: Rapid and complete sugar consumption, ethanol production, transformation of aromatic precursors, as well as its tolerance to initial and final harsh conditions. The use of a selected S. cerevisiae starter culture in the so-called inoculated fermentation has become a common oenological practice to ensure a fast and complete fermentation and reduce the risk of deterioration in wine quality.

Alongside it, many other yeast species are found in wine fermentation. Their environmental habitat are the berries or the cellar equipment surfaces before they are carried over to the must during crushing of the grapes. They are commonly referred to as non-Saccharomyces yeast, and play multiple roles during fermentation, depending on their ability to grow and metabolic activity. Many nonSaccharomyces may lead to serious wine deterioration and have been classified as spoilage: Brettanomyces bruxellensis for its production of unpleasant aromas, such as ethyl-phenols (“horse sweat” taint); Hanseniaspora uvarum for

producing high levels of ethyl acetate and acetic acid (vinegar) before and during initial fermentation steps; and Zygosaccharomyces bailii, which may proliferate in bottled wines producing visible sediments or turbidity. Others instead accompany the ethanol fermentation with the production of hundreds of secondary metabolites like organic acids, higher alcohols, and esters. These may positively impact the winemaking process, maintaining the desirable natural variability of wine, the so-called terroir expression, and highlighting mouthfeel, aroma, and flavor complexity.

In attempts to exploit these advantages, an innovative alternative to common fermentation adding only S. cerevisiae has been proposed, which is referred to as the mixed culture or sequential fermentation. The nonSaccharomyces yeast should be inoculated first, and 2–3 days later, when the fermentation has reached 4–8% alcohol, a Saccharomyces yeast is inoculated. In this way, non-Saccharomyces yeasts, characterized by a limited sugar consumption can contribute to the chemical and sensory properties of the wine at the beginning of fermentation, before the more competitive Saccharomyces yeasts ensure fermentation completion. This scheme of a sequential inoculation mimics what happens in a wild ferment, bringing the best of the two techniques: The complexity of successful wild fermentation with the safety and technical security of a controlled, alcoholic fermentation with selected strains.

Despite the numerous reports on their positive contribution to aroma and flavor diversity, only a handful of non-Saccharomyces species have made it to the market and are starting to be widely adopted for wine production:

. . . an innovative alternative to common fermentation with only S. cerevisiae has been proposed, which is referred to as the mixed culture or sequential fermentation.

Photo by Dominick Profaci

While many winemakers use non-Saccharomyces in their wine production, their commercial availability has been very limited. That is changing.

Torulaspora delbrueckii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Lachancea thermotolerans, and to a lesser extent Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Pichia kluyveri. Let’s take a closer look at each:

TORULASPORA DELBRUECKII

T. delbrueckii improves fermentation quality parameters such as wine complexity and aromatic spectrum thanks to specific fruity esters (ß-phenyl ethanol, floral notes), while its powerful ß-lyase activity boosts varietal characteristics (terpenes and thiols). Also, the mouthfeel is positively influenced thanks to a higher release of mannoproteins. Based on these traits, the strain is particularly suited for Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc. But it stands out for the fermentation of Sauvignon Blanc. The first commercial T. delbrueckii strains that entered the active dry yeast market are Prelude (Chr. Hansen), Biodiva (Lallemand), Zymaflore® Alpha (Laffort), Vinifer NS TD (Agrovin), Levulia Torula (AEB) and EnartisFerm QTau (Enartis).

METSCHNIKOWIA PULCHERRIMA

Bioprotection is one of the new alternative methods to reduce the use of sulfur, a major challenge for the wine industry. This method consists in adding microorganisms on grape must before fermentation to limit indigenous spoilage populations of fungi and bacteria. M. pulcherrima can be used as one of these biological control agents thanks to its ability to produce a natural compound, namely pulcherrimin.

This insoluble red pigment has antimicrobial activity, binding and depleting iron in the medium through precipitation. Metschnikowia pulcherrima strain is inoculated on the grapes after picking, effectively limiting the growth of spoilage microbiota and protecting must from oxygen, followed by S. cerevisiae when the winemaking process is ready to start.

M. pulcherrima could also help with another challenge for grapes grown in warmer climates; the undesirably high ethanol levels in wines. Delayed sequential inoculation of S. cerevisiae, in which M. pulcherrima is left fermenting for a couple of days, has shown a promising reduction in final ethanol concentration by 0.7–1.6% and high extracellular enzyme production.

The strains commercially available are Primaflora and Levulia pulcherrima (AEB), Flavia and Gaia* (Lallemand), Zymaflore® Egide (Laffort), Excellence B-Nature (Lamothe -Abiet), and AWRI Obsession (Maurivin).

*Metschnikowia frutticola

LACHANCEA THERMOTOLERANS

Driven by climate change the grape ripening is accelerated and grape must is becoming characterized by higher sugar content, higher pH, and lower acidity, if grapes are not perfectly timed for harvest. Consequently, wines often contain overly high ethanol levels but lack acidity. Winemakers can fix these inadequacies through external inputs at the cost of quality. To reduce the detrimental effects for wine of these interventions, it is possible to use a yeast with

acidifying and lower-ethanol yielding potential: L. thermotolerans. Its hallmark is the L-lactic acid production (from 1.8 to 12 g/L) from sugars, alongside alcoholic fermentation, thanks to lactic acid dehydrogenase enzyme (LDH). Sequential fermentation results in 0.3–0.5 pH units lower, higher TA (titratable acidity), and about 0.6–1% v/v lower ethanol concentrations.

Commercially available Lachancea thermotolerans are Laktia (Lallemand), Concerto (Chr. Hansen), Octave (Chr. Hansen), EnartisFerm QK (Enartis), Excellence X’Fresh (Lamothe-Abiet), and LEVULIA Alcomeno (AEB).

SCHIZOSACCHAROMYCES POMBE

Schizosaccharomyces yeasts can be used to solve the opposite problems encountered in the wine industry: High malic acid content. S. pombe yeast is a good alternative to chemical deacidification or malolactic fermentation when the conditions are too harsh for the bacteria. The yeast is added to the juice at the beginning of the alcoholic fermentation and thanks to its malic dehydrogenase activity, converts malic acid to ethanol and CO2 (malo-alcoholic fermentation) alongside alcoholic fermentation. Although Schizosaccharomyces have shown to possess the ability to finish fermentation and improve wine quality by its own, a sequential inoculum of S. cerevisiae is preferred. The only commercial strain of Schizosaccharomyces pombe currently available is the encapsulated yeast PROMALIC (Proenol).

PICHIA KLUYVERI

P. kluyveri stands out mainly due to its contribution to wine aroma and mouthfeel. The metabolism increases volatile molecules such as esters and varietal thiols, which have potent fruity notes, described as passion fruit and tropical in whites, while in reds are perceived as red fruit and blackcurrant aroma. Since P. kluyveri is unable to ferment fructose, it is recommended to pair it with a fructophilic S. cerevisiae in order to avoid sluggish fermentation. P. kluyveri is particularly suitable for white and rosé wines, and FROOTZEN (Chr. Hansen) is the only strain available in the form of active frozen yeast.

CONCLUSION

Traditionally, non-Saccharomyces yeasts have been considered as contaminants in many winemaking circles, but this classification has been revisited in recent years. Not only do certain species appear to be a valuable tool to optimize wine quality, they can also bring a distinctive touch to wines compared to that of only a S. cerevisiae fermentation. While these strains are found naturally occurring, inoculating in a controlled and sequential manner can maximize the attributes. These yeasts also contain great potential to mitigate effects of climate change on the quality of wine. Non-Saccharomyces will help winemakers more and more in the years to come to differentiate their production from another’s with increased creative options.

WINEMAKER DIRECTORY

ALABAMA

THE WINE SMITH 6800 A Moffett Rd. (US 98) Mobile 36618 (251) 645-5554

e-mail: winesmith@bellsouth.net

www.thewinesmith.biz

Home Winemaking and Brewing Supplies.

CALIFORNIA

THE BEVERAGE PEOPLE

1845 Piner Road, Suite D Santa Rosa 95403 (707) 544-2520

www.thebeveragepeople.com

Fast Shipping, Great Service, Cheesemaking & Brewing too.

BREHM VINEYARDS®

www.brehmvineyards.com

grapes@brehmvineyards.com

Phone: (510) 527.3675

Fresh grape pick-up in Petaluma, CA

Frozen grapes in Richmond, CA

Ultra-premium grapes for home winemakers for over 40 years! Sold at harvest or shipped frozen across N. America year-round. Over 30 varieties from Carneros, Napa, Sonoma, Washington and Oregon.

CURDS AND WINE, LLC

7194 Clairemont Mesa Blvd. San Diego 92111 (858) 384-6566

www.curdsandwine.com

Winemaking & cheesemaking supplies, make wine on site!

DELTA PACKING CO. OF LODI, INC.

6021 E. Kettleman Lane

Lodi 95240 (209) 334-1023

fax: (209) 334-0811

bcostamagna@deltapacking.com

www.grapesofgold.com

We offer premium California wine grapes & juice. Please call for a supplier near you.

MOREBEER! & MOREWINE!

995 Detroit Ave., Unit G Concord 94518 (925) 771-7107

fax: (925) 671-4978

srconcord@moreflavor.com

www.morewinemaking.com/ showrooms

Absolutely Everything! for Wine-Making

MOREBEER! & MOREWINE!

991 N. San Antonio Rd. Los Altos 94022 (650) 949-BREW (2739) srlosaltos@moreflavor.com

www.morewinemaking.com/

showrooms

Absolutely Everything! for Wine-Making

MOREBEER! & MOREWINE!

1506 Columbia Ave. #12

Riverside 92507

(951) 779-9971

fax: (951) 779-9972

srriverside@moreflavor.com

www.morewinemaking.com/

showrooms

Absolutely Everything! for Wine-Making

MOREBEER! & MOREWINE!

2315 Verna Court

San Leandro 94577 (510) 351-3517

srsanleandro@moreflavor.com

www.morewinemaking.com/ showrooms

Absolutely Everything! for Wine-Making

NORCAL BREWING SOLUTIONS

1768 Churn Creek Rd. Redding 96002 (530) 243-BEER (2337) or (530)-221-WINE (9463)

www.norcalbrewingsolutions.com

Full line of wine, beer, & distilling supplies, hardware, and ingredients. Manufacturers of lees filters, punchdown tools, and custom solutions.

VALLEYVINTNER, LLC (925) 217-0058 or (866) 812 WINE (9463) Toll Free info@valleyvintner.com

www.valleyvintner.com

75+ years wine making expertise!

Owned & Operated by winemakers serving the winemaking community.

“The Vine, The Time, The Wine”

COLORADO

THE BREW HUT

15120 East Hampden Ave. Aurora 80014 (303) 680-8898

www.thebrewhut.com

Complete Winexpert line! Fresh fruit, equipment & chemicals! We Rent Equipment Too!

LIL’ OLE’ WINEMAKER

516 Main Street Grand Junction 81501 (970) 242-3754

Serving Colorado & Utah winemakers since 1978

CONNECTICUT

BREW & WINE HOBBY

Featuring Winexpert & RJ Spagnols Kits. Area’s widest selection of wine kits, beer making supplies & equipment

12 Cedar St. East Hartford 06108 (860) 528-0592 or Out of State: 1-800-352-4238

www.brew-wine.com

Specializing in European juices (not concentrate) And world-wide juice varietals.

MUSTO WINE GRAPE CO., LLC

101 Reserve Road Hartford 06114

1-877-812-1137

sales@juicegrape.com

www.juicegrape.com

www.winemakinginstructions.com

MWG services home winemakers, wineries, breweries, cideries, distilleries, and homebrew shops. We provide access to the best grapes, juices, equipment, supplies, and knowledge available. Let us help you make your next wine your favorite wine.

NORTHEAST WINEMAKING

10 Robert Jackson Way Plainville 06062 (860) 793-2700

www.northeastwinemaking.com

New Year-Round Showroom Open in Plainville with 2nd full service location in Hartford, CT and satellite location in Chelsea, MA. Your one stop shop for fresh grapes, juice, equipment and accessories!

FLORIDA

PARDO WINE GRAPES

3314 N. Perry Ave. Tampa 33603 (813) 340-3052

vince@pardowinegrapes.com

www.pardowinegrapes.com

Distributors of quality California (fall) and Chilean (spring) wine grapes and fresh juice to Florida winemakers for over 70 years.

ILLINOIS

CHICAGOLAND WINEMAKERS INC.

689 West North Ave. Elmhurst (630) 834-0507 info@chicagolandwinemakers.com www.chicagolandwinemakers.com

Complete line of home winemaking and brewing supplies & equipment since 1971.

INDIANA

GREAT FERMENTATIONS

INDIANAPOLIS

5127 East 65th St. Indianapolis 46220 (317) 257-WINE (9463) or toll-free 1-888-463-2739 info@greatfermentations.com www.greatfermentations.com

GREAT FERMENTATIONS WEST

7900 E US 36, Suite D Avon 46123 (317) 268-6776 info@greatfermentations.com www.greatfermentations.com

QUALITY WINE AND ALE SUPPLY/ HOMEBREWIT.COM

5127 E. 65th St. Indianapolis 46220 Phone: (574) 295-9975 customerservice@homebrewit.com

Online: www.Homebrewit.com

Quality wine making supplies for beginners AND experts. Bottles, Corks, Shrinks, Chemicals, and Professional Equipment. Largest selection of Winexpert Kits. Fast Shipping. Expert Advice.

IOWA

BLUFF STREET BREW HAUS

372 Bluff Street Dubuque (563) 582-5420

e-mail: jerry@bluffbrewhaus.com www.bluffbrewhaus.com

Complete line of wine & beermaking supplies. In operation since 2006.

KANSAS

BACCHUS & BARLEYCORN, LTD.

6633 Nieman Road

Shawnee 66203 (913) 962-2501

www.bacchus-barleycorn.com

Your one stop supply shop for home wine, cider, mead, beer and cheese makers for over 30 years.

HOMEBREW PRO SHOPPE, INC.

2061 E. Santa Fe

Olathe 66062

(913) 768-1090 or 1-866-296-2739 (BYO-BREW)

Secure ordering on line:

www.homebrewproshoppe.com

Complete line of wine & beer making supplies & equipment.

KENTUCKY

WINEMAKERS & BEERMAKERS SUPPLY

9475 Westport Rd. Louisville 40241

(502) 425-1692

www.winebeersupply.com

Impeccable line of wine & beer making supplies. Superior grade of juice from Winexpert. Quality malt from Briess & Muntons. Family owned store since 1972.

MARYLAND

THE FLYING BARREL

1781 North Market St.

Frederick

(301) 663-4491

fax: (301) 663-6195

www.flyingbarrel.com

Maryland’s 1st Wine-On-Premise & large selection of homewine supplies! Wine judge on staff!

MARYLAND HOMEBREW

6770 Oak Hall Lane, #108 Columbia 21045

1-888-BREWNOW

www.mdhb.com

We carry the VinoSuperiore frozen Italian must along with Winexpert Kits. Everything you need to make your own wine & cheese. Visit us in-person or online. We ship everywhere

MASSACHUSETTS

BEER AND WINE HOBBY, INC.

85 Andover St. Danvers 01923

1-800-523-5423

e-mail: bwhinfo@beer-wine.com

website: www.beer-wine.com

Brew on YOUR Premise™

For the most discriminating wine & beer hobbyist.

THE WITCHES BREW INC.

12 Maple Ave. Foxborough 02035

(508) 543-0433

steve@thewitchesbrew.com

www.thewitchesbrew.com

You’ve Got the Notion, We’ve Got the Potion

WINEMAKER DIRECTORY

CAROLINA WINE SUPPLY

MICHIGAN

ADVENTURES IN HOMEBREWING

6071 Jackson Rd.

Ann Arbor 48103

(313) 277-BREW

fax: (313) 583-3294

e-mail: wine@homebrewing.org

Visit us at www.AdventuresinHome brewing.com

Premium Wine Kits, Fruit, Honey, Fruit Presses, Apple Crushers, and Fermentors. Everything for the beginner and the seasoned winemaker.

ADVENTURES IN HOMEBREWING

23847 Van Born Rd. Taylor 48180 (313) 277-BREW

fax: (313) 583-3294

e-mail: wine@homebrewing.org

Visit us at www.AdventuresinHome brewing.com

Premium Wine Kits, Fruit, Honey, Fruit Presses, Apple Crushers, and Fermentors. Everything for the beginner and the seasoned winemaker.

MACOMB VINTNER SUPPLY

44443 Phoenix Dr. Sterling Heights (248) 495-0801

www.macombvintnersupply.com

Purveyor of grapes and grape juices for the winemaker. L’uva Bella, Mosto Bella & Chilean Bello Brands, and Extra-Virgin Olive Oil.

MID-MICHIGAN VINTNER SUPPLY

Grand Rapids & South Lyon (517) 898-3203

www.Mid-Michiganvintnersupply.com

info@Mid-Michiganvintnersupply.com

Purveyor of fresh grape juices for the winemaker. L’uva Bella, Mosto Bella & Chilean Bello Brands.

MORGAN VINEYARD

15775 40th Avenue

Coopersville 49404 (616) 648-3025

morgangrapes@gmail.com

MorganVineyard.com

Supplier of high quality wine grapes conveniently located in West Michigan.

SICILIANO’S MARKET

2840 Lake Michigan Dr. N.W. Grand Rapids 49504 (616) 453-9674

fax: (616) 453-9687

e-mail: sici1@sbcglobal.net www.sicilianosmkt.com

Largest Wine Making inventory in West Michigan. Now selling beer and winemaking supplies on-line.

TAYLOR RIDGE VINEYARDS

3843 105th Ave.

Allegan 49010 (269) 521-4047

bctaylor@btc-bci.com www.taylorridgevineyard.com

18 Varieties of Wine Grapes and Juices. Vinifera, New York State, Minnesota and French hybrids. Providing wine grapes and juices for over 30 years.

MISSOURI

HOME BREWERY

1967 West Boat St. Ozark

1-800-321-BREW (2739) brewery@homebrewery.com www.homebrewery.com

Since 1984, providing excellent Service, Equipment and Ingredients. Beer, Wine, Mead, Soda and Cheese.

NEW YORK

DOC’S HOMEBREW SUPPLIES

451 Court Street Binghamton 13904 (607) 722-2476

www.docsbrew.com

Full-service beer & wine making shop serving NY’s Southern Tier & PA’s Northern Tier since 1991. Extensive line of Winexpert kits, supplies and equipment.

FULKERSON WINERY & JUICE PLANT

5576 State Route 14 Dundee 14837 (607) 243-7883

fax: (607) 243-8337

www.fulkersonw inery.com

Fresh Finger Lakes grape juice available during harvest. Large selection of home winemaking supplies. Visit our website to browse and order supplies. Open year round 10-5, extended seasonal hours. Find us on Facebook and follow us on Twitter @fulkersonwinery.

MAIN STREET WINES & SUPPLIES

249 Main St. Arcade 14009 (585) 492-2739 fax: (585) 492-2777

mainstwines@yahoo.com

Plenty of wine kits available to make your own wine. Full line of winemaking supplies and accessories for your convenience. Tue-Fri 10-6; Sat 10-3 or by appt. Like us on Facebook.

NIAGARA TRADITION

HOMEBREWING SUPPLIES

1296 Sheridan Drive Buffalo 14217 (800) 283-4418 or (716) 877-8767

www.nthomebrew.com

We feature a complete line of supplies for making wine, beer, mead, cider and cheese.

PANTANO’S WINE GRAPES & HOMEBREW

249 Rte 32 S. New Paltz 12561 (845) 255-5201 or (845) 706-5152 (cell) pantanowineandbeer@yahoo.com

www.pantanosbeerwine.com

Find Us On Facebook. Your source for wine & beer making supplies and equipment. Grapes and Juice from California, Italy & Chile in season, wine kits and all juice pails (6 gal) year round. Classes available. We now carry Distilling Products and Stills.

PROSPERO EQUIPMENT CORP.

123 Castleton St. Pleasantville 10570 (914) 769-6252

fax: (914) 769-6786

info@prosperocorp.biz

www.prosperocorp.biz

The source to all your winemaking equipment.

TEN THOUSAND VINES WINERY

8 South Buffalo St. Hamburg 14075 (716) 646-9979

mike@TenThousandVines.com

www.TenThousandVines.com

Wine supplies, juice and advice.

WALKER’S WINE JUICE

2860 N.Y. Route 39 – Since 1955 Forestville (716) 679-1292

www.walkerswinejuice.com

Over 50 varieties of “Hot-Pack”

Grape, Fruit and Berry Juice, Requiring No Refrigeration, shipped by UPS all year. Supplying over 800 wineries in 37 states!

NORTH CAROLINA

ALTERNATIVE BEVERAGE (BELMONT)

1500 River D., Suite 104 Belmont 28012

Advice Line: (704) 825-8400

Order Line: 1-800-365-2739

www.ebrew.com

44 years serving all home winemakers & brewers’ needs! Come visit for a real Homebrew Super Store experience!

ALTERNATIVE BEVERAGE (CHARLOTTE)

3911 South Blvd. Charlotte 28209

Advice Line: (704) 825-8400

Order Line: 1-800-365-2739

www.ebrew.com

44 years serving all home winemakers & brewers’ needs! Visit our stores to learn how we can help you make the best wine you can make.

ALTERNATIVE BEVERAGE (CORNELIUS)

19725 Oak St.

Cornelius 28031

Voice Line: (704) 527-2337

Fax Line: (704) 522-6427

www.ebrew.com

44 years serving all home winemakers & brewers’ needs! Visit our stores to learn how we can help you make the best wine you can make.

AMERICAN BREWMASTER

3021-5 Stony Brook Dr. Raleigh 27604 (919) 850-0095

www.americanbrewmaster.com

Supplying wine makers with the finest wine kits, ingredients and supplies since 1983. Winemaking is fun with American Brewmaster!

ASHEVILLE BREWERS SUPPLY

712-B Merrimon Ave. Asheville 28804 (828) 358-3536

www.ashevillebrewers.com

Value. Quality. Service. Since 1994.

329 W. Maple St. Yadkinville 27055 (336) 677-6831

fax: (336) 677-1048

www.carolinawinesupply.com

Home Winemaking Supplies & Support.

OHIO

THE GRAPE AND GRANARY 915 Home Ave. Akron 44310 (330) 633-7223

www.grapeandgranary.com

Concentrates, Fresh juice, Wine on Premise.

LABEL PEELERS BEER & WINE MAKING SUPPLIES, INC. 211 Cherry St. Kent 44240 (330) 678-6400

info@labelpeelers.com

www.labelpeelers.com

Specializing in winemaking/ homebrew supplies & equipment. Free monthly classes.

Hours: Mon-Sun 10am-7pm

OKLAHOMA

HIGH GRAVITY 6808 S. Memorial Drive Tulsa 74133 (918) 461-2605

e-mail: store@highgravitybrew.com

www.highgravitybrew.com

Join our Frequent Fermenters Club!

OREGON

F.H. STEINBART CO. 234 SE 12th Ave. Portland 97214 (503) 232-8793

fax: (503) 238-1649

e-mail: info@fhsteinbart.com

www.fhsteinbart.com

Brewing and Wine making supplies since 1918!

HOME FERMENTER

123 Monroe Street

Eugene 97402

(541) 485-6238

www.homefermenter.com

Providing equipment, supplies and advice to winemakers and homebrewers for over 40 years.

PENNSYLVANIA

BOOTLEGGERS BREW SHOP, LLC

917 Pleasant Valley Blvd. Altoona 16602

(814) 931-9962

http://bootleggersbrewshop.com

bootleggersbrewshop@gmail.com

Find us on Facebook! Central PA’s LARGEST homebrew supplies store! We carry seasonal cold pressed wine juices from around the world. Special orders welcome!

NITTANY VALLEY TRUE VALUE

1169 Nittany Valley Drive

Bellefonte

(814) 383-2809

fax: (814) 383-4884

Supplies - Equipment - Classes. Fresh grapes & juice in season.

WINEMAKER DIRECTORY

PRESQUE ISLE WINE CELLARS

9440 W. Main Rd. (US Rte. 20) North East 16428 (800) 488-7492

www.piwine.com

Your one stop shop! Complete service since 1964, helping you make great wines. We specialize in small winery and amateur wine supplies and equipment. Check out our website www.piwine.com or stop by and see us. Fresh grapes and juice at harvest.

SCOTZIN BROTHERS

65 N. Fifth St. Lemoyne 17043 (717) 737-0483 or 800-791-1464

www.scotzinbros.com

email: shop@scotzinbros.com

WINE and Beer MAKERS PARADISE!

TEXAS

AUSTIN HOMEBREW SUPPLY

15112 N. Interstate Hwy 35 Austin 78728 (512) 300-BREW

email: hops@austinhomebrew.com

Visit us at www.AustinHomebrew.com

Premium Wine Kits, Fruit, Honey, Fruit Presses, Apple Crushers, and Fermentors. Everything for the beginner and the seasoned winemaker.

WASHINGTON

BADER BEER & WINE SUPPLY

711 Grand Blvd. Vancouver, WA 98661

1-800-596-3610

Sign up for our free e-newsletter @ Baderbrewing.com

THE BEER ESSENTIALS

2624 South 112th St. #E-1 Lakewood 98499 (253) 581-4288

www.thebeeressentials.com

Mail order and secure on-line ordering available.

BREHM VINEYARDS®

www.brehmvineyards.com grapes@brehmvineyards.com

Phone: (510) 527.3675

Fresh grape pick-up in Underwood, WA

Frozen grapes in Portland, OR Ultra-premium grapes for home winemakers for over 40 years! Sold at harvest or shipped frozen across N. America year-round. Over 30 varieties from Carneros, Napa, Sonoma, Washington and Oregon.

JON’S HOMEBREW AND WINE SUPPLY

1430 E. Main Ave., #1430C Puyallup 98372 (253) 286-7607

jon@jonshomebrew.com jonshomebrew.com

Puyallup’s home for Home Beer and Winemaking supplies!

WISCONSIN

THE CELLAR BREW SHOP 465 N. Washburn St. Oshkosh 54904 (920) 517-1601

www.thecellarhomebrew.com

cellarbrewshop@outlook.com

Beer & Wine ingredients and equipment. Extensive inventory at Competitive prices, bulk discounts. Great service and free advice from experienced staff.

HOUSE OF HOMEBREW

410 Dousman St. Green Bay (920) 435-1007

staff@houseofhomebrew.com

www.houseofhomebrew.com

Beer, Wine, Cider, Mead, Soda, Coffee, Tea, Cheese Making.

WINE & HOP SHOP

1919 Monroe St. Madison 53711 (608) 257-0099

www.wineandhop.com

wineandhop@gmail.com

Madison, WI’s locally owned homebrewing and winemaking headquarters for over 40 years. Fast, affordable shipping to anywhere. Use promo code WineMaker at checkout for discounts. Free expert advice too!

READER SERVICE

CANADA ALBERTA

BREW FOR LESS

10774 - 95th Street

Edmonton T5H 2C9 (708) 422-0488

brewforless.com

info@brewforless.com

Edmonton’s Largest Wine & Beer Making Supply Store

GRAPES TO GLASS

5308 -17th Ave. SW

Calgary T3E 6S6 (403) 243-5907

www.grapestoglass.com

Calgary’s largest selection of brewing, winemaking & distilling supplies. On-line shopping available with delivery via Canada Post.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

BOSAGRAPE WINERY & BREW SUPPLIES 6908 Palm Ave.

Burnaby V5J 4M3 (604) 473-WINE

fax: (604) 433-2810

info@bosagrape.com

www.bosagrape.com

Ingredients, equipment, labware & supplies for brew & winemaking. Still Spirits, Hanna, Stavin Oak, Brehm Vineyards, Mosti juices, Brewcraft, Marchisio, Accuvin, Chemetrics, Vintner’s Harvest, Lalvin, Buon Vino, Vintage Shop.

FOR DIRECT LINKS TO ALL OF OUR ADVERTISERS’ WEBSITES, GO TO WWW.WINEMAKERMAG.COM/RESOURCE/READER - SERVICES

AMAWATERWAYS / WINE CHIC RIVER CRUISES ..................... Cover 3 Kathleen Wheeler, 916-201-6881

Patti Palamidessi, 916-802-6534 wcrcruises@gmail.com

BEST OF WINEMAKER 25 CLASSIC WINE STYLES ............. 52 www.winemakermag.com/shop

BSG HANDCRAFT Cover 2 1-800-374-2739 www.bsgcraft.com www.rjscraftwinemaking.com

BUON VINO MANUFACTURING, INC. 51 1-855-522-1166 www.buonvino.com orders@buonvino.com

FERMENTIS BY LESAFFRE 11 www.fermentis.com

FINER WINE KITS 5 www.labelpeelers.com

LALLEMAND INC 5 www.lallemandbrewing.com/wine homebrewing@lallemand.com

MOREWINE! 7 1-800-823-0010 www.morewine.com info@morewinemaking.com

MOSTI MONDIALE ............................. 3 450-638-6380 www.mostimondiale.com info@mostimondiale.com

MUST 29 707-963-4966 / 707-967-0553 www.mustfabricate.com orders@mustfabricate.com

MUSTO WINE GRAPE CO., LLC...... 19 1-877-812-1137 or 860-278-7703 www.juicegrape.com sales@juicegrape.com

NAPA FERMENTATION SUPPLIES 12 707-255-6372 www.napafermentation.com napafermentation@aol.com

NOONTIME LABELS 51 561-699-0413 www.noontimelabels.com customerservice@ noontimelabels.com

PARDO WINE GRAPES 28 813-340-3052 www.pardowinegrapes.com vince@pardowinegrapes.com

PLANTRA, INC. ................................. 47 651-686-6688 www.plantra.com info@plantra.com

QUALITY WINE AND ALE SUPPLY/ HOMEBREWIT.COM ........................ 47 574-295-9975 www.homebrewit.com customerservice@homebrewit. com

UC DAVIS CONTINUING AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 47 cpe.ucdavis.edu/winemakingcert

VINMETRICA 1 760-494-0597 www.vinmetrica.com info@vinmetrica.com

THE VINTAGE SHOP 52 604-590-1911 www.thevintageshop.ca info@thevintageshop.ca

VINTNER’S BEST® 11 1-800-321-0315 www.ldcarlson.com

WALKER’S WINE JUICE 12 716-679-1292 www.walkerswinejuice.com

BY HADRACK OMUKA

MAKING MURATINA WINE

Kenyans’ answer to pandemic shortages

During this COVID pandemic when people around the world were staying home a lot more, there was an uptick in do-it-yourself activities from crafts, hobbies, and even starting new careers. In Kenya, one result has been many people began to brew their own alcoholic drinks in their homes.

There is a range of reasons for those picking up this hobby. The most common may be that it is the only way for Kenyans to get wine or other alcoholic beverages. During this time of uncertainty bars, clubs, liquor shops, hotels, and other establishments remain closed throughout the country and getting a bottle of any alcoholic beverage is not an easy thing. For the wine enthusiast, it is like a pandemic within a pandemic. The price of wine tripled due to high demand compounded by low supply as more than 70 percent of the wines consumed in Kenya are imported from Europe, the United States, and Asia.

In addition to wine prices skyrocketing, alcoholic drinks have also been rationed and many shops reserve sales for well-known customers. With these hurdles, a large population of Kenyans started looking for another solution.

Enter muratina, a sweet homemade wine that has been a part of ceremonies and special occasions within the Kikuyu tribe, the largest ethnic community in Kenya, for ages. Muratina wine is made from the fruit of the muratina tree, commonly called the “sausage tree” (Kigelia africana) due to the long, sausage-like fruits that it bears, which can grow up to 1 meter (3.3 ft.) in length. This fruit is poisonous to humans if not properly ripened.

Within the Kikuyu tribe, a wisdom of how wine can be made from the

fruit has been established. Traditionally, only elders who wanted to make the wine were privy to the recipe and process, meaning most have not previously learned the recipe. Given the pressures caused by the pandemic, however, these rules have been relaxed and elders have even allowed the younger generation to consume and brew it (which did not used to be allowed).

However, the sausage trees are not as prevalent as another fruit that grows everywhere, and when muratina was out of season people turned to a substitute — pineapple. Pineapple is a tropical or near tropical tree planted in various parts of the country like Kisii, Thika, and the former coast region.

“This type of drink when we were young we were not permitted to consume nor brew. It was specifically preserved for elders and not at any time but during special occasions,” says a local named Kimani.

Kimani is a grandchild of a wellknown muratina brewer who learned the skills of making muratina from his grandmother more than four decades ago during one of the occasions in which his grandmother was urged to make a drink for the guests.

During the lockdown, Kimani has voluntarily taught many families how to make the wine from pineapples. Douglas Maina, a wine enthusiast and pineapple farmer in Kiambu County, said another benefit in the enthusiasm around making muratina is actually a matter of life and death since it’s much safer than another trend that has picked up in Kenya: Bootleg liquors sold at street corners that contain methanol and other dangerous chemicals.

Want to learn how to make your own Kikuyu wine from pineapple? A recipe can be found at www.winemakermag. com/article/making-muratina-wine.

Enter muratina, a sweet homemade wine that has been a part of ceremonies and special occasions within the Kikuyu tribe, the largest ethnic community in Kenya, for ages.

Photo courtesy of Shutterstock.com

The fruit of the muratina tree is poisonous to humans unless properly ripened, then prepared in a special way to produce wine from it.

RIVER CRUISE FOR WINE LOVERS

MEDIEVAL TREASURES WINE CRUISE

Fares starting from $2,899 per person

July 18-25, 2023 | 7-night river cruise aboard the AmaPrima

Uncork local traditions, savor intense flavors and enjoy palate-pleasing experiences during an AmaWaterways Celebration of Wine Cruise on the Main and Rhine rivers with your dedicated hosts, Chik and Polly Brenneman of Baker Family Wines. Discover thousands of years of French and German history on a variety of included excursions. Taste Alsatian wine in Strasbourg, hike through the vineyards of Rüdesheim and attend an exclusive wine festival in Volkach just for AmaWaterways guests.

What’s Included in Your River Cruise Fare

•A variety of enriching small-group excursions

• Fine dining at The Chef’s Table and Main Restaurant with complimentary wine, beer and soft drinks at lunch and dinner

•Sip & Sail Cocktail Hour

• Exclusive Wine Cruise features including tastings, special pairing dinner, winery tours and discussions

Reserve by March 31, 2022 and save up to $2,000 per stateroom

For More Information, Contact: THE WINE CHIC RIVER CRUISES

Kathleen Wheeler 1.916.201.6881 or Patti Palamidessi 1.916.802.6534 wcrcruises@gmail.com

Gondola ride, Rüdesheim, Germany

Hosted by: Chik & Polly Brenneman, Winemakers & Managing Partners - Baker Family Wines, and Varietal Focus columnist for WineMaker magazine

Sailing the Rhine Gorge