Smithsonian NMAAHC Programming Study Vol. 6

An association of Davis Brody Bond and The Freelon Group Architects Lord Cultural Resources and Amaze Design

Smithsonian Institution National Museum of African American History and Culture

VOLUME VI

Appendix

SUBMITTED BY: FREELON BOND

January 30, 2009

Pre-Design: Master Facilities Programming

Smithsonian Institution

National Museum of African American History and Culture

VOLUME I

A Preamble

B Introduction and Executive Summary

C Pre-design and Programming

VOLUME II

A Visitation Estimate

B Audience Research

C Public Engagement

D Collections Storage Plan

E General Museum Requirements

F Exhibition Master Plan

VOLUME III

A Existing Site Conditions

B Geotechnical Analysis

C Vehicular and Pedestrian Traffic

D Site Analysis

VOLUME IV

A Facility Program

B Engineering Systems

C Sustainable Design

D Accessibility

E Security

F Cost Estimates

VOLUME V

Room Data Sheets

VOLUME

Volume VI Contents

A Draft NMAAHC Collections Policy and Plan

B Draft Example of Collections Inventory

C Space Guidelines for Smithsonian Institution Facilities, September 2003

D OPS Protective Design Standards for Technical Security, Rev. 8

E Determining the Acceptable Ranges of Relative Humidity and Temperature in Museums and Galleries

F National Mall Instrument and Protocol

G National Portrait Gallery Exhibitions Protocol and Instrument

H National Zoo African American Family Day Protocol and Instrument

I African American Museums Protocol and Instrument

J Transportation Counts

K Transportation and Existing Conditions

L Museum Visits

M SI Space Measurement Standards

Draft

Collections Policy and Plan

NMAAHC

B Draft Example of Collections Inventory

C Space Guidelines for Smithsonian Institution Facilities, September 2003

The workplace represents a tremendous influence over the worker and his or her productivity. Influences on the workplace include adequacy and quality of the individual and common work areas, environmental quality, amenities, and technology and other tools. Certainly, we could name others. In this first edition of the Smithsonian Institution Space Guidelines, we are limiting our focus to quantity of space, thereby assisting the planner and programmer in defining total space need s. The intent of this document is to provide the planner and programmer with a “broad-brush” view of space needs. In issuing this document, we do not intend to preclude detailed architectural programming that should be implemented by the designer in the pre-project planning or conceptual design phase.

In the first edition we’ve dealt with spaces that are common to almost all of us in the Institution, that is, office, administrative, and general storage spaces. Future editions will be more ambitious. As we explore more spaces, configurations and standards that are specific to the museum, research, educational, and support areas, we will add that information to the future editions of the Guide. We will also consult with internal and outside experts. Regarding functionality, efficiency, and the interrelationship of staff, tools, and workplace, we will rely heavily upon the exhaustive work already done by GSA’s Real Property Division (www.policyworks.gov). Ultimately, we intend for this document to be part of helpful process in developing space needs, instead of being a just another manual on the shelf.

Finally, the “we” in this preface represents the cooperative effort of three groups within the Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations; the Engineering & Design, Facilities Master Planning, and Real Estate divisions. We have also gathered our information from many sources as is reflected in Part 2 of this guide. We intend to make this document dynamic, revising it as new information and innovations occur and will maintain the most up-to-date version on the OFEO intranet web site. If you have any question or updates on space, please contact me at rombah@si.edu or 202 275-0250, or contact Michelle Spofford at spoffordm@si.edu or 202 275-0223. We hope you will find our efforts here useful.

Harry Rombach

Associate Director for Facilities Master Planning OFEO Office of Facilities Planning and Resources

September 1, 2003

1. Space Guideline Objectives……………………...Page 5

2. Background & Process……………………………Page 7

3. Space Categories & Definitions……………….....Page 9 Definition/Size of Occupant Function Sample Layouts

4. Appendices (issued as separate documents)

A. SI Space Class and Space Class Type Categories and Definitions

B. NMNH Space Use Master Plan Study Space Standard

C. HMSG Comprehensive Facilities Master Plan Study Space Standards

D. GSA Space Guidelines

E. ASID Space Standards

F. GSA Real Estate Division Workplace

G. GSA Real Estate Division Performance

H. GSA Real Estate Division Innovative

I. Space Measurement

The objectives of the Smithsonian-wide Space Guidelines document are as follows:

Provide a tool for taking the first step in developing space requirements. The document puts in place a tool to assist planners and programmers whenever they need to plan for new space, or redesign existing space in any of the Smithsonian facilities. Having an SI-wide Space Guidelines document will ensure a consistency in space size for similar administrative, managerial, and utilitarian functions in different facilities. This will assist in simplifying real estate inventory and classification requirements, and provide fairness in the allocation of space within units and throughout the Institution.

Define space requirements for universal and specialty space. The document also addresses “specialty space” needs such as scientific research space, curatorial art space, and other functions that cannot be accommodated in the more generic administrative and managerial categories. Users of the guidelines should understand that the document is just that, a guide. Users should expect to encounter some size variation within space categories, even with the more universal requirements like office space. As a result, more often that not, area is given in a range of square feet.

Provide definitions for each space type. The document defines spaces by the types of functions that would typically be performed in each of the space standard categories. It avoids older systems that categorized space standards exclusively by job title and rank. We selected our approach for two main reasons. One is that by looking at what we intend to achieve in each space and developing the space accordingly, we can assist in nurturing a productive environment. Second is that in the Smithsonian, we have not standardized job titles. Titles vary in their meaning and responsibilities throughout the Institution. Therefore, categorizing space through job title is not practical. In this guide, we categorize space by function and offer some examples of what activity and what occupant the space is most suited for.

Provide sample space layouts to give clarity to how space can accommodate the users.

The document offers sample layouts or plans for each space type. These are only as tools to inform users of what can be included in each space type. Final design of specific spaces will ultimately be the responsibility of the designer. He or she will conduct a detailed architectural programming and design process for these spaces.

In developing the Guide, Smithsonian planners approached this daunting task in this way in a way that the rationale for assigning certain space sizes to certain functions is clearly understood and widely accepted.

Planners drew on many sources and considered the following factors during the information gathering part of this effort:

Guidelines and standards that have been developed by other agencies and organizations

Most notable are the guidelines produced by the General Services Administration and the American Society of Interior Designers. These guidelines and standards are included in the appendix of this document.

Guidelines and standards and developed for recent SI master planning efforts

These efforts include the guidelines and standards developed during the master planning and space planning efforts at NMNH HMSG, and AIB.

Information gathered from past programming efforts

Efforts included those that occurred during the master planning process at STRI, SERC, and the Smithsonian Marine Station at Ft. Pierce, FL.

Once data and information was gathered, planners assembled it into a format that would facilitate analysis and comparison. The following tasks preceded establishing a common set of guidelines for Smithsonian spaces:

Organizing the information into space categories

These categories are common to most Smithsonian units, for example, private office and open office areas, conferences rooms, general storage areas, and so on.

Displaying information side-by-side

Included in the task was showing the information in relationship to the space classification now used by the Smithsonian in its facilities management system, FacilityCenter®. These classifications are known as “space class” and the more specific “space class type.” A full listing of the space class and space class types can be found in Appendix A, issued as a separate document.

Looking for similarities

Planners looked for similarities between the different guidelines and standards, and found a mix of common space sizes that offered the Smithsonian a wide berth in accommodating space needs.

The following chart represents the proceedi ng process and shows the standards that resulted from it.

OFFICE: PRIVATE

OFFICE: SHARED (WORKSTATION)

OFFICE: RECEPTION

ASSEMBLY:

A diverse group of Smithsonian staff developed “space class” and the more specific “space class type” space categories and definitions a few years ago. This effort was part of implementing a much broader SI-wide facilities management system. Those categories are still valid and are used in this document. A full list of the categories is included in Appendix A, issued as a separate document.

Planners have a tendency to work with minimum standards when calculating the size of space. However, not all cases fit the minimum standard. The size of a space is derived from the function or an activity being performed in it and sometimes more space is required. As a result, space quantities in this guide are often given in ranges. Also, existing building structure or historic fabric may dictate room sizes. Designers using this document must be flexible in their thinking when dealing with existing buildings.

The following chart summarized the space guideline for the space class types that planners have looked at so far.

Office: Private

PV-5

PV-4

PV-3

PV-2

PV-1

350-450SF (32-42SM) Strategic planning sessions, executive staff meetings, fund raising, and so on.

275-325SF (25-30SM) Strategic planning sessions, executive staff meeting, consultations, and so on.

230-250SF (21-23SM) Second or third line supervision, staff meetings, consultations, and so on.

Top senior-level management overseeing a broad range of program and facilities management activities. For example: Under Secretary, broad organizational director, unit director

Senior management overseeing many separate offices that have similar goals and objectives. For example: executive director, unit director

Management that oversees a single office or function that may have several divisions and branches or sub-functions. For example: office director, department chair, section head, lead curator, laboratory head

170-190SF (16-18SM) First or second line supervision, staff meetings, consultations, and so on.

100-120SF (10-12SM) First line supervision, confidential or sensitive information handling, meetings with one or two persons, consultations, professional research and study, and so on.

Management that oversees one or more functions that are closely related. For example associate director, research director, program manager

Management or research that is narrowly focused on one aspect of an office or division's function(s). For example: assistant directors, branch heads, HR officers, contracting officers, legal specialists, conservators, post-doctorate professionals

Office: Shared (Workstations)

WK-3

80SF (7.5SM) Project management, financial management, design and engineering

Professional work that requires room for one-on-one meetings, layout out space, or other space intensive activities. For example: project managers, architects, engineers, designers, technicians

WK-2

WK-1

Office: Reception

RC-2

RC-1

64SF (6.0SM) Administration, contracting, technical work

48SF (4.5SM) Occasional or periodic administrative or technical work, "hoteling," research carrel

130-150SF (12-14SM) 3-6 Person Waiting Area

30-50SF (3-5SM) 1-2 Person Waiting Area

Assembly: Conference Rooms

MT-30

MT-18

MT-12

MT-8

MT-4

770-790SF (71-73SM) Meeting, conference, audio-visual presentation space for up to 30 persons

375-395SF (35-37SM) Meeting, conference, presentation space for up to 18 persons

220-240SF (20-22SM) Meeting and conference space for up to 12 persons

130-150SF (12-14SM) Meeting and conference space for up to 8 persons

90-110SF (8-10SM) Meeting space for up to 4 persons

Administrative or technical work that require basic work space. For example: Administrative or management assistants, technicians, and similar staff

Administrative or technical work that require minimal space and may not be for continuous occupancy. For example: Part-time staff, visiting staff, volunteers, interns, contractors

Medium to large office dealing with many visitors, both within and outside the organization.

Small office with occasional visitors

Training, large conferences and meeting, presentations requiring spaces with sophisticated presentation capabilities

Smaller training, conferences and larger meeting, all requiring space with some presentation capabilities

Medium-size meetings requiring space with minimal presentation capabilities

Smaller meetings and teaming sessions

Small meetings, counseling sessions, small private discussions, and small teaming sessions

In the following section sample layouts for each space class type option are given. In most cases furniture layouts are also given. These depictions will give the user of this Guide some idea of what each space can accommodate. A wide variety of configuration can be developed and the layout in no way precludes a thoughtful programming and design process.

D OPS Protective Design Standards for Technical Security, Rev. 8

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

PROTECTIVE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR TECHNICAL SECURITY

Revision 8

December 27, 2004

1.3.1

1.3.2

1.3.3

1.3.4

1.3.5

1.3.6

1.3.7

1.3.8

1.3.9

1.3.10

1 Design Standards

The protection requirements described below shall be provided as a minimum. Details and exact locations shall be as shown on the drawings. Where conflicts exist between these requirements and the drawings, the Contractor shall advise the Smithsonian design management team.

1.1 Purpose of this Standard

The purpose of this standard is to define the minimum technical security protection required for assets and spaces within Smithsonian Institution facilities. The requirements detailed in the tables represent the default protection to be applied. Under some conditions, different protection may be more appropriate. In such cases, the user of this standard shall present alternative recommendations and reasons for their need to the project design management team. It is intended that these standards will be reflected in drawings and other project specific documents provided as part of new system or equipment acquisition.

1.2 Using the Standard

This standard consists of two primary parts: The Application Table and the Requirements. The Application Table lists spaces in Smithsonian fa cilities, delineates protection requirement for spaces, and provides additional remarks, if needed, about protection requirements.

The Requirements portion prescribes instructions for various electronic security applications(e.g. sensors, CCTV cameras, wiring protections, etc.). The descriptions of the applications are found on pages 3-17 of the standard. Requirements are categorized and coded as follows:

A: Assessment CCTV triggered by alarm

B: Boundary (or Perimeter) Construction Materials and Construction

D: Intrusion Detection Sensors and communication

E: Entry Control Identification and Door Control

G: Windows and Glazed Opening and Materials and Construction

L: Lighting

P: Portal (or Door) Control Materials and Construction

R: Video Recording Operation

S: Surveillance CCTV

I: Intercoms

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

Protective

To use the standard, refer first to the Application Table. Select the space under consideration, listed in the left-hand columns of the table (e.g. vault, collection storage area, etc.). Then decode the Requirement code and annotations under the column used for Protection Requirements. The requirement code is alphanumeric, referring to the electronic application and the specific condition for the application. If a protection requirement is listed, it is assumed to be a required standard, unless qualified by some other annotation. Other qualifying annotations are listed below:

ANNOTATIONS

Desired But Not Required

New Construction Only

Required for Rehab Only

Choose One Of The Like-Numbered Standards

Choose A Combination Of Like-Numbered Standards

Smithsonian Institution - 2SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

Application Table

Space Category Space Protection Requirements

Unique Areas Vaults

Entrance/Exits* A2; R1

Vault Interior A1 - A4; R2

B1 B2; B3**

D2 D6 D7 D16

E2 E5 E7

G4 L2 L3 P5

Collection Storage Areas, Registrar Areas & Collection Libraries

Entrance/Exits* A1 A2, S1; R1 B3, B6 B7

D2 D4 D5 D6** D7 D15 D16

E2 E4 E5 E7

G1 G2 G3 G5

L2 L3 P1 P2 P3

Exhibit Galleries A1 - A4*; R2

D1 D3 D4 D5 D8 D15 E1**

G1 G2

L2 L3 P1 P2

Building Perimeters S1 - S7**; A1 - A7**; R1 B3

D1 D2; D3 D4 D5* D8* D14 D15*

G1 G2

L1 L2** P1 P2 P3

Remarks

* Camera shall view someone exiting the vault.

** Modular Vaults may be used if there are limitations to floor loading.

1 4

* Camera shall view someone exiting the area.

** Add only if four step rule of D7 cannot be met.

2

*Cameras shall be capable of viewing all exhibits, windows and entrances. They shall be installed within the gallery.

**Apply only where gallery doors exist

3

*Apply at accessible heights only.

**Apply at Entrance/Exits only.

1 Entrance Control Devices should be installed on a single entrance door. All other doors shall be emergency exits only. Not all areas will receive exit card readers (E7). This protection standard shall be executed only in locations where collection staff and OPS agree that the collection value justifies the additional equipment expense.

2 Exhibit and gallery alarms may vary widely because the character and method of presenting exhibits is often unique. Specific requirements for alarm system selection and implementation will be provided as supplemental requirements to this specification. In the absence of more specific requirements, the requirements of this section shall apply. Where there is conflict between these requirements and more specific supplemental requirements, the conflict shall be brought to the attention of the Smithsonian Institution representative for resolution.

3 CCTV shall be applied at perimeter exit doors and vestibules to view someone exiting the facility. Also, designers have the option to use recessed or surface mounted magnetic switches based upon the aesthetic standards of the surrounding area.

4 Surveillance CCTV for Library reading rooms only. Monitoring capability by library staff (within Library) is required

Smithsonian Institution - 3 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

Unique Areas Continued Zoological Research and Hospital Facilities

Zoo Animal Buildings

Zoo Exterior Walkways

Remarks

*Apply at accessible heights only.

**Apply at Main Staff

Entrance/Exits and critical internal areas, if appropriate. 1

*Apply at accessible heights only.

**Apply at Main Staff

Entrance/Exits and critical internal areas, if appropriate. 2

*See “Parking Areas”

1 Exterior building lighting levels to support staff safety (generally 2 foot candles within 50 feet of the building), adjusted so as not to conflict with animal habitat.

2 A risk assessment may determine that exterior exhibit alarm and CCTV may be appropriate for this category.

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc Space Category Space Protection Requirements

Smithsonian Institution - 4 -

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

Public Areas Lobbies D4

Corridors D4

Cafeterias S1 - S4*, A1 - A4*, R1 D1 D4 L2

Museum Shops and Shop

1

* Cash register areas and Cafeteria entrances/exits only.

Storage S1 - S4*, A1 - A4*, R1 D1 D4 D7 D16 L2 E1 1 2

* Cash register areas and Cafeteria entrances/exits only. Additional surveillance CCTV may be required by Business Ventures.

Theaters D4

Classroom

Dressing Room

Storage Room

Restrooms

Stairs

Elevators

Exterior Special

Event Venues L1 S5 S6 S7

Building

Exterior L1 A5 A6 A7 S5 S6 S7, R1 3

Cash Rooms A1 - A4*; R1 B2*

D1 D7 D9 D16

E2 E4 E5 G5 L2 P3 ** P6

Ticket Sales Locations A1 - A4*; R1 B6**

D1 D7 D16

E2 E4 E5

G3*** P3

* For public accessible walls only.

** Doors should meet UL 752, Level 3.

* Cameras shall provide facial view of public.

** For public accessible walls only.

*** For pass-through windows.

1 All CCTV shall run to a separate monitoring area within the Manager’s office as well to the OPS Control Room.

2 Entrance Control Devices should be installed on a single entrance door. All other doors shall be emergency exits only.

3 Cameras shall be located such that they may view all accessible areas (below 18 feet) of the building wall and the building grounds within 30 feet of the wall.

Smithsonian Institution - 5 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

General Staff Areas

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

Public/Private Separation Portals A1 - A4*; R2 D1 E1 E3; E4 L2 L3 P1 P2

Cash Rooms A1 - A4*; R1 B6

D1 D7 D9 D16 E2 E4 E5 G5 L2 P3 P6

Executive Space(s) D1 D8*, D16 E1 E4

Staff Elevators (Public/Staff separation points) E6 L2 L3 1

Freight Elevators S1*; R1 E6* L2 L3*

Staff Cafeterias A1 - A4*, R2 D1 D4 L2

Parking Areas L1 A5 A6 A7*

Loading Docks A1 - A7*; S1 - S7*; R1 B4 D1 D2 D3 D4 D8 G1 G2 G3 L1 L2 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7;R1

1

*Camera is viewing public side of door.

* Camera shall view safe and duress activity.

*Wireless technology may be used if appropriate. 3

*Only for elevators that travel into collection areas.

2

*Only for areas with ADA Intercoms.

4

*Meet “Building Perimeter” video standards, and supplement surveillance not provided by security booth line of sight. Additional monitoring capability shall be required within the guard booth.

1 Applications for categories E and L are required on new building construction and major renovation projects. Seek guidance for all other projects. Application P applies in all instances.

3 If collections are exhibited within these spaces, “Collection Area” standards shall be met.

2 CCTV at cash handling areas shall be activated and recorded upon alarm activation. All CCTV shall run to a separate monitoring area within the Museum Shop Manager’s office as well to the OPS Control Room.

4 ADA compliant intercoms (that include the needs of the deaf) with blue light shall be installed in each lot such that they are observable from every parking space.

Smithsonian Institution - 6 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

Support Staff Areas

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

Control Rooms A1; R2 B2; B3

D1

E1 E4

G4

P1 P3 P4* P6

Computer Data Center or Server Rooms

Entrance/Exits* A1 A2; R1 B7

D1 D4 D5 D8 D16

E1 E4 E5

G1 G2**

L2

P1 P2

Computer User Room (Classroom) D1 E1

Mechanical Rooms D1*

Electrical Rooms D1*

Communication Closets D1

Security Closets D1

Fabrication Shops D1

Support Storage Areas D1*

Warehouses (not collection storage) D1 D2; D3 D8

Shipping And Receiving Areas A1 - A7*; S1 - S7*; R1 D1 D2; D3 D4 D8 L2 S1 S2 S3 S4; R1

Unit Security Office D1*

Guard Kiosks/Posts D9

Janitor Closet

Information Booth D9*

Restroom Locker Rooms E1

Break Room Kitchen Stairs Corridor Offices

Laboratories D1

*Only if Control Room has an entrance separate from the Security Unit’s Office.

* Camera shall view someone exiting the area.

** For existing locations only. New rooms should have no windows.

*Only if accessible by public.

*Only if accessible by public.

* Only if accessible by public.

Local criminal history shall be investigated to determine possible exceptions to these standards.

*Meet “Building Perimeter” video standards, and supplement surveillance not provided by security booth line of sight.

*The Armorer’s Room shall also receive D1 protection and be annunciated separately.

* Duress required only if no Gurard Post or Kiosk is located within visual range

* If collections are housed overnight, laboratories should be considered “Collection Storage” Staff Storage Areas

Smithsonian Institution - 7 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

1.3 Requirements:

The following describe the requirements listed in the Application Table:

1.3.1 Assessment Video Alarm-Triggered CODE REQUIREMENT

A1

A2

A3

A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed interior enclosure The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activation.

A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed interior mount. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activation.

A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided in a closed dome enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, pan and tilt positioning devices, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activation. In addition, camera positioning in pan and tilt, and lens zooming shall be done using a series of stored preset values that are controlled by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activations.

A4 A solid-state, color CCTV camera shall be provided with a pan and tilt interior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alar m or entry control alarm activation. In addition, camera positioning in pan and tilt, and lens zooming shall be done using a series of stored preset values that are controlled by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activations.

A5 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed exterior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with an appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. Camera enclosures shall be fitted with heaters, blowers, and sunshades.

A6 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided with a pan and tilt exterior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activation. In addition, camera

Institution - 8 -

CODE

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

REQUIREMENT

positioning in pan and tilt, and lens zooming shall be done using a series of stored preset values that are controlled by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activations.

A7 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided in a closed dome exterior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, pan and tilt positioning devices, and any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. The view of this camera shall be selected by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activation. In addition, camera positioning in pan and tilt, and lens zooming shall be done using a series of stored preset values that are controlled by intrusion alarm or entry control alarm activations.

1.3.2 Boundary Construction Materials and Construction

CODE

REQUIREMENT

B1 Walls shall be reinforced concrete at least eight inches thick and shall be anchored with three layers of reinforcing steel (15 mm rebar) spaced to overlap the opening of the layer in front of it. Rebar shall also overlap between floor and ceiling pans.

B2 Walls shall be concrete and rebar void-filled concrete masonry unit construction (200 mm thick) or better. Bullet-resistant ballistic materials (to meet UL 752, Level 3) applied as overlays to existing walls may be substituted with approval of the Smithsonian Institution.

B3 Ducts entering protected spaces (to include building perimeters) shall be protected with burglar bars to preclude intrusion. Burglar bars shall be of substantial construction to preclude entry via HVAC ducts greater than 240 square centimeters (with any dimension being greater than15 centimeters). Bar stock shall be 16 mm cold rolled steel, forming a rectangular web that is welded 125 mm on center. Burglar bars shall be mounted in substantial welded steel frames secured to the ducts with peened bolts. Burglar bars shall be mounted in ducts within fifteen centimeters of the duct penetration through the boundary wall, preferably on the protected side of the boundary wall. A duct inspection door is required, on the secure side of the duct grill, to inspect the grill.

B4 Loading dock security booths with HVAC and lockable sliding glass panels with writing surfaces shall be provided with clear views of loading dock interior areas, loading dock doors and approaches. If these clear views cannot be provided, the booth shall be outfitted with similar CCTV camera views.

B5 Bullet-resistant and forced entry resistant construction methods shall be used.

B6 Walls shall be constructed of steel studding and gypsum board with 9-guage expanded metal screwed securely to both sides of the steel studding behind the gypsum board.

Smithsonian Institution - 9 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

CODE REQUIREMENT

All barrier walls must run from floor slab to ceiling slab.

B7 Walls shall be constructed of concrete masonry unit (200 mm thick) or better from ceiling to floor slab.

1.3.3 Intrusion Detection Sensors And Annunciation

CODE

REQUIREMENT

D1 Doors and other intentional openings shall be protected with position switches to detect movement of the door or opening closure. Recessed magnetic switches shall be mounted on the latch edge of the door or within 6 inches of the latch edge if mounted in the top of the door. Where double doors must be protected, each door shall be fitted with a separate magnetic switch. Where doors are controlled by entry control devices, intrusion detection shall be coordinated with authorized accesses to preclude nuisance alarms for authorized entries.

D2 Surface-mounted balanced magnetic switches shall be applied to doors. Balanced (or “biased” based on design) Magnetic switches shall be mounted on the protected side of the door and shall be mounted within six inches of the latch side of the door. Where wiring will be exposed, armored cable shall be routed from the balanced magnetic switch to a junction box located adjacent to or above the door.

D3 Roll-up doors and other doors not a standard size or configuration shall be provided with magnetic position switches suitable for the application. Magnetic switches shall be mounted on both the left and right sides of the protected side of roll-up doors wider than two meters. Wireless magnetic switches may be applied to pedestrian passage doors that penetrate roll-up doors.

D4 Perimeter emergency exists shall be protected with American Disability Act and SI Disability Regulation compliant delayed egress devices and audible local alarms.

D5 Acoustic glass break detectors or shock sensors shall be provided for the protection of glass panels that exceed 240 square centimeters with any dimension greater than 200 mm.

D6 Area boundary walls shall be protected with vibration detection sensors. Sensors shall be firmly mounted to the wall with spacing sufficiently close to assure detection of an attempted penetration before the wall is breached.

D7 Interior spaces shall be protected with volumetric intrusion detection sensors. Sensors shall be mounted to detect an intruder’s approach to critical assets. Intruder shall be detected within four steps of the asset.

D8 Spaces shall be protected with volumetric intrusion detection sensors. Sensors shall

Smithsonian Institution - 10 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

CODE

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security

REQUIREMENT

be mounted to detect an intruder entering by doors or other openings.

D9 A duress alarm switch shall be provided and wired to the alarm annunciation system. The duress alarm switch shall be mounted in an inconspicuous location that will allow covert actuation.

D10

D11

D12 An electronic watch tour station shall be provided at key locations near this space as shown on the drawings.

D13

D14 Acoustic glass break sensors and volumetric sensors shall be provided within entrance door vestibules in addition to magnetic switches.

D15 Magnetic switches shall be provided for all operable windows.

D16 Access/Secure control devices shall be provided in protected spaces where volumetric detection is provided. The control devices shall activate or deactivate the volumetric detection devices upon presentation of proper identification. The control devices shall be applied inside protected areas adjacent to primary entrance portals. The control devices shall be card readers. The portal shall be configured for an adjustable entry delay.

Smithsonian Institution - 11SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

1.3.4 Entry Control Identification And Door Control CODE REQUIREMENT

E1

E2

Doors shall be provided with card readers. Card readers shall incorporate life safety requirements. Entry control features shall be coordinated with the intrusion detection system so that authorized entries do not generate alarm conditions annunciated by the alarm annunciation system.

Doors shall be provided with card readers combined with keypads. Entrance shall only be granted if the proper card AND the proper Personal Identity Number are entered. Card readers shall incorporate life safety requirements. Entry control features shall be coordinated with the intrusion detection system so that authorized entries do not generate alarm conditions annunciated by the alarm annunciation system.

E3 Doors shall be provided with card readers combined with keypads. Entrance shall be granted if either the proper card OR the proper Personal Identity Number are entered. Card readers shall incorporate life safety requirements. Entry control features shall be coordinated with the intrusion detection system so that authorized entries do not generate alarm conditions annunciated by the alarm annunciation system.

E4 Door exit sensors shall be provided to allow alarm-free passage from protected areas.

E5 Central alarm zones and local sounders shall be provided to annunciate door proppedopen and forced door situations.

E6 Elevators shall be provided with a card reader and any associated electronic interfaces to allow control of the elevator by the electronic entry control system. The card reader shall be located either at the elevator lobby call button or within the elevator cab at the cab controls. A card reader shall not be installed at both locations. Facility staff and OPS shall determine the location based upon facility operations.

E7 An exit card reader shall be provided inside the protected space to record the departure of individuals within the protected space. An exit made with out using the exit reader shall result in an alarm at the door as well as at the operator’s console. The entry control system will maintain a list of those individuals present at any time within the protected space.

1.3.5 Windows And Glazed Opening Materials and Construction CODE REQUIREMENT

G1 All perimeter windows at or below 18 feet, windows accessible from an adjoining building roof, or within 14 feet directly or diagonally opposite a window, building, fire escape or roof shall be designated as accessible. See Requirement D8

G2 Perimeter windows that are capable of being opened shall be fitted with a positive latch or deadbolt to maintain the opening closed or shall be permanently closed. A window is considered to be permanently closed when a non-destructive mechanism has been installed that precludes opening with ordinarily obtainable tools. Where window hinges are on the exterior of the building and the hinge pins are capable of being removed, the hinge pins shall be fixed in place with a set screw that is inaccessible when the window is closed or shall be welded in place. Accessible perimeter windows that are not permanently closed require alarm contacts.

G3 Door glazing shall be laminated glass (minimum 12 mm thick) with clear openings not to exceed 100 x 600 mm on any single door leaf. Wired or tempered glass shall not be used.

G4 No windows are permitted into this space.

G5 Bullet-resistant glazing (to meet UL 752, level 3) and frames shall be provided for pass-through windows.

1.3.6 Lighting CODE REQUIREMENT

L1 Existing exterior lighting shall be supplemented with additional lighting to assure successful nighttime assessment of perimeter areas using CCTV systems. Lighting shall be 2 – 5 foot candles or greater everywhere within 50 feet of the building and continuous throughout exterior parking areas or walkways. Specific levels shall be site specific with special consideration at the National Zoological Park. Light-to-dark ratio of areas illuminated shall not exceed a ratio of 5 to 1 from brightest to darkest in single camera field of view. Exterior camera placement and light fixture placement must be coordinated with existing lighting and each other to preclude exceeding lightto-dark ratios as specified. Entrance vestibules and loading dock areas shall be illuminated to a minimum of 5 foot candles within 20 feet of the entrance.

L2 Night lighting shall be provided in interior spaces to be viewed by CCTV systems as required. A minimum of 1foot candles shall be provided.

L3 Provide infrared lighting for nighttime illumination to supplement CCTV image gathering. CCTV cameras shall be selected that have no IR cutoff filters to optimize IR lighting image collection.

Protective Design Standard s for Technical Security Smithsonian Institution - 13 -

Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

1.3.7 Portal Materials And Construction

CODE

P1

REQUIREMENT

Non-latching-open door closers shall be provided for each movable leaf. The closers shall be adjusted to force the door to latch if released from more than six inches open.

P2 Door coordinators shall be provided to ensure that double doors close in the proper sequence and latch properly when released from more than six inches open.

P3 Doors shall be metal, metal clad, or 1 ¾ inch solid wood. Hinges shall be mounted so hinge pins are within the protected area. If hinges cannot be mounted with hinges within the protected area, security hinges shall be provided. Security hinges shall prevent the removal of the door by removing the hinge pin. In instances where perimeter doors are constructed of glass, install a bottom rail of sufficient height to accommodate a dead bolt lock that can be removed without having to dismantle the door to service the lock cylinder.

P4 A two-door security vestibule shall be provided for the primary entrance to this space. The outer door of the vestibule shall be a solid metal door without glazing. The inner door of the vestibule shall be a solid metal door with bullet-resistant glazing.

P5 Provide a GSA Class V vault door (or a UL listed door of rating equal to the rating of the walls, floor and ceiling) with day gate. The vault shall be opened via a local combination. The day gate shall be provided with entry control devices. The day gate shall be installed to protect the vault door. The vault door shall not receive access control devices, but shall receive a door contact (as should the day gate). Day gate hardware must permit free egress, and protection against fishing the interior handle with a tool.

P6 Provide two peepholes to view through the area’s door. The peepholes shall view from the inside of the area/door to the outside. One peephole shall be mounted at approximately 150 cm. The second peephole shall be installed at ADA wheel chair height.

1.3.8 Recording CODE

REQUIREMENT

R1 Video shall be continuously recorded; 24 hours per day and 7 days per week.

R2 Video shall be recorded upon security system alarm or event actuation.

Institution - 14 -

1.3.9 Surveillance Video CODE

REQUIREMENT

S1 A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed interior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, any supporting power supplies, video recording capability and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

S2 A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed interior mount. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

S3 A solid-state, Color CCTV camera shall be provided in a closed dome enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, pan and tilt positioning devices, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

S4 A solid-state, color CCTV camera shall be provided with a pan and tilt interior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

S5 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided with a fixed exterior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with an appropriate adjustable focal length lens, auto-iris, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture. Camera enclosures shall be fitted with heaters, blowers, and sunshades.

S6 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided with a pan and tilt exterior enclosure The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

S7 A day/night CCTV camera shall be provided in a closed dome exterior enclosure. The camera shall be complete and operable with the appropriate controllable zoom focal length lens, auto-iris, pan and tilt positioning devices, video recording capability, any supporting power supplies and video image transmission equipment required for image capture.

1.3.10 General Security Requirements Applicable Everywhere CODE REQUIREMENT

all Alarm annunciation system and entry control system field components shall be mounted inside sensor protected locations.

all Where double doors must be protected, each door shall be fitted with a separate magnetic switch. All entry control system components requiring interaction with staff or public users shall be mounted in accordance with ADA height requirements. Doors controlled by the entry control system shall be controlled by electric strikes that fail secure (unless prohibited by safety code). Magnetic latches shall only be used with the approval of the Smithsonian Institution. Electric locks, electric strikes, and magnetic latches shall be provided with one hour of un-interruptible power supply that is maintained from the emergency power generator circuit. Where electric strikes are susceptible to tamper or picking from outside the protected space, latch guards shall be installed to protect the electric strike and door bolt.

all Assessment CCTV cameras shall be alarm actuated by either intrusion detection sensors or entry control devices. CCTV views shall be installed and configured so that when alarms are presented at the security console, the appropriate CCTV image is also displayed at the console within 1 second.

all Interconnecting wiring within the protected space shall be routed in electrical metallic tubing or flat-metal molding. Interconnecting wiring routed outside the protected space shall be installed in electrical metallic tubing. All splices, connections, and terminal blocks shall be installed within an enclosure. Where such enclosures include active circuit components, tamper protection shall be provided. Where such enclosures do not include active circuit components, tamper protection is not required but the enclosure cover shall be secured with tamper-resistant fasteners. No wire splices shall be made between sensors, field devices, and the input terminals of alarm annunciation or entry control local processors.

all Un-interruptible power supplies shall be provided for all intrusion detection sensors, alarm annunciation system components (see attached list), entry control system components, and door control components. Local un-interruptible power supplies shall be used rather than a distributed power system. Un-interruptible power supplies shall have the capacity to provide 8 hours of service for normal loads and system activity. Un-interruptible power supplies shall be supervised by the alarm annunciation system and shall report loss of ac power and low battery conditions.

all All panels containing components of intrusion detection sensors, alarm annunciation system components and entry control system components shall be protected with tamper switches. Tamper switches shall be separately annunciated from other alarms and inhibited from being bypassed or placed in Access by the alarm annunciation monitor and display system.

all New alarm annunciation or entry control field panels shall be installed with a minimum of 20% expansion capability per security closet or data gathering panel location. This shall consist of 20% or a minimum of six, which ever is greater.

Institution - 16 -

Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

CODE

Protective

Design Standard s for Technical Security

REQUIREMENT

all Weapons container shall be protected in accordance with UL Safe partial protection with door contacts only. These sensors shall be annunciated through the alarm annunciation system.

all Safes shall be provided with door opening contacts and vibration detection.

all Exhibit security wiring shall be hardwired as shown on the drawings. Wiring shall be installed in a baseboard conduit and access box system. Access boxes shall be provided at 3000mm intervals around the perimeter of each gallery. Conduit shall be sized to accommodate two alarmed cases or a minimum of six pairs of wire per access box. Where an under floor wire duct system is provided, it shall accommodate partitioning for Class 2 alarm exhibit wiring.

all Intrusion devices of different technologies (i.e. motion detection, glass break or magnetic contacts) shall be zoned separately. Intrusion devices of like technologies shall be wired together within the confines of clear physical barriers, or, where barriers may be separated by great distances, at reasonable and regular intervals.

all Emergency power distribution shall be provided to allow the control room, associated equipment room, and security field devices to be powered from emergency generator power.

all All ATM machines should be outfitted with a common alarm output for connection to the facility security management system.

Smithsonian Institution - 17 -

SI Technical Standards Rev 8.doc

E

Determining the Acceptable Ranges of Relative Humidity and Temperature in Museums and Galleries

Introduction

DeterminingtheAcceptableRanges of RelativeHumidity

And Temperature in Museums andGalleries

MarionF.Mecklenburg

Smithsonian MuseumConservationInstitute.

Part1,StructuralResponsetoRelativeHumidity

Ifoneisattemptingtointerpretthe temperatureandrelativehumidity(RH) information developedforSmithsonian Facilities Management (oranyinstitutionforthatmatter) itwould probablybemostusefultolookattherawdatafrommonitors ofindividualsites. Atthe Smithsonian, thecurrentenvironmentalguidelinesare45%RH+/- 8%RHand 70 o F+/- 4o Ffor exhibitionsandstoragespaces. (Mecklenburgetal,2004) Thissimplymeansitisacceptableto bewithinaRHandtemperatureboxboundedbetween37%RHand53%RHand66o Fand74o F.

Given that theactualdataistakenonanhourlybasisovera30 dayperiodonecanactuallysee theexcursioneventsintermsoftimeandmagnitude.Thisdatacanbeinterpretedinsuchaway thatitshowsboththeactualHVACsystemperformance andit allowsadetailedanalysisin termsofthewhetheranexcursionisactuallycausingproblemsforthecollections.Forexample, doesa4 hourdepressioninRHof4%-5%outsidethe allowable bandwidthhaveasignificant impactonthechemicalandstructuralstabilityofthecollection? Toanswerthatquestionone needs to knowwhat the actual, allowable , RHandtemperaturerangesareand toexaminethe timeittakesformoisture to enterorleavematerialswhenthereisachangeinrelativehumidity.

Beforediscussingtherateofmoistureabsorptionitwouldusefultoreviewsomefundamental issues. Thisincludes howtheguidelines were originally establishedandwhatwerethecriteria

used? Anotherfundamental issue is how tointerpretthehourlymonitoringtemperatureand relativehumidity(RH)data.

SettingtheInitialCriteriaforEstablishingEnvironmentalGuidelines

Whenoriginallydeveloped, theenvironmentalguidelinesrequired criteri a fromwhichtowork. Forexampleifwoodorgluesamples wererestrainedanddesiccated,theywoulddevelop stresses.Thequestionsthatneededanswerswere; howmuchdepression orelevation inRH wouldbesufficienttocausefailureandhowmuch changecouldthematerial withstandwithout damage? Damagecanmeaneitherpermanentdeformationoractualcracking. Sinceitispossible todirectlyrelatehumiditychangesinamaterialunderrestrainttothemechanicalstressesand strainsdeveloped fromexternalloadingsources, itbecomespossibletodevelop criteriaforthe allowableRHfluctuations. (Mecklenburg andTumosa, 1996 )

Thisrequiresdeterminingthemechanicalpropertiesandthedimensionalpropertiesforthe materialsatdifferentlevelsofrelativehumidityandtemperature.

Thefirstcriterion establishedwas tosimplyassumethateverymaterialinthe SmithsonianInstitutioncollections was fullyrestrained fromdimensionalresponse Nowthisisnotnecessarilytrueinallcasesbutitestablishesaworstcaseconditionfor mostbutnotallofthecollections Atypicalexampleofconstrainedmaterialswouldbe woodveneerbondedcrossgrainedoverawoodsubstrate.

Thesecondcriterionisthattherestrainedmaterialsare initiallyfree ofstress . Exceptionswillbediscussedlaterinthispaper.

The third criterionselectedwasthatthemechanicalstrains ofthematerialcould never exceedtheyieldpointeitherintensionorcompression Theyieldpoint definesthe upperlimitof theelastic (reversible) regionof a material’smechanical performance

Loadingthematerialabovetheyieldpointinducesplastic(permanent)deformationinthe material.

Therehasbeensomeuncertaintyregardingthedimensionalbehaviorofhygroscopicmaterials anditwouldbeprudenttoshowwhatdoesoccurwithveryresponsivematerials.The rigid materialsthathavethemosthumidity-relateddimensionalresponsearetypicallywoods,glues, and ivory .Theflexiblematerialsthathavemoderatetohighdimensionalresponsetorelative humiditycanincludepapers,parchments,andtextiles. Materialsthatmightbeconsideredto havemoderatetolowdimensionalresponsetorelativehumidityincludegessoesandoil,alkyd, andtemperapaints. Forpurposesof clarifyingthedimensionalresponseofamaterialtomoisture changes itwouldbeusefultoexaminewood.

TheDimensionalResponseofWood

Overcenturies,woodhasbeenthematerialofchoicefor panelsupportsfortemperaandoil paintings,furniture,structuralsystems inbuildings andathousandotherthings . Itisstillused todayandisamaterialthatis very hygroscopic.Fromboththedimensionalandmechanical responsetorelativehumiditywoodissaidtobeorthotropic,thatisitrespondsdifferentlyinthe threeprimaryandmutuallyperpendiculardirections.Thosethreedirectionsarethelongitudinal directionwhichisthedirectionparalleltothegrainofthewood (L),theradialdirectionwhichis perpendiculartotheconcentricringsofwood (R) ,andthetangentialdirection (T) whichis tangent to theconcentricringsinwood (Fig 1)

Figure1alsoshowstheRH-relatedfreeswellingresponseinthethreeprimarydirections for modernScotchpine.Woodcutinthetangentialdirectionisthemostresponsiveandistobe avoidedwhenmakingpanelpaintings. Woodcutintheradialdirectionisbestforpanelpaintings sinceitistypicallylessthanhalfasresponsiveasthetangentiallycutwood. Theleastresponsive directionisthelongitudinaldirection. Whendryingoutwoodlogstendtocrack in theradial direction(Fig 2.) Ivoryontheotherhandismostresponsiveintheradialdirection.Thatiswhy

ivorytendstocrackinconcentricringswhenexposedtoexcessivelylargechangesinmoisture content (Fig. 3).

NewScotchPine,TheThreePrimaryDirections

Figure1,theswellingresponsetolargechangesinrelativehumidityofwoodsamplesinthe threeprimarydirections for modernScotchpine.Themostresponsivedirectionisthetangential directionfollowedbytheradialdirection.Thelongitudinaldirectionisonlyminimally responsivetochangesinmoisturecontent.Thewoodsusedforpaintingstretchersandpanelsare best cutintheradialdirectionsincetheyexhibittheleastdimensionalresponsetochangesin relativehumidity.

Figure2shows thecracks alongtheradiiof asectionofDouglas firfromanAztecruin inN.M. datedA.D. 1240 . (Samplescourtesyof theLaboratoryofTree-RingResearch,TheUniversityof Arizona,Tucson.)

Figure3showstheconcentriccracksinamammothtusk.Thecracksformedinthismanner sincetheradialdirectionofthetuskistheweakestandthemostdimensionallyresponsiveto moisture.(PhotocourtesyofWikipedia)

Figure 4 showstheswellingresponsetolargeandsmallchangesinrelativehumidityof17th centuryScotchpinegrown inthesameforestinNorwayasthemodernwooddiscussedinFig .1. Thetangentialdirectionshownisthemostresponsivedirectionandshowsentirelydifferent behaviordependingon both the directionand magnitudeofthechanges inrelativehumidity. Whenlookingatlargechangesinrelativehumidity,thehumidificationplotismuchlowerthan thedesiccationplot.Thisdifferenceinthepathsiscalledhysteresis.

Whenthereisamuchmoremoderatechangeinrelativehumidity,therateofdimensional responseismuchreducedandthepathsarealmostthesame. Theslopesoftheswellingplots shownaretheestimatedcoefficientsofmoistureexpansionasafunctionofrelativehumidity. Thevalueoftheslope forthelarge desiccating changeinrelative humidityis 0.00071/%RH. Theslopeofthedimensionalchangeforthesmaller range inrelativehumidityisconsiderably less, (0.000417/%RH ) This differenceinrates helpsexplainwhymanymaterialssurvive uncontrolledbutmoderateenvironmentalchanges.

17th.CenturyScotchPine,TangentialDirection

Intermediate(30%to65%RH)

Measurement(.000417/%RH)

RelativeHumidity(%)

Figure 4,theswellingresponsetolargeandsmallchangesinrelativehumidityof17 th century ScotchpinegrowninthesameforestinNorwayasthemodernwooddiscussedinFig 1.The tangentialdirectionshownisthemostresponsivedirection andshowsentirelydifferentbehavior dependingonthemagnitudeofthechangeinrelativehumidity.

Itiscriticaltonotethatmanyculturalmaterialsexperience hysteresisand different ratesof dimensionalresponse dependingonthemagnitudeofthech angesinrelativehumidity. These differences willbe illustratedintheplotsthatfollow.

EstablishingRHBoundaries Usingthe YieldPointCriterion forMaterialswithLarge DimensionalResponses

Thissectionofthediscussion willillustratehowRHbo undariesaredeterminedwhenusingthe yieldpointcriterion.Itwouldalsobeusefulto include someofthe materialshavingthe most RH-relateddimensionalresponse These materials includewood,hideglue,andivory.Allofthe examplesshownaretypicaloftheirgroupsofmaterials.Forexamplethecottonwoodillustrated belowisoneofthemostdimensionallyresponsiveofallofthewoods. Inmanywoodssuchas mahogany,teakand,redwoodsthedimensionalresponsetomoistureisconsiderablyless. When testing thedifferenttypesofanimalglues,bovine,porcine,sturgeonandthephotographic gelatins, itwasfound thatthedimensionalresponsetomoisture was nearlyidentical.Their mechanicalpropertiesdiffer largely intermoftheirstrengthbutallcanbeconsideredtobevery strongmaterials. Ivorycomesfromthetusks(modifiedteeth)ofmammalsandisstructurally similar regardlessofthesourcespecies.

Woods

Whenfirst evaluating anymaterial itis necessarytoexamine its mechanicalpropertieswhen exposedtodifferentlevelsofRH.Figure 5 showsthetensilestress -straintestsforcottonwoodin thetangentialdirection. Cottonwood, alsoknownasEuropeanpoplar, wasjustoneofmany woodstestedbecauseitwasusedextensivelyinEuropeanpanelpaintings. (Richardetal,1998)

Thetangentialdirectionofanywoodis themostdimensionallyresponsivetoRH and itisalso theweakest. Thehorizontalscale (Fig.5) isinunitsof strainwhichisthechangeinlength

dividedbythesample originallength Theverticalscaleisinstresswheretheunitsarein poundpersquareinch(psi). Stressiscalculatedbytakingtheforce(load)appliedtothe sampleanddividingbythecross-sectionalarea ofthetestsample. Theendofthetestiswhere thematerialbreaks.Thestressreachedwhenthematerialfailsiscalledthestrengthofthe material.Thestrainreachedwhenthematerialfailsiscalledthestraintofailure.Theinitial strainof0.005showninthefigureistheinitialyieldpointanddefinesupperlimitoftheelastic orreversiblerangeofthewood.Whenthewoodisstrainedbeyondtheyieldpointitissaidto undergoplasticornon-reversiblebehavior. Themodulusofanymaterialsistheratioofthestress tostraininthe elasticregiononly.Itisameasureofthestiffnessorflexibilityofthematerial.

Oneofthemosttellingfeatures ofwood isthat forthe relativehumidity rangesshown,thereis not adramaticeffectonthemechanicalproperties.Thereisnosignifi cantstiffeningor embrittlementof thewoodatlowrelativehumiditynordoesitloosesignificantstrengthathigh the levelofrelativehumidity. Ingeneralwoodslosestrengthandbecomeveryflexibleatvery highlevelsofRH. SomewoodscanbecomequitestiffandbrittlewhentheRHreacheslevels below10%. Itis important tonote thelocationoftheyieldpointat0.005 inrelationtothe breakingstrainsthatrangefrom0.012toabout0.2.asshown Fig. 5. Thewoodmustbestretched considerably beyondtheyieldstrain beforeitactuallybreaks.

CottonWood,TangentialDirection

Figure 5 showsthetensilestress -straintestsforcottonwoodinthetangentialdirection.The tangentialdirectionofanywoodisthemostdimensionallyresponsivetoRHanditisalsothe weakest. The yieldpointisindicatedbythearrowatastrain0.005. Thisisconsiderablylower thanthestrainrequiredtocausethewoodtoactuallybreak.

Figure 6 shows thedimensionalresponseoftangentiallycutcottonwoodtobothlargeand intermediatechangesinrelativehumidity.TheintermediateRHrangesare still fairlylargeand easily exceed the recommended museumcontrol RHranges There is actuallyafamilyofthe intermediatedimensional response rangesandtwoofthemareshowninthisfigure.Also shown in this figureare theallowableRHfluctuationsiftheyieldpointof0.005hadbeenusedasthe criterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.

The allowable fluctuation sshown rangebetween32%RHand62%RHascomparedtothe guidelinesrecommendation of37%RHand53%RH. Thismeansthatthewoodisbehavingina fullyelasticandreversiblemannerinaRHrangegreater thantherecommendedmuseum guidelines.Italsomeansthatthechangeinrelativehumidityhastogreateryettocausethewood tobreak

Currentenviromental guidelines,45%+/-8%

Whatispossibleif allowedafullyieldstrain of+/-0.005

CottonWood,TangentialDirection

Figure 6 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsiftheyieldpointof0.005hadbeenusedasthe criterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween32%RHand62%RH ascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH.

HideGlue

Hideglue isalsoaRH-responsivematerial and itispresentinnearlyallculturalcollections. Itis foundastheadhesiveforbondingpartsandveneersinwoodfurniture,itisusedasthesizein traditionalcanvaspaintingsandsomewatercolorpapers , anditisusedtomakegesso.When refined intogelatin, itisusedastheimageemulsioninphotographicmaterials.

Figure 7 showsthetensilestress-straintestsforhideglueatdifferentRHlevels. At lowRH levelsthematerialisstillductileandnotbrittle.Athighhumiditylevelshidegluelosesstrength and this is acriticalfactor inmoisturerelateddamagetopaintings .Theyieldpoint,thelimitof elasticbehavior, usedforalloftheplotsisindicatedbythearrow, atastrain of 0.005.Early failuresshowninthetestsat38%RHand67%RH, resultedfromdefectsinsamplepreparation. Butitisworth noting thatdefectscancauseprematurefailure. Never -the-lesstheultimate breakingstrainsarefarinexcessoftheyield pointstrainof0.005.

Hideglue,75F

Figure 7 showsthetensilestress -straintestsforhideglueatdifferentRHlevels.Notethatat verylowRHlevelsthematerialisstillductileandnotbrittle.Athighhumiditylevelshideglue losesstrength.The initial yieldpoint,thelimitofelasticbehavior, usedforalloftheplotsis indicatedbythearrow, atastrain0.005.

Figure 8 showsthedimensionalresponseofhidegluetobothlargeandintermediatechangesin relativehumidity.TheintermediateRHrangesar easwiththe caseforthecotton woodstillfairly large Figure 8 alsoshowstheallowableRHfluctuationsforhideglueiftheyieldpointof0.005 isusedasthecriterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween30%RH and60%RH ascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH.Alsoas withthewoodtheallowableRHrangewhenusingtheyieldpointof0.005isconsiderablylarger thantheallowableRHrangeunderthecurrentSIguidelines. Aswiththecottonwood, thewider RHrangesarestillwithintheelasticregionoftheglueanditwilltakesignificantlywiderranges tocausethematerialtobreak.

Currentguidelines

Figure 8 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsforhideglueiftheyieldpointof0.005isusedas a criterion forenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween30%RHand60%RH ascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH.

HideGlue,75F

Whendiscussingenvironmentalcontrol,oneofthematerialsthat generate themostcontroversy isivory. Theivoryusedintheseexperimentswasfromawalrustuskbut quitesimilarto ivory fromotherspecies. Inactuality,ivoryissomewhatlessresponsivethanmost woods.Figure 9 shows thetensilestress-straintestsforwalrustusk(ivory). Todemonstrateitsdurability,this materialwascycled reversiblyfor over5000cycleswithintheyieldrange.Theplotsshownare cycle2109 ofover5000cycles andthefulltesttofailure. Thatthecyclingoftheivorywas reversiblewithnoplastic (permanent) deformationindicatedthatallcyclingtestswere conductedbelowtheyieldpoint. Theyieldpointfor the ivory isindicatedbythearrowata strain0.005. Inordertocausefailurethematerialhad tobeextendedtoastrainlevelofabout 0.0095,almosttwicetheyieldstrain.Thesampletestedherewascut throughthecenter fromone sideofthe tusktotheother whichistheweakestandmostdimensionallyresponsivedirection.

Cycle2109ofover5000

Figure 9 showsthetensilestress -straintestsforwalrustusk(ivory) at48%RHand74o F. This materialwascycledover5000cycleswithintheyieldrange.Theplotsshownarecycles 2109 andthefulltesttofailure.Theyieldpointsusedforalloftheplotsisindicatedbythearrowata strain0.005.

CyclingofCrossGrainWalrusTusk

Fulltesttofailure

YieldPoint

Figure 10 sh owsthedimensionalresponseof walrustusk tobothintermediate andlarge changes inrelativehumidity.TheintermediateRHrangesarefairlylarge. Figure 10 also showsthe allowable RHfluctuationsfor the walrustuskiftheyieldpointof0.005isused asthecriterion forenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween 27%RHand68%RHas comparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH.

WalrusTusk,Tang./RadialDirection

AllowableUsing+/-0.005

RelativeHumidity(%)

Figure 10 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsforwalrustusk(ivory)iftheyieldpoin tof0.005 isusedasthecriterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween 27 %RH and68%RHascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH.

ReassessingtheSomeoftheInitialAssumptionsandCriteria

Uptothis point inthisdiscussion itwasassumed that theyieldpointwas astrain 0.005 andthat theinitialstressforthematerialzero. IndoingsoitispossibletoshowthattheallowableRH fluctuationsforthematerialsexceedthe museum guidelinebyaconsiderableamount.Ifthe actualfailurestrainofthematerialshadbeenused,thentheallowablefluctuationswouldhave beenevengreater. Clearlyunder selectedcriteria thereisalargemarginofsafetyinthe37% RH-53%RHguidelines.

Actuallythemagnitudeoftheyieldstrains cananddoes dependtoaconsiderabledegree onthe environmentalhistoryofthematerial. Culturalmaterials “strainhardens ” inmuchthesameway assteels.Thatis,iftheyarestretchedbeyondtheirinitialyieldpointand thenunloaded (relaxed) theywillexhibitplasticdeformation(permanentdeformation)and besetpermanently toa differentandhigheryieldpoint Figures 11 and 12 showtheunloadcompliancetensiletestsof Americanmahoganyandhideglue.Bothofthese materialsstrainhardenanddevelophigher yieldstrainsmeaninganexpansionoftheelastic orreversible regionofthematerial.

Whenunloadedcompletely andthe stress iseliminated, theamountofplasticdeformationcanbe determinedbythedistance betweentheoriginalstartofthetestandthepointwherethestress returnstozero.Inotherwordsthematerialhas“re-initialized”toapointofnostressbutwith someplasticdeformation. Fromtheperspectiveofthechangesin theenvironment ,itwillrequire RHchangesconsiderablylargerthanthecurrentSIguidelinestocausethis.

Anyobjectmademorethan70yearsago,priortotheuseofmajorHVACsystemsin museums, has experiencedsignificant changes inbothtemperatureandrelativehumidi ty.Somuchsothat thereisaveryhighprobability thatenvironmental changes weresufficienttocausestrainsin excessoftheinitialyieldpoints. Thiscanalsobesaidforallmaterialsthattothisdayexist outsideofcontrolledenvironments. Insuchcasesthematerialsallexperiencedstrainhardening ineithertensionorcompression. In restrained woodswhenthehumidity gets veryhigh, this proces siscalled“compressionset” becauseoftheplasticdeformation.

Thepointhereisthatthe hardened yieldstrains are highlylikelytobefoundinthematerialsof olderculturalobjectsand arealwayslargerthantheinitialyieldpointof0.005 andthishas significantimplications

AM.MAHOGANY,48%RHUNLOADTEST

Figure 11 ,thestressstraintestofasampleofAmericanmahoganycutinthetangential direction. Thismaterial“strainhardens”, meaningwithexcessiveextension(strain)itdevelopsa largerelasticregionbutloosestheplasticregion.

2.5YearLongHideGlueTensileTests

Figure 12 , Trueequilibrium, load-unloadcompliance, stressstraintestof three samples of hide glueat50%RHand74o F. This particulartestillustrates strainhardeninganddevelopmentof newandlargeryieldstrainsofhidegluewhenloadedbeyondtheinitialyieldpoint.

When culturalmaterialsstrainhardenandtheela sticregionincreaseswithhigheryieldpoints the allowablefluctuationsinRHincrease.Forexampleifthehideglueillustratedin Fig. 12 had strainhardenedtothepointwheretheyieldpointwas0.008insteadof0.005thentheallowable RHfluctuationswouldincreaseto arangefrom28%to68% asshowninfigure1 3

HideGlue

Currentguidelines

Strainhardenedyield

Allowablewithstrain hardenedyield

Figure13 showstheeffectofstrainhardening ontheallowableRHrangeforhideglue. Nowthe allowableRHrangehasincreased tobetween28%and68%.

Thereisoneothercriticalassumptionthatnowneeds tobeaddressed.Thatassumptionisthat theinitialstressinthematerialsiszero. Let ’ssupposethatamaterial suchasthehideglue shownin Fig 14 hasaninitial strain of0.005 and stress of1255psi at45%RHand72o F.Sinc e itisalreadyrestrainedandloaded, anyloweringoftherelativehumiditywillincreasethe mechanicalstrainsandincreasethestress.

Lowering therelativehumidityfrom45%to 28%increasesthestrainanadditional0.008, to 0.013, wherethestress isapproximately3000psi. It’spossibleto illustrate thisonthesame stressstrainplotbecause ithas already been shown( Fig. 7)thatwhilethereissome,thereareno substantialchangesinthemechanicalpropertieswith respectto changesinRHin theregion underdiscussion.

2.5YearLongGelatinTensileTests

Initialyieldpoint

Effectofdecreasing theRHfrom35%to28%

Effectofreturningfrom 28%RHto45%RH

Figure14 showshowRHexcursionsareabletoreinitializeexistingstresslevelstonearzero values.Thisisaresultofbothplasticdeformationandstrainhardening.Thenewslopeofthe modulusistypicallyabithigher thantheoriginalinitialmodulus.

Upon returning totheoriginalRHlevelof45% one observes thatthestressdropstozero asseen in Fig 14 Forrestrainedmaterials, anysignificantexcursionfromoneRHleveltoanothercan alter(increase)theyieldpoint Ifthespecimenis alreadystressed(loaded),theexcursioncan also reinitializethestresslevelwhentheRHreturnstoitsoriginalsetting.

ConsideringthatnearlyallmaterialsfoundinculturalinstitutionshaveexperiencedRH excursion much greaterthanthe“recommendedguidelines” they have toonedegreeoranother actuallyinitializedthemselvestotheaverageRHsettings oftheircurrentenvironments .Itsimply cannotbeprevented.Accordinglyassumingthattheinitialstressiszerointhisdiscussionisnot unreasonable.

Ontheotherhandtherearetimeswherethematerialsremainunderfairlyhighstressanditis usefultoexplorethatcondition. Figure15shows thestresslevelsdevelopedinsamplesoftulip poplarwhenrestrained anddesiccated.Thesamplesarealltangentiallycut. Thesample desiccatedfrom85%RHto15%RHisbendingoverindicatingthatsomeplasticdeformationis

occurring. Thesampledesiccatedfrom80%RHto20%RHfollowsnearlythesamepathwhen decreasingandincreasingtherelativehumidity.Thisindicatesthatthewoodisactinginanearly fullelasticbehavior.Thisindicatesthattheinitialyieldpointisconsiderablyhigherthanthe estimated0.005.Thesampledesiccatedfrom58%RHto7%RHisa ctinginacompletelyelastic manner.Noneofthesamplesfailedinthesetests.Evenwithveryhighexistingstresses, restrainedwoodscansafelyfluctuateinwideRHbands.Fromabout60%RHto10%RHthe processiscompletelyelastic(reversible).This indicatesthattheinitialyieldpoint , estimatedat 0.005,isveryconservativeandconsiderablyhigher. Thisbehavioralsofallswithinthe requirementthatthereisneitherpermanentdeformationnorfailure.

TulipPoplar,restraineddesiccationtests

Figure15 showsthestresslevelsdevelopedinsamplesoftulippoplarrestrainedanddesiccated. Thesamplesarealltangentiallycut. Thesampledesiccatedfrom80%RHto20%RHfollows nearlythesamepathwhendecreasingandincreasingtherelativehumidity. Thisindicatesthat thewoodisactinginanearlyfullelasticbehavior.Thisindicatesthattheinitialyieldpointis considerablyhigherthantheestimated0.005

Laterinthispaperwewillexaminethosecaseswherethereisexistingstressinthematerials.

Examplesof OtherMaterials

Someofthematerialsfoundinculturalinstitutionscantrulybeconsideredbrittle.Thismeans thatthereisverylittle, ifanycapacityforplasticdeformation.Inthesecasesthematerialsoften actasiftheyarecompletelyelastic.Oneotherfeatureofthesetypesofmaterialsisthatthewill breakwithverylittledeformationorintermsofmechanicsthestraintofailureisextremely small.

Someofthesematerialsincludegessoes and somebrittlepaintssuchasold(andevensomenew) oilpaintsanddegradedmaterialssuchasdeterioratedpaper. Whileitisimpossibletolookat everymaterialfoundincollectionsatthistime,fewhavegreaterdimensionalresponsesthan woods,glues,andIvory.Thosematerialsthataresomewhatresponsivesuchaspaper, parchment,andtextilestendtobeexhibitedin such amanner thatthereislittlerestraint andor theyare bufferedbyframingtechniquesandexhibitioncases.

Inthissectionwewilldiscussgessoandoilpaints.Paintssuchastheacrylicsareextremely flexibleinnormalroomtemperatureenvironments.Enamelscanin many respects fallunderthe categoryofoilpaints. Thealkydpaintscanalsobeplacedinthecategoryofoils,notbecause theyarethesamechemicallybutbecausetheyhavesimilarifnotbetterpropertiesthantheoils withrespecttorelativehumidity.Paintssuchasthebutyrateandnitratedopesusedonthefabrics ofearlyaircraftareextremelydurableasevidencedbytheirabilitytowithstandoutdoor environmentsforconsiderableamountsoftime.Themostseriousproblemwithoil,alkydand acrylicpaintsistheirsusceptibilityto damageby lowtemperature and willbediscussedinsome detailinthesectionontemperatureeffects.

Traditionalgessois amixtureofwater,rabbitskin(hide)glueandaninertmaterialssuchas calciumsulfate(gypsum).Otherinertmaterialsusedwerecalciumcarbonate(chalk)andground marbledust.Inmorerecenttimestitaniumdioxidepigmenthasbeenused.Traditionallygesso wasappliedasasolutionontowoodpanelspriortopainting.Whendryitprovid ed asmooth absorbentsurface.Thiswasparticularlyeffectivewhenpaintingineggtempera. Insomeofthe traditionalrecipesforgessomolasseswasaddedtoimprove itsflexibility.

There were some gessoes used in canvaspaintingbutthematerialprovedtobetoobrittle.Other typesofgessoescalledboleswereusedtoprepareframesforgilding. Theinertmaterialusedin gildingwasclaycalledgilder’sclaybut rabbitskingluewasstillused.Whileclaycanbesome whatresponsivetomoisturethemostactivematerialwasstillthehideglue.

Boththedimensionalresponseandthemechanicalpropertiesofgessodependonthestrengthof thehideglueusedandtheratioofgluetoinertmaterials.Thatratioisusuallydescribedinterms ofthepercentpigmentvolumerationorPVC.Thehigherthevolumeofinertmaterial(orPVC) themorebrittlethegessoandlesstheresponsivetomoisturewithrespecttodimensional changes. Ingeneralstiffandbrittlegessoes willhavelittledimensionalresponsetochangesin relativehumidity.ThemechanicalpropertieswillchangesignificantlyhoweverwhentheRH levelsarechanged. (Mecklenburg,1992)

Figures16 and1 7 s howthemechanicalpropertiesofgessoesmadewithhideglueandcalcium carbonate.Gesso10A,shownin Fig. 16 showsreplicatedtestsofagessoatthreedifferentlevels ofRH,16%,49%and96%.Thepigmentvolumeconcentrationof thegesso is71%.From 49% RHto16%RHthemechanicalpropertiesarefairlysimilarbutasisshownthestraintofailureis veryclosetoourassignedyieldstrainwhentheRHisat16%.At96%RH,thestrengthofthe gessoisgreatlydiminishedbutitremainsquiteflexible. At moderatetovery lowhumidity levels gessocanbeconsideredtobenearly brittle.

Figure17 showsthemechanicaltestsgesso10B atthreedifferentenvironments,17%RH,55% RH,and84%RH.Thepigmentvolumeconcentrationofthisgessois71%but16% molasses (by weight) wasaddedtoactasatraditionalplasticizer.Theadditionofthemolasseshasseveral effects.Thegessoisnowweakerthanthegessowithoutthemolasses.Itismoreresponsiveto thechangesinrelativehumidity.Forexamplethe samplestestedat17%RHaremuchstiffer than gesso10Aandfailsatastrainof0.004whichisbelowtheassignedyieldstrain.Atthemid rangerelativehumidity levels, thesamples aremoreflexibleandthestraintofailureisgreater thangesso10A.

Figures 16 showsthestressstraintestsforreplicatedsamplesof Gesso10A atthreedifferent environments.Thegessowas madewithhideglue with gram strength of251 andcalcium carbonate.ThePVC ofthegesso was71 %. (DatacourtesyofDr.LauraFusterLopez)

Gesso10A,75F

Gesso10B,75F

Figure 16 showsthestressstraintestsforreplicatedsamplesofGesso10Batthreedifferent environments.Thegessowasmadewithhidegluewith gram strengtho f 251 andcalcium carbonate.ThePVCofthegessowas71%. Gesso10Bhasasadded16%(byweight)molasses. (DatacourtesyofDr.LauraFusterLopez)

AtthehigherRHlevelof84%,gesso10Bhasnearlylostallofitsstrength.Atevenhigher humidityaround90%thismaterialwilllooseallstrength.Clearlyoneneedstostayinthe mid rangeRHforthismaterial.

Itisnownecessarytodeterminetheallowablehumidityranges.Figure 18 showstheallowable RHfluctuationsfor Gessoes10Aand10B iftheyieldpointof0.005isusedasthecriterionfor environmentalRHlimits.These fluctuationsrangebetween 18 %RHand 73%RHascompared totheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53% RH. ThiswideallowablerangeofRH occurssimplybecausethedimensionalresponsetochangesinrelativehumidityissolow.

Currentguidlines

Figures 18 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsforGessoes10Aand10Biftheyieldpointof 0.005isusedasthecriterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween 18%RHand73%RHascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53%RH. Gessoes10Aand10Bweremadewiththehideglueandcalciumcarbonate.ThePVCwas71%. Gesso10Bhasasadded16%(byweight)molasses. (DatacourtesyofDr.LauraFusterLopez)

Asbefore,itwasassumedthattheinitialstressatthesetpointRHof47%waszero.Thismight betrueforpanelpaintingsthathadbeensubjectedtolargeenvironmentalswingsin their history butwhataboutnewerpaintings andthosethathaveahistoryofmoderateenvironments.

Supposethatwetakedifferentsamplesofgesso, addingtotheonesalreadydiscussed,restrain themandsystematicallydesiccatethem Inthiswayitispossibletoactuallymeasurethestresses developedbutalsoillustratetheRHrangesthatareactuallypossiblewithoutcausingthe specimenstobreak.

Figure 19 showstheresultofconductingsuchatest. Thegessosamplesusedaredescribedas follows.

Gessoes10Aand10B

Gesso10B

Gesso10A, W&Hhidegluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=71%

Gesso10B, W&Hhidegluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=71%,16%Molasses

Gesso11A, Bjornhide gluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=75%

Gesso11B, Bjornhidegluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=75%,16%Molasses

Gesso12A, Bjornhidegluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=69%

Gesso12B, Bjornhidegluecalcium,carbonate,PVC=69%,16%Molasses

The gessosamples wereallrestrained at70%RHanddesiccateincrementally .Ateach incrementofRH they acquired equilibrium andthestresslevelsrecorded.Asdesiccation proceeded thestressincrease d inthegessosamples. Atabout18%RHthetestisreversedinthat thehumidityisnowincreased.Asthehumidityincreasesthestresslowers. At45%RH,our museumsetpoint,allofthegessosamplesalreadyhavesignificantstresslevels.Soourinitial assumptionthatthestressesneedtobezeroisnotnecessarilyrequired. Whatisextremely significanthereisthatthedownwardstresspathsare nearly identicaltotheupwardstresspaths. Thismeansthatthegessosamplestested areallexhibitingnearlyfullelasticbehaviorwithout anyplasticdeformation.Thisinturnmeansthattheoriginalassumptionthattheinitialyield strainforthegessowas0.005wasinaccurate,itisactuallymuchhigher.

Itisalsoofsignificancethatnone ofthespecimensbroke duringthistesteventhoughthe relativityhumidity rangewas from70%RHto18%,whichisclearlywaybeyondthecurrent museumenvironmentguidelines.Thisformofrestrainedtestingwillbeexamined withother materialsasthisdiscussionproceeds.

GessoRestrainedTests

Figure19 showsthetestresultsof6differentgessosampleswhenrestrainedanddesiccated.In thistest,stressincreasesasthehumidityislowered.Samples11Aand11B,thegessoeswiththe highestPVC(75%)havethelowesthidegluecontentand aretheleastresponsivetoRH. (Data courtesyofDr.LauraFusterLopez)

Therecanbenoquestionthatintheearlypanelpaintingsthegessolayerwastheweaklinkin thestructure. Inthe15 th centurywherebotheggtemperaandoilpaintswereused, atypicalwood panelpaintingconstructionwasmultilayered.Theprimarysupportwaswood,thenalayerof hideglue,possiblyalayeroffabric,agessolayerandthenthecoloreddesignlayersandpossibly gilding.Figures 20 – 23 showbothtemperaandoilpanelpaintingsanddetailsofpaintingsfrom the15th century.In bothcasescracksappearinthedesignlayers.Whatisofinterestisthese cracks originatedinthegessolayersofbothpaintingsandthatthecracksare primarily perpendiculartothegrainofthewoodpanels.

Thismeansthatthewoodpanelandgesso arerespondingindependentlytotheenvironmental changesinmoisture.Ithasalreadybeenshownthatthewooddoesnotsignificantlychange dimensionallyinthedirectionparalleltothegrainandinthiscaseitisactingasarestraintto the dimensionalchangeinthegessolayersofthesepanelpaintings.Since thegessolayersare

restrainedindirection paralleltothegrainofthewood andhasbeensubjectedtofairlylargeand uncontrolledchangesinambientrelativehumidity thegessocracks.These paintingsare excellentexamplesofhowonematerialinthepaintingcanrestrainanother. Ontheotherhand thewooddoesmovewithmoisturechangeinthedirectionperpendiculartothegrainofthewood andwhendesiccationoccurs,theshrinkingofthe woodrelievesthestressesandstrainsinthe contractinggessolayers limitingcrackingparalleltothegrain ofthewood

Figure 20 ,GentiledaFabriano,Marchigian,c.1370 -1427, MadonnaandChildEnthroned,c 1420,Temperaonpanel,3711/16in.x 22¼in.(95.7x56.5cm),SamuelH.KressCollection,

1939.1.255 (Courtesyofthe NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.)

Figure 21, detail,showingcrackslargely perpendiculartothegrainofthewoodsupport.Gentile daFabriano,Marchigian,c. 1370-1427, MadonnaandChildEnthroned,c1420,Temperaon panel,3711/16in.x22¼in.(95.7x56.5cm),SamuelH.KressCollection,1939.1.255. (courtesyofthe NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.)

Figure 22,FraLippoLippiandworkshop,Flo rentine,c.1406-1469, TheNativity,probablyc 1445,oilandtempera(?)onpanel,91/8in.x21¾in.(23.2x55.3cm),SamuelH.Kress Collection,1939.1.279.(courtesyofthe NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.)

Figure 23, detailshowingcra cksperpendiculartothegrainofthewoolpanel.FraLippoLippi andworkshop,Florentine,c.1406-1469, TheNativity,probablyc1445,oilandtempera(?)on panel,91/8in.x21¾in.(23.2x55.3cm),SamuelH.KressCollection,1939.1.279 .(Courtesy ofthe NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C. )

Thereareotherobservationstobemade.Oneisthatthereislittlecrackinginthepaintlayers independentofthegessolayers.Eggtemperaformsaverytoughfilmresistanttobothmoisture andcleaningsolvents.SeeminglyintheFralippoLippi (figures21-21) theoilsare demonstratingasimilartoughness. Finallythequestionthatneedsaskingis:whatwerethe environmentalchangesthatoccurredtocausesuchcrackinginthesepaintings?Fromthe researchabovethechangehadtohavebeengreaterthanfrom70%RHto20%RHandit probablywasmoreintheorderof85%to25%.

OilPaints

Oilpaintsarecomplexinthatthedifferentpigmentscausepaintstodryhavingverydifferent RH-related mechan ical anddimensional properties. Somepigmentswhenaddedtodryingoils formverydurablepaintswhileotherssuchastheearthcolorpigmentsformweakpaints. In additionoilpaintsmadewiththewhitepigments,basicleadcarbonate,titaniumdioxide,and zincoxideareverydimensionallystable.Ontheotherhandthosepaintsmadewiththeearth colors,suchasochre,umber,andSiennagetfairlyresponsivewhentherelativehumidity exceeds60%.Thisisaresultoftheswellingofnaturalclaysfoundinthesepigments.Itwillbe usefultoexaminesomeofthesepaints

Figure 24 showthestressstrainresultsfordifferentpaintsafterdryingforatleast12yearsina controlledenvironmentof40%-50%RHand23o C. Becauseofhydrolysis,thepaintsmad ewith theearthcolorsdevelopverylittlestrengthandstiffnessevenafter12.25yearsofdrying.The paintsmadewithtitaniumwhiteandbasicleadcarbonatehavenearlythesamemodulus (initial stiffness) butthetitaniumwhitehaslittlestrengthanditsextensionbarelyreachestheyieldpoint of0.005(0.5%elongation).Thetitaniumwhitecanbeconsidereda weakand brittlepaint.The paintmadewiththezincoxidehasdevelopedaveryhighmodulusandwhileithasdevelopeda highstrength,itis averystrong, brittle paint havingabreakingstrainofonly0.003(0.3% elongation).Thepaintmadewithmalachiteisincludedtoillustratetheeffectsofpigments containingcopper compounds

Paintstestedat48%RH,75F

Figure 24,theresultsofstressstraintestsconducted ofpaintsmadewithdifferentpigments.As canbeseenthedifferentpigmentshaveadramaticeffectonthemechanicalpropertiesofoil paints.Itmustbenotedthatpigmentvolumeconcentrationscanalsohavesimilareffectsbut thesedataarearesultofthedifferentpigments.

Itisnecessarytounderstandthatwhilethestrengthofpaintisimportantitsabilitytoelongate (itsflexibility) isoffargreaterimportance.Itdoesn’ttakeagreatdealofforcetocrackthinpaint filmseventhoughthey haverelativelyhighstrength Itwouldbeusefultolookatsomeoilpaints madewithdifferentpigments.

Figure 25 showsthetensilestress -straintestsofapaintmadebygrindingbasicleadcarbonatein coldpressedlinseedoil.Thispaintwouldbetypicalofapaintmadeseveralhundredyearsago, thatis withouttheadditionofanymoderndriers,stabilizers,orinertbulkingmaterial.Asshown inthisfigure,thepaintisgettingstronger(greaterstressatbreak)asthetimeofdrying continues,andthereisamodestreductioninthestrain( elongation)atthepointoffailure.The strains tofailure inthi s paint arefairlyhighand itis stillquiteflexibleafter14.25yearsof drying.Onepointofinterestisthatthepaintshowsacontinualincreaseinstrengthoverthistime period.Thismeansthatwhateverchemicalprocessesthataffectthemechanicalpropertiesofthis paintarestillcontinuing

Leadwhiteincoldpressedlinseedoil,23C,50%RH

0.18Yearsold

Figure 25 showsthestressversusstrainplotsofbasicleadcarbonatepaintmadewithcold pressedlinseedoilatdifferentages.Evenafter14.25years,thepaintisstillgaininginstiffness andstrength.Theseplotsindicatethattheprocessesthatcausetheincreaseinstiffnessand strengthshowlittleindicationofslowingdown.

Figure26 shows thetensilestress-straintestsfor whitelead(basicleadcarbonate)groundincold pressedlinseedoil atdifferentRHlevels.NotethatatverylowRHlevelsthematerialisstill ductileandnotbrittle.Athighhumiditylevels the paint looses some strength butincreasesin flexibility.Theyieldpointusedforalloftheplotsisindicatedbythearrowatastrain0.005. As withothermaterialspaintalsostrainharden.Whiteleadoilpaintisaverydurablepaintandthis showsinactualpaintingssubjectedtoveryadverseenvironmentalchanges.

Figure 26 showsthetensilestress-straintestsfor whitelead(basicleadcarbonate)groundin coldpressedlinseedoil atdifferentRHlevels.NotethatatverylowRHlevelsthematerialis still ductileandnotbrittle.Athighhumiditylevels thepaint looses some strength butincreases inflexibility.Theyieldpointsusedforalloftheplotsisindicatedbythearrowatastrain0.005. Aswithothermaterialspaintalsostrainharden. (N/Fme annottofailure)

Figure27 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsfor leadwhiteoilpaint iftheyieldpointof0.005 isusedasthecriterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween 0%RH and 100 %RHascomparedtotheguidelinesre commendationof37%RHand53% RH. Itisthe goodmechanicalpropertiesandthelowdimensionalresponsetomoisturethatexplainsthe durabilityofleadwhiteoilpaint.Whentheleadbasedpaintswerereplacedwithotherwhites duetotoxicityissues,thecommercialreplacementwhitesincludedoilpaintsmadewithmixtures oftitaniumdioxideandzincoxideorzincoxidealone.Bothofthesecommercialoilpaint exhibitbrittlenessandlowdimensionalresponse.

10yearoldwhiteleadincoldpressedlinseedoil

Figure 27 showstheallowableRHfluctuat ionsfor leadwhiteoilpaint iftheyieldpointof0.005 isusedasthecriterionforenvironmentalRHlimits.Thesefluctuationsrangebetween 0%RH and 100 %RHascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RHand53% RH.

LookingatExtremelyBrittlePaints

Ifoneexaminesfigure 24 closelyitiseasilyseenthatoilpaintsmadewithzincoxideortitanium dioxideareextremelybrittle.Somuchsothatthestrainsatfailureareeitherattheyieldpoint (titaniumwhite)orbelowtheyieldpoint (zincwhite).Inthesecasesitmightappearthatthese materialscouldbeconsideredlimitingfactors whenestablishingRHboundariesformuseums.

Howeveroilpaintsmadewitheithertitaniumorzinchaveextremelylowdimensional response rates tomoisture.Figure2 8 and2 9 illustratethis. Inthecaseofthetitaniumwhitepaintifone uses strainlimitsof+/- 0.002insteadoftheyieldstrainof+/ - 0.005 therewouldstillbea largeallowableRHrangebetween28%RHand 66%RH asshowninfigure28

Inthecaseoftheoilpaintmadewiththezincoxidetheallowablerangewouldbe from 17 %RH to63%RH iftheallowablestraincriterionof only +/- 0.002wereusedinsteadofthe+/ - 0.005 asshownin Fig. 29

20yearoldtitaniumwhiteinsaffloweroil

Currentguidelines

Allowablerange usingonly+/-0.002

Figure28 showstheallowableRHfluctuationsfor titaniumwhite oilpaint ifthe straincriterion ofonly+/- 0.002andnotthe yieldpointof +/- 0.005 are used . These allowable fluctuations rangebetween 28 %RHand 66%RHascomparedtotheguidelinesrecommendationof37%RH and53% RH.

20YearZincWhiteOilPaint

CurrentGuidelines

fluctuationswith Astrainof+/-0.002

RelativeHumifity(%)

Figure 29,theswellingresponsetolargechangesinrelativehumidityof20yearold zinc white paint groundinalkalirefinedlinseed oil.Aswiththeotherwhitepaintsshown,thereisverylittle dimensionalresponsetochangesinRH.

Figure 30 shows themechanicaltestresultsofpaintsmadewiththepigmentsrawumberand yellowochreat1.25yearsand12.25years.Wherethewhiteleadpaintincoldpressedlinseedoil continuetostiffenovertheyears(figure25),thesetwopaints(andoilpaintsmadewithburnt umber)showanincreaseinstiffnessuptoaround1.25yearsandatsomepointthereafterthe paintsproceedtoloosethatearlystiffness.At12.25yearsthepaintsaretruefilmsbuttheyare extremelyweakandtheyhavelostsomeoftheir abilitytoelongate.Thereasonthisishappening isbecausethesepaintsarebecominghydrolyzedbymoistureintheair (Mecklenburgetal,2005 andTumosaetal,2005)

Hydrolysisisoccurringveryearlyinthesepaint’sdryinghistoryandinspiteof thefactthat thesepaintshavebeenmaintainedinaverybenignenvironmentof23o Cand40%-55%RH.

Paintstestedat48%RH,23C

Figure 30 showsthemechanicaltestresultsofpaintsmadewiththepigmentsrawumberand yellowochreat1.25yearsand12.25years.Wherethewhite leadpaintincoldpressedlinseed continuetostiffenovertheyears(Fig. 25),thesetwopaintsshowanincreaseinstiffnessupto around1.25yearsandatsomepointshortlythereafterthepaintsproceedtoloosethatearly stiffness.At12.25yearsthepaintsaretruefilmsbuttheyareextremelyweakandtheyhavelost theirabilitytoelongate. Thisis occurring becausethesepaintsarebecominghydrolyzedby moistureintheair

Yellowochre,1.25years

Rawumber,12.25years

Coldpressedlinseedoil(CPLO)

Yellowochre,12.25years

Rawumber,1.25years

Thepaintsmadewiththeearthcolors tendtobe lowinstrengthat50% RH andh igherhumidity, above 70%, seriouslydegradetheirstrengthfurther. Itisbecausethesepaintsasweakthatthey areeasilydamagedbysolventsinthecleaningofpaintings. Neverthelessthepaintsmadewith theearthcolorscanwithstandanallowableRHrangeofbetween3 0%and6 4% asshownin F ig 31

20yearoldyellowochreinlinseedoil

Currentguidelines

AllowableRHrangewith strains+/-0.005 +/-0.005

RelativeHumidity(%)

Figure 31 shows theallowableRHfluctuationsfor yellowochreoilpaint if using a yieldpoint criterion of +/- 0.005 is used for establishingthe environmentalRHlimits.Theseallowable fluctuationsrangebetween 30%RHand64%RHascomparedtotheguidelines recommendationof37%RHand53%RH.

InteractiveBehaviorinCompositeStructures andtheEffectsofhighRH

Insomeways, simplestcompositestructureispaintedwood. Theillustrationsofsomeofthe behaviorofwoodpanelpaintingsshownin Figs. 20-23 demonstratetherestraintofwoodon gesso. Forthosepanelpaintingshavingoilgroundsandoildesignlayers thesame dimensional parametershold.Thatis; constraintinthedirectionofthegrainandreleaseofstressesandstrains perpendiculartograin. Certainlyoilpaintingsonwoodcanhavecrackingbuttherealquestionis

whatwasresponsible, thepaintorthewood? Inmostcaseswherethepaintisdamagedbythe wooditis discerniblesincethecracksinthepaintlayerareparalleltothegrainofthewood.This makessensesincethewoodmovesthemostindirectionperpendiculartothegrain.Buttodo thatthewoodhastomovealotandthisrequiresverylargechangesinrelativehumidity.

Inthosecaseswherepaintcleavesintentsparalleltothegrainofthewood,excessivelyhigh humidityandrestraint tothewoodhastohaveoccurred.Athighhumidityandwhenrestrained thewood“compressionsets”andbecomessmallerthanbefore.Ondryingoutthewoodshrinks leavinglessroomforthedesignlayercleaved offinridges.

Butconsiderthecasewherethereis totalconstraint ofthesupport inalldirectionswhen consideringchangesinrelativehumidity.Suchacaseistheoilpaintingoncopper.Suchtotal restraintisrareforthereissomemovementof wood even inthelongitudinaldirection. Copperis totallyunresponsive (dimensionally) tochangesinmoistureyetoilpaintingsoncopperaresome ofthemostdurablepaintingsexistingtoday asseeninthepainting by JanvanKessel in F ig 32

“And,asartistsbeginningwithLeonardodaVinci(Italian1452-1519)suspected, paintingsoncopperthatarewellcaredforareextremelydurableandgenerally surviveinexcellentcondition” (Bowron,1999)

Itwouldbeexpectedthatifoilpaintsareexcessivelyresponsivemoisturechangesinthe environment andthecopperisactingasaperfectrestraint therewouldbeextensivedamagesto suchpaintings.

Yetthereis aremarkablelackofcrackingonmanypaintingsoncopper. Whenthereiscracking itismostlyfineandrandom sincethecoppersupportprovidesno dimensional biastothepaint films. M uch ofthe mechanical damage foundin paintingsoncopper resultswh enthecopper supports are dentedorfolded. Oilpaintingsoncopperrepresentoneofthemostsignificantclues astotheactualdurabilityofoilpaintswithrespecttomoistureintheenvironment

Figure32 showstheremarkablestateofpreservationof anoiloncopper.Thisparticularpainting isby JanvanKessel, StudyofButterflyandInsects,c1655,Oiloncopper,45/16 in. x513/16 in.

Figure32, JanvanKessel, StudyofButterflyandInsects ,c1655,Oiloncopper,45/16 in. x5 13/16 in. 1983.19.3 (PhotocourtesyoftheNationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.)

Canvas P aintings

Canvaspaintings represent some ofthemostcomplexstructuresintheculturalworld. Thisis becauseofthewidelyvariedmaterialsusedandtheircomplexresponsetotheenvironment.This canonlybeillustratedbylookingateachlayerindividuallyandthensuperimposingthelayers

together. Across-sectionofatraditionalcanvassupportedoilpaintingisshownin Fig 33 This assemblyincludesthe“support” canvas,agluesizelayer,anoilgroundandtheoildesignlayers. Asisshowninthefigurethegluesizelayerinalmosttoothintosee. Thisparticular sectionwas froma19th centuryItalianpainting.

Figure32,theconstructionofatr aditionalcanvassupportedpainting.Thisassemblyincludes the“support”canvas,agluesizelayer,anoilgroundandtheoildesignlayers. Thisparticular sectionwasfroma19th centuryItalianpainting.Thegreenbaratthetopofthepictureis0.04 in. (1mm).(Thecross-sectionandphotographcourtesyofMelvinJ.Wachowiak)

Figure34showsadetailofthesame19th centuryItalianpainting asshowninFig.33but looking fromthefront. Thisassemblyincludesthe“support”canvas,agluesizelaye r,anoilgroundand theoildesignlayers. Asisshowninthisfigurethegluesizelayeris anextremelythinfilm bridgingthegapsintheweaveofthecanvas. Eventhoughverythinthislayerisstillvery responsivetochangesinRH.

Figure34 sho wsadetailofthesame19th centuryItalianpaintingshowninFig.33butlooking fromthefront. Asisshowninthisfigurethegluesizelayerisanextremelythinfilmbridging thegapsintheweaveofthecanvas.Eventhoughverythinthislayerisstillveryresponsiveto changesinRH. (P hotographcourtesyofMelvinJ.Wachowiak)

Oneofthemostmisunderstoodfeaturesofthecanvassupported paintingsisthesupportitself. Whereithasbeen considered thatthecanvasofthepaintingisthesupport, inactualityitisthe gluesizethatmaintains thehighestforcesformostoftheRHranges.Thiscanbeillustratedby lookingattheindividuallayersofthepaintingwhentheyarerestrainedandsubjectedtochanges inrelativehumidity. (Mecklenburg, 1982)

Inadditiontoexploringhoweachlayerofthepaintingrespondstotheenvironmentalchangesit ispossibletodeterminetheactualdamagemechanismsthatoccuratdifferentlevelsofrelative humidity. Whereitwasassumedthattheinitialstressesinthematerials were zero, thatcondition

rarely existsinastretchedcanvaspainting.Aswillbeshownthestressesineachlayervary considerablywithchangesinrelativehumidity.

Forthisdiscussionlet’srestrainsamplesoflineninboththewarpandfilldirections.Once restraineditispossibletoseetheforcesthataredevelopedinthematerial.Inthissectioneachof thematerialsexaminedwillbeofthethicknessencounteredinatypical painting. Itisimportant tonotethattheforceperwidthofsampleactingonindividualmaterialsisusedsinceitis notpracticaltocalculatethestressesinalinentextile. Usingthisstrategy,itisalsopossible toexaminetheeffectsofthethicknessesofeachofthedifferentlayers.

Inbuildingthecompositepaintingfromthesupportcanvasupitisusefultostartwiththe canvas. ThesampleoflinentestedwasfromanUlster#8800canvas.Itisamediumweight canvasandwouldbefoundonmany easelpaintings.Boththeweftandfilldirectionswere tested.AninitialforcewasappliedtothespecimensatmidRHandtherelativehumiditywas incrementallychanged andtheforceperwidthrecorded.Thiswascontinuedforseveralcycles overalargerangeofrelativehumidity.

Figure35 showst heresultsofsuchtesting. Between10%RHand60%RHthereisrelatively littlechangeintheforceoneitherthewarpoffilldirections ofthetextile.From60%RHon thereisagradualincreaseinstressandabove80%RHtheforceincreasesdramatically.When damporwet,loosetextilesshrinkdramaticallyandwhenrestrainedtheshrinkageshowupas significantforcesinthetextile.Thisisthefirstindicationthatdramaticeventstakeplacein canvaspaintingswhenthehumiditygets very high.This behavior was replicated usingawide varietyofdifferenttextiles byGerryHedleyattheCanadianConservationInstitute. (Hedley, 1988)

Figures 35 showsthetensileforcesperwidthmeasuredinindividualrestrainedsamplesofthe #8800lineninthewarpandfilldirectionswith changing relativehumidity.Thegreaterforces developwhentherelativehumidityisabove80%.

Ofallofthematerialsusedincanvaspaintingshideglueisthestrongestandnearlythestiffest.It isalsotheonematerialthatdevelopsthemostforcewhenrestrainedanddesiccated.Itisbecause thismaterialisbothstiff(andstrong)andhasahighdimensionalresponseatlowhumiditythatit developssomuchforce.Figure36 showsboththeforceperwidth (andstress) a very thinfilm (0.00047in.) ofgluewilldevelopwhenrestrainedanddesiccatedfrom85%to15%RH.The thicknessofthefilmisaboutthesameasthatfoundasasizecoatingonapainting. (SeeFig.34)

Restraineddesiccationofhideglue

Figure 36 showstheforceperwidthofrestrained samples ofhidegluewhendesiccatedfrom 85%to15%RH.Thestressofthehideglueatthemaximumforceperwidthofthesesamples was3920psi. From80%RHandabovethehidegluehasnostrengthandthereforenoabilityto retainthebondbetweenthe canvasandgroundlayers.

Ingeneral,theforceperwidth(andstress)developedinrestrainedanddesiccatedoilpaintis considerablylessthantheothermaterialsfoundinpaintings.Oneofthereasonsisthatwiththe exceptionofsomeofthepaints madewiththeearthcolors,thedimensionalresponsetohumidity changesislow.Ontheotherhandwhiletheearthcolorstendtohaveahigherdimensional responsetheyhaverelativelylowstiffness.Figure37 showstwopaintsamplesrestrainedand desiccatedfromaround75%to5%RH.Evenwiththislargechangeinrelativehumidity,the forcesandstressesdevelopedarelow.Sothelikely hoodthat largechanges in lowhumidity alone can damagetheoilpaintlayerislow.Ittakesacombinationofmaterialsandtheir individualresponsestochangesinhumiditytocausedeterioration.Thiscanbedemonstratedby superimposingallofthelayersofapaintingtogetherandcomparingtheresultswithanactual painting.

Restraineddesiccationofoilpaints

13YearoldLeadWhite, 0.0051in.thick (maxstress=94.3psi)

13YearoldNaplesYellow, 0.0063in.thick

Figure 37 showstheforceperwidthof restrainedsamplesofleadwhiteandNaplesyellowoil paints.Thestressofthewhiteleadpaintatthemaximumforceperwidthofthissamplewasonly 94.3psi. Theforceperwidthofthepaintsisconsiderablylowerthanthehideglueandabit lower thanthe#8800linenshowninfigure 33 .Thethicknessesindicatedforthepaintsamplesis typicalofthosefoundinpaintings.

Superpositionofthedifferentpaintlayers

Itispossibletoplottheinformationfrom Figs. 35,3 6,and37 onthesamegraphasshownin Fig 38.Thethicknessofthesefilmsarethesameshownintheirrespectivefiguresandwouldbe typicalofacommonpainting.Inthisfigureitispossiblecomparetheresponsesoftheindividual layersofacanvaspaintingandtodetermine thedifferentforcesoccurring at differentlevelsof RH.ForexamplethefabricisdevelopinghighforcesonlyathighRHlevelsandstaying relativelyconstantathumiditylevelsbelow80%.Thehideglueisdevelopinghighforces atvery lowRHlevelsbutloosesall strength atlevelsabove80%RH.Alsonotethatthepaintfilmsare developingrelativelylow forces andthatisonlyatverylowlevelsofRH.

Figure 37 showstheforceperwidthofrestrainedsamplesoflinen,hideglue,andleadwhitean d Naplesyellowoilpaints.Thethicknessofthesefilmsarethesameshownintheirrespective figuresandwouldbetypicalofacommonpainting. Usingthis figureitispossiblecomparethe responsesoftheindividuallayerstothatofanactualcanvaspaintingandtodeterminethe differentforcesoccurringatdifferentlevelsofRH.Forexamplethefabricisdevelopinghigh forcesathighRHlevelsandthehideglueisdevelopinghighforcedatverylowRHlevels.

Therestrainedtestingofsamplesfrom anactualpainting

Figure38 shows theforceperwidthdevelopedinrestrainedsamplesofa1906paintingby DuncanSmith. This paintingw as constructedwithamediumweightmachinewovenfabric,a hidegluesize,aleadwhitegroundandadesignlayer ofrawandburntumber.Itisimportantto notethattherearetwoareasofhighforcedevelopment,oneattheverylowlevelsofRHandthe otherattheveryhighlevelsofRH.Thisiscomparabletotheforcedevelopmentofhideglueand thecanvasasshownin Fig. 37. Whenlooking at this figureitiseasyto determine whichlayers ofanactualpainting aredevelopingthehighestforcesatdifferentlevelsofrelativehumidity.

AlsowhenlookingatbothFigures 37 and 38,italsobecomesapparentwhichm aterialsare loosingalloftheirstrength.Forexampleitissafetosaythat above80%RH thehideglueisno

8800linen

Hidegluesize

longeractingasthesecurebondbetweenthegroundandlinencanvas.From80%RHandabove thepaintlayerisclearlyatriskofdelaminatingfromthecanvas.AtthissameRHthepaints filmsarethemostflexiblebutarealsointheirweakeststate.From80%RHandbelowtheforces inthefabric are changingverylittle.Above80%RH,thefabricwillshrinkiflooseandcertainly delaminatethe designlayers attachedtoit.Thiswillbeexploredinmoredetailinlatersections. Onefurthercommenthereisthatfrom10%RHto75%RH,theforcelevelinthegluelayerisso muchhigherthantheotherlayers,includingthelinencanvas.Inthisrangethehideglueisthe supportofthepainting.

UnknownAmericanPortraitbyDuncanSmith(1906)

Figure 38 showstheforcesperwidthofrestrainedsamplesofanactualpaintinginbothwarp andfilldirections.Thesepaintingsampleswereconstructedwithamediumweightmachine wovenfabric,ahide gluesize,aleadwhitegroundandadesignlayerofrawandburntumber.It isimportanttonotethattherearetwoareasof highforcedevelopment,oneattheverylowlevels ofRHandtheotherattheveryhighlevelsofRH.Thisiscomparabletotheforcedevelopment ofhideglueandthecanvasasshowninfigure37

Notalllinensshowthesamebehavior.Otherlinensarewovensuchthatthefilldirectionyarns arequitestraightandhavelittlecrimp.Itisthecrimpinayarnthatcauseshighhumidity shrinkage whenloose andhighforces whenrestrained.Figure39 showstheresponseofsuch

linenwhenrestrainedandsubjectedtochangesinhumidity. Linensofthistypecanshowupin commerciallypreparedartists’canvaseswherethequalityofthelinenislower.Inordertoget thestifferfeelforthelinenheavierlayersofgluesize are appliedtothelinenbeforetheoil groundis applied.Thisresults inevenhigherforcesatthelowhumidityrangesasshownin

Figure 39 showsthetensileforcesperwidthmeasuredinindividualrestrainedsamplesofthe #248lineninthewarpandfilldirectionswithdecreasingrelativehumidity. Inthiscaset he greaterforcesdevelop onlyinthewarpdirection whentherelativehumidityisabove80%. The reasonthereisnoforcedevelopmentinthefilldirectionisbecausetheseyarnsarequitestraight andwithoutthecrimpfoundinthewarpyarns.

Figure 40 showstheresponsetochangesinrelativehumidityofrestrainedsamplesofa1990’s painting Thispaintingwasconstructedwithcommerciallypreparedlinenwithaheavygluesize. Thegroundlayerwasamixtureoflead,titaniumandzincinoil.Ontopofthegroundisalayer oftitaniumandzincinoil.Thetopdesignlayerwastitanium,zincandanearthcolorinoil. At veryhighrelativehumidity,above80%,theforcelevelsrisedramatically onlyinthewarp direction.Sincethereislittlecrimpinthefillyarnsthereisnoforcedeveloped. Ontheother

figure 40

248Linen

handthecauseofthe high forcesdevelopedwithdesiccationisthe additionofathick hideglue sizeinthepainting.

A importantpointtomakeisthatthestartingforcesatthebeginningofthis testwerehigh.Once thehumiditywascycledthestressesloweredtoequilibriumlevels.Thispaintingre-initializedit selfandthisactuallyhappensfrequently.Artistandconservatorsareroutinelyre-stretching paintingsandthereisreallynowayofknowingthelevelofstresscausedbythatstretching.Itis almostaguaranteethatrecentlystretchedpaintingshavehighstresslevelinthedifferentlayers.

Figure 40 shows theforceperwidthdevelopedinrestrainedsamplesofa1990paintingby an unknown American. Thispaintingwasconstructedwithcommerciallypreparedlinen witha heavygluesize.Thegroundlayerwas amixtureoflead, titaniumandzincinoil. Ontopofthe groundisalayeroftitaniumandzincinoil.Thetopdesignlayerwastitanium,zincandanearth colorinoil. Atveryhighrelativehumidity,above 80%,theforcelevelsrisedramatically onlyin thewarpdirection.Sincethereislittlecrimpinthefillyarnsthereisnoforcedeveloped. Onthe otherhandthecauseofthe high forcesdevelopedwithdesiccationisthe additionofathick hide gluesizeinthepainting.

Whiledirectlyrelatedtoenvironmentalfactorsit is usefultolookatthemostobvioussourcesof damage, the simpleexpansionofthestretcher. Examiningtheexpansionofastretcherisalso helpfulinunderstandingwhythemechanicalmeasurementsareuseful.Supposethatasmall paintingof25in.x30in.iskeyed-outinthecornerssuchthatthereisanexpansionof1/16 in.in eachdirectionforallofthecornersasshown infigure 41 Thismeansthatthe 25in. x 30in. paintinghasbeenexpandedatotalof 1/8in. ineachdirection.Thisisactuallyprettytypicalfor olderpaintingsthathavebecomelooseontheirstretchers.

1/16in.

1/16in.

Figure 41 , showthecornerofastretcher keyedout 1/16 in.ineachdirection.

Nowlet’sconsiderwhatthisdeformationdoestotheactualpainting.Figure 42 showsthestrains resultingfromkeyingoutthe 25in. x 30in. paintingatotalof 1/8in. ineachdirection.

Strain=0.01orhigher

Strain=0.0042

Strain=0.005 25in.

Figure 42, showsthestrainsresultingfromkeyingouta 25in.x 30in. paintingatotalof 1/8in. ineachdirection.Crackingisillustratedinallofthecorners.

Strainsarecalculatedasthechangeinlengthdividedbytheoriginallength.Inthemiddleofthe paintingand inthehorizontaldirectionthestrainsare 1/8in./25in. or0.005microstrainswhich istheinitialyieldpointofmostartists’materials.Thisisalso0.5%elongation.Inthecenterof thepaintingandintheverticaldirection,thestrainsare 1/8 in. / 30in. or0.0042(0.42% elongation).

Inthecornershoweverthisisadifferentstory.Becausethepaintingistacked(stapled)tothe stretcherthereislittlefreedomforthepaintingtoexpandandthestretcherexpansionresultsin veryhighstrains.Theclosertothecornerthehigherthestrainsget.Thisiswhyoneoftensees cracksradiatingoutfromthecornersofpaintings. Ifcracksdonotinitiallyoccuratthetimeof thestretching,desiccationcertainlycanprecipitateit. Thepoint ofallofthisisthemagnitudeof thestrainsistypicallyfoundinpaintingscanbeusedasthecriteriafordiscussingthe performanceofpaints.Soifapaintfilm,asshowninamechanicaltestcannotelongatetoa

strainofeven0.005,(0.5%elongation)thenitismostlikelygoingtocrackwithevenmodest stretcherexpansion. Itisgenerallytheextensivedistortionoftherawcanvasatthetacksor staplesattheedgesofpaintingsthatrelievesthestrainsontheactualdesignlayersandmitigates theseverityofstretching.

EffectsofCycling CanvasPaintings inLargeRanges ofRelativeHumidity

Ifa canvas painting, asdescribedinthisdiscussion, isexposedtocyclingoflargechangesin relativehumiditythenanotherformofcornercrackscanoccur.Thiscanbedemonstratedby constructinga“mock”paintingofcanvas,asizelayerofhideglueanda“designlayer” composedofahardgessofilmhavingthemechanicalpropertiesofanoldbrittleoilpaintfilm. Thedimensionsofthepaintingwere 20in.x30in. Thegessolayerwasahideglueandcalcium carbonatemixture (Mecklenburgetal,1994)

Figure 43 illustratestheresultsofsuchanexperiment. Thismockpaintingwascycledfrom90% RHto35%RHandthenbackto90%RH.Each half cycle(fromhightolowRHorlowtohigh RH)required just lessthan 24 hoursforfullequilibration. Periodicallythetestpaintingwas examinedtoseewhatcrackingmighthaveoccurred.Itwasobservedthat withonesmall exception, allofthecracksoccurredatthecornersofthepainting. Attheendsofselectedcycles (#4,#7,and#9),theendsofthecrackswerenotedandmarked.Forexampleacrackwithaline anda“4”markednexttoitindicatedthemaximumextensionofthecrackafter4complete cyclesfrom90%RHto35%RHandbackto90%RH.

Afterninefullcyclesthecrackextensionceasedaswasdemonstratedbyadditionalcycles.The paintingwasthensubjectedtoseveralmoreseverecyclesfrom95%RHto20%RHandback. Therewasnoadditional crackingorcrackextension.Whatisofinterestisthatthefirst4cycles causedthemostinitialdamageandsubsequentcyclesonlyproducedsmallerincrementsofcrack extensionuntilitceasedaltogether.Moreseverecyclesdidnotaddtothedamage.T hecracks

thatdidoccurbegantoactasexpansionjointsandnowthepaintingcanexperiencelargeRH cyclingwithoutfurtherdamage.

Fromthediscussionabovehidegluelosesstrengthathighhumiditylevelsbutdevelopsvery highstresseswhendesiccated.Itwasalsoshownthatactingalonepaintlayerswon’tgenerally develophighstressesanddamagethemselveswhenrestrainedanddesiccated.Itisthe desiccationofthegluelayeractingonthepaintlayerthatcancausesproblems.Thecracks showninthecornerofthetestpainting(Fig43)reflecttheeffectsofthehideglue (andtoasmall extentthepaintitself) pullingfromthecentralregionsandawayfromthecornersofthepainting. Thisdistortsthedesignlayerssufficientlytocausecrackinginthepaintlayeratthecorners. But whyistherenocrackinginthecentralregionsofthepainting?Thisisbecausetheglueandthe paintarecontractingsimultaneouslywithdesiccationandrelieving,notincreasingstressesinthe paintnotincreasingthem. Itwillbeshownthatexposure verywet(notjusthighRH)conditions or lowtemperaturelevelscausethe severe crackingtothecentralregionsofthepaintings.

Figure 43 showstheresultsofcyclingandexperimental“mock”painting tocyclesoflarge changesinrelativehumidity.Additionalcyclingbeyondtheinitial9cycleddidnofurther

damageasthecracksthatoccurredrelievedthestressesduetotheinitialRHcycles.Thismodel paintingwasconstructedwithastretchedcanvas,ahidegluesizeandastiffgessoactingasa designlayer.

Inanactualpainting,itisnotunusualtoseeboththecrackingfromstretcherexpansionand environmentalcyclinginlargerangesofrelativehumiditycombined.ThisisillustratedinFig 44

Figure 44 showsthecombinationofcrackpatternsfromstretcherexpansionandcyclinginlarge changesinrelativehumidity.

MoistureInducedDamageto Canvas Paintings

RH Cycling

Stretcherexpansion

Oneofthemostfrequentlyencounteredtypesofdamagetopaintings,bothoncanvasandon woodisaresultofexposuretohighmoisturelevels.Inoldhistoricbuildings,themoisturecan condenseontheinsideofexteriorwallsfromavarietyofreasons.Oneofthosereasonsisthe excessivehumidification iftheinteriorspacesofthebuildinginthewintertime.Atsuchtimes theexteriorwallsofolderbuildingcangetquitecoldtothepointwheretheinteriorsurfaces reachthedewpoint.Thedewpointistheambienttemperaturewheremoisturecondenses outof theair.Behindpaintings,which can actasinsulation,moisturecondensesonthecoldwalls. Converselyinthesummertime,theexteriorwallsgethotandthespacebehindthepaintingis warmerthantheinteriorspaceofthegallerywherethepaintingisexhibited.Insuchcasesthe relativehumiditycangetaslowas35%.Themicroclimatebehindpaintingshanginginthe inside surfaces of exteriorwalls isentirelydifferentthanthecentralgalleryspace.

Anotherreasonthatcondensationcanoccuristhatinoldstonebuildings,themasonrywallsare cooledduringthewintertime.Thesemassivestonewalls,duetotheirhighthermalmass,are slowtowarmupwiththechangingseasonsandinthespringtimewarmmoistairentersthe buildingalong withvisitorsthroughopendoors.Thisresultsinextensivecondensationofnot onlythewallsbutpaintingshangingonthosewalls.Thisoccursonmanyofthemonumentsin Washington,D.C.intheUnitedStates.

Oneofthelessfrequentlyconsideredconditionsoccursonveryhot,humiddaysinthe summertime.InJulyinRomeforexample,theoutsidetemperaturecaneasilyreach90o Fand therelativehumiditycanreach65%orhigher.InsideabuildingsuchasSt.Peter’sBasilicaitis considerablycooler wherethetemperaturecanbearound80 o Fbuttherelativehumiditycanbe ashighas90%.Thisisaresultofopendoorsandtheoutsideaircoolsatitentersthebuilding. Theairinsuchlargebuildings canstratifyandthecoolerairremainsatthelowerlevelsof spaces where thehumidity canbe evenhigher,evenapproachingthedewpoint.

Existingenvironmentalconditionsarenottheonlysourceofhighmoisturelevels.Manyofthe traditionalliningtechniquesusinghidegluesandpastaliningadhesivescontributetoincreasing themoisturecontentofthepainting.Thisincreasesthepotentialforcausingmassiveshrinkage oftheoriginalpaintingcanvasandweakeningtheoriginalgluesize.

Watercondensingonpaintingsoftentendstoruntothebottomofthepaintingandtypically causingdamagealongthebottomsofthepaintingsasshowninfigure45.Inthecaseofthe paintingshowninthefigure46,therewassufficientwater on thecanvas thatit totallydisrupted theadhesivebondofthe animalgluesizelayer.Hencethecanvasshrank,gluesizelostallofit adhesivestrengthandthepaintandgroundlayerscompletely crushed fromthecanvas.Now thereisinsufficient room tofitthebrokenpiecesofthepaintbackintoproperalignment.

Figure45 showsadetailofa19 th centuryItalianpainting.Itisclearthattotalseparationofthe paintandgroundlayersfromthecanvashasoccurred.Themoisturelevelwassufficienttocause crackingofthedesignlayers andfailureofthebondatthegluelayer. Thecanvasshrank,andthe paintcleaved fromthecanvas.(PhotobyMatteoRossiDoria)

Figure46 showsadetailof a19 th centuryItalian painting.Itisclearthattotalseparationofthe paintandgroundlayersfromthecanvashasoccurred.Themoisturewassufficienttocausethe adhesivebondoftheanimalgluesizelayertocompletelyfail.(PhotobyMatteoRossiDoria)

Consequencesofthe MechanicalandDimensional BehavioroftheDifferent Oil Paints

Ifapaintingweresubjectedtosevereswingsofrelativehumidity,saybetween95%ormoreto say35%thenonewouldexpectdamagetothedesignlayersofthepainting.Thehighrelative

humiditycaneasilybearesultofcondensingcoldexteriorwallinhistoricbuildings.Conversely, whereexteriorwallscangetcoldtheycanalsoabsorbheatinthesummertime.Warmwalls effectivelylowertherelativehumidityoftheambientairincloseproximitytothewalls.So paintingshangingontheinsideofexteriorwallscaneasily beexposedofbothcoldmoistand warmdryenvironments.

Forthisdiscussionlet’ssupposewehadapaintingthatcontainedpaintsmadewithdryingoils withearthcolorssuchasSienna,ochre,andumberandwhiteleadandasizeofhideglue.And let’s supposethatthepaintingwashangingonanexteriorwallwheretherewerelargechangesin relativehumidityoveranannualcycle.Inlookingatthemechanicalanddimensionalproperties ofthedifferentpaintsdiscussedabove,onewouldexpectthatthewhiteleadpaint,becauseofits strengthandresistancetomoisturewouldsurvivelargeswingsinrelativehumidity.Ontheother handonemightsuspectthatweakanddimensionallyresponsivepaintslikeumber,ocher,and Siennawouldmostlikelysufferconsiderabledamageinthesameharshenvironment.Detailsof suchapaintingareshowninfigure47

Athighrelativehumiditythegluesizeandtheearthcolorstendtoswellandexperience “compressionset”inmuchthesamewaywoodmightwhenrestrainedandexposedtohigh moisturelevels.Theearthcolorshaveverylittlestrengthandthereforelittleabilitytoresist deforming.Whenthesizeandearthcolorsdryoutatlowlevelsofrelativehumiditytheywill shrinkandcrack.Oncethepaintstartstofailtheadditionalfailureofthegluedsizeis aggravatedandpaintflakesoffofthepainting.Clearlyavoidinghighhumiditylevelsisof primaryimportance.

Itisnowimportanttonotethatmoistureinduceddamagetopaintingsisselectiveinth at theweakerpaintswillfailandthedurableoneswill maintainsomestability.Thisisin contrasttodamageduetoexcessivelylowtemperatureswhich hasthesameadverse effects onallpaints.

Figure47 showsthedetail ofapaintingcontainingbothwhiteleadpaints(bluearrows)and paintsmadewiththeearthcolors,ochreandSienna(yellowarrows).Thispaintingwasdamaged bywetwallsandtheselectivedamageisduetothelowstrengthandhighdimensionalresponse tomoistureoftheearthcolors. (PhotobyMatteoRossiDoria)

CommentaryontheRangesandEffectsofExposuretoRelativeHumidity

If oneexamines fullyrestrained culturalmaterials exposedtochangesinrelativehumidityitis possibletogaininsightintotheallowableRHrangestheycantoleratesafely. Thisrequiresthat thereisinformationregardingtheRHrelatedmechanicalanddimensionalpropertiesofthese materialsavailable.

Usingthemoststringentcriteriasuchalowyieldsstrains, ful l restraint ofthematerialsin themostdimensionallyunstabledirection andeventhepresenceofpre-exitingstresses most materialsdiscussedcaneasilywithstandRHrangesfrom30%RHto60%RH reversibly.

Nearlyall RH-related damagetobothcanvas andwoodpanelpaintingsandwoodfurnitureis causedbyexcursionstoveryhighlevelsofrelativehumidityorevenliquidwaterandthen desiccationtolowlevelsofRH.Priortotheinterventionofcentralheatinglowlevelsofrelative humiditywould meaninthe20%RHto30%RHrange

Addtothisthemitigatingcircumstances:

Betterwoodobjectsaremadewithwoodscutintheradialdirection,eventhebetter veneers.Theytypicallyhaveonlyhalfofthedimensionalresponsetomoisturewhen compared totangentiallycutwoods.

Nomaterialinanycollectioniscompletelyrestrained.Evenwoodsbondedcrossgrained tooneanothergetsomerelieffromthedimensionalresponseinthelongitudinaldirection andwhilethisseemtobelittleitisactually effective.

Existingcracksinpaintings,furniture,ivoryactasextremelyeffectiveexpansionjoints. Humiditygeneratedcracking naturally resultsinthelocationofhighstressregionsofany object Oncethecrack ing occurs,stressesarerelievedandt heobjects are actuallyfreeto movewherebefore theywere not.Mostoftheseobjects arealsoabletoaccommodate widerchangesinrelativehumidity,certainlyaswideastheonesthatcausedthecracking inthefirstplace.

ImportantExceptions

There arecertainly objectsincollectionsthatneedspecialcareandattention. Theseinclude:

Anymaterialsthathave been chemicallyorbiologicallydegradedtothepointwherethe strainstofailurearelessthantheoriginalyieldstrainof0.005.Thisis especiallytruefor materialswithhighRHrelateddimensionalresponsesuchaswoods,ivory,paper.These materialsshouldneverberestrained.Theyshouldbeexhibitedinbufferedcasesor frames.

Thoseobjectshavingcrossedgrainassembliesorwoodveneerswherethebonding adhesivehasdegraded.Thisespeciallytrueforwoodpanelpaintingsthathavecross grainbattensgluedtothereverse.Thesepaintingsareoftenarehungontheinside surface ofexteriorwallswheretherelativehumiditybehindthepaintingscanreach100% oncoldwinterdaysand30%onhotsummerdays. Actuallytheinsidesurfaceofexterior wallscanpresentaproblemforanyobjecthungthere.KeepingtheRHonthelowsidein thewintertimeandthehighersideinthesummertime mitigatesthisadversecondition.

Those woodenorivory objectshavingmetalorstoneinlays. Thoseobjectsthathaveveryhighpre-existingstressessuchashidedrumheadsand oriental paperorsilkscreens. Itwouldbeprudenttokeepdrumheadsloose. Pastessuch asJapanesewheatstarchpastsareactuallyfairlystrong,abouthalfthatofthehideglues.

ComparingtheSIRHguidelinestowhatispossible.

Itwouldbeuseful tosummarizesomeofthedatapresentedabove.

Forthosematerialsthat arefullyrestrainedandareallowedastrainvariationasshowninthe text,andaninitialstressofzero,theRHrangeresultsareasfollows.

Material From To Woodsingeneral

Forthosematerials fullyrestrainedand alreadyunderstress:

Nowlet’ssetanaveragebutconservativeboundaryofbetween30%and60%fortheallowable range.TheseboundariescanbeshownontheplotsofactualdatafromtheSmithsonian.The existingRHguidelinesfortheSIisanywhereatanytimebetween37%RHand53%RHand theseareindicatedinlightblueontheplotsinfigures46and47.Alsoontheseplotsare indicatedinredaretheallowableboundaries.We might callthenewregionsbetween 37%RH and30%RH andbetween 53%RHand60%RH cautionaryregions Inthecautionary regionstheexpectationofdamageislowforthoseobjectsnotconsideredinthe Important Exceptions section.Outsidethecautionaryregions theexpectationofdamageisveryhigh if theobjectsareallowed sufficienttime.Themitigatingeffectsoftherateofmoisture exchangeinmaterialswillbecoveredinalatersection

DangerZone

DangerZone

Figure48 showstheRHmonitoreddata (darkblueline) fortheCRC,AHU 4 inJanuary2007. Shownonthisplot are the currentSIguidelines, insidethelightbluelines, thecautionaryzone (whatispossible)betweentheredlinesandthedangerzones,outsidetheredlines.

Freer,January2007,PT2

DangerZone

DangerZone

Figure49 showstheRHmonitoreddata(darkblueline)fortheFreerGallery18,inJanuary 2007.Shown onthisplotarethecurrentSIguidelines,insidethelightbluelines,thecautionary zone(whatispossible)betweentheredlinesandthedangerzones,outsidetheredlines.

References

2004,Mecklenburg,M.F.,C.S.TumosaandA.Pride,“PreservingLegacyBuildings,” ASHRAEJournal46(6):S18-S23.

1996,Mecklenburg,M.F.andC.S.Tumosa,"TheRelationshipofExternallyAppliedStresses toEnvironmentallyInducedStresses",in FiberCompositesinInfrastructure,H.Saadatmanesh andM.R.EhsaniEds.,ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalConferenceonCompositesin Infrastructure,NSFandUniversityofArizona,956-971.]

1998,Richard,M., M.F.Mecklenburg,andC.S.Tumosa,"TechnicalConsiderationsforthe TransportofPanelPaintings". In TheStructuralConservationofPanelPaintings ,Getty ConservationInstitute,525-556.

1992,Mecklenburg,M.F.,"SomeMechanicalandPhysicalPropertiesofGildingGesso,"Gilded WoodConservationandHistory, D.Bigelow,E.Come,G.J.Landrey,andC.van Horne,Eds., SoundViewPress,MadisonConn.,163-170.

2005,Mecklenburg,M.F.,Tumosa,C.S.,andErhardt.D.,“TheChangingMechanicalProperties ofAgingOilPaints,”MaterialsResearchSocietySymposiumProceedings,Vol.852,13-24.

2005,Tumosa,C.S.,Erhardt,D.,Mecklenburg,M.F.,andXingfangSu.,“LinseedOilas Ionomer:SynthesisandCharacterization,”MaterialsResearchSocietySymposiumProceedings, Vol.852,25-31.

1999,Bowron,Edgar,Peters,“ABriefHistoryofEuropeanOilPaintingsinCopper1560-1775,” CopperasCanvas; TwoCenturiesofMasterpiecePaintingsonCopper1575-1775 ,PhoenixArt Museum,OxfordUniversityPress,N.Y.,11.

1982, Mecklenburg,M.F.,“SomeAspectsoftheMechanicalBehaviorofFabricSupported Paintings,”Report totheSmithsonianInstitution,ResearchsupportedundertheNational MuseumAct.

1988,Hedley,G.“RelativeHumidityandtheStress/StrainResponseofCanvasPaintings: UniaxialMeasurementsofNaturallyAgedSpecimens,”StudiesinConservation,33,133-148.

1994, Mecklenburg,M.F., McCormick -Goodhart,M.,andTumosa,C.S., “Investigationintothe DeteriorationofPaintingsandPhotographsUsingComputerizedModelingofStress Development,” JAIC33,153 -70.

DeterminingtheAcceptableRanges of RelativeHumidity AndTemperature in Museums andGalleries

MarionF.Mecklenburg MuseumConservationInstitute.

Part2,StructuralResponsetoTemperature

TemperatureEffects

Changesintemperaturecanhaveasignificanteffectonthelongtermstabilityofthecollections. Thisisuniversallyfortrueallofthecollectionssinceelevatedtemperaturesincreasethe chemicalactivitythatpromotesdeterioration.Inpromotingdeterioration,hightemperatures weaken thestructureofallmaterials. Inpartthereisthecorollaryinthatlowertemperaturescan reducechemicaldeteriorationandenhancechemicalstability.Howevertherearesignificant limitationsinallowinglowertemperatures. Thissectionwillfocuson theeffectsoflower temperatures.

Materials andObjects atRisk from LowTemperatures

Manyplastics,varnishes,lacquers,oil,alkyd,andacrylicpaintsareatseriousriskwhenexposed tolowtemperatures. Thisincludessomeobjectsmadewithplastics,paintedandvarnished furniture,musicalinstruments,andeaselpaintingsonwoodandcanvas. Woodcanevensplitat lowtemperatures. A documented exampleoftheeffectsofcoldtemperatureonavarnished surfaceisillustratedin Figs 50 and 51

These figures showsthecrackedvarnishcoatingonaclassicalguitarafterbeingexposedto5o F. Crackingfromlowtemperaturecanhappenasfas tasittakesfortheobjecttocometo

equilibriumwiththenewtemperature. Inbothfiguresitisclearthatthecrackingofthevarnish runspredominantlyacrossthegrainofthewood.Thisisbecausethewoodmoveslittle inthe directionofthegrain withchangesintemperatureandisactingasarestrainttothevarnishlayer. Thisalsomeansthatthewoodis contractinginthedirectionperpendiculartothegrainofthe woodreleasingstressesandstrainsinthevarnish.

Inthediscussionontheeffectsofrelativehumidityitwasalsoshownthatthewoodprovides directionalrestrainttothesurfacecoating appliedtoit. Sohowisitpossibletodistinguishthe differencebetweentemperaturedamageandrelativehumiditydamageiftheobjectinquestionis un-documented?

Figure 50 showsthecrackedvarnishcoatingonaclassicalguitarafterbeingexposedto5 o F.

Figure 51 showsthecrackedvarnishcoatingonaclassicalguitarafterbeingexposedto5 o F.

InordertodistinguishthedifferencebetweentemperatureandRHdamageitisnecessaryto returntoanexaminationofthematerialsthemselves. Some ofthetraditionalmaterialsthat shouldbecharacterized withrespecttolowtemperatureeffects arehideglue,wood,ivory and paints. Asidefromtheirobviouschemicaldifferencestheydemonstratesignificantdifferencesin theirresistancetolow temperature.This willbe illustratedinthefollowingdiscussion.

The LinearCoefficientsofThermalExpansion forDifferentMaterials

Inthepreviousdiscussionsonthedimensionalchangewithchangesrelativehumidity,itisclear thatdifferentmaterialsresponddifferently.Someofthematerialssuchaswood,hideglueand ivorycanhave strain changesasmuchas 0.03-0.04 (3%to4%elongation) whensubjectedto

largeRHchanges. Furtheritwasshownthattherecanbesignificantdifferencesinthe swelling behaviorinoilpaints,dependingonthepigmentused. Butthedimensionalresponseto temperatureofmostmaterialsislowandremarkablyconsistentfromonematerialtoanother.

HideGlueandGelatin

Figure 52 showsthedimensionalchangewit htemperatureforseveralgluesandgelatins.The strainchangebetween90o Fand -20 o Fisonlyabout0.005(0.05%elongation).Alsoshownin thefigureisthestrainrangeof+/- 0.005whichindicatesthatitisimpossibletoattainyield or failure ineithertensionorcompressionwithintherangeoftemperatureshown.

HideGluesandGelatins

10Yr.HideGlue

SturgeonGlue

PorcineAGelatin

BovineBGelatin

FoodGelatin

Figure52 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperatureofseveralgluesandgelatins. Theseareextremelysmallchanges,especiallywhencomparedtothedimensionaleffectsof moisture.

Asaresultthestressesdevelopedfromchangesintemperature (Fig.53) aresignificantlylower thanthosedevelopedbychangesinrelativehumidity (Fig54). Figure53 shows thetensile stressesmeasuredin a restrainedsampleof hideglue withdecreasing andincreasing

temperature Thematerialisactinginafullyelasticbehaviorsincethepathoftheplotisthe sameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthespecimen. Itisbecauseoftheselowleveland reversibletemperatureinducedstressesthatallowsfreezingof20th centuryphotographic materialsasapreservationtechnique.Thisisnotpossiblewithoil,alkyd,andacrylicpaints.

Stressvs.TemperatureforHideGlue

Figures 53 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredin a restrainedsampleof hideglue with decreasing a ndincreasingtemperature. Thematerialisactinginafullyelasticbehaviorsincethe pathoftheplotisthesameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthespecimen.

HideGlue

Figure 54 showsthestressdevelopedforrestrainedsamplesofhidegluewhendesicca tedfrom differentlevelsofrelativehumidity.Thesestresses are considerablyhigherthanthestresses developed in thissamematerialwhenrestrainedandcooled. Where theplotsstoptheirstraight pathandstartbendingoverindicates thatthematerial isundergoingplasticdeformation.

Woods

Ingeneral the thermalcoefficientsofexpansion forwoodsare verylow.TheWoodHandbook defines thermalcoefficientsofwoodsinthetangentialandradialdirections asfunctionsoftheir density.(1983Wood Handbook)Thehigherthedensity,thehigherthethermalcoefficientsbut evenhigherdensitywoodsdon’thavethermalcoefficientssignificantlyhigherthanshowninFig 55

AverageThermalCoeficientsforPines

Figure55 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperature forsoftwoods suchaspine. Theseareextremelysmallchanges,especiallywhencomparedtothedimensionaleffectsof moisture. Ivory

WalrustuskshowsverysmallstrainchangeswithchangesintemperatureasseeninFig56.

WalrusTusk,RadialDirection

Figure56 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperatureforwalrustusk.

Inorderforwood,ivoryorhidegluetoeitherplasticallydeformorbreakasaresultoflow temperature,theyhavetobefullyrestrainedandhavehighexistingstresses.Iffreetorespond dimensionallytheyshouldpresentnostructuralproblems.

Acrylic Emulsion,Alkydand Oil Paints andtheGlassTransitionTemperature,Tg

Aswiththeglueandgelatinthe changeinstrainswithrespecttothechangeintemperaturefor acrylicemulsions,alkyds,andoil paints are quite small. Fig ure 57 showsthedimensional changeofacrylicemulsionpaintswithrespecttotemperature. Thesechangesareconsiderabl y smallerthancausedbyrelativehumidity(Fig.58). Atfirstglance,becauseofthelow dimensionalchanges itappearsthatthe acrylic paintscanbesubjectedtolowtemperature successfully. However Acrylic,alkydsand oilpaintsgetextremelybrittlewithlowtemperature s Whatinfluences thepaints atlowtemperatureistheglasstransitiontemperature,Tg

AlsoshowninFig57 isachangeintheslopes ofthestrainversustemperatureplots.Thischange usuallyidentifiesthebeginningofaphasechangeinthematerialandforthesepaintsitisthe

beginningofatransitionfromanextremelyflexiblepainttoaverybrittlepaint.Sobrittlethat thestrainstofailurecanbelessthan0.005whichhasbeenourstandardreferenceyieldpoint.

Figure59 showsthestressstraintest results atdifferenttemperatures andrelativehumidity levels forLiquitex burntSiennaacrylicemulsionpaint.Asthetemperaturedecreasesthereisa significant lossofstrain(elongation) tofailure andanincreaseinstrengthofthepaint. Thisis typicalofallacrylicemulsionpaints.

LiquitexAcrylicEmulsionPaints

Approx.Tg

CadmiumYellow

CeruleanBlue

UltramarineBlue

CadmiumRed BurntSienna

Figure57 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperatureofseveralacrylicemulsion paints.Theseareextremelysmallchanges,especiallywhencomparedtothedimensionaleffects ofmoisture.

Add - /+0.005onallplots.

20YearOldLiquitexAcrylicEmulsionPaints

CadmiumRed

BurntSienna

Ultramarine

TitianiumWhite

Figure58showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttorelativehumidityofseveralacrylicemulsion paints.Thesechangesareconsiderablylargerthanthosecausedbytemperaturechangesasseen inFig.57.

10YearOldLiquitexBurntSienna

52F,5%RH

41F,5%RH

52F,5%RH

74F,5%RH

74F,5%RH

74F,43%RH

Figure59 showsthestressstraintestresultsfora10yearoldLiquitexburntSiennaacrylic emulsion paint.Atroomtemperatureand43%RHthepaintisquiteflexible.Iftherelative

humidityisdroppedto5%atroomtemperaturethepaintstrengthensbutstillretainssomeability toelongate.At5%RHand52o Fthepainthas beguntolosethe ability toelongate.

Figure 60 showstheexpandedscaleforstressstraintestresultsfora10yearoldLiquitexburnt Siennaacrylicemulsionpaint.Atroomtemperatureand43%RHthepaintisquiteflexible.Ifthe relativehumidityisdroppedto5%atroomtemperaturethepaintstrengthensbutstillretains someabilitytoelongate.At5%RHand52o Fthepainthasnearlylostallabilitytoelongate. Recallthatitwasaround50o Fwheretherewasachangeintheslopeoftheplotofthefree swellingstrainsversustemperature(Fig.57).

10YearOldLiquitexBurntSienna

Figure 60 showstheexpandedscaleforstressstraintestresultsfora10yearoldLiquitexburnt Siennaacrylicemulsionpaint. Thisistypicalforallacrylicemulsionpaints.

IfthepaintsshowninFig.57 wererestrainedandthetemperaturechangedfrom75 o Fto20o F therewouldbeanincreaseinmechanicalstrainsofabout0.003-0.004.Thismayseemasavery smallchangebutiftherewereinitialstrainsinthepaintfilmaswouldalmostalwaysbe thecase for a stretchedcanvaspaintings ,thenthemechanicalstrainscouldeasilyexceed0.005-0.01. Fig

60 showsthatthestrainsof0.005-0.01exceedthebreakingstrainsoftheacrylicpaintat20o Fby aconsiderableamount.Onehastoassumethatthereisalwaysgoingtobeinitialstraininany canvassupportedpaintingandneverletthetemperaturedropbelowtheglasstransition temperature.

Figure 61 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperatureofseveraloilpaints.Alloil paints,regardlessofthe pigmentused,havesimilardimensionalresponsestotemperature. Includedinthisfigureisthedimensionalresponseofcopperasisfoundincoppersupportedoil paintings.Bycontractingwithtemperaturedecreases,copperrelievessomeofthestressesand strainintheoilpaintlayers.Thisisanotherreasonthatthesepaintinghavesurvivedinsuchgood condition.

Figures62-65 showthestressstraintestsresultsfordifferentoilandalkydpaintatdifferent environments. Inallcasesitislowtemperaturethatinducesbrittlebehaviorandnotlow relativehumidity.

DifferentOilPaints

20YrFW

20YrTitWt

20YrYelOc

22YrFW#2

22YrTitWt#2

22YrCerBlue

Figure 61 showsthechangeisstrainwithrespecttotemperatureofseveraloilpaints.Theseare extremelysmallchanges,especiallywhencomparedtothedimensionaleffectsofmoisture. Includedinthisfigureisthedimensionalresponseofcopperasisfoundincoppersupportedoil

paintings.Bycontractingwithtemperaturedecreases,copperrelievessomeofthestressesand strainintheoilpaintlayers.

14.5yearoldleadwhiteincoldpressedlinseedoil

Figure 62 showsstressversusstrainplotsofleadcarbonatepaintmadewithcoldpressedlinseed oil.Thetestswereconductedatthreedifferentenvironments,48%RH, 73.4 o F;10%RH, 73.4o F, and46%RH, 14 o F.Whilelowerhumiditydidincreasethestiffnessandstrengthofthepaint, itwasthelowtemperaturethatcausedthepainttobecomeextremelybrittle. Thebreakingstrain ofthepaintislessthan0.005.

14.5yearoldleadwhiteinalkaliref.linseedoil

Figure 63 showsthestressversusstrainplotsofleadcarbonatepaintmadewithalkalirefined linseedoil.The testswereconductedatthreedifferentenvironments, 48%RH, 73.4o F;10%RH, 73.4o F, and46%RH, 14 o F Whilelowerhumidity only slightlyincreasedthestiffnessand

strengthofthepaint,itwasthelowtemperaturethatcausedthepainttobecomeextremely brittle.

14.5yearoldzincoxideincoldpressedlinseed

BasicleadcarbonateinCPLO, 48%RH,73.4F(14.25yearsold)

Figure 64,thestressversusstrainplotsofzincoxidepaintmadewithcoldpressedlinseedoil.

Thetestswereconductedatthreedifferentenvironments, 48%RH, 73.4 o F;10%RH, 73.4o F, and46%RH, 14o F ThezincoxidepaintissobrittlethatneithertheloweringoftheRHorthe temperaturemadeasignificantdifferenceinthemechanicalpropertiesofthispaint.Thestress versusstrainresultsoftheleadcarbonatepaintmadewithcoldpressedlinseedoilareshownfor comparisonpurposes. Itmightbethecasethatthepaintmadewiththezincoxiderepresentsthe stiffestpaintsmightgetovertime.Oldpaintsmaynotbeasstrong,butcertainlynotmuch stiffer.

Thetensiletestsforatypicalartist’salkydpaintareshowninFig65.Aswiththeacrylicandoil paintslowtemperaturecausesthepainttobecomeextremelybrittle.

20YearOldAlizarinCrimsonAlkydPaint

Figure 63 ,thestressversusstrainplots atdifferentenvironments of alizarincrimson alkydpaint. Thetestswereconductedatthreedifferentenvironments, 58%RH, 72.5o F; 5%RH, 72.5o F, and 5%RH, 23 o F.

Paintsaresomeofthematerialsthataremostpronetolowtemperaturedamage becauseofthe glasstransitiontemperature.For acrylicpaints, Tg ~50oFto45oF, fora lkydpaints;Tg ~40oFto 35oF,andoilpaintsTg ~32oFto -14 oF.Itcanbestatedthatsignificantproportionofthecracking seeninoilpaintwasduetolowtemperatureandnotRHrelatedinfluences.

SpecialProblemswithOilPaintsContainingZinc

Inthel9thCenturycertain pigmentssuchaszincoxidewereintroducedintothemainstreamof artists’materials.Thispigmentfounditswayintothegroundsofpaintings.Inthe20th Century, becauseoftoxicconcerns,theuseofleadcarbonatewasdiminishedandtitaniumdioxidewas introducedasareplacementwhite.Theproblemisthatoilpaintsusingtitaniumdioxidedryto extremelyweakandsomewhatbrittlefilmsasshownin Fig. 24.

Manufacturersofartists’materialsintroducedzincintothetitaniumpaintstogivethem additionalstrength.Paintsmadewithonlyzincoxidebecamemoreavailabletotheartistsand

wheresomeleadwhitepaintswereavailabletheyalsooftencontainzinc.Allofthesepaints becomeextremelybrittleinaslittleasthreeyearsofdrying.Inadditiontothewhitepaints, manyofthelightcolorslabeled“hues”containzincandtheycanbecomeequallybrittle.While paintcontainingcombinationsofleadandzincortitaniumandzincarequitestablewithrespect torelativehumidity,theysuffer badlyifdeformed. Paintscontainingzincalsobondpoorlyto adjacentlayersofpaintsandgroundsinpaintings.

Sinceartistshavebeenandarecurrentlyusingpaintscontainingzincsuppliedbymanyofthe worlds’ artists’materialsmanufactures,this isaconditionthatshouldbeexpectedinmany paintingsinthefuture.

Figure 66 showsadetailofanabstractexpressionistpaintingfrom1959by HenryCliffe.The oil paintsusedinthispaintingcontainleadandzinc.Thispaintingwasrolledandthe damagewas extensive.Inadditiontotheseverecracking,thereisextensiveinterlayerdelaminatingofthe paintlayer.

Figure 66 shows adetailofapaintingbyHenryCliffe,paintedin1959.Thepaint showninthis detail isleadwhitewithzinc init.Notetheseverecrackingandinterlayercleavage. This damagewasdueto rolling andnotmoisture ortemperature. (Photographcourtesyof Richard Saltoun andtakenbySteveGayler)

Recentlytherehavebeenrumorsthat“oilpaintsdon’tadherewell toacrylicgessogrounds.”In ordertoconfirmthis,aseriesoftestsamples were preparedin1999.Figure 67 show s one ofthe resultsofthistestprogram. Thegessolayers(horizontalstrips, 1in. wide)werecastfirstand allowedtodryforonemonth.Theoilpaints(verticaloverlayingstrips)werethencast. Inthe case this oilpaint,leadwhitecontainingzinc ,it couldbe easily delaminatedfromtheacrylic ground.Thelayersseparatedfromeachothercleanly.

Figure 67 showsthecommercial acrylicground“C” below andthecommerciallead white oil paint (containingzinc) above. Withverylittleeffort,theoilpaintcouldbedelaminatedfromthe acrylicground.Thelayersseparatedfromeachothercleanly.

Paints underRestraintandCooling

Somecommentsneedtobemadewithregardtotemperatureeffects.Becauseoflow temperaturesandthatoilpaintsgetsostiff(highmodulus)thestressesdevelopedinrestrained andcooledpaintscangethigh. Itisremarkablydeceptivehow stiffandbrittlepaintscanbecome atlowtemperatures.Acrylicemulsionpaintsaresoflexibleatroomtemperatureitiseasyto dismissanystiffeningofthesepaints. Never -the-less at low temperatures they caninducehigher stresses whenrestrained than whensub jectedto lowlevelsofrelativehumidity.

Figure68 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredinrestrainedsample s of acrylicemulsionpaints withdecreasing andincreasingtemperature Thereisachangeintheslopeoftheplotsbelow50 o

Fwheretherangefortheglasstransitiontemperaturebegins. Thematerialisactinginafully elasticbehaviorsincethepathoftheplotisthesameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthe specimen.Thismakescompletesensesincethehigheststrainchangepossiblein therangefrom 80o Fto20o Fislessthan0.005whichiswithintheelasticrange. Itisthetransitiontoabrittle materialthatrepresentsthethreattothestabilityofthepaint. Thesepaintsarejustattheedgeof completefailure.

AcrylicEmulsionPaints,RestrainedTests,5%RH

Figure 68 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredinrestrainedsamples of acrylicemulsionpaint withdecreasing andincreasingtemperature . Thereisachangeintheslopeoftheplotsbelow50 o Fwheretherangefortheglasstransitiontemperaturebegins. Thematerialisactinginafully elasticbehaviorsincethepathoftheplotisthesameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthe specimen.

Figure69 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredinrestrainedsample s ofoilpaintwithdecreasing relativehumidity. Themaxim umstressmeasuredatabout8%RHisonlyabout65psias comparedtothe190psiattainedwhenthespecimenisrestrainedandcooledfrom75o Fto20o F (Fig 70 ).

Figure 70 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredin a restrainedsampleofoilpaintwithdecreasing andincreasingtemperature Thematerialisactinginafullyelasticbehaviorsincethepathofthe

COBALTBLUE CADMIUMYEL. IVORYBLACK

plotisthesameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthespecimen.Againthemaximumstrains induced from atemperaturechangefrom 75 o Fto20o Fis lessthan0.005whichiswellwithin theelasticrange.

Atthispointitisimportanttonotethatmaterialslikewoodandhidegluedonotgetbrittlewith lowtemperaturesincetheglasstransitiontemperatureishigherthanroomtemperatureso coolingnevercausesaphasetransition. (McCormick -Goodhart,1996)

DesiccationofRestrainedOilPaints,75F

13Yearold LeadWhite

13Yearold NaplesYellow

Figure 69 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredinrestrainedsamples ofoilpaintwithdecreasing relativehumidity Themaximumstressmeasuredatabout8%RHisonlyabout65psias comparedtothe190psiattainedwhenthespecimenisrestrainedandcooledfrom75o Fto20o F (Fig 70 ).

Stressvs.TemperatureforRestrainedSpecimens

13yearoldNaple's yellowoilpaint

Figure 70 showsthetensilestressesmeasuredin a restrainedsampleofoilpaintwithdecreasing andincreasingtemperature Thematerialisactin ginafullyelasticbehaviorsincethepathofthe plotisthesameforboththecoolingandreheatingofthespecimen.

TheEffectsofLowTemperatureonCanvasSupportedPaintings

Itwouldbeusefulifonecoulddistinguishthedifferencebetweendamagecausedbyexposureto lowtemperatureandthatcausedbychangesinrelativehumidity.Computermodelsindicated thatingeneral, exposuretolowtemperaturecouldcausefarmoreseverecrackinginpaintings thanseverechangesinrelativehumidity. (Mecklenburgetal,1994 ,MecklenburgandTumosa, 1991)

Asanillustrationifoneweretomodelatraditionalpainting (eithernumericallyor experimentally) thenexcessiveRHchangescouldcausecrackingbutitwouldbelimitedtothe cornersofthepaintings.Thisisillustratedinfigures4 3 and4 4 above.Inadditionresearchonthe paintsthemselvesshowedthatRHandhighmoisturerelateddamagewasselective.Thismeant thatsomepaintssuchasleadwhiteinoilwasaverydurablepaintand wasresistanttomoisture relateddamage.Furtheritwasshownearlierinthisdiscussionthatthepaintsmadewiththeearth

colorswereweakandpronetodamage due tomoisture. Butthemosttellingwasthedetrimental effecthighmoisturelevelshaveonthehidegluesizes.Paintliterallyseparatedfromthecanvas (Figs . 45 -47 ).

Incontrast,researchintoartists’materialshasshownlowtemperaturedamageisnotselective.

Thatistosay,allofthepaints,oil,alkyds,andacrylics,irrespectiveofthepigments usedwillgo brittleandcrackifrestrainedandthetemperatureisdepressedsufficientlyenough.Ontheother handitcanbeshownthatthehideglueisnotverysusceptibletodamage fromlowtemperature. Soifpaintings,eitheroncanvasorwoodpanels,areexposedtosufficientlylowtemperature,the crackingwillbeextensiveandindiscriminant.Inadditionthereshouldbenoseparationofthe paintlayerfromthecanvasorpanel. Finallythecrackpatternscanbedistinctiveonuniformly stretched canvas paintings.

Figure 71 showsthetheoreticalcrackpatterngeneratedfromthestressanalysisofacomputer modelofatraditionalcanvassupportedoilpaintingwhenthetemperatureisloweredfrom72o F to -4o F(22Cto -20C).Thismodelshowsthatthecracksareuniformthroughoutthepainting meaningthatthestressesarefairlyuniforminmagnitude.Thepatternitselfisaresultofthe strainreleasecausedbythestretcher.

Forexample, thecrack s inthecenterofthepaintingarevertical(asshowninthisimage)but moreimportantlyrunningprimarilyparalleltotheshortdirectionofthepainting.Thatthereare nohorizontalcracks(paralleltothelongdirection)meansthatthelongstretcherbarsonthesides (beinglongerandmoreflexible) havedeflected(bowedinward)underthe thermalloading and releasedthestressesandstrains inthepaintlayers intheshortdirection. Itisthegeometry (shape)ofthepaintingthathelpsgovernthecrackpatterndeveloped.

Figures72 and7 3 showtraditionaloilpaintingswherefigure74 showsapaintingwherethe designlayerwasamixtureofBocour (solventbasedacrylic)andoilpaints.Thedelaminatingof

thewhitepaintlayerisaresultofthepresenceofzincoxidepigmentwhichpromotespoor interlayerbondingofthedesignlayers.

Figure 71 showsthe theoretical crackpatterngeneratedfromthestressanalysisofacomputer modelofatraditionalcanvassupportedoilpaintingwhenthetemperatureisloweredfrom 72 o F to -4o F (22Cto -20C). (Mecklenburgetal,1991,1994)

Figure 72 showsthecrackpatterngeneratedfromtheexposureofthispaintingtolow temperature.Thisisverified bythelackofdiscriminationofthecracks.Allofthepaintsare affectedirrespectiveofthepigmentused.Alsothereisnoflakingorlossofpaintinthispainting.

Figure 73, GeorgeParker,Untitled, (LowerAusableLakeatIndianHead),American,1911, 48in.x35.5in., t hispainting shows thecrackpatterngeneratedfromtheexposureoftolow

temperature.Thisisverified bythelackofdiscriminationofthecracks.Allofthepaintsare affectedirrespectiveofthepigmentused.Alsothereisnoflakingorlossofpaintinthispainting. Thisisaverticallyorientedlandscapebutthecrackspatternagainreflectsthegeometryofthe painting. (PhotobyJamesHamm and courtesyof theAdirondackMuseuminBlueMountain Lake,N.Y.)

Figure 74, Anonymous,American,c.1972.Thisillus tration showsthecrack patterngenerated fromtheexposuretolowtemperature.Thisillustrationshowsapaintingwherethedesignlayer wasamixtureofBocour(solventbasedacrylic)andoilpaints.Thedelaminatingofthewhite paintlayerisaresult ofthepresenceofzincoxidepigmentwhichpromotespoorinterlayer bondingofthedesignlayers.(PhotobyJamesHammandcourtesyoftheowner)

TheEffectsofExistingCracks

Aswiththeeffectsofrelativehumidity,cracksduetolowtemperatureactasexpansionjoints andinhibitfurthercrackingwhenobjectsarereintroducedintosimilarenvironmentalchanges.

Thereisonemajorexception,Relativehumiditychangeshavelimitsinthatthemaximuman objectcanexperienceis0%RHto100%RHandbackagain.Thisisnottruefortemperature changesbecausetherangeoftemperaturescanbeexpansive. Ifanobjectexperiencedcracking fromexposureto20o F,itcanexpectfurtherdamageat0o F.Itisnotimpossibleforexterior temperaturestoreachextraordinarylowsperiodically.

CommentaryontheEffectsofTemperature

Deviationfromtemperaturesetpoints affects culturalmaterialsintwofundamentalways.Oneis thepotentialforchangingchemicalprocessesandtheotheristhepotential fori nducing mechanicalstressesandstrains.

Ingeneralitcanbesaidthatthetemperatureforexhibitionand storagespacesisestablishedfor thepurposeofhumancomfort.Serioustemperaturedeviationsineitherheatingorcoolingcan certainlyhaveadverseeffectsonhumancomfortlevels.Butthereareotherconsiderationssuch astheexposuretooutdoorenvironmentswhenobjectsaretransportedtootherlocations. Inthe wintertimecoldweathercanbeaveryrealthreat.

ThecentralsetpointandrangefortemperatureunderthecurrentSIguidelinesis70 o F+/ - 4o F. Iftemperaturesareelevatedabove74o F(andstillbewithinthehumancomfortlevels)theworst onecanexpectisaslightincreaseinchemicalactivitythatpromotesdeteriorationof everything inthecollection.Ifthetemperaturedropsbelow66o F,thechemicalstabilityofthecollectionis greatlyenhancedwithincertainlimits.

Thequestioniswherearethelowertemperaturelimits?Thelowerlimitsareactuallysetbyan object’sabilitytomaintainmechanicalstabilityatlowertemperatures.From74o Fanddownto about55o F (Tgforacrylics) thereshouldbenostructuralproblemswithanyofthecollections. Thisisinlargepartduetothe low thermal expansion coefficientsofexpansionofmostofthe culturalmaterials. Problemsbeginiswhe n materialsaresubjectedtotemperaturesbelowthe

glasstransitiontemperature(Tg).Belowtheglasstransitiontemperaturematerials , become extremelybrittleandcombinedwithstressesbroughtonbylowtemperaturesobjectscrack. This includesmanyplastics,varnishcoatingsandalloil,alkyd,andacrylicpaints.

Figures74and75showsomeoftherawtemperaturedatafromtheCulturalresourceCenterand theFreerGallery.OntheseplotsarethecurrentSIguidelinesandthecautionaryanddanger zones.Above74o Fisthecautionaryzonebecauseofenhancedchemicalactivity.Belowthe55o Fismarkedthedangerzoneastheglasstransitiontemperatureforacrylicpaintsbegins around 50o F.

CRC,January2007,AirHandlingUnit4

CautionaryZone

DangerZone

Figure 75 showsthemonitoredtemperaturedata(darkblueline)fortheCRC,AHU4inJanuary 2007.ShownonthisplotarethecurrentSIguidelines, 70 o F+/- 4o F,insidethelightbluelines . Thecautionaryzone isabovethe74o Fli nebecauseofenhancedchemicalactivity.Belowthe 55o Fisthe dangerzone becausefurthercoolingapproachestheglasstransitiontemperatureof acrylicemulsionpaints.

Freer,January2007,PT2

CautionaryZone

DangerZone

Figure 76 showstheRHmonitoredtemperaturedata(darkblueline)fortheFre erGallery18,in January2007.ShownonthisplotarethecurrentSIguidelines,70o F+/- 4o F,insidethelight bluelines.Thecautionaryzoneisabovethe74o Flinebecauseofenhancedchemicalactivity. Belowthe55o Fisthedangerzonebecausefurthercoolingapproachestheglasstransition temperatureofacrylicemulsionpaints.

References

1987,WoodHandbook:WoodasanEngineeringMaterial,UnitedStatesDepartmentof Agriculture,ForestService,AgricultureHandbook72,U.S.GovernmentPrintingService, Washington,D.C.,3-25

1996,McCormick-Goodhart,M.H.,“TheAllowableTemperatureandRelativeHumidityRange fortheSafeStorageofPhotographicMaterials,”JournaloftheSocietyofArchivists,Vol.17, No.1,7-21.

1994,Mecklenburg,M. F.,M.McCormick-GoodhartandC.S.Tumosa,"Investigationintothe DeteriorationofPaintingsandPhotographsUsingComputerizedModelingofStress Development", JournaloftheAmericanInstituteforConservation, Volume33(2),153-170).

1991, Mecklenbu rg,M.F.andTumosa,C.S.,“MechanicalBehaviorofPaintingsSubjectedto ChangesinTemperatureandRelativeHumidity,”ArtinTransit,StudiesintheTransportof Paintings,M.F.Mecklenburg,Ed.NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.,173-216.

Determining the Acceptable Ranges of Relative Humidity And Temperature in Museums and Galleries Part 3, Response Time to Changes in Moisture

Marion F. Mecklenburg Museum Conservation Institute.

The Time Required for Materials to Come to Equilibrium with Changes in RH

One of the comments most often heard when discussing RH related environmental control is that it is acceptable to have slow RH transitions but not rapid RH transitions. Actually this is not exactly accurate. The amount of time it takes for most materials to come to equilibrium when making the transition from one RH level to another is actually fairly slow. There are some cases where the transition is fast but taken in context of the entire structure of the object the rate of change is slow.

Some of the factors that affect the rate of change are the magnitude of the change of the moisture levels encountered and whether the change is desiccating of humidifying. Other factors are the sizes of the specimens and whether, as in the case of wood, the end grains are exposed or not.

The question to be asked is: If a material is subj ected to a rapid change in relative humidity how long does it take to react to that change and how long does it take to come to equilibrium to that change. By looking at very small or thin samples of materials it will be possible to get an estimated of the rate of change of larger specimens.

Measuring the Rate of Change in Moisture

There are three ways to make the needed measurements. One is to measure the weight change of a specimen over time. A second is to measure the dimensional change of a specimen in terms of free swelling strains (or % elongation) and a third is to measure the stress developed in a specimen that is restrained and either desiccated or humidified.

Woods

Let’s take wood samples with the dimensions shown below in figure 27. Now saturate them with water and while restrained place them in an environment of 50% RH. It tales about 4 or more hours for the specimens to equilibrate to the 50% RH environment as shown in figure 28.

Figure 27 shows the dimension of the wood sample use in the saturation to 50% RH desiccating experiments of Figure 2. These are tangentially cut specimens which have the highest dimensional response of the three directions in wood.

Restrained Desiccation, From Saturation to 50%RH

thickness = 0.04" (~1mm) both end grains exposed

Figure 28 shows the time needed to have thin saturated wood specimens come to equilibrium to a 50% RH level. The end grains of these wood samples are fully exposed.

Figure 28 shows the stress levels attained over time as the specimen loses moisture. The wood holding the least amount of water, the American mahogany, comes to equilibrium in a bit more than two hours. The most porous wood, the pine, comes to equilibrium in a bit less than four hours. The denser woods take anywhere from four to five hours. While this gives one a sense of the worst case possible rate of change of wood, is it realistic in terms of larger objects?

First to note is that these specimens were fully restrained and did not fail. The ash and the oak samples reached stress levels between 700 and 800 psi. These are additional examples where there were severe moisture changes under restrain. It is hard to envision wood objects in the collections that are small and have both end grains exposed. In nearly all cases the objects are made in the long grain direction for strength and the end grain is buried. Rarely does a piece of furniture have end grains exposed and frames for paintings are miter cut.

So lets then look at thin samples of wood where only the long grain surfaces are exposed. Typically these would be veneers used in furniture and other finished wood objects. The only difference is that these veneers are not bonded to the surfaces of wood as found in furniture or inlays but have both surfaces exposed to the environment. For the veneer experiments the samples were exposed to very rapid changes in the environment as shown in figure 27. This was accomplished by transferring the wood veneer samples from conditioned chamber to another. The sample thicknesses ranged from 0.106 inches (2.7mm) to 0.0315 inches (0.08mm).

Figure 28 shows the free swelling strains versus time for wood veneer samples subject to very rapid changes in humidity as shown in figure 29. As is seen in the plots of figure 30 it takes about 90 hours for the sample to come to equilibrium with a desiccation from 49% RH to 39% RH. It takes 26 hours to equilibrate when going from 39% RH to 49% RH. Clearly equilibration times are shorter with increases in relative humidity than with decreases.

Am. Mahagony

Cotton Wood

White Oak

Rate of response of wood veneers to RH changes

020406080100120140160

Figure 27 shows the RH changes versus time for the wood veneer experiments. These changes can be considered sudden. The wood veneer specimens were simply moved from one equilibrated environment to another.

Rate of response of wood veneers to RH changes

020406080100120140160

Figure 28 shows the free swelling strains versus time for wood veneer samples subject to very rapid changes in humidity as shown in figure 4. This is much slower than when the end grain is exposed. (Data provided by Mr. Mervin Richard, Deputy Chief of Conservation, The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.)

White Oak, 0.04 in thick

White Oak, 0.106 in. thick

Birch, 0.04 in. thick

Another observation to be made is that the strains reached during these RH changes are a maximum of about 0.002. If the specimens had been restrained they would have developed stresses and mechanical strains (as versus free swelling strains) of the same level. One can verify this by allowing a specimen to shrink freely with desiccation and then pull it back to its original length. In comparison the yield points for woods are typically between 0.005 and 0.008. So if these woods had been restrained they would have remained well within their elastic behavior regions, suffered no plastic (permanent deformation) and reached stresses significantly below the breaking strength. Keep in mind that these samples had both surfaces exposed to the environment. But why is this important?

The argument is often made that the surface of the wood has different moisture content than the interior of the wood before full equilibrium is reached. As a result the wood has developed a stress gradient through the wood. This is a very accurate assessment of the wood’s behavior. But let’s assume that the surface of the wood is desiccated as illustrated in the RH changes in figure 30 and the interior still has its original moisture content. In this case the maximum stresses and mechanical strains on the surface of the wood are never greater than the maximum stresses and mechanical strains of the entire piece of wood if it had been fully restrained and had come to full equilibrium with the new environment. A stress gradient in and of it self does no harm. The stress and mechanical strain levels need to be considerably higher before damage is done.

It is reasonable to look at one material that in addition to being strong and dimensionally responsive has a very rapid response to changes in humidity and is found throughout the collections. This is hide glue and when further refined it is called gelatin. Hide glue is used as an adhesive for furniture, it is the size layer in traditional canvas paintings, has been used as a sizing for watercolor papers, and when refined into gelatin it is used as the image emulsion on most of the 20th century photographic prints and negatives. It is one of the strongest of all of the cultural materials used.

Animal glue (gelatin)

Figure 29 shows the stress developed in three different thickness of hide glue versus time when the glue is rapidly desiccated from 62% RH to 10% RH. As is seen in this plot the thinnest sample of hide glue (0.0015 in.) comes to full equilibration in about 40 minutes. The thickest sample at 0.011 in. is 7.3 times thicker than the thinnest and has not reached full equilibrium even after 5 hours. After about 30 hours all three specimens are nearly equilibrated and come to the same stress level of approximately 3900 psi as shown in figure 30.

Desiccation of hide glue (gelatin) from 62%RH to 10%RH

Figure 29 shows the stress developed in three different thickness of hide glue versus time when the glue is rapidly desiccated from 62% RH to 10% RH.

Desiccation of hide glue (gelatin) from 62%RH to 10%RH

Figure 30 shows the stress developed in three different thickness of hide glue versus time when the glue is rapidly desiccated from 62% RH to 10% RH. After about 30 hours, the specimens are all nearly equilibrated and reach similar stress levels.

It is worth noting that none of the specimens broke during this test. They certainly have exceeded their elastic limit and have been plastically deformed by this test. One’s initial reaction might be to point out that this material responds rapidly to rapid changes in relative humidity and this is worth consideration. Or is it? If the hide glue samples illustrated in this discussion had been subjected to the same change in relative humidity but far more slowly, the end results would have been nearly identical. It is not the rate of change that makes the difference but the magnitude of change that is significant. Even with a material that responds as rapidly as hide glue, it is impossible to increase the response time by simply dropping the RH more quickly.

But does any of this really matter anyway? Animal glues when used as adhesives are buried inside joints in wooden furniture. In order for the hide glue to respond to a change in the environment, the surrounding wood will have had to been exposed to the change for a considerable amount of time.

For example suppose that two of the 0.004 in. (1mm) wood veneer samples described above had been bonded together with a thin layer of hide glue. The equilibration time for two layers of the wood that thin will be approximately twice what was recorded above. That is 180 hours for a 10% RH drop and 56 hours for a 10% RG increase. So for the center of the bonded wood sample where the glue bond resides it will take 26 or more hours before there is any significant response by the glue layer itself. It is safe to assume that most furniture has a wood thickness well beyond 0.004 in. and the equilibration time now become weeks not hours. For most furniture, a deviation of +/- 5% RH occurring in 6 hour cycles will only result in the furniture coming to an equilibrium moisture content that reflects the average RH.

In the case of photographs, where the gelatin emulsion is exposed and on the surface, one might consider tighter controls. However as with furniture, there are mitigating factors. Damage will only occur in a material if the RH change is excessive and the material is restrained Photographs are never fully restrained and largely free to expand and contract with humidity fluctuations. Further they are framed under glass (a true vapor barrier) against a wall (another effective vapor barrier) with paper mats that act as extremely efficient buffers. This is also true for glue sized watercolors on exhibition and in storage and to a large extent for paintings containing a glue size. In the case of paintings hanging on a wall with backing boards attached to the reverse, the oil paint on the surface retards moisture penetration fairly effectively. Lead white oil paint (which is very often used as the grounds for canvas paintings) is practically dimensionally unresponsive to RH fluctuations as shown in figure 22. A material that is a poor absorber of water vapor acts as a fairly good vapor barrier. For those paintings with earth pigment (containing clays) oil grounds the response is some what faster but still quite dimensionally stable in 30% RH to 60% RH range.

However the size in a canvas painting that is fully exposed (front and back) to a circulating environment will equilibrate to a change in the RH in about the same time as a 0.011 inch thick hide glue sample shown in figure 29.

Ivory has long been considered to be one of the most environmentally problematic of the cultural materials. As such extra precautions have often been taken to keep the relative humidity stable. Ivory actually has about the same dimensional response to RH changes as wood, and if anything a bit less.

Figure 31 shows the dimensional changes (in free swelling strains) of both large and small changes in relative humidity. The test sample was cut with a cross-section of 0.08 in. x 0.08 in. (2mm x 2mm) where two surfaces were full end grain exposure. Due to hysteretic behavior the dimensional response to mid range RH changes is about one half those of large changes in RH. In the small RH range, the coefficient of moisture expansion is about 0.000205/%RH. This means that in the mid RH range and with a change of 10% RH the dimensional change in strain is only 0.002 or about 0.2% elongation. This is actually less than most woods.

Figure 31 shows the dimensional changes (in free swelling strains) of both large and small changes in relative humidity.

Walrus Tusk, Tang./ Radial Direction

What is remarkable about ivory is the extremely long time required to come to equilibrium with changes in RH. Figure 32 below show the free swelling strains versus time for different rapid changes in RH levels. The RH changes shown are from some of the data acquired for Fig. 32 during the large changes in RH. The sample used in these tests had a cross section of only 0.08 in. x 0.08 in (2mm x 2mm). Because of the very long equilibration times for ivory, it took several months to complete the testing shown in figure 8.

Walrus Tusk, Equilibrium Times at 72F

20%RH to 29%RH

Time (hours) Free Swelling Strain

29%RH to 36%RH

Sample dimensions = 0.08 x 0.08" (~2mm x2mm)

75%RH to 69%RH

69%RH to 61%RH

61%RH to 52%RH

52%RH to 39%RH

34%RH to 15%RH

050100150200250300350

Figure 32 shows the free swelling strains versus time for walrus tusk samples subject to very rapid changes in humidity.

F National Mall Instrument and Protocol

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY AND CULTURE: DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS & INSTRUMENT FOR EXIT INTERVIEWS ON THE NATIONAL MALL

Overview

Exit interviews will be conducted at four museums on the National Mall: 1) National Air and Space Museum (NASM); 2) National Museum of Natural History (NMHH), 3) National Museum of African Art (NMAfA); and 4) National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI). These museums were selected because they are likely to attract a broad range of Smithsonian visitors, from more general and family audiences at the first two sites to visitors interested in visiting a culturally-specific museum, including one focused on African art and culture. The purpose of this study is to gather perceptions, awareness, and interest from a broad range of museum goers (both African American and non-African American) as they relate to the new National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC).

Recruitment

Researchers will approach visitors as they exit the museum, in whatever place (e.g. the lobby) makes most sense given the specific site. (On warmer days, it will be possible for data collectors to be stationed outside each museum to be less intrusive). Researchers will use a combination of random and stratified sampling. Our random sampling method is as follows: 1) Identify an “imaginary” line (e.g. the threshold into the main lobby) and select and approach the 5th visitor to cross that line (or, if visitation is moderate/low, select the next person to cross the li ne once you have fully completed your last interview and prepared for the next); and 2) Approach only people who are approximately 18 years or older (determine visually) unless they appear to be part of an organized group (i.e., a school group, Elderhostel tour, etc.), in which case do not include them in your sample and recruit another visitor. A stratified sampling method will be used to ensure that 20-25% of the visitors we talk to are African American (about 4 times the average visitation rate of African Americans to the Smithsonian museums). This method entails identifying and approaching visitors who appear to be African American rather than “randomly” selecting visitors. While determining race/ethnicity visually is not necessarily the best or most accurate method, it is the only means possible for the purposes of this study.

Initiating the interview

Once you have selected a visitor, approach them, introduce yourself as working with the Smithsonian, and ask them if they would mind answering a few questions related to the choices that visitors make when they visit the National Mall and the surrounding areas. Try to be casual, friendly, and genuine in your tone, so that visitors feel comfortable. You can say something like this:

“Hi! How are you doing today? Great! My name is _______________ and I’m working with the Smithsonian today taking with visitors about the kinds of choices they make when visiting the National Mall, and also to get feedback on a new museum. It should take about 5-10 minutes or so. Would you be willing to help us?”

[NOTE: It is essential that you do not tell the visitor the museum we are getting feedback on until the appropriate point in the interview. If they ask at this point, just say something like, “I can’t let you know now, but you’ll find out during the course of the interview.”]

If the visitor says no to doing the interview, do not take it personally. Thank them, and record their refusal on a list titled “Refusal Log,” as well as your impression of why the visitor refused. For example, maybe they were really in a hurry or they had a screaming child to attend to.

If the visitor appears uncertain or reluctant to agree to talk with you, try to gauge their hesitation. There are myriad reasons why visitors would initially not want to stop to talk. Some of those reasons we can anticipate and proactively acknowledge and try to make the visitor feel more comfortable. We want to try to give the visitor every reason to participate. For example, if the person says they are in a hurry, tell them that’s fine and they are free to leave whenever they need to. Offer to walk around with the person especially if children in the group are reluctant or unable to stay with the group. You want to accommodate the visitor, and you have some flexibility to tailor the interview to suit their needs and limitations. You want to do anything you can to include them in the sample, rather than exclude them (e.g. force them to refuse, give them opportunities to refuse) because you can’t accommodate them. Once they get started and are having an enjoyable experience talking with you, they will likely lose track of time.

If the visitor you targeted defers the interview to someone else in the group, that’s fine too. Make one attempt to convince the original visitor (e.g., “We are really looking for more feedback from men” or “It doesn’t matter how much you know or are interested in the topic…we want to learn about the whole range of visitor experiences.”), but then allow them to defer to the other visitor in their group. For instance, the 5th person across your imaginary line may be a husband, and when asked if he will participate, he defers to his wife, who agrees to talk to you. If after one attempt the husband still refuses, go ahead and conduct the interview with the wife instead. One good strategy for getting the original person to talk with you is to make eye contact with them directly when you approach, and sustain eye contact with them through the initial conversation.

Conducting the interview

If the person agrees to participate in the interview, thank them and turn to the Interview Guide (attached). Use the script provided to guide you through the interview process. Try to use the exact words of the interview form as much as possible, but feel free to improvise and paraphrase the questions if the visitor doesn’t understand the question, or to ask follow-up probes to get more detailed information about their thoughts or opinions. If the visitor answers one of the questions in another context, feel free to skip that question – just make sure that you have gotten feedback on all of the questions before ending the interview, and that it is clearly marked on your interview form (for example, with an arrow, if a question is actually answered elsewhere on the form).

Following are some general tips for effective interviewing:

It is often best to begin the interview with some casual, conversational questions, such as “Is this your first time to the Portrait Gallery?” or “Are you from the DC area or are you visiting from out of town?” This helps open up the conversation, plus you can use some of this information for the demographi c section of the interview.

In addition to the probes provided on the Interview Guide, you should ask follow-up questions as necessary to provide deeper, meaningful, and relevant information. Some useful probes are:

o That’s interesting – tell me more about that.

o What do you mean by that?

o Can you explain that a little more?

o Can you give me an example?

Always phrase your question as a question (NOT “I’d like to know why you decided to come here today” BUT “Why did you decide to come here today?)

Avoid “yes” or “no” questions

Give visitors time to answer. Let there be silence for at least 5-10 seconds before prompting them again, asking if they need the question repeated, etc. It is easy to get nervous if visitors don’t answer immediately, and to compensate by asking another question right away or giving them possible answers before they have time to think it through.

Always be friendly and accommodating to visitors, try to be aware of their needs, expectations, and agendas. Try to minimize any reasons for them to change their minds and leave the interview.

Make the interview as relaxed and comfortable as possible. It’s okay to be conversational, even though you are asking them very specific questions. You don’t want to sound like you’re reading off a script.

Try to enhance your auditory memory for visitor responses so you so you don’t need to write everything down at that very second. If you succeed in initiating and building a rapport and comfortable conversation, visitors will naturally be more likely to spend time with you and answer your questions.

It is likely that much of the visitors’ general background information will be disclosed during the interview. However, by the end of the interview, you will need to ask visitors about their museum visitation habits, residence, age, gender, and ethnicity, and record their information on the Demographics Sheet provided. (Alternately, you can have the visitor fill out the Demographic Sheet themselves).

Recording the data from the interview

Use the attached Interview Guide to take notes on the individuals’ responses. You do not have to capture every word they say, but be careful to note down key words, phrases, and ideas as the visitor speaks. Try to maintain eye contact and a conversation al tone while you take notes. This can be tricky! Depending on your style and skill level, you may want to make a comment at the outset that you need to write down what they are saying, so it may take a second before you can respond, or you may ask them to repeat something - they are usually very understanding.

After the interview, make sure to take a few minutes to go back over the interview and fill in the gaps. No matter how good your memory is, you will likely lose the detailed information if you wait too long. Check for legibility and completeness and flow of thoughts. Try to fill in as much detailed richness as possible, capturing their actual words, phraseology, and expressions whenever possible. Try to note with quotation marks what are actual statements made and exact language used by people. Also, note in parentheses any prompts/questions that you asked as a follow-up to their initial responses.

Remember to record the necessary demographic information, as well as the date and time of day you conducted the interview. Also, there is a small space on the bottom of the interview guide to record any relevant notes about the visitor. For instance, was it difficult to get the visitor to talk? Was the visitor distracted by his/her children? Did the visitor have to leave partway through the interview? Was English their second language? These notes will provide important contextual information for understanding the visitors’ responses to the interview questions.

Ending the interview

When you are finished with the interview, and you have gathered all the information that you need from the visitor, thank him/her for talking with you, and let them know how valuable their comments are in the development of the NMAAHC.

Smithsonian Museum Visitor Exit Interview

Interviewer: ________________________________________

Visitor #: _______________________

Date: _____________________ Weekday Weekend Time of day: ________________AM/PM

Museum: National Air and Space

National Museum of Natural History

National Museum of African American Art

National Museum of the American Indian

Other (please identify) ________________________

Introduction

Thanks for agreeing to talk with me. It should take about 5-10 minutes, and just let me know if you need to go at any time. There is no right or wrong answer – we’re just interested in your honest opinions and perceptions. I don’t actually work directly for the Smithsonian, so you can’t po ssibly offend me by anything you say or feel.

Part I. Visitation Choices

First, we’re trying to get a sense of what choices people make when visiting the National Mall and its immediate surroundings.

1. Where have you been so far today (including monuments, Smithsonian museums, other museums, etc.)? Please indicate the sequence of their visit by numbering in the spaces provided.

___ Nowhere (just started the day)

___ Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art ___ Washington Monument

___ Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden ___ Lincoln Memorial

___ Holocaust Museum ___ World War II Memorial

___ International Spy Museum ___ Vietnam Memorial

___ Library of Congress

___ U.S. Capitol Building

___ National Air and Space Museum ___ White House

___ National Archives ___ FDR Memorial

___ National Gallery of Art ___ Jefferson Memorial

___ National Museum of African Art ___ Korean War Memorial

___ National Museum of American History

___ National Museum of the American Indian

___ National Museum of Natural History

___ National Portrait Gallery

___ National Postal Museum

___ National Zoo

___ Smithsonian American Art Museum

___ U.S. Botanic Garden

2. Where else do you plan to go today?

Other (please describe):

No plans (yet)

___ Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art ___ Washington Monument

___ Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden ___ Lincoln Memorial

___ Holocaust Museum

___ International Spy Museum

___ Library of Congress

___ National Air and Space Museum

___ National Archives

___ National Gallery of Art

___ World War II Memorial

___ Vietnam Memorial

___ U.S. Capitol Building

___ White House

___ FDR Memorial

___ Jefferson Memorial

___ National Museum of African Art ___ Korean War Memorial

___ National Museum of American History ___ Other (please describe):

___ National Museum of the American Indian

___ National Museum of Natural History

___ National Portrait Gallery

___ National Postal Museum

___ National Zoo

___ Smithsonian American Art Museum

___ U.S. Botanic Garden

3. When did you decide on what sights to visit today? (please check one) In advance of arriving at the National Mall today? YES NO

Have your plans changed at all so far? YES NO What changed? (e.g. skipping a museum, swapping sites, adding something new)

4. Now, imagine that you could start this day over, and that there are three other museums on the Mall for you to visit, all of them free of charge. I’m going to ask you about each one, and then have you select a statement that best suits how you feel about that museum. (If necessary, show visitor their choices in questions 1 and 2 to help them decide)

A. National Museum of Technology and Innovation (please check one)

Would visit today (swap with another site on our list)

Would visit today (add to what we’re already seeing)

Would visit (or would have visited) another day on this trip

Would visit this museum on a future trip

Would not likely visit this museum

B. National Museum of African American History and Culture (please check one)

Would visit today (swap with another site on our list)

Would visit today (add to what we’re already seeing)

Would visit (or would have visited) another day on this trip

Would visit this museum on a future trip

Would not likely visit this museum

C. National Museum of Musical Instruments (please check one)

Would visit today (swap with another site on our list)

Would visit today (add this museum to what we’re already seeing)

Would visit (or would have visited) another day on this trip

Would visit this museum on a future trip

Would not likely visit this museum

Part II. National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC)

Great, thank you for your answers. The museum that the Smithsonian is actually planning to open on the Mall is the National Museum of African American History and Culture – so I just have a few questions about that museum specifically. We are interested in everyone’s thoughts and opinions in relation to this museum, whether or not you chose to visit it in the previous exercise. There are no right or wrong answers, and I don’t actually work for the NMAAHC, so you can’t possibly offend me by anything you say. So please feel free to share your honest thoughts and opinions.

5. What comes to mind when you hear the term “African American history and culture”?

Probe What does this include for you? What do you imagine a National Museum of African American History and Culture to be like?

6. What would you personally like to see, experience, or learn at a national museum here on the Mall that features African American history and culture? Why?

7. Which aspects of African American history and culture, if any, do you feel you relate to most? Why?

8. Imagine entering the NMAAHC, is there anything that would turn you off, or make you feel uncomfortable or unwelcome? Is there anything that would make you not want to explore the museum further?

9. Please rate your interest in and knowledge of the following topics on a scale of 1-7, with 1 being “not at all” and 7 being “extremely high” for interest, and 1 being “nothing” and 7 being “expert level” for knowledge (circle one for each item):

INTEREST

Performing Arts of African Americans (e.g. music, dance)

Successes, achievements of African Americans (e.g. in arts, sciences, humanities, sports, politics)

Struggles of African American individuals and communities (e.g. discrimination, inequality)

Difficult issues in African American history (such as slavery, lynching, and discrimination)

Current issues of race and race relations (e.g. continuing racism, inequality, poverty, discrimination)

Visiting the National Museum of African American History and Culture

Interviewer notes:

Part III. Demographics

Great! Thank you for sharing all of your thoughts. Now I would ju st like to get a little bit of information about who you are. (Use Demographic Sheet below).

Please tell us about yourself…

1. Have you been to a Smithsonian museum before today? (check one) Yes No Not sure, don’t know

2. If yes, which one(s)? (check all that apply)

Anacostia Community Museum

Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum (New York)

Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art

Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

National Air and Space Museum

National Museum of African Art

National Museum of American History

National Museum of the American Indian

National Museum of Natural History

National Portrait Gallery

National Postal Museum

National Zoo

Smithsonian American Art Museum

3. How often in the past 5 years have you been to a Smithsonian museum? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

4. How often did you visit a museum in general last year (2007)? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

5. Who are you visiting with today?

Alone Adults only (friends and/or family)

Adults and children (friends and/or family)

Organized tour group

6. In what year were you born? _______________________

7. Where do you live?

Local (inside the beltway)

Greater DC area

Out of state (non-neighboring)

Another country

10. What is your highest level of education?

High school

Community college (AA)

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate degree

9. How would you describe yourself?

Female Male

(Please check all that apply)

African American or Black White or Caucasian Hispanic/Latino(a)

Asian, Asian American, or Pacific Islander Native American

Other (please describe): ______________________________________________

Thank you for participating!

G National Portrait Gallery Exhibitions Protocol and Instrument

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY AND CULTURE: DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS & INSTRUMENT FOR EXIT INTERVIEWS AT THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY

Overview

Exit interviews will be conducted at the National Portrait Galler y (NPG) with visitors who have attended either the “Let Our Motto Be Resistance: African American Portraits” or “Recognize: Hip Hop and Contemporary Portraiture.” These exhibitions were selected because they are likely to draw a larger African American audience than is typical for the NPG (and the Smithsonian more broadly), as well as visitors who are interested in African American arts and culture. The purpose of this sub-study is to support the larger front-end audience research study for the NMAAHC by targeting visitors (both African American and others) who have chosen to visit an exhibition related to African American culture.

Recruitment

Researchers will approach visitors in the corridor as they exit one of the two target exhibitions at the NPG. Researchers will use a combination of random and convenient sampling by using the following the steps: 1) Identify an “imaginary” line (e.g. the threshold of the gallery) and select and approach the 5th visitor to cross that line (or, if visitation is moderate/low, select the next person to cross the line once you have fully completed your last interview and prepared for the next); 2) Approach only people who are approximately 18 years or older (determine visually) unless they appear to be part of an organized group (i.e., a school group, Elderhostel tour, etc.), in which case do not include them in your sample and recruit another visitor.

Initiating the interview

Once you have selected a visitor, approach them, introduce yourself, explain what you are doing, and ask them if they would mind answering a few questions related to the development of the new National Museum of African American History and Culture. Try to be casual, friendly, and genuine in your tone, so that visitors feel comfortable. You can say something like this:

“Hi! My name is ___ and I’m working with the Smithsonian today to help them get feedback from visitors on plans for a new museum of African American History and Culture on the National Mall. I just have a few questions to ask, and it should take about 5 minutes or so. Would you be willing to help us?”

If the visitor says no, do not take it personally. Thank them, and record their refusal on a list titled “Refusal Log,” as well as your impression of why the visitor refused. For example, maybe they were really in a hurry or they had a screaming child to attend to.

If the visitor appears uncertain or reluctant to agree to talk with you, try to gauge their hesitation. There are myriad reasons why visitors would initially not want to stop to talk. Some of those reasons we can anticipate and proactively acknowledge and try to make the visitor feel more comfortable. We want to try to give the visitor every reason to participate. For example, if the person says they are in a hurry, tell them that’s fine and they are free to leave whenever they need to. Offer to walk around with the person especially if children in the group are reluctant or unable to stay with the group. You want to

accommodate the visitor, and you have some flexibility to tailor the interview to suit their needs and limitations. You want to do anything you can to include them in the sample, rather than exclude them (e.g. force them to refuse, give them opportunities to refuse) because you can’t accommodate them. Once they get started and are having an enjoyable experience talking with you, they will likely lose track of time.

If the visitor you targeted defers the interview to someone else in the group, that’s fine too. Make one attempt to convince the original visitor (e.g., “We are really looking for more feedback from men” or “It doesn’t matter how much you know or are interested in the topic…we want to learn about the whole range of visitor experiences.”), but then allow them to defer to the other visitor in their group. For instance, the 5th person across your imaginary line may be a husband, and when asked if he will participate, he defers to his wife, who agrees to talk to you. If after one attempt the husband still refuses, go ahead and conduct the interview with the wife instead.

Conducting the interview

If the person agrees to participate in the interview, thank them and turn to the Interview Guide (attached). Use the script provided to guide you through the interview process. Feel free to improvise and paraphrase the questions as needed, as well as to ask follow-up probes to get more detailed information about their thoughts or opinions. Or, if the visitor answers one of the questions in another context, feel free to skip that question – just make sure that you have gotten feedback on all of the questions before ending the interview.

Following are some general interviewing tips:

It is often best to begin the interview with some casual, conversational questions, such as “Is this your first time to the Portrait Gallery?” or “Are you from the DC area or are you visiting from out of town?” This helps open up the conversation, plus you can use some of this information for the demographi c section of the interview.

In addition to the probes provided on the Interview Guide, you should ask follow-up questions as necessary to provide deeper, meaningful, and relevant information. Some useful probes are:

o That’s interesting – tell me more about that.

o What do you mean by that?

o Can you explain that a little more?

o Can you give me an example?

Always phrase your question as a question (NOT “I’d like to know why you decided to come here today” BUT “Why did you decide to come here today?)

Avoid “yes” or “no” questions

Give visitors time to answer. Let there be silence for at least 5-10 seconds before prompting them again, asking if they need the question repeated, etc. It is easy to get nervous if visitors don’t answer immediately, and to compensate by asking another question right away or giving them possible answers before they have time to think it through.

Always be friendly and accommodating to visitors, try to be aware of their needs, expectations, and agendas. Try to minimize any reasons for them to change their minds and leave the interview.

Make the interview as relaxed and comfortable as possible. It’s okay to be conversational, even though you are asking them very specific questions. You don’t want to sound like you’re reading off a script.

Try to enhance your auditory memory for visitor responses so you so you don’t need to write everything down at that very second. If you succeed in initiating and building a rapport and comfortable conversation, visitors will naturally be more likely to spend time with you and answer your questions.

It is likely that much of the visitors’ general background information will be disclosed during the interview. However, by the end of the interview, you will need to ask visitors about their museum visitation habits, residence, age, gender, and ethnicity, and record their information on the Demographics Sheet provided. (Alternately, you can have the visitor fill out the Demographic Sheet themselves).

Recording the data from the interview

Use the attached Interview Guide to take notes on the individuals’ responses. You do not have to capture every word they say, but be careful to note down key words, phrases, and ideas as the visitor speaks. Try to maintain eye contact and a conversation al tone while you take notes. This can be tricky! Depending on your style and skill level, you may want to make a comment at the outset that you need to write down what they are saying, so it may take a second before you can respond, or you may ask them to repeat something - they are usually very understanding.

After the interview, make sure to take a few minutes to go back over the interview and fill in the gaps. No matter how good your memory is, you will likely lose the detailed information if you wait too long. Check for legibility and completeness and flow of thoughts. Try to fill in as much detailed richness as possible, capturing their actual words, phraseology, and expressions whenever possible. Try to note with quotation marks what are actual statements made and exact language used by people. Also, note in parentheses any prompts/questions that you asked as a follow-up to their initial responses.

Remember to record the necessary demographic information, as well as the date and time of day you conducted the interview. Also, there is a small space on the bottom of the interview guide to record any relevant notes about the visitor. For instance, was it difficult to get the visitor to talk? Was the visitor distracted by his/her children? Did the visitor have to leave partway through the interview? Was English their second language? These notes will provide important contextual information for understanding the visitors’ responses to the interview questions.

Ending the interview

When you are finished with the interview, and you have gathered all the information that you need from the visitor, thank him/her for talking with you, and let them know how valuable their comments are in the development of the NMAAHC.

National Museum of African American History and Culture Visitor Exit Interview (National Portrait Gallery)

Interviewer: ________________________________________ Visitor #: _______________________

Date: _____________________ Weekday Weekend Time of day: ________________AM/PM

Exhibit: Let Your Motto Be Resistance

RECOGNIZE! Hip Hop and Contemporary Portraiture

Part I. Intro

Thanks for agreeing to talk with us. It should take about 5 minutes, and just let me know if you need to go at any time. There is no right or wrong answer – we’re just interested in your honest opinions and perceptions. Everything you say will be kept confidential and will only be used to help in the planning and development of the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Part II. Interview

General

1. What comes to mind when you hear the term “African American history and culture”? Probe For you, what do you consider to be part of the history and culture specific to African Americans?

2. What would you personally like to see or experience at a national museum on the Mall that features African American history and culture?

3. More specifically, what would you like to know more about in terms of the history and culture of African Americans?

4. Please rate your interest in the following on a scale of 1-7, with 1 being “not at all” and 7 being “very much” (circle one for each item):

5. Why did you choose that rating for your interest in visiting the new museum?

Finally, we just have a couple questions about the exhibit you just visited (“Let Your Motto Be Resistance” or “Recognize”)

6. How did you find out about this exhibition?

Advertising (please explain) _________________________________________

Reviews

Articles

Radio program

Word of mouth

Just happened upon it

Previous visit to this museum

Other (please explain) ______________________________________________

7. What aspects did you find most interesting about the exhibition? Why?

8. Do you have any other thoughts or comments related to this exhibition or the new Smithsonian museum that you’d like to share?

Interview notes:

Part III. Demographics

Great! Thank you for sharing all of your thoughts. Now I would just like to get a little bit of information about who you are. (Use Demographic Sheet below).

Please tell us about yourself…

1. Have you been to a Smithsonian museum before today? (check one) Yes No Not sure, don’t know

2. If yes, which one(s)? (check all that apply)

Anacostia Community Museum

Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum (New York)

Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art

Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

National Air and Space Museum

National Museum of African Art

National Museum of American History

National Museum of the American Indian

National Museum of Natural History

National Portrait Gallery

National Postal Museum

National Zoo

Smithsonian American Art Museum

3. How often in the past 5 years have you been to a Smithsonian museum? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

4. How often have you visited a museum in general in the past 5 years? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

5. Who are you visiting with today?

Alone Adults only (friends and/or family) Adults and children (friends and/or family) Organized tour group

6. In what year were you born? _______________________

7. Where do you live?

Local (inside the beltway)

Greater DC area

Out of state (non-neighboring)

Another country

8. How would you describe yourself?

Female Male

African American or Black White or Caucasian Hispanic/Latino(a)

Asian, Asian American, or Pacific Islander Native American

Other (please describe): _____________________________________________ (check all that apply)

Thank you for participating!

H National Zoo African American Family Day Protocol and Instrument

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY AND CULTURE: DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS & INSTRUMENT

AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILY CELEBRATION DAY THE SMITHSONIAN NATIONAL ZOO

Overview

Interviews will be conducted at the National Zoo on African American Family Celebration Day (March 24, 2008), either as visitors exit the site or at other appropriate areas as suggested by National Zoo staff. This event was selected because it is likely to draw a larger African American audience than is typical for the National Zoo and will potentially provide an audience that may be interested in the NMAAHC but are not necessarily frequent museum-goers . The purpose of this sub-study is to support the larger front-end audience research study for the NMAAHC by focusing on the perspectives of African American visitors, particularly families.

Recruitment

Researchers will approach visitors as they exit the zoo or in other pre-designated areas. They will use a purposive sampling procedure to focus on African Am erican visitors. While this method is not totally accurate, ethnic/racial background will be determined visually. Researchers will also only approach people who are approximately 18 years or older (determine visually) unless they appear to be part of an organized group (i.e., a school group, Elderhostel tour, etc.), in which case do not include them in your sample and recruit another visitor.

Initiating the interview

Once you have selected a visitor, approach them, introduce yourself, explain what you are doing, and ask them if they would mind answering a few questions related to the development of the new National Museum of African American History and Culture. Try to be casual, friendly, and genuine in your tone, so that visitors feel comfortable. You can say something like this:

“Hi! My name is ___ and I’m working with the Smithsonian today to help them get feedback from visitors on plans for a new museum of African American History and Culture on the National Mall. I just have a few questions to ask, and it should take about 5 minutes or so.

Would you be willing to help us?”

If the visitor says no, do not take it personally. Thank them, and record their refusal on a list titled “Refusal Log,” as well as your impression of why the visitor refused. For example, maybe they were really in a hurry or they had a screaming child to attend to.

If the visitor appears uncertain or reluctant to agree to talk with you, try to gauge their hesitation. There are myriad reasons why visitors would initially not want to stop to talk. Some of those reasons we can anticipate and proactively acknowledge and try to make the visitor feel more comfortable. We want to try to give the visitor every reason to participate. For example, if the person says they are in a hurry, tell them that’s fine and they are free to leave whenever they need to. Offer to walk around with the person especially if children in the group are reluctant or unable to stay with the group. You want to accommodate the visitor, and you have some flexibility to tailor the interview to suit their needs and

limitations. You want to do anything you can to include them in the sample, rather than exclude them (e.g. force them to refuse, give them opportunities to refuse) because you can’t accommodate them. Once they get started and are having an enjoyable experience talking with you, they will likely lose track of time.

If the visitor you targeted defers the interview to someone else in the group, that’s fine too. Make one attempt to convince the original visitor (e.g., “We are really looking for more feedback from men” or “It doesn’t matter how much you know or are interested in the topic…we want to learn about the whole range of visitor experiences.”), but then allow them to defer to the other visitor in their group. For instance, the 5th person across your imaginary line may be a husband, and when asked if he will participate, he defers to his wife, who agrees to talk to you. If after one attempt the husband still refuses, go ahead and conduct the interview with the wife instead.

Conducting the interview

If the person agrees to participate in the interview, thank them and turn to the Interview Guide (attached). Use the script provided to guide you through the interview process. Feel free to improvise and paraphrase the questions as needed, as well as to ask follow-up probes to get more detailed information about their thoughts or opinions. Or, if the visitor answers one of the questions in another context, feel free to skip that question – just make sure that you have gotten feedback on all of the questions before ending the interview.

Following are some general interviewing tips:

It is often best to begin the interview with some casual, conversational questions, such as “Is this your first time to the Portrait Gallery?” or “Are you from the DC area or are you visiting from out of town?” This helps open up the conversation, plus you can use some of this information for the demographi c section of the interview.

In addition to the probes provided on the Interview Guide, you should ask follow-up questions as necessary to provide deeper, meaningful, and relevant information. Some useful probes are:

o That’s interesting – tell me more about that.

o What do you mean by that?

o Can you explain that a little more?

o Can you give me an example?

Always phrase your question as a question (NOT “I’d like to know why you decided to come here today” BUT “Why did you decide to come here today?)

Avoid “yes” or “no” questions

Give visitors time to answer. Let there be silence for at least 5-10 seconds before prompting them again, asking if they need the question repeated, etc. It is easy to get nervous if visitors don’t answer immediately, and to compensate by asking another question right away or giving them possible answers before they have time to think it through.

Always be friendly and accommodating to visitors, try to be aware of their needs, expectations, and agendas. Try to minimize any reasons for them to change their minds and leave the interview.

Make the interview as relaxed and comfortable as possible. It’s okay to be conversational, even though you are asking them very specific questions. You don’t want to sound like you’re reading off a script.

Try to enhance your auditory memory for visitor responses so you so you don’t need to write everything down at that very second. If you succeed in initiating and building a rapport

and comfortable conversation, visitors will naturally be more likely to spend time with you and answer your questions.

It is likely that much of the visitors’ general background information will be disclosed during the interview. However, by the end of the interview, you will need to ask visitors about their museum visitation habits, residence, age, gender, and ethnicity, and record their information on the Demographics Sheet provided. (Alternately, you can have the visitor fill out the Demographic Sheet themselves).

Recording the data from the interview

Use the attached Interview Guide to take notes on the individuals’ responses. You do not have to capture every word they say, but be careful to note down key words, phrases, and ideas as the visitor speaks. Try to maintain eye contact and a conversation al tone while you take notes. This can be tricky! Depending on your style and skill level, you may want to make a comment at the outset that you need to write down what they are saying, so it may take a second before you can respond, or you may ask them to repeat something - they are usually very understanding.

After the interview, make sure to take a few minutes to go back over the interview and fill in the gaps. No matter how good your memory is, you will likely lose the detailed information if you wait too long. Check for legibility and completeness and flow of thoughts. Try to fill in as much detailed richness as possible, capturing their actual words, phraseology, and expressions whenever possible. Try to note with quotation marks what are actual statements made and exact language used by people. Also, note in parentheses any prompts/questions that you asked as a follow-up to their initial responses.

Remember to record the necessary demographic information, as well as the date and time of day you conducted the interview. Also, there is a small space on the bottom of the interview guide to record any relevant notes about the visitor. For instance, was it difficult to get the visitor to talk? Was the visitor distracted by his/her children? Did the visitor have to leave partway through the interview? Was English their second language? These notes will provide important contextual information for understanding the visitors’ responses to the interview questions.

Ending the interview

When you are finished with the interview, and you have gathered all the information that you need from the visitor, thank him/her for talking with you, and let them know how valuable their comments are in the development of the NMAAHC.

National Museum of African American History and Culture Visitor Interview (National Zoo)

Interviewer: ________________________________________ Visitor #: _______________________

Date: _____________________ Weekday Weekend Time of day: ________________AM/PM

Part I. Intro

Thanks for agreeing to talk with us. It should take about 5 minutes, and just let me know if you need to go at any time. There is no right or wrong answer – we’re just interested in your honest opinions and perceptions. Everything you say will be kept confidential and will only be used to help in the planning and development of the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Part II. Interview

General

1. What comes to mind when you hear the term “African American history and culture”? Probe For you, what do you consider to be part of the history and culture specific to African Americans?

2. What would you personally like to see, experience, or learn at a national museum here on the Mall that features African American history and culture? Why?

3. The NMAAHC will be adjacent to the National Museum of American History. How, if at all, do you see African American History connect to American History in general?

4. What aspects of African American history and culture, if any, do you feel you connect to personally?

5. Imagine entering the NMAAHC, is there anything that would make your feel uncomfortable or unwelcome? Is there anything that would make you not want to explore the museum further?

6. Please rate your interest in the following on a scale of 1-7, with 1 being “not at all” and 7 being “very much” (circle one for each item):

Performing Arts of African Americans (e.g. music, dance)

Successes, achievements of African Americans (e.g. in arts, sciences, humanities, sports, politics)

Struggles of African American individuals and communities (e.g. discrimination, inequality)

Difficult issues in African American history (such as slavery, lynching, and discrimination)

Current issues of race and race relations (e.g. continuing racism, inequality, poverty, discrimination)

Visiting the National Museum of African American History and Culture

7. Do you have any other thoughts or comments related to the new Smithsonian museum that you’d like to share?

Interview notes:

Part III. Demographics

Great! Thank you for sharing all of your thoughts. Now I would ju st like to get a little bit of information about who you are. (Use Demographic Sheet below)

Please tell us about yourself…

1. Have you been to a Smithsonian museum before today? (check one) Yes No Not sure, don’t know

2. If yes, which one(s)? (check all that apply)

Anacostia Community Museum

Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum (New York)

Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art

Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

National Air and Space Museum

National Museum of African Art

National Museum of American History

National Museum of the American Indian

National Museum of Natural History

National Portrait Gallery

National Postal Museum

National Zoo

Smithsonian American Art Museum

3. How often in the past 5 years have you been to a Smithsonian museum? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

4. How often did you visit a museum in general last year (2007)? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

5. Who are you visiting with today?

Alone Adults only (friends and/or family)

Adults and children (friends and/or family)

Organized tour group

6. In what year were you born? _______________________

7. Where do you live?

Local (inside the beltway)

Greater DC area

Out of state (non-neighboring)

Another country

11. What is your highest level of education?

High school

Community college (AA)

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate degree

9. How would you describe yourself?

Female Male

(Please check all that apply)

African American or Black White or Caucasian Hispanic/Latino(a)

Asian, Asian American, or Pacific Islander Native American

Other (please describe): ______________________________________________

Thank you for participating!

African American Museums Protocol and Instrument

NMAAHC DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS & INSTRUMENT: EXIT INTERVIEWS AT AFRICAN AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS AND EXHIBITIONS

Overview

In addition to a large-scale visitor study on the National Mall in DC, exit interviews will be conducted at several African-American related institutions, exhibitions and events as follows: 1) National Portrait Gallery “Let Resistance be Your Motto: African American Portraits”; 2) African American Family Day at the National Zoo; 3) The Reginald Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History and Culture, Baltimore, MD; and 4) Great Blacks in Wax, Baltimore, MD. The purpose of this portion of the study is to document perceptions, attitudes, and interest largely from the African American community, or those interested in African American culture and history, as they relate to the NMAAHC.

Recruitment

Researchers will approach visitors as they exit the museum or site, in whatever place (e.g. the lobby) makes most sense given the specific site. (On warmer days, it will be possible for data collectors to be stationed outside each museum to be less intrusive). Researchers will use a random and sampling method as follows: 1) Identify an “imaginary” line (e.g. the threshold into the main lobby) and select and approach the 5th visitor to cross that line (or, if visitation is moderate/low, select the next person to cross the line once you have fully completed your last interview and prepared for the next); and 2) Approach only people who are approximately 18 years or older (determine visually) unless they appear to be part of an organized group (i.e., a school group, Elderhostel tour, etc.), in which case do not include them in your sample and recruit another visitor.

Initiating the interview

Once you have selected a visitor, approach them, introduce yourself as working with the Smithsonian, and ask them if they would mind answering a few questions related to the choices that visitors make when they visit the National Mall and the surrounding areas. Try to be casual, friendly, and genuine in your tone, so that visitors feel comfortable. You can say something like this:

“Hi! How are you doing today? Great! My name is _______________ and I’m working with the Smithsonian today getting feedback from visitors on a new museum, the National Museum of African American History and Culture. It should take about 5-10 minutes or so. Would you be willing to help us?”

If the visitor says no to doing the interview, do not take it personally. Thank them, and record their refusal on a list titled “Refusal Log,” as well as your impression of why the visitor refused. For example, maybe they were really in a hurry or they had a screaming child to attend to.

If the visitor appears uncertain or reluctant to agree to talk with you, try to gauge their hesitation. There are myriad reasons why visitors would initially not want to stop to talk. Some of those reasons we can anticipate and proactively acknowledge and try to make the visitor feel more comfortable. We want to try to give the visitor every reason to participate. For example, if the person says they are in a hurry, tell them that’s fine and they are free to leave whenever they need to. Offer to walk around with the person especially if children in the group are reluctant or unable to stay with the group. You want to

accommodate the visitor, and you have some flexibility to tailor the interview to suit their needs and limitations. You want to do anything you can to include them in the sample, rather than exclude them (e.g. force them to refuse, give them opportunities to refuse) because you can’t accommodate them. Once they get started and are having an enjoyable experience talking with you, they will likely lose track of time.

If the visitor you targeted defers the interview to someone else in the group, that’s fine too. Make one attempt to convince the original visitor (e.g., “We are really looking for more feedback from men” or “It doesn’t matter how much you know or are interested in the topic…we want to learn about the whole range of visitor experiences.”), but then allow them to defer to the other visitor in their group. For instance, the 5th person across your imaginary line may be a husband, and when asked if he will participate, he defers to his wife, who agrees to talk to you. If after one attempt the husband still refuses, go ahead and conduct the interview with the wife instead. One good strategy for getting the original person to talk with you is to make eye contact with them directly when you approach, and sustain eye contact with them through the initial conversation.

Conducting the interview

If the person agrees to participate in the interview, thank them and turn to the Interview Guide (attached). Use the script provided to guide you through the interview process. Try to use the exact words of the interview form as much as possible, but feel free to improvise and paraphrase the questions if the visitor doesn’t understand the question, or to ask follow-up probes to get more detailed information about their thoughts or opinions. If the visitor answers one of the questions in another context, feel free to skip that question – just make sure that you have gotten feedback on all of the questions before ending the interview, and that it is clearly marked on your interview form (for example, with an arrow, if a question is actually answered elsewhere on the form).

Following are some general tips for effective interviewing:

It is often best to begin the interview with some casual, conversational questions, such as “Is this your first time to the Portrait Gallery?” or “Are you from the DC area or are you visiting from out of town?” This helps open up the conversation, plus you can use some of this information for the demographi c section of the interview.

In addition to the probes provided on the Interview Guide, you should ask follow-up questions as necessary to provide deeper, meaningful, and relevant information. Some useful probes are:

o That’s interesting – tell me more about that.

o What do you mean by that?

o Can you explain that a little more?

o Can you give me an example?

Always phrase your question as a question (NOT “I’d like to know why you decided to come here today” BUT “Why did you decide to come here today?)

Avoid “yes” or “no” questions

Give visitors time to answer. Let there be silence for at least 5-10 seconds before prompting them again, asking if they need the question repeated, etc. It is easy to get nervous if visitors don’t answer immediately, and to compensate by asking another question right away or giving them possible answers before they have time to think it through.

Always be friendly and accommodating to visitors, try to be aware of their needs, expectations, and agendas. Try to minimize any reasons for them to change their minds and leave the interview.

Make the interview as relaxed and comfortable as possible. It’s okay to be conversational, even though you are asking them very specific questions. You don’t want to sound like you’re reading off a script.

Try to enhance your auditory memory for visitor responses so you so you don’t need to write everything down at that very second. If you succeed in initiating and building a rapport and comfortable conversation, visitors will naturally be more likely to spend time with you and answer your questions.

It is likely that much of the visitors’ general background information will be disclosed during the interview. However, by the end of the interview, you will need to ask visitors about their museum visitation habits, residence, age, gender, and ethnicity, and record their information on the Demographics Sheet provided. (Alternately, you can have the visitor fill out the Demographic Sheet themselves).

Recording the data from the interview

Use the attached Interview Guide to take notes on the individuals’ responses. You do not have to capture every word they say, but be careful to note down key words, phrases, and ideas as the visitor speaks. Try to maintain eye contact and a conversation al tone while you take notes. This can be tricky! Depending on your style and skill level, you may want to make a comment at the outset that you need to write down what they are saying, so it may take a second before you can respond, or you may ask them to repeat something - they are usually very understanding.

After the interview, make sure to take a few minutes to go back over the interview and fill in the gaps. No matter how good your memory is, you will likely lose the detailed information if you wait too long. Check for legibility and completeness and flow of thoughts. Try to fill in as much detailed richness as possible, capturing their actual words, phraseology, and expressions whenever possible. Try to note with quotation marks what are actual statements made and exact language used by people. Also, note in parentheses any prompts/questions that you asked as a follow-up to their initial responses.

Remember to record the necessary demographic information, as well as the date and time of day you conducted the interview. Also, there is a small space on the bottom of the interview guide to record any relevant notes about the visitor. For instance, was it difficult to get the visitor to talk? Was the visitor distracted by his/her children? Did the visitor have to leave partway through the interview? Was English their second language? These notes will provide important contextual information for understanding the visitors’ responses to the interview questions.

Ending the interview

When you are finished with the interview, and you have gathered all the information that you need from the visitor, thank him/her for talking with you, and let them know how valuable their comments are in the development of the NMAAHC.

NMAAHC Visitor Exit Interview

Interviewer: ________________________________________ Visitor #: _______________________

Date: _____________________ Weekday Weekend Time of day: ________________AM/PM

Museum: Reginald Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History and Culture Great Blacks in Wax

Part I. Introduction

Thanks for agreeing to talk with me. It should take about 5-10 minutes, and just let me know if you need to go at any time. There is no right or wrong answer – we’re just interested in your honest opinions and perceptions. I don’t actually work directly for the Smithsonian or the NMAAHC, so you can’t possibly offend me by anything you say or feel. So please feel free to share your honest thoughts and opinions.

Part II. National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC)

1. What comes to mind when you hear the term “African American history and culture”? Probe What does this include for you? What do you imagine a National Museum of African American History and Culture to be like?

2. What would you personally like to see, experience, or learn at a national museum here on the Mall that features African American history and culture? Why?

3. Which aspects of African American history and culture, if any, do you feel you relate to most? Why?

4. Imagine entering the NMAAHC, is there anything that would turn you off, or make you feel uncomfortable or unwelcome? Is there anything that would make you not want to explore the museum further?

5. Please rate your interest in and knowledge of the following topics on a scale of 1-7, with 1 being “not at all” and 7 being “extremely high” for interest, and 1 being “nothing” and 7 being “expert level” for knowledge (circle one for each item):

Arts of African Americans

Performing Arts of African Americans (e.g. music, dance)

Successes, achievements of African Americans (e.g. in arts, sciences, humanities, sports, politics)

of African American individuals and communities (e.g. discrimination, inequality)

Difficult issues in African American history (such as slavery, lynching, and discrimination)

Current issues of race and race relations (e.g. continuing racism, inequality, poverty, discrimination)

the National Museum of African American History and Culture

Interviewer notes:

Part III. Demographics

Great! Thank you for sharing all of your thoughts. Now I would just like to get a little bit of information about who you are. (Use Demographic Sheet below).Please tell us about yourself…

1. Have you been to a Smithsonian museum before today? (check one) Yes No Not sure, don’t know

2. If yes, which one(s)? (check all that apply)

Anacostia Community Museum

Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum (New York)

Freer Gallery of Art and Sackler Gallery of Art

Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

National Air and Space Museum

National Museum of African Art

National Museum of American History

National Museum of the American Indian

National Museum of Natural History

National Portrait Gallery

National Postal Museum

National Zoo

Smithsonian American Art Museum

3. How often in the past 5 years have you been to a Smithsonian museum? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

4. How often did you visit a museum in general last year (2007)? None Once 2-3 times 4-5 times 6 or more times

5. Who are you visiting with today?

Alone Adults only (friends and/or family) Adults and children (friends and/or family)

Organized tour group

6. In what year were you born? _______________________

7. Where do you live?

Local (inside the beltway)

Greater DC area

Out of state (non-neighboring)

Another country

6. What is your highest level of education?

High school

Community college (AA)

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate degree

9. How would you describe yourself?

Female Male

(Please check all that apply)

African American or Black White or Caucasian Hispanic/Latino(a)

Asian, Asian American, or Pacific Islander Native American

Other (please describe): ______________________________________________

Thank you for participating!

J Transportation Counts

PEAK Direction: Roadway: Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

6:30AMto6:45AM 1313501127175029473701296219412

6:45AMto7:00AM 121330212822001735406079202321

7:00AMto7:15AM 13195024222650243344201514239123

7:15AMto7:30AM 182100122429802936461098267215

7:30AMto7:45AM 10206026294420153747905924849

7:45AMto8:00AM 16231019323180243648832014295311

8:00AMto8:15AM 281960174030412322522111931835

8:15AMto8:30AM 2225102429308426375270148322524

8:30AMto8:45AM 24268026314020223154811010312711

8:45AMto9:00AM 1823802245285520235110179354617

9:00AMto9:15AM 2223322331262016215041207348517

9:15AMto9:30AM 172160173122042020448081030294 PM PEAK Direction: Roadway: Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

4:00PMto4:15PM 40361037202828444227032033285647

4:15PMto4:30PM 51364182182277524227336437276356

4:30PMto4:45PM 48384145162854303225805832300163

4:45PMto5:00PM 54391039112962232926407233318765

5:00PMto5:15PM 534700471335461924526513737306371

5:15PMto5:30PM 63463048163884382829705229334456

5:30PMto5:45PM 66577141213945924630324954336338

5:45PMto6:00PM 79501036133749423230635438289440

6:00PMto6:15PM 77499140122944813728004538325937

6:15PMto6:30PM 56474144122822532216604648277027

6:30PMto6:45PM 7356313363191361724902236238236

6:45PMto7:00PM 4064502133790251928202736230214

PEAK HOURS Direction: Roadway: Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

AMINTERSECTIONPEAKHOUR

8:00AMto9:00AM929530891451299109111321082523613062157

PMINTERSECTIONPEAKHOUR

5:15PMto6:15PM285204021656214502225314311865200159128420171

AMSYSTEMPEAKHOUR

8:15AMto9:15AM86990295136125798411220902613413362369

PMSYSTEMPEAKHOUR

5:15PMto6:15PM285204021656214502225314311865200159128420171

Gorove/Slade Associates

Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

6:30AMto6:45AM 6:45AMto7:00AM 3241021223221536555618224627

7:00AMto7:15AM 3743017727813886382616214857

7:15AMto7:30AM 724512073161686665592920511410

7:30AMto7:45AM 514604254528165107711242591189

7:45AMto8:00AM 65520229337414610377111830015517

8:00AMto8:15AM 534302211333161310125562192861368

8:15AMto8:30AM 5350027733092171466952431612611

8:30AMto8:45AM 69500329427611201135010132871497

8:45AMto9:00AM 49700411230352617137631929296888

9:00AMto9:15AM 784502472853152012566122328712217

9:15AMto9:30AM 62630167237319271237172229214511

4:00PMto4:15PM 10697032133253325 23 6012

4:15PMto4:30PM 108119142122812083 24 6235

4:30PMto4:45PM 115116129233312393334219712924190

4:45PMto5:00PM 1191370151035014316383121903105661

5:00PMto5:15PM 1351270285408224234134161013135370

5:15PMto5:30PM 128154040745114586323041772996468

5:30PMto5:45PM 13211311344462253563344227031055126

5:45PMto6:00PM 1241300755456235764543308026865127

6:00PMto6:15PM 125146067537114731393028612095797

6:15PMto6:30PM 149133158533824504352528441386169

6:30PMto6:45PM 133121045539284422928203419353102

6:45PMto7:00PM 1298105314193311363616322465695

7:45AMto8:45AM24019501032714273559434872522874118956643

5:00PMto6:00PM519524127721177784192211511511093281190237391

8:15AMto9:15AM24921501243513452373645212484689118648543

5:15PMto6:15PM509543131621174076223191491471212881086241418

Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

6:30AMto6:45AM 6:45AMto7:00AM 1142012204120410281700018

7:00AMto7:15AM 22090924133149673400034

7:15AMto7:30AM 12180916714051565501019

7:30AMto7:45AM 32150547213054985400024

7:45AMto8:00AM 02450801167056088000010

8:00AMto8:15AM 1206030675055952000019

8:15AMto8:30AM 32630161205053068501013

8:30AMto8:45AM 22780569411059154500011

8:45AMto9:00AM 42520638710058458300112

9:00AMto9:15AM 124001041999054968900016

9:15AMto9:30AM 323008378195492571300024

Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

4:00PMto4:15PM 24022215129180312272100052

4:15PMto4:30PM 040803051014240346322200062

4:30PMto4:45PM 042002902126210265331700033

4:45PMto5:00PM 04260153823190279333100032

5:00PMto5:15PM 4513030425243102703615900041

5:15PMto5:30PM 349602563234560306292700035

5:30PMto5:45PM 263601952242110285351700079

5:45PMto6:00PM 254801842655550271382700074

6:00PMto6:15PM 2541011162856340353361500062

6:15PMto6:30PM 6524019213453250286351500089

6:30PMto6:45PM 160001071224470336622700048

6:45PMto7:00PM 06810882022160302501400053

8:15AMto9:15AM10103302219482035022542482201152

PMINTERSECTIONPEAKHOUR

6:00PMto7:00PM112213058481001881610124617184000273

AMSYSTEMPEAKHOUR

8:15AMto9:15AM10103302219482035022542482201152

Movement: RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

6:30AMto6:45AM 0330337035063040008

6:45AMto7:00AM 51831391832057010503

7:00AMto7:15AM 035065902901100700015

7:15AMto7:30AM 05205500590950700014

7:30AMto7:45AM 08502570640141030006

7:45AMto8:00AM 07500190210100300011

8:00AMto8:15AM 08961750510147010002

8:15AMto8:30AM 08400680900121000000

8:30AMto8:45AM 110922550130139020005

8:45AMto9:00AM 08300810400158000000

9:00AMto9:15AM 014407550312018501000019

9:15AMto9:30AM 0110010680517017901300027

RightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPedsRightThruLeftPeds

4:00PMto4:15PM 2292094301514031401100023

4:15PMto4:30PM 019402729084607903700073

4:30PMto4:45PM 0179042606602500500010

4:45PMto5:00PM 023701020017016601410027

5:00PMto5:15PM 0182014400142309011800036

5:15PMto5:30PM 03030112701418014101400029

5:30PMto5:45PM 0355063505100620800016

5:45PMto6:00PM 0292011210111804101400028

6:00PMto6:15PM 03184725021120770900018

6:15PMto6:30PM 01840823051405101100022

6:30PMto6:45PM 61790633019100560800015

6:45PMto7:00PM 025402460203024020004

8:30AMto9:30AM144621925901332066102500051

4:00PMto5:00PM2902050100029830809066100133

8:15AMto9:15AM14202925901715060301200024 PMSYSTEMPEAKHOUR

5:15PMto6:15PM0126843410805157032104600091

K Transportation and Existing Conditions

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis Existing AM Peak Hour 1: Constitution Avenue & 14th Street 7/25/2008

Lane Configurations

National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 1

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis

Existing AM Peak Hour

8: Madison Drive & 15th Street 7/25/2008

Lane Configurations

c

National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 3

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis

Lane Configurations

AM Peak Hour 9: Madison Drive & 14th Street 7/25/2008 National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 4

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis Existing PM Peak Hour 1: Constitution Avenue & 14th Street 7/25/2008

Movement

Lane Configurations

National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 1

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis

PM Peak Hour 4: Constitution Avenue & 15th Street 7/25/2008 National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 2

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis

Existing PM Peak Hour

8: Madison Drive & 15th Street 7/25/2008

Lane Configurations

National Museum of African American History and Culture Synchro 6 Report Gorove/Slade Associates, Inc. Page 3 Movement

HCM Signalized Intersection Capacity Analysis

&

Lane Configurations

L Museum Visits

Ottawa MUSEUM VISIT

Smithsonian

National Museum of African American History and Culture 28–29 May 2008

01 Canadian Museum of Civilization

100 Laurier Street Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0M8

Itinerary + Schedule: Day One, 28 May 2008

10:00–10:30

NMAAHC and Freelon Bond Teams arrive at Canadian Museum of Civilization

10:30–10:45 Museum overview with Museum President and Chief Executive Officer Dr. Victor Rabinovitch

10:45–12:30 Semi-guided tour

12:30–1:30 Informal lunch and question and answer session

1:30–2:30 Guided infrastructure and back of house tour

2:30–3:00 Break / Flex time

3:00–4:00

NMAAHC / OFEO and Freelon Bond discussion

4:00–4:30 Travel to team hotel

4:30–6:00 Open

6:00–8:00 Dinner at location TBD (optional)

01 Canadian Museum of Civilization

“The Museum will be symbolic in form. It will speak of the emergence of this continent, its forms sculpted by the winds, the rivers, the glaciers. It will speak of the emergence of man from the melting glaciers; of man and woman living in harmony with the forces of nature and evolving with them. It will show the way in which man first learned to cope with the environment, then mastered it and shaped it to the need of his own goals and aspirations.”

— Douglas Cardinal, AIA

Location

100 Laurier Street, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0M8

Dates of Construction 1983–1989

Floor Area

270,000 square feet (Museum Building)

700,000 square feet (Curatorial Building)

Architect Douglas Cardinal, AIA with Tétreault, Parent, Languedoc et Associés

Relevance

The most highly attended of Canada’s National Museums, the Grand Hall is one of the most impressive spaces in Ottawa and is used for major public events. Includes an exceptionally popular children’s museum devoted to Canadian multi-culturalism.

also maintaining highest standards of climate and security control

country through life-size dioramas representing communities from coast to coast audiences

01 Canadian Museum of Civilization

Review Excerpts

“Canada’s Museum of Civilization: Mythopoeic Architecture or Cardinal Sin?” Architecture & Urbanism Magazine: July 1990. Critique by Anupam Banerji.

“... not erudite, not haughty and certainly not of high art, Canada’s Museum of Civilization designed by Douglas Cardinal is nonetheless the talk of the nation. It looms and sprawls mysteriously along the Ottawa river being blissfully free from the agony of Modernism and the joy of Postmodernism, demanding and getting lots of attention for its hypnotic power. It is odd, strange, eerie and big.”

“Double Take: Contesting Time, Place and Nation in the First Peoples Hall of the Canadian Museum of Civilization” American Anthropologist: Vol. 107 issue 4. Review essay by Ruth B. Phillips and Mark Salber Phillips, Carleton University.

“The Grand Hall is conceived in the familiar mode of the panorama — a vast, curving, but essentially two dimensional tableau designed to show the art of the Northwest coast in all its monumental grandeur ... The visitor is initially inspired not to explore whatever world might lie behind the house fronts but to stand back in admiration of a picturesque spectacle that manages to be both dazzling and approachable. Arguably, this impression of timelessness converges with an important goal of First Nation representatives, who have insisted that museums represent their cultures as continuous and living...”

“The Canadian Museum of Civilization in Ottawa” L’ARCA Magazine, Issue 49, May 1991, by Fabrizio Bonomo

“…The declared aim is that of reducing all possible distance between one and the other, emphasizing the role of the Museum as a living, dynamic part of a community, as well as wishing to demonstrate the potential of this type of architecture for representative and museum spaces, and to find parallels between the forms and the natural origins of Canada.”

Complete copies of the articles above are provided for review.

Source: Canadian Museum of Civilization www.civilization.ca

Source: Canadian Museum of Civilization www.civilization.ca

Source: Canadian Museum of Civilization www.civilization.ca

Source: Canadian Museum of Civilization www.civilization.ca

02 Canadian War Museum

1 Vimy Place Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8

Itinerary + Schedule: 29 May 2008

7:30–8:30 Team Breakfast at hotel (optional)

8:30–8:45 Checkout

8:45–9:00 Travel to the Canadian War Museum

9:00–9:15 Museum overview with museum representatives

9:15–10:45 Semi-guided tour

10:45–11:15 Guided infrastructure and back of house tour

11:15–12:15 NMAAHC / OFEO and Freelon Bond Discussion

12:15–12:45 Travel to airport

2:40 NMAAHC / OFEO Departure from Ottawa

02 Canadian War Museum

“Nature may be ravaged by human acts of war, but inevitably it survives, hybridizes, regenerates and prevails. From the healing process emerges hope,”

—Moriyama

“The architectural design of the new Museum expresses subtle metaphors in a modern, visually striking building. The main theme of the architecture is one of regeneration; at the same time, the building has a raw, fragmentary and unfinished quality to it — one that takes the visitor out of his or her comfort zone.”

— Bill Haley, Haley Sharpe Design

1 Vimy Place, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8

Date Completed 2004

Floor Area

440,000 square feet

Architect Moriyama and Tashima Architects with Griffiths Rankin Cook Architects

Relevance

The building is highly functional. The exhibits are traditional, historic exhibitions that tell the story of the wars Canada has fought in – generally from the people’s perspective. Since so many National Museums do not recount “people’s history” it is increasingly the case that War Museums take on this role.

(museum existed for many years)

content of exhibitions

02

Canadian War Museum

Review Excerpts

“War and Peace?” Architectural Review Magazine: October 2006, Paul Finch

“..The museum Stands between the two aspects of Canadian life; the conventionally urban and the Magnificent Nature, the ordinary and extraordinary. That contrast is something the architects and exhibition designers have been anxious to carry through the building as a whole: the idea of ordinary Canadians doing extraordinary things under the pressure of forces beyond their control....”

“The Architect of Peace” The Toronto Star: May 1, 2005, Christopher Hume

“... Moriyama also went beyond the conventional idea of a war museum as a place where weapons are displayed and battles celebrated, to examine the human side of conflict. Indeed, he and his partner, Alex Rankin of Ottawa-based Griffiths Rankin Cook, reinvented the institution. This museum is as much a memorial as a building, a statement as well as a structure...”

“The Sounds of War: How Raymond Moriyama’s sound sketch became the soul of the new war museum” The Ottawa Citizen: May 1, 2005, Paul Gessell

“... To understand this sketch, one has to travel back to when the 75-year-old, Canadian-born Moriyama was a child living with his mother in an internment camp for Japanese-Canadians in the British Columbia interior. The camp was called Bayfarm. ”

“...Throughout the museum, the walls, roof and floor are built at irregular angles, just like the tree house. But, at $136 million, the museum is far more pricey. This story about long-gone sounds and tree houses might seem just a little too precious to be true. Only people who do not know Moriyama would say that. ”

02

Canadian War Museum

Source: Canadian Museum of Civilization www.civilization.ca

Canadian Experience Galleries

1. Battleground. Wars on Our Soil, earliest times to 1885. The wars of First Peoples, the French, and the British shaped Canada and Canadians.

2. For Crown and Country: The South African and First World Wars, 1885-1931.

Canada’s contributions in these overseas wars led to a growing autonomy and international recognition, but at great cost.

3. Forged in Fire: The Second World War, 1931-1945. Canada’s fight against dictatorships overseas transformed the country and its place in the world.

4. A Violent Peace: The Cold War, Peacekeeping, and Recent Conflicts, 1945 to the present. Canada became a respected international player through its commitments to Western defence and peacekeeping.

More...

5. The Royal Canadian Legion Hall of Honour. Explores Canada’s long history of honouring individuals, and how Canadians have remembered and commemorated their military past.

6. LeBreton Gallery: The military technology collection. A diverse collection of vehicles, artillery and other large artefacts tell the personal stories of war, from the 17th century to the present.

7 – Regeneration Hall: An Architecture of Hope

Rising up to the highest point in the Museum with a tightly framed view of the Peace Tower on Parliament Hill, Regeneration Hall is a physical representation of hope for a better future.

Memorial Hall

Located in the Foyer, to which entry is free, Memorial Hall is a quiet public space for rest and reflection. Accessed via a narrow walkway, the room rests at the intersection of two axes that form the basis of the Museum's orientation. The east-west axis extends to the Peace Tower, while the north-south axis parallels the path of the sun across the building on November 11 (Remembrance Day).

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

National Gallery of Canada Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum

Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum

Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum

Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

Canadian War Museum Ottawa, Ontario

M SI Space Measurement Standards

Space Measurement Standards

ASTM International (2002). Standard Classification for Building Floor Area Measurements for Facility Management, E 1836-01 . ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA 19428, 8pp.

Space Measurement

Definitions and Approaches

External Gross: Total floor area enclosed within the exterior surface of the outside walls

Internal Gross: Total floor area enclosed within the interior surface of the outside walls

Rentable: Internal gross area minus vertical penetrations and indoor parking

Useable: Rentable area minus building core and service areas and primary circulation

External Gross

Total area enclosed within the exterior surface of the outside walls.

Space Measurement Standards

Rentable

External Gross area minus the thickness of exterior walls, vertical penetrations and indoor parking.

Space Measurement Standards

Space Measurement Standards

Assignable

Useable area minus all remaining circulation.

Space Measurement Standards

NMAAHC Pre-design and Programming Team

Owner

Smithsonian Institution

NMAAHC

Pre-design and Programming Team Leader

Freelon Bond

General Museum Requirements, Audience Research, Public Engagement, Collections Storage Plan

Lord Cultural Resources

Exhibit Planning

Amaze Design

Visitation Studies

Institute for Learning Innovation

Landscape Planning

Peter Walker & Partners

Structural Engineering

Robert Silman Associates

MEP Engineering

WSP Flack and Kurtz

Sustainable Design

Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)

Civil Engineering

Delon Hampton & Associates

Traffic Studies

Gorove Slade

Geotechnical & Environmental Engineering

Froehling & Robertson, Inc.

IT/AV/Data Management/Telecommunications

Shen Milsom Wilke

Multimedia - Performance

Fisher Dachs Associates

Code/Fire Protection

Rolf Jensen and Associates

Accessibility

Access-Andrews Consulting

Vertical Transportation

Lerch Bates

Lighting

Fisher Marantz Stone

Estimating

Faithful + Gould

Security

Ducibella Venture & Santore

Document Editing

Kirsten Mullen