AMC Series
Dulwich College Suzhou
Vol. 1, No. 1
THE BIG PICTURE An awe-inspiring journey through space
WHAT’S AHEAD 3 WAYS TO THE END OF UNIVERSE BLACK HOLE, STELLAR DEVASTATION
Solar System
Exploration
Space Science
Deep Space
Journey Thru Space
End Of The Universe [1]
What Would Earth Become If The Universe No Longer Exists? Like all living creatures, our Universe will eventually come to an end one day Of course, we don’t know when this ‘one day’ is going to be. But surely it’s going to happen. Astrophysicists have predicted the three possible endings of our Universe. Regardless of which way it is going to end, they all linked to one theory: our Universe is not only expanding, but also accelerating at a shockingly rapid speed. Astrophysicists believe this phenomenon is caused by an unknown form of force called the “Dark Energy”. Although the existence of such energy is still very theoretical and abstract, they are confident that the understandings of dark energy will be [2][3][4] the key to save us a life or lead us to the end of the Universe. AMC | 1
Journey Thru Space
End Of The Universe  
[5]
1. THE BIG RIP
The Universe is expanding at an increasing rate. Just now, 68 square kilometre of new space has been created at the edge of our Universe every second. Due to this anomaly, the Moon has been moving 38 millimetres away from the Earth every year. Gravity is an enormous force that is hardly comprehensible by humans. Gravitational pulls are strong between stars and galaxies to hold spaces together. However, if the rate of expansion continues its acceleration, at some point our Universe will expand faster than the speed of light and rip everything into pieces. If the Big Rip actually occurs, what would our world be like? The Big Rip is estimated to take place 22 billion years later. As a result, the tremendous gravitational force that usually brings the stars, galaxies, and spaces together would no longer be able to support large astronomical bodies and start falling apart. Approximately 3 months before the end of everything, our Solar System would be totally free out of the gravity’s control, followed by a self-detonation of our own Earth during the very last 30 minutes of the Universe. Finally, units in the atomic level such as quarks and neutrons would also fall apart about 10-19 seconds before that. After that no chemical reactions can never be take place again, leaving unbounded particles and radiation behind, shooting apart from each other. The state of the Universe is going to be a singularity, as the dark energy density and expansion rate becomes infinite. Therefore, life [6][7] could not exist anymore. AMC | 2
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End Of The Universe
In order to understand how the Big Freeze scenario works, we should learn what entropy is first. Entropy is simply a thermodynamic measure of the amount of energy unavailable for useful work in a system undergoing change. In the Universe this entropy increases consistently. At some point entropy in the Universe will reach its maximum. Then there won’t be enough gas particles essential for forming stars, therefore the Universe will turn dark. Remaining black holes will evaporate over extremely long period of time. After this, only small amount of gas particles, photons and light particles will remain, until even these degenerate to none. All activities in the Universe will stop at this point and macroscopically nothing happen. If the entropy is at its maximum then the Universe is gone forever. However, there’s a chance of entropy decreasing in the Universe after this and after trillions of years, there might be a new Big Bang due to what’s known as quantum tunnelling. Astrophysicists believe our Universe’s entropy will reach its maximum value in [9] 10^120000000000 years. The Big Crunch is the most hopeful scenario. We might have overestimated the amount of dark energy. Maybe dark energy is not enough in the Universe, or perhaps it will decrease over a certain amount of time. If this is the case, gravity will be the dominating force in our
[8]
2. THE BIG FREEZE AMC | 3
Journey Thru Space [10]
3. THE BIG CRUNCH
End Of The Universe Universe. According to astrophysicists, the Universe will stop its expansion after trillions of years. After that it’s going to shrink. Unlike ‘The Big Rip’ scenario, galaxies will crash into each other and stars will collide. The Universe is going to get smaller and smaller. A denser Universe indicates higher temperature. Astrophysicists believe one thousand years before the Big Crunch, radiations will be hotter than most of the stars’ surface temperature. One minute before the Big Crunch, atom cores are going to be ripped apart. At last, all the black holes will merge into one massive Universe which will then hold the entire mass of the Universe. Finally, it will devour the Universe including itself. After all, seems like nothing is going to happen after this, doesn’t this sound quite familiar to you? A great mass and volume compressed into a tiny space. Yes, some astrophysicists think the end of the Big Crunch leads to the birth of a new Universe. This theory is called the Big Bounce. According to this particular theory, thousands of Big Bangs and Big Crunches took place in the past, and the Universe goes through infinite cycle of [11][12] expansions and compressions.
All in all, these are the three theoretically possible ending of the Universe. Researchers have concluded. ‘The Big Freeze’ scenario is most likely to be the case, but who knows? The future of mankind is uncertain. We hope there wouldn’t be an end for the Universe, but just continuous new starts. E: DennisBae | D: WarrenSu| AMC | 4
Journey Thru Space
Space Tourism [13]
A Holiday Tour To Space?
No Problem!
# AMC | 5
Journey Thru Space
Space Tourism
Virgin Galactic will be your most promising choice to travel to space. Under the lead of Sir Richard Branson and his Virgin Group, you can possibly book a spaceflight ticket for your vacation within the next 5 to 10 years. Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo will soon be carrying space tourists to take off at the spaceport located in New Mexico, as this hybrid rocket propelled spaceplane will climb upwards at Mach 3.5 (2,650 mph) until it reaches the maximum height of 110km (69 miles) above ground surface and brings a near-zero g experience [14] to its passengers onboard.
SpaceShipTwo Ticket price: $200,000 USD No. of passengers: 6 First test flight: 10th October 2010 First crewed flight: December 2014
110 KM
Mission Profile
[15]
Imagine rising into the stillness of a sunrise, gently ascending under a balloon. Floating into the blackness of space with a glass of cocktail. Founded in 2013, a private American nearspace exploration company from Arizona plans to use helium balloons to deliver space flights for tourism and scientific research purposes above the Earth. World View’s launch vehicle consists of three parts. The high-altitude balloon, the parawing, and the flight capsule, which will be large enough to hold six passengers, a [17] pilot and a co-pilot. The company assures that this highly sophisticated capsule will have a range of deluxe features, such as a mini bar with refreshments, a lavatory, and full internet access for social media check-ins and photo [16] sharing on Instagram.
1
Mission Profile
Max. Height 30 KM
1
Max. Height
1
In a development that has come more or less out of nowhere, Jeff Bezos the founder of Amazon.com and his own rocket venture Blue Origin that he had founded back in the year 2000, has conducted a VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) on its New Shepard rocket during its most recent test flight in November, 2015. Blue Origin is developing technologies to enable commercial space tourism with the goal of dramatically reducing the price of each launch by [18] reusing the rocket.
Voyagers Ticket price: $80,000 USD No. of passengers: 6 First test flight: Late 2014 First crewed flight: 2017 (proposed)
New Shepard Ticket price: N/A No. of passengers: N/A First test flight: April 2015 First crewed flight: 2019 (proposed) [19]
E.D: WarrenSu| AMC | 6
Journey Thru Space
Sci-Fi Movie Review MOVIE OF THE WEEK
The Martian: Bring Him Home
Science And Technology Behind “The Martian” Hi, I’m Watney!! This review does not spoil the story a lot, but I recommend you to watch the movie first and then read this review next for your fun!
[20]
“The Martian” is a movie released on last October. The story is about an astronaut, Mark Watney, stranded on Mars alone by an unexpected massive dust storm that swept Watney away, leading his crew mates decided to abandon him on the planet. Imagine you are left on an extreme, extensive, lifeless, and unfamiliar land where there is no one except yourself. There is even no sufficient amount of water and food for you to survive until the rescue team arrives, and you cannot even breathe freely outside without protections. Mark Watney, featured by Matt Damon was exactly in the same case. Surprisingly, he managed to harvest crops, generate oxygen and produce water with his botanist knowledge and brilliant ingeniousness. The movie merges the fictional and factual parts about Mars well. The rockets, modules, and space suits in the movie were built and 3-D printed with heavy guidance from NASA. The filmmakers even hired scientists from space agencies to test all the experiments done in the movie. The biggest challenge in space exploration is the acquisition or production of valuable commodities from resources available on that location. In the case of Mars, sending materials from Earth would take more than nine months so the astronauts cannot only rely on the supplies from Earth. Currently, scientists are aiming to make self-sufficient lives on Mars possible, which is something Watney successfully achieved in the movie. AMC | 7
Journey Thru Space
Sci-Fi Movie Review
FOLLOW WATNEY’S ODYSSEY Let’s see how he produced essentials on Mars and check whether the methods are scientifically possible or not
[21]
AMC | 8
Journey Thru Space
Watney harvesting potatoes using his doodoo [20]
1. Space Farming
Sci-Fi Movie Review
In the movie, Watney was left with only a few potatoes. In order to survive, he needed to grow more potatoes using Martian soil. The main problem with Martian soil is that it lacks of helpful bacterias. But this problem can be solved easily by providing a source of bacterias like Watney used his poop for biological material which gave enough nutrients to the potato farm. In 2015, astronauts on the International Space Station(ISS) actually managed to harvest lettuce in the system called Veggie. The Veggie is a deployable fresh-production system growing crops using red, blue, and green lights. This was a huge [23][24] step in space farming and agriculture.
Space-grown lettuce from the Veggie experiment [20]
2. Oxygen Generation
Watney has to carry the oxygenator(the one wrapped with covers) all the time since Mars has less than 0.2% of oxygen
The oxygenator in the movie generates oxygen using the carbon dioxide from the MAV (Mars Ascent Vehicle)’s fuel generator. To produce compressed oxygen gases, the air is cooled down to a lower pressure. Then, the gases will separate on their sublimation temperatures. NASA is currently working on Mars Oxygen InSitu Resources Utilization Experiment(MOIXIE). It will pull carbon dioxide from the thin Martian atmosphere, and turn it into pure oxygen and carbon monoxide. Astronauts can also use the [22] oxygen generated as fuel oxidizer.
models of MOIXIE [22]
[21]
New findings from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Watney needs to find some sharp ways to keep (MRO) providing the strongest evidence yet of liquid water flows intermittently on present-day Mars.
3. Water Recovery
Watney creating sparks to produce water [20]
hydrated. He reduced hydrazine to its component N2 and H2. Opening the nozzle to let out some H2, he created sparks to initiate the reaction as 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O! In fact, the water produced is actually full of perchlorates that are toxic to humans. Some additional processes are required to make it drinkable. Ironically, the day before the movie was released, NASA reported some possible evidence about the liquid water flowing on Mars. Sadly, this discovery came too late for [25] filmmakers.
[25]
AMC | 9
Journey Thru Space
Fallacy In “The Martian” The planet Mars has no global magnetic field. Particles from the Sun have stripped most of its atmosphere away, resulting in very poor protection against the Sun’s radiation. As you know, Watney spent a lot of his time wandering on the surface. Even with his protections, the harsh radiation can still hardly be avoided, but the movie didn’t mention about this point. There is no real solution to it right now. Studies have shown that 3 days of radiation exposure on Mars is equal to the [26] amount of radiation we get on Earth one year!
No presence of magnetic field on Mars
Sci-Fi Movie Review
Earth’s magnetic field protects us from solar wind and cosmic rays [26]
[26]
Watney after swept away by storm [28]
The least honest setting in the movie is the massive dust storm that swept Watney away. Since Mars atmosphere holds barely 1% of the density of Earth’s, it could never blow away things that dramatically. In fact, there is still wind in the Mars atmosphere but it’s just not powerful enough to sweep things up like it did in the movie because of its extreme low pressure. The more scientific part in the movie is here; Watney once patches his habitat with plastic tarp and duct tape after the one of habitat’s airlocks blew up. Although that combination of tarps and duct tape does not seem secured, it would still be enough to do its job on maintaining the air pressure of the habitat because [27] the atmosphere that presents on Mars is very thin.
1000g/m3
Earth’s Atmosphere
3g/m3
Mars’ Atmosphere
Humans have developed their imagination for millennia about Mars. A lot of stories and movies from the past are related with the survival of astronauts on Mars. However, the actual history of humans and Mars is not that much fascinating. There will be plenty of unimaginable problems that real astronauts on real missions to Mars have to confront. Borrowing a quote from an astronaut Scott Kelly, who is currently onboard the International Space Station for one year, “The margin for error is virtually zero for every aspect of spaceflight”. We, as humans, have been discovering new knowledge and developing advanced technologies rapidly over the past few decades. This will continue endlessly throughout the future. This review is a periodical publication. Please look forward to the next issue! E.D: GiminNam| AMC | 10
[39]
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Wonders of the Universe
February Time TBD
China – CNSA (China National Space Administration)
Long March 3C – Beidou
Launch Site: Xichang, China
CNSA is going to launch Long March 3C with a navigation satellite, Beidou.
[29]
Launch of The Month
[38] February Time TBD
India - ISRO
PSLV – IRNSS 1F
Launch Site: Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, India
ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) will launch its rocket PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). The rocket will carry a navigation satellite IRNSS 1F which is sixth satellite for IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System).
Date Time (UTC +8:00 China Standard Time) Launching country - Organisation Name of Rocket – Name of payload Launch site Brief description NET = No Earlier Than TBD = To Be Determined This launch schedule can change and be delayed. This is launch schedule as of 27-Jan-16 5PM Any delayed launches will be listed in next month’s (Issue’s) launch schedule Total: 9 launches, 5 countries, 6 organisation
[37] February 10th 19:00 - 21:00 (UTC +8:00 CST)
ESCAPE VELOCITY
U.S.A – NASA
Delta 4 – NROL-45
Launch Site: SLC-6, Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
Delta 4 rocket will be launched carrying classified payload for the NRO (National Reconnaissance Office). This launch has been delayed from April 15th, June 6th, September 15th, December 9th.
[36]
[35] February 12th 16:45 – 17:30 (UTC +8:00 CST)
February 7th Time TBD
Japan – JAXA
Russia – RFSA
H-2A – Astro-H
Soyuz – Glonass M
Launch Site: Tanegashima Space Centre, Japan
Launch Site: Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia
RFSA is going to carry out a launch of Soyuz rocket. The rocket will bring Glonass M navigation satellite up into the orbit. This launch has been delayed from December 29th.
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) will launch its H-2A rocket which will put observation satellite Astro-H into the orbit. Astro-H is going to observe the Xray universe, and study objects like supernova explosions, supermassive black holes, and galaxy clusters. This launch has been delayed from late 2015.
Escape velocity is the velocity at which you need to launch something of the surface of an object to escape its pull of gravity. In other words, you will need a rocket which can reach a speed of 11 km/sec to escape the Earth, and never fall back down. The Sun, having a much stronger gravity than Earth, has an escape velocity of over 600 km/sec. A neutron star, even larger gravity, can have and escape velocity of 150,000 km/sec - half the speed of light![30]
[34] [33] February 5th 01:53 (UTC +8:00 CST)
NET February 6th Time TBD
U.S.A. - Space X
Russia - RFSA
Falcon 9 – SES 9
Rockot – Sentinel 3A
Launch Site: SLC-40, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida
Launch Site: Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia
RFSA’s Rockot will put Sentinel 3A Earth Observation satellite into the orbit. The satellite is owned by ESA (European Space Agency). This launch has been delayed from October 21st and December 10th.
Space X will launch its another rocket Falcon 9 carrying SES 9 communications satellite. The satellite is owned by SES of Luxembourg. The satellite will provide direct-to-home and other communications services across Northeast Asia, South Asia, Indonesia and Indian Ocean. This launch has been delayed from July 15th, August, November and December.
[31]
[32]
January 30th 06:19 (UTC +8:00 CST)
February 3rd 21:47-22:05 (UTC +8:00 CST)
Russia – RFSA
U.S.A. - NASA
Proton - Eutelsat 9B
Atlas V – GPS 2F-12
Launch Site: Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
Launch Site: SLC-41, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida
RFSA (Russian Federal Space Agency) will launch a Proton rocket carrying Eutelsat 9B communication satellite. The satellite is owned by Paris-based Eutelsat and it will provide digital television and video programming across Europe.
Atlas 5 will carry 12th block 2F navigation satellite for GPS. The Launch will be done by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). This launch has been delayed from January 26.
E: DennisBae&NikoleiHoeglinger| D: WarrenSu| AMC | 11
Journey Thru Space
STELLAR DEVASTATION How Do Black Holes Form
AMC | 12
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What is a Black Hole? [42] [40]
? H T R A HE E
EAT T
I
n general, stars are incredibly huge collections of mostly hydrogen atoms that collapse from huge gas clouds under own gravity. In their core, nuclear fusion bonds two hydrogen atoms to create one helium atom, releasing a huge amount of energy. This energy, in the form of radiation, pushes against gravity, maintaining a balance between the two forces. The star remains stable when there is fusion in the core. The pressure and heat in the core of the star allows it to create other heavier elements, until it reaches iron. During this process, less and less radiation is released. Iron builds up more at the centre until it reaches to a point that the two forces are unbalanced. The balance between radiation and gravity is [41] suddenly broken and the core collapses.
The Black Hole is the last, end state for a core of a high mass star. The region around the Black Hole where the escape velocity is the speed of light is called the Event Horizon. Everything beyond the horizon is unknown. Black Holes are sort of wrecking our concept of space and time. The math and physics behind Black Holes are very complicated, and even through many years of research, physicists are still not exactly sure about lot of their traits. There are many misunderstanding about Black Holes still today. One misconception, which you will be familiar to a lot of people, is that people imagine Black Holes as a cosmic vacuum cleaner, sucking everything near them. But that's not really true. Black Holes has a powerful gravity to drag objects in, but only if your near one. The large gravity comes from the centre, but also is its Size that is just as important. Or its Lack of size. Imagine that you turned the Sun into a Black Hole. A Black Hole in the centre of the Solar System, but rather than sucking in all the planets, the Earth will still orbit around it pretty much exactly as it does now. [44][45]
As a star become smaller, the gravity gets stronger and stronger. This means the escape velocity is getting higher and higher. When its the size of a neutron star, the escape velocity will be half the speed of light, but if the star is 2.8 times the mass of our Sun, the core will keep collapsing. And when it drops a little more, to about 18 km, the escape velocity at the surface is equal to the speed of light. And, this is a bad situation, because nothing in our Universe can travel faster than the speed of light, not even light itself. Once it shrinks to that small size, everything that goes in never comes out.[42] It all changes if you are very close to one. The strength of gravity you feel from an object depends on its size and the distance you are from its centre. As you approach a Black Hole you will feel a strong and stronger pull from the gravity. And if orbiting a Black Hole that is the size of the Sun, you will orbit it just exactly as [43] you would orbiting the Sun.
[43]
Black Holes can also come in different sizes. A minimum mass of about three times the Sun, to about a dozen or more times the Sun’s mass, if the parent star was big enough. We call them Stellarmass Black Holes. Black Holes eat a matter that gets in its way, gets larger, as moving through the emptiness of space.
E.D: NikoleiHoeglinger| AMC | 13
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Parallel Universe
[46]
How is Parallel Universe Introduced? Have you ever thought of a question, Alpha time travels to the past by 10 minutes, and kills himself. So Alpha dies, and Alpha doesn’t exist anymore, consequently there won’t be alpha killing younger Alpha. Here comes a question, did alpha die or not? If yes, how do alpha who is dead kills himself? This creates a paradox.
The scientists want to solve this problem, so, they imagine a Parallel Universe (PU). Alpha is in Parallel Universe I, time travels to Parallel Universe II, to 10 minutes before. Then he kills himself in Parallel Universe II. Alpha who stays in Parallel Universe II is now killed by Alpha who travelled from Parallel Universe I. As a result, PU II Alpha dies, PU I Alpha lives in PU II, and Alpha doesn’t exist in [47] PU I. AMC | 14
Journey Thru Space
Three Levels of Parallel Universe
Parallel Universe
Cosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of Universes beyond the familiar observable Universe. The levels according to Tegmark's classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels, and they are briefly described below. [48] [49]
Level I: Beyond our Cosmological Horizon A generic prediction of chaotic inflation is an infinite ergodic Universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realising all initial conditions. Accordingly, an infinite Universe will contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes, all having the same physical laws and physical constants. In regard to configurations such as the distribution of matter, almost all will differ from our Hubble volume. However, because there are infinitely many, far beyond the cosmological horizon, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even identical, configurations. Tegmark estimates that an identical volume to ours should be about 1010115 meters away from us. Given infinite space, there would, in fact, be an infinite number of Hubble volumes identical to ours in the Universe. This follows directly from the cosmological principle, wherein it is assumed [50] our Hubble volume is not special or unique
Level II: Universes with Different Physical Constants Bubble Universes — every disk represents a bubble Universe. Our universe is represented by one of the disks. In the chaotic inflation theory, a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever, but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles, like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread. Such bubbles are embryonic level I multiverses. Astrophysicists calculated the number of these universes to be on the scale of 101010,000,000. Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking resulting in different properties such as different physical constants. [51]
Level III: Many-worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics. Instead, there is a range of possible observations, each with a different probability. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations corresponds to a different universe. Tegmark argues that a level III multiverse does not contain more possibilities in the Hubble volume than a level I-II multiverse. In effect, all the different "worlds" created by "splits" in a level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be found in some Hubble volume in a level I multiverse. Similarly, all level II bubble universes with different physical constants can in effect be found as "worlds" created by "splits" at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a level III multiverse. This implies that the multiverses of Level I, II, and III are, in fact, the same thing. This hypothesis is referred to as "Multiverse = Quantum Many Worlds". [52]
E: EthanLam | D: DennisBae| AMC | 15
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Photo taken by Warren Su and Dennis Bae during their recent stay in Alleyn Boarding House
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WIN
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Have Fun Reading This, Took ME, WARREN SU, 4 Hours to do these citations. YOU WELCOME GUYS