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CHAPTER 2.3: FOREST FIRES AND FIREFIGHTING 2.3.1 Factors affecting forest fires 2.3.1.1 Origin of combustible forest material 2.3.1.2 Classification of combustible forest material 2.3.1.2.1 Undersoil 2.3.1.2.2 Ground-level combustible material 2.3.1.2.3 Airborne combustible material 2.3.1.3 Inventory, measurement and mapping of combustible material.

2.3.2 Fuel properties 2.3.2.1 Fuel dimensions 2.3.2.2 Fuel moisture 2.3.2.3 Weather conditions 2.3.2.4 Geomorphological conditions 2.3.3 Forest fire categories 2.3.3.1 Ground or underground fires 2.3.3.2 Surface or creeping fires 2.3.3.3 Crown or trre-top fires 2.3.3.4 Intensity and Characteristics of a forest fire 2.3.3.5 Behavior and properties of a forest fire 2.3.3.6 The essential elements of fire 2.3.3.7 Heat transfer in forest fires 2.3.4 Forest fires detection and way of reporting 2.3.4.1 Detection of forest fires 2.3.4.2 Way of reporting Forest Fires.

2.3.5 Forest fire extinguishing 2.3.5.1 Methods for attacking a fire 2.3.5.2 Selection of attack method 2.3.5.3 Means for extinguishing a forest fire 2.3.5.3.1 Portable means: 2.3.5.3.1.1 ACTIONS TO PERFORM WITH PORTABLE MEANS 2.3.5.3.2 Fire Trucks 2.3.5.3.3 Airplanes – Helicopters 2.3.5.3.4 Fire-extinguishing materials 2.3.5.4 Proper use of fire extinguishing installations 2.3.5.5 Proper placement of fire-extinguishing vehicles 2.3.6 Fire-breaking lines as a fire-extinguishing tool 2.3.7 Actions by Volunteer Teams 2.3.7.1 Actions by Volunteer Teams before the outburst of a fire incident 2.3.7.2 Actions by Volunteer Teams during and after the incident 2.3.8 Personnel safety rules 2.3.8.1 Use of personal protective equipment 2.3.8.2 Preparation and behavior of a safe fireguard 2.3.8.3 Instructions in case of entrapment by fire 2.3.9 The «DO’s» and «DON’T’s» relating to forest fire-extinguishing 2.3.9.1 What «DO’s» are to be effected 2.3.9.2 What «DON’T’s» are to be avoided 2.3.10 Dealing with poisoning, thermal stress and heat-stroke 2.3.10.1 Poisoning due to Carbon Monoxide (CO) 2.3.10.2 Thermal stress 2.3.10.3 Heat-Stroke 2

CHAPTER 2.3: FOREST FIRES AND FIREFIGHTING Until now there has been reference to the relation between forest fires, man and the environment, forest fires in Europe as well as the relevant prevention methods in Chapter 2: «Prevention against forest fires».

In the current chapter there will be reference to the work of fire extinguishing as well as the factors influencing it and depending on it.

Main weapon for dealing with forest fires is the good coordination of all forces and serives involved.

2.3.1 Factors affecting forest fires 2.3.1.1 Origin of combustible forest material In order to make the problem of forest fires more comprehensible we have to know where combustible material comes from.

Combustible forest material consist of the forest trees themselves, as well as the forest floor (herbs, bushes, grass, floor bed). Logging and thinning residue can also constitute combustible material.

2.3.1.2 Classification of combustible forest material. Combustible forest material is classified as undersoil, ground-level and airborne.

2.3.1.2.1 Undersoil combustible material comprises all flammable materials found under the surface, as well as deep humus, roots and rotten half-buried logs and branches. This combustible material, when dry, burns however always at a slow rate, due to lack of the oxygen necessary. Therefore its contribution in the spreading of fire is very low. On the contrary, it might retain fire for hours or even days after firefighters out the flame, forming a source of resurgence. Undersoil combustible material is minimal at grasslands and brushwood, more at scrubs and even more at the tall forests. It is even more at the forests of the high zone, such as fir forests. Vine roots, being at a semi-decomposed status, often burn for several days. Indeed, if they are close to lines cleared with tools by the firefighters in order to control the spreading of fire, they can slowly transfer fire outside the control zone, and thus start a new spread. For this reason, such zones must be cleared at a width of 50 centimeters minimum, up to inorganic ground.

2.3.1.2.2 Ground-level combustible material (includes all live or dead material existing on the ground). Such materials are :  humus, or else dead combustible matter (needles, leaves, twigs, etc.), that has decomposed at such a level making its origin unidentifiable,  leaf litter, or else dead herbs, needles, leaves, twigs, etc., where decomposition has not advanced,  herbs,  relatively small bushes,  young saplings, 3

dead down logs and twigs on the ground (due to natural debranching, breaks due to snow, or wind, logging residue, etc.) and  vines, or else the tree base, at a height of less than a meter above the ground, which remains in the forest with the root, after it is logged.

The initial ignition of most fires succeeds in the ground-level combustible matter.

There is no shortage of oxygen for its burning and thus fires caused can behave dangerously, especially regarding their rate of spread. 

2.3.1.2.3 Airborne combustible material. It comprises of material burning live or dead, located on trees exceeding 2 meters.  Tree branches and foliage  Dead standing trees  Tall bushes  Clinging plants  Reeds, straw The ignition of airborne combustible material normally increases flame length and fire intensity by far. In parallel, it enables transmission of fire along large ranges through snuffs.

2.3.1.3 Inventory, measurement and mapping of combustible material. The kind, quantity and continuity of combustible forest material is of most significant importance with forest fires. In order to have a forest fire and indeed a big one, there has to be abundant fuel.

Precise spatial knowledge of fuel quantity, fuel kind, topographical configuration, forest road network and prevailing weather conditions is a necessary requirement for the person in charge of extinguishing, in order to make the right decisions.

2.3.2 Fuel properties Fuel quantity, measured in tons per stremma or kilograms per square meter, is one of the most essential factors contributing to the thermal intensity of a fire. Generally, the more fuel available the more energy existing to be released. In addition, energy available depends on the energy contained per each kilogram of dry combustible matter. Deviation in energy contained per unit of dry weight between various forest fuel is relatively small.

The quantity of energy available for burning per second, and therefore the intensity of the fire front, depends not only on the total quantity of energy I fuel, but also on the rate this energy is released in the form of combustible gases. It is very probable that flames of a grass fire with a fuel quantity of two tons per hectare are larger and the front spread much quicker than a fire in a pine forest with five tons of dead pine needles and twigs on the ground per hectare.

The cause lie with two other features of fuel: its dimensions and compression rate.

Grass belongs to thinner forest fuel and under suitable conditions causes fires of extremely rapid spread and quite large flame, with small depth and short duration, though. On the contrary pine needles located on the ground, even though their diameter is comparable to the one of grass, usually cause fires of smaller flame and slow spread in cases of equivalent fuel quantity.

2.3.2.1 Fuel dimensions 4

As known out of experience to those starting a bonfire or grill, in order to ignite wood pieces of considerable dimensions, the best method is to use thin wood, the so called «tinder», since they are easier to ignite. When a thick piece of wood is tore in many thinner ones, the total surface available for preheating and ignition increases, even though both the total amount of wood and its total volume remain the same. In the same way it is valid for all forest fuel, that the thinner they are the more effective they warm up, ignite and release their energy.

The reason lies with the leaf litter being, usually, quite compressed, with few gaps internally.

The depth of the fuel layer, or else the distance from its upper surface till the ground, is usually small in relation to its quantity. Thus oxygen is relatively limited and radiation hardly reaches the interior of the fuel layer for warm up, consequently its ignition and burning are correspondingly delayed.

2.3.2.2 Fuel moisture Moisture contained in fuel, or else the amount of water grams contained in each gram of dry biomass, plays a particularly significant role in fire behavior. A role, indeed, easily perceptible, since moisture is a particularly variable factor throughout the year and even on a daily basis.

The more moisture contained the larger amount of energy required to raise the temperature of combustible material to 300οC for ignition, because water contained must be first evaporated around 100οC. Water heating and evaporation require quite large sums of energy.

For this reason fuel preheating and ignition are delayed, respectively affecting overall fire behavior.

Forest biomass, forming fuel, is live or dead. Live fuel moisture lies between 50% and 300%, meaning that each gram of dry biomass contains 0,5 up to 3 grams of water. Variation of this moisture depends mainly on the normal status of plants and differs a lot between the various plant species. Thus, it varies significantly per season, which defines the development phase of the plant and depends to a lesser extent on draught conditions. Young leaves in the phase of development, as well as grass and other herbaceous plants, at the start of their development, often reach a moisture contained at a range of 300%. At the phase when their development is completed, this moisture is reduced to about 200%. When the new leaves and needles acquire the same characteristics as the older ones, their moisture ranges around 100%. Evergreen bushes, such as kermes oak and pistacia in our country, in the summertime, when their biological functions have been limited to minimum, in order to deal with draught, often display leave moisture in the range of 60-80%. Moisture of annual grass, while they turn yellow in the summertime, drops below 60% and soon they are no part of live fuel.

The big difference between live and dead fuel as regards moisture contained is that moisture in the latter depends on environmental conditions and fluctuates following its variations. So exposure to the sun, air temperature and of course rain affect the moisture of dead fuel. The most important role, though, is played by the relative moisture in the atmosphere, since it changes constantly around the clock, directly affecting fuel and consequently fire behavior.

Relevant moisture is the ratio (division) of moisture contained in the air over maximum moisture, which the air could keep at the same temperature and pressure, in other words if it were saturated. It is usually expressed as a percentage. Under fog conditions, appearing usually in the morning, relative moisture is 100% and this is why we have condensation of water vapor. When temperature begins to rise, the moisture which the air can hold (thus the 5

denominator at the fraction) increases. As a consequence, relative moisture decreases. It is important to comprehend that this happens without necessarily adding or removing water (meaning that the numerator in the fraction can be constant). Nominally, on a daily basis, air temperature changes, reaching its peak value around noon (13:00-15:00) and its minimum value around early morning hours, prior to sunrise. Variation of relative moisture is exactly the opposite.

The moisture of dead fuel ranges usually between 2% and 30%, depending mainly on the relative moisture in the air and to a lesser extent on temperature. Fuel is soaked through more when exposed to atmospheric precipitate (snow, rain, etc.). Fuel moisture responds to relative moisture and temperature changes with some shorter or longer delay. This delay depends on the diameter of small fuel particles. Material such as grass, leaves and pine needles at a thickness less than 0,6 centimeters reacts rapidly (1-2 hours) to changes in their environment.

They release water into the atmosphere and dry out as temperature increases and relative moisture decreases around noon time, while they absorb water from the atmosphere and dampen in the evening hours, when temperature drops and relative moisture increases.

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Moisture of dead fuel increases when relative moisture in the atmosphere is high

Thicker materials (up to 2,5 centimeters) present a considerably larger lag, exceeding 10 hours. Thus, given the daily fluctuation of relative moisture, a period of 2-3 days with particularly low average relative moisture is required, in order to reduce the moisture of fuel for this category to a very low level. Lag time for even thicker materials (up to 7,5 centimeters) exceeds 100 hours. In this case, the state of their moisture depends on the course of average relative moisture and temperature during the last 1-2 weeks.

From what stated above, the great importance of dead thin fuel quantity and the moisture contained within becomes apparent for fire behavior. Most fires start with an ignition out of this category, which is actually easier as the fuel becomes more and more dry. When the first flames grow stronger, ignition of average diameter dead fuel follows, but also live plants. For every type of forest vegetation there is an upper limit for moisture of thin fuel therein, which when exceeded, fire spread is not possible. This happens depending on the type and location of forest vegetation in the winter, after rain or snow, or under conditions of increased moisture in the environment (fog, rime, dew, early in the morning, etc.).

The temperature of combustible material is another important factor for fire behavior. The warmer forest fuel is, the less energy is required for its ignition. Thus, it is ignited faster and the same goes for fire spread. Fuel temperature depends on air temperature and the exposure of fuel to solar radiation. The effect of the latter is important, since the difference in temperature between fuel exposed to the sun and fuel in the shadow of clouds or tree crown can exceed 10ÎżC. From the above it is easy to predict the typical daily cycle of fire behavior. On a daily basis, early in the morning, fire behavior is very mild and conditions favor fire extinguishing. As a rule, crown fires are transformed into surface fires, which can be easily dealt with by the ground forces. As noon closes in, conditions gradually get harder. At high forests fires turn initially to passive crown fires and later into active ones. The most aggressive fire behavior is spotted between 15:00-17:00, even though the warmest time of the day is around 14:00 as a rule. This is attributed to the delayed response of dead fuel to environmental conditions. Around dusk can one sense the change of fire behavior towards milder and once again chances reappear, before the night settles, for facing them effectively. During the night, especially after 1:00-2:00 the behavior becomes steadily milder. Well trained, organized forces, equipped with flashlights, can succeed very important results with relatively low fatigue, provided they work intensively till the morning.

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Daily course of the forest fire

2.3.2.3 Weather conditions Weather is the most variable factor affecting forest fire behavior. Its effect is particularly big and because of this it is essential that it is well comprehended. Recognizing the criticality of weather changes for fire behavior, forest fire fighter learns on of the most basic principles for a safe and effecting dealing with forest fires: To follow up the weather and care to be informed about expected changes in weather conditions, so that he «translates» these into expected changes in fire behavior.

Weather parameters affecting forest fire behavior are : ♦ the wind (speed and direction), ♦ the relative moisture in the air, ♦ air temperature, ♦ atmospheric precipitation (rain, snow, rime, dew), ♦ the presence of clouds or sunshine, ♦ atmospheric stability.

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These parameters at the site of fire depend on : ♦ the synoptic meteorological conditions, ♦ the effect of topography, ♦ the effect of the fire itself upon weather phenomena.

The relative moisture of the air, temperature, sunshine and precipitation affect fire behavior, by means of influencing the moisture contained and the temperature of combustible matter, as previously described.

Wind speed is one of the critical factors for fire behavior. This speed is measured with anemometers in kilometers per hour. When no anemometer is available, it can be assessed with the aid of the Beaufort scale, by observing the effects of wind upon the forest environment. The higher the wind speed is, the more inclined forward flames turn, approaching fuel in front of them. Effectiveness of radiation is multiplied, while at the same time heat transfer over induction for preheating fuel increases dramatically. In this way the speed of fire spread is multiplied, new fuel is ignited steadily and flames grow bigger. Eventual small gaps in fuel, often to be found in the forest, cease to forming an obstacle against fire spread.

The magnitude of the wind effect differs between various fuel types. Generally, it is bigger for thin fuel, such a grass, and for non-compressed fuel. As a rule, arrangement of fuel in height leads to greater sensitivity to wind effect, as soon as it ignites. Often, when draught conditions are not extreme, fire transfer to scrubs (where fuel is arranged at considerable height) requires the presence of strong wind. During the night hours, when wind speed usually drops and relative moisture increases, dampening dead fuel, fire spread towards grass and scrubs often stops without fore fire fighter intervention. The reduction in fuel preheating effectiveness after wind slows down, combined with the relatively high moisture of live bushes and the increase in dead fuel moisture render fire spread almost impossible.

The effect of strong wind on fire, particularly when this evolves into a tree-top fire, bears one more important as well as hazardous characteristic. It causes the transfer of lit small fuel particles (snuffs), such as pinecones, leaves, peel, etc., at a distance of tens or even hundreds of meters ahead of the fire front. When snuffs land on thin, dead and dry fuel (such as grass) they cause new hearts of fire, often beyond roads and firebreaks, negating the efforts of forest fire fighters and exposing them to a significant hazard of being surrounded by flames. The probability of having a new fire start from a snuff is far greater during the warmer and drier hours and day and very low during the night hours.

Wind direction is significant mainly regarding the combination of wind speed effect with that of type printing, as described below. A particularly important element for dealing with the fire is wind direction change, since they alter the direction of the fire front, toughening firefighting efforts up and increasing the risk of being trapped.

The state of atmospheric stability is another factor that, although not directly perceptible by the forest firefighter, can constitute a decisive factor for the evolution of a fire. When the temperature structure of the atmosphere is such that it resists the vertical motion of the air, the atmosphere is called stable and it does not facilitate the development of fire, because it makes its oxygen supply more difficult. On the contrary, when the atmosphere is unstable, then conditions favor oxygen supply and augment the creation of a large column of smoke, as 9

well as the rapid spread of fire. When photosmog appears over big cities and haze or widespread smoke are in the atmosphere, the latter one is stable. On the contrary, clear blue sky, very good visibility, the appearance of small clouds vertically developed at mountain tops (cumulus) and the creation of storms constitute an indication of instability in the atmosphere.

2.3.2.4 Geomorphological conditions Topography in the area of each fire is of great importance regarding its behavior.

Topographical data of particular importance for the fire are soil steepness, slope exposure, altitude and specific general topography characteristics, such as canyons, mountain passes and ridges. The effect of topography upon fire is both direct as well as indirect.

Direct effects.

As a rule, the fire spreads towards the higher parts of each slope, except if a strong opposite wind blows. Its spread speed increases in proportion with the steepness.

For a light one, when the wind blows in the direction of the slope, the fire spread speed can be unbelievable high. Steepness directly affects fire behavior in two ways : ♦ Due to the steepness flames approach fuel existing in front of them, as it happens in the case of strong wind. In this way, there is an increase in very significant radiation that preheats fuel and succeeds in igniting it. ♦ Heat produced rises in parallel to the slope, creating a warm air stream (induction), that further increases spread speed.

When steepness is sharp, a grave problem is caused by burning fuel pieces tumbling down the slope, creating new hearts of fire close to its foot. Further on, new fires spread once again towards the upper side of the slope aided by steepness, with abundant unburnt material available.

Exposure (geographical orientation) of the slope plays an important role regarding fire behavior, since to a significant extent it partakes in shaping temperature and moisture of combustible material. Generally, at northern slopes, that receive reduced solar radiation, fuel is cooler and wetter than the other slopes. Warmer and drier conditions, and indeed during the most critical period of day, prevail at the southern and southwestern slopes. Eastern slopes heat up significant during prenoon hours, while western slopes receive solar radiation until sunset. The bigger the slope steepness is, the more the principles above come into effect. Additionally, of particular importance is the fact that, when a slope heats up, local winds directed towards the upper part of the slope are created, which also contribute to faster fire spread. During night hours, when slope soil starts cooling off, air that comes in contact with it cools off as well. Then an air flow towards the lower parts of the slope begins, which forms a negative element regarding fire spread – since it «fights off» the steepness effect – and offers a significant assistance to forest firefighters.

In many cases, both slope exposure as well as altitude determine vegetation type and characteristics. Generally, vegetation is richer at the northern slopes, while it can be sparse and degraded at the southern ones. Altitude affects air temperature, which on average drops by 1οC per 100 meters of altitude raise. This fact, beyond its direct influence on fire, also affects conditions for plant growth. Therefore, the composition of plant societies varies depending on altitude and consequently so do their fire-resistant characteristics.

Indirect effects.

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The general topographical formation of a region affects fire behavior indirectly, but significantly. Steepness, exposure and altitude variation brings, of course, the results previously mentioned. But particularly important is the effect of various topographical elements on wind speed, direction and turbulence. For example, when wind passes through a deep and narrow canyon, its speed increases impressively. Furthermore, when the wind direction intersects a ridge and its speed is high enough, intense turbulence is caused in its back side, altering fire behavior as compared to the anticipated one.

A particularly important topographical element, often causing extreme conditions for fire spread, is the closed canyon, meaning the deep canyon which is closed at one end. When adequate vegetation grows on the canyon slopes and fire enters its foot, its behavior can change dramatically. The canyon might function as a chimney, creating a strong air stream upwards and drawing fire up to its top at an astonishing rate. Wind at the top of the canyon and instability in the atmosphere contribute.

The form of a closed canyon, where the ÂŤchimney effectÂť might appear From a WWF forest fire extinction guide

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2.3.3 Forest fire categories Forest fires are classified into three basic categories, depending on their spreading mode and their position on ground surface:

2.3.3.1 Ground or underground fires: fires of this kind burn organic matter accumulated at forests in Northern countries. In particular, quantities of organic matter, having reached various stage of decomposition, accumulate on ground surface at many forest locations. This layer of organic matter can be well condensed, with a thin texture, be secluded from atmospheric air and thus lack oxygen supply. Sometimes, organic matter extends to a great depth, like in areas having peat. When these layers of organic matter and leaf litter burn, they constitute ground fires. Fire of this kind can penetrate deeper, exceeding 1 or 2 meters, and spread underground. At a ground fire, there can be smoke or there can be no smoke, in which case it becomes hard to spot. Ground fires travel slow and at times, in other countries, they become some of the most dangerous fires and they are generally difficult to extinguish, like for example at deep peats.

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2.3.3.2 Surface or creeping fires: they are fires burning the grass pasture, the needle or leaf litter, down dry branches, regenerations, logging remains or a combination of these. This is where scrub fires are classified.

These fires are the most usual ones in Greece and south Mediterranean countries. They burn dead fuel (needles, leaves, twigs, etc.) in contact with the ground or live vegetation (grass, herbs, bushes, young trees) grown on it. In these fires, there are either no tall tree crowns over near-soil vegetation (like at a grassland or scrub) or there are tree crowns which, due to conditions, do not ignite. Characteristics for these fires vary significantly per case. Depending on fuel and prevailing conditions, these fires may range from unimportant and easily controlled to extremely serious and hard to handle. In any case, one common characteristic of them is the abundance of flame, since there is always the required oxygen for their supply. At Aleppo pine and brutia pine forests, where there is abundant forest floor and grass, when a small fire ignites the forest floor burns and in general passes flames to the crown as well, in which case we have a mixed fire. While when a strong wind blows, namely at large fires, fire runs under the crown, the trees naturally go dead. In cases exceeding 50% needles go dead but are not burnt, meaning that they remain brown dead for a few days, while young clusters burn. At slopes, creeping fires turn to mixed, meaning we have both creeping and crown fires, in other words mixed. In general, trees always go dead. In cases where many will 13

ask whether trees went dead or not, we chop peel with an axe and if cambium is white then the tree os alive, if it is brown then the tree is dead.

2.3.3.3 Crown or tree-top fires: These fires break out at tall forests, where tree crowns are ignited and burnt. They are always serious fires, hard and dangerous in their handling, with big flames and, as a rule, quick spread. Fires in this category are particularly common at pine forests of the coastal stretch (Aleppo and brutia pine) in Greece, where in most cases forest floor burns (bush vegetation and saplings) underneath the trees and passes fire on to the crown, creating a mixed fire. Often, in the course of such a fire evolving, depending on conditions affecting it, it changes from a surface fire to a crown fire and vice versa.

2.3.3.4 Intensity and Characteristics of a forest fire By the term forest fire intensity we mean the thermal energy released by a fire, measured in heat (calories) or power (watt). It can be also expressed as radiation intensity referring to thermal radiation released by a fire, measured at a specific distance on the ground or close to ground surface and expressed in cal/cm2 (Chandler et al. 1983). The fire spread speed is expressed in kilometers per hour.

Intensity transferred is the intensity required to lift burning gases and incoming air in the burn zone, measured in Kcal/m2 or Kw/m2.

Reaction intensity is the total heat released by a unit of burning material divided by burn time. While total intensity is the total heat released by a fire, measured in kilotons per minute or megatons/hour. At a big fire in the USA a fire intensity equal to 3,6 kilotons/min was measured, that is equal to a Hiroshima atomic bomb every 5,5 min (Chandler et al. 1983).

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The intensity at the fire front, also called Byram intenisty, depends on the heat released per unit of surface and the fire spread speed (Byran 1959).

The intensity of the fire front is equivalent to heat released per unit of front length at time unit and is equal to reaction intensity multiplied by the depth of the fire front. It was practically found that the intensity of the fire front is proportional to the flame height (the height of flame in meters, being the distance from its top till its foot and the length of flame in meters, which is measured from the middle of its foot till its top) (Byram 1959).

Flame height, intensity at the fire front, fire spread speed and relation to option of extinguishing via hand tools, with a bulldozer, while over 1000 BTU/0,30 m2/ or 3500 KW/m it turns into a crown and it is not extinguishable (Keowh 1983, Anderson, Brown 1988) Source: ÂŤForest FiresÂť, D.Kailidi, publications Yakhoudi-Yapouli, year 1990

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Flame width, height

2.3.3.5 Behavior and properties of a forest fire In order to decide about the mode and human resources to be provided for extinguishing a forest fire, we have to know all data characterizing fire behavior. Underneath we present the terminology for describing parts of each forest fire. •

Fire source or start point of a fire. We refer to the point where the fire started. At this point, dead fuel ignites as easy as dry and thin it is, provided meteorological conditions allow this.

•

Initial fire stage. It is the stage of initial strengthening with a duration starting from a few minutes and increasing according to dry fuel and the remaining environmental conditions. At this stage, it is easily extinguishable.

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•

Stage of fire reinforcement or growth.

•

The front or head of fire is its part spreading quicker. It usually follows wind direction or moves upstream (meaning upwards) a slope or its direction is determined by a combination of these two factors (wind, steepness) when not acting towards the same direction. The front is where, in most cases, the biggest flame length appears. The combination of a big flame and rapid spread makes dealing with the front the hardest and most hazardous work when extinguishing a fire. In a big fire, due to the inhomogeneity of factors affecting its spread, the front usually breaks up in smaller parts, which are called fingers. Fire characteristics for each one of those fingers may differ.

The rear of the fire is the part moving in the opposite direction of its front, in other words opposite to wind direction. Usually spread speed for the rear is the lowest across the entire fire perimeter and the same goes for flame length. Therefore dealing with this part is generally easy and can be done even when condition prevent facing the front.

•

•

Τhe sides of a fire are the parts of perimeter between the front and the rear. The fire behavior observed at the side – regarding spread speed and flame length – is a combination of behavior observed at the front and the rear of the fire. The same goes for the difficulty in dealing with the sides, where firefighting efforts are often ineffective, while safe approach of the front is impossible.

•

New hearts of fires. At big fires, many new ignition points are observed at unburnt material. They are created out of snuffs. This mechanism, under specific conditions, can acquire a paramount role in their evolution. A new fire lit by a snuff, known in English as «spot fire», is defined as the «fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main fire due to sparks or small lit fuel particles, which are conveyed by the air or tumble downwards». Spot fires are one of the most important hazards forest firefighters have to face. Under conditions favorable for this mode of transmission, even relatively slow moving fires have the potential to become dangerous and indeed with no warning, since they can jump over even the widest firebreaks, trapping ordinary citizens as well as forest firefighters

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2.3.3.6 The essential elements of fire Fire is the outcome of a chemical process, which requires the coexistence of three essential elements suitably combined with one another.

These elements are: • combustible matter, • heat, and • oxygen.

Often, they are presented in a triangular shape, called the «triangle of fire». If even one of the triangle sides is removed, then the triangle ceases to exist. The same is valid for the existence of fire, too, if fuel, oxygen or heat is removed. All methods for forest fire prevention and suppression are based on this principles.

Heat, combustible matter, Oxygene

Fuel is necessary, since it houses energy and feeds the flames. Fuel for forest fires comprises live and dead biomass. Heat availability is necessary for preheating fuel up to 300οC (Centigrades Celsius) minimum. When fuel is preheated, it produces inflammable gases. These gases are connected to oxygen included in the air via the chemical reaction of combustion, mainly releasing large amounts of heat, carbon dioxide and water vapors. Flanme is the area of gas combustion becoming visible due to the produced radiation. Its temperature may exceed 1000οC. 2.3.3.7 Heat transfer in forest fires

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Flame heat passes on to fuel around and preheats it until it also reaches the ignition temperature. Thus flame moves on to a new position and fire spreads. Heat transfer is accomplished with all three known modes, namely: ⇒ by contact from one point of fuel to another, thanks to its heat conductivity, ⇒ by convection, namely transport and diffusion of warm gases due to combustion, and ⇒ by radiation originating from the flame.

Out of these three modes, contact plays only a minor role in fire spread, due to the reduced heat conductivity of forest fuel.

Heat transfer by convection (transfer of warm gases) is particularly effective, as can be easily acknowledged by passing one’s hand over a candle flame. The contribution of convection upon the total heat preheating fuel at forest fires is extremely variable.

At surface fires, on flat areas without wind, the entirety of warm gases moves upward and diffuses in the atmosphere, without coming in contact with fuel in front of the flame. However, when ground-level combustible material burns underneath tree crowns, then the crowns receive large amounts of heat through warm gas convection. The contribution of convection to heat transfer for preheating fuel and fire spread increases significantly at the fire front when strong wind blows, transferring warm gases in front of the fire and this contribution gets bigger as fuel gets higher. The presence of considerable steepness on the soil, makes the contribution of convection even bigger, when the wind blows upwards on the slope.

The radiation originating from the flame is the most important means of heat transfer and always plays a significant role on fire spread. The intensity of incident radiation increases inversely proportionally to the distance from the source squared. For example, let incident radiation upon fuel at a displacement of 20 meters from flame have intensity Α, then, if the flame comes close to 10 meters, the intensity of radiation will be quadruple equal to 4Α. This principle is of great importance to the comprehension of the most significant raise in the intensity of radiation incident upon fuel, when the distance towards the flame is reduced, either due to soil steepness or due to flame inclination under influence of the wind. Of course the same happens too with the heat firefighters receive when the flames approach them.

A fourth mechanism for transmitting fires is the transmission via small flaming pieces of combustible material, the so called «snuffs». This mechanism can, under specific conditions, acquire a predominant role on their evolution. A new fire lit by a snuff, classified in english as «spot fire», is defined as the «fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main fire from sparks or ignited small particles of combustible material, which are conveyed by the wind or tumble down». These spot fires are one of the most important hazards the firefighters have to face.

Under conditions favorable for this transmission mode, even relatively slow moving fires have the potential to become dangerous and with no warning indeed, since they can jump over the widest firebreaks, trapping ordinary citizens as well as forest firefighters.

2.3.4 Forest fires detection and way of reporting 2.3.4.1 Detection of forest fires A basic role in the effort to prevent forest fires is played by direct observation, scanning, detection and announcement of each new fire to competent authorities. Rapid detection and immediate as well as correct announcement contribute greatly to the effective fire handling.

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Observation for fire detection in the classic way is conducted from permanent watch towers and mobile patrol either with the naked eye or using field glasses (binoculars). Ground observation is augmented, especially during the very high risk season, by airborne observation from firefighting, military, civil aircraft, as well as general aviation planes (from aeroclubs). In addition, over the last years, dedicated unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are tested.

Furthermore, during the last thirty years, other technologies have developed and are utilized to a greater extent, such as TV cameras or cameras with special sensors (multispectral, infrared sensors, smoke motion detection sensors), as well as terrestrial sensors of various kinds, installed inside the forest (temperature, moisture, noise detection sensors, etc.). On top of them, satellite observation is utilized in certain cases.

Despite the availability of all those technological media, the high acquisition, installation and operational cost for many of them, let alone technical or maintenance problems often appearing, render ground detection of fires an irreplaceable element of prevention.

With the highest availability of mobile phones between citizens and the wide coverage of the respective mobile telephony networks, announcement of fires is very easy. Requirement for this, at all cases, is citizen awareness, in order to overcome negligence, assuming that probably somebody else will have announced a fire just detected.

Every summer in Greece a network of fire observation posts operates manned with seasonal personnel, covering most of the critical areas. High operational cost, however, prohibits full coverage of forest space with a dense observation network. Several volunteer forest protection clubs in many areas of Greece respond to this weakness, undertaking the operation of one or more selected fire observation posts, in concertation with the fire brigade and forest authorities. This work is particularly suitable for volunteer personnel, because on the one hand it is relatively easy, demanding no particular physical skills or high level expert knowledge, while on the other hand it is essentially risk-free.

In any case, requirement for an essential and successful offering of this work is the provision of basic training observers, which must feature: ⇒ Briefing about how to detect a fire (smoke, flame, fire form characteristics etc.), ⇒ Map reading, place names, terrain knowledge and area identification for correct location reporting, ⇒ Understanding of the basic elements for the description of a fire and its behavior, ⇒ Knowledge of the methodology and telecom rules to be followed, in order for the information to reach the coordination center in time.

2.3.4.2 Way of reporting Forest Fires.

Telephone number 199 is used all over Greece for letting the Fire Brigade immediately know, so that necessary firefighting forces are promptly dispatched Reporting a fire by telephone to the respective emergency number in each country, is not limited to simply having the observer or citizen state that some fire or smoke can be seen. In order for this contribution to yield the utmost effectiveness, the person reporting must be

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prepared, aided by what has been described before about fire behavior, to give the telephone operator a series of useful information including: ⇒ Full name and telephone number. The Fire Brigade must be in the position to preclude cases of pranks, but also to request additional information, if necessary. Often, those reporting a fire in their area, which they observe out of a good spot, are able to provide information about its evolution until the first firefighting forces arrive. ⇒ The position where the reporting person is and the position where the fire is seen, with as much precision as possible. The observer who is part of an observation post is expected to utilize an accurate map for this purpose. A random observer might mention positions in relation to known or easily identifiable points in an area (such as mile posts on a motorway, crossroads, some bridge, an industrial building etc.). ⇒ Fire size (an appreciation in stremmata or a general appraisal, for example a small heart (of fire), small area, like a football ground, large area etc.). ⇒ Vegetation type on fire (grass, pine needles, brushwood, bushes, tall forest etc.). ⇒ Main fire characteristics, such as its type (ground-level, surface, crown, snuffs) and spread speed (very slow, quite fast, walking speed, very rapid). ⇒ Whether people or residences are in danger. ⇒ Whether people are attempting to put out the fire.

Furthermore, it is extremely useful if the observer can supply information about prevailing weather conditions, such as wind intensity and direction, but also about how to access the area of the fire. With regard to wind speed, since an anemometer cannot be available, the following table can prove particularly handy.

For all things above, information has to be reliable. If the observer is not absolutely certain about some information, the telephone operator has to know about it. If the observer does not belong to the permanent or seasonal personnel of the Fire Brigade, but instead to some other entity or has received special training (for example, member of a volunteer team), this has to be reported, because credibility of the observer report increases.

We would like to state that when reporting a fire, we have to be careful about the information conveyed. Like for example flame length and height. By definition flame length is usually larger than flame height, which is the distance between the flame top and the soil. Problems can be also caused by confusing fire perimeter with its front. A fire with a one kilometer perimeter and a one hundred meters front requires a very different suppression effort than a respective one with a one kilometer front.

2.3.5 Forest fire extinguishing When referring to forest fire extinguishing, we talk about a demanding, hard and dangerous work.

When the target is the regular pursuit of extinguishing fires, as is the case with volunteer forest firefighters, attending some special seminar is necessary. In addition, the first involvement with forest fire extinguishing must take place close to experienced people, because theoretical training cannot substitute experience. In mediterranean countries, where settlements are located at a minimal distance from forest land, anybody might have to be 22

involved in facing a fire or care for the safety of oneself and the ones around. Any citizen must possess certain basic knowledge, which can prove particularly useful. Some basic knowledge is cited underneath, constituting an essential asset for those finding themselves at some point participating in the extinguishing of a fire.

Some of the basic knowledge necessary for an effective and at the same time safe participation in fire extinguishing is presented below.

2.3.5.1 Methods for attacking a fire Suppression of a fire can succeed via a direct or indirect attack.

With a direct attack there is a frontal attack against the flames by throwing water or soil, or hitting flames with green branches, spades, special extinguish wings, etc. extinguishing and separating burnt material from unburnt.

IN ORDER TO OPERATE IN THIS WAY (DIRECT ATTACK) THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS MUST CONCUR: • Work time: Reduced due to favorable conditions • Thermal radiation: Radiation levels must be low • Smoke: Smoke quantity must allow us to work • Soil structure: Topography must allow such an operation Direct attack, when possible, is preferable since the extent of burnt land is limited and extinguishing is completed faster.

Fires usually appearing on television screensς have almost always flames very larger than the average height characterizing a fire. Thus, one can mistakenly deduce that the conditions when a fire can be dealt with via direct attack, are minimal. It is not so, though.

Flames as a rule are by far larger at the fire front than at the sides and rear. Therefore, even when a group of citizens or volunteers cannot approach the front, especially when equipped solely with handheld extinguishing means, it is possible to suppress big chunks of the remaining perimeter. This is particularly important, even if not immediately perceived by many. If, for example, intervention regards a fire at its start, with a front where flames cannot be handled though, the attempt to suppress the sides and the rear via a direct attack can prove exceptionally effective. As soon as the first fire truck arrives, fire fighters will be able to focus immediately at the front and complete its extinguishing, since no water has to be spent for the remaining perimeter. Additionally, one should not forget that wind changes direction often. In this case, the perimeter sides might suddenly become front. If suppressed, however, then fire stops spreading and efforts can then concentrate where previously the front was, where have flames are now smaller following the change in wind direction.

When directly attacking the front exceeds the capability of available means, a basic safety rule is to avoid battle stations before the front. On the contrary, the area should always be searched, seeking spots with sparser and low vegetation in the way of fire. Examples for such spots are the organized crop fields and grass-free olive groves and vineyards. Forest firefighter

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forces can retreat there and organize, in order to apply a direct or indirect attack according to the conditions.

ADVANTAGES OF A DIRECT ATTACK Reduced burnt area Small fires do not spread

DISADVANTAGES OF A DIRECT ATTACK Causes irregular fire perimeter Hard to monitor the front between two warm spots Requires a small number of men Personnel works under harsh conditions No uncertainty about selecting course of Poor exploitation of natural vegetation gaps action With an indirect attack there are actions, such as the creation of a firebreak by removing fuel, at a distance from the fire front.

With an indirect attack we act when: • Heat and smoke prevent us from getting close to the front • Soil structure is poor or composition of the vegetation does not permit us to immediately clear a firebreak • There are natural obstacles • Fire spreads at a high rate Indirect attack is a necessity option, when approaching the fire is impossible either because fire characteristics (fire intensity) are such that force the firefighter to stay away, or nearing is impossible due to steep topography and shortage of roads.

ADVANTAGES OF AN INDIRECT ATTACK Superior personnel safety Exploit natural vegetation gaps Easy use of mechanical means Improved distribution of forces

DISADVANTAGES OF AN INDIRECT ATTACK Larger area burnt Experienced man in charge required Very good coordination between sector leaders Risk of jumping over the control zone

Selecting a method is facilitated by the table below, which presents the internationally acceptable limits for facing a fire with regard to flame length.

It is noted that the table regards facing the front when moving through vegetation is needed and not dealing with the fire from wide streets and firebreaks, when it is possible to successfully deal with flames of a greater length.

FLAME OPTIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL ATTACK LENGTH (in meters) 0-1,2 Water throw by any means (fire pump, knapsack fire extinguisher, farming sprayer, canisters), soil through with spade, hit with green branches, 24

1,2-2,5 2,5-3,6 >3,6

extinguishing wing etc.

Water throw under pressure (from a fire truck or taps), utilization of mechanical means (such as bulldozers).

Water throw under pressure (from a fire truck with taps), with the requirement for a well-organized action and the option to retreat with easy movement in case of a problem.

Direct attack is very dangerous and chances of success are thin or it can be impossible. For relatively improved chances of success, very strong ground forces are required (for example fire trucks equipped with a ¨cannon¨) or support by airdrops. Usually, snuffs constitute a grave problem.

*Limits of safe and successful forest fire extinguishing for direct attack o flame WWF

When a fire, either due to direct attack or due to an indirect one, stops spreading, it is reported as under control. However, controlling a fire does not mean that flames are already extinct. The probability for a resurgence of the fire is high and for this reason efforts keep on until there is no more flames or warm spots, where from unburnt vegetation could ignite again and restart fire spread. Only when this is accomplished, do firefighter forces report complete extinguishing and walk away.

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2.3.5.2 Selection of attack method To select the best mode for attacking a fire, we have to take into consideration: - the volume and kind of fuel - ground topography - wind speed and direction - the existence of settlements - personnel available 2.3.5.3 Means for extinguishing a forest fire 2.3.5.3.1 Portable means: • Hit (wings, hessians, green branches etc.)

• Cut (Axes, chainsaws, wedges, hoes, billhooks, spades etc.)

• Water-bearing (urns, shoulder-held fire extinguishers, folding tanks etc.)

• Torch gear (torch pots etc.)

• Various (compass, map, binoculars etc) We must never forget that we can operate with portable means when flame height does not exceed 1m In order to yield a result when suppressing a forest fire by portable means, we must create attack teams of about four persons with: • Chainsaw • Hoe • Spade • Knapsack fire extinguisher 2.3.5.3.1.1 ACTIONS TO PERFORM WITH PORTABLE MEANS • Remove fuel to the side of fire • Eventual big pieces sliced with the chainsaw • Warm spots or small flames can be dealt with by hits from the means available or even green and wide branches • Each hit should be done at such an angle so that snuffs move towards the burnt part • Shoulder-held fire extinguishers are used mainly for the fleck phenomenon but also for reducing eventual small hearts (of fire) Forest fire extinguishing tools (hoes, spades, axes, saws etc.) must be well maintained and sharp, in order to be effective. In this manner, they constitute an element of safety for the firefighter. In parallel, however, they form an element of hazard if: Proper distance is not observed when moving in the forest (2 meters between persons) and if they are not held properly (the stake at the arm with the sharp edge towards the front and not on the shoulder).

They are not placed with due care aboard the transport media used for moving firefighters

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During work, the safe distance from one another (minimum three meters) is not kept, and They are used for pranks between one another.

2.3.5.3.2 Fire Trucks • They can move on inaccessible roads • They have 4x4 drive • They carry 1 to 12tn water • Most have a low capacity up to 2,5tn water for ease of movement • Of several types and makes For detailed specifications depending on needs see chapter 2.

2.3.5.3.3 Airplanes – Helicopters There are various kinds of airplanes and helicopters used for forest fire extinguishing.

(CANADAIR CL – 215, CL – 415, PZL, M26, CHINOOK, ΚΛΠ.)

Water drop from airplanes and helicopters entails risk too, if the drop takes place at a steep slope, higher than the firefighter, there could be rocks, logs etc. tumbling down in his direction. The hazard is even greater when the firefighter finds himself inside the drop, due to water momentum and weight. Depending on the altitude of releasing water and the speed of the airborne medium, apart from the painful hit endured by the firefighter, he could get carried away and hit trees, rocks etc. Or get hit by trees crashed due to the water momentum.

Therefore the person in charge should be in contact with the airborne media, informing pilots about personnel positions and issuing orders for evacuation when a drop is about to be made.

Firefighters must wear uniforms bearing color easily spotted inside the forest environment (orange, yellow, red). When an evacuation order is given, firefighters should obey at once, eventually informing their colleagues, such as chainsaw users, who might have not heard the specific order. 80 to 100 meters from the anticipated drop spot is considered an adequate safety distance for drops by larger aircraft, such as Canadair. This distance can be significantly smaller for drops by smaller airplanes and helicopters.

If the firefighter realizes he stands on the aircraft drop line, he has no time to evacuate during the seconds remaining before he is hit by the water. Despite this, he should not rush to run away, because (if hit by water upon his entire body surface) the knock will be very strong and he cannot avoid getting carried away. On the contrary, he can escape danger by lying down with his helmet in the direction of the coming aircraft, trying to hold on the vegetation. In this way, he presents the smallest possible surface against the water, just like diving at sea.

Eventual sharp or acute tools should be disposed of towards the opposite side, so that water does not bring it against him. If the aircraft releases firefighting foam or retardant substances, which are usually red, the firefighter exposed to them must wash himself well within reasonable time and change his apparel (impregnated from substances).

2.3.5.3.4 Fire-extinguishing materials • Soil • Water 27

• • • • •

Fire retardants Wetting agents Flow improvements Fire extinguishing foams Dry powder

2.3.5.4 Proper use of fire extinguishing installations they provide better results when used in fires the flames of which do not exceed 1,5 meters in height they should be used during the initial fire attack or for the protection of the ringspot phenomenon (cyclone) behind fire belts theoretically speaking, we can extinguish all types of fires given that we have the installations. However, in practice this does not apply since these must also cooperate with other means, as for example a fire belt the installation should be prepared with the fewest possible vehicles we should always begin with greater diameter pipes and proceed with smaller diameter ones (66mm, 45mm, 25mm) we prefer pipes of relatively small diameter for easy handling and transfer if so required if required, we insert a portable pump (main pump if there are significant altimeter differences) we use hose clips every 100 to 200 meters for water saving purposes and also for better handling of the installation in the event that transfer of a vehicle is required, we do not proceed with packing of the installation in forest incidents, the signature lights of vehicles should remain on during preparation of the installation WE AVOID HIGH PRESSURE INSTALLATIONS (FIXED INSTALLATIONS ON VEHICLES) SINCE IT COMPLICATES VEHICLE’S PROMPT AND FAST TRANSFER TO ANOTHER POINT IF SO REQUIRED We use the less compacted throw possible for water saving purposes as also for other reasons (e.g. foliage, humus dissipitation, etc.)

WE ALWAYS KEEP 10-20% OF THE WATER QUANTITY CONTAINED IN VEHICLE’S TANK FOR SELF-PROTECTION PURPOSES 2.3.5.5 Proper placement of fire-extinguishing vehicles Vehicles should be parked on one side of the road so that circulation of the remaining vehicles on the other side of the road is rendered feasible. Most preferably, vehicles should be parked on the opposite side of the fire incident. the position of vehicles should be such so that in case of entrapment their prompt departure is possible Vehicles should be parked in such a way so that the rear part thereof faces the fire front while the front part is facing the escape route that we have planned for emergency cases 28

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Normally, small sized vehicles are parked closer to the fire, as being more flexible

2.3.6 Fire-breaking lines as a fire-extinguishing tool Fire-breaking lines are called the rough lines that are constructed by forest fire-fighters during fire incidents, which aim at the temporary interruption in the continuity of forest combustible materials, that may permanently be achieved by firebreaks.

When, during a fire incident, bulldozers are operating for the construction of firebreaks, forest fire-fighters should be particularly careful. The phenomenon of stripping and tumbling of various materials (rocks, logs, etc.) down the slope is very often.

It is obvious that work on slopes and at points that are lower than the position of the bulldozer implies great dangers. In such cases, forest fire-fighters should notify their presence to the operator of the bulldozer. However, under no circumstances should they climb on the bulldozer while the bulldozer is in motion, so as to communicate with the operator. In addition, they should keep safe distances as from the motion and operation of the bulldozer, always keeping in mind of potential tree felling as also of the typical motion of the bulldozer (forward and backwards). â–ş In order to ensure that radiation arising from the fire front, will not surpass a firebreak, the width of this firebreak should be equal to one and half to two times the length of flames. Even then, however, it is not certain that fire spreading will be stopped, since fire can be transmitted on the other side of the firebreak by means of snuffs. â–ş A firebreak that is made to the side of a fire can be considered adequate so as to stop fire spreading, if width thereof is equal to two times the height of existing vegetation. In all instances, however, the patrol and guarding of fire when its side reaches firebreak are required.

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Opening of a fire belt (zone by which vegetation is removed)

2.3.7 Actions by Volunteer Teams Volunteer teams can assist in the extinction of forest fires in all phases of forest fire-fighting procedure. In particular: -Before the outburst of a forest fire -During its progress -After its extinction 2.3.7.1 Actions by Volunteer Teams before the outburst of a fire incident Throughout forest monitoring and guarding activities, volunteer teams can perform inspections regarding: -The condition of the road network 30

-The water consuming points -Vehicles assembly areas -The condition of firebreaks -The areas occupied with hotels, camping spaces, encampments, playgrounds, etc.

-Land fills and dump zones ATTENTION IS REQUIRED: In the event that whatsoever suspicious, bizarre and not compatible with the surrounding areas has been detected, or if any traces of potential damages or defective works have been noticed (as for example vehicles, water consuming points, condition of road network, etc.), then the competent officials should be notified.

2.3.7.2 Actions by Volunteer Teams during and after the incident AS FROM THE OUTBURST OF THE INCIDENT AND ONWARDS ….

The Assistance provided by volunteers is extremely helpful in all sectors in which they are involved.

Their work has a supplemental character in every activity performed for the extinction of fire.

However, volunteers never act without the guidance of a supervisor.

THEY CAN: -Assist in the circulation of fire-extinguishing vehicles by indicating routes and headlands -They take part in the fire extinguishing activities by providing assistance at the fireextinguishing installations, either by pulling or connecting pipes or by providing their help wherever this is asked for -When equipped with the proper means and equipment, they separate the burned from the unburned areas (and extinguish potential fire reactivation seats in areas that have already be burned) 2.3.8 Personnel safety rules 2.3.8.1 Use of personal protective equipment Forest fire-fighters should be aware that the best way to protect their skin by the heat is the use of proper clothing. (see chapter 2 for the analytical specifications regarding forest firefighters’ clothing). At this point we should point out two important mistakes committed by uninformed forest fire-fighters from time to time. These are: ♦ The cutting of sleeves from their duty uniform. During the hours that forest firefighters are not involved in a fire incident, sleeves can be simply rolled up. ♦ The wetting of clothes during forest fire-fighting process. The insulation provided by dry clothes is up to five times greater than the one being provided by the same wet clothes.

Regarding the protection of lungs and air ducts, forest fire-fighters should be aware of the following:

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♦ Water vapors from wet neckerchiefs and towels in the face increase catastrophic effects of hot gases to the tissues of the breathing circuit as also to the skin.

These items should never be wet during the struggle with flames. ♦ The hot gases emitted by the combustion are heading upwards, while the new cooler air being absorbed by the flames in order to stoke it with oxygen is in contact with the ground.

When, during a fire-extinguishing process, forest fire-fighters sprinkle the combustible materials found at the bottom of flames, they should use the water pipe keeping their body bent. This way, the body exhibits a much smaller surface that is affected by the radiation, while a large part of the body is kept in a relatively cool stream of air and does not inhale the hot gases arising from flames.

Indicated distance from Fire: Forest fire-fighters who stand in front of the fire front, are in danger of being affected by skin burns, even when they wear proper uniforms, if fire reaches them at a distance that is less than four times the length of flames. In other words, if a crown fire the flames’ length of which is 25 meters, forest fire-fighters are forced to retreat when the fire is at a distance of 2.3x25=100 meters. This distance is obviously much greater based on the capability of forest fire-fighters to spray water at the fire front, and demonstrates the need for finding an intelligent method to deal with the fire by means of an indirect attack, away from the flames.

2.3.8.2 Preparation and behavior of a safe fireguard As it was made clear from the above, the dangers being involved in forest fire-fighting activities cannot be considered few or negligible. Despite this, as we saw earlier, most of such dangers can be handled with the proper preparation and behavior. We will call forest firefighters who never expose themselves or others to unnecessary dangers as «safe forest firefighters». This way, forest fire-fighting duties can be performed with safety and effectiveness for the sake of all.

Characteristics of a safe fireguard: • Life safety is prioritized above everything else that is in danger due to a forest fire.

• A fireguard is well trained. He is aware of how fires behave, how do deal with them, and the dangers he is exposed to.

• He always thinks of safety and at all times keeps his mind clear so as to define dangerous situations in time in order to respond promptly. He always keep in mind escape routes in the event that conditions change. In windy conditions, snuffs can cause fires even at distances over 1.000 meters from the fire front, thus increasing drastically the chances of entrapment. If you are not sure of the escape routes, then deal with fire extinction in collateral areas, that is a task that is very important but relatively safe.

• He is suitably dressed and equipped.

• He maintains and uses properly his equipment.

• He is aware of his capabilities and limits, as also the respective characteristics of his equipment.

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• He maintains his self in good condition, so as to avoid erroneous decisions which are led to by fatigue. This way, he reduces the chances of incidents such as heat stroke, injuries, heart failure, etc.

• He is properly nourished and never drinks alcohol before or during his work.

• He has team spirit, cooperates well with his colleagues and takes care to understand the instructions given by others, while at the same time makes sure that the others have understood what he has told them.

• He never exhibits negligence, carelessness, disregard or narrow-mindedness.

• He never makes rude jokes to his colleagues.

• Forest fire-fighters should have direct communication and visual contact with their colleagues.

• Forest fire-fighters must have completely understood the instructions given to them.

• Forest fire-fighters should ask for their replacement, when they feel exhausted, are seized with cramps and stop sweating.

2.3.8.3 Instructions in case of entrapment by fire If someone is entrapped for whatsoever reason by a fire: -He should not be overwhelmed by panic.

In such cases, fear is a physiological reaction, however this must be mitigated, so that he can think properly of what to do -He should be protected by radiation. He should not breath deeply but slowly.

In such incidents, most victims die due to intense radiation before the fire front reaches them.

-He should enter in a burnt area the soonest possible.

-He should create a burnt area by himself -He should not run panicky towards an unknown direction -He should avoid inhaling smoke -He should not take refuge in exposed empty barrels. Caves and wells should be avoided, because the danger from suffocation is extremely high.

-He should not pass from points where the height of flames is greater than 1,5 meters -He should select an area with limited combustible materials (gap, route, thin combustible materials, etc.), since there flames will be shorter.

-FINALLY If escape is impossible, he should be protected from radiation to the maximum possible extent, by laying down prone in a trench, behind rocks, etc., as far as possible from combustible materials, and cover his exposed skin with clothes and earth. He should not breath deeply but slowly, in contact with the earth, by looking for the relatively cooler air that is found at the layer of 15 centimeters from the ground. He should not get up to run no matter how much he suffers.

An important safety element for forest fire-fighters is also the fire shelter, which is carried by them folded in a small case that is suspended from their belts, and which may be used as an ultimate solution in case of entrapment. It is manufactured by an aluminum foil that is glued by means of a non-toxic glue to a tissue made of fiberglass. In case of emergency, forest firefighters can open it in a gap of combustible materials, enter underneath it and remain there till 33

fire has blown over. The shelter retains air in a tolerable condition in terms of temperature and smoke, while at the same time it reflects 95% of the radiation. In the United States, where these have been designed and in wide use during the last twenty-year period, these shelters have saved tens of lives. Their importance is particularly great to the forest fire-fighting forces that work by manual operated means and do not consist crews in forest fire-fighting vehicles.

The supply of shelter to the fireguard is accompanied by instructions for use as also by practice relating with its use, because forest fire-fighters should be capable of opening it and be properly covered by it in less that a minute.

If fireguard’s entrapment happens close to a fire-extinguishing vehicle, then: -he should not hesitate to abandon the vehicle, if the escape with it is questionable -he should notify the head of his team as of the danger he is exposed to by means of a radio transmitter -he should attempt to move the vehicle towards the burned zone.

-he should close all ventilation ducts of the vehicle, cover all vehicle’s glasses by whatsoever disposable items (blanket, fabrics, etc.), bend towards the floor and be covered in the best way he can. The vehicle’s cabin offers adequate protection from the smoke and warm gases.

In contrast to the common belief, vehicles’ gasoline tanks explode very rarely.

-If there is a choice between the stay in a gap under relatively safe conditions and the evacuation (with or without a vehicle) by passing through smoke and flames, the first choice should be preferred. Especially the stay in a vehicle that is located in a gap of 25-30 meters is considered adequately safe. On the contrary, vehicle’s circulation through the smoke and without visibility implies increased danger and entrapment possibilities under much worse conditions. In dense smoke conditions, the vehicle’s engine looses a great part of its power and can be even turned off.

2.3.9 The «DO’s» and «DON’T’s» relating to forest fire-extinguishing 2.3.9.1 What «DO’s» are to be effected ⇒ Upon our arrival at the fire front we must define its perimeter, the direction of wind, the topography of the area, specify what is burnt or what is to be burnt, and select the point from which we can safely act in an effective way. This way, we can ensure that our effort will not be in vain. ⇒ We give priority, if possible, to points from which fire could gain access to dangerous combustible materials, so as to prevent this possibility. ⇒ If we cannot see all fire fronts, we should ensure that there is watcher who will observe fire progress and notify us of any potential dangers (such as changes in behavior, changes in wind direction, new fire hearts, fallings of rocks etc.). ⇒ We must promptly identify secure locations and escape routes (as for example open spaces, habitation areas, ploughed land, vineyards etc.) and plan possible escape scenarios in the event that we are surrounded by flames. At the same time, we should have a brief consultation with our colleagues in terms of these scenarios.

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⇒ As we are working, we should always keep in mind of the behavior of fire, especially if we feel that conditions change (as for example if we realize that there is blowing of wind, or a temperature increase, etc.). ⇒ If, upon approaching the fire, we detect elements which could eventually prove an arson attempt, we make sure not to spoil them (for example, traces from human actions such as the pull of pipes etc.) and we inform the head the fire-fighting force, of the evidences. ⇒ If possible, we use the appropriate tool for every single work: • The greens and turfs are effectively extinguished with water spraying (by a fireextinguishing vehicle or knapsack sprayer), and by strokes effected with spades or other fire equipments or green branches.

• Pine-needles are more effectively extinguished by the use of drag rakes in combination with hand hoes, and by drifting apart the burned from the unburned area, by the formation of an at least 30 cm wide zone. The width of this zone is smaller when we are working on the rear of the fire front, but should be equal to two times the flame length (normally from 50 to 150 centimeters) when working at the fire front. We take special care so as not to drag towards the unburned area pineneedles which have already been combusted.

• Drag rakes are particularly effective for the opening of control lines within forests of deciduous and broad-leaved trees (as for example, oak woods).

• Depending on the size and type of bushes, we use special bush cutters, hand hoes and chainsaws. ⇒ When spraying water by a forest fire-extinguishing line or knapsack sprayer: • We aim at the combustible materials that are located at the bottom of the flame in order to cool them, and so as these cease producing inflammable gases. Then the flame is extinguished.

• We use high-pressure focused water streams in order to achieve a long range jet and thus reduce our distance from flames, in order to get closer to them. Promptly after this, we perform a fog stream, since this way water spray can achieve the best effect in terms of cooling the existing vegetation. This way, we can ensure both effectiveness and water saving. ⇒ In the event of fire, volunteers ought to get in touch with forest fire-extinguishing forces the soonest possible. They should be aware of the presence of such forces so as: • to be incorporated in the activities of such forces, and in tasks where these could be more helpful (as for example, provide assistance in the formation of pipe networks for the supply of water).

• not to be unintentionally exposed to dangers (as for example, from water throws by airplanes).

• to be notified in case of danger (namely if there is a decision regarding a withdrawal from the front and the selection of an indirect fire attack) and, if so required, to be protected.

2.3.9.2 What «DON’T’s» are to be avoided ⇒ We should not stand in front of approaching flames if we are not sure that we have the adequate means and support of others, so as to extinguish them before they reach us. This is 35

of particular importance with regard to thin combustible materials such as greens and brushwood, since the behavior of fire with such materials changes rapidly, in case there is a change in the direction or strength of the wind. ⇒ We should not purposelessly waste water, since the replenishment needs in water supply can adversely affect the desired outcome. The «comfort» of using water, also depends of course on the extent of fire, the number of forces involved and the ease of water supplying.

Examples of water waste are: • The use of high pressure focused water stream for short distance fire extinction purposes. short distance.

• Water usage in compacted combustible materials, such as pine-needles.

• Water throws to the top of flames and not to the bottom thereof.

• The separation attempt regarding burned and unburned zones by the use of highpressure water, instead of using manual work tools.

• Water throws for the extinction of relatively small flames that are located to the side of roads, where fire spread will one way or another be stopped due to shortage of combustible materials. It is more advisable to simply verify that fire has been extinguished upon its contact with the road, since at this point fire reactivation is out of question.

• Following fire inspection, the attempt to extinguish branches, existing logs, down trees, semi-disintegrated logs etc., by the use of large quantities of water and without any use of manual tools (such as chainsaws, hatchets, hoes), which could assist in the disintegration thereof and the access of water to burning spots. ⇒ We should never proceed with «heroic» attempts when it is questionable whether we are able to dominate over the fire. Also, we should never delay our departure in the event that a decision regarding the evacuation of the area and the transfer to safe zones has been taken. ⇒ We should never consider final fire extinction, which follows fire inspection, of lesser importance. In cases of effort relaxation, the chances for fire reactivation are many: • Normally, with regard to thin combustible materials, the patrol along the perimeter of fire for 1-3 hours and the inspection of fire pockets is adequate for ensuring fire extinction and removal of the greater volume of forest fire-fighting forces.

• On the contrary, tall forests and particularly mountain forests characterized by a thick layer of forest floor, require a significant effort for the final extinction of fire, which involves the patrol of the entire fire perimeter, the exhaustive separation of burned and unburned zones, and further the extinction of all fire pockets at a minimum distance of 30 meters as from the borders of the fire perimeter. All existing trees within the borders of this zone, as also deeper in the burned zone, which are under fire should be extinguished and cut. In areas characterized by significant soil steepness, special care should be exhibited in order to ensure that burning materials will not tumble down the slope. This can be achieved by the formation of a hillside antierosive trench at the height of the zone that is located between the burned and unburned areas, at the lower part of fire perimeter. This trench will be of such size so as to prevent tumbling of pine kernels and other similar materials.

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2.3.10 Dealing with poisoning, thermal stress and heat-stroke The working environment that is located in the vicinity of a fire encompasses many dangers.

For the avoidance of accidents, forest fire-fighters should be aware of them, recognize them, and take the necessary measures to avoid them, by respecting all relevant rules. The most significant of these dangers are described below: 2.3.10.1 Poisoning due to Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is an invisible, almost odorless and tasteless gas, and therefore does not betray its presence. It is a natural by-product of combustion of forest materials and is present in all fires incidents. Its concentration however is greater in the denser concentrations of smoke at the fire front. In addition, a sufficient amount of CO is emitted during the protracted burning of undergrowth logs and branches long after the passing of the fire front. The concentration of CO is increased when – particularly during night hours in valleys – temperature inversion conditions are created. The exposure of forest fire-fighters to CO is to a certain degree unavoidable. The objective is the restriction thereof at safe levels.

When entering into the lungs, carbon monoxide replaces oxygen in blood corpuscle. As carbon monoxide levels are increased in blood, the ability of blood to transfer oxygen to the brain and muscles is decreased. The symptoms of this poisoning appear gradually along with the increase of CO levels in human blood. In the beginning, there are changes in the behavior of the affected person. Then, loss of sound judgment and difficulty in the movement of muscles can be noticed. Further, heartbeats and inspiration change. In more serious incidents of poisoning, headaches, exhaustion, drowsiness, dizziness, nausea and voming appear. In an even worse condition, the victim presents convulsions, goes in a coma that may be followed by death, since the deficiency of oxygen does not permit the functioning of heart and brain.

The appearance of more severe symptoms requires the prompt removal of the victim from the fire incident to an environment with fresh air, the provision of first aid by specialized personnel and the transfer to a hospital. In simpler incidents (exhaustion, intense headaches, nausea, voming) it is imperative that the victim is removed from the contaminated environment of fire and that the victim is given time for rest purposes. Fortunately, this type of poisoning is fully reversible. By the stay of the victim in an environment with fresh air, human organization is entirely refined from carbon monoxide, and there no symptoms left witnessing the victim’s exposure to CO. The refinement of human organization that has been exposed to medium levels of CO requires approximately 8 hours of stay in fresh air, that is the time length of a regular night sleeping period.

Serious poisoning incidents due to CO, during forest fire-extinguishing activities are rare. On the contrary, light incidents of poisoning, namely at a level that is not directly noticeable, and which however affect the behavior and sound judgment of the victims are quite often. This can possibly lead to mistakes and insecure behaviour. Each forest fire-fighter should keep an eye on his colleagues and in case he has indications relating to a poisoning incident he should promptly notify the head of the team.

• The good physical conditions reduces CO absorption rate by the human blood.

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• The CO absorption rate is increased proportionally to the increase in the physical activity of the person.

• The blood of smokers contains a significantly greater percentage of carbon monoxide, almost reaching the boarder line of poisoning. Therefore, when smokers are exposed to air having a high concentration in carbon monoxide, their blood reaches a problematic level in terms of CO concentration, in very short time.

For the avoidance of problems relating to CO there should be constant briefing and consciousness regarding symptoms of poisoning. When intense concentrations of smoke are detected, the possibility of dealing with the fire by means of a surrounding fire attack, which sets fire-fighters away from the combustion zone, should be examined. If this is not feasible, then during the frontal fire attack the persons being exposed to more intense concentrations of smoke should be regularly replaced and given the possibility to rest in the fresh air conditions. This also applies to the personnel that handles machinery equipped with internal combustion engines (chainsaws).

2.3.10.2 Thermal stress The great consumption of energy by forest firefighters during the performance of their duties, in combination with the adversities arising from the working environment (high temperatures during summer period, intense solar radiation, heat resulting from fire) force human body to try hard in order to keep its temperature within normal levels. The basic human bodies’ cooling mechanism is sweat evaporation. To this effect, human body produces significant quantities of sweat. When this mechanism ceases its proper functioning, then body temperature is no longer effectively controlled and the characteristics of thermal stress appear.

The conditions upon which air temperature is greater than 38-40οC, in combination with calm weather and high relative humidity, are referred to as heatwave conditions. These conditions are particularly in favor of thermal stress even to persons who work under no particular stress, because despite the fact that human body perspires profusely – the sweat is not evaporated. All the more, for forest fire-fighters these particular conditions, but also smoother ones, always encompass this danger, due to the nature of their work. Therefore, forest fire-fighters should be aware of this danger, as also of the relevant symptoms and of ways to deal with it. The most significant symptoms of thermal stress are: -cramps -exhaustion due to dehydration -exhaustion due to heat -heatstroke The cramps of this category are strenuous and appear in employees who sweat profusely and who drink large amounts of water so as to replenish water losses from their body, without however replenishing the salts being evaporated by the sweat. The preservation of balance in the salts of the human organization is mandatory for its proper functioning. The disturbance of this balance causes muscle cramps.

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For the avoidance of cramps, forest fire-fighters should not only replenish the water being evaporated by sweat but also salts. Particularly suitable to this effect, are the dehydration preventing water soluble powders which can be found at drug stores, as also the various athletes’ isotonic drinks, and tomato juice. The consumption of tomatoes, bananas and oranges with the daily meals, as also the use of salt are considered positive actions towards the prevention of muscle cramps. In the event that a cramp is emerged, the static exercises for stretching the muscles may be helpful, providing temporary relief.

With regard to quick replenishment of salts, the consumption of slightly salted water may also be of help (less than ¼ tea spoon in one liter of water).

Dehydration may come up after several days of work under high temperature conditions without the adequate replenishment of water losses. This is expressed by loss in body’s weight. The cure of this problem is simple: replenishment of the water being evaporated.

The exhaustion that is due to heat causes weakness, wet and cold skin, headache, nausea, and some times even faintness.

It is caused by the inadequate replenishment of body fluids that are evaporated, in combination with the loss of salts. The treatment encompasses resting in a cool place and replenishment of fluids and salts.

2.3.10.3 Heat-Stroke Heat-Stroke is the condition upon which the human body temperature controlling mechanism ceases functioning. It is an extreme condition of the above stated. The temperature of the victim increases, reaching and/or exceeding 41ο C. This becomes noticeable from the skin, which is warm and usually very dry. Breathing becomes very quick (30 – 40 breathings per minute). The victim presents confusion, delirium, loss of senses, convulsions and finally, goes into a coma.

Heat-stroke is a particularly serious incident and requires medical treatment. Up to the time we have ensured medical help (victim transportation), first aid is focused in decreasing the victim’s temperature. This is achieved by wetting the victim’s clothes with cool water and using a fan etc., so as to accelerate water evaporation. It this is not effective, and there is a cool water source in the vicinity (lake, river, source, water tank etc.), then careful dipping of the victim in the water is advisable in order to accelerate the desired outcome. If first aid is given timely and in the proper way, the victim most of the times recovers without unpleasant repercussions. Forest fire-fighters should always keep in mind that the consumption of alcohol increases dramatically the chances of a heat-stroke incident.

The above apply to the entire personnel being involved in forest fire-extinguishing activities, however the danger involved is lesser for forest fire-fighters who staff fire-extinguishing vehicles, since these can most of the times carry adequate quantities of water. On the contrary, the danger is normally greater for those working in the forest, away from fireextinguishing vehicles. The body fatigue of such persons is greater and their capability in 39

carrying water with them while in motion on foot is limited. Therefore, special care regarding the supply in water and food to such persons is required.

For the avoidance of problems related to heat-stroke, apart from the replenishment of water and salts and the regular resting periods during work, forest fire-fighters should be aware that the following play also an important role: - the physical condition and - the adaptation to manual work under high temperature conditions Forest fire-fighters who have good physical condition and who are not overweight can adapt to the requirements of the under high temperature conditions work in half the time needed for those who have poor physical condition. The heartbeats and the temperature of their body remain within normal levels, and blood circulation is performed in a much better way in such persons. Overweight persons who have poor physical condition are clearly unsuitable for forest fire-fighting works.

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