The fifth Minaret of Herat | Alessia Lico

alessia lico

The fifth Minaret of Herat (Afghanistan, 1432 d. C.) Knowledge path for a consolidation project

tesi | architettura design territorio

Il presente volume è la sintesi della tesi di laurea a cui è stata attribuita la dignità di pubblicazione.

“Per la capacità di tenere insieme il contesto storico-culturale con le tematiche strutturali e costruttive al fine di contribuire alla salvaguardia di un patrimonio prezioso per l’umanità”.

Commissione: Proff. F. Capanni, G. Giovannoni, G. Verdiani, U. Tonietti, L. Rovero, M. Tanganelli, G. Misseri, M. Scamporrino

Ringraziamenti Ringrazio i Proff. L. Rovero, U. Tonietti e G. Misseri che per primi hanno creduto in me dandomi la possibilità di affiancarli nella ricerca, accompagnandomi con professionalità, disponibilità e gentilezza in questo percorso. Un rapporto basato sulla stima ed il rispetto reciproco, che mi ha dato modo di apprendere tanto, a livello accademico quanto umano. Grazie per il supporto tecnico-scientifico, fondamentale nella fase di rielaborazione dati, nonché per le indicazioni ed i consigli.

Ancora ringrazio gli Architetti Arash Boostani e Cheima Azil, che hanno contribuito con il loro costante lavoro ad arricchire la mia ricerca, nonchè la Dott. ssa Elena Croci, Ufficiale della riserva selezionata dell’Esercito Italiano (2004-2006), per la massima disponibilità dimostratami e per il materiale fornitomi.

Ringrazio i miei genitori e mia sorella Ilaria, a cui dedico questa mia prima grande vittoria; ringrazio Stefano, fondamentale compagno di viaggio; ringrazio la mia famiglia e gli amici di sempre.

Grazie Firenze, città dove tutto ha avuto inizio: grazie per l’opportunità e per tutto ciò che ha contribuito alla mia crescita personale; grazie Herat, degna conclusione di un viaggio tortuoso e spesso in salita, ma ricco di soddisfazioni.

in copertina Top part of Fifht Minaret. Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul. Herat, Afghanistan,2021. (AKTC, Kabul).

progetto grafico

didacommunicationlab Dipartimento di Architettura Università degli Studi di Firenze Susanna Cerri Federica Giulivo

didapress Dipartimento di Architettura Università degli Studi di Firenze via della Mattonaia, 8 Firenze 50121 © 2022 ISBN 978-88-3338-170-1

Stampato su carta di pura cellulosa Fedrigoni Arcoset

alessia lico

The fifth Minaret of Herat (Afghanistan, 1432 d. C.) Knowledge path for a consolidation project

Preface

previous page Photo by Anne Marie Schwarzenbach.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1939.

(A. M. Schwarzenbach, SLASchwarzenbach-A-5-19- Maillart/Clarac I: Afghanistan, in Helvetic Archive, < https://www.helveticarchives.ch/detail. aspx?ID=204501> (1939-1940).

The present work of Alessia Lico is of extraordinary quality. The student, with a strong personality, immediately joined the DiDa team, involved in the Safeguarding Project of the Fifht Minaret of Herat, on behalf of the Aga Khan Cultural Service of Afghanistan, with which a solid collaboration has existed for some time.

As known, the problem of conservation and protection of ancient monuments in extreme condition of vulnerability, already challenging, is charged with further complexity when the historical and geographic context does not allow easy access to documentary sources and knowledge of the object to protect.

The Fifht Minaret of Herat immediately raised this problem, located in a distant country subject to great instability. It is a very intricate monument, so difficult to reach, and we know how important is the direct cognitive relationship. In this situation, the DiDa team was able to carry out a mission that allowed a fast analysis of the monument, the taking of samples, and the placement of a seismic monitoring network. The student was able to make the knowledge gained during this mission her own, by itegrating it with a complete immersion in historical and photographic documents and with reports produced by UNESCO in the last 40 years. The student followed the mechanical tests at the LPMS laboratory, with the same attention dedicated to the stories of Robert Byron about the Musalla Complex, reconnecting always technical and scientific information within a general overview sensitivity, which is a synthesis of science, history, matter and imagination. Several times, the student asked us to be allowed to go to Herat and only the dramatic situation of the country forced us to painful denial of her aspirations.

Alessia Lico is part of an extraordinary generation of students, indomitable scholars, curious, capable, inventive. She was among the first to partecipate in a workshop in Algeria discovering the constructive miracles that people of El Oued, in the middle of Sahara, have managed to create by covering their oasis with a thousand domes (using a local Desert Rose stone ).

Her work of thesis is a rare example of how 'knowledge path' for a project of consolidation is composed: the historical framework, the literature and iconographic sources, the studies about technical and constructive consistency, the damage survey and the degradation maps, the experimental investigations; last, a firts evaluation of the static of the building. The outcome of this path is the formulation of intervention hypotheses conceived and tailored according to compatibility with conservation criteria but animated with a strong interest in the protection of the heritage of a country that cannot forget its own history.

Luisa Rovero Giulia Misseri Ugo Tonietti Dipartimento di Architettura Università degli Studi di Firenze

5

Introduction

previous page Photo by Anne Marie Schwarzenbach.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1939.

(A. M. Schwarzenbach, SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-19Maillart/Clarac I: Afghanistan, in Helvetic Archive, < https://www.helveticarchives.ch/detail. aspx?ID=204501> (1939-1940).

The issue of safeguarding the built heritage – both in terms of protection and guardianship and as an effective restoration and consolidation intervention – has always represented, and represents today more than ever, a real and urgent focus, for many, a reason for debate. Preserving a historical artifact, allowing it to continue to carry out the task for which it was born, even if only at the level of image, means preserving and in some way handing down the culture and identity of people, a tradition of building, uses, customs, techniques, knowledge that does not belong to those who produced them but to the entire community. This is well known by Italy, which boasts a not indifferent heritage, a repertoire of the built based on scattered and spontaneous construction, rural villages that speak the language of brick, historicized over time, and not only. But what about those territories that lack their own cultural awareness and live, moreover, threatened by wars? “The safeguarding of all aspects of cultural heritage in this country, both tangible and intangible (museums, monuments, archeological sites, music, art and traditional craft) is of particular significance in terms of strengthening cultural identity and a sense of national integrity. Cultural heritage can become a subject of mu-

tual interest for former adversaries, enabling them to rebuild ties, to engage in dialogue and to work together in shaping a common future” (Manhart, 2004, p. 77).

A crucial node, a link between East and West, a land coveted and for this reason repeatedly devastated, Afghanistan has a history made of conquests, a crossroads of peoples, religions and dinastie that have contributed to the sedimentation of a rich and unique cultural baggage. A heritage in precarious balance between the challenge of reconstruction and conservation and the risk of imminent destruction: it seems, in fact, there is no place for art, declined in all its forms, in a place that speaks the language of arms. The destruction inflicted on the historical monuments of Herat represents a considerable and irreparabile loss; not only war, but carelessness, lack of interest and funds continue to be the main cause of all this. “Herat […] is […] a region gaining increasing importance in trade and communications between Central and South Asia. One of the objectives, and also one of the challenges which urban rehabilitation has to tackle, is the conservation of such historical and cultural wealth. Preserving the monuments of Herat, and ultimately the rest of Afghanistan, should be integrated in a general effort of recon-

struction” (Tirard-Collet, 1998, p.134).

In this regard, the safeguarding actions carried out by organizations and bodies interested in the protection, such as UNESCO and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, try to move the common conscience, aiming at building a better future by rediscovering a shared memory and saving what remains of the past. “[…] In ruined Afghanistan, the magnitude of the wartime devastation of various historical and archaeological sites-though not all of them at Soviet hands-has awakened renewed international concern. […] Time is fast running out, and it would be a tragedy to see the minarets of Herat which stoically survived the war disappear now just when they stand a chance of surviving” (Tirard-Collet, 1998, p. 134).

In view of this plan of interventions carried out since 1960 d. C. (1379 AH) on several occasions, the study on the 'Fifth Minaret' of Herat, part of the 'Musalla Complex', strongly desired

by Queen Gawhar Shad, wife of Shah Ruck, between 1417 d. C. and 1432 d. C. (819-835 AH) and later expanded by Sultan Hussain Baiqara, with the annexation of a second Madrasa. “Many minarets were lost in the past and the ones still existing are exposed to a serious risk of collapse for the seismic actions together with the effects of their

dangerous inclination and the deficient state of the masonry” (Macchi, 2005, p. 1376).

The fascinating and cryptic object, in fact, presents all the symptoms of having been abandoned to itself, to the passage of time and to adverse events, towards which, all in all, it has shown a fair level of resilience. An overall burdensome picture that deserves further study given the need for immediate long-term consolidation intervention, especially with respect to the important exit from the vertical that concerns it.

previous page Photo by Rolando Schinasi.

Bazar in Kabul.

Afghanistan, 1967.

(L. Cremonesi, Il mio Afghanistan, in Il Corriere, < https://reportage.corriere.it/esteri/2015/il-mioafghanistan/> (2022).

Photo by Rolando Schinasi. Little Bazar.

Afghanistan, 1957. (www.reportage.corriere.it).

(L. Cremonesi, Il mio Afghanistan, in Il Corriere, < https://reportage.corriere.it/esteri/2015/il-mioafghanistan/> (2022).

The following thesis work aims to support the studies on the object carried out so far, still in progress by the team of the Department of Architecture officially involved in the Safeguarding action. It is essentially divided into two parts: a first part of general framing and context, which places the object in relation to the place, to the eastern constructive culture and to what of the 'Complex', to date, can still be admired; a second part that goes into the specifics of the 'Fifth Minaret' and in which the results of the anamnesis are briefly reported, from historical and bibliographical research, to the architectural-critical-structural description, up to the characterization tests of the materials and static analysis of a simplified type, these fundamental premises to define, through an appropriate diagnosis, the future intervention plan.

“May this arrangement and composition remain for years (When) every small sign of us is dispersed. The purpose of this depiction is that (something) of us should remain because I do not consider (my) existence as permanent” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, pp.311-312).

General Framework

previous page Photo by Rolando Schinasi.

Watermelon market.

Afghanistan, 1967. (www.reportage.corriere.it).

Time Line VIII-VII century a. C.: born in Balkh, north of Afghanistan, Zoroaster, founder of the Mazdeist religion; 558-530 a.C.: Cyrus the Great conquers much of Afghanistan;

IV d. C.: invasion of the White Huns or Hephthalites, of nomadic origin; 642 d. C. (20 AH): the Arabs conquer Persia during the 'Battle of Nihavend'; the very rapid process of Islamization of Great Persia begins;

330 a.C.: Alexander the Great embarks on his ascent. The city of Aria, the Herat of that time, becomes Alexandra Ariana;

1150 d. C. (544 AH): in Herat, a city of prehistoric foundation, the Ghorid Kingdom was born, under the Samanids;

323 a.C.: Alexander the Great dies in Babylon. He was succeeded by the Seleucid Dynasty, a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled over the eastern part of the domains of the late king;

XI century. d. C.: the Turkmen and Seljuks, of Muslim faith, appear;

150 a. C.: the nomadic phenomenon begins; I-III century d. C.: to this period dates back to the dominion of the Kushian Dynasty, an important state entity at the center of the exchanges between East and West. It is with the above-mentioned dynasty that, in the figure of Kanishka, Afghanistan recognizes the Buddhist religion; 225 d. C.: Persian revolt with the Sassanid Dynasty (Second Persian Empire);

1221-1222 d. C. (538 AH): Ghengis Kahn, founder of the Mongol Empire, takes over, under which many cities, including Herat, are destroyed; 1271-1272 d. C. (629 AH): Marco Polo, towards China, crosses Afghanistan, an important hub between the western and eastern areas; 1381 d. C. (739 AH): Tamerlane conquers Herat, which becomes the cultural, artistic, economic, political capital, the main center for the Silk Road, the Oxiana, now liberated from the nomadic populations;

XV century d. d. C.: a period of great rebirth and cultural reconstruction begins with the Timurid family, the Medici d'Oriente; 1405 d. C. (807 AH): Tamerlane was succeeded by Shah Rukhuntil 1447 d.

C. (850 AH), which makes Herat the capital of the Timurid kingdom, transferring it from Samarkand. It was his wife, GawharShad, who started the design of new buildings, including, between 1417 and 1432 d. C. (819 -835 AH), the buildings constituting the 'Musalla Complex': Mausoleum dedicated to her, annexed to the Madrasa, or school, with the two angular Minarets and Mosque with the four angular Minarets; 1447d. C. (850 AH): the death of the sovereign was followed by twenty years of confusion and decline; 1467 d. C. (871 AH): becomes King Hussain Baiqara, who resumes the reconstruction in progress twenty years earlier and has a second Madrasa annexed to the 'MusallaComplex', with four angular Minarets (1493 d.C. – 898 AH); 1505 d. C. (910 AH): the sovereign dies;

1506 d. C. (911 AH): the city of Herat, under Uzbek rule with Shai Bani, recognizes a sudden decline; 1509 d. C. (914 AH): Shah Ismail's empire begins with the Safavid Dynasty; 1526 d. C. (932 AH): the territory is disputed between Safavids and Uzbeks; 1747 d. C. (1159 AH): Afghanistan becomes an Independent Kingdom, with its capital in Kandahar. We are witnessing the coronation of Ahmed Hah Durrani and the various multi-ethnic groups are subjected, for the first time, to a single political entity. The monarchy was born; 1772-1793 d. C. (1185- 1207 AH): the capital of Afghanistan becomes Kabul headed by King Timur; 1793 d. C. (1207 AH): struggle for the throne of Kabul (Persian Disputes); 1800 d. C. (1214 AH): the nineteenth century is the century of the 'Grand Tours' that interested artists, writers, and men of the European upper middle class. It is thanks to the descriptions and transcriptions published by these trips that it will then be possible to reconstruct the images of different buildings lost over the years;

1826 d. C. (1241 AH): Dost Mohammed ascends the throne with the title of Emir; 1838 d. C. (1253 AH): persian attacks begin; 1838-1842 d. C. (1253- 1257 AH): First Anglo-Afghan War, with the victory of the Afghans over the British army; 1845 d. C. (1260 AH): the result of the strugge is a situation of general decadence that characterizes the entire city; 1878-1880 d. C. (1294- 1297 AH): Second Anglo-Afghan War, with the subdivision of Afghanistan between Russians and British; 1885 d. C. (1302 AH): date that coincides with 'the Panjdeh Incident': the 'Musalla Complex' is razed to the ground, under the satisfied gaze of the English army that incites in the wicked gesture the Emir Abdur Rahman Khan,fearing the Soviet attacks that

will come only a century later; a pretext that arises to prevent, therefore, the Russians from using the buildings as a cover. Survivors are only the 10 Minarets and the Mausoleum of Queen GawharShad; 1913 d. C. (1331 AH): Third Anglo-Afghan War; 1919 d. C. (1337 AH): the date marks independence from the English with the 'Treaty of Rawalpindi'; 1921 d. C. (1339 AH): the date marks the alliance agreement with the Russian people. The 'Complex' loses one of the four Minarets annexed to the Musalla of GawharShad, due to natural disaster (earthquake); 1925 d. C. (1343 AH): a brick and mortar base is annexed to the 'Fifth Minaret', to improve its stability;

1929 d. C. (1347 AH): Nadir Khan, a Pashtun, who is assassinated and succeeded in 1933 d. C. (1351 AH) by Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose rule persists until 1973 d. C. (1392 AH); 1932 d. C. (1350 AH): the Complex, undermined by the surrounding conditions (wars and natural disasters), loses two other Minarets annexed to the Musalla; 1933 d. C. (1351 AH): it is the year in which Robert Byron embarks on his journey to Oxiana, from which he returns reporting a series of images and descriptions of Herat and the 'Complex' itself; 1943 d. C. (1361 AH): Daud becomes Prime Minister; 1946 d. C. (1365 AH): the University in Kabul is born;

1947 d. C. (1366 AH): from the partition of India comes Pakistan. The Afghan claims on Pashtunistan have also begun; 1950 d. C. (1369 AH): the Mausoleum, part of the 'Musalla Complex', completely damaged, is restored in a completely new light; 1965 d. C. (1384 AH): following the elections, a first form of Democracy was born; 1973 d. C. (1392 AH): through a coup d'état the monarchy is abolished and the First Republic is founded, which in 1978 d. C. (1397 AH) becomes the First Democratic Republic of Afghanistan following the coup d'état by the Democratic Party of Afghanistan; 1975 d. C. (1394 AH): compared to the discomfort and degradation of previous years, restoration operations are undertaken on the main monuments ('Citadel' and 'Hussain Baiqara Complex'), this until 1979 d. C. (1398 AH);

previous page Citadel, Ikhtiyar al- Din. Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

1979 d. C. (1398 AH): The pro-communistDemocratic Party is opposed by the movement of the 'Mujahideen', opponents of the Islamic religion, supported by the United States. The Soviet invasion then begins. The complex is flanked by the long main avenue, one of the probable causes of instability for the 'Fifth Minaret', whose situation was stable at least until 1975 d. C. (1394 AH); 1982 d. C. (1402 AH): a seismic event is recorded 30 km from the city of Herat; 1983 d. C. (1403 AH): russian bombing took place until 1989 d. C. (1408 AH).

The 'Complex' does not remain unscathed: in 1984-1985 d. C. (1404- 1405 AH) the Mausoleum is severely affected, losing the last traces that allowed a glimpse of the old connection with the Madrasa; the last surviving Minaret (M6), part of the ancient Mosque, was almost completely razed to the ground (h. 12.00 m at present); of the Fifth Minaret, part of the Madrasa, the supports of the balcony are destroyed, in addition, a grenade, due to the opening of a hole, exposing the internal staircase; 1990 d. C. (1410 AH): a seismic event is recorded 70 km from the city of Herat;

1992 d. C. (1412 AH): the 'Mujahideen' enter Kabul, the Islamic Republic was born and several internal fights for control of the capital occur; a key component in the expulsion of the Soviets and in the constant opposition to the Taliban is the Tajiks, coming from the Panshir valleys, led by the charismatic Massud; 1994 d. C. (1414 AH): the Taliban take over with Osama bin Laden, who occupy a large part of the country, supported in this first phase by the United States, which occupy the country by imposing Sharia and leading to the development of terrorism in the figure of Osama bin Laden; 1996 d. C. (1416 AH): the Taliban conquer Kabul and begin a policy of terrorism; 1998 d. C. (1418 AH): relations with the United States are broken, and an attack on the regime of Osama Bin Laden occurs; 2001 d. C. (1421 AH): the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan dates back to February and the fall of the Twin Towers in September of the same year; Massud is assassinated by the Taliban shortly before the attack in New York; 2001 d. C. (1421 AH): The US army undertakes Operation 'Enduring Freedom' against the 'Taliban', after the attack on the Twin Towers, the first act of the battle against terrorism. The American occupation will continue until 2021 d.C. (1442 AH);

2002 d. C. (1422 AH): in a safeguard framework, UNESCO promotes a series of preparatory campaigns (months of March and November) in order to implement conservation measures to protect the Fifth Minaret and other monuments of the city (see Minaret of Jam). The expedition of Marco Menegotti dates back to March 2002 d. C. (1422 AH). As well as the first geological and structural studies.

The 'Musalla Complex' presents itself with its six surviving Minarets and the Mausoleum of GawharShad, restored and therefore completely different from the original; 2002 d. C. (1422 AH): November. A second expedition to Herat is organized, with the aim of creating a picture of the state of conservation of the 'Fifth Minaret'. We proceed to the photogrammetric survey and the study in section of the inclination of the main axis; 2003 d. C. (1423 AH): July-September.

Consolidation work begins by the team of Andrea Bruno and Giorgio Macchi, whose operations are implemented by ALGA (Alberto Lodigiani), through the construction of steel support cables; 2006 d. C. (1426 AH): June-August.

Andrea Bruno continues his studies: compared to the surveys of 4 years before, there are no increases in inclination, this thanks to the safeguard system undertaken. Important considerations are carried out on the state of the foundations; 2004-2007 d. C. (1424- 1427 AH): several seismic events are recorded not far from the city of Herat;

2010 d. C. (1431 AH): September. Important studies are carried out on the ground by the geologist Claudio Margottini and the Afghan Omran Sharaf; the hole caused by the war missile during the Soviet attacks is healed; Alberto Lodigiani continues to deal with the structural aspect; 2011 d. C. (1432 AH): important interventions are carried out on the steel cables, installed in 2003 d. C. (1423 AH); 2012 d. C. (1433 AH): We begin to think about necessary long-term conservation proposals for the 'Fifth Minaret'. Six long-term project proposals are presented at the 'Third Meeting' in Turin; 2013 d. C. (1434 AH): a second phase has begun to implement long-term solutions for the conservation of the 'Fifth Minaret'; 2016 d. C. (1437 AH): we intervene with a program of consolidation of the base of 1925 d. C. (1343 AH), according to an action plan that provides for monitoring the 'Fifth Minaret', cleaning of the pre-existence with respect to debris and rubble accumulated over time, restoration of the missing parts.

The remaining decorative elements are also consolidated; 2021 d. C. (1442 AH): Definition of the Agreement between Aga Khan Cultural Service-Afghanistan and DIDA dedicated to the Safeguarding and Conservation of the 'Fifth Minaret' of Herat ('MusallaComplex').

The Musalla Complex

previous page Musalla Complex.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1915.

Origins and development “Described by the French traveller Ferrier in 1845 as “the most important and the most elegant construction to be seen in the whole of Asia”, the site of the musalla is of outstanding interest both for its architectural quality and from the standpoint of the history of the region. History, indeedm never spared it” (Tirard-Collet, 1998, p. 128). Built along the avenue Khiyaban, “[…] in past […] called ‘idgah of Herat, where the people gathered on the great religious festivals for open-air prayer […]” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, p. 302), south of the Enjil canal, in a fairly profitable area, the 'Complex' in its system of architecture reflected the wishes of different Timurid rulers who succede each other over the years. “The founding act of the complex is recorded by an engraving on sculpted marble, in an elegant thuluth calligraphy, on four registers (today kept in the National Museum of Herat). […] The text establishes that the foundation, which began on the 27th day of the month of Ramadhan 820/7 November 1417 in the reign of Shah Rukh and at the instigation of Gaw har Shad, and was finished in the year 841/1437-1438” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 64). The first two buildings, positioned to the south, were built under the direction

of Queen Gawhar Shad, “[…] as a major patron of architecture” (Manz, 2002), wife of the ruler Shah Rukh, reigning from 1405 d. C. to 1447 d. C. (807 AH850 AH). Woman of power, charming and quite influential, unusual fact for the context and the period considered, for this reason she is counted among the most extraordinary women in Afghan history, patron of the arts, promoter of some of the best Islamic monuments, also active in the political sphere. “[…] I feel some curiosity about Gohar Shad, not on account of her piety in endowing religious foundations, but as a woman of artistic instinct. Either she had that instinct, or she knew how to employ people who had it. This shows characters. And besides this, she was rich. Taste, character and riches mean power, and powerfu women, apart from charmers, are not common in Mohammadan history” (Byron, 1937, p. 101); “[…] Stories of Gohar Shad were still common talk here in the last century. It is not her beauty these stories recount; still less her patronage of the arts. To the people of Herat, who knew her for sixty years, she was a personality, the versatility of her life and the violence of her death made her the type of her age. […] One thinks of our own queens […] women of this kind are rare in Mohammadan annals. […] Mohan Lal heard her still described, four

hundred years later, as ‘the most incomparable woman in the world’” (Byron, 1937, p. 252). Made between 1417 d.C. and 1432 d. C. (819 -835 AH), by the then famous Persian architect Qavam Al-Din b. Zayn Al-Din Shirazi, they are the Madrasa, with the two angular Minarets, of which today only the left Minaret remains if we think of looking at the building from the main façade, and, further south-west, the Mosque, with the four angular Minarets, of which only one remains, partly also destroyed by Soviet artillery. The four Minarets positioned north-east of the rest, still visible, were part of the Madrasa erected in 1493 d.C. (898 AH) at the behest of Sultan Hussain Baiqara; the last building built is the Mausoleum of Ali Shir Nawa, a pupil of the sultan and his faithful servant of war. “[…] Unlike Gohar Shad, Hussein Baikara is more than a name. His body at least is familiar. Bihzard drew it. […]

He was also a poet, but published his verses anonymously. To meet he was cheerful and pleasant. […] The humanism of that age was the model of his life. His achievement in history was to replant it, and leave descendants to cherish it, amid the drab heats and uncouth multitudes of Hindostan” (Byron, 1937, p. 102). The two 'Complexes' were independent of each other, as well as physically separated by the

same channel; the name 'Musalla' (in Arabic 'idgah, name that in the past identified the district) has remained in use in the common jargon to identify the entire complex of buildings, but in terms of meaning it could refer only to the Mosque, being the Musalla a place dedicated to prayer. Consequently, it would be correct to refer to the buildings distinguishing between those belonging to the 'Gawhar Shad Complex' and those belonging to the 'Sultan Hussain Baiqara Complex'. A reliable and brilliant reconstruction of the site by Eric Schroeder gives us an awareness of what it must have looked like before the destruction. To the neglect and abandonment that weigh on the state of conservation over time of the same, is added, in fact, in 1885 d. C. (1302 AH) the decision by Emir Amir 'Abd ar-Rahman, supported by the British, to tear down the monuments, as a precautionary measure in view of a dreaded Russian invasion. “[…] Fraser-Tyler writes briefly: ‘Permission to enter the city of Herat and examine the fortifications was received from the Amir, the British party was received with honour, and their report, which included the recommendation that the famous Musalla of Gawhar Shad should be destroyed, showed that a month’s wor would render Herat defensible’” (Caroe, 1973, p.

296). Survivors of the wicked decision, as (theoretically) precautionary action with respect to a hypothetical use of the Complex as an enemy defensive base, are only the 10 Minarets and the Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad. The intervention of man is not the only one to cause the progressive collapse of what had resisted: following a series of natural disasters, other Minarets collapse, and the images and descriptions of the nineties show a Complex characterized by only six Minarets, from the Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad, and the small Mausoleum of Ali Shir Nawa, rebuilt in 1950 d. C. (1360 AH), in accordance with what is reported

by Pagliero (Pagliero, 1986, p. 45), detached from the general architectural context, as isolated from each other, conformation that can still be read

today. “What has happened to these buildings? Things on this scale may fall down, but they leave some ruin. They don’t vanish of their own accord without trace or clue, as these have done. It is a miserable story […]” (Byron, 1937, p. 98). The studies and restoration work undertaken by UNESCO in 1976 d.

C. (1386 AH), on an operational project by the architect Andrea Bruno, suffered an arrest in 1979 d. C. (1389 AH) following the armed conflict and the Soviet invasion, which created many problems. The outbreak of the civil war, the arrival of the 'Taliban', were some of the events that were added to a fairly burden some picture: consequently, the intervention program, which initially provided for the consolidation of the decorative apparatus of the monuments, in order to protect

the internal masonry from mechanical erosion caused largely by the wind, was resumed and immediately abandoned around 1988 d. C. (1398 AH).

The idea of constituting a reasoned inventory of monuments, archaeological sites and objects of cultural and scientific value was never completed, which is why the bibliography available is sometimes rather sparse and contradictory; nevertheless, it is possible to say that after first careful analysis and studies small repairs were carried out between 1992 d. C. and 1994 d. C. (1412-1416 AH), while the real conservation plan, dated to 2002 d. C. (1422 AH), provided for the restoration of the garden, the construction of walls to protect the remaining monuments and, above all, interventions to safeguard and secure the 'Fifth Minaret',

the servivo belonging to the Madrasah of GawharShad, among all certainly the most affected. […] among these buildings, which are known comprehensively as the Musalla, I spend nearly all my time, so long as daylight lasted. Architecture of such beauty I had never seen. […] I think that anything in Islam, not even the mosque of Gawhar Shad in Meshed, can be found to compare with the quality of their decorations. They are only a ghost of the splendour that once was. But even in ruin their beauty is incomparable.

(R. Byron, 1993)

previous page Musalla Complex. Aerial Photo.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2004. (www.googleearth.it).

Architectural Description After clarifying in broad terms what was the historical development of the 'Complex' and the events that directly affected it, we proceed with a more detailed description of the monuments taken individually. The architectural description will take into account how the objects had to look when the construction was finished, up to their current state.

Gawhar Shad Mosque Construction work on the 'GawharShadComplex' began in 1417 d.

C. (819 AH) and lasted for almost twenty years, until 1432 d. C. (835 AH). The inauguration of the Complex is given to 1438 d. C. (841 AH), nevertheless, the buildings were already in use years before. The Mosque of GawharShad or Musallamasjid-i jami was the last building to be finished: this is testified by an engraving on marble in which the date of inauguration (1435 d.C. – 838 AH) is reported, three years after the completion of the Madrasa. “Of the mosque of Gawhar Shad, all that remains today are the base of one minaret and a group of descriptions dating from the nineteenth century, at which time the complex was already severely dilapidated” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 66). Thanks to these descriptions it is possible to return an image of how the building must have looked: rectangular plan with four 'Iwan', dimensions 110.00 x 64.00 m, oriented east-west; 'Iwan' of the main façade characterized by entrance pishtaq, large portal “[…] of some 80 feet in height” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, p.

305). “The entrance was embellished with glazed tiles of lapis colour in a beautiful inscription written (in Arabic) by Hakim Ja’far: the elevation of this vault (taq) which falls short (only) of the dimensions of the limit of limits, (occurred) in the days of the rule of the Sultan, son of the Sultan, Shah

Rukh Bahadur, under the supervision of the Queen of the Age, Gauhar Shad Agha, may her reign be long” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 103). In axis with respect to the entrance, the hexagonal sanctuary with a dome with a diameter of 25.00 m that acts as a vestibule to connect the different environments: “[…] four doors opened from this vestibule, one to the iwan on the court, one to the winter masjid on the south, one to a passageway to the mausoleum on the north, and the last to the entrance portal to the east. It is difficult to imagine how four such doors could be arranged in an hexagonal space, thus one has reason to doubt the accurancy of this detail” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 103). Finally, the 'courtyard', on the 50.00 m side, characterized by perimeter arches and two access ramps to small raised rooms. After passing the 'court', to the east, a large 'Iwan' gives access to a major chapel, followed by a smaller chapel; compared to this layout, the presence is highlighted by the presence, on each side, of two hypostyle-rectangular prayer rooms. The spatial layout takes up the typical features of Timurid architecture, with some exceptions: unusual is the placement of a smaller room attached to the main sanctuary, which suggests a probable dual function to which the building had to respond, that of Mosque and Mausoleum. The ruins post destruction of 1885 d. C. (1404 AH) were used for years as an outdoor Madrasa, but what remains visible of the building today is the stump of the Minaret that marked the north-west corner, identified as the Sixth Minaret (M6), hit and only partially escaped the Soviet artillery. “In point of decoration Minarets are generally the least elaborate parts of buildings. If the mosaic of the rest of the musalla surpassed or even equalled what survives today, there was never such a mosque be-

fore or since” (Byron, 1937, p. 100). So Robert Byron begins at the sight of the few decorative elements visible on the base of the Sixth Minaret: tantalizing fragments of white marble and mosaic tiles, this is what remains and that allows us to imagine in broad terms how the decoration of the Mosque of Gawhar Shad itself must have looked like.

The Madrasah of Gawhar Shad “Although the Madrasa is often mentioned in the textual sources in reference to the many burials that took place there, its space is never described as precisely as that of the mosque. But the monument built by Gawhar Shad apparently had a similar layout to that of the mosque” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 67). The rectangular building, like the EastWest Oriented Mosque, opened with a large access 'pishtaq' on the east façade and two angular Minarets, of which only the left one remains visible today, the 'Fifth Minaret', the subject of the present study. Thanks to the position of the same and a study on the foundations it was possible to reconstruct a plausible image of the building that had to have dimensions of about 83.00 m for the extended side in an east-west direction and 60.00 m for the north-south side. Of the central 'court' of four 'Iwan' there is no trace left: the only element that has resisted time, although the subject of restoration work over the years that have completely changed its appearance, is the Mausoleum, in a north-west position with respect to the planimetric layout. the traces of imposition of the walls of the Madrasa are visible: “[…] the point of departure of the four barrel arches, separated by transvers earches, was still visible on the eastern wall, and the scars from the removal of the southern structure could also be observed” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmien-

to, 2020, p. 68). A chapel similar to the Mausoleum must also have been located on the opposite corner, in accordance with the principles of symmetry of Timurid architecture. Overall, little information is available, however, the legacy of Siraj al-Din makes it possible to have a perception of what the external decoration must have looked like “[…] with seven-colour glazed tiles (kashiha-i haft rang) […] suls inscriptions. […] On the inside […] with plaster muqarnas and designs in blue and gold colour, and lapis colour. […] Water was brought from the Jui-i Injil by means of a pipe. On the interior of the external portal vault of the Madrasa a large piece of marble was erected, which bore the following in tall suls script, […] written by Jalal Ja’far” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p.

103).

The Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad In the north-west position, the Mausoleum was built with the intention of preserving the remains of Prince Baysunghur, son of the ruler Shah Rukh, eventually hosting the bodies of several members of the family, including Queen Gawhar Shad herself who had it strongly wanted. Currently, little is known about the actual number of burials that the Mausoleum hosted over the centuries, and of the twenty tombstones that the bibliographic sources report, currently remain “[…] six tombstones lying scatterd about, all of black marble engraved in Arabic in he Khat-i-Suls Characteer” (Yate, 1926, p. 291), two of which are larger, three smaller cenotaphs, and a childsized plaque. Cruciform in shape, characteristic and renowned is the dome that covers the central space, a manifesto par excellence of Timurid decorative art. These are three superimposed structures: an external dome in the shape of a bulb, a lower internal one and a dome with a structur-

al function between the two. The first is decorated with floral mosaics and ribs, in shades of blue-green, therefore known as 'the green dome' or 'organ pipe'; the internal one takes up the motif of the 'muqarnas', decorated with lapis lazuli and gold leaf, to create intricate motifs. The decorative richness of the roof is contrasted by the simple cladding of the walls, almost as if to symbolically want to recreate an ascending climax from the bottom up, passing through the drum element, connecting the parts. “[…] Conceptualising and realising this decoration necessarily required a certain level of competence in architectural matters because the layout of the decoration and of the structure itself are intrinsically linked. The question of how tasks were shared between the architect and the designer thus arises.

We must keep in mind that this covering structure is above all ornamental” (Aube, Loiran, Sarmiento, 2020, p.

68). Similar decoration found earlier in the 'Ghiyathiyya Madrasa' in Khargird, in correspondence with the hall north of the entrance vestibule. “The present day external appearance of the mausoleum is largely the result of a reinterpretation by the restorers who worked on the structure in the 1950s” (Aube, Loiran, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 68): severely damaged by the passage of time, adverse events and human neglect, in fact, the Mausoleum is subject to restoration in 1950 AD. C. (1369 AH) which totally changes its layout and image. Today the structure appears to have a regular shape, contrary to how it should have been originally, having to adapt to the court of the Madrasa; the hexagonal 'mihrab' is replaced by a rectangular one and the eastern façade appears profoundly modified, compared to the north and west elevations, on which it is still possible to read the typical banna'i brick decoration, which probably also char-

acterized the 'internal. “[…] This monument with its grand cupola, a colourful exterior and an exquisite interior decoration and Minarets N. 5th and 6th are the sole relics of what must have been a truly impressive ensemble” (Aube, Loiran, Sarmiento, 2020, p.105). Smaller, and later, is the Ali Shir Nawa Mausoleum; in a north-eastern position with respect to the Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad, it consists of exposed brick masonry and a white alcove, surrounding the entrance. This too, victim of events, was restored in 1950 d. C. (1369 AH).

The Madrasah of Hussain Baiqara Built in 1493 d.C. (898 AH), “[…] formed the 50 years older counterpart to the Gawhar Shad ensemble” Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 105). Attached to it, in a central position with respect to the two Minarets to the west, the presence of a probable Mausoleum is highlighted by an excavation in which the remains of tombstones and brick walls can be distinguished, which still show parts of decoration. Furthermore, sources reveal that “[…] Babur came to the site in the 912 and wrote as follows: ‘… my parental aunts were at this time in the college of Sultan Hussain Mirza. When I went to see them they were all in Mizra’s Mausoleum.’ The mausoleum was in the madrasah, just as the mausoleum of Gawhar Shad was within one of her major structures” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, p. 314). What remains of it, like Yate himself in 1887 d. C. (1304 AH) wrote, there are two arches and the Four Minarets, thanks to whose position it was possible to obtain the measurements of the sides of the 122.50 m x 100.00 m, although studies have shown their imperfect regularity.

In general, little information has been received on the layout: in addition to the vaulted Mausoleum attached to it, the presence of the 'khaneqah', a

room for devotees and prayer, is noted; in addition, the watercourse, deviated by the 'Injil Canal', which crossed the same building, dividing it with respect to its central axis, was characteristic. “For Ferrier it was “the most imposing and elegant structure that he saw in Asia. […] Notable is the reference to “designs of painstaking elegance, including inlays, glazed and gilded tiles, some with signatures of the designer, if they indeed refer to this complex” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 105). Precisely because of the refined elaboration, more elaborate than that pertaining to the Four Minarets, the decoration is associated with that which characterized the buildings of the 'Gawhar Shad Complex'. Here too, the mosaic motif echoed, the combination of string course marble with tiles and glazed bricks, as well as the theme of the eight-pointed star and a color palette that ranged from dark blue, to black, to yellow and green. Both classrooms, the Madrasa and the Mausoleum, probably had to be vaulted and decorated with gilded bricks and glazed tiles in shades of blue; “[…] The notes by Siraj al-Din Saljuqi on a tomb (maqbara) are interesting since its remains are exposed today: “On the west side (of the courtyard) there was a large arcade, and (it was) of greatest height. Behind the arcade was a large dome and the grave of Sultan Hussain and several other graves of his offsprings and royal relatives were to be seen in that building.” According to Golombek and Wilber the tombstones were later dispersed in various shrines of the musalla” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 105).

Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad and Fifht Minaret.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1933.

Minarets of Madrasah of Hussain Baiqara.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1933.

Minarets Of the ten Minarets that characterized the entire 'Musalla Complex', four belonging to the Gawhr Shad Mosque, two belonging to the Gawhar Shad Madrasa and four to the Hussain Baiqara Madrasa, due to natural disasters, wars and neglect, it is possible, to date, admire six of them, and certainly not how they should have looked when they were made. In 1933 d. C. (1351 AH), during his journey, Robert Byron wrote: “All the minarets are between 100 and 130 feet high. They lean at various angles; their tops are broken their bases twisted and eaten away.

The furthest distance between them, stretching from west- south- west is about a quarter of a mile. The two on the west are fatter than the others but like the four on the east have one balcony each” (Byron, 1937, p. 97). We know that, although survivors of the 'Panjdeh Incident' in 1885 d. C. (1302 AH), began to collapse, one by one, over the years; in the description, Robert Byron cites only seven Minarets, most likely the four belonging to the Hussain Baiqara Madrasa, the Fifth Minaret annexed to the Gawhar Shad Madrasa, visible today, and the two survivors belonging to the Gawhr Shad Mosque, of which the one in the northwest position remains, and only partially. “[…] minarets are adorned with such fabulous richness and subtle test that no other in Islam can equal them. […] no photograph, nor any description, can convey their colour of grapeblue with an azure bloom, or the intricate convolutions that make it so deep and luminous” (Byron, 1937, p. 99). This is how Diez described the six Minarets belonging to the Gawhar Shad Complex, annexed to the Gawhar Shad Madrasa and the Gawhr Shad Mosque.

And if we will deal with the 'Fifth Minaret' in the following chapters, entering more specifically, let us now consider the Sixth Minaret, or rather what

remains of it. These marked the northwest corner of the mosque, consisted of a dodecagonal base with a long tapered shaft, internal staircase, which was accessed through a portal, oriented south-east, pointed arch placed at the height of the top of the surrounding walls of the building. The staircase gave access to a balcony, from which the 'muezzin', traditionally, could call to prayer, resting on a shelf with 'muqarnas' decoration. During the Russian bombing the Minaret was seriously hit, and in its 37.00 m it is now visible for 1/3 of its height; nevertheless, several studies have succeeded in demonstrating the presence of a second balcony, as in the 'Fifth Minaret' with which it shares several common characteristics (probably because the architect was the same for both), as well as reconstructing the extraordinary variety of the decoration, to which it owes the credit for being considered among the highest examples of Islamic architecture. In particular: “[…] the coverings of minaret M6 have nearly all fallen, carrying with them the last vestiges of the decoration of the mosque” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 69).

The Sixth Minaret had to appear completely covered, except for the portion where the wall of the mosque was inserted; the drawings and transcriptions allow you to recreate the image, distinguish and describe the different techniques used, such as “[…] cuttile mosaics, marbles, mono-chrome tiles and underglazed painted ceramics” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p.

69). The sections, raised, were marked by bands in white marble, partly visible today, along with pieces of glazed face-to-face bricks. The mosaic technique was certainly the master, as demonstrated by the fragments, now preserved at the National Museum of Kabul, found at the base of the same: an extremely sophisticated decoration, characterized by a wide chro-

matic scale, plant ornaments and 'kufiche' writings. Historiography and photographic sources make itpossible to make a precise description by areas, starting from the bottom, where the dodecagonal stem of the Minaret reported decorative panels bordered with vegetable friezes, and then separated by mosaic columns; going up, the theme of the eight-pointed star, outlined by marble edges, to create a dialogue between the two different materials. The passage between these two decorative areas was marked by a high double inscription, of whichonly a fewtracesremaintoday: a large panel on which 'thuluth' characters appeared in white. The distintive mosaic with cut and enamelled cobalt tiles on a white background, 'blue-and-white tiles', was rare in Iranian and Asian architecture of the period, “[…] the closest stylistic comparisons with these wall coverings can be found on the walls of the Ishrat-Khana Mausoleum in Samarkand, and even more so in Gawhar Shad’s Masjid-i Jami in Mashhad” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 72). Another innovation is the use of white-range chromatic relief tiles, an unusual use for tymuride architecture: “Wall coverings similar to those from Herat were found inthe neighbouring complex built in the 890s/1485– 1495 by the Timurid Sultan Husayn.

We can assume that the Gawhar Shad Mosque probably inspired designers from the period of Sultan Husayn” (Aube, Lorain, Sarmiento, 2020, p. 72).

“Four minarets remain, near the bridge over a winding canal. […] These mark the corners of the College of Hussain Baiqara” (Byron, 1937, p. 101). The Four surviving Minarets do not appear today as they once were: the crowning has collapsed, consequently the heights do not correspond to the original one of about 70.00 m. Escaped the crazy gesture of 1885 d. C. (1302 AH), were included in the restoration

and consolidation program of 1975 d.

C. (1394 AH), an opportunity to carry out surveys on the ground and foundations, consisting of an underground cylinder, diameter 11.00 m, in irregular stones tied with lime mortar and ashes, for a depth of -10.00 m with respect to the decking; an above-ground cylinder, diameter 7.00 m, has a height of 15 m, consisting of a solid brick masonry, on which stands the real Minaret, with the internal helical staircase and the external polychromatic moldings.

Due to the loss of most of the mosaics that made up the decoration, the image of the minarets to date has totally changed: “[…] M1 keeps a slim vertical line of its original faience decoration.

Fragments of an inscription are present just above its base. […] Fragments of an inscription are present just above its base. A narrow vertical strip of tile work on M2 is also preserved in the south of the trunk. […] A dark blue kufic inscription in a turquoise ring is visible on the south and almost intact on the east side” (Franke, Urban, Khairzade, 2020, p. 130). The Minarets M3 and M4 are those that, at present, report the worst conditions, being in the mined area: despite all presenting an important deviation of the axis with respect to the vertical, M3 already in 1975 d. C. (1394 AH) shows a critical static condition, while M4 the worst state of conservation: in addition to several holes that affect it has masonry, it has in fact lost much of the decoration that leaves the load-bearing masonry uncovered.

Mosque of Gawhar Shad, from southest. Engraving by Holdich, 1885.

(Illustrated London News 1863).

The Musallah and Tomb of Sultan Shah Rukh, from south.

Engraving by Holdich, 1885.

(Illustrated London News 1863).

previous page Muqarnas of Fifht Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

History and interventions Approaching a building by looking at its history means investigating how, when, where and why it was built.

To the overall picture is added, and in terms of importance we could say precedes, the what in terms of events that occurred over time that led the object to assume that given conformation at the time of analysis. Starting from the concrete object, the historical analysis allows to ansie certain questions, directing in some way the subsequent analyzes, but this only in relation to how much and what of the story the examine rwill be able to read and absorb. Considering the historical events thathavetaken place and thathavedirectlyconcerned the 'Fifth Minaret', means, therefore, in some way seeking, and perhaps finding, answers with respect to the reason for the current condition.

“Next, on the east of the Mausoleum, stands the solitary minarets with two balconies. The origin of this baffles me. Its ornament of blue lozenges, jewelled with flowers but separated by plain brickwork, is not to be compared with that of the Musalla minarets. Perhaps it was part of Gohar Shad’s College. A college would naturally be more sober than a mosque” (Byron, 1937, p. 101).

Architectural and constructive consistency of the Fifth Minaret

The 42.00 m tower is the only surviving of the two that framed the main façade east of the Gawhar Shad Madrasah. Like the rest of the buildings that make up the entire Complex, it was a victim of the passage of time and adverse situations that occurred with the end of the Timurid dynasty and the succession of a general decay and degradation that affected the entire city of Herat. A greater aggravation is recorded when, to the neglect of man with consequent obsolescence of the buildings, the Persian and British attacks are added. Escaped the crazy destructive gesture, of which the other monuments were victims, in 1885 d. C. (1302 AH), while demonstrating high resistance and resilience with respect to natural disasters, such as earthquakes, which result in the loss of three of the Minarets of the Mosque, one in 1921 d. C.(1339 AH) and two more in 1932 d. C. (1350 AH), begins to show the first signs of failure that lead to the annexation of a brick base, with a diameter of 6.00 m, in 1925 d. C. (1343 AH). The situation, given what we learn from the bibliography and historical photographs, is still said to be stable, at least until 1975 d. C. (1394 AH): “[…] It is not clear the reason for the present tilt of the tower. […] The evolution in time of the tilt of the tower may help in understand

the reason for such process. According to the very few available information and photos it is possible to say that the out-of-plumb was only 0.90 m in 1974. […] The historical photos collected for the site, thanking to kind availability of the director of Monuments in Herat, show a Minareth almost stable in the period 1915 – 1975 and only later with an evident out-of-plumbe” (Margottini, 2010, p. 4). The worsening of the conditions is attributable to a series of unfortunate events that begin to follow one another starting from 1979 d. C. (1398 AH): this is the date that marks the Soviet occupation, with the construction of the main road, along the Complex. Between 1984 d. C. and 1985 d. C. (1404- 1405 AH), during one of the many episodes of bombing, the Minaret is hit by a grenade, which causes an important hole; Meanwhile, a couple of earthquakes affect cities not too far from Herat, one in 1982 d. C. (1402 AH), one in 1990 d. C. (1410 AH); and again, several floods affect the area, due to overflowing of the river 'Hari Rud', resulting in the imbibition of the soil. All this means that, from an outof-lead of 0.90 m recorded to 1975 d. C. (1394 AH), we pass to have, in 2002 d.

C. (1422 AH), an off-axis of about 2.40 m. Intervening with a safety operation becomes a must: after studies on the state of conservation of the object car-

ried out in the same year, following the shipments of Marco Menegotti, “[…] in order to ensure a short term conservation of the Minareth, an emergency intervention was implemented in 2003

by ALGA (Ing. Alberto Lodigiani) under the project and supervision of Prof.

Giorgio Macchi. The emergency securing was obtained by means of simple steel stays anchored to concrete blocks poured in the natural soil (out of any remains), avoiding in this way the necessity of driving ile sas fixed points.

The proposal was conceived in such a way to use only means available on site for the anchoring to the soil, and steel cables sent from Italy. […] The concrete blocks, built by local workers, were embedded in the soil at a distance of 25 m from the basis of the tower. The centers of the blocks were placed on two axes 15° far from the maximum lean plane in order to secure the tower for an angle of 30°. In each block 4 steel pipes were embedded in the concrete in order to accommodate 4 stays and their anchorages. Each stay was made with a single 0.6” strand of galvanised high tensile steel. […] The strand application was performed in two weeks by a single technician sent there by ALGA and supported by local workmanship […]” (Margottini, 2010, p. 7). Nevertheless, the speed, simplicity and efficiency of the system do not neces-

sarily presuppose long-term infallibility: structural and geological studies continue, carried out by Andrea Bruno, and a few years later by the architect Claudio Margottini and the Afghan Omran Sharaf; in 2010 d. C. (1431 AH) the hole caused by the war missile ishealed and in 2011 d. C. (1432 AH), following a re-tensioning of the steel cables, we begin to think about necessary proposals for long-term conservation. Especially, “[…] Ziegert Seiler Ingeneure GmbH also conducted an unprecedented structural analysis of the structure and […] produced two proposals, entitled Support by means of Masonry Buttresses and Two-step Straightening Procedure. On the other hand, Engineer Lodigiani also drew up four proposals for the structure’s long term stabilization and conservation. All of the six proposals were presented during the Third Expert Working Group Meeting for the Old city of Herat and the Archaeological Remains of Jam World Heritage property held in Turin” (Han, et al., 2015, p. 57). In 2016 d. C. (1437 AH) restoration operations were carried out on the base and consolidation of the decorative elements at risk; in general, to date, having read what has been done previously, the will is to carry out an intervention plan that is as suitable and coherent as possible.

The present thesis work – following the assignment assigned to the team of the Department of Architecture of the University of Florence, long engaged in the protection of Afghan Heritage, by the Aga Khan Cultural Service-Afghanistan, urged by the Afghan Government (now disappeared) to proceed with an urgent safety of the monument – supports the studies conducted by the DiDa team, with a view to long-term stabilization “[…] to ensure that the Fifth Minaret of Herat remains a towering example of Afghanistan’s rich cultural heritage” (Han, et al., 2015, p. 57).

Relief and representation of the monument Knowing in depth the object of study is a fundamental prerogative to proceed with targeted, coherent and non-arbitrary interventions. The 'simple' process of observation, which then leads to advancing hypotheses and considerations, represents an essential and insidious step. The artifact, in fact, looks like a palimpsest, able to tell about itself and its vicissitudes. it is up to the observer to grasp certain signals, to understand their true meaning and to give the right interpretation, but this is an act, by its very nature, subjective, linked to the experience and ability of the examiner himself. The set of cognitive operations, from historical study to investigations, in their propaedeutics act as a support and allow to aspire to a good understanding of the object, as objective as possible. Once the historical-critical investigation has been consolidated, we proceed with the survey phase, the outcome of which is represented by a series of graphic drawings or thematic maps, useful for telling different aspects of the object. In particular, the metric-geometric relief allows to define the morphology of the artifact, to know its geometries and as well as the compositional principles. For the 'Fifth Minaret', the graphic restitution of plans, elevations and sections was carried out through the processing of the point cloud, obtained through the alignment of scans made with laser scanners. The indirect survey was performed by AKCSA staff and shared with the DiDa research team. The model, imported on 'Cyclone' software, has been appropriately dissected, at several dimensions, through an associated 'CutPlane' and a 'Reference Plane'. Making longitudinal sections, each meter, has proved to be a decisive procedure in identifying the constructive logic, especially with re-

spect to the structuring of the internal space and the staircase element. The circle has always been synonymous with perfection, it has no beginning or end, it represents heaven and all that is spiritual. The width of the steps, of about 18 ° each, or 0.314 rad, refers to a module based on the π/10; a quarter turn consists of five steps: for Muslims the number five, called 'Hamsa' or 'Khamsa', is a symbol of patience, seriousness, faith, self-control and temperance. Five is the number associated with the 'Hand of Fatima'; five are the fingers of a hand that would represent for the Sunnis the 'Pillars of Islam': the witness of faith, prayer, pilgrimage to 'Mecca', almsgiving and fasting; for the Shiites the five members of the 'sacred family': Muhammad (Muhammad), Fatima, Ali, Hussein and Hassan. The two vertical sections, obtained through the same procedure, allow us to understand how the Minaret is actually a substantially full element, however slender, in which the staircase is an integral part; ; the residual excavation consists of the internal livable space; moreover, the same transversal sections have made it possible to obtain the thickness of the load-bearing masonry, which progressively decreases from bottom to top, and, consequently, the internal stratigraphy, presumably of two and a half bricks, plus mortar joints, for the section below the 'muqarnas', and a brick and a half, plus mortar joints, for the section above the 'muqarnas'. through the elaboration of the vertical sections, it was also possible to see the tapering of the central pillar.

Fifht Minaret.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1917.

Fifht Minaret.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1933.

Fifht Minaret.

Herat, Afghanistan, 1993.

Fifht Minaret.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2002.

Materials and construction techniques Looking back, it is known that man at the beginning of building recognized in nature a source from which to draw to find material, to be transformed into material according to needs. These early architectures not by chance speak the language of stone, brick and construction techniques handed down over time and daughters of the only rule of art. With industrialization, the materials of innovation begin to spread and be used on a large scale, supplanting the ancient masonry techniques: consequently, the rule of art gives way to a theory based on needs and performance. However, traditional materials, although no longer produced by craftsmen but the result of mechanical processing, continue to be preferred, ending up characterizing most of the built heritage.

Among these certainly most used are lithoid materials, artificially produced by man, such as ceramic materials, mortars and glass, with characteristics and physical-mechanical properties similar to lithic materials. In countries where industrialization is not yet significant, the use of materials available on site, easily packaged and, consequently, advantageous from an economic and practical point of view, is even more evident. The Eastern world continues to pass on a brick tradition that dates back to the pre-Islamic period, despite the threat of reinforced concrete. The rich catalog of dimensions, colors and textures of the bricks offered to us suggests the different production, peculiar from area to area, and the heterogeneity inherent in the material itself, but the matrix is the same as well as the intentions: to carry on a tradition of building, linked to the easy availability of a material such as clay, cheap and easy to work.

There is little information with respect to the construction technique

that characterized and characterizes the 'Fifth Minaret' to date, and yet, a more than plausible way to advance concrete hypotheses to describe the object could be to consider the constructive culture of those years, make comparisons with contemporary monuments and the like, take into consideration techniques and materials used for the construction of the other buildings that are part of the Complex, of which we have more information. This mental scheme allows us to go backwards and reason by analogies.

The first buildings dating back to the pre-Timurid period are characterized by the use of mud bricks. With the passing of the years and the substitution of the ovens, the use of clay begins to be preferred to this construction technique and, consequently, studies on timurid buildings show a use of square clay bricks on the side 24/27 cm for a thickness of 4/7 cm. In addition to the terracotta brick with standard dimensions, two other types of brick are mentioned: the modeled brick, used according to the needs but still traceable in a few remaining examples and the wedge brick, used in the vaulted and ribbed roofs, typical of the period. After an initial phase in which the mortar used is also clay-based, gypsum mortar begins to be preferred, especially to lime. The use of wood appears limited, as well as that of stone: in the first case we are talking about elements used for the stiffening of structures and elements for the construction of decks, self-supporting and not, and in this case anchored to the structures; in the second reference is made to decorative elements such as string course bands and horizontal slabs used in the foundations, characterized by a masonry of rubble.

Considerations, finally, on the vertical connections, having to refer specifically to the 'Fifth Minaret' in particular, the stairs, among other things

previous page Fifth Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

not always present, spiral or consecutive rectilinear ramps, generally revolve around a central heart in baked bricks and can perform a dual function: facilitate inspection and maintenance of the building, allow access to the upper floors of the buildings to which the Minarets are attached. From the archaeological studies conducted for the restoration operations undertaken on the Four Minarets of the Hussain Baiqara Madrasah during 1976 d. C. (1395 AH) it was possible to extrapolate information applicable to the case study.

The foundations of the Four Minarets appear to consist of masonry cylinders of irregular stones linked by lime mortar and ashes; from the above-ground base, solid, in baked bricks, stands the Minaret itself, with the internal staircase contained between the central brick heart and a masonry shell, hidden on the outside by the 'kashi' decoration. The bricks constituting the masonry, which arrives in the spire to have a maximum thickness of 25 cm, are of excellent quality and have dimensions of about 25 x 25 x 5 cm. The binder is a mortar of chalk, sand and terracotta granules; Apricot wood beams are drowned in the base as reinforcing elements for masonry. In this regard, in Minaret 3, it should be noted the use of additional wooden elements, at half height, to join the central solid cylin-

der to the perimeter masonry, passing through the slab of the spiral staircase. Taking into account the above, as well as the possible variations on a case-by-case basis and, not least, the small investigations conducted on the 'Fifth Minaret', it is possible to consider a load-bearing masonry made of clay bricks size 23/24 x 5 cm and thin joints (about 1 cm) of gypsum mortar.

The section of the load-bearing masonry is not constant and the object appears as consisting of three portions: starting from the bottom, up to an altitude of +10.00 m compared to the decking, the masonry is completely full; from an altitude of +10.00 m, corresponding to the main entrance, up to the first balcony identified with the 'muqarnas', the wall thickness is about 60 cm (two and a half bricks plus mortar joints); in the terminal part this decreases, reaching a thickness of about 35 cm (one and a half bricks plus mortar joints). The external coating can be identified as a functional layer to support and realize the decoration of about 10 cm, of which to date, due to degradation, it is not possible to read its integrity, consisting of a first layer of mortar, terracotta elements and glazed tiles set to create a mosaic. Traces that highlight the presence of wooden elements have remained in correspondence of the 'muqarnas'; more information is obtained than the base, dated to 1925 d. C. (1345 AH) and restored in 2016 d. C. (1437 AH) on an executive project by Giorgio Macchi in 2003 d. C. (1424 AH). The additional structure consists of square and rectangular bricks, with dimensions respectively 25 x 25 x 5 cm and 13 x 23 x 5 cm, and a plaster-based mortar, which was flanked, during the restoration work, by a mortar based on hydraulic lime. Further certain elements are found regarding the foundation elements, almost certainly similar to those of the Sixth Minaret; in particu-

lar, with reference to what was reported by Margottini (2010, citato in Margottini, 2010, p. 31): “[…] The foundation is composed by irregular stones, well tied with very good mortar. The bottom of the foundation is at 5.10 m from the surface and the thickness of this strata is about 3.70 m. Above this there is a brick over-foundation, that is for 1.40 m below the surface and, likely, it was for 2 - 2,50 above the surface, as it can be recognized by the 5th, still standing Minaret.” (Margottini, 2010, p. 31).

Decorative elements It is impossible not to be impressed by the richness and variety of decorations that adorn the buildings of the Timurid period and beyond, this is due to the fact, probably, that ornament has always been an important and essential prerogative for Iranian architecture. The first ornamental type in Iran was made by carving plaster, a simple technique which, over the years, has been accompanied by the use of color.

Characteristic is the meaning that the ornament contains and tries to convey: not only a symbolic character, but a means to highlight the architecture itself, in terms of geometries, overhangs and recesses, curves, openings etc ... A further feature is the variety of colors as well as patterns, focused on the theme of the repetition of basic geometric elements, which mix and assemble, producing, “like the variety of voices in an orchestra” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, p. 119), different textures and colors. As for the latter, numerous writings testify how the Timurid architecture was substantially linked to the use of blue, in the two shades, the dark and the light: the majolica, in fact, largely report this coloring, a use motivated by a great availability of raw minerals used to produce this coloring substance. In addition, the color blue, to which yellow, pink, gold and

green go to approach with time, was attributed the meaning of tranquility and harmony, of which a monument had to become in some way manifest.

As for the materials used, reference is made to carved terracotta bricks, left exposed, or glazed, painted tiles with various geometric shapes; baked bricks, in the dimensions 23/25 cm x 5 cm, larger than carved terracotta bricks, as well as mortar left exposed, also carved or colored. The main techniques concern the creation of flat surfaces rather than relief, games between solid and empty, light and shadow, joints, all expedients that become possible thanks to a combined use of different materials.

Thanks to the historical documentation, especially photographic, it was possible to reconstruct the profile of the architectures constituting the 'Musalla Complex' in terms of decorative apparatus that has been largely lost, partly found at the foot of the same. Paradoxically, it seems that the 'Fifth Minaret', together with the Mausoleum of GawharShad, are the architectures that have best withstood the passage of time and devastating external actions, presenting to date, among all the survivors, the most intact decoration. From the studies carried out on the fragments found and on what still persists, a number of questions have emerged; first of all the assumption that the decorative techniques used to adorn the buildings of the 'Complex' or were an inspiration for contemporary and later designers: not surprisingly, buildings made in the same years and immediately after, in areas not too far from Herat, report the same motifs and techniques (among all we mention the 'Mausoleum of Yartrat-Khana' in Samarkand of 1464 d.C. – 869 AH). A game based on the relief effect, mosaics of glazed and underglazed tiles, bright polychromes, geometric figures and plant motifs, a

dialogue between ceramics and marble, a variety completely unusual for Iranian and especially timurid architecture, which leads back to the 'Madrasa of Ghiyathiyya' in Khargird (1444 d.C. – 847 AH). Considering specifically the 'Fifth Minaret', the main decorative technique used is that of the 'banna'i', or even the insert technique, decorative art in which the glazed tiles alternate with exposed bricks to create geometric or epigraphic motifs. A layer of about 10 cm covers the load-bearing surface, an overlap of different layers that can be glimpsed where the main shortcomings are highlighted. The predominant color is turquoise, which is combined with white, apple green, cobalt blue, yellow and pink.

The glazed ceramic tiles have a 'Cloisonnè' decoration: “[…] sovietic scholars refer to this technique ad majolica, and others use the term Cuerda seca” (Golombek, Wilber, 1988, p. 122), additive technique that consists in pouring the color inside shapes perimetered by thin threads or strips. Parallels to this type of Cloisonnè tile can be found in Timurid architectural ceramics dating back to the end of 1440 d. C. (843 AH).

The 'Fifth Minaret', probably for logistical reasons and timing, not only had a lower height than the other Minarets but also a less elaborate decoration, despite the mixitè that it is still possible to recognize it. And if among the different architectures the color palette is certainly comparable, the floral elements and the geometric vocabulary, here repetitive and less sophisticated, are less so. There are essentially three different decorative registers: starting from the bottom, preceded by a string band in marble slabs, a register of rectangular medallions of glazed tiles, on a base of decorative exposed bricks, of which little remains. On the west side, at the entrance door, the trace of the wall of the Madrasa that was destroyed is clearly legible: this

portion does not show any decoration, the masonry is left exposed as well as the traces in which the connecting beams were set. Going up, a second register of polylobed oval medallions is separated from the first through a mosaic frame or epigraphic band, of which we read a few fragments. A second strip is located just before the 'muqarnas', a large frame on which the first balcony is set. The 'muqarnas' can be said to be an invention of the Islamic world and is based on the repetition of individual units, united and projecting relative to each other, which allow to create an articulated configuration and give movement to the surface. The last register, between the two balconies, consists of a four-part fleuroni decoration, while the summit part, now destroyed and overlooked by the second balcony, was characterized by rectangular, square and L-shaped tiles. It should be emphasized that the three entrances, the entrance door and the two balconies, show the same exposed brick decoration, as if to signal the presence of the openings. The technique in general is that of the insert, the motifs take up the 'kufica' writing and the expedient of the mirror image, as if to reproduce the texture of a fabric.

During the restorations of 2016 d. C. (1437 AH), which led to an important intervention to consolidate the remaining decoration and secure the fragments found on the ground, preserved in the National Museum of Herat, some laboratory analyzes were conducted, which gave information regarding the chemical composition of the façade bricks and ceramic tiles.

This, practically identical for both elements, looks like a paste of very fine clay, rich in quartz, with a small amount of feldspars, hybridized with metals and alloys to create the different colors. Architecture and decoration come together: Qavam al-Din Shirazi is

not only an architect, but a craftsman and designer; shows that he is familiar not only with regard to purely structural design choices as well as with stylistic and decorative ones. He became the spokesman of techniques then little known and that will have resonance in contemporary and posterior architecture: 'Cloisonnè' technique and 'blue and white' tiles.

A style that stands out from other decorative processes that were in use at the time in Transoxiana, a fashion that goes far beyond the timurid world, a play of different materials and colors, which allows the art of mosaic with enamelled tiles to touch very high levels.

Herat, November 23rd. […] I walked up the northern of the four new town roads, in the direction of a gigantic mound, about 600 yards long, which appears to be artificial and must resemble, from all accounts, the mounds in the neigh-bourhood of Balk.

Hence one can climb up on to another wall, an outwork of the town’s defences, and survey the lie of the Musalla.

This is the popular name for the whole of the seven minarets and the Mausoleum.

But actually they were part of separate buildings built at different times, some in the reign of Shah Ruck, one in that of Hussein Baikara […].

This array of blue towers rising haphazard from a patchwork of brown fields and yellow orchards has a most unnatural look.

(R. Byron, 1937)

Detail of Fifth Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

previous page Internal masonry detail of Fifht Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

Analysis of instability and cracking pattern Considering the incomplete knowledge of the artifact, in terms of construction methods, combinations and clamps, the analysis carried out was limited to an identification and graphic restitution of 'minor' lesions, deformations and instability, detectable on sight. The overall picture has been the subject of a series of discussions on several occasions, with a view to a more detailed and truthful understanding, which have led to the simple formulation of hypotheses with respect to causes and effects. From the historical and bibliographic references, such as texts and images, as already mentioned, it can be said, almost certainly, that the situation of the 'Fifth Minaret' was (at least apparently) stable until 1975 d. C. (1394 AH), although the annexation to the base of a brick base with a diameter of 6.00 m emphasizes the need for an increase in the resistant capacity of the artifact as early as 1925 d. C. (1343 AH). The worsening of the general situation, with a consequent increase in the slope, is recorded between 1980 d. C. and 2002 d. C. (1399 AH-1423 AH), when passing from an inclination of 1° to one of 3.9°: the out-of-lead of just 0.90 m reaches about 2.70 m, an important increase attributable to the probable

Survey of structural damage and material degradation

concomitance of several causes: on the one hand, the occurrence of seabed subsidence, if we consider the flooding phenomena that affected the area between 1985 d. C. and 1990 d. C. (1405 AH- 1410 AH), with consequent softening of the ground, on the other hand to the dynamic actions of earthquake and wind combined ( the prevailing wind, it must be said, blows quite constantly in a north-south direction almost orthogonal to the direction of the maximum slope). Compared to repeated flooding, several studies, as stated by Margottini (Margottini, 2010, p. 6), show how foundation materials show signs due to alluvial deposits; consequently, the increase in the level of soil saturation, which would be stable and resistant under normal conditions, may have played a fundamental role in terms of increasing the rate of increase in the inclination of the Minaret. “As a consequence no maintenance plan was implemented on the site, with special reference to Hari ota t er, crossing the whole area. The result was in a general and continuous flooding of the site, with water flowing almost below the minaret” (Margottini, 2010, p.

6). Moreover, although from the seismic map it seems that the city of Herat has not been affected by particular seismic events in the years in which

the conditions of the Minaret seem to worsen, seismic events that occurred in nearby cities in those same years may have affected the conditions of the same. The large opening at the base, which occurs at an altitude of +03.00 m compared to the 00.00 m level, would therefore be attributed to the set of these causes and would well explain the sudden deviation of the axis from the vertical. In addition, not to be excluded is certainly the weakening of the system caused by the demolition of the walls of the Madrasah of GawharShad: studies on the foundations of the Minaret demonstrate a direct connection between these and the south-west and northwest walls of the demolished building; some have, therefore, hypothesized that the inclination may have been helped by the loss of the solid link with the foundations of the pre-existing converging walls, with consequent rotation of the object. However, the small number of information and the gaps from a historical-bibliographic point of view, allow us to reason only in terms of probability, despite the fact that in some texts the following is reported: “[…] in July 2003 […] In the space offour days of strong wind the strains measured across the horizontal crack showed a continuous periodic opening with a frequency of O.5 Hz

and a slight but continuous opening of the crack and an increase of the tower leaning (about 10 arcsec)” (Macchi, 2005, p. 1377), adding, ultimately, that “[…] the structural analysis showed that the eccentricity of the self-weight is such that the cross section is cracked for one third of the diameter” (Macchi, 2005, pp. 1376-1377). As far as 'minor' instability is concerned, reference can be made to the phenomenon of expulsion of material, with consequent losses flanked by expansion of the texture of the wall fabric: in this regard, it should be noted the wall discontinuity recorded at steps 38-40, towards the West, and immediately above, steps 43-45 towards the South-East.

The area concerned is close to the setting of the 'muqarnas', a fact that suggests that the overhang of the brick appeals may be due to a constructive need, so that in elevation the section of the truncated cone had to progressively shrink. The cracking picture, as a whole, can be said to be quite coherent: the dramatic horizontal fracture that opened about 3 meters from the country plan in the period described above and which is responsible for the alarming out-of-lead (whose probable causes we have exposed) are flanked by slit systems characterized by a predominantly vertical trend present on the external shell of reduced thick-

ness positioned on the right of those who walk uphill the spiral staircase.

These lesions mainly affect the north and south elevations, and are concentrated in defined bands. Their discontinuous trend and their absence in the band near the entrance door (which would be the most stressed) leads to exclude the crisis due to compression of the material by imagining, even here with due caution, co-causes on which to carry out further investigations but attributable either to cutting / twisting actions (generated by the helical path of the staircase), or to actions that can be connected to some modes of vibration of dynamic origin that imply deformations capable of stimulating extensions and wall contractions in the mentioned areas. Finally, we must not forget the dynamic trauma caused by the explosion of the grenade in 1983 d. C. (1403 AH) which may have determined the removal, due to expansion, between the bricks in the wall weaving: it is no coincidence that the greatest concentration of the same is recorded in correspondence with the band directly affected by the explosion. Finally, in addition to the framework of the dynamic actions and the effects that follow, the settling actions must be taken into consideration: the initial conformation, lost with the deformed, goes to re-establish itself involving a not indifferent 'backlash' In conclusion, it is possible to affirm that the alteration of the material and geometric continuity is nothing more than the manifestation outside of a structural behavior whose causes are to be attributed, therefore, not only to one's own weight but to a series of phenomena, anthropic and natural, of a dynamic type, which have acted in the past and in part will continue to act (in the case of the action of the wind is known the 'wind of 120 days', which blows from June to September, socalled 'bad-i-sad-o-bistruz', which jus-

tifies the construction of several mills within the city, many of which are still visible today) on the object itself.

Conservation status analysis and degradation mapping The process consists in the precise study of each constituent element of which it is detected and describes the state of conservation. The main tool used for the investigation, at least in the preliminary phase, is the view: the empirical level of the analysis involves a high subjectivity, as well as difficulties in reading, identifying and interpreting. Through the only visual survey, as it was for the specific case, it will therefore be possible only to advance hypotheses with respect to the nature of the causes and the dangerousness of the effects, hypotheses that can and must then be accompanied by specific studies, scientific analyzes and laboratory tests, which help to overcome or in any case contain the limits that compared to what has been said the analysis involves. Another supporting tool born with the specification of establishing unified methods and vocabulary is the UNI reference document, marked by the initials 11182: 'Natural and artificial stone materials.

Description of the form of alteration – Terms and definitions', replacing, since 2006, the document '1/88'. Although the 'Normal' has not fully managed to clarify the vastness and complexity of the phenomena, it highlights certain issues and implements a first distinctive process. First distinction concerns the terms alteration and degradation, mistakenly used as synonyms: we will talk about alteration as “[…] una modificazione del materiale che non implica necessariamente un peggioramento delle sue caratteristiche sotto il profilo conservativo […]” (CNR-ICR, 1988), while by degradation we will refer to “[…] una modificazione che implica sempre un peggioramento (ad

esempio la alveolizzazione, la disgregazione, il pitting, la scagliatura, etc.)”

(CNR-ICR, 1988), with a progressive reduction of the resistance of the material itself. Further distinction concerns, then, the causes that, in addition to depending directly on the agents, whether anthropic or natural, are also linked to the material in question, on which the effects will depend: the mutual relationship between agent, cause and effect implies, in fact, that a material, under the same stress, responds differently from another, compared to what are its specific characteristics. Returning to the agents and their causes, it is good to think about the study of the state of conservation of the single element in relation to the surrounding area: the environment greatly influences the object if we think in terms of natural agents, such as atmospheric ones (rain, wind, temperature, sand...), to which we add the action of man. Regardless of what may be the actual influence in physical terms that the site can have on the object, many texts report an interesting note with respect to the monument-place relationship. The external decorations of mosques, madrasas, and not only, show how these were conceived as isolated structures, of which you can admire the peculiarity of each front: buildings built, therefore, according to a certain concept for which they had to fit into isolated contexts, today find themselves inserted in different situations, the cause of a strong urbanization and certainly a change of thought. This is what we can tangibly observe with respect to the case study: the artifact is, in fact, currently inserted in a different landscape context than in the past, an observation that is not at all trivial. “The women’s park” (Han, 2015, p. 33), as the 'Complex' is called, has undergone an important transformation: “[…] the area around the enclosed complex and

Herat city as a whole has developed so much that the ancient Musalla with the intricate, delicate and gorgeous tilework of its minarets has lost its befitting and well-deserved dominance of Herat’s skyline after six long centuries. “[…] It is no longer dominantly visible from the hills to its north and ot at all visible from the streets in nearby areas where multi-storied houses and buildings continue to be constructed” (Kazemi, 2021). In addition, during the safety and restoration operations carried out by UNESCO, the walls around were restored and several fruit trees transplanted, an expedient to protect the monuments themselves, especially from the strong and famous summer winds. In particular, the combined actions of wind and rain, to which it would be more than plausible to add the mechanical impact action of the sand, given the geographical location, as well as the vibrations caused by the means of transport, as already mentioned, have meant that, at present, the same is in a very bad state of conservation. To the general picture is added an attitude of neglect and abandonment on the part of man over the years, resulting from a poor historical, artistic-cultural consideration for the same, which has deprived him of an adequate ordinary and extraordinary maintenance plan. “[…] in December 2020, rickshaw driver, a 55-year-old long-time local resident, said: ‘I’ve lived most of my life here in Herat [city]. I was a mason before I bought and started driving this rickshaw several years ago. I once even worked at the Musalla [in the early 1990s], repairing some parts of it. I’ve seen how the war and the heavy traffic of vehicles have damaged it over many years. No one has given it any serious attention’” (Kazemi, 2021). It is fundamental, therefore, as well as consequential, to conduct a study on the state of conservation of the sin-

Detail of Muqarnas degradation of Fifth Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

Detail of fracture at the base of Fifth Minaret.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

gle element that takes into account the context, the social-economic and cultural status, the historical events that have occurred over time. Considering that the Minaret is now historicized, this survey refers to the complex set of criticalities, deterioration and loss of many original constituent elements, including structural ones.

The analysis was conducted exclusively at the macroscopic level, through a careful and scrupulous photographic and filmographic reconnaissance of the various constituent elements, with reference to the text UNI – 11182: 'Natural and artificial stone materials. Description of the form of alteration – terms and definitions', as well as the classification published by 'ICOMOS-ISCS'. In particular, compared to what has been highlighted, the most evident and widespread form of degradation is a generalized erosion of the constituent material (bricks, plasters), frames, friezes, moldings, decorative elements, etc. Mechanical and chemical erosion, as removal of the material, has inevitably triggered other types of degradation that overlap and intersect each other: disintegration and pulverization with loss in several points of the original modeled (extensive lack of parts), gaps in the decoration. To all this are added alterations such as spots and more generally localized chromatic alterations, due to biodeteriogens, the presence of vegetation and weeds due to accumulation of moisture.

previous page Samples used during the experimental investigations for the characterization of materials.

Laboratory of Materials and Structures Tests, UNIFI, Florence, 2021.

Experimental investigations for the characterization of materials

Results of experimental investigations Compared to the characterization tests of the masonry in situ, during one of the missions in Herat, dated May 15, 2021, a penetrometric test and a test with flat jacks was conducted in situ.

As for the characterization tests of materials in the laboratory, seven is the number of bricks taken in situ and delivered to the Department of Architecture in Florence. The bricks, uniquely identified with the acronym BR-N, with N reference number, have been numbered and characterized in size and weight. In particular, the brick n°2 broke during transport, brick n°3 already had a fracture at the time of dispatch. For each brick, in relation to the thickness of the same, n samples were made; of these, part were tested in the compression laboratory, part indirect tensile test. Finally, for each brick, a sample was subjected to the porosity test, carried out at ISPC-CNR. Uniaxal compression test The machine used for the uniaxial compression test is of the type 'INSTRON SATECTM 5592-315HVLF2-G2', equipped with a 600 kN strain gauge load cell, used to measure both compression and tensile forces. Integrated with the test machine a Lin-

ear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) that allowed to record the measurements of the displacements.

The test was conducted with reference to what is reported in the UNI EN 772-1 2011 Standard: 'Test methods for masonry elements - Determination of compressive strength', updated to 2015, which specifies a method for defining the compressive strength of masonry elements. The test was performed on a total of 31 samples. In particular, the porosity of the material was discriminating, due to the considerable level of dispersion recorded in the values of Fmax, fc and E: the relative samples, in fact, both for a matter of construction technique and production process, and for old age, have shown a significant presence of voids; in some cases the heterogeneities were considered excessive and for this reason, these specimens were excluded from the test. In general, it is still possible to say that you have obtained satisfactory results if taken into account the type of material in place (we are talking about hand-pressed bricks in soft paste and not made at an industrial level).

Indirect traction test The test machine used is of the type 'INSTRON SATECTM 5592-135HVL', hydraulically operated. The test was

recorded and monitored by means of Partner software, which allowed the acquisition of data and the subsequent generation of results. The test was performed on a total of 27 samples. As for the previous test, the values of mechanical resistance with indirect traction obtained were related to the average porosity values for each individual brick. The results of both tests, appropriately graphed and schematized, are not reported below.

35

previous page Detail of Drawing n. 16.

Analysis to identify the position of the neutral axis respect the centre G. Florence, 2021.

Analysis of the response by own weight and horizontal actions

Volume Calculation Mapping the cracking picture, the study of the Fifth Minaret has led to a series of questions regarding the nature of the perturbing causes. Having become aware of the causes of an anthropic nature (reference is made here to the post-Soviet occupation events, in particular the forum caused by the war missile in 1985 d.C., the construction of the main avenue, a crossroads for cars, trucks and tanks, the repeated flooding that affected the Complex, etc ...), the intensities related to a series of natural actions were evaluated, of a static and dynamic type, such as the own weight and the actions of the earthquake and the wind, and the effects of the same actions on the artifact. We have tried to interpret the real behavior of the artifact through the study of simplified ideal models, of which the main results are reported, exclusively at a theoretical level, results that have been compared and validated with the data offered by finite element analysis of dynamic static linear type, which are not the subject of the work of this thesis; the comparison showed satisfactory consistency.

A first analysis concerned the calculation of the volume of the object, through an approximate estimate. In particular, in order to obtain a result as plausible and truthful as possible,

the Minaret, excluding the base of h = 2.00 m, has been associated with a truncated cone, a model that can well describe its geometry; on the model a decomposition process was then implemented, in order to obtain the total Volume V from the sum of the individual volumes, calculated considering the four different situations schematizing the object: "full" section of the Minaret, from the +02.00 m altitude (having excluded the base) up to the altitude corresponding to the main entrance (+10.00 m); Central "pillar" of the Minaret, around which the internal staircase develops, in all its elevation, from the altitude that corresponds to the entrance (+10.00 m) to the summit (+40.00 m); stairwell of the Minaret, like a flood that extends from the altitude that corresponds to the entrance (+10.00 m) to the summit (+40.00 m), considered half and less than the volume of the central "pillar", calculated in the previous case; finally, the upper part of the Minaret, from the height that corresponds to the entrance (+10.00 m) to the summit (+40.00 m), taking into account the variation in the thickness of the load-bearing masonry, which decreases from bottom to top.

The Total Volume V, resulting from the sum of the Volumes calculated for each section, as well as the Total Weight P derived, were compared with the same data extrapolated from the static-linear analysis conducted on the 3D model of the Minaret by means of CAD software (see Paragraph 6.2.

Evaluation of the stress state for vertical loads). The values compared showed a gap of only a few dozen, so given the high level of approximation, the results were satisfactory.

37

Assessment of the stress state for vertical loads Considering the strong inclination of the Fifth Minaret, a consequence of the great fracture that affects it at a height from the ground of +03.00 m on the west side, and the need to intervene with an operation of consolidation and safeguard, a simplified static analysis, of the highest approximation, has allowed to highlight the consequences of the eccentricity of the axial action, showing what is the suffering of the material in the deformed situation that distinguishes the Minaret today. This data is of the utmost importance because it helps to understand the stress condition to which the part of the masonry apparatus subjected to maximum compression (in the area below the inclined slope) is obliged to respond. We can deduce from this what margins of safety, if any, characterize the present condition.

The structure has been schematized as a shelf wedged at the base, inclined at an angle α with respect to the vertical axis and subject to its own weight force. To understand the growing influence of eccentricity proceeding from top to bottom, four significant sections of the Minaret were isolated, positioned respectively: coinciding with the decrease in the thickness of the wall ring delimiting the stairwell (just above the muqarnas); near the belt where the most intense is the cracking picture with a vertical trend in the central part of the stem, not far from the hole generated by the war projectile; at the entrance to the Minaret, where the helical staircase begins; finally, in adherence to the large fracture at the base. The purpose of the structural analysis was to identify the position of the neutral axis with respect to the center of gravity G, in the four type sections, starting from the knowledge of the center

of pressure C relative to each section.

With the exception of the first section, starting from the top, the position of the neutral axis was always secant the figure, a serious condition for which the section would be partialized and subject to compressive and tensile forces. Consequently, it became necessary to assume the data of non-reagence to traction of the masonry and to evaluate, by means of an iterative procedure, a position of the neutral axis that was sufficiently close to that in which the result of the actions due to the proper weight applied in C corresponded to a system of tensions in compression capable of being in equilibrium with it. In particular, the Fourth and Last Sections, placed at the level of the fracture at an altitude of +03.00 m with respect to the decking, it was progressively partialized until a fully compressed portion was identified, to satisfy the equilibrium condition.

The analysis allowed to highlight a series of issues: the position of the neutral axis, which signals the change in sign of the tensions, from compression to traction, estimating the straight section of the solid belonging to a homogeneous-diffusive material, is corrected only in Section 1. For Sections 2 and 3 the position of the neutral axis, evaluating the material not significantly reacting to traction, represents the first solution (of attempt) that should be perfected according to an iteration procedure. In general, the two Sections 2 and 3 are, however, involved to a very modest extent in the process of partialization, significant, on the contrary, in the case of Section 4, located at the level of the fracture at an altitude of +03.00 m compared to the decking, just above the base placed near the ground and hardly clamped with the original construction, for which we proceeded with the identification of what is close to being the reagent section. Through the iter-

ative path we have come to the definition of a totally compressed partialized section, as required by the nature of the material and in balance with external loads, a solution however consequent to the hypothesis of elastic solid not reacting to traction (ideal solid).

This simulation, it should be emphasized, has approached us only with a certain approximation to the real behavior of a solid made of bricks that, subject to a considerable eccentric load, is able to work only a portion of masonry relatively small compared to the geometry of its straight section.

The prevailing resistant commitment can only affect, by force of things, an area relatively close to the path of the pressure curve (therefore relatively close to the position of the center C), involved thanks to the meshing allowed by the brick masonry. A masonry of this type cannot succeed in calling to collaborate directly, following Giuffrè's model, the parts that are more distant than a few bricks from the path of the pressure curve, subject only to the load above them but not to that transferred in function by the eccentricity from the entire upper stem.

There is therefore no link between the identification of the partialized section (which identifies the portion called to absorb the eccentric agent loads) and the opening of the large lesion at this altitude, caused, in all probability, by a convergence of dynamic actions capable of activating, favored by bottom subsidence, a tipping mechanism or of arousing abnormal responses in the stem solicited by unsustainable vibration modes.

Safety assessment under horizontal actions Considering the action related only to the own weight, a study was conducted on the effects caused by the seismic action and the action of the wind.

While the gravitational and seismic action depend proportionally on the mass of the object, the action of the wind depends on the exposed surface.

Slender and tall structures like this one are markedly affected by the action of the wind for this very reason. Such actions are considered to be accidental or exceptional loads, the effects of which, however, may have serious consequences. As far as it has been possible to develop here, we take into account the possibility that the activation of a mechanism dependent on the earthquake and / or the wind caused the escape from the vertical. The model that is taken as a reference for this type of analysis derives from the Limit Analysis and assumes that the overturning is caused by kinematics, that is, by movement by parts (estimated as rigid bodies) of the Minaret. In this context, the Minaret is hypothesized as a rigid body bound to the basal part by a cylindrical hinge, around whose axis the overturning takes place. It is assumed that the masonry material is rigid and does not oppose any resistance to the opening of the lesion at the base but that relative sliding is not possible; that is, that the presence of the base constitutes a monolateral constraint of simple support. The limit analysis tool is robust and reliable because it is based on pure stability considerations, minimizing the degree of uncertainty in the safety assessment, therefore, extremely strict.

It should be emphasized that with regard to complex events of this nature and especially with regard to masonry constructions it is correct to imagine (and rely on) different models of behavior as long as they are relevant and

capable of interpreting the mechanical behavior of the systems. In particular, it will be relevant to investigate the dynamic behaviour of the object through numerical analysis tools that include the selection of the mechanical response parameters of the material. In the specific case, further complexity is represented by the articulated geometry and the slender shape of the solid, whose specific mechanical criticality will also require to be investigated with approaches different from those used here.

We consider a seismic action represented as a horizontal inertial component as a function of the proper weight, applied in the centre of gravity G, as illustrated in the figure, and therefore affected by a multiplier Λ.

The force due to the earthquake, Qs=λP, and which induces the complete collapse of the structure, is governed by the multiplier that can be related to the intensity of the acceleration expected at the site. The Minaret's response to such horizontal action was considered in three scenarios. The first and original assumes a non-displaced condition of the axis of the cone, that is, a rectilinear development of the stem and a centered position of the center of gravity; the next two scenarios retrace the stages of damage and consider the stem inclined by associating a corresponding eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to the vertical. From the analysis of the results obtained it is clear that the presence of the tie rods allows to considerably increase the value of the multiplier and consequently ensures the stability of the Minaret.

The action exerted by the wind, an important phenomenon in the area as reported by various bibliographic sources, is a direct action that varies over

time and space causing dynamic effects. For a simplified analysis it is possible to consider the generally horizontal direction and corresponding to one of the main axes of the construction plan.

The information found on wind loads and dynamic pressure for the area around Herat varies considerably. For a summary assessment of the specific case, values deriving from experience and engineering judgment that apply to similar topographies are considered and it was decided to proceed taking into account the evaluations conducted on the Minaret by Ziegert (Ziegert, 2012).

Calculated the QV force of the wind, taking into account the three previous conditions, ie Minaret with straight stem and inclined by 1 ° and 3°, the relative multiplier was evaluated.

The data relating to the individual actions were compared, highlighting certain issues: the obtained values of the safety coefficients against the action of the considered wind show that the wind pressure would not seem to induce significant concern, since it would require an action many times higher (between 4.31 and 7.72 times) to induce a collapse. It must be emphasized, however, that the action of the wind induces long-term phenomena triggered by recurrent load cycles, which have not been treated in this thesis work. Also due to the action of the wind, the presence of cables improves the safety margin, inducing an increase in the multiplier. After considering the effects of seismic and wind actions separately, it seemed interesting to evaluate the combined effect of the two actions in a realistic scenario, i.e. the occurrence of an earthquake of modest magnitude, however such as not to induce the collapse of the Minaret, in conjunction with the action of the wind. The goal is to understand the degree of vulnerability in a reason-

able situation to consider in a context such as that of study in which the wind blows for many days a year.

The results obtained from these last evaluations allow us to understand how in the event of an earthquake close to that of collapse, 0.07g, a very small portion (16%) of the action of the wind considered, λV = 0.16, is sufficient to make the stability of the Minaret nullified. It is also very interesting to consider the condition in which the earthquake produces a minor acceleration at the base, 0.05g. In such a situation, the action of the wind that would cause the loss of stability is only 35% more (λV = 1.35) than that considered to be the reference. Having acquired that it is not easy to evaluate with certainty the expected acceleration at the site, having the current data, and taking into account that the overturning mechanism can be associated with an acceleration that involves the descending part of the spectrum, it can be imagined that this is expressible through a labda between 0.05 and 0.07. It follows that in the current state, the simple tipping mechanism for horizontal loads, where the efficiency of the cables is decreased or even fails (which in the current socio-political situation is in the order of things), is very close to activation and without safety margins. But if we add to the action of the earthquake that due to the wind, the chances of crisis for the artifact are real.

39

previous page Fifht Minaret and Mausoleum of Gawhar Shad.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

It is cold. The sun has gone down. The mullahs have gone in, and their pupils with them. The lustre has gone from the blue towers and the green corn.

Their shadows have gone. The magic scent has gone. The summer has gone, and the twilight brings back the spring, cold and uncertain. I must go.

Goodbye Gawhar Shad and Baisanghor. Sleep on there under your dome, to the sound of boys’ lessons. Goodbye Herat.

(Byron, 1937) Mapping the cracking picture, the stuThe present thesis work has attempted to trace a way of approaching the issue of the protection and conservation of heritage, developing the path of knowledge as a fundamental starting point on which diagnosis and effective intervention will depend.

The initial phase of the research and the screening of bibliographic sources have brought to light the complexity of the problem faced and the countless difficulties. Historical voids, contradictions and, sometimes, lack of reliability, have not facilitated the process; on the contrary, they were confirmation of a greater awareness: in a battlefield territory for thirty years now, there are archaeological riches of inestimable value, yet those who live those places in everyday life do not

Towards a safeguard project

seem to show sufficient interest. The precarious state of conservation of the Fifth Minaret is the same as other monuments, of which little or perhaps nothing is known; there is no proper cataloguing, as well as a maintenance plan, and conflicts leave no room for a sense of belonging and tradition but only transmit destruction and negligence. The survey phase, supported

by Indirect Survey with Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Survey, and the consequent graphic restitution, led to a more in-depth knowledge of the object, especially in terms of actual morphology and functioning, highlighting discrepancies and errors of evaluation in the studies carried out in previous years. The analysis on the state of conservation of the materials, the investigation of the instability and on the cracking panels were carried out at a macroscopic level, without the support of further investigations. Not having had the opportunity to observe the object live, the results depended on a work done only on the images (photographs and videos), and on the reports of those who had known the monument, stopping, consequently, to the formulation of preliminary hypotheses: more in-depth studies will be carried out later. With regard to the simplified linear static analysis, the data obtained from the model were

compared with the data extrapolated from the study on the actual structural behavior of the Minaret, carried out using DIANA FEA software, a specialized application of great refinement and congruity with the masonry material. The analysis conducted considering, as per the premise, the ideal material, isotropic, homogeneous, elastic, linear and subject to weight force alone, gave results quite consistent with the results deriving from the study on the structure represented in a more articulated way by the numerical code. The same calculation of the Volume, considering the level of approximation inherent in the model, has led to results that can be said to be satisfactory; on the other hand, these same outcomes served as a control for software processing. Compared to the results obtained from the tests carried out in the laboratory, to highlight is the discrepancy detected between the different samples, which have different mechanical characteristics compared to each other. If, in fact, for the BR-1 brick the highest values of fc, ft and E are recorded, the BR-3 brick has the lowest values. On the contrary, for the latter there are the best values of μk and μak, compared to those detected for BR-1, which are the lowest. The comparison of the results relating to the two tests, i.e. to the stress resist-

ance parameters of uniaxial compression and traction, can be said to be satisfactory overall. In fact, the ratio between tensile strength and compressive strength falls within the typical range for masonry materials, for which the tensile strength is to be considered negligible, being about 1/10 compared to the compression one, a ratio perfectly found in the case of the BR-4. In general, the cause of the heterogeneous behavior of the material, for which each brick responds differently to the other, is most likely to be attributed to the invoice of the same, not being the result of an industrialization process, but rather objects made by hand, with raw materials and local construction techniques. In the light of the studies carried out, the intervention plan on the Fifth Minaret should try to aim at the best compromise between the need for safety and respect for the integrity of the monument itself.

41

1. Starting from the results of the general framework, an initial maintenance plan should be provided for the area on which the object insists, in terms of cleaning and care of the gardens, also in relation to the positive contribution that the trees could give with respect to the action of the wind. The condition of the grounds area is not considered critical, unless a certain level of water saturation is exceeded: the progress of the damage and the considerable increase in the inclination of the Minaret coincide with the years in which the area was subjected to repeated flooding. This underlines the importance of developing an adequate water management strategy of the site and the need for their careful regimentation, to prevent its inevitable collection at the base of the monument, which would lead to the reduction of the bearing capacity of the land; 2. La The presence of a significant fracture at the base of the Minaret indicates that the main problem to be addressed concerns the instability with respect to the action of static and dynamic loads, which are as verified,not at all irrilevant. Despite the impossibility of totally counteracting the exposure of the artifact to such stresses, it is possible to implement precautionary measures on which a more or less severe amount of damage will depend, depending on the methodological choice relating to the conservation plan. While the seismic action and the action of the wind are natural stresses, exceptional, and therefore difficult to predict, different discourse can be conducted regarding the vibrations induced by the vehicular traffic in the vicinity. These waves propagate in the ground inducing stresses and deformations, influencing the stability and functionality of the structures present, a problem that becomes more complex in the case of buildings of

historical-monumental importance.

The effect caused by vibrations, which are more superficial than for example seismic ones, concerns possible differentiated seabed subsidence, in relation to the heterogeneity of the transmission medium itself, as well as instability effects on superstructures, not to be underestimated in situations where "[...] the construction is in a state of heavy tension, which touches the threshold of resistance in some parts, by age or by the effect of previous states of coercion [...] -for which[...] can manifest themselves due to the intervention of the vibrations of the signs of instability. [...] In essence, therefore, the vibrations caused by sources other than seismic shocks, more frequently, can cause damage, not so much for oscillatory effects, such as, for example, those induced by an earthquake, but, rather, for settling of the ground and consequent aggravation, localized, of the tensional state. The risk of damage is more serious the less thickened the soil, and the weaker (from a structural point of view) are the foundations and superstructures" (Mezzetti, 2005, p. 10). In the specific case, it would be plausible to provide for a system of isolation and consequent attenuation of the effect caused by the continuous movement of vehicles, light and heavy, along the alley that runs along the site. A physical discontinuity, like a caesura in the ground, a screen to separate source and receptor element, "[...] consisting of two bulkheads, or diaphragms, parallel to each other, in reinforced concrete, with a mixture of cement and benthic sludge interposed [...]" (Mezzetti, 2005, p. 10), which would guarantee damping of vertical and horizontal vibrations. It goes without saying that a simple solution could consist in creating in the area a sort of protected park with deviation of the artery of great flow;

3. The construction of the plinth, following the Panjdeh Incident of 1885 d. C. (1302 AH), a date that marks the almost total destruction of the buildings constituting the Musalla Complex, is significant and provides indications with respect to the negative effect that the demolition of the Madrasa, to which the Minaret was annexed, had on the performance of the same. Given the degradation at present, it would be appropriate to think of a recovery, cleaning and consolidation plan, based on what has already been done in 2016, with the replacement of the damaged elements and restoration of the joints. Create a better grip between the parts, since at the moment basement and Minaret seem fundamentally foreign and independent structures. Such a strengthening would be significant in terms of better performance of strength and stability, as well as protection against phenomena of ascent, dampness, frost; 4. For structural purposes, provision should be made in general for a maintenance and monitoring plan to ensure continuous control of significant mechanical parameters, consolidate the masonry and, above all, repair the lesion at the base, through injections, after a general cleaning. Considering, moreover, the positive contribution made by the system of steel tie rods, installed in 2003, in order to maintain the sense of the solution and make it functionally suitable in the long term, one could think of a system of tie rods that connects the entrance floor with the foundation (in practice the only wall plinth of compact masonry) or the restoration, made invisible, of a connection through tie rods of the basal part of the Minaret (that of solid masonry) with buttresses placed in the ancient position of the walls of the Madrasa. One could also think of a system of circles of the areas considered

most critical for the reduction of the thickness of the external facing at the helical scale (transition zone near the muqarnas), with reference to reversible and minimally invasive techniques in line with recent experiments. Finally, after appropriate structural simulations, the possibility of strengthening the internal part of the Minaret by creating a more effective connection between the slender circular wall crown at the side of the staircase and the solid and rigid inner core, either with light metal devices or by enhancing or taking inspiration from the primitive wooden connections, should be studied. A criterion, however, to be followed in the long-term reinforcement intervention would be not to disturb its shape and its perception in the area with too invasive external elements. A separate discussion deserves instead the urgent need for temporary safety of the building, to be carried out with any suitable structure, even external, such as steel buttresses, which avoids, at present and in total uncertainty about the situation of the country, the collapse; 5. Finally, although the fall of a large part of the decorative apparatus is not relevant for structural purposes, it has represented, and will continue to represent (if no intervention is planned), a great loss at the historical-cultural level. Also in this case it would therefore be essential to draw up a plan of study, cleaning and consolidation of the parts, without however any type of reconstruction, considering the object now historicized in its current state.

Fifht Minaret and Minarets of Madrasah of Hussain Baiqara.

Photo by courtecy AKTC, Kabul.

Herat, Afghanistan, 2021.

(AKTC, Kabul).

Through the eyes of others I learned that the frenetic movement of people and things continues, careless and undisturbed, among these giants of history threatened by the passage of time and events. From this perspective, thinking of a plan to secure and consolidate the Fifth Minaret does not become an intervention for its own sake but an instrument of awareness and warning. Moreover, the possibility of rediscovering oneself in history and rediscovering one's identity in an object would mean triggering processes of territorial, economic and cultural enhancement, not to be underestimated for a devastated country that has so much to offer.

Drawings

Della partenza mi piace il saluto dell’alba, l’odore delle valigie piene di vestiti e sogni, l’indugiare dei pensieri nei corridoi e nelle stanze di casa, sapendo che al ritorno saremo cambiati.

(Caramagna, 2021).

Drawing n. 1.

Geographycal Framework.

Drawing n. 2.

Planimetry of Herat.

Drawing n. 3.

Planimetry of Musalla Complex.

1493 - 2021.

Drawing n. 4.

A study of the variation of inclination over the years of the Fifth Minaret.

Drawing n. 5.

Study of the section of the Fifht Minaret.

Drawing n. 7.

Identification of material discontinuities.

Drawing n. 8.

Photogrammetric relief.

Drawing n. 9.

Materials relief.

Drawing n. 11.

Survey of material degradations.

Drawing n. 15.

Survey of crack pattern and structural damage.

Drawing n. 16.

Analysis of the response by own weight and hotizontal actions and hypothetis of intervention.

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Index

Preface Luisa Rovero, Giulia Misseri, Ugo Tonietti

5

Introduction

7

General Framework

11

The Musalla Complex

15

Architectural and constructive consistency of the Fifth Minaret

23

Survey of structural damage and material degradation

31

Results of experimental investigations for the characterization of materials

35

Analysis of the response under own weight and horizontal actions

37

Towards a safeguard project

41

Drawings

45

Bibliography

59

Finito di stampare per conto di didapress Dipartimento di Architettura Università degli Studi di Firenze luglio 2022

This dissertation aims at supporting the studies on the Fifth Minaret of Herat, part of the complex of Musalla, strongly desired by Queen Gawhar Shad between 1417 AD. C. and 1432 d. C. (819-835 AH), is part of a framework of safeguard actions carried out by international organizations for protection, such as UNESCO and Aga Khan Trust for Culture. This thesis work is intended to support the studies conducted, and currently in progress, by the team of the Department of Architecture of the University of Florence, officially involved in the safeguarding action. In order to trace a method of approach to the issue of the protection and conservation of cultural heritage, the path of knowledge becomes a fundamental starting point, on which diagnosis and effective interventions will depend.

Alessia Lico was born in 1997. She graduated, with honors, in Architecture from the University of Florence in 2021, carrying out a study, summarized here, on the safeguarding of the built heritage and structural consolidation in line with the interests matured during her training.

ISBN 978-88-3338-170-1