The Natural World - Option 6

OPTION 6: GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

First published 2024

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© Lee O’Donnell, 2024

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In presenting The Natural World, Option 6: Global Interdependence I extend my deepest gratitude to a circle of individuals whose support and belief have been crucial. My partner Aoibheann deserves special mention for her unwavering love and belief in my capabilities. Your encouragement has been fundamental to this journey I am equally indebted to my mother Sinead and my brother Evan, whose support has been a cornerstone in all my endeavours.

I am profoundly grateful to the team at Edco for offering me the platform to express my enthusiasm for teaching and learning. A heartfelt thank you to Declan, whose expertise and guidance were invaluable throughout this project, and to Neil, whose dedication and insight were crucial in bringing the digital dimension of this book to life.

I extend my appreciation to our editors, Emma and Rónán, whose keen eye, constructive criticism, and meticulous approach were instrumental in refining every detail of this book

Lastly, my colleagues and students at Woodbrook College deserve my deepest thanks. Your daily inspiration and motivation have been a source of continuous encouragement, greatly contributing to the creation of this work.

Lee O’Donnell

PHOTO ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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OPTION 6: GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

OUR VIEWS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

SYLLABUS LINK

6.1 VIEWS OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. What factors contribute to the depopulation of young people in Gaeltacht regions?

2. How do planning permission policies affect Irish speakers in Gaeltacht regions?

3. How does the development of larger housing estates impact Gaeltacht regions?

4. What is the effect of a lack of investment in services in Gaeltacht areas?

5. How has the south Kerry Gaeltacht region been affected by a lack of services?

6. What measures are being taken to address the challenges in the Kerry Gaeltacht area?

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Define the geographical concept of development

2. Outline the determinist model for development and the challenges associated with it.

3. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the modernisation model of development

4. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the grassroots model of development.

5. Analyse the images and language associated with developing societies

KEYWORDS

Determinist model Climate Natural resourcesTopography

Human agency Inequalities Technological advancements Environmental vulnerability

Climate changeModernisation model Community-led initiatives Empowerment

Local resourcesSustainabilityUnited Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

First world and third world

North and South MEDCs and LEDCs Economic development Eurocentric thinking

TOPIC 1.1: What is Development?

Development is a geographical concept that refers to the progress and improvement in the living conditions and wellbeing of people in a particular area.

Every year, the United Nations produces a Human Development Report In the UN’s Human Development Report, development is often measured using three key factors:

1. Health: This measures the overall wellbeing of people in terms of life expectancy, access to healthcare and nutrition. For example, in 2023 the average life expectancy globally was around 73 years. This marks an improvement over the years.

2. Education: Education is a vital aspect of development, measuring how much knowledge and skills people have access to. Literacy rates and the number of years of schooling are crucial indicators. As of 2023, approximately 86 per cent of the global population aged 15 and above were literate

3. Standard of living: This factor looks at income and access to basic needs such as clean water, housing and electricity. One way to measure this is through Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. In 2023 the average GNI per capita worldwide was about $12,003.

Development is not the same for every place. It varies from country to country, and even within countries there are disparities between regions. Some countries have high development with very good living conditions, while others still strive for improvement.

There are a variety of different views and opinions on how development should be achieved equitably across the world. This topic will explore the following models of development:

• Determinist model

• Modernisation model

• Grassroots model

• Sustainable model.

1.1

World map representing categories of the Human Development Index

TOPIC 1.2: Models of Development

DETERMINIST MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The determinist model of development is a geographic concept that suggests that the natural environment – such as climate, topography and natural resources – strongly influences the economic and social progress of a region.

HOW IT WORKS

1. Climate: The type of climate in an area can significantly impact its development. For instance, countries with mild and temperate climates are more likely to have thriving agriculture and attract tourists, which can boost their economies. On the other hand, regions with extreme climates, such as deserts or frozen tundras, face challenges in supporting a large population.

1.2

Figure

The Kalaallit Nunaat is a High Arctic Tundra biome in Greenland in which the extreme climate has impacted development in the area.

2. Natural resources: Abundance or scarcity of natural resources also plays a crucial role in development. Areas rich in minerals, oil or fertile soil may experience economic growth because of the exploitation of these resources. Conversely, regions with limited resources may struggle to achieve progress.

3. Topography: The physical landscape, such as mountains, plains or coastlines, can shape the way people live and their economic activities. For instance, mountainous regions might face difficulties in transportation and communication, hindering their development compared to flat terrains.

Consider the countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The presence of vast oil reserves has significantly influenced the economic development of countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates Their wealth from oil exports has contributed to infrastructure development and improved living standards.

CRITICISMS AND CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DETERMINIST MODEL

While the determinist model of development highlights the significant influence of the natural environment on a region’s progress, it also poses several challenges that must be considered. Relying solely on the determinist model can lead to incomplete conclusions and misguided policies. For this reason, the model is rarely discussed as an actionable model for development for countries or regions.

1. Neglecting human agency: One of the major issues with the determinist model is that it often overlooks the role of human actions and decisions in shaping development outcomes. In reality, human agency, policies and governance are crucial factors that can either amplify or mitigate the effects of the environment.

2. Inequalities and vulnerabilities: The determinist model can exacerbate inequalities between regions. Areas with rich natural resources may experience rapid development, while areas with limited resources may face marginalisation and poverty. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, countries such as Nigeria and Angola have abundant oil reserves, but many other countries in the region struggle with development because of the disparity in resources.

3. Technological advancements: While the determinist model considers the impact of the environment, it may not account for the potential of technological advancements to overcome environmental limitations. Human ingenuity and technology have enabled countries to improve agricultural practices, access renewable energy, and manage water resources more efficiently.

4. Environmental vulnerability: Relying heavily on the extraction of resources can lead to environmental vulnerability and degradation. For instance, deforestation for agricultural expansion can result in soil erosion and loss of biodiversity.

5. Climate change: The determinist model may not fully address the challenges posed by climate change, which is a complex interaction of human activities and natural processes. Climate change affects various aspects of development, such as agriculture, water availability, and vulnerability to natural disasters.

For example, consider the Amazon Rainforest, which is a vital natural resource. Overreliance on deforestation for economic gains has led to ecological imbalances, impacting local communities and local and global climates in the region.

In conclusion, while the determinist model of development emphasises the importance of the environment, it has limitations in capturing the full complexity of development dynamics. To achieve sustainable and inclusive development, we must also consider human agency, technology and the impacts of our actions on the environment. By embracing a more holistic approach, we can address the challenges and work towards a more equitable and prosperous future for all.

CASE

STUDY: The

Equatorial Paradox: Indonesia

The equatorial paradox is a geographical concept that challenges the traditional model of development. It questions why countries located near the equator, which possess abundant natural resources and favourable climates, do not necessarily experience high levels of economic development. To illustrate this paradox, we will examine Indonesia as a case study.

INDIANOCEAN

1.3

Indonesia is an archipelago of islands located in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

INDONESIA’S ABUNDANT RESOURCES

Indonesia is a sprawling archipelago located near the equator in Southeast Asia. It is blessed with abundant natural resources, including fertile soil, a tropical climate conducive to agriculture, and vast biodiversity These factors theoretically position Indonesia for robust economic development

However, Indonesia’s development journey has been marked by significant challenges and disparities.

1. Income inequality: Indonesia faces substantial income inequality, with a small proportion of the population enjoying the benefits of economic growth while many remain in poverty. This is evident in Indonesia’s Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality, which stands at approximately 38.2. This coefficient reveals a considerable income gap (as higher values of the coefficient indicate greater inequality). This shows that the top 10 per cent of the population in Indonesia enjoy a significantly higher share of income compared to the bottom 10 per cent. This disparity exacerbates the wealth divide, with a disproportionate concentration of wealth among the affluent few.

2. Environmental degradation: Rampant deforestation, illegal logging and forest fires have damaged Indonesia’s natural ecosystems and biodiversity. Indonesia has one of the highest deforestation rates globally, with an estimated annual loss of over 300,000 hectares of forest. This alarming rate of deforestation disrupts vital ecosystems and contributes to climate change.

3. Political instability: Periods of political instability, corruption and challenges related to governance have hindered the country’s progress. The Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2022 ranked Indonesia 94th out of 180 countries, indicating persistent corruption challenges. Corruption erodes trust in institutions, hinders economic growth, and diverts resources from essential services.

4. Infrastructure gaps: Inadequate infrastructure, particularly in remote regions, limits economic opportunities and access to basic services.

EQUATORIAL PARADOX FACTORS IN INDONESIA

• Political instability: Despite being a democratic nation, Indonesia has faced political challenges, including corruption scandals and regional conflicts, which have impacted its development.

• Environmental challenges: Deforestation and illegal logging have not only harmed the environment but have also affected rural communities that rely on natural resources.

• Socioeconomic disparities: Disparities in income and access to education and healthcare persist, inhibiting social development.

• Geographical diversity: As Indonesia is an archipelago, this poses logistical challenges for the development of infrastructure and the distribution of resources.

Figure 1.4

Extent of deforestation on the island of Borneo

ADDRESSING THE EQUATORIAL PARADOX

To overcome the equatorial paradox and foster development in countries such Indonesia, several strategies are essential.

1. Good governance: Addressing corruption and ensuring there is political stability are vital tasks for sound economic development.

2. Sustainable resource management: Implementing sustainable forestry and environmental policies can protect natural resources.

3. Investment in infrastructure: Developing transport, education and healthcare infrastructure is crucial for equitable development.

4. Social equality: Initiatives to reduce income inequality and improve access to education and healthcare services are essential.

The equatorial paradox, as demonstrated by Indonesia, underscores that natural resources alone do not guarantee development. Political stability, sustainable resource management, infrastructure development, and efforts to reduce socioeconomic disparities are equally vital. By understanding and addressing these complex factors, countries near the equator can work towards breaking free from the constraints of the paradox and achieving sustainable development.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is ‘development’ in a geographical context?

2. Name three key factors used to measure development in the United Nations Human Development Report.

3. Where can you find information about the average life expectancy, literacy rates, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita for different countries in a specific year?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the determinist model of development and how it explains the progress of a region.

2. Compare and contrast the impact of climate on development in regions with mild and temperate climates versus those with extreme climates.

3. Outline the role of natural resources in influencing a region’s economic growth and development.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the criticisms associated with the determinist model of development, focusing on its neglect of human agency and the implications of this oversight.

2. Investigate how the determinist model can exacerbate inequalities between regions, and provide examples of regions facing marginalisation because of disparities in resources.

3. Consider the potential of technological advancements to overcome environmental limitations in the determinist model and discuss their significance in achieving sustainable development.

MODERNISATION MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The modernisation model of development is a geographic concept that emerged in the midtwentieth century, aiming to guide countries on their path to progress and prosperity.

HOW IT WORKS

1. Traditional to modern: The modernisation model suggests that countries should undergo a series of changes to move from traditional, agrarian-based societies to modern, industrialised ones This transformation involves adopting western values, industrial technologies, and marketoriented economic systems.

2. Urbanisation and industrialisation: As part of the process, the model encourages urbanisation and industrialisation. People move from rural areas to cities seeking better job opportunities, and industries sprout up to boost economic growth For example, China’s rapid industrialisation in recent decades has propelled it to become one of the world’s major economic powers.

3. Education and technology: Education and technological advancements play a crucial role in the modernisation model. Investing in education equips the workforce with skills needed for modern industries. Technological innovations improve productivity and efficiency, and drive economic growth

4. Economic growth and development: The ultimate goal of the modernisation model is to achieve sustained economic growth, leading to overall development and improved living standards. Countries are encouraged to participate in global trade and attract foreign investments.

STRENGTHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MODERNISATION MODEL

The modernisation model of development has been influential in guiding the progress of many countries and has several strengths that make it a valuable approach to achieving economic growth and development.

1. Clear pathway: One of the key strengths of the modernisation model is that it provides a clear pathway for countries to follow It offers a step-by-step process, emphasising urbanisation, industrialisation, education and technological advancement. This clarity helps governments and policymakers focus on specific goals and strategies to achieve development.

2. Rapid economic growth: The model’s emphasis on industrialisation and global trade has the potential to bring about rapid economic growth. When countries invest in modern industries and participate in international markets, they can attract foreign investments

The ‘four tigers’ of ‘tiger economics’ experienced rapid economic growth following the principles of the modernisation model.

Figure 1.5

China’s cement production industry has taken a heavy toll on the environment and human health in the country.

Figure 1.6

and increase export earnings. For instance, the ‘tiger economies’ (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore) experienced remarkable economic growth following the principles of the modernisation model

3. Technological advancement: The model recognises the importance of technological advancements in driving development. By investing in research and development, countries can improve productivity and efficiency, leading to overall economic progress. For example, the digital revolution has transformed industries worldwide and boosted economic activities.

4. Enhancing human capital: Education is a central aspect of the modernisation model. By prioritising education, countries can equip their workforce with the skills and knowledge necessary for modern industries This investment in human capital enhances productivity and paves the way for sustained development.

5. Encouraging global integration: The modernisation model encourages countries to participate in global trade and interact with the international community. Global integration allows access to markets, technologies and ideas, facilitating the transfer of knowledge and fostering economic growth.

CRITICISMS AND CHALLENGES OF THE MODERNISATION MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

While the modernisation model of development has its strengths, it also faces significant criticisms and challenges that highlight its limitations in achieving sustainable and inclusive progress.

1. Cultural homogenisation: One of the main criticisms is the tendency of the modernisation model to promote cultural homogenisation As countries adopt western values and practices, traditional cultures and identities may be marginalised or lost.

2. Unequal development: The modernisation model can lead to unequal development, both within and between countries. As resources and investments concentrate in urban areas, rural regions may be left behind, perpetuating disparities. Additionally, developed countries may exploit less developed ones, resulting in uneven global economic relations.

3. Environmental impact: Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation under the modernisation model can cause environmental degradation Increased production and consumption lead to higher carbon emissions and resource depletion. For instance, in over 90 per cent of global urban areas people are breathing air that does not meet World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines. This poses significant health risks for urban populations around the world.

Figure 1.7

Smog pollution in Seoul

4. Ignoring local context: The one-size-fits-all approach of the modernisation model fails to consider the unique contexts of individual countries. Different societies have diverse historical, cultural and geographical factors that influence their development trajectory. A ‘cookie-cutter’ approach may not address specific challenges and opportunities.

5. Global power dynamics: The model is often criticised for reinforcing global power dynamics, where developed countries hold more influence over the policies and development of less developed nations. This unequal power balance can hinder less developed nations as they try to chart paths to sustainable development. Some economists and sociologists argue that more developed countries use the modernisation model of development to solidify unequal economic development and ensure that western societies dominate and control global markets. According to economist Andre Gunder Frank’s dependency theory, developed nations have a vested interest in keeping poor countries in a state of underdevelopment so they can continue to benefit from their economic weakness. For example, poorer countries are prepared to sell raw materials for a cheaper price, and the workers will work for less than people in more economically powerful countries. According to Frank, developed nations actually fear the development of poorer countries because their development threatens the dominance and prosperity of the west.

Figure 1.8

The above political cartoon represents the idea of political corruption. How do you think this cartoon is linked to dependency theory?

It is worth noting the development history of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, as their experiences highlight the challenges of the modernisation model. Despite efforts to industrialise and adopt western practices, some countries continue to face significant development challenges, including poverty and political instability.

CASE STUDY: South Korea’s Adoption of the Modernisation Model

South Korea’s incredible transformation from a war-ravaged country to a global economic powerhouse is a testament to its successful adoption of the modernisation model of development. This case study will explore how South Korea embraced the principles of the modernisation model and became an exemplar of development

REBUILDING AFTER WAR

After the Korean War (1950–1953), South Korea faced severe challenges as its economy was devastated and its infrastructure was in ruins. In the 1960s, South Korea’s GDP per capita was only about $100, and the nation was heavily reliant on agriculture. However, determined to rise from the ashes, South Korea set out on a journey to achieve economic prosperity.

EXPORT-ORIENTED INDUSTRIALISATION

South Korea strategically pursued export-oriented industrialisation, focusing on key industries such as steel, textiles and electronics This approach encouraged investment in these industries and promoted technological advancements to boost productivity and competitiveness. For instance, the government provided incentives for businesses to invest in export-oriented manufacturing, which led to a surge in industrialisation.

EDUCATION AND HUMAN CAPITAL

Recognising the significance of education and human capital in driving development, South Korea invested heavily in education. The country’s commitment to education resulted in a highly educated and innovative workforce, which played a crucial role in the nation’s economic success. South Korea consistently ranks among the top countries for educational attainment. According to the OECD, the country’s tertiary education attainment rate stood at approximately 70 per cent in 2022, showcasing the emphasis placed on higher education in the country

Students wait in line to apply for admission to Yonsei University in Seoul in 1981, demonstrating the important role education played in post-war South Korea.

Figure 1.9

Children amid the destruction that devastated Korea during the Korean War

Figure 1.10

GLOBAL INTEGRATION

South Korea embraced global integration by actively participating in international trade and investment. South Korea welcomed foreign investments and engaged in trade with other nations. As a result, the country’s exports soared, and its products gained international recognition and demand.

IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT

Adopting the modernisation model brought remarkable economic growth to South Korea. By 2022, South Korea’s GDP had reached approximately $1.65 trillion, making it the 12th largest economy globally Moreover, the country’s GDP per capita increased significantly to over $31,000 in the same year, signifying a substantial rise in the standard of living.

REDUCED POVERTY

The successful adoption of the modernisation model also led to a significant reduction in poverty. In the 1960s the poverty rate in South Korea was around 55 per cent, affecting a substantial portion of the population. However, by 2021 the poverty rate had plummeted to less than 2 per cent, a remarkable achievement that reflects the positive impact of development efforts.

GRASSROOTS MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The grassroots model of development is a geographical concept that emphasises the power of local communities in driving their own progress and achieving sustainable development.

HOW IT WORKS

1. Community-led initiatives: In the grassroots model, development efforts start from the ground level, with communities identifying their own needs, setting goals, and designing solutions.

2. Empowerment and participation: Central to the grassroots model is the empowerment of individuals and communities to actively participate in decision-making processes. Everyone has a voice, and their input is valued.

3. Local resources and knowledge: The model recognises the value of local resources and knowledge. Communities draw upon their own traditions, culture, and skills to address challenges.

4. Sustainability and inclusivity: The grassroots model emphasises long-term sustainability and inclusivity. By involving all members of the community in the development process, including marginalised groups and women, the model aims to create a more equitable and resilient society

STRENGTHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE GRASSROOTS MODEL

The grassroots model of development offers several strengths that make it a compelling and empowering approach to fostering sustainable progress at the community level.

1. Community ownership: A key strength of the grassroots model is that it emphasises community ownership and agency in decision-making processes. Communities identify their own needs and priorities.

2. Contextual relevance: Unlike top-down approaches, the grassroots model takes into account the unique local context of each community Development initiatives are tailored to specific needs and challenges. This increases the effectiveness and sustainability of development efforts.

3. Inclusivity and social cohesion: The model promotes inclusivity by involving all members of the community, including marginalised groups and women, in decision-making and implementation. This fosters social cohesion and solidarity.

4. Sustainable impact: Community-driven development projects tend to have more sustainable impacts By actively engaging in planning and implementation, communities are more invested in the success of the initiatives.

5. Empowerment and skill-building: The grassroots model empowers individuals with knowledge and skills needed for development. As communities take charge of their progress, they build their capacity, enabling them to tackle future challenges more effectively.

CRITICISMS AND CHALLENGES OF THE GRASSROOTS MODEL

While the grassroots model of development has its strengths, it also faces several criticisms and challenges that warrant careful consideration.

1. Scale and replicability: One criticism is that the grassroots model may not always be scalable or easily replicable in larger contexts While it works effectively within a local community, extending its impact to a regional or national level can be challenging.

2. External support and resources: Implementing the grassroots model may require external support and resources, especially in disadvantaged communities.

3. Empowerment and participation: While the model encourages community empowerment and participation, achieving meaningful inclusivity can be difficult. Some voices may still be marginalised, and power dynamics within communities may limit the representation of certain groups in the decision-making processes.

4. Coordination and cooperation: Collaboration and coordination among community members are crucial for the success of the grassroots model. However, achieving consensus on priorities and action plans may prove challenging.

5. External interference: External factors, such as governments or non-governmental organisations, may inadvertently disrupt the grassroots approach by imposing top-down interventions.

CASE STUDY: Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) and the Grassroots Model

The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) is a pan-African organisation committed to promoting gender equality and improving education for girls and women in Africa To achieve its mission, FAWE has embraced the grassroots model for development, recognising the power of local communities in driving positive change. This case study will explore how FAWE adopted the grassroots model and the impact of its approach.

CONCRETE ACTIONS

FAWE’s adoption of the grassroots model is evident in its focus on community-led initiatives to address education challenges faced by girls and women in Africa. By directly engaging with local communities, FAWE identifies the unique needs of the community and designs context-specific solutions.

EMPOWERING LOCAL COMMUNITIES

FAWE empowers local communities through capacity-building and training. The organisation collaborates with schools, parents and community leaders to enhance their understanding of the

importance of educating girls. FAWE aims to nurture the understanding and commitment of local communities to support the education of girls.

PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY

At the core of FAWE’s grassroots model is its commitment to gender equality The organisation advocates for policies and practices that eliminate gender-based barriers to education. FAWE’s efforts align with Sustainable Development Goal 4, which aims to achieve inclusive and equitable quality education for all. In Africa, where gender disparities in education persist, FAWE’s work is crucial in breaking down barriers and promoting equal opportunities.

EXPANDING ACCESS TO EDUCATION

Through its grassroots approach, FAWE has made significant strides in expanding access to education for girls and women in Africa. Since its inception in 1992, FAWE has reached over 17 million girls and supported the enrolment of over 900,000 girls in primary and secondary schools This demonstrates the organisation’s tangible impact in increasing educational opportunities.

IMPROVING RETENTION AND PERFORMANCE

FAWE’s initiatives have also contributed to improving retention and academic performance among girls. In countries such as Kenya, FAWE’s intervention led to a 48 per cent decrease in the dropout rate among girls in secondary schools. Furthermore, in Uganda, FAWE scholars consistently outperformed their peers in national examinations.

ADVOCACY FOR POLICY CHANGE

As part of its grassroots approach, FAWE engages in advocacy efforts to influence policy change at the national and regional levels. By voicing the concerns and needs of local communities, FAWE helps shape educational policies that prioritise gender equality and the education of girls.

SUSTAINABLE MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT

The sustainable model for development seeks to address the world’s pressing challenges by balancing environmental protection, social inclusion, and economic progress. Central to this concept are the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a set of 17 interconnected goals adopted by world leaders in 2015 to achieve a more sustainable and equitable future by 2030. The sustainable model for development will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 of this book.

Figure 1.11

FAWE has significantly improved enrolment and educational outcomes for girls in Africa.

Figure 1.12

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is the modernisation model of development, and when did it emerge?

2. State three key changes countries need to undergo, according to the modernisation model.

3. Give an example of a country that experienced rapid industrialisation and explain its impact on the economy.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the strengths of the modernisation model of development, focusing on its clear pathway and potential for rapid economic growth.

2. Compare the modernisation model and the grassroots model in terms of their approach to education and human capital.

3. Discuss the criticisms of the modernisation model, emphasising its tendency towards cultural homogenisation and unequal development.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse South Korea’s case study of adopting the modernisation model, considering its transformation from a war-ravaged country to a global economic powerhouse.

2. Investigate the challenges faced in replicating the grassroots model on a larger scale. Discuss how external support and resources can aid or hinder its implementation.

3. Examine FAWE’s adoption of the grassroots model for development and its impact on promoting gender equality and expanding access to education in Africa.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Examine how the modernisation model and the grassroots model of development involve contrasting views of development.

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Define and explain the core principles of both the modernisation and the grassroots model of development.

• Provide specific examples from the text to highlight the central features of each model.

• Clearly highlight the overarching aim of each model: modernisation focusing on economic growth and technological progress; grassroots emphasising community-led initiatives and inclusivity

Your answer should:

• Address the strengths and criticisms of both the modernisation and the grassroots model, as given in the text.

• Include specific references to the case studies provided: South Korea for the modernisation model; FAWE for the grassroots model

• Discuss the significance of cultural values, global integration, and empowerment in both models, drawing on relevant examples from the text.

Your answer could:

• Compare how each model approaches the topic of economic growth and human development.

• Analyse the implications of each model’s approach, suggesting potential long-term impacts or challenges that may arise from each perspective.

TOPIC 1.3: Images and Language of Development

In the study of geography, we often encounter terms such as ‘first world’ and ‘third world’, ‘North’ and ‘South’, ‘MEDCs’ and ‘LEDCs’ used to categorise countries based on their economic development. However, it is crucial to approach these ideas critically and challenge the prevailing Eurocentric thinking that underlies these classifications.

First World: Countries aligned with the Western Bloc (i.e. NATO and allies), led by the United States

Second World: Countries aligned with the Eastern Bloc (i.e. Warsaw Pact, China and allies), led by the Soviet Union

Third World: The Non-Aligned Movement and other neutral countries

Figure 1.13

Map of first, second and third world countries

EUROCENTRIC THINKING

Eurocentric thinking in geography refers to a historical and cultural bias that places a disproportionate emphasis on Europe and European perspectives when studying and interpreting the world. This approach has been influential in shaping geographic knowledge and perceptions for centuries.

Eurocentrism traces its origins to European colonialism and imperialism. During the Age of Exploration, European powers dominated and mapped significant parts of the world, often imposing their worldviews and ideologies. Eurocentric thinking often positions Europe as the centre of the world, with other regions and cultures evaluated in relation to Europe’s standards, norms and values.

Eurocentrism can lead to the marginalisation or misrepresentation of non-European cultures and perspectives. It can perpetuate stereotypes and undermine the richness and diversity of other world regions. Historically, much of the world’s geographic knowledge has been produced in European institutions and by European scholars, leading to a Eurocentric bias in the academic and educational systems.

In today’s interconnected world, efforts are being made to challenge Eurocentric thinking by promoting a more inclusive and diverse approach to geography. This involves recognising and valuing voices and knowledge from all regions and cultures.

‘FIRST WORLD’ AND ‘THIRD WORLD’

The notion of ‘first world’ and ‘third world’ emerged during the Cold War era when the world was divided into two blocs The western countries led by the United States were seen as the ‘first world’ or developed, and the communist nations were considered the ‘second world.’ Countries that were not aligned with either bloc were labelled the ‘third world,’ which carried a negative connotation. This classification is outdated and oversimplified, as many so-called ‘third world’ countries have made significant progress in economic, social and technological aspects, while some ‘first world’ countries still face challenges.

Figure 1.14

‘Global North’ and ‘Global South’

‘NORTH’ AND ‘SOUTH’

Similarly, the idea of ‘North’ and ‘South’ refers to the global division between wealthy, industrialised nations in the northern hemisphere and less developed countries in the southern hemisphere. However, this division overlooks the considerable diversity within these regions. Some countries in the Global South have achieved remarkable economic growth and development, while some in the Global North still grapple with inequality and poverty.

Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs)

Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs)

Figure 1.15

Simplified map of MEDCs and LEDCs

‘MEDCs’ AND ‘LEDCs’

The terms ‘MEDC’ and ‘LEDC’ categorise countries based on their level of economic development. MEDC stands for ‘More Economically Developed Country’, while LEDC represents ‘Less Economically Developed Country’. This classification simplifies complex economic realities and reinforces stereotypes. Economic development is multifaceted and influenced by historical, social and political factors, not merely by a nation’s wealth or industrialisation.

CHALLENGING THE EUROCENTRIC VIEW OF DEVELOPMENT

Eurocentric thinking is a perspective that places European culture and history at the centre of analysis, often marginalising other cultures and perspectives. This Eurocentrism has influenced how we view and categorise societies, and has perpetuated stereotypes and biases.

To develop a more comprehensive understanding of developing societies, we should focus on their unique histories, cultures and challenges. Encouraging dialogue and embracing diverse perspectives can help dismantle Eurocentric thinking and foster a more inclusive approach to studying geography.

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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Define the terms ‘first world’ and ‘third world’ and explain their historical context during the Cold War era.

2. What does the division of ‘North’ and ‘South’ refer to in the context of global geography?

3. Explain the meaning of ‘MEDCs’ and ‘LEDCs’ in categorising countries based on their economic development.

Developed Knowledge

1. Discuss the limitations of using the terms ‘first world’ and ‘third world’ to categorise countries, considering the oversimplification and outdated nature of the terms.

2. Compare the divisions of ‘North’ and ‘South’ and ‘MEDCs’ and ‘LEDCs’, highlighting how these classifications may overlook the diversity within the regions they represent.

3. Outline the concept of Eurocentrism and its impact on how societies are viewed and categorised in the study of geography.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the importance of understanding the unique histories, cultures and challenges of developing societies to foster a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to geographical analysis.

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2023

‘Views of development and underdevelopment involve contrasting models and approaches to development.’

Discuss.

2021

‘Views of development and underdevelopment are subject to change.’

Discuss.

2016

(80 marks)

(80 marks)

‘Views of development and underdevelopment involve contrasting models and approaches to development.’

Discuss.

(80 marks)

OUR INTERDEPENDENT WORLD

CHAPTER 02

SYLLABUS LINK

6.2 WE LIVE IN AN INTERDEPENDENT GLOBAL ECONOMY. ACTIONS OR DECISIONS TAKEN IN ONE AREA HAVE AN IMPACT ON OTHER AREAS.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. Name three key factors used to measure development in the United Nations Human Development Report.

2. What is the modernisation model of development, and when did it emerge?

3. Give an example of a country that experienced rapid industrialisation and explain its impact on the economy.

4. List the strengths of the modernisation model of development.

5. Outline the criticisms of the modernisation model of development.

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Examine the impact of global trading patterns on producer and consumer regions.

2. Analyse global environmental issues such as global warming, deforestation and desertification.

3. Discuss the impact of political and social decisions on economic and political migrants.

4. Explain the impact of political and social decisions on human rights issues with reference to refugees in Ireland.

KEYWORDS

Multinational corporations (MNCs) Global trading patterns International trade Supply chains

Pfizer Raw materials Global distribution network Research and development (R&D)

Consumer regions Partnerships Global environmental challenges Global warming

Deforestation Desertification Environmental degradation Overpopulation

Climate changeImpacts of desertification Migration Conflicts

Food securityXenophobia Economic migrants Political refugees

Integration

TOPIC 2.1: Impact of Global Trading Patterns on Producer and Consumer Regions

IMPACT OF MNCs ON GLOBAL TRADING PATTERNS

In today’s interconnected world, multinational corporations (MNCs) play a pivotal role in shaping global trading patterns. These giants of the business world engage in international trade with the aim of reaching vast numbers of consumers across multiple countries. Their extensive supply chains span various continents, sourcing raw materials from different nations.

MNCs have become key players in international trade, accounting for a staggering 80 per cent of the annual $32 trillion trade volume, as reported by the UN Conference for Trade and Development in 2022.

As MNCs continue to expand and establish their presence worldwide, they contribute significantly to the development of global trading patterns They facilitate the movement of goods, services and capital across borders, and promote economic growth and integration on a global scale.

For example, Pfizer is a leading global pharmaceutical manufacturing MNC Pfizer designs its products in one country, sources raw materials from several others, and then assembles and distributes the final product to customers worldwide. This complex web of transactions demonstrates the extensive impact of MNCs on international trade.

CASE STUDY: Pfizer’s impact on global trading patterns

Pfizer has already been discussed in The Natural World, Book 2, Chapter 3. Here, you will learn about Pfizer’s production of vaccines – from sourcing raw materials, to manufacturing and distribution – in order to illustrate the impact of Pfizer on global trading patterns.

Pfizer sources the raw materials necessary for vaccine production through a well-established supply chain. First, Pfizer collaborates with local and international suppliers to obtain the required raw materials. These suppliers specialise in producing specific ingredients, such as lipids, salts, sugars, and proteins, needed for vaccine manufacturing. Uniquely, Pfizer developed its own raw materials to ensure a steady supply of COVID-19 vaccines over the course of the pandemic. Pfizer has over 35 Pfizer-owned manufacturing sites across the world that produce the raw materials necessary for vaccine production before being imported into Ireland.

Figure 2.2

Pfizer, a pharmaceutical manufacturing MNC

Figure 2.3

Pfizer’s global manufacturing network

By sourcing raw materials both domestically and internationally, Pfizer can optimise its supply chain and ensure a consistent and reliable flow of materials for vaccine production in Ireland. Most of the raw materials used by Pfizer are sourced in MEDCs, as their economies are equipped to manufacture the specialised materials.

RAW MATERIALS NEEDED TO PRODUCE VACCINES

RAW MATERIAL

mRNA (messenger RNA)

Lipids

Salts such as potassium chloride

Sucrose

Water for injection

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

United States

Canada

Germany

Ireland

Ireland

PFIZER’S IMPACT ON PRODUCER REGIONS

First, Pfizer’s role as a leading producer of vaccines and medicines underscores its significance in the pharmaceutical industry. The company operates research and production facilities in various countries, sourcing raw materials, conducting research, and manufacturing drugs on a large scale. For instance, Pfizer’s COVID-19 vaccine production involves sourcing essential ingredients such as mRNA components from multiple regions, resulting in extensive trade networks.

Second, Pfizer’s demand for specific raw materials and skilled labour stimulates economic activities in producer regions These regions increase their exports of raw materials and intermediate goods, such as specialised chemicals and bioengineering equipment, as required for Pfizer’s pharmaceutical production. As a result, local economies benefit from enhanced trade opportunities and employment opportunities. This is evident in Ireland, as Pfizer employs approximately 5,000 people, across five locations in Cork, Dublin and Kildare. Additionally, the company has made a substantial capital investment of over €8 billion in Ireland.

Third, Pfizer’s collaboration with local pharmaceutical companies in producer regions enhances technology transfer and knowledge sharing. Through partnerships, Pfizer transfers its expertise in pharmaceutical research, development and production, and empowers local industries to develop their capabilities. This cooperation fosters long-term sustainability in the pharmaceutical sector and contributes to the growth of global healthcare systems.

Moreover, Pfizer’s vast network of distribution and supply chains connects producer regions to the rest of the world. As Pfizer delivers its vaccines and medicines globally, trade routes are established, connecting countries and regions in complex trade webs This interconnectivity strengthens economic ties and fosters regional cooperation.

It is worth noting that Pfizer’s influence on global trading patterns can also lead to challenges. In the face of high demand for vaccines during pandemics, certain regions may face supply shortages due to concentrated production. This was evident during the global rollout of COVID-19 vaccines, which highlighted the inequity between MEDCs and LEDCs During the rollout of COVID-19 vaccines, MEDC economies were the first to receive access to the vaccines, while countries with the smallest economies – countries with the lowest gross domestic product (GDP) – lagged behind in the COVID-19 vaccination rollout Many LEDCs achieved less than 10 per cent population coverage in the initial rollouts. The lack of access to vaccines during the pandemic highlights the widening poverty gap between MEDCs and LEDCs and the importance of MNCs having wide global trading patterns in countries of all levels of development.

The medicines manufactured are distributed to approximately in

100 countries

The Pfizer products manufactured in Ireland are distributed all over the world.

Figure 2.4

Pfizer locations in Ireland

Figure 2.5

PFIZER’S IMPACT ON CONSUMER REGIONS

Pfizer’s extensive distribution networks enable its vaccines and medicines to reach consumer regions worldwide. As the demand for Pfizer’s products remains high, the company establishes strong trade links with numerous countries, ensuring a steady flow of pharmaceuticals to meet healthcare needs. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Pfizer’s COVID-19 vaccine was distributed globally to combat the spread of the virus.

Pfizer has also had a significant impact on consumer regions by enhancing the quality of medications. Through extensive research and development, Pfizer has introduced innovative drugs that offer better treatment options for various medical conditions. These medications undergo rigorous testing and adhere to strict quality standards, ensuring their safety and efficacy For example, Pfizer’s development of the COVID-19 vaccine demonstrated its commitment to quality healthcare. Extensive clinical trials showed its effectiveness in preventing the spread of the virus, which offered a ray of hope during the pandemic.

Pfizer’s initiatives have also helped to make medication more affordable When patents expire, Pfizer promotes the generic versions of its drugs. This helps to lower the cost of essential medications and make them more accessible to a broader population. It is worth examining Pfizer’s production of Lipitor, a widely used drug for lowering cholesterol. This medication has become available as a generic drug after Pfizer’s patent expiration. This led to a significant reduction in its price, benefiting patients and healthcare systems.

Lipitor’s patent expired in November 2011. Before the patent expired, one month’s supply of the brand-name drug could cost around $175 in the United States. By 2013, patients could obtain one month’s supply of the generic version for as little as $4. Once out of patent, drugs tend to be more affordable and accessible.

Figure 2.6

Although Pfizer’s global distribution network enabled vaccines to reach consumer regions worldwide, the distribution of COVID-19 vaccines highlighted medical inequalities on a global scale.

Pfizer’s involvement in international trade stimulates economic activities in consumer regions. The presence of Pfizer’s products creates employment opportunities and fosters economic growth, as

local healthcare industries engage in distribution, sales and administration of Pfizer’s medicines. This economic boost contributes to the overall development of consumer regions.

Additionally, Pfizer’s role in research and development (R&D) influences global trading patterns in consumer regions. As Pfizer invests in cutting-edge research and innovation, new pharmaceutical products are introduced to the market This can lead to increased demand for raw materials and intermediates sourced from various regions, which stimulates international trade. This is demonstrated by Pfizer’s development of research and development within Ireland. The Global Biotherapeutics Technology group, located at Grange Castle and established in 2006, is part of Pfizer’s Worldwide Research and Development. This division contributes to the cutting-edge field of protein drug discovery, showcasing Ireland’s involvement in Pfizer’s global pursuit of scientific advancements.

Pfizer’s partnerships with local healthcare providers and governments in consumer regions also play a significant role in shaping trade dynamics. Through collaborations, Pfizer can expand access to its medicines and vaccines, making them more widely available to the public. These partnerships foster regional cooperation and strengthen trade ties.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are multinational corporations (MNCs) and how do they impact global trading patterns?

2. According to the UN Conference for Trade and Development, what percentage of the annual trade volume was accounted for by MNCs in 2022?

3. Using Pfizer as an example, describe how MNCs engage in international trade and contribute to global economic growth.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe Pfizer’s supply chain for vaccine production, including the sourcing of raw materials from different countries.

2. How does Pfizer’s role as a leading producer of vaccines and medicines affect economic activities in producer regions?

3. Explain how Pfizer’s collaborations with local pharmaceutical companies in producer regions contribute to the growth of global healthcare systems

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of Pfizer’s extensive distribution networks on global trading patterns and access to pharmaceuticals in different regions.

2. Differentiate between the economic challenges and benefits brought about by Pfizer’s influence on global trading patterns in both producer and consumer regions.

TOPIC 2.2: Global Environmental Issues

The world is currently facing a number of global environmental challenges that are putting the future of planet Earth at risk. The most significant challenges are:

• Global warming (Note: Global warming is discussed in The Natural World, Book 2, Chapter 6)

• Deforestation

• Desertification.

DEFORESTATION

Throughout history and into today’s world, forests have been felled to make space for humans, agricultural and animal grazing, and to obtain raw materials for fuel, manufacturing and construction. This practice has greatly altered landscapes around the world. About 2,000 years ago, 80 per cent of western Europe was forested. Today the figure is 34 per cent.

Today, the greatest levels of deforestation occur in tropical rainforests. For example, the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil has faced the threat of deforestation since the 1970s.

The scale of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest is staggering. Between 1978 and 2022, approximately 761,000 square kilometres of forest were cleared. This is an area larger than the size of Turkey. In recent years, the annual deforestation rate has seen an alarming increase. In 2020 alone, deforestation reached 11,088 square kilometres, representing a 9.5 per cent rise compared to the previous year

Trees cut and burned to open land for agriculture and livestock in the

Figure 2.7

Forest map of Europe, 2023

Figure 2.8

Jamanxim National Forest, Pará, Brazil

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

There are four main causes of deforestation in today’s global economy:

• Global demand for timber

• Expansion of urban areas/settlement

• Intensive agricultural practices

• Industrial development.

GLOBAL DEMAND FOR TIMBER

The size of the global timber and wood product market was estimated at $626bn in 2022. The demand for this market is met through logging. Logging refers to the process of cutting down trees for commercial purposes, such as timber extraction In today’s economy, large areas of the Amazon Rainforest are cleared to meet the global demand for wood products.

The largest seizure of illegal timber in Brazil’s history saw police recover 226,000 cubic metres of wood on the border between the states of Amazonas and Pará in March 2021.

It is estimated that illegal logging accounts for a substantial portion of timber extraction in the Amazon, with estimates ranging from 50 per cent to 90 per cent of all logging activities. These illegal practices often involve bribery, corruption, and deliberately breaking regulations. All this leads to the unsustainable and destructive exploitation of the rainforest. The extent of this illegal activity can be seen in one study from the late 1990s by a Brazilian commission, which found that 80 per cent of all logging in the Amazon was illegal. Additionally, of the 13 companies that were investigated, 12 had broken the law.

EXPANSION OF URBAN AREAS/SETTLEMENT

Settlement and rapid population growth have played a significant role in deforestation across the globe. For example, Brazil has experienced rapid population growth over the last 50 years. With a population of over 215 million people, it is the seventh most populous country in the world. This growing population has led to an increased need for resources and land, resulting in the expansion of settlements into the Amazon Rainforest.

As the population expands, people seek new areas for housing and livelihoods. The Amazon Rainforest, with its abundant natural resources and fertile land, becomes an attractive option for settlement. This leads to large sections of the rainforest being cleared, which causes intensive deforestation.

One notable example of settlement causing intensive deforestation in the Amazon is the colonisation of the Brazilian state of Rondônia In the 1970s the Brazilian government implemented policies to encourage settlement and economic development in this region. Large numbers of people migrated to Rondônia, seeking opportunities in agriculture and cattle ranching. As a result, vast areas of the Amazon Rainforest were cleared to make way for settlements, roads and agricultural activities. Rondônia has been one of the states with the highest deforestation rates in the Amazon. Between 2001 and 2021, Rondônia experienced a 25 per cent decrease in tree cover

Figure 2.9

INTENSIVE AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Figure 2.10

Rapid urbanisation in Rondônia has resulted in high levels of deforestation.

Intensive agricultural practices refers to farming methods that aim to maximise agricultural productivity and yields within a limited area of land. There are two types of intensive agricultural practices that are causing widespread deforestation of tropical rainforests:

• Cattle ranching

• Farming of cash crops

Cattle ranching has been a major driver of deforestation in the Amazon. It is estimated that around 80 per cent of deforestation in the Amazon is linked to cattle ranching. Brazil has one of the largest beef industries globally, and the demand for beef continues to rise. The expansion of cattle ranching leads to the clearing of vast areas of the rainforest to make space for grazing. Large-scale cattle ranching operations require significant land for pasture, which has resulted in millions of hectares of the Amazon Rainforest being cleared. The Brazilian state of Pará, for example, has experienced substantial deforestation due to cattle ranching. Between 1978 and 2022, Pará lost over 270,000 square kilometres of forest – an area larger than the United Kingdom.

The farming of cash crops, particularly the production of soybean, has had a significant impact on deforestation in various regions across Brazil and the Amazon Rainforest.

Soybean production has become a major driver of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest. The demand for soybeans has increased globally due to their use in various products, including animal feed, vegetable oils and biofuels As a result, vast areas of the rainforest have been cleared to make way for soybean plantations.

Mato Grosso 26%

Mato Grosso do Sul 8%

Production by Municipality 3-year average

2019–21, metric tonnes

501–200,000

200,001–750,000

750,001–2,950,000

Percentages (%) indicate share of national production.

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

The Brazilian state of Mato Grosso is one of the main soybean-producing regions in the Amazon. Approximately 26 per cent of all soybean production in Brazil can be linked back to this region, and soybean plantations have increased in size over the past decade. Consequently, between 2001 and 2019, Mato Grosso lost 22 per cent of its tree cover.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Industrial development such as mining also plays a significant role in intensive deforestation across the globe. Mining activities in the Amazon Rainforest have had a significant impact on deforestation. The extraction of minerals and precious metals has been a major driver of deforestation, resulting in severe environmental and social consequences. Mining operations in the Amazon involve the clearing of large areas of forest to access mineral deposits beneath the ground. Heavy machinery and equipment are used to excavate and process the minerals, leading to the destruction of trees and vegetation, and the disruption of natural

Figure 2.11

Map of soybean yield and production in Brazil

habitats. Additionally, mining often requires the construction of roads, infrastructure, and settlements, which further contributes to deforestation and land degradation.

The scale of mining-induced deforestation in the Amazon is staggering. Between 2005 and 2022, mining-related activities accounted for approximately 9 per cent of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Moreover, the rate of illegal deforestation for mining increased more than 90 per cent from 2017 to 2022.

IMPACT OF DEFORESTATION

There are four main impacts of deforestation that can be observed:

• The loss of a carbon sink

• Disruption to the water cycle

• Loss of soil fertility

• Loss of biodiversity.

LOSS OF A CARBON SINK

The Amazon Rainforest is often referred to as the ‘lungs of the Earth’. It plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change through its capacity to absorb and store massive amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). Areas that have this vital function are known as ‘carbon sinks’.

The vast expanse of the Amazon Rainforest houses an array of plant life. Trees, in particular, absorb CO2 during photosynthesis and store it as carbon within their biomass and soils. The Amazon Rainforest has been estimated to store 140–150 billion metric tonnes of carbon, making it one of the largest carbon sinks on the planet.

2.12

The Amazon Rainforest is now emitting more carbon than it absorbs.

The loss of trees in the Amazon Rainforest has a direct impact on the region’s ability to sequester carbon. As trees are felled, the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere in the form of CO2, through processes such as decomposition and burning. This contributes to the greenhouse effect and exacerbates climate change. The increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere traps heat, causing global temperatures to rise. This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. Rising temperatures result in more extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts and floods, affecting both local and global communities.

DISRUPTION TO THE WATER CYCLE

Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest has profound implications for the water cycle, disrupting the delicate balance of precipitation and evapotranspiration.

The Amazon Rainforest is known for its role as a significant driver of the global water cycle. This vast expanse of trees acts as a natural pump, influencing the movement and distribution of water in the region and beyond.

Precipitation, in the form of rainfall, is a vital component of the water cycle. The Amazon Rainforest plays a crucial role in attracting moisture from the Atlantic Ocean, creating a ‘flying river’ effect. It

Figure

is estimated that the Amazon Rainforest contributes 25–30 per cent of the total rainfall in some areas in South America.

When deforestation occurs, the natural landscape is altered, affecting the process of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration refers to the combined loss of water through both evaporation from the soil and transpiration from plants. The trees in the rainforest have extensive leaf surfaces that release moisture into the atmosphere through transpiration. This moisture contributes to cloud formation and subsequent rainfall. However, with deforestation, the loss of trees and vegetation reduces evapotranspiration, leading to a decrease in local and regional rainfall.

The impact of deforestation on the water cycle is not limited to reduced rainfall. The removal of trees disrupts the natural balance of water absorption and retention Trees act as natural sponges, absorbing and storing water in their root systems and releasing it slowly into the soil and atmosphere. With deforestation, the ability of the land to retain water is compromised, leading to increased runoff and the risk of floods during heavy rainfall events.

Additionally, deforestation can alter the timing and intensity of rainfall patterns Research suggests that deforestation in the Amazon can influence the timing of the rainy season, leading to a shorter duration and potentially more severe dry spells. Consequently, this could increase the rate of mass movement events in Brazil, as has already been seen in Petrópolis. See The Natural World, Book 1, Chapter 10 to learn more about the impacts of deforestation on mudslides in the Brazilian region.

SOIL FERTILITY

Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest has severe consequences for soil erosion and soil fertility, impacting the long-term health and productivity of the land.

The Amazon Rainforest is characterised by its dense vegetation cover, which plays a vital role in preventing soil erosion. The trees, with their extensive root systems, hold the soil in place, reducing the risk of erosion caused by wind and water. However, when trees are cleared through deforestation, the protective barrier against erosion is lost.

With the removal of trees, the soil is left exposed and vulnerable to erosion by wind and rain. The impact of erosion is twofold. First, the topsoil, which is rich in organic matter and nutrients, is eroded, leading to a loss of soil fertility This loss of fertility reduces the capacity of the soil to support agricultural activities and sustain healthy plant growth.

Second, soil erosion carries the eroded sediments downstream, which can clog rivers and streams, impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems Sedimentation in water bodies reduces light penetration and oxygen levels, affecting the survival of aquatic plants and animals.

One region that has experienced significant soil erosion and loss of fertility due to deforestation is the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso This region has witnessed extensive clearing of the rainforest for agriculture, particularly for soybean production. Mato Grosso has lost approximately 4,472 square kilometres of forest, resulting in annual soil erosion rates as high as 100 tonnes per hectare in some areas.

Figure 2.13

Disruption to the water cycle has led to extreme rainfall and mass movement events in Brazil.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest has a profound impact on biodiversity, endangering numerous plant and animal species that call this remarkable ecosystem home.

When trees are cut down, entire habitats are destroyed. The forest canopy, understorey vegetation, and forest floor provide a diverse array of niches and microhabitats that support an astounding variety of species. Birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and countless insects depend on specific ecological conditions within the rainforest. Deforestation disrupts these habitats, leaving many species without a place to live and thrive.

DESERTIFICATION

Desertification is a complex process of land degradation, often characterised by the transformation of fertile and productive land into arid and barren desert-like terrain. This environmental phenomenon is driven by a combination of natural and human-induced factors, resulting in adverse effects on ecosystems and human livelihoods.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

Desertification is occurring at alarming rates in the Sahel, a region located in north Africa. The region covers about 5,000 kilometres and is home to over 100 million people, most of whom depend on agriculture and pastoralism for their livelihoods. The biggest causes of desertification in the Sahel are:

• Overpopulation • Climate change.

Sahel Region is experiencing a rapid rate of desertification.

OVERPOPULATION

The Sahel region of Africa is experiencing rapid population growth, which is one of the main causes of overpopulation in the area. The population in the Sahel has doubled since the 1960s. This increase in population has led to an increased demand for resources such as water, food and land, which the region is struggling to keep up with.

As the population continues to grow, the pressure on resources in the Sahel is becoming more acute. Overgrazing, deforestation and soil degradation are some of the consequences of overpopulation in the area. These issues are causing a decline in agricultural productivity and making it more difficult for people to make a living Agricultural productivity in the Sahel has declined by 30 per cent since the 1960s due to desertification, soil degradation and climate variability This has resulted in food insecurity and a dependence on food aid for many people in the region. Soil degradation has led to a 12 per cent reduction in potential crop yields in the Sahel.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is one of the factors that contributes to overpopulation in the Sahel region. The Sahel has experienced increasing temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns, resulting in drought and desertification. Temperatures in the region have risen at a rate of 0.5 degrees Celsius per decade, which is double the global average. The region also has increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns, with longer periods of drought and more frequent and intense floods.

Figure 2.15

The cumulative effects of conflicts, severe drought, repeated climate change shocks, slow post-COVID-19 economic recovery, and rising food prices have dramatically exacerbated food insecurity in the Sahel.

In recent years, the Sahel has experienced some of the worst droughts in the past century, leading to crop failures and livestock deaths, which have further strained the region’s resources and exacerbated food insecurity. This has led to more people facing severe hunger and malnutrition. According to the World Food Programme, over 31 million people are currently facing acute food insecurity in the Sahel, with children being particularly vulnerable. These environmental changes have reduced the amount of arable land available for agriculture, which has been the primary livelihood for many people in the region. As a result, people have been forced to migrate to urban areas or neighbouring countries in search of better living conditions. According to the United Nations, the population of the Sahel region is projected to increase from the current estimated 135 million to over 340 million by 2050, with climate change being one of the factors contributing to this increase

IMPACTS OF DESERTIFICATION

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

One of the most significant impacts of desertification in the Sahel is environmental degradation. The rapid increase in population has led to an increased demand for resources such as water, food and land. Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and other harmful activities. As a result, natural resources in the region are being overused and depleted. There are three main drivers of environmental degradation in the Sahel:

• Overgrazing

• Overcropping

• Deforestation.

Overgrazing

Overgrazing occurs when too many animals are grazing on the same area of land, which depletes vegetation and creates soil erosion As the population in the Sahel has grown, the demand for livestock has also increased, which has put a strain on the region’s grazing lands. Overgrazing is one of the main drivers of land degradation in the Sahel, along with deforestation and poor land management practices

As more people in the Sahel rely on livestock for their livelihoods, the demand for grazing land has increased. However, the amount of grazing land available has not kept up with this demand, which has led to overgrazing. Additionally, as the population continues to grow, the pressure on resources such as water and food is also increasing, making it more difficult for farmers to provide enough food for their animals. This can lead to further overgrazing, as animals are forced to graze in smaller areas. It is believed that 70 per cent of the Sahel’s rangelands are overgrazed, leading to a decline in the productivity of these lands.

The consequences of overgrazing are significant. When vegetation is depleted, the land becomes more vulnerable to soil erosion, which can lead to desertification. This can have a devastating impact on the environment and the livelihoods of people in the region. Additionally, overgrazing can contribute to a decline in agricultural productivity, as the soil becomes less fertile and less able to support crops.

Overcropping

Overcropping, or the practice of planting crops on the same piece of land repeatedly without proper rotation or rest, is a major issue in the Sahel region of Africa. This is largely due to overpopulation, as the increasing demand for food has led to a greater need for arable land. As the population continues to grow, the pressure on land resources in the Sahel is becoming more acute, and overcropping is becoming increasingly common.

The Sahel region is home to some of the poorest and most vulnerable communities in the world, with millions of people living in extreme poverty and food insecurity. Overcropping exacerbates these issues as the soil becomes degraded, nutrients are depleted and crop yields fall. Agricultural productivity in the Sahel is said to have declined by 30 per cent since the 1960s due to desertification, soil degradation and climate variability, with overcropping being a major contributor

Figure 2.16

Overgrazing in the Sahel

Figure 2.17

Overcropping in the Sahel

Deforestation

The growing population has led to an increased demand for land, primarily for agriculture and grazing, which has put pressure on the natural forests and woodlands in the region. Trees are being cut down for fuelwood, charcoal, and to clear land for agriculture. The Sahel region has experienced a 40 per cent reduction in forest cover since the 1970s. This deforestation has resulted in the loss of habitat for wildlife, reduced biodiversity, and increased soil erosion. Deforestation also exacerbates the effects of climate change, as trees play an important role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Deforestation is also contributing to desertification, which is one of the major environmental challenges in the Sahel. The loss of vegetation cover and the exposure of bare soil to the wind and sun is causing the land to become dry and infertile, making it more difficult for farmers to grow crops and graze livestock. According to the United Nations, desertification affects over 45 per cent of the land in the Sahel, which is leading to food insecurity and poverty.

MIGRATION AND CONFLICTS

Another significant impact of desertification in the Sahel is its impact on migration patterns and the development of conflict in the region.

The rapid population growth in the region has led to an increased demand for resources such as water, food and land, which the region is struggling to keep up with. The intensive environmental degradation is causing a decline in agricultural productivity and making it more difficult for people to make a living As a result, people are being forced to migrate to urban areas or neighbouring countries in search of better living conditions. Additionally, conflicts over resources, such as land and water, are exacerbating migration in the region. In 2021 there were 4.6 million refugees and 7.5 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the Sahel region due to conflict and other factors such as climate change and economic hardship.

Conflicts over resources are also a significant factor in migration in the Sahel. As the population continues to grow and resources become scarcer, conflicts over resources are likely to become more common. According to the United Nations, the Sahel region is one of the most conflictaffected regions in the world. Conflicts in the region are driven by a range of factors, including ethnic tensions, political instability, and scarcity of resources. The conflicts in the Sahel have led to the displacement of millions of people and have further exacerbated the region’s resources.

For example, the ongoing crisis in Mali has displaced over 270,000 people within Mali, and over 200,000 Malians have fled to neighbouring countries such as Burkina Faso and Niger The conflict has also had a significant impact on the region’s economy, with disruptions to trade and food production, as well as a rise in food prices.

FOOD SECURITY

The Sahel has also experienced increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns, resulting in drought and desertification, which has led to crop failures and livestock deaths. This puts pressure on the region’s resources and exacerbates food insecurity An increasing number of people face severe hunger and malnutrition. Over 31 million people in the Sahel currently face acute food insecurity, with children being particularly vulnerable. In addition, 7.4 million children under the age of five in the Sahel suffer from acute malnutrition.

Figure 2.18 Millions face severe food insecurity in the Sahel region.

The situation has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing conflicts in the region, leading to a further increase in the number of people facing food insecurity and malnutrition. The United Nations has flagged that by the end of 2023 the number of people in need of humanitarian assistance in the region reached 29 million

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Name three global environmental challenges mentioned in the text.

2. Where are the highest levels of deforestation occurring today?

3. State the four main causes of deforestation in today’s global economy.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the impact of deforestation on the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil, including the scale of deforestation and the increase in the annual deforestation rate

2. Explain how overpopulation contributes to desertification in the Sahel region of Africa.

3. Discuss the main drivers of environmental degradation in the Sahel, focusing on overgrazing, overcropping and deforestation.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of deforestation on the global carbon cycle and its consequences on climate change.

2. Investigate the link between climate change and the increasing unpredictability of rainfall patterns in the Sahel region and explain how this contributes to desertification and food insecurity.

3. Consider the role of conflicts and scarcity of resources in driving migration patterns in the Sahel and how these factors exacerbate the region’s environmental challenges, such as desertification and food insecurity.

TOPIC 2.3: The Impact of Social and Political Decisions

Migration is a geographical concept that encompasses the movement of people from one place to another. It refers to the movement of people across a geographical boundary, whether it’s a national border, an ocean, or a river. In its most basic form, there are two types of people who move in the process of migration:

• Economic migrants

• Political refugees.

ECONOMIC MIGRANTS

An economic migrant is an individual who leaves their country of origin in pursuit of better economic prospects and improved living conditions in another country. These individuals are motivated by the desire to escape poverty, unemployment, and limited opportunities in their homeland, and they seek a chance for a more prosperous and secure future elsewhere.

Economic migrants are compelled to leave their home country due to various push factors, such as economic instability, lack of job opportunities, political instability, and social challenges. These factors often make it challenging for them to improve their quality of life in their country of origin.

On the other hand, economic migrants are attracted to other countries by pull factors, such as the promise of better-paying jobs, improved standards of living, access to education and healthcare, and the potential for a brighter future for their families.

As of 2023, it is estimated that there were over 281 million international migrants globally, and a significant portion of them were economic migrants This figure represents 4 per cent of the total global population. For instance, many individuals from African countries migrate to Europe to seek better job opportunities and living conditions.

Economic migrants often contribute significantly to the economies of their host countries. They fill labour gaps in industries that require low-skilled or high-skilled workers, bolstering productivity and economic growth

While economic migration offers potential benefits, it also poses challenges for both the migrant and host communities. Integration, language barriers, cultural differences, and potential exploitation are factors that require attention and support.

CASE STUDY: Impact of social and political decisions on migration in Ireland

Ireland has experienced significant economic growth and development over the last 30 years, making it an attractive destination for economic migrants Many individuals from various countries, especially those within the European Union (EU) but also those from non-EU countries, migrate to Ireland for better job prospects, higher wages, and improved standards of living.

4,396,500

703,700 Irish nationals (86.2%)

The 2022 Census indicated that there are 703,700 nonIrish nationals living in Ireland who originate from over 200 countries This number represents an increase from the 2016 Census and accounts for 13.8 per cent of the population. The biggest non-Irish groups were Polish and UK citizens, followed by citizens from India, Romania and Lithuania. Among the larger non-Irish groups were Brazilian, Italian, Latvian and Spanish citizens.

Non-Irish nationals (13.8%)

Figure 2.19

Non-Irish nationals living in Ireland

SOCIAL DECISION: EU ENLARGEMENT AND ECONOMIC MIGRATION IN IRELAND

A period of EU enlargement in central and Eastern Europe occurred at the same time as the Irish economy’s rapid development after a period of almost ten years of sustained growth known as the Celtic Tiger. Consequently, the number of migrants moving to Ireland from countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland and Lithuania increased exponentially during a short timeframe. This was

reflected in the migration figures from these new EU member states, which increased from under 14,000 in 2002 to over 120,000 in 2006. This influx of immigrants into the country continued over 2007 and 2008 with the estimated Eastern Europe immigrant population in Ireland at around 200,000 or 4.5 per cent of the total population This was important for the continuation of Ireland’s economic growth at the time because there was an acute labour shortage in the country towards the end of the Celtic Tiger period.

Figure 2.20

Immigration statistics for Ireland, 2002 and 2011

Ireland was an attractive destination for these migrants as it boasted one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe at the time (4.5 per cent) The additional labour force also benefited the Irish economy, as it generated more government revenue through higher tax collections. Immigration has had a positive impact on Irish GDP because it increased labour supply and slowed down the rate of wage increases.

POLITICAL DECISION: IMPACT OF EU POLICY ON ECONOMIC MIGRATION INTO IRELAND

The EU Blue Card is a migration policy tool introduced in 2011 designed to attract highly skilled non-EU workers to fill job vacancies in member states. To be eligible for an EU Blue Card, non-EU workers must have a valid job offer for highly qualified employment in a member state, meet certain education and experience requirements, and earn a minimum salary set by the member state

The EU Blue Card contributes to the EU migration policy by addressing the shortage of highly skilled workers in member states, while also creating a pathway for legal and regulated migration. The EU Blue Card has significantly encouraged economic migration into Ireland. In 2021, there were 29,000 EU Blue Cards issued to economic migrants coming into Ireland.

For example, many doctors, nurses and other healthcare professionals from other countries have migrated to Ireland to work in the country’s healthcare sector These skilled workers have brought with them a wealth of expertise and knowledge, helping to improve the quality of healthcare services in Ireland and increasing the overall competitiveness of the country’s healthcare industry. Over 23 per cent of doctors registered in Ireland were trained outside the European Union Most of these doctors come from India, Pakistan and the Philippines, with smaller numbers coming from Nigeria, Sudan and other countries. Additionally, over 40 per cent of nurses and midwives registered to work in Ireland in 2020 were trained outside the country.

Figure 2.21

Countries

SOCIAL DECISION: IMPACT OF THE EU ON ECONOMIC MIGRATION OUT OF IRELAND

EU legislation and policy has also impacted economic migrants leaving Ireland. EU membership grants Irish citizens the opportunity for visa-free travel to other EU member states, which has provided younger Irish people the opportunity to leave the country in search of employment.

This was evident in the years after the collapse of the Celtic Tiger in 2008, when Irish society saw the return of high levels of emigration Between 2008 and 2012 it is estimated that over 200,000 Irish nationals emigrated as the economic collapse saw unemployment rise Although the number of emigrants leaving Ireland has slowed down over the past decade, the recent cost of living crisis has seen an increase in Irish people emigrating again. In 2022, 59,600 Irish people emigrated, an increase of 4,800 when compared with the previous year’s figures.

POLITICAL REFUGEES

A political refugee is an individual who flees their home country to seek safety and protection in another nation due to well-founded fears of persecution based on their political beliefs, ethnicity, religion, nationality or membership of a particular social group.

Political refugees face persecution in their home country, where they are subjected to discrimination, violence or threats to their life or freedom. This persecution is often a result of their political views, affiliations or characteristics that make them vulnerable in their homeland.

When fleeing their country, political refugees become asylum seekers in the country in which they are seeking protection. They apply for refugee status to receive legal recognition and the right to reside and work in the host country while their asylum application is being processed.

Political refugees are entitled to international protection under the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol These international agreements oblige signatory countries to provide safety and support to individuals fleeing persecution, irrespective of their race, religion or political beliefs.

CASE STUDY: Impact of social and political decisions on political refugees in Europe

The number of political refugees has increased significantly over the last decade as the Russian invasion of Ukraine and wars in Syria and Afghanistan have forcibly displaced millions of people. For example, in 2023 the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reported that there were 108.4 million forcibly displaced people worldwide Over 53 per cent of those people came from Ukraine, Syria and Afghanistan.

POLITICAL DECISION:

IMPACT OF EU POLICY ON POLITCAL REFUGEES

2.22

As a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations, or events seriously disturbing public order, there has been a sharp increase in the number of people forcibly displaced from their homes over the last decade.

Social and political decisions that have resulted in wars in Ukraine, Syria and Afghanistan have forced the EU to adapt its migration policies to meet the need of increased numbers of political refugees seeking asylum on the continent.

This increased number of refugees has had a significant impact on EU migration policy. The EU has had to create new policies to deal with the influx of refugees and asylum seekers, including the creation of the European Asylum Support Office (EASO) and the relocation of refugees across member states. In addition, the EU has sought to strengthen its external borders to prevent illegal migration and to aid countries dealing with migration. For example, at the peak of the refugee crisis in 2015–2016, EASO deployed staff to help Greek authorities process asylum applications and provide technical assistance in managing reception and accommodation facilities. EASO also provided training to Greek officials on how to conduct asylum interviews and manage reception centres.

In addition, EASO established a ‘hotspot’ approach in Greece, which aimed to identify, register and fingerprint migrants as soon as possible after their arrival, and to quickly distinguish between irregular migrants who should be returned to their country of origin and those who are eligible for international protection. The hotspot approach also included a relocation scheme, where refugees who are eligible for international protection are relocated to other EU member states, easing the burden on Greece, and ensuring a more equitable distribution of responsibility for asylum seekers in the EU. Several human rights advocacy groups have spoken out about the failure of this hotspot approach, as thousands of refugees and asylum seekers suffer while waiting to be processed following this approach.

Figure 2.23

The ‘hotspot’ approach in Greece has led to question marks surrounding the treatment of political refugees in the area

Figure

Most recently, the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has highlighted how the EU has begun to adapt its policies to meet the needs of political refugees. The conflict has resulted in a significant increase in the number of Ukrainians seeking asylum in the EU. Over 8.2 million Ukrainian refugees were recorded in EU member states. As a result, the EU has had to respond quickly to aid Ukraine and to deal with the increase in asylum seekers.

Figure 2.24

Millions of Ukrainian political refugees seek asylum in neighbouring Poland as a result of the Russian invasion.

One of the key ways in which the EU has responded to the situation is by providing financial assistance to Ukraine. The EU has allocated more than €18 billion to Ukraine to help the country deal with the humanitarian crisis caused by the conflict. This assistance has included funding for shelter, food, and medical assistance for those affected by the war. The EU has also aided its member states that have seen an increase in the number of Ukrainian asylum seekers. Funding is provided to help member states cope with the increase in asylum applications Officials who process asylum applications have been given training. The Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund (AMIF) and the Internal Security Fund (ISF) have provided significant funding to member states to support their efforts to manage the influx of Ukrainian asylum seekers. This funding has been used to improve reception conditions, provide language and cultural training, and support integration programmes for Ukrainian nationals who have been granted asylum. In total, €3.5 million has been provided to member states to support the integration of Ukrainian refugees.

Despite these efforts, the increase in the number of asylum seekers from Ukraine has put a significant strain on the EU’s asylum system. In some member states, this has led to long delays in the processing of asylum applications, which can have serious consequences for those who are waiting for their applications to be dealt with.

The conflict in Ukraine has also had a wider impact on EU migration policy. It has highlighted the need for the EU to have a more comprehensive and coordinated approach to migration and asylum The EU has been working to develop a more unified approach to migration, which includes a common asylum system and a more coordinated approach to border control. This is evident as the response to the crisis has varied across the EU member states, with some countries taking a more welcoming approach to Ukrainian asylum seekers, while others have been more restrictive. For example, Ireland, with a population of 5.1 million, has accepted 80,000 Ukrainian refugees, while France, with a population of 67.8 million, has taken 118,000 Ukrainian refugees.

MIGRATION PATTERNS: POLITICAL REFUGEES IN EUROPE

The migration patterns of political refugees in Europe involve an extremely difficult and arduous process for people seeking safety and stability in European countries

Since the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011, most Syrian refugees have sought asylum in neighbouring countries including Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq However, a significant number have also embarked on treacherous journeys to Europe. European countries are host to over one million Syrian refugees. Seventy per cent of those refugees are hosted in two countries only: Germany (59 per cent) and Sweden (11 per cent)

Figure 2.25

Integration of political refugees from Syria in the EU

The year 2015 witnessed a surge in Syrian refugees arriving in Europe, with many attempting to cross the Mediterranean Sea to reach countries such as Greece and Italy. According to the UNHCR, over one million Syrian refugees arrived in Europe between 2015 and 2016.

The influx of Syrian refugees has had significant effects on migration patterns in Europe. It has led to increased pressure on border controls, reception facilities, and social services in host countries. Additionally, the situation has ignited debates on immigration policies and the handling of asylum applications. For example, in 2015, Hungary built a fence along its border with Serbia to prevent migrants from entering the country, and the government has also launched an advertising campaign that links migration with terrorism and crime. This has led to an increase in hostility towards migrants in Hungary, with reports of hate crimes and discrimination against refugees and asylum seekers.

Additionally, the war in Ukraine has also resulted in waves of refugees seeking safety in Europe

Many Ukrainians have fled to neighbouring EU countries, such as Poland and Romania, due to the ongoing conflict and political instability. For example, over 1.8 million refugees from Ukraine have crossed the Polish border and are seeking refuge there.

Since the Russian invasion in February 2022, over 8 million Ukrainian refugees have been registered in Europe, representing 18 per cent of the country’s total population.

As discussed previously in this topic, the arrival of Ukrainian refugees has created additional challenges for European countries already dealing with an influx of migrants from other regions. It has put pressure on social services, housing and integration efforts. Moreover, the situation has raised questions about the effectiveness of asylum policies and the need for a coordinated approach among European nations.

Hamburg

Borders where fences were introduced (Note: border fences do not cover the entirety of all borders shown)

Movements of Syrian migrants Frankfurt Munich

Figure 2.26

Migration patterns of Syrian refugees to Europe

Poland: 1,857,000

Slovakia: 221,000

Hungary: 273,000

Belarus: 1,800

Russia: 155,900

Ukraine

Moldova: 344,500

Romania: 467,700

Figure 2.27

Migration patterns of Ukrainian refugees to bordering countries

GERMANY

CROATIA

HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES

Both economic migrants and political refugees have faced many human rights issues because of actions and decisions made in various countries. These human rights issues range from people trafficking, xenophobia, and poor living conditions for migrants.

XENOPHOBIA AND RACISM

Xenophobia and racism can arise in societies, driven by fear or prejudice against people from different cultural backgrounds. These attitudes can lead to discrimination, social exclusion, and even violence. To address these issues, society needs to promote diversity in education, foster intercultural understanding, and implement policies that combat discrimination. In 2022 the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights reported that 31 per cent of people surveyed in the EU experienced discrimination based on their ethnic or immigrant background.

CASE STUDY: Xenophobia and poor living conditions for economic migrants and political refugees in Ireland

Since Ireland became a member of the EU in 1973, Ireland has quickly become one of the most rapidly growing, multicultural societies in Europe. Since 2000, Ireland has the joint fastest growing population in Europe – the country has seen a 32 per cent increase in population. The 2022 Census indicated that there are 703,700 non-Irish nationals living in Ireland who originate from over 200 countries. The biggest non-Irish groups were Polish and UK citizens, followed by Indian, Romanian and Lithuanian. Brazilian, Italian, Latvian and Spanish citizens were also among the larger non-Irish groups

According to the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance Report on Ireland in 2022, the country has made some progress towards tackling racism in Irish society However, there are areas on which to focus further improvements. The report specifically outlines how the integration process in Ireland could be improved by cracking down on the use of hate speech and hate crimes, and ethnic profiling. The report shows many ways in which the needs of asylum seekers could be facilitated better.

XENOPHOBIA IN IRELAND

Xenophobia and racial discrimination based on ethnicity, nationality, or race prevents individuals from fully participating in society and accessing equal opportunities. Findings from research published in 2023 state that almost two-thirds (63 per cent) of international students in Ireland have experienced and/or witnessed racism The most common form of racism experienced or witnessed was verbal (42 per cent) This was followed by ‘indirect’ racism (39 per cent), e.g. by being treated differently or unfairly due to their race, particularly in the workplace. Physical racism, including physical assaults, accounted for 12 per cent. Additionally, only 10 per cent of international students who experienced an incident of racism reported it to the authorities. Of those who reported an incident, 67 per cent were dissatisfied with the response they received. While levels of multiculturalism and integration have increased in Ireland, results from this survey suggest that racism and xenophobia are still prevalent issues in society

Additionally, the rise of right-wing politics in Europe, including Ireland, has significant implications for the integration of non-Irish nationals into the country. Right-wing political ideologies often promote nationalist sentiments, anti-immigrant attitudes, and a focus on preserving ‘traditional’ national identity Right-wing politics may fuel xenophobia and discrimination against non-Irish

nationals, particularly those from diverse cultural backgrounds. This hostile environment can lead to social exclusion, hinder opportunities for cultural exchange, and create barriers to acceptance and belonging.

Furthermore, right-wing political parties tend to advocate for restrictive immigration policies and stronger border controls. These policies can make it more challenging for non-Irish nationals to enter the country legally and obtain residency or citizenship. The potential tightening of immigration rules can create uncertainty and anxiety for immigrants seeking to integrate into Irish society This can cause negative narratives and stereotypes to emerge, leading to reduced support for social services and integration programmes. This lack of support can hinder access to essential resources and services for immigrants, making their integration more challenging. Consequently, an ‘us versus them’ mentality is created in society. This polarisation can hinder efforts to foster a sense of unity and inclusivity, making it more challenging for non-Irish nationals to feel welcomed and accepted. Asylum seekers and refugees, who are among the most vulnerable groups of non-Irish nationals, can be particularly affected by the rise of right-wing politics. Antiimmigrant sentiments can lead to stigmatisation and increased challenges in accessing asylum processes and support services.

In several European countries, right-wing political parties have gained popularity in recent years, leading to changes in immigration policies and public debates about integration. For example, Hungary introduced a law that made it illegal to provide support for asylum seekers seeking refuge in the country

POOR LIVING CONDITIONS FOR POLITICAL REFUGEES IN IRELAND

Direct Provision is a system in Ireland that provides accommodation and basic needs for asylum seekers while their application for refugee status is being processed. While designed as a temporary solution, this system has faced criticism for denying refugees basic human rights in Ireland.

Asylum seekers in Direct Provision often experience prolonged stays while awaiting the outcome of their application. According to the Irish Refugee Council, the average length of stay in Direct Provision centres in 2020 was 26 months, with some individuals residing in the system for several years. Lengthy stays create uncertainty and anxiety, and hinder people’s ability to plan for the future and integrate effectively. The quality of accommodation and services in Direct Provision centres has been a subject of concern. The Ombudsman’s office highlighted issues with overcrowding, lack of privacy, and insufficient cooking facilities, which can negatively impact the physical and mental wellbeing of residents. These conditions make it difficult for non-Irish nationals to maintain their dignity and sense of self-worth while striving to integrate into Irish society

Asylum seekers in Direct Provision face barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities. While there have been improvements in allowing access to primary and secondary education, the right to work is restricted until asylum seekers have been in the system for at least nine months. This restriction limits their ability to contribute to society and gain valuable skills for integration.

Figure 2.28

A Direct Provision centre

Living in Direct Provision centres can lead to social isolation for residents. Limited opportunities for social interaction with the wider community hinders the development of meaningful relationships and cultural exchange. According to a report by the Economic and Social Research Institute, Direct Provision residents highlighted feelings of isolation and a lack of belonging in Irish society

In 2021, Ireland announced plans to end the Direct Provision system and replace it with a new model of accommodation for asylum seekers. The government announced plans to ensure the system of Direct Provision was ended by 2024. However, in 2023 a total of 20,140 people were living in Direct Provision centres in Ireland. Given the significant number of asylum seekers who experience the challenges of Direct Provision in Ireland, there is now a pressing need to ensure the system is changed.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is migration, and what does it encompass?

2. Name and describe the two main types of people who move in the process of migration.

3. State the factors that compel economic migrants to leave their home country, and what attracts them to other countries.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the impact of social and political decisions on economic migration into Ireland.

2. Discuss the role of the EU Blue Card in encouraging economic migration into Ireland and give an example of a profession that has seen an increase in migrants due to this policy.

3. Outline the impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and wars in Syria and Afghanistan on the number of political refugees globally and in Europe.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of EU membership on economic migration out of Ireland and explain how it has affected emigration patterns in the country.

2. Differentiate between the responses of EU member states to the influx of political refugees and asylum seekers and evaluate the effectiveness of these responses.

3. Investigate the human rights issues faced by economic migrants and political refugees in Ireland, focusing on xenophobia, racism and poor living conditions in Direct Provision centres.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Discuss the impact of social and political decisions on economic and social migrants.

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Define and distinguish between economic migrants and political refugees.

• Provide factual evidence from the text related to economic migrants and political refugees.

• Identify specific social and political decisions that have influenced migration patterns in Europe, particularly Ireland.

Your answer should:

• Incorporate specific figures, statistics, and case study details from the text to support your points.

• Discuss the broader context or implications of the decisions made by entities such as the EU, including the benefits and challenges for the host countries

• Address the push and pull factors that have driven migration patterns in Ireland and other parts of Europe.

Your answer could:

• Analyse the relationship between Ireland’s economic growth and the influx of economic migrants, drawing from the Celtic Tiger period and other relevant periods mentioned in the text.

• Delve deeper into the influence of specific policies such as the EU Blue Card and the contributions of the European Asylum Support Office.

• Evaluate the overall success, or lack thereof, of European migration policies, referencing the responses of specific countries to migration challenges, such as the reception of Ukrainian refugees in Ireland and in France.

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2023

We live in an interdependent global economy. Discuss the impact of social and political decisions with reference to each of the following:

• Economic and political refugees

• Migration patterns

• Human rights issues.

2021

(80 marks)

‘We live in an interdependent global economy. Actions or decisions taken in one area have an impact on other areas.’

Discuss this statement with reference to desertification and deforestation.

(80 marks)

2020

‘We live in an interdependent global economy. Actions or decisions taken in one area have an impact on other areas.’

Examine this statement with reference to each of the following:

• Global environmental issues

• Impact of social and political decisions.

2019

(80 marks)

Discuss the impact of global trading patterns in relation to both producer and consumer regions, with reference to one multinational company that you have studied.

(80 marks)

2017

Discuss the causes and impacts of one global environmental issue that you have studied.

(80 marks)

EMPOWERING ECONOMIC AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER

SYLLABUS LINK

6.3 EMPOWERING PEOPLE IS A WAY OF LINKING ECONOMIC GROWTH WITH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. State the four main causes of deforestation in today’s global economy.

2. Explain how overpopulation contributes to desertification in the Sahel region of Africa.

3. Name and describe the two main types of people who move in the process of migration.

4. State the factors that compel economic migrants to leave their home country, and what attracts them to other countries.

5. Give an example of a profession that has seen an increase in migrants into Ireland due to the EU Blue Card policy.

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Explain the weight of national debt and its impact on the poverty cycle.

2. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of aid with reference to EU aid in Ukraine and Irish Aid in Ethiopia.

3. Outline how aid can fail with reference to emergency and developmental aid in Haiti.

4. Describe the work of NGOs in empowering the developing world.

5. Discuss the impact of landownership patterns on development in Ireland and Brazil.

6. Examine the impact of the decision-making process and levels of participation on development with reference to cooperative movements.

7. Illustrate how gender roles can impact development.

KEYWORDS

Disempowering effects National debtReduced government spending Economic instability

Tax burden Types of aid Official aid Bilateral aid

Multilateral aid Emergency aid Development aid

Social and environmental challenges

Government efforts Positive changeIndependent Non-profit entities

Common goal Reinvested surplus Flexibility and adaptabilitySpecialised expertise

Cooperatives Participation Empowerment Collaboration

Gender roles Gender equalityPolitical representation

TOPIC 3.1: The Weight of National Debt and its Impact on the Poverty Cycle

THE DISEMPOWERING EFFECTS OF NATIONAL DEBT

National debt, also known as public debt, refers to the total amount of money that a government owes to external creditors and to its citizens. While governments may borrow to fund essential projects and investments, excessive national debt can disempower people in several ways

1. Reduced government spending on public services

High levels of national debt can lead to increased interest payments, diverting funds away from crucial public services. This can result in reduced spending on education, healthcare, infrastructure and social welfare programmes. Ultimately, citizens may face limited access to quality services that are essential for their wellbeing and development.

2. Economic instability and inflation

A ballooning national debt can raise concerns among investors and credit rating agencies, leading to economic instability. Governments may resort to inflationary measures to reduce the real value of their debt, which can erode people’s purchasing power, making everyday goods and services more expensive.

3. Tax burden on citizens

To manage national debt, governments may raise taxes or introduce new ones, placing a burden on citizens. High taxes can reduce disposable income and hinder economic growth, limiting opportunities for personal financial advancement.

4. Generational impact

Excessive national debt can burden future generations as they inherit the financial obligations of their predecessors. The need to repay debt may limit their ability to invest in their own prosperity, education, and entrepreneurial ventures.

5. Dependency on external creditors

When a country is heavily indebted to foreign creditors, its economic decisions may be influenced by external interests. Such dependence can restrict a nation’s sovereignty and limit its ability to pursue policies that benefit its citizens.

6. Vulnerability to financial crises

Public debt in Ireland is rising, exacerbated by the cost of living crisis.

Countries with high levels of national debt are more susceptible to financial crises. Economic downturns can exacerbate debt burdens, leading to fiscal crises and further disempowering citizens who bear the brunt of economic instability.

CASE STUDY: Ireland’s bailout by the International Monetary Fund: Irish

banking crisis 2010

In 2010, Ireland faced a severe economic crisis as its national debt became unsustainable. The country had experienced a massive property bubble, with Irish banks heavily exposed due to excessive lending to property developers. As the global economic downturn hit in 2008, credit dried up, and Irish banks were unable to borrow funds from the markets. The risks of nonrepayment on property loans surged, causing a crisis in the banking sector.

During the economic boom, a property bubble developed in Ireland. Irish banks had expanded their balance sheets through extensive property lending, amounting to four times the Irish GDP. This overexposure to the property market left the banking system vulnerable when the bubble burst.

With the collapse of the property market, Irish banks faced significant losses and struggled to access credit The Irish government implemented a blanket bank guarantee to prevent mass deposit withdrawals and to stop banks from going out of business.

The blanket bank guarantee, while intended to stabilise the banking system, compounded Ireland’s sovereign debt crisis The Irish government began borrowing more money than it could sustainably pay back, and the government’s fiscal position worsened as it assumed responsibility for the banks’ liabilities.

Figure 3.1

Mounting deficits and soaring debt levels eroded investor confidence in Ireland’s ability to repay its debts

As a result, the country faced high borrowing costs in the financial markets. In November 2010, the Irish government officially sought international financial assistance from the European Union and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). A bailout package of €85 billion was agreed on. It was mostly directed towards stabilising the banking sector and restoring the banks’ balance sheets.

To secure the bailout, Ireland committed to an economic adjustment programme. This involved implementing austerity measures, cutting public spending, and increasing taxes to restore fiscal stability.

Through strong fiscal discipline and structural reforms, Ireland successfully completed the threeyear programme and exited the bailout in 2013 Subsequently, the Irish economy experienced robust growth, with GDP rates surpassing EU averages. Unemployment rates also declined significantly from a high of around 16 per cent in 2012 to 4.1 per cent in 2023

3.2

Eurozone

United

United

IMPACT OF THE IMF BAILOUT ON THE IRISH PEOPLE

One of the consequences of the bailout was the implementation of austerity measures to reduce government spending and address the deficit. These measures included public sector wage cuts, reduced social welfare benefits, and increased taxation Consequently, many public sector workers faced job losses, and unemployment rates surged. At the peak of the crisis, Ireland’s unemployment rate reached 15.9 per cent in 2012, a stark contrast to the pre-crisis low of 4.6 per cent in 2006.

INCREASED TAXATION AND COST OF LIVING

The economic adjustment programme meant that taxes were raised to generate revenue and stabilise public finances. This led to a heavier tax burden on individuals and businesses, reducing their disposable income and purchasing power. Tax increases affected various sectors For example, the standard VAT rate rose from 21 per cent to 23 per cent in 2012

Figure

Ireland’s economy was one of the worst affected economies in Europe during the 2008 economic crash.

REDUCED GOVERNMENT SPENDING ON PUBLIC SERVICES

To meet fiscal targets, the government cut spending on essential public services This affected healthcare, education and social welfare. The reduction in public services put additional pressure on citizens who relied on these services for their wellbeing and livelihoods. Additionally, the government introduced the Universal Social Charge (USC), a supposed ‘temporary tax’ that all citizens had to pay. The USC is still in place today.

EMIGRATION AND BRAIN DRAIN

The economic hardship resulting from the crisis and the austerity measures prompted a significant wave of emigration Many young and skilled individuals left Ireland in search of better opportunities abroad, leading to a brain drain that impacted the country’s human capital

Net migration from Ireland peaked at –27,100 in the year 2010 The majority of those leaving Ireland during this period were young people between the ages of 18 and 24, many of whom had recently graduated from university and were unable to find work in Ireland. It is estimated that 397,000 people emigrated from Ireland during this period.

The impact of the economic recession on migration patterns in Ireland was significant. Many people who had come to Ireland during the Celtic Tiger years, when the economy was booming, were forced to leave when the recession hit. At the same time, many young people who had grown up in Ireland were also leaving the country in search of work.

The economic recession had several other impacts on migration patterns in Ireland as well. For example, it led to a decrease in the number of immigrants coming to Ireland. This was due in part to the fact that there were fewer job opportunities available, and the cost of living had increased.

To find a job

To travel

To gain job experience

To experience another culture Other

Figure 3.3

Reasons for departure of Irish emigrants, 2008–2013

SOCIAL IMPACT AND PROTEST MOVEMENTS

The austerity measures and financial constraints put pressure on society and gave rise to protest movements against the government’s policies. Demonstrations and public discontent became common as citizens voiced their frustration with the impact of the bailout on their lives.

The Irish Congress of Trade Unions organised a major demonstration in Dublin in 2010, known as the ‘March for a Better Way’ to protest the impact of austerity on workers and families.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Define the term ‘national debt’ and explain its alternative term.

2. List some potential consequences of excessive national debt on public services.

3. Identify one way in which citizens might be affected by economic instability caused by national debt.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe how high levels of national debt can lead to reduced government spending on public services.

2. Explain the relationship between excessive national debt and inflation.

3. Discuss the concept of a tax burden on citizens due to national debt.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate how dependency on external creditors affects a nation’s sovereignty and decision-making. Provide examples of how such dependence might influence policies.

2. Consider the case study of Ireland’s bailout in 2010. Analyse how the blanket bank guarantee compounded the sovereign debt crisis and the subsequent consequences for the Irish economy and its people.

Figure 3.4

‘March for a Better Way’ protesters in Dublin City during the IMF bailout

TOPIC 3.2: Who Benefits from Aid?

TYPES OF AID

Aid refers to the assistance provided by one country or organisation to another in times of need or to support development projects. There are several types of aid, each serving different purposes and addressing distinct challenges.

1. Official aid refers to financial or material assistance provided by governments of developed countries to support the development and welfare of countries in need. It can be both humanitarian- and development-focused. Official aid is often part of a country’s foreign aid policy and is typically managed by government agencies.

2. Bilateral aid involves the direct exchange of resources between two countries. Donor countries provide aid to specific recipient countries based on mutual agreements and objectives. This type of aid fosters closer diplomatic and economic ties between the donor and recipient nations.

3. Multilateral aid is channelled through international organisations such as the United Nations or the World Bank Donor countries contribute to a common pool of resources, and the funds are then distributed to various projects and initiatives in multiple recipient countries. Multilateral aid promotes global cooperation and coordination to address global challenges.

4. Emergency aid is also known as humanitarian aid. It is provided in response to sudden crises such as natural disasters, conflicts or pandemics. Its primary goal is to alleviate immediate suffering and provide essential resources such as food, water, medical supplies and shelter to affected populations.

5. Development aid focuses on long-term growth and improvement in developing countries It aims to promote economic progress, enhance living standards and reduce poverty. Development aid is designed to support various sectors such as education, healthcare, infrastructure and agriculture.

6. Tied aid refers to aid that comes with conditions or requirements. Donor countries may attach conditions that the aid must be used to purchase goods or services from the donor country. This type of aid can promote trade and economic benefits for the donor but may limit the recipient’s flexibility in using the aid.

7. Voluntary aid is provided by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other charitable institutions. It is usually driven by the desire to help those in need and is not tied to government policies or diplomatic objectives.

8. Food aid involves providing food to countries facing food shortages or famine. It is often a crucial form of assistance in times of agricultural or climatic challenges.

Figure 3.5

Trucks from the organisation Aid From Ireland leave Dublin Port with 500 tonnes of emergency aid destined for Ukraine.

WHO PROVIDES AID?

MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) play a significant role in providing aid to less developed nations. MEDCs allocate funds to support the development and progress of less developed countries. This assistance aims to improve infrastructure, healthcare, education and economic stability. In 2022 the total net official development assistance (ODA) from MEDC countries reached $161 billion. The United States, Germany and the United Kingdom were the largest contributors.

Official Development Assistance in 2022

In % of gross national income (GNI)

Figure 3.6

Although the United States and the UK donated the most total aid in 2022, they are not in the top 10 countries when it comes to aid as a percentage of GNI.

The UN encourages countries to provide 0.7 per cent of their gross national income (GNI) each year to developmental assistance. In reality, the average transfer is much less than the suggested figure Very few MEDCs provide this level of aid to LEDCs – and when economic recessions or downturns occur, the percentage of aid given to LEDCs declines.

MEDCs also contribute significantly to less developed economies through foreign direct investment FDI supports economic growth, creates job opportunities, and transfers technology and expertise.

BENEFITS OF AID

The effectiveness of aid in providing economic and human development is a complex and debated topic. Aid can play a crucial role in supporting the development and progress of LEDCs. However, its impact can vary depending on various factors.

1. Economic development

Aid has shown positive outcomes in several cases. It can contribute significantly to the economic growth of LEDCs by providing resources to invest in infrastructure, industries and technology These investments create jobs, boost productivity, and stimulate economic activities.

2. Capacity building

Aid can also build the capacity of LEDCs by providing technical expertise, knowledge transfer, and skill development. This empowers local communities to address their own challenges and drive sustainable development. For example, aid projects from Japan have supported agricultural training programmes in Ghana, enabling farmers to adopt modern techniques and increase crop yields.

3. Healthcare outcomes

Additionally, aid supports healthcare systems in LEDCs, improving access to medical facilities, vaccinations, and essential medicines. It also addresses malnutrition and provides emergency relief during health crises. This was evident in 2014 as aid from the United Nations helped combat the Ebola outbreak in West Africa by providing medical supplies and healthcare training.

4. Educational opportunities

Aid can also assist LEDCs in enhancing educational opportunities and building a skilled workforce This leads to improved literacy rates, higher employability, and the development of human capital.

5. Disaster relief

Aid is crucial during natural disasters and emergencies It provides immediate relief, shelter, food, and medical assistance, helping LEDCs recover and build resilience to future crises.

6. Environmental sustainability

Aid helps LEDCs address environmental challenges, promote renewable energy, and protect natural resources. This contributes to global efforts to combat climate change and preserve biodiversity. For example, Iceland is currently working with East African countries to develop a geothermal energy plant in the region to harness electricity and heating from the volcanic activity that occurs along the rifting plate.

CASE STUDY: EU humanitarian aid to Ukraine

The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has caused a significant amount of damage to the people and the economy of Ukraine. The conflict has caused number of Ukrainians seeking asylum in the EU to increase to unprecedented numbers. Over 8.2 million Ukrainian refugees have been recorded

in EU member states. As a result, the EU has had to respond quickly by providing aid to Ukraine in a number of different ways. Both the EU and the US have provided aid to Ukraine in the form of:

• Economic and financial assistance

• Humanitarian and civil aid

• Military aid

• Asylum for refugees.

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Throughout 2022 and 2023, the European Union (EU) provided substantial financial assistance to Ukraine, amounting to €7.4 billion and €18 billion, respectively. The purpose of this aid has been to address Ukraine’s immediate needs, ensuring the continuation of essential public services like schools and hospitals.

In 2022 the EU provided €7.4 billion to Ukraine in several instalments, with amounts provided in March, May, August, October, November and December. The International Monetary Fund estimated that throughout 2023 and 2024 Ukraine would require between €3 billion and €4 billion per month in foreign aid to sustain public services, wages and pensions. The EU committed to providing €18 billion in low-interest loans to Ukraine in 2023 (equivalent to €1.5 billion per month), matching the aid pledged by the United States.

Furthermore, in response to the Russo-Ukrainian War, the EU has imposed multiple rounds of trade sanctions on Russia, targeting government officials, military forces, and various sectors of the Russian economy, including finance, energy, transport and technology. EU airspace and ports have been closed to Russian aircraft and ships respectively, and export bans have been enforced on specific products.

HUMANITATIAN AND CIVIL AID

The EU has played a crucial role in providing humanitarian and civil aid to Ukraine, allocating a significant amount of €630 million This aid has been directed towards various essential services and support for the people of Ukraine.

Figure 3.7

Ursula von der Leyen, president of the European Commission meets Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy in Ukraine.

The funds have been used to address urgent needs, such as providing household items, healthcare and mental health support. Winter shelters have been set up to ensure the safety and wellbeing of vulnerable populations, and cash assistance has been provided to cover basic necessities.

In 2022 a substantial portion of the allocated funds, €485 million, was expended. The largest share of this expenditure went towards providing food and water, followed by shelter and nonfood items, health services, education and school rehabilitation. Additionally, efforts were made to protect vulnerable groups and provide access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene facilities The EU also supported coordination and assisted aid operators. As of 2023, the EU continued its commitment to supporting Ukraine, disbursing over €145 million in additional aid.

MILITARY AID

The EU has actively provided military aid or ‘military assistance’ to Ukraine since February 2022. A total of €3.6 billion in assistance has been allocated through the European Peace Facility (EPF) in various tranches of €500 million each. The aid has been utilised to equip and support the Ukrainian military forces.

The Countries Sending the Most Military Aid to Ukraine

Countries with the most pledged military aid to Ukraine from 24 Jan 2022 to 15 Jan 2023 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Specifically, in November 2022, €16 million was provided for the procurement of ammunition, military equipment, and platforms capable of delivering lethal force. The funding also covered essential services such as transportation, custody and maintenance of the equipment financed through this assistance measure. In February 2023, another tranche of €500 million was granted to further bolster Ukraine’s defence capabilities.

Figure

Additionally, the EU has taken steps to support Ukraine through a two-year Military Assistance Mission (EUMAM). This mission aims to provide training to Ukrainian military forces within EU territories, with Germany or Poland as potential training locations. Ireland, as a participating nation in the EPF, has offered its expertise in this effort. The Irish Government is considering deploying up to 30 personnel from the Defence Forces to EUMAM. These personnel would specialise in demining, combat medical activities, as well as engineering and explosive disposal.

ASYLUM FOR REFUGEES

As of 2023 there are 8 million refugees from Ukraine across Europe, which accounts for approximately 19 per cent of the total population. Among these refugees, 4.7 million, or 57 per cent, have sought refuge in EU member states. The three EU countries with the highest number of Ukrainian refugees are Poland (33.7 per cent), Germany (22.8 per cent), and Czechia (10.6 per cent).

To address the challenges posed by the influx of refugees, the EU activated temporary measures in March 2022. These measures grant certain rights to the refugees, including residence, access to the labour market, housing, medical assistance, social welfare assistance, and access to education for children.

Moreover, the EU has identified approximately €17 billion from EU cohesion and post-COVID-19 recovery funds that member states can reallocate to support the urgent needs of Ukrainian refugees. This sum includes around €7 billion of unspent cohesion policy funds from the 2014–2020 budget and approximately €10 billion from the Recovery Assistance for Cohesion and the Territories of Europe (REACT-EU) initiative.

Figure 3.9

Ukrainian refugees seeking refuge in border countries of Ukraine

CASE STUDY: Irish developmental aid in Ethiopia

From a developmental aid perspective, Ireland’s focus is on reducing poverty and providing aid for the poorest and most vulnerable. The Irish government prioritises providing developmental aid to countries to support gender equality, reduce humanitarian need, contribute to climate action and strengthen democratic governance. In 2020 the Irish government produced its ‘A Better World’ document, which outlined a framework for providing developmental aid with the aim of reaching the UN target of allocating 0.7 per cent of our GNI to official development assistance by 2030.

In 2023 the government provided over €1.2 billion to Ireland’s developmental aid programme. The programme is known as the Official Development Assistance (ODA) programme In 2023 it represented 0.35 per cent of Gross National Product (GNP) or 35 cents in every €100 that the country produced.

The top partner countries to receive Irish Aid support in 2023 were: Ethiopia (€39.7m), Mozambique (€25.7m), Tanzania (€22.9m), Uganda (€22.7m), Malawi (€20.8m), Sierra Leone (€14.6m), Zimbabwe (€8.7m), Palestine (€8.6m) and South Sudan (€8.6m).

Human rights, governance and gender equality (17%)

Multi-sector (13%) Agriculture (8%) Humanitarian assistance (24%) and hygiene (1%)

BACKGROUND TO ETHIOPIA

Health and HIV/AIDS (14%)

Figure 3.10

Irish Aid’s priority areas for Official Development Assistance (ODA)

Ethiopia has a population of over 115 million people. It is the second most populous nation in Africa and has the fastest-growing economy in the Horn of Africa region. However, despite economic progress, it remains one of the poorest countries, with a per capita income of €770. The United Nations Human Development Index ranks Ethiopia 173 out of 189 countries.

Figure 3.11

Ethiopia is the largest recipient of Irish Aid.

In recent years, there has been significant economic growth and improvements in human development, leading to increased life expectancy and a decline in the proportion of people living in extreme poverty (less than €1.70 a day) from 44.2 per cent in 1999 to approximately 23 per cent in 2023.

Nevertheless, challenges persist, especially in rural areas, where some communities experience severe poverty Ethiopia’s population growth rate remains high at over 2 per cent annually, adding approximately two million people each year It is expected to reach close to 120 million by 2025.

Ethiopia faces gender-related health issues that impact child health, nutrition, productivity and overall economic growth Additionally, the country is highly susceptible to the effects of climate change, such as variations in rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and natural disasters such as desert locust infestations. Ethiopia is the largest recipient of Irish developmental aid.

IRISH AID IN ETHIOPIA

Ireland has provided developmental aid to Ethiopia since 1994 when its embassy opened in the country. Irish aid in Ethiopia is directed towards a variety of different areas of society:

• Gender equality

• Humanitarian need

• Provision of social services

• Peace and democratic governance.

GENDER EQUALITY

Irish aid to Ethiopia is committed to promoting gender equality and empowering women and girls A twin-track approach is adopted, with a focus on integrating gender equality in all political, diplomatic and development engagements, while also supporting specific programmes that address barriers to women’s rights.

One of the key areas of focus is amplifying the voices of women and girls, especially those who are most marginalised, to ensure that their rights are fulfilled, and their priorities are acted upon. This work centres on three interrelated themes: Women and Leadership; Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR), including issues related to gender-based violence (GBV); and Women’s Peace and Security.

In regions such as Somali and Afar, Irish Aid supports initiatives to catalyse societal and cultural change, challenging harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, and child marriage. These efforts not only aim to transform gender norms but also create climate-smart economic opportunities for all.

Furthermore, Ireland collaborates with the Ethiopian Ministry of Health to improve SRHR for women and girls. The aim is to provide equal access to respectful and high-quality health services, comprehensive sexual and reproductive health information, and prevention and response services in relation to gender-based violence. Special attention is given to maternal and child health, with a focus on training midwives, preventing HIV, mobilising communities, and providing essential drugs, vaccines, and family planning services

HUMANITARIAN NEED

Irish Aid plays a crucial role in addressing humanitarian needs in Ethiopia, particularly in response to climate- and conflict-induced shocks that lead to internal displacement and crises. Over recent years, Ireland has significantly increased its humanitarian response to support vulnerable communities.

In 2020 and 2021, Irish Aid provided essential support to the Ethiopian Humanitarian Fund, managed by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, as well as various UN agencies and international and Irish NGOs This collective approach allows for a comprehensive and effective response to critical humanitarian issues in Ethiopia and beyond.

Figure 3.12

Irish Aid’s Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) provides food and cash to millions of rural people living in poverty.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Ireland supported the Ethiopian Ministry of Health through contributions to UNICEF and WHO, enabling urgent humanitarian health services to be delivered in response to the emergency

As humanitarian needs continue to grow in 2024, particularly in the regions affected by conflict and drought, Ireland remains committed to adapting its approach to ensure that essential humanitarian aid reaches those in need. The aim is to alleviate the suffering of vulnerable populations and provide them with the necessary support and resources to withstand crises and build resilience for the future.

PROVISION OF SOCIAL SERVICES

Irish Aid plays a significant role in supporting humanitarian needs in Ethiopia through various programmes aimed at delivering basic services and promoting good governance.

One such initiative is the Ethiopia Social Accountability Programme, which ensures accountability in delivering essential services such as health, education and HIV/AIDS services at the local level. Thanks to this programme, there have been noticeable improvements in access to water, better maternal health facilities, additional classrooms, and tuition support for children in need. Additionally, separate toilet facilities for girls have been introduced in schools across both rural and urban areas.

Furthermore, Ireland provides support to civil society and local communities to actively participate in national government programmes and advocate for good governance. The multi-donor Civil Society Support Programme, funded by Ireland, empowers civil society

to contribute to national development and poverty reduction. With the help of NGOs, communities are now actively involved in identifying the needs of their areas and making proposals for improvements.

PEACE AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE

Irish Aid plays a vital role in supporting peace and democratic governance in Ethiopia through various targeted initiatives.

At the national and regional levels, Ireland supports locally led inclusive dialogue platforms that foster collaboration among different actors. These transformative approaches aim to build peace and strengthen democratic governance in the country. At the community level, Ireland collaborates with NGOs and church organisations to promote inter-community understanding, contributing to peaceful coexistence.

To strengthen governance institutions, Ireland focuses on improving the electoral process and human rights. By working with the African Union Peace and Security Department and the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Ireland contributes to promoting peace, security, and regional climate adaptation in Ethiopia and the broader region.

In line with Ireland’s commitment to Women’s Peace and Security, the Embassy has a special focus on the role of women in peace and security processes and initiatives in Ethiopia and the wider region. This ensures that women’s voices and perspectives are actively integrated into peacebuilding efforts, fostering more inclusive and sustainable outcomes

WEAKNESSES OF AID

Aid, while well-intentioned, can sometimes unintentionally hinder the development of LEDCs. This might seem counterintuitive, as aid is meant to help these countries progress, but there are several ways in which it can have negative impacts.

First, aid dependency can arise. When LEDCs receive a significant portion of their income from foreign aid, it can discourage them from seeking alternative sources of revenue. This can lead to complacency and reduced efforts to develop their own industries and economies. For instance, some nations might prioritise short-term aid over long-term development strategies.

Second, aid can distort local markets. The influx of free or heavily subsidised goods from foreign countries can undermine local producers. If, for instance, a country receives large quantities of food aid, it could suppress the local agricultural sector, making it difficult for local farmers to compete

Furthermore, there is the risk of corruption Some corrupt governments might divert aid resources for personal gain or to reinforce their hold on power. This not only prevents aid from reaching its intended beneficiaries but can also perpetuate poor governance and instability.

In some cases, aid can undermine local initiatives and autonomy When external organisations dictate how aid should be used, they might disregard the specific needs and priorities of the local communities. This can hinder the sense of ownership and empowerment needed for sustainable development.

Lastly, aid can create a debt burden for LEDCs. While aid is often given in the form of loans, the repayments can become overwhelming. Countries might find themselves trapped in cycles of debt, diverting resources away from essential services such as healthcare and education.

CASE STUDY: The failure of aid in Haiti

Haiti is an island country of 8 million people in the Caribbean Ocean. Haiti offers an extreme example of how different types of aid can fail and ultimately hinder economic and human development.

Figure 3.13

Haiti’s geographic location

Haiti has received over $20 billion in developmental aid yet persists as one of the poorest and worst governed countries. In 2022, Haiti had a GNI per capita of $1,420. Comparatively, Ireland’s GNI per capita for the same period was $81,070. Additionally, on the UN Human Development Index, Haiti ranked 163 out of 191 countries. This begs the question: Why has aid failed to make a significant difference in Haiti’s progress?

The answer lies in Haiti’s complex history and a deeply ingrained flaw within its social, historical and cultural context. This flaw is rooted in a pattern of domination by economic and political elites who prioritise their interests over the country’s advancement. Aid efforts, no matter how well-intentioned, cannot succeed without addressing this core corruption issue.

Aid has failed due to a combination of factors. Poverty remains widespread, and essential services are inadequate The country relies heavily on remittances and foreign aid, even surpassing its internal revenue. Despite the substantial aid inflows, multilateral and bilateral assessments have consistently indicated failure or minimal improvement A significant problem is the unwillingness of local leaders and elites to distribute the aid, often benefiting personally from it instead. In 2022 alone, it is estimated that $4 million worth of developmental aid was lost due to corruption in Haiti. Consequently, Haiti’s score on 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index is 17 on a scale from 0 (‘highly corrupt’) to 100 (‘very clean’). When ranked by score, Haiti ranked 171st among the 180 countries in the world that are ranked on the index.

Figure 3.14

Stacked housing in Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti

CUBA

Port-au-Prince

Haiti’s fatal flaw encompasses economic, political, cultural and social aspects. It’s controlled by elites who prioritise self-interest, evade taxes, and maintain foreign accounts. Racism and the concentration of power within specific populations further contributes to a disengaged population.

To move forward, donors must prioritise capacity-building for transparent, accountable governance. Grant-based aid, rather than loans, should be delivered, with a focus on strengthening government institutions. United Nations policy on Haiti must also be re-evaluated to prevent aid corruption.

Ultimately, Haiti’s success hinges on its ability to find common ground, compromise, and manage its development collectively Addressing the fatal flaw and fostering self-sufficiency can lead to lasting change and progress.

CHECK

YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Name and explain the different types of aid mentioned in the topic.

2. List the top three partner countries that received Irish Aid support in 2023 and state the amount of aid provided to each country.

3. What is the UN’s recommended percentage of gross national income (GNI) that countries should allocate to developmental assistance, and how does it compare to the actual average transfer?

Developed Knowledge

1. Explain how multilateral aid is different from bilateral aid. Give examples of countries that provide each type of aid.

2. Discuss the potential drawbacks of tied aid. How can it benefit the donor country but limit the recipient’s flexibility?

3. Explain how Irish Aid addresses humanitarian needs in Ethiopia. Provide examples of crises that have prompted Ireland’s humanitarian response.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Differentiate between the short-term and long-term impacts of aid on LEDCs. How might aid dependency hinder long-term development efforts?

2. Investigate the case study of EU humanitarian aid to Ukraine. Your answer should discuss the different types of aid provided by the EU to Ukraine and their purposes.

3. Consider the weaknesses of aid. Using the case study of Haiti, analyse how corruption and structural issues can hinder the impact of aid.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Discuss how aid programmes can benefit development with reference to examples you have studied.

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Clearly define what aid programmes are.

• Describe different forms of aid, using specific examples from the topic (e.g. economic and financial assistance, humanitarian and civil aid, military aid, and asylum for refugees).

• Explain the primary purpose and impact of these aid programmes on the recipient country.

Your answer should:

• Delve deeper into specific details of the aid provided by using statistics and data from the topic (e.g. the amount of financial assistance provided, number of refugees, funds allocated for various needs).

• Discuss the broader geopolitical context or events that prompted the need for aid (e.g. the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the challenges faced by Ethiopia).

• Using one or more case studies as an example, outline the specific aid measures taken and their intended impacts on development

Your answer could:

• Analyse the effectiveness of aid programmes by referencing any outcomes or benefits highlighted in the topic.

• Discuss the potential long-term benefits of these aid programmes for the development of recipient countries.

• Offer a critical perspective or raise any potential challenges associated with the provision or reception of aid, drawing on any nuances present in the topic.

TOPIC 3.3: The Role of NGOs CHARACTERISTICS OF NGOS

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are vital actors in addressing social and environmental challenges worldwide. These organisations play a crucial role in complementing government efforts and driving positive change in various geographic contexts.

NGOs are independent, non-profit entities that operate without government affiliation. They are established by individuals or groups who share a common goal, such as providing aid, promoting human rights, or conserving the environment. Unlike governmental bodies, NGOs do not seek to make a profit, and any surplus generated is reinvested into their missions.

Figure 3.15

There are an estimated 10 million NGOs worldwide.

Characterised by their flexibility and adaptability, NGOs can respond swiftly to emerging issues. They often possess specialised expertise, enabling them to effectively tackle complex problems. For instance, organisations such as Doctors Without Borders deliver medical assistance during health crises, while Greenpeace focuses on environmental advocacy.

NGOs engage in diverse activities, including humanitarian aid, advocacy, capacity-building, research, and community development. They operate at local, national and international levels, collaborating with governments, corporations and communities to achieve their goals. NGOs are known for their ability to mobilise public support through campaigns, fundraising and awareness initiatives.

Funding sources for NGOs include donations from individuals, corporations, foundations, and government grants Transparency and accountability are crucial for maintaining donor trust and ensuring effective use of funds. Many NGOs publish annual reports detailing their financial information and accomplishments.

Examples of prominent NGOs include Oxfam, which addresses poverty and inequality, and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), dedicated to conserving nature. These organisations have made significant contributions to global development and sustainability.

NGOS: EMPOWERING PEOPLE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

NGOs play a crucial role in empowering people in the developing world by providing them with opportunities, resources, and a voice to improve their lives and communities. Below are some of the ways in which NGOs contribute to empowerment.

1. Education and skill development: NGOs often offer educational programmes and vocational training to equip individuals with valuable skills. For example, they might provide literacy classes, computer training, or vocational workshops, enabling people to access better job opportunities and secure their futures

2. Healthcare and wellbeing: NGOs work to improve access to healthcare services, including medical treatment, vaccinations and maternal care. By promoting health education and providing medical facilities, NGOs empower individuals to make informed decisions about their wellbeing.

3. Economic empowerment: Many NGOs focus on income-generating projects, microfinance initiatives, and entrepreneurship training. By offering financial support and teaching business skills, NGOs help individuals to establish small businesses, gain financial independence, and break the cycle of poverty

Brussels Geneva

Addis Ababa Nairobi

Figure 3.16

Oxfam is an NGO that works in many countries around the world.

4. Women’s empowerment: NGOs often prioritise gender equality by promoting women’s education, reproductive health, and economic participation. Programmes that support women’s rights and leadership roles empower them to contribute meaningfully to their communities.

5. Community development: NGOs engage in community-driven projects that address local challenges. They empower communities to identify their needs, participate in decision-making, and implement solutions, fostering a sense of ownership and unity.

6. Advocacy and awareness: NGOs raise awareness about social issues, human rights violations, and environmental concerns. By giving people a platform to voice their concerns, NGOs empower individuals to advocate for change and hold governments and institutions accountable.

7. Disaster relief and resilience: During emergencies, NGOs provide immediate assistance and support for recovery By helping communities rebuild and become more resilient, NGOs empower them to withstand future challenges.

8. Civic engagement: NGOs encourage civic participation and strengthen civil society by organising workshops, forums and campaigns. They empower individuals to engage in democratic processes, advocate for their rights, and influence policy decisions.

9. Access to resources: NGOs facilitate access to clean water, sanitation and energy, which are fundamental for human development These initiatives empower individuals to lead healthier lives and pursue education and economic activities.

10. Cultural preservation: NGOs often work with indigenous communities to preserve their cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. This empowerment helps communities maintain their identity and pass down valuable traditions to future generations.

CASE STUDY: The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) as an NGO that empowers development

The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) is a powerful NGO dedicated to promoting gender equality in LEDCs across Africa. FAWE’s mission is to ensure that girls and women have equal access to quality education, enabling them to break the cycle of poverty and contribute positively to their societies.

FAWE achieves its goals through a range of impactful strategies:

1. Education: FAWE works to change policies and practices that hinder girls’ education. By collaborating with governments and stakeholders, FAWE raises awareness about the importance of girls’ education and advocates for policies that eliminate barriers to learning.

2. Scholarships and support: FAWE provides scholarships and financial assistance to girls and women from disadvantaged backgrounds. This support helps them overcome financial obstacles and to access education at all levels, from primary school to higher education.

3. Teacher training: FAWE trains educators to create gender-responsive classrooms that encourage the active participation of girls. This approach fosters an inclusive learning environment that empowers girls to excel academically.

4. Life skills training: FAWE equips girls with life skills that go beyond the classroom, preparing them for personal and professional success. These skills include leadership, communication, decision-making and problem-solving.

5. Empowerment programmes: FAWE organises workshops, mentorship programmes, and networking opportunities that empower girls and women to develop confidence, self-esteem, and a sense of agency.

6. Research and data: FAWE conducts research to gather data on gender disparities in education. This data informs evidence-based interventions and policies aimed at improving girls’ enrolment, retention, and performance in schools.

7. Parent and community engagement: FAWE engages parents, communities, and traditional leaders to challenge societal norms that hinder girls’ education. By involving these stakeholders, FAWE fosters a supportive environment that values and invests in girls’ learning.

8. Partnerships: FAWE collaborates with governments, NGOs and international organisations to amplify its impact. This collaborative approach leverages resources, expertise and knowledge to advance gender equality in education.

FAWE has had profound success in Africa as it has reached over 31 African countries and supported millions of girls and women. For example, the FAWE Girls’ Education Programme has had significant success in increasing girls’ enrolment and retention in school in the Sahel region. In Mali the programme helped to increase the enrolment of girls in primary school from 53 per cent to 69 per cent between 2008 and 2014.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. State the characteristics that define non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

2. What is the primary purpose of NGOs in various geographic contexts?

3. Name two activities in which NGOs engage to drive positive change. Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the flexibility and adaptability that characterise NGOs and how these qualities benefit their response to emerging issues.

2. Explain how NGOs contribute to empowerment in the developing world through educational programmes and skill development.

3. Discuss the role of transparency and accountability in maintaining donor trust for NGOs. Advanced Knowledge

1. Examine the role of NGOs in addressing complex problems and providing specialised expertise. Provide examples from the text to support your explanation.

2. Consider the impact of NGOs on economic empowerment in the developing world. Compare and contrast the effects of income-generating projects and microfinance initiatives.

3. Investigate the strategies employed by NGOs to empower women in LEDCs Your answer should discuss the significance of promoting women’s education, reproductive health, and economic participation.

Figure 3.17

FAWE works directly in schools to enhance educational opportunities for women.

TOPIC 3.4: The Impact of Landownership Patterns on Development

IMPACT OF LANDOWNERSHIP ON DEVELOPMENT

Unequal land distribution can have profound impacts on both economic and human development within a country. This issue arises when a small percentage of the population controls most of the land resources, leaving the remaining population with limited access and opportunities. Unequal land distribution has profound consequences for society and the patterns of development in a country.

1. Economic inequality: Unequal land distribution often leads to disparities in wealth and income. A small elite owning large portions of land can exploit resources for their benefit, while others struggle to make a living. This deepens economic inequality and impedes overall economic growth

2. Limited agricultural productivity: Agriculture is a fundamental economic activity, especially in many developing countries. Unequal land distribution results in small-scale farmers having insufficient access to land and resources. This reduces their productivity and hampers the agricultural sector’s potential to generate income and contribute to the economy.

3. Poverty: The majority of the rural population in many developing countries depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. When land is concentrated in the hands of a few, it limits opportunities for others to engage in productive activities. This often leads to increased poverty rates among those without access to land.

4. Food insecurity: Unequal land distribution can lead to decreased food production and availability. Small farmers with limited land are less able to produce sufficient food, which can contribute to food shortages and insecurity within communities.

5. Political instability: Land is not only an economic asset but also a source of power and influence. When land ownership is concentrated among a privileged few, it can result in political and social tensions. Discontent among marginalised groups can lead to protests, conflicts, and even political instability.

6. Limited access to education and healthcare: Unequal land distribution can affect access to education and healthcare Families with limited land often struggle to afford these basic services, perpetuating cycles of poverty and limiting human development opportunities.

7. Environmental degradation: Inequality in land ownership can contribute to unsustainable land use practices. Large landowners may prioritise profits over environmental conservation, leading to deforestation, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity.

8. Migration: The lack of opportunities resulting from unequal land distribution can force people to migrate to urban areas in search of better prospects This rapid urbanisation can strain infrastructure and services in cities, leading to challenges such as overcrowding and inadequate housing.

9. Social unrest: When people perceive that land distribution is unjust, it can fuel social tensions and conflicts. Discontent over land rights and access can lead to protests, demonstrations, and even violent confrontations.

CASE STUDY: The impact of land reform in Ireland

Land reform played a pivotal role in shaping rural development in Ireland during the early twentieth century. Before this period, most of the land was owned by Anglo-Irish landlords, who held immense political, economic and social power. These landlords collected rent from their tenants, leaving tenants in a vulnerable position with little security and no incentive to improve their land.

The push for land reform gained momentum in the latter part of the nineteenth century, as tenants organised under the Land League, led by figures such as Michael Davitt and Charles Stewart Parnell. This movement empowered tenants by uniting them and highlighting their collective strength. The efforts of the Land League led to the passing of the 1881 Land Act, which provided tenants with greater security as long as they met their rent obligations.

However, it was the Wyndham Land Purchase Act of 1903 that marked a significant turning point. This act enabled over 250,000 tenants to purchase their land with loans from the British government. This shift was monumental, as it transformed tenants into independent landowners and eradicated the influence of the Anglo-Irish landed elite. The longstanding goal of giving ‘the land of Ireland for the people of Ireland’ was achieved.

The impact of land reform on rural development was multi-faceted. With many tenants becoming landowners, a nation of small farmers emerged. This newfound ownership brought a sense of stability and security to rural communities. However, farming practices remained outdated and unproductive, resulting in low agricultural output. Many farmers lacked the financial resources to invest in modern farming methods.

The importance of land reform in rural development is evident in the transition from tenant farming to land ownership. This change laid the groundwork for further advancements in the agricultural sector. To address the challenges of low productivity, the cooperative movement gained prominence. Cooperative efforts aimed to pool resources, share knowledge, and implement more efficient farming practices.

In conclusion, land reform in Ireland was a critical step towards rural development It empowered tenants, shifted the landscape from tenant farming to land ownership, and initiated the transformation of the agricultural sector. While land ownership provided stability, addressing farming practices required additional efforts such as the cooperative movement. This period marked a significant shift in Ireland’s rural history, fostering a foundation for agricultural progress and economic development.

Figure 3.18

Political cartoon created by the Irish National Land League that sarcastically depicts a landlord reduced to begging for rent

Figure 3.19

Painting from 1870, showing an Irish family being evicted

CASE STUDY: The challenges of land reform in Brazil

Land reform in Brazil has had a profound impact on the country’s social, economic and political landscape. With a historically skewed land distribution pattern favouring a wealthy minority and leaving millions of agricultural workers landless, the need for reform was urgent. This case study sheds light on the multifaceted consequences of land reform on Brazil.

SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

Land reform addressed a major source of social injustice in Brazil. The latifundium system, characterised by large private estates worked by exploited labour forces, perpetuated inequality. Over the past 50 years, around 30 million agricultural workers, both men and women, were forced off their land, resulting in widespread displacement and exclusion. This led to severe hunger, affecting around 31.5 million people, with half of them residing in rural areas. Land reform aimed to rectify this by redistributing land and providing a path to ownership for those previously marginalised.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The prevalent model of ‘modern’ agriculture in Brazil focused on intensive land exploitation, monoculture, and the heavy use of machinery, chemicals and pesticides. This approach, while boosting production, led to detrimental consequences for the environment. Land reform aimed to address these issues by promoting more sustainable farming practices that respect the land, water management and forests.

Figure 3.20

Division of arable land in Brazil between small farms and large farms

CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Social conflicts emerged because of the stark inequality between landowners in Brazil, and disputes over land ownership led to violence. Between 1985 and 1998, Brazil witnessed over 8,900 social conflicts, with more than 5,600 arising from land-related issues. These conflicts often turned deadly, with cases of murder and intimidation targeting agricultural workers and activists advocating for reform. Although the rate of this violence has decreased over the twenty-first century, it still remains a prevalent issue. Land conflicts in Brazil hit 1,576 cases in 2020 This number represents an increase of 25 per cent from 2019, and 57.6 per cent from 2018.

HISTORICAL AND STRUCTURAL FACTORS

The roots of Brazil’s skewed land ownership can be traced back to the early Portuguese colonisation, creating a history of extreme concentration of land ownership. Land reform efforts over the last five decades aimed to modernise the latifundium system, but the integration of financial and industrial capital with agricultural capital proved challenging due to the influence of wealthy landowners over the system.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE AND CHALLENGES

While the Brazilian constitution recognised the importance of land ownership reform in the country, actual progress was hindered by political alliances and resistance from powerful landowners. Social pressure for redistribution of resources grew, leading to some initiatives for land reform. However, the pace of change remained slow. The failure of successive governments to prioritise land reform has led to a persistent problem.

SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT

Land reform’s potential socioeconomic benefits were hindered by a lack of comprehensive implementation. The government’s alliance with the wealthy landowners contributed to a timid redistribution of wealth. Reform was often viewed as a social policy rather than a catalyst for broader socioeconomic development, causing a marginalisation of small farmers and family-run holdings. The agricultural sector experienced job losses, and smallholders were forced off their land, indicating a counterproductive approach.

In conclusion, land reform in Brazil sought to rectify the deeply rooted inequalities in land ownership and agricultural practices. While it had positive intentions, challenges stemming from historical factors, power dynamics, and policy decisions have hindered its comprehensive implementation. The ongoing struggle for meaningful land reform continues to reflect the complex interplay of socioeconomic, political and environmental factors in Brazil’s rural development.

Figure 3.21

Social conflicts and protests have become common in Brazil over the current structure of land ownership

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. State two impacts of unequal land distribution on economic development

2. What is the significance of land ownership in terms of power and influence within a society?

3. List three consequences of unequal land distribution on the agricultural sector.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the relationship between unequal land distribution and economic inequality, providing examples from the text.

2. Explain how unequal land distribution can lead to limited access to education and healthcare in developing countries.

3. Discuss the role of land ownership in fostering political instability and social unrest. Provide real-world examples to support your answer.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the ways in which unequal land distribution contributes to limited agricultural productivity. Your answer should analyse the impact on both small-scale farmers and the overall economy.

2. Analyse the historical factors that have contributed to unequal land distribution in both Ireland and Brazil. Compare and contrast the approaches taken in the two countries to address this issue.

TOPIC 3.5: The Impact of the Decision-Making Process and Levels of Participation on Development

COOPERATIVES

Cooperatives are unique organisations that play a significant role in increasing levels of participation and impacting development. A cooperative is a group of individuals or businesses that come together voluntarily to address their common needs and aspirations. Unlike traditional businesses, where profit maximisation is often the primary goal, cooperatives emphasise shared benefits and democratic decision-making.

Participation in cooperatives empowers individuals by giving them a say in how the organisation operates. Members actively engage in making decisions, electing leaders, and shaping the direction of the cooperative. This sense of ownership and involvement fosters a strong sense of community and belonging. For example, in agricultural cooperatives, farmers collaborate to share resources such as machinery, collectively negotiate better prices, and access markets more effectively

Cooperatives also contribute to local and regional development By pooling resources and knowledge, members can achieve economies of scale and compete in markets that might be inaccessible to individual small-scale producers This leads to increased income and improved livelihoods, particularly in rural areas where cooperatives often thrive.

Additionally, cooperatives address social and economic challenges that hinder development They provide access to services such as healthcare, education and finance, which might be lacking in under-serviced areas. For instance, credit unions offer financial services to members who might otherwise be excluded from the formal banking sector.

In terms of statistics, the International Cooperative Alliance reports that there are over 3 million cooperatives worldwide, engaging more than 1 billion members. These cooperatives generate over 250 million jobs globally.

CASE STUDY: The

agricultural cooperative movement in Ireland

The cooperative movement in Ireland, led by the Irish Cooperative Organisation Society (ICOS), has played a pivotal role in shaping various sectors of the Irish economy. This movement, rooted in the principles of collaboration and mutual benefit, has left a lasting impact on businesses and communities across the nation.

HISTORICAL ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION

The foundation of the Irish Cooperative Organisation Society (ICOS) can be traced back to the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society (IAOS), established in 1894 by Sir Horace Plunkett. The IAOS aimed to unify the scattered agricultural cooperatives that existed in Ireland during that period. Over time, cooperatives transcended their agricultural origins and extended their influence on diverse sectors, eventually leading to the reorganisation and renaming of the IAOS as the Irish Cooperative Organisation Society (ICOS).

DIVERSE MEMBERSHIP AND SIGNIFICANCE

ICOS boasts an extensive membership, consisting of cooperatives and associated companies. These member co-ops have collectively garnered more than 150,000 individual members, employ 12,000 individuals within Ireland, and an additional 24,000 abroad. The financial prowess of ICOS-affiliated businesses is evidenced in their combined annual turnover of €12 billion. Notably, prominent entities like Aryzta, Tirlán, and Kerry Group are counted among ICOS members, underscoring the organisation’s influence across various sectors

VARIED SECTORS OF FOCUS

ICOS extends its influence to a wide array of sectors, and each one is essential to Ireland’s economic development.

1. Multipurpose dairy cooperatives: These cooperatives are integral to Ireland’s thriving dairy industry, playing a key role in milk production, processing and distribution.

2. Livestock sector cooperatives: Cooperatives in this category are deeply involved in the livestock industry, encompassing areas such as meat production and trading.

Figure 3.22

Some of the earliest co-ops in Ireland began with rural farmers. This picture shows a pig fair in Abbeyleix, Co. Laois, c.1896.

Figure 3.23

Irish Cooperative Organisation Society (ICOS)

3. Store, trade, and wholesale cooperatives: These cooperatives contribute to the retail landscape of Ireland, ensuring the availability of goods and products through efficient distribution networks.

4. Service-related cooperatives: This category encompasses cooperatives engaged in providing essential services to communities, highlighting the cooperative ethos of collaboration for mutual welfare.

5. Community-oriented, culture, and leisure cooperatives: These cooperatives enrich Irish communities by fostering cultural activities, leisure opportunities, and community-driven initiatives.

6. Food, fishing, and beverage cooperatives: Cooperatives in this sector are integral to the food and beverage industry, contributing to the production, processing, and distribution of consumable goods.

7. Advisory and education-related cooperatives: ICOS recognises the importance of education and advisory services, supporting cooperatives that provide valuable guidance and knowledgesharing.

GEOGRAPHICAL PRESENCE

ICOS maintains a significant presence across key locations. It operates offices in Dublin and Cork, reflecting its commitment to both urban and rural communities. Additionally, its presence extends to Brussels, demonstrating its involvement in broader European cooperative initiatives.

CASE STUDY: The agricultural cooperative movement in Brazil

The cooperative movement has played a crucial role in shaping various aspects of Brazil’s economy, society and environment. Dating back to the time of Portuguese colonisation, the culture of cooperation has been nurtured by different groups and entities, ranging from public officials to European immigrants This movement has led to the establishment of numerous cooperatives across the country, each contributing to different sectors and communities.

FOUNDATIONS AND EXPANSION

The roots of the cooperative movement in Brazil can be traced to as early as 1889, with the founding of the Economic Cooperative of Public Employees of Ouro Preto in Minas Gerais. This initial cooperative focused on the consumption of agricultural products. Over time, the movement expanded to include other states like Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The Swiss priest Theodor Amstad played a significant role in 1902 by establishing Brazil’s first credit union

The cooperative movement in Brazil boasts impressive figures, reflecting its substantial impact on the nation:

• Number of cooperatives: 6,828

• Number of employees: 425,318

• Number of members: 14,618,720

Figure 3.24

The contributions of agricultural cooperatives to the Brazilian economy

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES AND NATIONAL ECONOMY

Brazil, often referred to as the ‘breadbasket of the world,’ relies significantly on its 1,543 agricultural cooperatives for food production. These cooperatives contribute to 50 per cent of the nation’s food supply. Approximately 361,000 people find employment within the cooperative sector, and an impressive 6.2 per cent of Brazilians are associated with a cooperative. Notably, over 70 per cent of the country’s food consumption originates domestically. Furthermore, these cooperatives play a pivotal role in Brazil’s exports, accounting for more than USD $5.2 billion.

THE ROLE OF THE ORGANISATION OF BRAZILIAN COOPERATIVES (OCB)

The OCB, established in 1969, serves as the national trade body for cooperatives in Brazil. With a presence in all 27 states, OCB devises strategies and manages cooperative local organisations. One of its crucial functions is to support smallholders by providing machinery, equipment, and financial aid through rural credit unions. While farmers focus on cultivating high-quality products, OCBaffiliated cooperatives handle logistics to ensure optimal product quality.

LOBBYING AND LEGISLATION

OCB also advocates for legislation that favours the cooperative sector. Several actions of the federal government, backed by OCB’s efforts, have directly benefited cooperatives. These actions include permissions for setting up free accession cooperatives, creating cooperatives comprising professionals or business groups from multiple categories, and facilitating the operation of credit cooperatives in rural areas.

COMMUNITY IMPACT

The cooperative movement has far-reaching positive impacts on local communities. A notable example is the cooperative Mossoró in Rio Grande do Norte This cooperative has offered agro-ecological technical assistance, enabling members to practise sustainable crop cultivation. Additionally, Mossoró has improved water supply, benefiting over 3,000 families in the region.

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP AND SUSTAINABILITY

CoopCerrado, a cooperative of organic farmers, stands out for its two-decades-long effort to promote regenerative and organic production for smallholders. This cooperative, consisting of 238 smallholder and traditional communities across five states, has played a crucial role in sustaining

the fragile biome of the area. By sustainably commercialising non-timber forest products, CoopCerrado provides a blueprint for sustainable supply chains that preserve ecosystems.

3.25

Soybean farming at a cooperative in Londrina, Brazil

The cooperative movement in Brazil, as exemplified by organisations such as OCB and CoopCerrado, has brought about positive economic, social and environmental changes. Through collaborative efforts, advocacy and sustainable practices, these cooperatives contribute significantly to Brazil’s economy, food security, and environmental conservation. The movement not only empowers communities but also sets an example for sustainable and inclusive development in the country

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is a cooperative, and how does it differ from traditional businesses in terms of goals?

2. List three benefits of participation in cooperatives for individuals or businesses.

3. Name one sector other than agriculture where cooperatives have contributed to development.

Developed Knowledge

1. Explain the significance of cooperatives in addressing challenges related to services such as healthcare and education.

2. Discuss how cooperatives contribute to local and regional development by using the concept of economies of scale. Provide examples from the text.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the historical evolution of the cooperative movement in both Ireland and Brazil. Compare the foundations, growth and societal impacts of cooperatives in these two countries

Figure

TOPIC 3.6: Differing Gender Roles in Society

Gender roles can be described as the societal expectations and norms assigned to individuals based on their gender They have a significant impact on development Gender roles can shape opportunities, influence decision-making, and affect the overall progress of societies.

In many societies, historically rooted gender roles have led to unequal access to resources and opportunities Women have often been confined to domestic roles, while men have been associated with paid work and leadership positions. This division can limit women’s participation in education, the workforce, and decision-making processes. For instance, in countries where girls are expected to stay at home and drop out of school, their access to education is hindered, which ultimately affects their career prospects and economic independence.

The economic impact of differing gender roles is also evident. When women are excluded from the workforce or limited to low-paying jobs, it hampers overall economic growth. According to the World Economic Forum, the global gender pay gap is estimated to take 257 years to close at the current rate of progress. Closing this gap and ensuring equal pay for equal work is essential for sustainable development

3.26

Furthermore, gender inequality can lead to adverse health outcomes. In regions where women have less decision-making power and limited access to reproductive healthcare, maternal mortality rates tend to be higher This also impacts child health and wellbeing.

Efforts to achieve gender equality are crucial for development. When women are empowered and have equal access to education, employment, and leadership positions, societies thrive. Countries with higher levels of gender equality tend to have lower levels of poverty, improved health indicators, and better overall wellbeing.

An example of progress in addressing gender roles can be seen in Rwanda, where women hold 61 per cent of parliamentary seats, the highest proportion in the world. This shift in representation has led to policies that prioritise women’s rights and social development

CASE STUDY: How Rwanda became the first country in the world with

a majority female parliament

Rwanda, a nation recovering from the aftermath of a devastating genocide, has emerged as a global outlier in terms of female participation in politics Even though women constitute nearly half of the global population, their presence in political arenas remains disproportionately low. However, Rwanda’s transformative journey demonstrates how deliberate measures can reshape political landscapes.

Following the tragic period of genocide in 1994 in which 800,000 people were killed over 100 days, Rwanda enacted a new constitution in 2003 as part of its recovery process. This pivotal moment paved the way for progressive changes, including a groundbreaking gender quota system. This mandate dictates that a minimum of 30 per cent of political seats must be held by women. This quota is not only remarkably high but also sets a powerful precedent for gender inclusivity in political decision-making. 12

AFRICA

Among the 42 per cent of countries worldwide that implement gender quotas, Rwanda stands out for the strictness of its approach. The ‘reserved seats’ quota mechanism requires a specific portion of governmental positions to be allocated to women. At 30 per cent, Rwanda’s requirement is among the most stringent, emphasising its commitment to fostering women’s participation in governance. Only Nepal, with a 33 per cent quota, surpasses Rwanda in this regard.

Population of Rwanda

Figure 3.28

Impact of the Rwandan genocide on the population of the country

RWANDA Lake Victoria

Figure 3.27

Rwanda’s geographic location

The impact of gender quotas becomes evident when examining the remarkable increase in women’s representation. In countries such as Costa Rica and Italy, quotas applied to candidate lists led to a significant rise in female representation, by 7 and 12 per cent respectively This highlights the effectiveness of such measures in levelling the playing field and providing women with the opportunities they deserve.

Rwanda’s success in achieving high levels of female political participation is also attributed to its proportional electoral system This system correlates the percentage of government seats held by a party with the percentage of voter support for that party Within such systems, women have been more successful in securing political positions. In 2018, elections governed by proportional representation led to 27 per cent of seats being occupied by women, compared to only 20 per cent in other types of elections.

Crucially, Rwanda’s commitment to enhancing female participation extends beyond mere quotas. The Rwanda Women Parliamentary Forum, a cross-party women’s caucus, plays a pivotal role in expanding women’s presence beyond the mandated 30 per cent. A caucus is a meeting or grouping of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement. This caucus strategically deploys experienced legislators to open seats while also facilitating newcomers’ access to reserved seats. These combined efforts amplify women’s representation and foster diverse perspectives in governance.

The countries with the most women in parliament

Moreover, the caucus’s influence transcends numbers. It has actively engaged in drafting and advocating for impactful legislation, notably anti-violence measures. In Kenya, a similar women’s caucus played a crucial role in passing legislation condemning female genital mutilation, highlighting the broader positive influence of such groups.

Rwanda’s exceptional journey showcases the potential for profound change when societies intentionally address gender disparities in politics. Through resolute measures such as strict quotas, strategic political engagement and collaborative efforts, Rwanda has created an environment where women’s voices are valued and empowered. As we recognise Rwanda’s remarkable achievements, we are reminded that gender-inclusive policies are not only essential for equality but also instrumental in building robust, inclusive and prosperous societies.

Figure 3.29

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are gender roles, and how can they impact development?

2. Name a consequence of historically rooted gender roles related to education and workforce participation.

3. Why is closing the gender pay gap essential for sustainable development?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the connection between gender roles and access to education. How does this impact women’s career opportunities?

2. Explain how gender inequality can have adverse effects on health outcomes, particularly in terms of maternal and child health.

3. Discuss the economic implications of excluding women from the workforce. How does this affect overall economic growth?

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the measures taken by Rwanda to achieve a majority female parliament

2. Consider the broader societal impact of women’s caucuses in politics, using the Rwanda Women Parliamentary Forum as an example.

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2022

‘Empowering people is a way of linking economic growth with human development.’

Discuss this statement with reference to land ownership patterns and their impact on development.

2020

‘Empowering people is a way of linking economic growth with human development.’

Discuss this statement with reference to any two of the following:

• National debt

• Aid programmes

• Land ownership patterns

• Differing gender roles in society.

2019

Discuss how aid programmes can help and hinder development.

(80 marks)

(80 marks)

(80 marks)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 04

SYLLABUS LINK

6.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS A MODEL FOR FUTURE HUMAN AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. List the top three partner countries that received Irish Aid support in 2023.

2. What is the UN’s recommended percentage of gross national income (GNI) that countries should allocate to developmental assistance?

3. Explain how multilateral aid is different from bilateral aid.

4. Discuss the potential drawbacks of tied aid.

5. How does Irish Aid address humanitarian needs in Ethiopia?

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Discuss how the use of resources is integral to a model of sustainable development in the future with reference to Sweden, Iceland, and the East African Rift Valley.

2. Examine the impact of fair trade on development.

3. Analyse how social justice issues can impact on economic and human development with reference to the Irish Traveller Community and indigenous tribes in Brazil.

4. Explain the concept of self-reliance in the model for sustainable development.

KEYWORDS

Sustainable development Economic growth Ludgate Hub Environmental protection

Present and future generations

Natural resourcesSocial progressRenewable sources

Geothermal energy Environmental conservation

Sustainable energy Fair trade movement

Ethical trade practices Equitable partnerships Iceland

Direct trade Imbibe Coffee Roasters Justice issues

InequalityDiscrimination Access to basic rights

Social justice

Economic and human development

Gender inequality

Indigenous tribes Irish Traveller communityCafé Femenino Foundation Self-reliance

Skibbereen

TOPIC 4.1: The Sustainable Use of Resources SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is a fundamental concept that addresses the challenge of achieving progress while ensuring the wellbeing of both present and future generations. It encompasses the notion that economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection are interconnected and must be balanced to create a harmonious and lasting global society. The United Nations defines it as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

At its core, sustainable development embodies this idea. It involves recognising the limits of natural resources and understanding that the choices we make today impact the quality of life for generations to come

A crucial aspect of sustainable development is its three interdependent dimensions: economic, social, and environmental. Economically, it seeks to promote equitable growth, eradicate poverty, and ensure a stable economic foundation for all. Socially, it aims to enhance quality of life; provide access to education, healthcare, and basic amenities; and foster inclusive societies that respect diversity. Environmentally, it emphasises responsible resource management, pollution reduction, conservation of biodiversity, and climate change mitigation.

Sustainable development also considers the importance of global cooperation. Nations around the world, recognising their shared responsibility, have come together to set common goals, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These goals address key challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation.

This topic will examine the sustainable use of two resources as a model for the future:

• Forestry resources

• Energy resources.

FORESTRY RESOURCES

Managing forestry resources sustainably is essential to ensure a thriving and balanced environment for future generations. Forests provide a multitude of benefits, from clean air and water to preserving biodiversity and storing carbon. Unsustainable practices such as deforestation can lead to irreversible damage, contributing to climate change and loss of biodiversity.

For instance, the Amazon Rainforest has lost approximately 17 per cent of its forest cover over the past five decades. This not only affects its unique biodiversity but also releases significant amounts of stored carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating global warming.

Sustainable forestry management involves practices that maintain the health of forests, such as reforestation and selective logging. In countries such as Sweden, which has a strong sustainable forestry industry, regulations ensure that for every tree felled, several are planted. This approach helps maintain a continuous supply of timber while preserving the ecosystem.

CASE STUDY: Sweden as a model for sustainable development of boreal forests

Sweden’s remarkable success in sustainable resource management can be attributed to its careful stewardship of its vast boreal forests. Covering over 50 per cent of the country’s land area, these forests have become a cornerstone of Sweden’s economy and environmental conservation efforts.

Figure 4.1

Process of forest management in Sweden

In the nineteenth century, Sweden faced the unsustainable practice of increasing tree-felling without sufficient replanting. However, a turning point came with the introduction of the Forestry Act of 1903, which mandated the replanting of felled areas. This marked the birth of sustainable forest management in Sweden. The responsibility for overseeing this vital natural resource was entrusted to the Swedish Forest Agency, ensuring a systematic and balanced approach to forest utilisation.

A key principle of Sweden’s sustainable forest management is the careful balance between timber harvesting and forest regeneration With timber growth being slow due to the long winters, only a mere 1 per cent of the annual timber is harvested, allowing ample time for forests to replenish naturally. Advanced computer-assisted calculations enable accurate monitoring of annual timber felling, aiding in maintaining this equilibrium.

Figure 4.2

Map of Swedish forests

The evolution of Sweden’s approach to forestry management reflects the growing environmental consciousness among its people. The rise of the Green Movement in the 1970s prompted more thinking on the significance of forests. The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation played a pivotal role in redefining forests not merely as sources of timber but also as diverse ecosystems supporting biodiversity and recreational activities such as fishing, hunting and canoeing.

This shift in perspective ushered in various sustainable practices. To enhance biodiversity, native broadleaf species such as beech, oak and birch were introduced, particularly in the southern regions. This diversification has resulted in healthier and more resilient forests. Moreover, the practice of clear cutting, which disrupts ecosystems, has been adapted. Cutting now occurs in smaller, irregular areas to minimise disturbance to wildlife.

Sweden’s sustainable forestry practices are poised to play a significant role in addressing modern challenges. The demand for timber products, including wood pellets used as biofuel, has surged both within Sweden and the broader EU due to its carbon-neutral nature. Additionally, innovative industrial processes are yielding valuable products such as insulation materials, chemicals and medicines. This creates opportunities for economic growth and environmental sustainability.

For example, the demand for timber products, especially wood pellets used as biofuel, has witnessed a remarkable surge both within Sweden and across the broader EU. In 2022, Sweden’s wood pellet production reached approximately 3.5 million metric tonnes, a substantial increase driven by the carbon-neutral nature of biofuels. Furthermore, the European Union’s bioenergy consumption has been on the rise, and wood pellets are a significant contributor In 2022 the EU consumed around 26 million metric tonnes of wood pellets, with expectations of further growth. This escalating demand underscores the recognition of wood pellets as a sustainable energy source. This aligns with EU environmental goals and promotes renewable energy alternatives.

Sweden’s management of its boreal forests plays a significant role in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15) – Life on Land. This goal aims to protect, restore and sustainably manage terrestrial ecosystems, including forests, to combat the loss of biodiversity and

Figure 4.3

The increasing global demand for wood pellets suits the sustainable forest management practices implemented in Sweden.

degradation of the land. Sweden’s sustainable boreal forest management contributes to SDG 15 in the following ways:

• Conserving biodiversity: By preserving diverse forest ecosystems, Sweden helps protect endangered species and maintains biodiversity, a central aspect of SDG 15.

• Preventing land degradation: Sustainable management practices mitigate soil erosion and degradation, aligning with the SDG 15 goal of combatting land degradation.

• Mitigating climate change: Forests act as carbon sinks, and Sweden’s sustainable forestry practices contribute to climate change mitigation, another SDG 15 objective

• Using resources efficiently: Efficient use of forest resources and reduced waste align with the SDG 15 target of ensuring sustainable land use.

Sweden’s sustainable forest management model, developed over more than a century, serves as an exemplary template for nations worldwide. By deftly balancing economic interests with environmental preservation, Sweden showcases the profound potential of responsible resource management. The success story of Sweden’s sustainable forestry holds vital lessons for shaping a future where the use of resources aligns harmoniously with ecological wellbeing.

CASE STUDY: Costa Rica as a model for sustainable development of forest-based ecotourism

Costa Rica’s journey towards sustainable forest management and environmental conservation offers a valuable model for sustainable development, demonstrating how proactive decisions and community empowerment can drive positive change.

In the 1940s, Costa Rica was rich in lush rainforests and diverse ecosystems – over 75 per cent of the country was covered in forest However, decades of deforestation due to logging and agricultural expansion led to the loss of nearly two-thirds of its forest cover by the 1980s. Despite this challenging history, Costa Rica has managed to make a remarkable turnaround in a relatively short span of time.

The country’s approach to sustainable development began by addressing the root causes of deforestation and environmental degradation. The government and citizens of Costa Rica understood that it was essential to achieve a balance between economic growth and environmental protection In response, the nation invested in education, culture and the empowerment of its citizens, ensuring that economic benefits reached all levels of society By abolishing the army and redirecting resources towards education and culture, Costa Rica fostered a society that values progress and environmental stewardship.

One of Costa Rica’s standout strategies is the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) programme, initiated in 1997. This innovative programme gives financial rewards to landowners for preserving their land’s natural resources, e.g. by conserving biodiversity, protecting water sources, and storing carbon. Funding for the PES programme comes from taxes on fossil fuels. This creates a direct link between environmental protection and generation of revenue. Over the past

Figure 4.4 Ecotourism in Costa Rica

two decades, this programme has contributed over €420 million to landowners in economically disadvantaged areas, resulting in the protection of more than one million hectares of forests. Furthermore, Costa Rica’s commitment to sustainable development extends to its thriving ecotourism industry. Nearly two-thirds of the country’s visitors are attracted by its natural beauty and diverse ecosystems. This industry not only contributes significantly to Costa Rica’s GDP but also aids in preserving the environment. Unlike traditional tourism, which often leads to environmental degradation, ecotourism has incentivised the Costa Rican people to protect their natural resources. This has created a harmonious relationship between economic growth and environmental conservation.

Costa Rica’s tourism model focuses on social progress alongside economic growth by using tourism-generated revenue to build essential infrastructure such as schools, hospitals and health clinics in rural and coastal areas. The nation promotes education, health and overall community development. This holistic approach to development not only uplifts communities but also supports efforts for environmental conservation.

While Costa Rica’s achievements in sustainable development are noteworthy, challenges remain. The country faces the impacts of global climate change, including the increasing frequency and intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes. Despite its progress, Costa Rica is not immune to the wider world’s inability to meet emissions targets.

In conclusion, Costa Rica’s journey from deforestation to environmental stewardship provides an inspiring model for sustainable development. By empowering communities, implementing innovative programmes like PES, and fostering a symbiotic relationship between tourism and conservation, Costa Rica showcases the potential for positive change. Its story serves as a fine example for nations seeking a balanced path towards economic prosperity, social progress and environmental sustainability.

ENERGY RESOURCES

Sustainable management of energy resources is essential to secure a stable future for our planet. Energy resources, such as fossil fuels and renewable sources, power our lives and our economies. However, our current energy consumption patterns are straining these resources, and are leading to environmental degradation and climate change

Fossil fuels are major energy sources, but they contribute to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions For instance, burning coal and oil releases harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, which worsen air quality and impact public health. In contrast, renewable sources like solar, wind, and hydropower offer cleaner alternatives, emitting minimal or no greenhouse gases.

By transitioning to sustainable energy, we can mitigate climate change, reduce pollution, and ensure a lasting energy supply Countries such as Iceland demonstrate the potential; nearly 90 per cent of Iceland’s energy comes from renewable sources, including geothermal and hydropower Sustainable energy management is not just about reducing negative impacts but also about securing a brighter and cleaner future for generations to come.

Figure 4.5

CASE STUDY: Iceland as a model for sustainable development of energy resources

Iceland stands as a remarkable model for sustainable energy development, showcasing the extraordinary potential of harnessing nature’s gifts to meet its energy needs while preserving the environment. This island nation’s success story is an inspiration for those seeking a greener and more sustainable energy future.

At the heart of Iceland’s energy journey is its use of renewable resources A staggering 100 per cent of the electricity generated in Iceland comes from renewable sources, a feat achieved through a strategic blend of hydropower and geothermal energy. Hydropower, drawn from glacial rivers and waterfalls that are abundant in Iceland’s unique geography, accounts for around 75 per cent of the country’s electricity production. Geothermal energy, derived from the island’s volcanic activity, contributes another 24 per cent to the energy mix. This reliance on renewables significantly reduces Iceland’s carbon footprint, setting an example for the rest of the world.

Iceland’s geothermal energy prowess is particularly impressive. The island’s geological activity is characterised by over 200 volcanoes and numerous hot springs This allows for the efficient extraction of geothermal heat. These high-temperature steam fields, with temperatures reaching up to 250°C, are harnessed for a variety of purposes, from heating homes and swimming pools to powering electricity generation plants Around 89 per cent of Icelandic households enjoy geothermal heating, demonstrating the nation’s commitment to sustainable and eco-friendly energy solutions.

Furthermore, Iceland’s leadership extends beyond its domestic efforts. The country’s abundant renewable energy resources have paved the way for innovative initiatives. For instance, Carbon Recycling International has developed a technology that converts carbon dioxide into methanol fuel. This represents a major step towards reducing the dependence on fossil fuels.

The sustainable development of energy sources in Iceland is driven by a harmonious interplay of government policies, technological advancements, and geographical advantages. The government’s dedication to fostering renewable energy is exemplified by its target to become carbon neutral by 2040 This commitment aligns with global efforts to combat climate change and transition towards cleaner energy alternatives. Iceland’s role in the Climate Neutral Network, alongside nations such as Costa Rica and New Zealand, underscores its dedication to catalysing global action towards lowcarbon economies.

Figure 4.6

The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station

Figure 4.7

Electricity production in Iceland by source

Iceland’s pursuit of sustainability can also be seen in its exploration of wind energy. The country’s diverse energy portfolio is a testament to its forward-thinking approach. With its favourable geological conditions and commitment to harnessing multiple renewable sources, Iceland stands as a role model for energy diversification.

In conclusion, Iceland’s journey towards sustainable energy development exemplifies a synergy between natural resources, innovative technology, and a determined policy framework. By harnessing the power of its geothermal and hydropower potential, Iceland has not only achieved energy security but also substantially reduced its carbon footprint. The nation’s proactive stance in promoting renewables is an inspiration for all nations, and shows how the transition towards a greener and more sustainable energy landscape is possible.

CASE STUDY: Iceland’s collaboration in the East African Rift zone as a model for sustainable development

Iceland has undergone an extraordinary energy transformation, shifting from fossil fuels to near-complete reliance on renewable sources. Today, nearly 100 per cent of Iceland’s electricity originates from renewables, enriching its people and environment.

In collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Iceland’s efforts have extended to Eastern Africa, where it is hoped that Iceland’s energy success can be replicated. Through financial support, training and the sharing of expertise, Iceland has sparked an energy

revolution in the African region to address energy shortages and promote sustainability

Geothermal energy, harnessed from the Earth’s heat, powers this transformation. Iceland’s geothermal prowess stems from its volcanic landscape, which features abundant hot springs and accessible underground water. Similarly, East African nations, aligned along the Great East African Rift System, possess the geothermal potential to generate substantial energy At the East African Rift Zone, the tectonic plate is separating at a rate of half a centimetre annually. Consequently, as the plate splits into two new plates, the region is characterised by high amounts of volcanic activity This is significant in a region marred by energy deficits, where a substantial portion of the population lacks access.

It is estimated that Eastern Africa could harness up to 20 gigawatts of electricity from geothermal sources. Currently, accessing energy is a problem for 25 to 89 per cent of the population. Therefore, these untapped resources hold the key to powering livelihoods and boosting development. Geothermal energy is environmentally friendly and indigenous. It emerges as an intelligent solution for East African nations in need of energy supplies, and it promises to bridge the gap and propel sustainable progress.

Iceland has taken an active and committed role in UNEP’s African Rift Geothermal Development Facility Project. Partnering with Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, Iceland boosts geothermal investments. Its contribution to the Geothermal Exploration Project further fosters regional expertise.

Iceland’s Geothermal Training Programme and support for the African Geothermal Centre of Excellence are commendable initiatives. By training young African professionals, Iceland aids the sustainable development of geothermal projects. The partnership also extends to empower women entrepreneurs in the energy sector, contributing to societal growth. Kenya is one nation that has excelled in this endeavour. A journey that began in the 1950s has culminated in Kenya now being a global leader, boasting a geothermal production capacity of around 950 MW, contributing nearly 50 per cent of its total electricity generation.

This collaboration directly contributes to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

Figure 4.9

Geothermal power station in the Hell’s Gate National Park, Kenya

Western Branch Eastern Branch

Eritrea

Djibouti

Ethiopia Somalia

Burundi

Tanzania

Zambia

Mozambique

Uganda

Democratic Republic of the Congo Kenya

Rwanda

Malawi

Figure 4.8

Potential sites for geothermal energy production in the East African Rift Valley

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT ZONE

1. Renewable energy: Iceland’s collaboration promotes the use of renewable geothermal energy in East Africa, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and aligning with the SDG 7 objective of ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

2. Energy access: Geothermal projects increase energy access in East African countries, powering homes, industries and healthcare facilities. This addresses the SDG 7 aim of providing universal energy access.

3. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Geothermal energy is a low-carbon energy source By facilitating its use in the East African Rift Zone, Iceland contributes to the SDG 13 target of combatting climate change and its impacts.

4. Economic development: Access to affordable and clean energy stimulates economic growth and job creation. This directly links to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth).

5. Sustainable land use: Geothermal projects encourage sustainable land use, as they do not deplete resources or harm ecosystems. This aligns with SDG 15 (Life on Land).

BUILDING CAPACITY AND TRANSFERRING KNOWLEDGE

1. Education and training: Iceland provides training and expertise to local communities and governments, fostering knowledge exchange. This contributes to SDG 4 (Quality Education).

2. Technological innovation: Collaboration encourages innovation in geothermal technology, supporting SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure)

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is sustainable development?

2. Name the three dimensions of sustainable development and briefly explain each.

3. Why is global cooperation important in achieving the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals?

Developed Knowledge

1. Explain the significance of the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) programme.

2. Discuss the role of ecotourism in Costa Rica’s sustainable development. Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the factors contributing to Iceland’s success in achieving nearly 100 per cent renewable energy for its electricity needs.

2. Investigate the impact of Iceland’s geothermal energy expertise in Eastern Africa.

3. Consider the broader implications of sustainable energy practices in Iceland. How does Iceland’s success in energy transformation contribute to global environmental wellbeing and the spread of sustainable practices?

TOPIC 4.2: Impact of Fair Trade on Development

FAIR TRADE MOVEMENT

The fair trade movement is a global effort aimed at fostering ethical trade practices that prioritises equitable partnerships, sustainable development and social justice. It champions the rights and livelihoods of farmers and artisans, especially in developing countries, by ensuring they receive fair wages, have safe working conditions and follow environmentally responsible practices.

At its core, fair trade operates on the principle of providing a fair deal for producers in regions where traditional trading systems often disadvantage them. This movement spans various products, from coffee and chocolate to textiles and handicrafts By offering fair prices, empowering marginalised communities, and supporting environmentally friendly practices, fair trade creates a positive impact on both local economies and the global market.

For instance, by 2022 over 2 million farmers and workers across 74 countries were benefiting from the fair trade system. It has the potential to be a transformative movement that helps bridge the gap between consumers and producers, making a significant contribution to a more just and sustainable world economy.

FAIR TRADE AS A SYSTEM

The fair trade movement effectively fulfils its aims by adopting a multifaceted approach that encompasses various principles and practices:

1. Fair prices: Fair trade ensures producers receive prices that cover their production costs and provide a decent livelihood. This helps prevent exploitation and poverty among farmers and artisans

2. Direct trade: By establishing direct relationships between producers and buyers, fair trade eliminates intermediaries and reduces the power of exploitative middlemen.

3. Ethical working conditions: Fair trade demands safe and humane working conditions. This includes fair working hours, safe environments, and no child labour.

4. Environmental sustainability: Fair trade encourages sustainable practices that minimise harm to the environment. This can involve organic farming, reduced pesticide use, and protection of ecosystems.

5. Community development: A portion of fair trade premiums goes into community development projects, such as schools, healthcare facilities and clean water initiatives.

6. Empowering marginalised groups: Fair trade empowers women and marginalised groups by ensuring they have equal access to opportunities and decision-making.

7. Consumer awareness: Fair trade educates consumers about the origins of products and the impact of their purchases. This drives demand for ethical products.

8. Certification and standards: Fair trade products are certified by organisations such as Fairtrade International, providing assurance that they meet strict social, economic and environmental standards.

Figure 4.10 Fairtrade logo

Globally, farmers certified by Fairtrade earned approximately €190 million in Fairtrade Premiums in 2022, which were invested in community projects to further enhance the movement’s impact.

WEAKNESSES OF THE FAIR TRADE SYSTEM

While fair trade aims to alleviate issues in global trade, it faces its own set of challenges that impede its effectiveness. These problems often stem from the complexities of global markets and the intricacies of supply chains.

1. Limited impact: Fair trade initiatives, though commendable, often have limited reach They primarily benefit the producers who are part of certified organisations, leaving out numerous smallscale farmers who may not have the resources to comply with certification requirements.

Although fair trade has many benefits, at times it is local farmers who lose out on most of its benefits.

2. Price volatility: Fair trade aims to provide stable prices to producers, but the market dynamics can result in price fluctuations that affect the stability of incomes for farmers. Moreover, the premium prices paid for fair trade products might not always translate directly into improved living conditions for the producers.

3. Middlemen: The presence of intermediaries between producers and consumers can diminish the impact of fair trade. These intermediaries sometimes absorb a significant portion of the premium, leaving producers with relatively little.

4. Certification costs: Obtaining Fairtrade certification can be expensive for producers, particularly for those in developing countries This cost can sometimes outweigh the benefits of certification, especially for small-scale producers.

5. Complex supply chains: Global supply chains involve various stakeholders, including producers, exporters, importers, distributors and retailers. The complexity of these chains can make it difficult to track the impact of Fairtrade Premiums at each stage.

6. Consumer awareness: While consumer demand for ethical products is growing, not everyone is aware of or willing to pay extra for fair trade goods. This limits the market for such products and reduces their potential impact

According to a study by the Fair Trade Advocacy Office, only about 32 per cent of the extra price consumers pay for fair trade products goes directly to producers. The rest can be absorbed by various costs along the supply chain.

THE IMPACT OF MOUNTING ECONOMIC AND CLIMATE CRISES ON FAIR TRADE: COFFEE

Minimum prices for fair trade products are set to make a substantial impact on the coffee industry, particularly for small-scale farmers facing challenges posed by volatile markets, inflation and climate change.

Starting from 1 August 2023, fair trade prices for certified robusta and arabica coffee beans increased by 19 per cent and 29 per cent respectively. These higher prices provide crucial support

Figure 4.11

to farmers during unpredictable market fluctuations, inflation in their countries, and the mounting costs of adapting to climate change.

4.12

A sharp increase in prices in the fair trade coffee industry is expected in the future.

The new minimum fair trade price for washed arabica beans, representing over 80 per cent of fair trade coffee sales, rises from $1.40 to $1.80 per pound. Additionally, the premium for organic fair trade coffee grows by one-third, reaching 40 cents per pound. Notably, more than half of fair trade coffee sold in 2021 was certified organic

This price boost is significant, as coffee farmers, who produce 60 per cent of the world’s coffee, often live in poverty While coffee prices surged in 2022, the benefits rarely reached the farmers, as they typically retained only about 1 per cent of the retail price.

Nonetheless, the challenges persist Rising costs, climate impacts, and financial hardships continue to threaten the coffee sector’s future. The call is for every stakeholder, including consumers, retailers and traders, to contribute to paying farmers their fair share and securing the sustainability of the industry.

CASE STUDY: Imbibe Coffee Roasters: Ethical business through fair and direct trade agreements

Imbibe Coffee Roasters is an example of ethical business. It exemplifies its commitment to fairness and sustainability through a unique approach to fair and direct agreements Founded in 2018, this coffee haven is redefining the industry landscape in Ireland.

Embracing a philosophy of ‘conscious capitalism’, the focus of Imbibe goes beyond profits. Their innovative model allocates 1 per cent of coffee sales to meaningful causes This includes supporting Women’s Aid, contributing to projects in coffee origins, and fairly distributing 1 per cent among their dedicated staff.

Imbibe collaborates with organic coffee co-ops, which amplifies their ethical stance. Recognising challenges faced by farmers, Imbibe has funded the construction of footbridges to empower communities. Building footbridges in rural communities is a transformative act towards empowerment and development. In these remote areas, geographical barriers such as rivers and streams often isolate villages and hinder progress. Erecting footbridges directly addresses this challenge. These footbridges provide access to schools, which is crucial for development. Footbridges provide safe passages for students, which reduces absenteeism and dropout rates This boosts literacy rates and equips communities with the knowledge and skills they need for progress.

Figure

Additionally, footbridges facilitate the movement of goods and services. Farmers can transport produce to markets, which expands their economic opportunities. This trade generates income and stimulates economic growth With footbridges, people can also have timely access to healthcare services. Footbridges connect remote villages to medical facilities, ensuring swift medical attention during emergencies. According to the World Bank, infrastructure investments such as bridges can yield economic returns of up to 40 per cent in these rural areas

Imbibe also works with the Lonya Grande co-op of the Amazonas region in Peru, which showcases their commitment to gender equality. Along with the Café Femenino Foundation, Imbibe financed a wet mill to improve the coffee quality and empower female members. This conscious choice directly impacts coffee quality and empowers female producers, demonstrating the commitment of Imbibe to ethical practices.

Imbibe’s dedication to sustainability extends to their wholesale delivery. Over 90 per cent of their deliveries are carried out in zero-waste ‘coffee in cans’. This circular approach exemplifies Imbibe’s pledge to minimise the environmental impact of their economic activities.

Imbibe employs what is known as a circular economy strategy. Adopting a modern twist on the milkman system, Imbibe delivers coffee beans in reusable 6 kg cans. It also retrieves the cans, and cleans them so they can be reused. This practice not only minimises waste but also resonates with eco-conscious consumers.

Imbibe also addresses waste at the source by repurposing large coffee sacks. By distributing these sacks to various sectors, they showcase their commitment to creative and practical sustainability.

Imbibe Coffee Roasters sets a remarkable standard for ethical business practices. Their pioneering ‘conscious capitalism’ not only elevates the coffee experience but also establishes a tangible avenue for social change. Imbibe’s story illustrates that ‘ethical business’ is not merely a label but a transformative force that enriches lives, fosters equality, and safeguards the environment.

Figure 4.13

Imbibe Coffee provides zero-waste wholesale delivery of ‘coffee in cans’.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is the fair trade movement, and what are its primary goals?

2. Name two key principles of fair trade and briefly explain them.

3. Why is fair trade considered a positive influence on both local economies and the global market?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the concept of fair prices in the fair trade movement. How does it prevent exploitation and poverty among producers?

2. Explain how fair trade addresses ethical working conditions for producers

3. Discuss the significance of Fairtrade Premiums and their impact on community development.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the challenges faced by fair trade initiatives. How do issues such as limited impact, price volatility, and complex supply chains hinder the movement’s effectiveness?

2. Investigate the impact of rising fair trade prices on the coffee industry.

3. Consider the case study of Imbibe Coffee Roasters. How does their approach to fair trade agreements demonstrate an ethical business model that contributes to social change and environmental sustainability?

TOPIC 4.3: Justice Issues

JUSTICE ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENT

Justice issues, such as inequality, discrimination, and lack of access to basic rights, have a profound impact on both economic and human development. Inequitable distribution of resources can hinder opportunities for marginalised communities, and lead to limited access to education, healthcare and decent work. This not only stifles personal growth but also hampers overall economic progress.

For instance, gender inequality remains a global challenge, with women often earning less than men for the same work and facing limited decision-making power. This not only affects women’s wellbeing, it also restricts economic potential. Similarly, social discrimination based on race or ethnicity can lead to exclusion, limiting human capital development and impeding economic growth

Inequality also breeds social unrest, causing political instability and lack of confidence for investors. Nations with more just societies tend to experience higher levels of economic growth, social cohesion, and overall development It is important to address justice issues through policies that promote equal opportunities, social protection, and inclusive institutions, in order to see sustainable economic and human progress.

CASE STUDY: The Irish Traveller community

Members of the Irish Traveller community grapple with profound justice issues that intersect with their social and economic development As a community, they score poorly on every indicator used to measure disadvantage These challenges are reflected in various domains of their lives, from discrimination and education to employment, healthcare and housing.

Discrimination emerges as a prominent concern among Irish Travellers, affecting access to opportunities and services. A substantial 65 per cent of Travellers experience discrimination in areas such as work, education, health and housing. Awareness of equality bodies and antidiscrimination laws is relatively higher in Ireland among Travellers compared to other groups, but the majority refrain from reporting or filing complaints about their discriminatory experiences.

In education, Travellers face hurdles that hinder their academic progression. While almost all Traveller children aged 6–15 attend school, nearly one-third of parents report that their children experience bullying because of to their Traveller identity. Moreover, fewer than 7 per cent of Travellers aged 16–18 complete secondary education, so they do not engage in further education or training.

Employment prospects for Irish Travellers are limited, with a mere 17 per cent of women and 13 per cent of men engaged in paid work Part-time jobs are prevalent, and only a small proportion of workers hold permanent contracts The disparity is stark when compared to the higher employment rates of the general Irish population. An alarming 70 per cent of young Travellers aged 16–24 are neither employed nor in education or training, a striking contrast to the 11 per cent unemployment rate among young Irish people.

Health disparities also feature prominently. Irish Travellers face greater health limitations, with 29 per cent experiencing severe health problems. The life expectancy of Travellers is notably lower than the general population, underscoring significant health challenges within the community. Discrimination in healthcare is reported by 11 per cent of Travellers, highlighting barriers to accessing quality medical services. These health inequalities are highlighted further by the fact that the rate of suicide among Travellers in Ireland is six times higher than that of wider society Also, over 65 per cent of Traveller suicides occur among those aged under 30.

Housing issues compound the challenges faced by Irish Travellers. Severe housing deprivation affects 24 per cent of Travellers, who often struggle to secure suitable accommodation. Discrimination during housing searches is a prevalent issue, and inadequate housing options that suit the community exacerbate the problem

The collective impact of these justice issues reverberates through various aspects of Irish Travellers’ lives. Their limited access to education, employment, healthcare and adequate housing impedes their socio-economic development. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from policymakers, community leaders, and society at large. Creating inclusive policies, raising awareness, and fostering an environment of equity and respect are essential steps toward building a more just and equitable society for Irish Travellers.

Figure 4.15

Irish Traveller Movement logo

CASE STUDY: Indigenous tribes in Brazil

Indigenous tribes of Brazil number approximately 900,000 people across 240 tribes. These tribes face profound justice challenges that threaten their wellbeing and way of life. This can be better understood by examining the historical context, land encroachment, violence, and efforts towards preservation.

Since the arrival of European settlers in Brazil around 1500, the lives of indigenous communities have been marked by destructive forces. Historically, diseases brought by European settlers decimated the indigenous population by nearly 90 per cent within a century. This loss of life and culture was exacerbated by subsequent waves of colonisation and development

Traditionally, many tribes have subsisted as hunter-gatherers and slash-and-burn farmers, maintaining a close relationship with their natural environment. However, the 1960s saw the Brazilian government initiating infrastructural projects, such as the roads that opened up the Amazon Basin to exploit its resources. This led to deforestation, loss of habitat, and the intrusion of lumber companies, cattle ranchers and agricultural cultivators Dams and mining activities further encroached upon tribal lands, precipitating a distressing decline in indigenous populations. The consequences were dire. Many tribes disappeared, and their cultural heritage was lost Rampant violence accompanied these changes, exemplified by incidents such as the notorious Massacre of the 11th Parallel in 1963. Over the past century, it is estimated that each year, one indigenous tribe has vanished from the Amazon Basin.

In response to this crisis, the Brazilian government established reserves aimed at protecting the rights of indigenous people. The National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) was created to oversee indigenous affairs. However, the challenges persist due to the vastness of Brazil’s territory and issues of corruption. Political corruption and greed continue to undermine the rights and territories of these tribes.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN BRAZIL

The grim reality is underscored by instances of violence against indigenous leaders and communities. Ranchers, driven by economic gain, have employed mercenaries to assassinate leaders and forcibly displace tribes from their ancestral lands. This pattern of intimidation and violence marginalises and dispossess indigenous communities and makes them increasingly vulnerable.

Efforts to address these justice issues are crucial, not only for the wellbeing of the indigenous tribes but also for the preservation of Brazil’s rich cultural and ecological diversity. Advocacy groups such as Survival International work tirelessly to raise awareness and mobilise support for the rights of indigenous communities. As global citizens, we must recognise the significance of preserving these cultures and lands, fostering a just and sustainable future for all.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are justice issues, and how do they impact economic and human development?

2. Name one example of a justice issue that affects economic progress and explain its impact.

3. Why is addressing justice issues important for both sustainable economic growth and overall human progress?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the concept of gender inequality as a justice issue.

2. Explain the challenges faced by the Irish Traveller community.

3. Discuss the historical context and factors contributing to the challenges faced by indigenous tribes in Brazil.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the efforts to address justice challenges among the Irish Traveller community. How can inclusive policies, awareness campaigns, and societal changes contribute to their socio-economic development?

2. Consider the role of advocacy groups such as Survival International in addressing the justice issues faced by indigenous tribes in Brazil.

Figure 4.17

An indigenous man in the Morowali Nature Reserve in the Central Sulawesi province of Brazil

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Sustainability is a model for future human and economic development. Discuss this statement with reference to justice issues.

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Define justice issues and how they relate to sustainable development.

• Highlight how inequalities, discrimination, and lack of access to basic rights affect economic and human development.

• Include specific examples or references from the topic to support your points (e.g. gender inequality, social discrimination based on race/ethnicity).

Your answer should:

• Discuss the correlation between just societies and increased economic growth, social cohesion, and overall development.

• Elaborate on the case study of the Irish Traveller community, discussing the main challenges they face in education, employment, healthcare and housing.

• Analyse the case study of indigenous tribes in Brazil, focusing on the historical context, land encroachment, violence and efforts towards preservation.

Your answer could:

• Evaluate the effectiveness of policies and institutions that address justice issues, drawing from the topic’s mention of policies promoting equal opportunities, social protection and inclusive institutions.

TOPIC 4.4: The Idea of Self-Reliance

ACHIEVING SUTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SELF-RELIANCE

Sustainable development focuses on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations. It can be achieved through the concept of self-reliance. Self-reliance refers to the ability of a community or nation to independently meet its own economic, social and environmental needs

By fostering self-reliance, countries reduce their dependence on external resources and aid, promoting long-term resilience and sustainability. This approach encourages the development of local industries, education, healthcare and infrastructure. Communities become empowered to utilise their own resources efficiently, reducing environmental degradation and enhancing social equity.

For instance, a country investing in renewable energy sources such as solar or wind power can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease carbon emissions, positively impacting both the environment and the economy. Similarly, communities practising sustainable agriculture methods can enhance food security, reduce land degradation, and support local livelihoods.

CASE STUDY: The Ludgate Hub, Skibbereen, Co. Cork

Skibbereen, nestled in the picturesque West Cork region of Ireland, has historically experienced outward migration, leading to a decline in its population. However, the digital revolution has breathed new life into this community, and the catalyst for this change has been the Ludgate Hub. This innovative shared office space has ushered in a transformation driven by self-reliance.

4.18

The Ludgate Hub is strategically located in Skibbereen to provide access to the N71, Cork City and Cork Airport.

At the heart of this transformation lies the Ludgate Hub, a collaborative workspace boasting a remarkable 1 GB broadband connection. This digital infrastructure has earned Skibbereen the reputation of being Ireland’s first ‘gigatown’, similar to tech hubs in prominent global locations such as Silicon Valley in California. This high-speed connectivity not only bridges the geographic gap but also presents an attractive proposition for start-ups and entrepreneurs, positioning Skibbereen as a potential digital hub.

Mizen Peninsula

Bantry

Figure

Crucially, the Ludgate Hub is not the result of government intervention, but a testament to grassroots initiative. The community united and, through local investors, secured a partnership with SIRO, a venture between ESB and Vodafone, to provide the digital backbone that supports the development of infrastructure in the area. The Digital Centre, housed in a repurposed bakery, officially opened its doors in 2016. Guided by a board of directors mainly from the Irish business sphere, the hub offers space for up to 75 individuals to work collaboratively This community-driven endeavour underscores the concept of bottom-up development, diverging from the conventional trickle-down model The Ludgate Hub exemplifies self-reliance by capitalising on the local strengths and talents that West Cork possesses. The area’s affinity for creativity and design, reflected by having the highest number of artists per capita in Ireland, resonates within the Hub, where many businesses and start-ups in these fields thrive.

Skibbereen’s successful model of sustainable self-help development has inspired neighbouring rural communities. Many rural communities have distinct strengths such as fishing, tourism, renewable energy or biofuels. These communities are embracing self-reliance as the way to shape a promising future for their youth.

Notably, the Ludgate Hub demonstrates that connectivity and collaboration can serve as the cornerstones of progress. With the return of emigrants and the influx of creative ventures to Skibbereen, it is clear how self-reliance can revitalise a region. The Ludgate Hub has facilitated the creation of over 70 jobs in Skibbereen Furthermore, it has hosted a staggering 128 start-ups, supporting the growth of innovative enterprises. By fostering local ingenuity and harnessing digital capabilities, the Ludgate Hub showcases the potential for communities to take charge of their own development, and pave the way for a more resilient and vibrant future.

Figure 4.19

Inside the Ludgate Hub, which provides a modern collaborative working space

CASE STUDY: The Café Femenino Foundation, Peru

The Café Femenino Foundation is a non-profit organisation that provides grants to programmes and projects that enhance the lives of women and their families in coffee-producing communities around the world. The foundation works closely with the Lonya Grande co-op of the Amazonas region in Peru – the same coffee co-op that features in the case study on Imbibe Coffee Roasters.

Chiclayo Trujillo Chimbote

Nevado Huascarán

Huancayo Huánuco

Callao

Cusco Puerto Maldonado

Arequipa Matarani Tacna

Figure 4.20

The region of Peru in which the Café Femenino Foundation promotes self-reliance

In regions like the Amazonas in Peru, the Café Femenino Foundation recognised the pressing challenges faced by women coffee producers These women live in small rural communities, often with limited access to basic amenities such as healthcare, education and electricity due to poor infrastructure. Here, the foundation’s role is pivotal, as it offers a platform for empowerment and growth

One of the foundation’s cornerstones is the commitment to food security In collaboration with the foundation, the women have devised innovative solutions to address nutritional challenges. Workshops have taken place on food preservation techniques such as canning and pickling. This

has enabled the women to store surplus produce during harvest seasons. This stored food can later be sold at higher prices, providing families with sustainable incomes.

The foundation aims to help women to diversify their income sources. The Quinoa Cultivation and Education Project has been instrumental in reintroducing quinoa into coffee-growing areas. With workshops on cultivation techniques, nutrition and cooking, women have been empowered to cultivate quinoa, a versatile and nutritious grain. This initiative not only enhances dietary diversity but also creates new revenue streams for the families.

In a region plagued by gender inequity and domestic abuse, the Café Femenino Foundation is a beacon of hope. Community spaces such as the Casa Café Femenino provide a safe haven for women, empowering them to participate in leadership roles and to discuss their challenges and projects. Moreover, these spaces double as temporary shelters for victims of domestic abuse, underlining the foundation’s commitment to holistic empowerment.

The foundation also aims to improve living conditions. Traditional kitchen stoves in rural homes expose families to harmful smoke, leading to respiratory illnesses. The Kitchen Stove Improvement Project has introduced improved stoves that significantly reduce smoke exposure. This not only improves health but also empowers women by involving them in decision-making processes.

The foundation recognises that true empowerment begins with education. Early Education Centres have been established, addressing child malnutrition through tailored curricula. Workshops for parents and teachers focus on proper hygiene practices and nutritious dietary choices. By promoting a holistic approach, the foundation ensures a brighter future for the next generation.

The Café Femenino Foundation’s initiatives have yielded tangible results. Over the years, malnutrition rates have decreased among children in the supported communities. The cultivation of quinoa and other sustainable practices have improved household incomes. The data shows that households engaging in quinoa farming have experienced a 30 per cent increase in income. The increase in coffee brought to cooperatives by women producers attests to women’s more prominent role in local economies. In recent years, coffee co-ops in Peru have experienced a 25 per cent rise in coffee contributions, reflecting their growing influence. These shifts emphasise the power of sustainable practices in not only nourishing lives but also elevating communities through self-reliance.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is sustainable development, and how does it relate to the concept of self-reliance?

2. Name one benefit for countries or communities who foster self-reliance.

3. Why is reducing dependence on external resources important for achieving sustainable development?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the Ludgate Hub in Skibbereen, Ireland. How has it contributed to the transformation of the community?

2. Explain the role of the Café Femenino Foundation in promoting self-reliance among women coffee producers in Peru. Provide examples of their initiatives.

3. Discuss the significance of bottom-up development as demonstrated by the Ludgate Hub and the Café Femenino Foundation.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the potential impacts for a community that achieves self-reliance in relation to its economic, social and environmental dimensions.

2. Investigate the factors that contribute to the success of initiatives such as the Ludgate Hub and the Café Femenino Foundation.

3. Consider the broader implications of achieving self-reliance for a community or nation. How might self-reliance influence international relationships, sustainable development goals, and overall global wellbeing?

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2022

Examine sustainable development as a model for future development.

2022

‘Sustainability is a model for future human and economic development.’

Discuss this statement with reference to three of the following:

• Resource use

• Fair trade

• Justice issues

• Self-reliance.

2020

Examine the contribution that fair trade can make to sustainable development.

(80 marks)

(80 marks)

(80 marks)