Innovative Vernacular Design & Techniques in West Africa by Emmanuel Adedokun

INNOVATIVE VERNACULAR DESIGN & TECHNIQUES IN WEST AFRICA Emmanuel Adeokun

Master of Architecture

This thesis has been submitted to the faculty of Manchester School of Architecture, April 2019 Greater Manchester, United Kingdom(UK)

Adinkra are visual symbols, original creations by some key West African kingdoms, that represent aphorisms.

ABSTRACT …………… (i) DEDICATION ……………(ii) ACKOWLEDGMENTS ……………(iii) LIST OF FIGURES ……………(iv) LIST OF TABLES ……………(iv)

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT & OBJECTIVE 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1.3 METHODOLOGY

LITERATURE OF VERNACULAR & ECLECTIC ARCHITECTURE

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

TIMELINE | HISTORY OF WEST AFRICA | AFRICA WEST AFRICA COLONIALS VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ARCHITECTURE KINGDOMS & SEPARATE CLIMATIC ZONES WEST AFRICAN CLIMATE 20TH CENTURY OBSERVATIONS TRADITIONAL BUILDING MATERIALS MODERN TECHNOLOGY SYSTEM WITH TARDITIONAL MATERILALS RAMMED EARTH IN GHANA

ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDIES CASE STUDY – GANDO SCHOOL, BURKINA FASO CASE STUDY – JOE OSEA ADDO’S HOUSE EVALUATIOSN OF THE CASE STUDIES

4 CONCLUSION 4.1 CONCLUSIONS 4.2 RECCOMENDATION 4.3 REFERENCES 4.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABSTRACT: Materials found locally are the most common disposable resources found in large quantities in different geographical areas, at certain times of the year. However, depending on the climatic season, certain materials are more abundant than others. This is due to the different bioclimatic zones across West Africa. This thesis critically appraises some of the local materials available in West Africa that are applied in vernacular techniques. The study involves the analysis of materials such as hemp, cork , bamboo , brick , stone , timber, and mud. These materials are relatively more economical that the materials imported into the country. Even though there is incremental demand for foreign materials, this should be discouraged, as it neglects the available traditional materials of West Africa. The thesis also focuses on the sustainability of these materials and techniques used to practice, which can serve as alternatives for architects and manufacturers in the industry.

With the goal of also preserving heritage, the study critically looks at pre-colonial kingdoms and their architecture in different climate bands of West Africa to demonstrate the various techniques utilised in the past that can be innovated and used in contemporary architecture. There are good examples of emerging vernacular techniques developing in West Africa that involve more investment and modernisation of innovative techniques using local traditional materials. Recommendations for the adoption and improvement of locally available materials with vernacular techniques will be made. This research contributes to the body of knowledge regarding design building techniques with local materials in West Africa.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to my grandfather, who passed away half way through my research. He established a foundation that has been passed down through many generations. I appreciate the ethos that he has passed on, and the strong work ethic that I apply on a daily basis in my career.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank the Lord God almighty for granting me knowledge and understanding on the topic of the theses, and pray for everyone that has participated in the long course of this thesis and throughout all the semesters. I pray that they shall grasp success and favour in their own career.

With no doubt in mind, I would also like to thank my family for the generosity and assistance shown in moments of need and my partner Vanessa, for showing me light when I lost hope in the thesis. I wish them nothing but the best in their own lives.

I would like to acknowledge the enormous assistance of my supervisor, Dr. Ola Uduku, for mentoring me through this thesis and guiding me back on track when I appeared to be losing focus of the topic. My profound gratitude also goes to staff members of the library for helping me find requested books when I needed them the most.

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LIST OF FIGURES: Figure 2.2(1) |Elmina Castle(EC), panoramic view from the coast. Figure 2.2(2) |EC, Interior Structure. Figure 2.5 |Three key kingdoms in three seperate bioclimatic zones. Figure 2.6(1) |African Landscape . Figure 2.6(2) |Illustration of West African countries. Figure 2.6(3) |Niamey | A water Tower. Figure 2.6(4) |Petroia |Green Landscape. Figure 2.6(5) |Elmina Castle Figure 2.1O(1) |Step by step diagram for the making of rammed earth walls. Figure 2.10(2) |Textured rammed earth wall. Figure 3.2(1) |Gando Primary School. Figure 3.2(2) |Environmental Section Detail. Figure 3.2(3) |Floor Plan . Figure 3.2(4) |Detailed Section. Figure 3.2(5) |Clay brikcs preparation, on site (in-situ). Figure 3.2(6) |Illustrating the project develompet from the very early stages. Figure 3.2(7) |Tanoum Primary School. Figure 3.2(8) |Community gathering local materials for the construction of the blocks (in-situ). Figure 3.2(9) |Environmental Section Detail. Figure 3.2(10) |Floor plans & Elevation. Figure 3.2(11) |Sections Detail. Figure 3.2(12) |Case studies country with landscape variation.

LIST OF TABLES: Table I: Properties and usage of natural materials Table II: Comparison Table

1| INTRODUCTION Traditional technology using local disposable materials in West Africa has been obscured by contemporary technology and easy access to foreign materials. However, there is enough documentation of African vernacular architecture that displays good use of design, construction techniques, and materials used by ancestors in the primitive days. Subsequently, there has been increased interest in the practice of West African vernacular architecture and design techniques over the last few decades. There is no doubt that African architecture has suffered from the effects of colonisation, but this has improved the durability of the materials used in construction. However, the colonials did not try to preserve the heritage of tribes when forming their own settlements. Architecture in West Africa remains one of the most important achievements made in Africa, as is utilised in different types of vernacular technology and materials across various climatic zones. This thesis is confined to a few countries in West Africa: Ghana, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Mali. These developing countries were once the home of tribal kingdoms such as the Asante Kingdom, the Bonaman Kingdom and the great Benin Kingdom, which displayed some of the finest examples of traditional architecture influenced by heritage, climate, materials, and, to an extent, religion.

Climate change and sustainability are key considerations for architects when designing buildings in the 21st century. Since the Industrial Revolution, materials like steel and more recently concrete require the burning of fossil fuels in their manufacture. Modern architecture is largely defined through the use of these unsustainable materials. Modern architecture not only uses massive amounts of energy in construction but also requires the burning of fossil fuels for heating, cooling, and electricity. Diverging from this lifestyle of excessive energy use and extreme consumption has been difficult. However, sustainable living is not unprecedented. Indigenous groups all over the world have been living in harmony with nature and the various factors of the environment for thousands of years. It is important to praise buildings that are sustainable and serve their purpose while also being environmentally friendly. The exploration of traditional natural materials in this thesis emphasises how sustainable materials can be produced and used in practice. Moreover, in the following study, I analyse how traditional architecture and the use of traditional materials vary across the three climatic bands of West Africa: North Nigeria with Hausa architecture, Middle Ghana with Asante architecture in Kumasi and South Nigeria with the Benin Kingdom. These three example are used to demonstrate the use of different materials, techniques, and cultures in West Africa. Drawing consideration from the history of African art and architecture is essential to evaluate why these techniques have been prevented from developing with the country. Most European contact with sub-Saharan Africa did not happen till the mid-14th century, and the majority of the areas reached were coastal regions, except for the Kingdoms of Benin and Congo in the early 16th century. Therefore, there is the possibility that some traditional architectural techniques were influenced by early colonialism. Subsequently , in recent years, West African architecture has been influenced by the postmodern buildings of the 1990s and, to an extent, the influence of new designs, concepts, and materials being imported from China and other Western countries. 10

Although, archaeologists have been able to find and preserve first African settlements in Benin, the industry has moved on to modernised use of Western materials, cement in particular. Even though cement has not predominated demand in the materials sector, it is unfortunately increasing in the continent. In Nigeria, Alhaji Aliko Dangote, founder of Dangote Industries said his ‘continuous efforts to innovate, create value and invest in Nigeria’s economy is borne out of his firm belief in its vast economic potential’ [MarketScreener,2019]. Dangote’s cement company accounts for 65% of the Nigerian economy. Even though the statistics from this company are debatable, the numbers show the high demand for cement in West Africa.

Besides Dangote cement providing this material in the continent, the material imports and disposability are highly economical. In addition, some of the contractors and builders in the industry no longer have the skills to practice vernacular techniques with traditional materials, as they are no longer taught. Finally, the publicity surrounding cement and other Western materials within the architecture industry has constantly been displayed them the bests materials to use. Throughout the study, I demonstrate that there are alternatives to Western materials. The thesis also demonstrates traditional and innovative techniques that can be used by architects, contractors, and builders as alternatives to the use of Western materials, as shown in the case studies of the research that support my argument.

1.1| PROBLEM STATMENT & OBJECTIVE This thesis specifically focuses on vernacular techniques and traditional materials. The objective of the thesis focuses on the vernacular techniques and building materials used in West Africa in ancient times by different kingdoms and the utilisation of the materials in contemporary architecture in West Africa. There has been an increased use of foreign materials such as cement, according to Joe Ose Addo, a Ghanaian-born architect in an interview.[Africatalks, 2019] Some of these materials, apart from not being in harmony with the landscapes of West Africa, also tend to be inappropriate to meet the climatic requirements for the inhabitants of structures. The problem that West Africa now faces is the disappearance of vernacular architecture techniques, which reflect culture and symbolism of the people living on the continent.

1.2| SEARCHING QUESTION & OBJECTIVE The main questions the research attempts to answer are the following: •What are the benefits of using vernacular techniques in West Africa? •Can contemporary West African architecture accept and emulate ancient vernacular techniques?

The aim of this research is to identify the current influence of Western materials and architecture in contemporary West African architecture. The thesis will also determine and explore the impacts and the significance of the changes caused by the postmodern movement in architecture compared to the modern movement in architecture in West Africa. Through the course of the text of the thesis, there will be a discussion on the beneficial impacts of utilising vernacular architecture techniques and traditional materials by focusing on two case studies that support my argument. These two case studies will be evaluated with a clear analysis and understanding of the: •Effect of vernacular architecture techniques related by typology (academic). •The sustainability of the building. •The building’s aesthetical appearance. •The importance of the technique used based on its geographical location. 12

1.3| METHODOLOGY

Climate: Type of Building: Building Material: Brick Type: In Situ \ Pre-Cast : Façade: Size:

Primary School Tanouan Ibi

Gando Primary/Secondary School

Table II: Comparison Table

The method used in this qualitative thesis relies on the use of relative literature reviews and case studies of two contemporary buildings in West Africa, which are utilised to analyse my argument. The case studies selected are located in two different bioclimatic zones—Mali and Burkina Faso—which also display different as well as similar vernacular techniques. The case studies are of the same typology, which makes the comparison valuable. They are analysed and evaluated based on the bullet points mentioned in Section 1.2, which outlines the criteria for the research questions and objectives. The data supporting the argument of the thesis are evaluated based on the table above and five key influences, namely material references, cost/time, skilled workers, abundance, and quality. I believe that to understand the language of architecture expressed in West Africa and the whole African continent, one must have a holistic approach of its history and environment, as well as other key factors. Therefore, I based my literature review on the following topics: history of West Africa, vernacular architecture, African kingdoms and architecture, contemporary West African architecture techniques, West African climate, traditional materials used in construction, innovation of traditional materials, and key elements of vernacular architecture techniques that are utilised in the new urbanisation of African countries. I have taken written notes and evaluated documented sources of data.

Case Studies: (1) Francis Kéré | Gando School | (2) LEVSL Archtecten |Touban: This consists of studies of the design, method of construction, and materials used for a project, as well as the environmental and cultural benefits that a building bring to local users. This studies were carried out with resources found on the web and books. This consists of personal observations of the design and analysis of the technology utilised in construction. Evaluation and analysis of the case studies will be based on the following key influences in terms of the choice of using traditional materials and vernacular architecture: •Material Preferences •Cost/ Time •Skilled Workers •Abundance •Quality •Sustainability The literature review and the case studies are analysed and represented through the use of diagrams, illustrations, and tables. The evaluation pulled from the literature review and the case study are utilised to support my argument.

The Mali Kingdom was part of the Ghanaian and Senegal Empires. Timbukutu was the central area and covered a larger region than present-day Mali. Islam become the predominant religion as a result of Jihad-inspired invasions from north to west.

Islam became the predominant religion of the Kanan-Boru empire, which was located around Lake Chad in the Huasa Kingdom around Kano. However, Islamic influences did not reach the south of what is known as Nigeria today. The south was occupied by the Kingdoms of Ife, Benin, and Oyo. The southern area was mainly predominated by the Yoruba people, which as among the first kingdoms to encounter the Europeans.

Several kingdoms had developed, of which Ashanti was the most powerful in comparison to the other Ghanaian kingdoms. The Ashanti controlled trade routes to the sea in the early days after the colonials arrived, but their capital Kumasi was occupied by 1896.

Studies shows that the earliest inhabitants of Burkina Faso can be traced back to the 13th century, but there appears to have been much earlier settlement. In the 14th century, Mossi tribespeople migrated into Burkina Faso through the Niger River. Based on research, there were three Mossi kingdoms, composed of armies that regularly attacked the Muslims in Mali, with each supporting different political parties. By the 17th century, Ouagadougou became the permanent home of the Mossi king and the capital of the continent. The French colonised the country in 1884-1885, not long after the Mossi settlement.

The first European settlement was created by the coast on the Gulf of Guinea for trading in 1487. The Portuguese created a palace that is still present in the old Guinea, which is today found on the coast of Ghana.

In 1957, Ghana became the first region to become independent from their colonisers. After centuries of colonisation and oppression from the Western world, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was able to lead Ghana into freedom. Although Dr. Nkrumah liberated his region from the opposition, he had a vision of modernising the continent through architectural landmarks.

2.1 | HISTORY OF WEST AFRICA | AFRICA The very first meaningful signs of life in West Africa appeared circa 10,000 years ago in the Sahara [Kuo, 2015], ¬by the Air Mountains in northern Niger where the first primitive nomads roamed across the river of a very different West Africa from what we know today. The Sahara was mainly occupied by vast forests, lakes, and rivers. The wild landscape was occupied not only by a few humans but also an immense population of mammals such as giraffes, elephants, and wild cats which are well-known across the world. Around 5,000 BC, rendered rock paintings began to replace the nomads’ carvings of animals and are symbols of the first sedentary settlements. 1,500 BC marks one of the earliest societies in West Africa.

Till today, Mauritania and the north of Nigeria remain among the countries that still have villages and domestic animals. With the growth of inhabitants in West Africa, different groups began to build several large stone establishments near the Niger River and Lake Chad. The soil near the river creates optimum conditions for agriculture. Jenné Jeno was one of the first people to establish big villages around 300 BC and is still considered the Father of West Africa [Planet, 2019]. With the growth of groups and villages, towns began to flourish across the region by AD 500.

2.2 | WEST AFRICA COLONIALS West Africa provides two-thirds of the world’s gold. This was once controlled by nearby indigenous empires such as Ghana and Nigeria. The land is full of resources that are well utilised in construction in villages and towns. However, gold has an unspeakable value, and it soon caught the attention of invaders when they reached the coast. The 15th century marked an imposing beginning to the end of West African freedom, which has destabilised the region till the present. Gold meant wealth, and the colonising European countries made the most out of it, as their wealth grew and depended on the supply of the mineral from West Africa.

Portugal was the first European country to sail down to the coast of West Africa, which soon after became Guinea. It did not take long before Portugal travelled internally through the rivers of West Africa and extended its wealth by successfully trading for gold. In 1482, in Elmina, which is also known as Edina by the local Fante, the invaders built their first structure to facilitate trading. It was there that King Joâo instructed the troops to send all of the materials required to build Elmina Castle. The resources included a variety of materials, from heavy foundation stones to roof tiles, which were precast forms. Portugal brought not only its own materials but also its own specialised people [Dr. W Walton Claridge (1915)pp. 750].

Figure 2.2(1) |Elmina Castle(EC), panoramic view from the coast.

Figure 2.2(2) |EC, Interior Structure. 16

2.3 | VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE When talking about vernacular architecture, the starting point of building was to look at the climate, which naturally led to not only the forms of buildings created by architects but also the creation of cultural significance, or cultural virtue. Over the centuries, a methodology evolved, and through trial and error, vernacular design strategies were created that were climatically appropriate. These flourished aesthetically and carried cultural relevance, depending on the tribe. Ancestors were able to have sustainable buildings without any use of artificial systems, as they had not yet been invented at the time. Vernacular architecture is a style that interrelates ecological, economic, material and political factors and delivers good solutions to climatic restraints.

When examining their history, vernacular techniques and materials have certainly been shaped by the culture of the locals, depending of the environment, weather, and geographic location. Moreover, the aesthetic of these buildings used to depend on the labour factor. The experience and skills of labour would have given better finishes.Local communities lived and breathed their heritage on a normal day-to-day basis, making people aware of their environment and the potential usability of disposable materials.

2.4 | TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ARCHITECTURE The myth of traditional buildings of the darkest African continent certainly merits more than a passing consideration. Today, modern shanty buildings often line the roads to airports and other urban centres, confirming ideas about temporary shelters. These shelters are often found in the countryside along old abandoned motorways and vacant railways and tend to attract more rootless sections of populations [Denyer, 1982,p.23]. It appears that traditional villages found near main roads are of a fairly recent origin, while older villages are more often in rural areas. There has been a serious issue of ‘underdevelopment’, which has moderately reinforced the huge stereotype of Africa being primitive in terms of materials and culture.

Therefore, it would be wrong to see the contemporary nature of buildings as epitomising an unstable, unsure society [Carroll, 1992,p.7-9]. The houses of people were built using local materials. If the houses were built for permanent residency, this would have been embarrassing for many people. This is due to the fact that people were not fully sedentary. Farmers, for example, would have moved every four or five years due to the migration of animals and the different seasons. Therefore, little thought was given to durability in the construction of temporary structures, as the occupants knew that they would soon have to move. If we to compare this to the contemporary situation in the UK, houses are properties that in theory should last a lifetime, if not generations. Due to this, vernacular architecture in Africa, certainly demands an interdisciplinary approach when it is studied. ‘A further problem has been the patchiness of the information. This is partly a reflection of official policies of colonial governments’. Western colonisation had impact on many aspects of life, including construction and infrastructure.

2.5 | KINGODMS & SEPERATE CLIMATIC ZONES

Kano was the most important city of the Hausa Kingdom, as it was the capital. The city was surrounded by a great wall, characterised by ramparts of stone and brick. The wall was approximately 9 to 12 m high and had a circumference of around 16 km. Single residences were separated by earth walls. In the early days, Hausa cities had huge gates made of termite-resistant palm wood covered with iron plates. The Hausa Kingdom sits between two bioclimatic belts, but the majority of it was based in the northern area of Nigeria. Their local materials allowed them to build mud walls, which kept the heat outside and the inside temperature cool. They typically used thatch roofs with overhangs to prevent rain from penetrating the inside of houses. Most of the Hausa are Muslims, and their buildings were quite picturesque in an attempt to reflected their religion.[Moughtin, C. (1985)]

Asante architecture belongs to the Asante Kingdom. The kingdom included Asante Palace, homes shrines, and decorative symbols. Unlike other kingdoms in West Africa, Kumasi was lucky enough to sit on top of a hill and blessed with almost impenetrable land. Hence, walls were not built around Kumasi. Asante Palace was an immense structure containing 12 oblong courts with decorated walls.

Their local materials allowed them to build mud walls, which kept the heat outside and the inside temperature cool. They typically used thatch roofs with overhangs to prevent rain from penetrating the inside of houses. Most of the Hausa are Muslims, and their buildings were quite picturesque in an attempt to reflected their religion

The vernacular design was composed of rectangular rooms surrounding the courtyards. The walls were made with bright painted plaster mud, and cut palm leaves were layered over hand-made thatch to create the shape of the roof. The homes were usually built using a wood pole frame or trellis. Laterite clay would have the been pressed into the wood pole clay frame or trellis. However, base reliefs were carved out of red clay on the lower levels, symbolising Sankofa fish, birds and reptiles. As well as representing these animals, the symbols represented Asante sayings and proverbs. [Afropede (2019)]

The ascent of kingdoms in the coastal regions of West Africa produced architecture that drew on indigenous traditions [Afropedea]. Wood was used, as the earth becomes siltier by the coast. Farther from the coast, large complexes of houses were constructed of mud, with the use of palm-leaf or hipped roofs, depending on the availability of the resource. The Oba (leader)â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s compound was huge. The city of Benin is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest man-made structure, with approximately 150 million hours of digging required to construct the wall.

Figure 2.5 |Three key kingdoms in three seperate bioclimatic zones.

2.6 | WEST AFRICAN CLIMATE Although, Africa’s overall temperature is tropical, it varies across the continent, with very distinct landscape and climatic variations. The following chapter will highlight the characteristic of the three bioclimates that cross through West Africa.

Followed by key observation made by Sr. David Adjaye in his expedition in Africa.[Adjaye, D. and Allison, P. (2011)]

•Semiarid region. •“Sahel’ means shore, describing it zone. •Runs from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. •Strong variation in rainfall and temperature. •(±) seven months of the year are dry •200 – 600 mm of rainfall p/y between June – September. •High temperatures differs between 33- 36*C and lows of to 18-21*C

•The vegetations composed of grassland and shrubs which have adapted to the strong variation of the season, which are verdant during the wet seasons and dried during others. •20th century saw the Sahel zone, suffering of desertification and soil erosion due to the increase in population.

•Found between 8 and 20 * degrees on either side of the equator •Warm climate throughout the season. •Rainfall only occurring between Apr. – Sept. up north / October to March down south. •Annual rainfall, it’s quite low as it could run low as 500 mm p/y. •The grassland spreads across the whole continent, creating various dry seasons. •Savanna could be longer than seven months.

•The only distinction between the savanna and the grassland depends on the amount of trees in a specific location •Common zone for humans to cultivate crops, due to the climate.

•Extends from the Guinea in the north to the basin of the River Congo in the south. •Landscape varies from coastal plains to deep valleys, and mountains as you move towards East Africa. •Little season variations compared to the Sahel, with high humidity, which stimulates the growth of dense green forest.

•Green height forest varies across the zone, creating suitable habitat for various species, making it a great example of biodiversity. •Indigenous people were able to form their first shelters through the use of materials which came from the Forest.

Figure 2.6(1) |African Landscape .

Figure 2.6(2) |Illustration of West African countries.

The following paragraphs sums up the architect (Adjaye), main observation in the specified key zones:

Due to the flat landscape, the main threshold between the desert and the vegetation, the architecture in this zone are more concerned with emphatic vertical symbols. The landscape is characterised by stones and sand, which reflects in the materiality being used in most of the construction across the Sahel band. Their architecture, also responds to the strength of the light, by utilising big volumetric geometries which counter attack the luminosity of the sun and heat intensity. Big landmarks define central spaces around these regions.

Figure 2.6(3) |Niamey | A water Tower.

Regardless of the distance between the regions, the landscape still makes the region share similar architectural features. Illumination in this region’s controlled by either having vernacular roofs or tinted glass, which wraps up the building. Unlike, the other bioclimatic zone, the Sahel and the Forrest, the Savanna & Grassland shows commitment to public space, where they impose strong facades and cultivate good urban planning across the centre of each city.

Figure 2.6(4) |Petroia |Green Landscape.

In the forest regions of West Africa, colonials played a major role in their history, in all sorts aspects. The architecture in this regions tend to be ‘tropical’, where it responds to the environmental climate, depending on the specific conditions and places. “This evergreen environment, where things are in continual decay because of the onslaught of all this moisture”[AAA]. Therefore, make interior architecture quite complicated in extreme conditions. Markets across the forest regions appear to be of prodigious importance to the community, no matter the available materials .

Figure 2.6(5) |Elmina Castle

2.7 | 20TH CENTURY | OBSERVATIONS BURKINA FASO The bioclimatic zone of the continent makes Burkina Faso highly recognisable due to its red sea of dust, similar to the rest of the countries in the Sahel climatic zone. Most of the buildings are not built beyond two storeys. A network of building stalls forms the main market, a concrete acropolis [Adjaye, D. and Allison, P. (2011),p.96-101]. The poorer inhabitants are based in a separate quarter, with houses made of mud and block, which reflects the red colour of the land in Burkina Faso. However, more modern materials like corrugated sheeting are used for some of the apertures and other layers. Thanks to the frequent use of concrete, the architecture has a generous amount of distinct qualities. Due to various reasons, but mainly security, homes in the continent tend to be gated with high walls, which is also true for some of the other West African countries. Arab influences are still visible on the affluent streets of Burkina Faso.

MALI Today, Mali’s town planning may appear chaotic but certainly puts on display the trading nature of West Africa and the Arabs. The culture of the people across the country overshadows the colonial cities, hidden behind trading cities. Influences from the French are still evident in the more affluent areas, while the houses in poorer areas are built of concrete blocks with a mud mortar. The capital displays 20th century architecture, but the consistent traffic and unusual movements of mopeds emphatically create a different atmosphere.

NIGERIA Not long before Abujas planning and infrastructure development, Lagos was the capital of Nigeria. Lagos consists of ports and major financial companies. Currently, it is well-known across the world, and its contemporary architecture appears to be eclectic. Designers pick and choose different architectural features and combine them in their buildings. However, it appears that some of this infrastructure tends to be repetitive and it is common to use quite a lot of cement. Today, the architecture in Abuja certainly symbolises the centre of power. Cathedrals, mosques, and key government buildings are in the heart of Abuja, which has splendid architecture. Having said this, the poorer areas of the city still suffers from inadequate infrastructure [Adjaye, D. and Allison, P. (2011),p274-279]. As Ghana was the first independent country in West Africa, Nigeria has followed its example. In search of a brand new start and architectural identity, the country increased the banking infrastructure, commercial work, and the oil industry.

These were and are still the most important aspects for contemporary architecture in Nigeria since 1960. Among the first generation of rising architect of the country, Oluwole Olumuyiwa is one of the architects that has a progressive vision for the country. Mr. Olumuyiwa, trained as an architect at University of Manchester and worked alongside British architects to reconstruct a new architectural identity for the nations of West Africa. He and his companies were keen to draw aspects of ‘indigenous material culture or lived space into their formal repertoire’. Architecture in Nigeria differs across the country, with eclectic styles and several types of colonial influences.

GHANA

1957, will forever remain a remarkable year for Ghana, with the liberation of the region, led by Dr, Nkrumah. History shows us that Ghana’s independence was marked by several distinguished public buildings. ‘The assembly building is the form of an Ashanti stool, making a link to the chieftaincy culture that still dominates the country’ [Adjaye, D. and Allison, P. (2011),p.122-127]. There is still evidence of historical settlements built on small lots , while the poor areas of Ghana still show evidences of underdevelopment. Likewise , Elmina Castle, built by the Portuguese, was bought by the British in 1873. It has been known as St. George Castle since then and was turned from a trading palace to a World Heritage Site. In the south of the colonial city, Independence Square (1961) marks the coastal land and independence from the British colony. It features a huge arch placed at the part of the square that meets the ocean, along a monumental black star tower. The square not only reminds the Ghanaian people of their independence from their colonisers but also serves as event venue and was used to welcome Queen Elisabeth II in 1961, not long after the completion of the project.

‘The material production of this period is also in contrast with that of the previous decade’[Herz, M. (2015),p.18-19], which proves the point of my argument in this thesis. This contrast has evidently left a footprint on West Africa, which could change in the near future. Although Dr. Nkrumah was able to build a series of infrastructure representative of modern architecture at the time, some of the diverse cultural buildings were of a far smaller scale, which does not sufficiently highlight West Africa’s diverse directions in architecture. Today, however, West Africa is getting more recognition, as there are several native and non-native Africans that are working to build a diverse architecture using not only traditional materials but also traditional tribes, identity, and heritage.

Architecture after independence has certainly been marked by a revolution of postcolonial architecture. It represents a period of educational theory, professional gatherings, and exhibitions, where West Africa and the rest of the continent worked to build an independent identity. The postcolonial era has attempted to replace the orthodoxy of ‘tropical architecture defined by modern colonial architects. Tropical architecture is a style in which building design and form are due to a response to the environment and climate. In the pre-independence era, orthodox tropical architecture was found in West Africa. This is in contrast to the first decades of the post-colonial era in which diversity and deep expression of form and practice were emphasised.

2.8 | TRADITIONAL BUILDING MATERILAS Some of the main materials utilised in West Africa are branches, corn stalks, grass, leaves, and, of course, mud. Mud is found almost everywhere and is very suitable for the construction of buildings. This material (mud) can be utilised in two ways: by stacking layers as tall as three feet thick or by exploiting its plasticity to mould it into tiny walls, with can be around three inches thick [Carroll, (1992),p.1--12]. Unfortunately, mud comes with disadvantages. Mud can be easily eroded by water when it rains and is not been resistant to tiny insects like termites. While mud cannot be water resistant, the material can be covered with verandas or overhanging roofs to protect it from the rain. This helped the inhabitants using this material to retain the mud for a much longer period. Termites were dealt with by creating smooth finishes that were painted with gum or by regular recoating with mud plaster, which also helped to reduce erosion. Continuous habitation of buildings kept termites at bay, as cooking and constant circulation reduces the chances of insects moving closer to the building. However, this was effective only for a certain period, as inhabitants were not always present, and the rain was unfortunately not under their control. On the other hand, stone has not been one of the most common materials in some areas of West Africa, such as Nigeria. The available stone tends to be granite, which is hard to work with in terms of construction. In some mountainous areas, broken stone is used to make rubble courses of stone set in mud . Due to the high cost of labour involved in using this technique, this material has not been commonly used for construction. Even though the colonials brought into use a technique that utilises Laterite stone, this method was almost abandoned.

Wood is one of the oldest materials used by humans for the purpose of construction. Although wood has a complicated chemical nature, the material is characterised by properties that make it valuable for human use. It is economical, readily available, easy to use with different machinery, and flexible for various fabrications in different type of shapes and sizes, which can be done in situ or precast. Wood is also resistant to electricity and a good biodegradable resource that can be re-used over time. Hemp is a renewable resource that is useful in construction. It is very useful in the hot regions of West Africa, as it repels insects and, unlike mud, does not require any additional treatment. Hemp is utilised in the insulation of walls, floors, and roofs that is composed of fibres (10%), sodium carbonate (5%), and hemp fibres (85%), which is essential for fire protection. Depending on the location, straw bales are also available for infill between wood cladding in load- bearing construction. Straw also works well as thermal insulation of roofs. As West Africa also benefits from various types of farming, sheep woolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s is a natural, renewable, and ecological material used in construction. The material works quite well as an insulator for roof structures. The wool is applied by vertical laying technology without the use of any binders. Thermal insulation of cold stores in West Africa were achieved through the use of cork, which also serves well in soundproofing floors and walls. A mixture of sand, clay, and dust creates clay, which is the oldest natural building material. It was well utilised by primitive people in Africa, as mentioned in the previous chapter. The most favourable way to utilise clay is through brick in the form of ramming.

All of the traditional materials mentioned above are characterised by physical properties that determine their use in the construction sector of West Africa, as well as the whole continent (Table I).

Table I: Properties and usage of natural materials `

Density p [kg/ m3]

Usage

Straw

Coefficient of thermal conductivity λ [W/9mK]

90 – 180

0,044 – 0,063

Wood

400 – 1000

0,075 – 0,25

Hemp

90 – 180

0,444 – 0,063

Cork

45 – 150

0,035 – 0,057

Sheep’s wool

13 -25

0,038 – 0,05

Clay

1000 – 2200

0,20 – 0,95

Load-bearing construction – straw bales, infill cladding for wood-framed buildings , roofing Load bearing construction – wood-framed construction, roofing , flooring ceilings, etc. Insulation of roofs, walls, floors, infill cladding for wood-framed buildings Contact insulation system, floor insulation, interior equipment Insulation of roofs, walls, floors, infill cladding for wood-framed buildings Infill cladding for wood-framed buildings, clay plasters

Following colonisation, burned brick was another common construction technique utilised in West Africa. Bricks were made from soil with a very low content of clay and were then fired in kilns at a low temperature (500*F).[Alibaba, A. (2017)]. Even though this type of brick was highly durable, they were not water and needed to be plastered with cement mortar. Bricks made using this technique have been favoured over moulded bricks, as the technique does not require much labour and the bricks do not erode as quickly as mud bricks.

Depending on the geographical location of inhabitants, some communities favoured the use of vegetable materials such as grass and branches for wall and roof construction. In the coastal areas of West Africa, the soil is not cohesive due to dirt from the Gulf of Guinea and has a high level of silt. Therefore, there are many houses with raffia poles or other timbers. Towards the border of the Sub-Saharan margins, communities utilise bent saplings with grass as a technique of construction. Bamboo cane, corn stalks and branches of trees were usually utilised to make roofs, which were covered by grass or leaves. Many query if this could have not simply catch fire? The engineering behind a fire-proof roof usually involves laying strong wood and earth materials underneath the actual thatching of the roof, at a high level just underneath the branch membranes, or using mud a dome, which covers the grass thatch instead of other materials.

On the other hand, thatch roofs catch fire more easily than metal roofs; one cannot deny this key factor. Additionally, as well as being fire-resistant, it also works well to keep out the rain and does not require the necessity of yearly repairs. If we have a closer look at thatch roofs, the reason they leak is because they are not built appropriately in the first place. The real consideration when using thatch roofing lays in thermal comfortability; the roof breathes, and warm air escapes through the layer, whereas it does not for metal panels. In an attempt to make metal panels affordable, they are produced very thinly and are small enough to be rolled up and easily be transported anywhere. In some parts of West Africa, these panels can be transported by motorcycle, making their transportation very economical. When the heat of the sun hammers the roof, the heat is not reflected but instead transmitted into the interior of the building, creating very hot rooms. Although some inhabitants are aware of metalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s impact, they still desire this type of roof as a status symbol, hence the vast amount of brown, rusty roofs in various villages in West Africa [McIntosh, P. (2019)].

As well as looking for wealth in West Africa, Westerners were also seeking land and minerals that could not be found in their countries. The growth of various crops such as cocoa, cotton , ground nuts, and other export crops increased the economic revenue of the continent, which also led to an increase in the use of cement, and the urge for some of these nations, such as Nigeria, to develop cement factories. This importation definitely gave the idea that cement was the future and should replace mud. Although there has been growth in the use of cement, mud technology is still in use today. Architects and contractors are now utilising a very wide selection of materials from all over the world. In my opinion, they are not necessarily the best selection for construction as materials available from the land are more than satisfactory. One has to recognise that Westerners were looking for resources in a continent that can provide enough oil for the whole globe. Hence, I believe there should be accommodation for hybrid technology but not a full replacement of the original materials used in West Africa.

Mud has been utilised with cement as a hybrid to make stronger and permanent buildings. This hybrid combination allows buildings to have multiple floors, with concrete as the foundation, and is still in use today. This technique will be more evident in the case study that I will later conduct. Local builders preferred a technique of building in which mud blocks are laid with thick cement joints. [McIntosh, P. (2019)]. This emphasises that since liberation from their colonisers, local builder have tried to implement a technique brought by Westerners without considering anything other than durability and the fast production of materials for construction. This makes buildings cheap and long-lasting. However, shrinkage, cracks, and settlement create access for termites, which will consume the material used over time. This issue can be tackled by treating the concrete foundation with termicide or by adding a layer of aluminium.

2.9 | MODERN TECHNOLOGY SYSTEM WITH TRADITIONAL MATERIALTS Presently, there is little demand for utilising traditional materials along with modern technologies with computer-controlled production. The use of traditional materials using modern technology has various benefits compared to traditional technologies. A few of the most natural structural techniques are: earthbags, straw bale construction, hempcrete, rammed earth, clay bricks, and wooden beams. Hempcrete is a bio-composite made of the inner woody core of the hemp plant mixed with a lime-based binder [McIntosh, P. (2019)]. Among all natural fibres, hemp is unique, as it binds well with lime. This makes the material very useful for insulation, as it is lighter than concrete. Cob construction can be utilised to build a monolithic (single large block) wall along with moist earth and straw. The material has proven useful in the creation of stiff mud, which can be utilised in building blocks. Once the concrete foundation of a structure has been placed on site, cob bricks are stacked on top of it to create a monolithic wall. This technique creates very thick walls that are much more durable than the well-known mud bricks. However, because the bricks are hand-made with simple machinery, they may not always be accurate, but they are easy to amend with sharp tools before they dry. The beauty of this type of brick lays in their ability to accumulate heat, making interior thermal comfort suitable for inhabitants. The cob system can also be easily integrated with other techniques, which can be beneficial in the creation of smaller details like windows and decoration.

Another natural material used for the creation of walls is earthbags. This system is still not well-known, but the technology associated with this natural material has various advantages, namely that skilled labour is not required and the time needed for construction is brief. At times, these bags can be utilised as the foundation for a building, depending on the building techniques. Most importantly, they can be used to form walls when laid on top of one another on a foundation. They are then hand tamped to compress them together. Insulation can also be produced through straw bale construction, which consists of different types of wheat. These forms can be used for light commercial construction, such as schools and residential construction. Studies have shown that there are two main methods of building a home with bale construction [StrawBaleCentre (2012)]. In the first method, called Nebraska-style straw bale construction, the straw bales are load bearing. Due to the finish of a structure, the straw bales are covered, making the construction seamless for the construction type used. In the second method, called typical post-beam construction, the weight is held by heavy timber framing around the bales of the structure. Usually, this method is utilised in damp locations. Therefore, this technique is not useful in West Africa, as the climate tend to be dry. Last but not least, rammed earth is created by ramming a vast mixture of selected aggregates, which include sand, small amounts of clay, gravel, and sand, into panels knows as formwork. Traditionally, the technology consisted of continuously ramming the end of a wooden pole inside the earth mixture to compress the mixture. However, contemporary technology has replaced the pole with a mechanical ram . Rammed earth is added to a small percentage of cement(5-10%) to strengthen the mixture and increase its durability. Moreover, walls can be coated to make them air-impermeable and water-resistant, depending on the circumstances.

2.10 | RAMMED EARTH IN GHANA Having talked about traditional materials and contemporary technology, Joelle Eeyeson, co-founder of Hive Earth, has initiated a specialised company for earth construction based in Ghana in West Africa. With the increase in demand for housing in Ghana, the co-founder came up with the idea of building accessible and ecologically sound housing [Souza, E. (2019]. The walls are made with a mixture of sand, clay, earth, and 5% cement. The company can fully replace the cement with lime, depending on a client’s request for 100% ecological soundness and the required durability. Excessive humidity and heat in Ghana does not allow for adequate ventilation in closed spaces when too much cement is utilised. The construction process of Hive Earth does not require previous experience and is quite simple, as can be seen in the diagram below.Figure 2.10(1) People from all over the world have been attracted by the Hive Earth technique due to its aesthetics. The undulating wave drawings represent the separate mixture added to the wall. The colours reflect the day-today colours seen in Ghana—grey, red, and even black.

The low cost of the materials and labour make houses build with earth very affordable, with prices as low as $500 USD for a one-bedroom house. There is a potential housing crisis resolution not only in Ghana but also throughout the African continent. Rammed earth, described in the previous chapter, is not only a durable and fascinating material, but is environmentally helpful as it helps retain the cool air in interior spaces, which decreases the need to use an air conditioning system. The company has also developed residential techniques and more advanced finishing techniques. In addition, Hive Earth’s vision is to hold workshops at universities and share knowledge with future architects and contractors, as this could improve building in rural areas and tackle unemployment among youth. One most admire the ambition of this company, as they brought back to life a traditional technique and advanced it with a more contemporary finish, attracting the attention of people in the field. The company has shown that not only can this material can last, as disclosed in the previous chapter, but it can also help the heritage of the land to blossom. The earth walls are load-bearing, meaning that this technique can be utilised at a larger scale with multiple levels, if well planned.

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 Figure 2.1O(1) |Step by step diagram for the making of rammed earth walls.

Figure 2.10(2) |Textured rammed earth wall.

3.1 | INTRODUCTION TO CASE STUDIES (1) Francis KĂŠrĂŠ | Gando School | (2) LEVSL Archtecten |Touban: This consists of studies of the design, method of construction, and materials used for a project, as well as the environmental and cultural benefits that a building bring to local users. This studies were carried out with resources found on the web and books. This consists of personal observations of the design and analysis of the technology utilised in construction.

3.2 | DIÉBÉDO FRANCIS KÉRÉ | GANDO SCHOOL, BURKINA FASO

Figure 3.2(1) |Gando Primary School.

Diébedo Francis Kéré was born in 1965[Slavid, R. (2009),48-51] and originally trained as a carpenter, leaving his home to work in Ouagadougou at the very young age of 14 years. At the age of 19, Kéré was employed by BMZ in Germany before initiating his studies in architecture at the University of Berlin. He now has offices in Berlin and Burkina Faso. Kéré wants to create an architecture based on rational processes that are appropriate to today’s reality [Slavid, R. (2009),48-51]. The architect wants to bring African culture to be recognised by the world. This desire is very strong, as most of his projects reflect the African landscape. Kéré tends to apply ideas about ecological building learnt in Europe to designs in West Africa. He makes use of local resources to develop materials, architectural language, and construction systems, endeavouring to create a contemporary Africa. Kéré’s ambitious approach is a new technique in the world of architecture. Despite the fact that it is newly developed, we can already learn a lot from the architect’s buildings in which he attempts to break with modern notions of development that other are only beginning to address. This is a great opportunity for a West African architectural revolution.

Burkina Faso, also known as Upper Volta, is one of the poorest countries in the entire world. However, the country has been trying to step up its game to rise out of poverty. Studies show that since 1990, the level of literacy has risen to about 25 percent. Diébédo Francis Kéré is a phenomenal example of the improvement of Burkina Faso’s people, not just individuals.. While studying in Germany as an architect, Kéré resolved to create a school for the village from which he came. He created a fundraising organisation called Schulabausteine für Gando Bricks for the Gando School) with his German friends. The idea behind creating the school was not only to help youth academically but also to demonstrate what could be done with the local materials of the village, namely creating sustainable, appropriate architecture and transferring skills to others in the community. During the planning, and construction phase of the school, the architect made some key beneficial decisions, such as the importance of the use of local materials and the transfer of skills across the community.

Figure 3.2(2) |Environmental Section Detail. 32

Architects from overseas tend to prefer the use of materials from their own country due their durability, aesthetics, and other unique characteristics. However, in this project Francis thought of the bigger picture and understood the requirement to fulfil this project. The dry and wet seasons challenge Burkina Faso throughout the year, as these seasons last for about four months, with punitively extraordinary temperatures. As previously described in the literature review, temperatures in West Africa tend to be extreme. As a result, buildings constructed in this landscape takes climate into enormous consideration. Therefore, shade and ventilation are essential. Horizontal linearity sets the main composition of the school. The outdoor courtyards sits in the middle of the school, with classrooms adjacent to each other on two parallel lines. The courtyard not only fulfils the purpose of safety for children attending the school but also functions as an outdoor teaching space and an assembly area for meetings. Compressed earth blocks are utilised for the wall, ‘supported on a grid of concrete beams and steel bars, for the ceiling’ [Block, 2016]. The earth floors were beaten flat and well-polished by the local ladies of the village, who are true masters of this technique. The temperature of the school is moderated by the high thermal mass of the blocks. Bricks are not the only essential material of the building, as the corrugated steel roof facilitates cross ventilation and allows heat loss at a very quick rate, via the open gap between the wall and the ceiling. The school is better understood when looking at a section. This reveals the compactness of the classroom and the ventilation between spaces, as shown in Figure 3.2(2). This also emphasises the elimination of hot air through the perforated holes and the continuous circulation of fresh air, which is facilitated by the shape of the roof, which acts as a blanket for the classrooms. An interesting feature of the steel roof is that due to the unavailability of transport and cranes, the steel bars were welded on site, with multiple sheeting laid on top in situ.

This made the process carbon free and thus it is completely environmentally friendly. The architect taught locals how to use a handsaw and a small welding machine to achieve the technique required for the construction of the project. The high roof and perforated ceilings offer protection from sun and rain. One of the goals of the school in Gando is to inspire community growth and cultural pride, which creates continuous advancement in the country. By using the local materials, Francis was able to use techniques that were mastered by the community and create buildings that ‘are rational, sustainable and beautiful’. The school now has more than 450 pupils and has been extended since the initial construction. Over three hundred miles away from this case study is Dano, which is the capital of the province. Dano’s school has similar characteristics to the one in Gando. The architect is eager to use economical and traditional materials that are sufficiently appropriate for the context of the landscape. D.Francis Kéré, in an interview, described how he taught locals the techniques required to build the school. ‘One culture in Africa, which is at the very beginning of its growth.. in this project, we have tried not to use the common mud bricks but instead we try to cast clay, adding cement on it to cast it like concrete,. It’s a great innovation, and I would like to share my results with my people one day. …..it’s an innovation for my people, from mud brick to a little break for the first school to a big arm model of clay cast, the first time ever made in Burkina Faso’[Block, 2016]. There is no need to import machinery that is both expensive and difficult to operate. Such a building emerges from the soul of the local people to suit the social context and be built without using techniques that are too complicated. The techniques used by D. Francis Kéré, are now being adopted by other villages.

Figure 3.2(3) |Floor Plan .

1 | ROOF roof memebrane of corrugated metal sheets,girders of welded reinforcing steel. 2 | SUSPENDED CEILING clay bricks.

10 | CLAY AND STONE FILLING 11 | COMPRESSED CLAY traditionally stamped clay 12 | TERRACE COVERING clay bricks

3 | RING BEAM reinforced concrete.

13 | EDGE STRIP TERRACE natural stone masonery

4 | SUPPORTING CLAY WALLS

14 | RAINWATER CONDUCTOR filled with gravel

5 | BUTRESSES

Figure 3.2(4) |Detailed Section.

Figure 3.2(5) |Clay brikcs preparation, on site (in-situ).

6 | WINDOWS steel lamella elements. 7 | STEPS natural stone or concrete. 8 | CONTINOUS FOUNDATION non reinforenced concrete. 9 | PERMANENT SHUTTERING edgewise bricked-up adobe. 34

“From the very beginning I have placed great importance in only using materials which can be easily found and easily repaired by local people[]”. At the school in Gando, reinforcing materials like rods may be weak but they are pretty much available at any time. Therefore, even though some of the materials have to be replaced every so often, the vernacular techniques make these materials efficient to use in buildings, as they represent the local native culture.

His design shows evident German touches, but the school has become a primary example of West African vernacular architecture—an architecture that really reflects its original nature with African materials formed into a very resistant structure and very noble forms. Kéré simply attempted to combine developed techniques used in Europe with his own cultural techniques. While Hassan Fathy, one of the pioneers of modern architecture in Africa using local materials, was not completely convinced, Kéré has taken this syncretic architecture to a whole new level. In this case, the architect was involved with the society from day one, in order to learn about social interactions.

Figure 3.2(6) |Illustrating the project develompet from the very early stages.

3.2 | Primary School Tanouan Ibi | LEVS architecten | Mali.

Figure 3.2(7) |Tanoum Primary School.

Meanwhile in Mali, a Dutch firm, LEVS architecten, had a similar vision to that of Francis Kere—constructing a school in the desert bioclimatic belt of West Africa, in Dogon, that is self-sustaining. The primary school consists of three (7x9 meters) classrooms that accommodate a total of 180 pupils, with a sanctuary building and a depot. The school programme also includes the utilisation of the classrooms to teach women in the evening. As mentioned in the literature review, culture is one of the key influences when creating new settlements. Undoubtedly, in Dogon there is a connection between man, heritage, and nature. The simple details of clay and its plasticity are remarkable. It is “wealth in restriction” [ArchDaily (2014)]. Soul, personality, and nuance characterise the building. The foreign architect was inspired by the traditional architecture of the region. Nevertheless, for the building construction, contemporary technology was used with traditional materials with the help of unskilled locals. It was a relief to see that the architect saw the potential of using local unskilled labour, as this not only gets them involved in the construction of the new structure but also teaches them new skills, which can be applied in different areas of life. Local students from the Technical College in Sevaré were also involved in the project and had the great opportunity to see the project from its earliest stages through the completion of the final masterpiece. Having been in practice before, I know how valuable this experience would have been for the students, as they would be able to see techniques that they could use one day.

Figure 3.2(8) |Community gathering local materials for the construction of the blocks (in-situ).

The building runs down barrel vaults, with porches on both ends of the school. The porches were designed to block direct sunlight into the classrooms and prevent it from reaching people walking down the corridor. Six percent cement was mixed with a red earth mixture to meet the requirement for the material to be water resistant. As mentioned in the literature review, Hive Earth, which produces rammed earth, utilises 6% cement when making their walls. This small percentage of cement utilised in the mixture means 94% of the product uses original materials from the actual land, which does not appear to be inadequate. Indeed, it proves that the materials are durable and, as mentioned previously, water resistant. Figure3.2(11) Local ceramic tubes were produced in situ to create gargoyles on the roof. The gargoyles offers ventilation for the interior climate comfort of the students and provide the benefit of allowing daylight into the classrooms, just like a standard skylight. Precautions have been taken in case it rains, by allowing the option of opening and closing the apertures depending on the weather. The detailed interior roof guarantees the smooth drainage of rain water onto the ground, as the detail below displays. Furthermore, the architectural language is characterised by the porches and the benches, which establish a very meaningful place for the elders of the community to gather.

Figure 3.2(9) |Environmental Section Detail.

The technique used in this school for the formation of the brick is called hydraulic compressed earth blocks (HCEB),[ArchDaily (2014)]. These are produced in situ using locally available soil. This technique not only cuts the cost production but also does not contribute to degradation of the environment. Yet they are sustainable and can also withstand two climatic variation, hot and wet weather. The use of HCEB across the whole building does not escape the attention of pedestrians walking by as they are wonderfully integrated into the environment. One can confidently say that the building also corresponds to the Dagon village heritage, as materiality and design both satisfy the purpose of being sustainable and culturally symbolic. Figure 3.2(10) |Floor plans & Elevation.

Figure 3.2(11) |Sections Detail. 38

3.1 | COMPERATIVE TABLE Table A: Comparison Table

Climate: Type of Building: Building Material: Brick Type: In Situ \ Pre-Cast : Façade: Size:

Primary School Tanouan Ibi

Gando Primary/Secondary School

Semiarid belt Academic

Varies between a dry season and rainy seasons. Academic

Ceramic, Cement, Soil

Clay, Soil , Concrete

Hydraulic Compressed Earth Blocks (HCEB). In situ

Casted Concrete Clay Bricks

Open porches and longitudinal corridors 360 m2

Longitudinal corridors.

In situ.

520 m2

Figure 3.2(12) |Case studies country with landscape variation.

I believe that the above case studies support my arguments in regard to the use of vernacular techniques with traditional materials in conventional method as shown in the schools. I evaluate these case studies in terms of the influence of the following six key points: •Material Preferences •Cost/ Time •Skilled Workers •Abundance •Quality •Sustainabity

Material Preferences: West African architecture has reached the stage in which Western materials have become so common that they have become the first choice by practices in the industry. In the Gando school, the preferred material used by the architect were the original resources of the country. In the Tanouan primary school, the Dutch architect could have utilised advanced materials that are used in Scandinavian countries, but they also utilised local materials. This choice is sometimes affected by the level of knowledge of a material. However, the literature review and previous studies show that there is sufficient data to use the materials efficiently. This material preference should fall under the influence of the local culture, as it promotes its nature and pride.

Cost / Time: The benefit to architects of using local materials tends to be affordability of the material. Soil is one of the oldest building materials and is readily available and economical, among other characteristics. The real cost involved in using local materials does not lay in obtaining the resources but in the actual labour involved to preparing them for building. Unfortunately, because these materials are obtained manually, at times this may require significant labour. For materials such as bamboo, this would require great strength. Collecting the materials and preparing them on site may be considered a waste of time by architects and contractors. Depending on the programme of the project, using local materials could potentially prolong construction, which can affect contractors financially. Conversely, the projects in the two case studies were built by community members and volunteers, which did not cause any sort of extra expense. Both architects decided to get locals involved, which not only cut the cost and time but also helped the community to feel part of the building. Like Francis mentioned in an interview, ‘architecture belongs to the people’ . Although the programme of construction could be affected, building with local materials makes buildings relatively cheaper, which means more affordable housing and other sorts of structure for multiple inhabitants looking to create their own settlements can be accommodated.

Skilled Workers : While in the Western world, there are several teams with different specialisation in construction, in West Africa and the whole continent, such experts are limited. Although the traditional techniques may have been considered academically, they have not been put into much practice, at least not as much as other conventional materials. Most contractors tend to use techniques and materials that they have used in the course of their professional careers, meaning that sometimes they could bypass the opportunity to utilise traditional techniques with conventional materials. On the other hand, for the primary school of Gando, the architect was the first person to ever bring this conventional technique to Burkina Faso, with the utilisation of locally available materials, making it a prime example of vernacular techniques being mastered to adapt to contemporary times. Kéré, described the techniques as a very simple vernacular technology, as he was the one that went on site and taught the local unskilled inhabitants and builders how to create the cast cement clay bricks. This emphasises the simplicity in making the innovative bricks. Likewise, in the Tanouman school, the techniques used in the construction of the school were easy enough to be mastered by civilians. Therefore, there should be no excuse to not put this innovative vernacular techniques into practice more often.

Abundance: Nonetheless, the abundance and scale of resources influence the decision of a materialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s usability. Depending on the scale of the project, there may be particular spans of thicknesses for which it is a struggle to meet the requirements of the project. In the above case studies, both projects focus on a relatively small school, which is planned for the ground floor only. Due to the scale of the projects, they did not lack local materials. Based on a materialsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; abundance, this may sometimes be a problem that does not allow these types of techniques to be utilised more often. However, this can be tackled with good planning and preparation, and this could also be applied to larger-scale projects. This was done before by the Benin Kingdom with the great wall of Benin, as mentioned in the literature review. Likewise innovative techniques can be applied for bigger construction projects. Quality: In the ancient days, local materials suffered deterioration due to rodents and pests. The climate zone in this regions favours such insects and animals, meaning using local materials could be a downfall factor. Initially, the primitive kingdoms in West Africa were unaware of techniques such as herp coating or termicide coating, which left them to continue maintenance by recoating the mud or by using the technique of elevating buildings above the ground floor to deny easy access to rodents and pest as well or keeping a fire close by the building. However, technology has advanced, as we can well see in the two case studies. Similarly to the Hive company, the school mixed a small percentage of cement into their bricks. By doing this, the architects achieved more durability in their bricks and elongated the life span of the settlement. The technique not only improves the strength of the material but also makes it almost erosion-free and water-resistant, making the building even more self-sustainable. I believe that if contemporary practices, were more aware of the innovative techniques being developed using traditional material, they would give them a chance and put them to test, as it is important that the materials reflect the regional landscape and culture.

Sustainability: In the Gando School, Francis designed the metal roof to be offset from the ceiling level of the learning spaces with a perforated clay ceiling with ample ventilation. This allowed maximum ventilation so that cool air could be pulled out through the perforated ceiling, alleviating the necessity to have air conditioning. Similar to the Gando School, the school in Burkina Faso benefits from some of the same techniques. However, in Tounan Abi, the perforated clay holes can be manually shut depending on the weather. The vernacular design has successfully met the conditions necessary for students to be comfortable in class without the use of any machines. This demonstrates that vernacular design can be innovative and environmentally non-disruptive.

4. | CONCLUSION The purpose of this thesis was to empirically examine and analyse the major benefits and issues of construction with local materials using vernacular techniques and architecture in the context of West Africa. Through the thesis, I was able to promote the use of vernacular techniques to promote cultural heritage, take advantage of the abundance of local materials, and provide sustainability .Nevertheless, there is no doubt that architecture in West Africa has undergone serial changes throughout the past century due to various reasons, from colonial to postmodern influences. Modern architectural developments has allowed contemporary approaches to building to emerge in West Africa. Vernacular techniques use local eco-friendly materials and respond to the local climate. Modern materials imported from the Western world are not eco-friendly compared to local materials. Instead, these materials have caused major dangers to the natural environment, such as global warming. The results of the two case studies support my arguments regarding the utilisation of traditional materials using vernacular techniques. Both cases demonstrate valuable utilisation of local materials that are sustainable for the use of the building. However, based on the scale and programme of the projects, these techniques may be more efficient for small-scale projects as analysed in the evaluation. These techniques may be time consuming, inaccurate and in the long term, and not as resistant as Western building techniques. Using these two case studies brings certain limitations to the study. I understand that the selection of the case studies may appear biased to support my argument. Therefore, to make this research more valuable, one must travel to the continent and interrogate people in a faculty through the use of questionnaires, where statements from professionals could actually state the reason for the non-familiar utilisation of vernacular techniques. For future studies, the use of questionnaires and random selection of case studies would make this thesis more reliable and incisive.

This thesis represents a clear study of materials and techniques used in ancient days up to the present, which can be utilised in the Faculty of Architecture to initiate research for new vernacular techniques that can be implemented in the development of West Africa and the whole continent. Having focused on this thesis over this last academic semester, I have been involved in a lot of academic materials, which discuss not only the vernacular techniques utilised in West Africa, but also environmental and economic issues regarding the development of Africa. Having been to Nigeria myself, ever since birth, I have seen my motherland as a country rich in culture, resources, and labour, hence the reason for the above study. Studying the work of Diébédo Francis Kéré, David Adjaye, Kunle Adeyemi, Joe Osae Ado, Lesley Lokko, and many other non-native African architects has caused nothing else than pure inspiration to make African architecture shine across the world. There is no doubt that the continent is developing each and every day with or without the help of the Western world. The communities and their inhabitants create an environment that you cannot experience and feel anywhere else. Therefore, the architecture utilised in this country should reflect the culture of the African people. As I carry on with my studies in this faculty, my ambition will be to add a piece of architecture that can represent the African culture and African ancestors. Although the thesis cannot firmly verify that vernacular techniques using traditional materials are the most suitable way of construction in West Africa, the research displays various reasonable evaluations for the Faculty of Architecture and Construction to consider vernacular methodology in West Africa.

4.1 | RECCOMENDATIONS Recommendations for adaptation and improvement of the local materials and vernacular techniques for the upcoming infrastructure of West Africa: (i) Cool temperatures were achieved in both case studies, which works well in schools. It will be key for sub-Saharan regions to utilise local materials, as this reduces the cost of energy waste and does not add to the carbon dioxide footprint. This will be quite beneficial for arid countries, as it will certainly decrease the use of energy for fans and air conditioning.

(v) Architects, engineers, and other related professionals should set examples by building their respective houses and smaller projects with traditional materials instead of the controversial materials that have been brought from the Western world. (vi) The political body of the continent , should consider involving Africa United (AU) to accelerate the political and social-economic integration of the continent. The objective will be to involve materiality in Africa to be shared as one nation, as one mother land, at a fair trade.

(ii) Due to the fact that vernacular techniques using traditional materials have been obscured from the knowledge of contractors and builders in the industry, there should be an investment from the Faculty of Architecture and Technology to develop further research in vernacular architecture, techniques, and materiality. This should include industrial and agricultural waste and other sorts of conventional materials to ensure lasting settlements with local materials. (iii) The architectural institution of each country should invest in the exportation of local production of building materials to find places in the world market and generate enough capital to enhance the development of home-based manufacturers. (iv) The Government (at all levels) should always ensure that all related research findings are implemented, and not for recording purposes alone. This can be achieved by establishing a well-funded implementation commission for research findings, which will be responsible for demonstrating such findings in the form of mass housing (construction) units. Thus, it will serve as an architectural/ structural model that would help in a small way in encouraging and promoting acceptance of the use of locally sourced materials with the corresponding and appropriate vernacular technology.

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