Author：Xiong Yan Translators： Zhang Lichao Li Ning
Toronto Education Press
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES Author: Xiong Yan
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Author: Xiong Yan Translators: Zhang Lichao, Li Ning Book title:THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCH“PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL”IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITY
ISBN 978-1-894534-80-2 First Published in Canada
Toronto Education Press Ltd. Toronto, Ontario www.torontoeducationpress.com info@torontoeducationpress.com
About the Author Dr. Xiong Yan is a distinguished female educator holding a Ph.D. degree and currently serving as an associate professor at the prestigious Communication University of China.Born in 1962.She successfully completed her doctoral studies at Beijing Sport University in 2013. During the period from September 2010 to September 2011, Dr. Xiong pursued a study program at Ohio State University in the United States as a visiting scholar. Her research focus revolves around exploring diverse pedagogical models and instructional strategies within the realm of physical education. In March 2021, Beijing Sport University Press officially published her monograph titled "Theoretical Construction and Empirical Research on the 'Sports Education Model' in General Universities in my country." This comprehensive work delves into the theoretical foundations and empirical findings related to the 'Sports Education Model.' Dr. Xiong has made notable contributions to the field, with a publication in the Journal of Physical Education in January 2015, examining the effects of the 'Sports Education Model' on students' exercise intensity. Additionally, in December 2013, she authored a scholarly article in the "Journal of Nanjing Institute of Physical Education" titled: "Examining the Effects of the 'Sports Education
Model' on Students' Motivation in Sports." These publications showcase her commitment to advancing the understanding of effective educational practices in the domain of physical education.
About Translators Name: Zhang Lichao Gender: Male. Employer: Guangzhou Maritime University (Guangzhou Transportation University); Title: Professor. Academic visits: Sept. 2014 – Jul. 2015, Visiting scholar to South China Normal University, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, sponsored by the Department of Education of Guangdong Province; Sept. 2019, visiting scholar to the University of Utah, College of Health, sponsored by China Scholarship Council. Scientific research: Published more than 30 papers as the first author and the corresponding author in CSSCI, core sports publications and provincial publications such as Journal of Beijing Sports University, Journal of Physical Education, and Journal of Guangzhou Sport University. Presided over more than 10 projects of Guangdong Academy of Social Sciences, Department of Education of Guangdong Province, and Sports Bureau of Guangdong Province. Achievements of sports teams: leading teams to participate in the Guangdong University Games and Guangdong University Basketball Association, won top 3 for three times, won top 4-8 for more than ten times, and won the title of provincial excellent coaches for five times. Refereeing experience: In 2010, participated in the 16th Asian Games as a technical official of basketball and Sepak Takraw; in 2010, participated as a referee in the Shuttlecock World Championships in Zhongshan City, Guangdong Province, China. Li Ning,born in January 1985,associate professor of Physical Education, Guangdong Vocational and Technical College of Agriculture, industry and commerce, has published many books,
such as“University sports”Research Direction: Physical Education and training, school physical education.
Table of Contents Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode” ......................................................................1 1 The Concept, Basic Elements and Classification of the Teaching Mode .................................................................................... 1 2 The Concept, Constituent Elements and Classification of Physical Education Modes ................................................................ 11 3 The Basic Theory and Domestic and Foreign Research on “The Sport Education Mode” ..........................................................24 4 Conclusion ......................................................................................44 Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities of China ................................................................. 47 1 Application of the Delphi Method ................................................. 47 2 Teaching the Objective System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China ..................................................... 51 3 Teaching Process Structure of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China ......................................................... 59 4 The Teaching Strategy System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China ................................................... 67 5 The Teaching Evaluation System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China ......................................... 92 6 Conclusion ......................................................................................96
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on the Sport Education Mode in Chinese Ordinary Universities .............................................................. 100 1 Research Methods ........................................................................ 100 2 The Effect of the Sport Education Mode on Student Exercise Intensity ........................................................................................... 116 3 The Effect of the Sport Education Mode on Students’ Sports Motivation ..................................................................................... 127 4 The Sport Education Mode on Student Comprehensive Cultivation ....................................................................................... 145 5 Conslusion ....................................................................................157 Appendix I The “Sport Education Mode” of Aerobics in Universities in China Evaluation Table for Expert Survey on Theory Construction (1) ............................................................................................................ 161 Appendix Ⅱ The “Sport Education Mode” of Aerobics in Universities in China Evaluation Table for Expert Survey on Theory Construction (2) .......................................................................................164 Appendix III The Internal Motivation Scale in the Movement .............. 169 Appendix IV Task-orientation and Self-orientation Scales in the Movement ................................................................................................171 Appendix V Motivational Atmosphere Scale in Sports ..........................173
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode” To study “the sport education mode” it is the first priority to clarify what the teaching model is, what elements are included in the teaching model, and what categories are included in it, so as to make clear the position and role of the teaching model in the teaching process. Furthermore, to clarify what the mode of physical education is, what elements are included in the sport teaching model, what categories are included in it, so as to make clear the position and role of the mode of physical education in the sport teaching process.
1 The Concept, Basic Elements and Classification of the Teaching Mode As a professional term of teaching theories, “the teaching mode” has its own specific meaning. In 1972, Joyce and Weil published the book entitled The Model of Teaching, which first put forward its definition. This section first deals with the concept of the teaching mode, analyzes the meaning, the basic elements contained in it and discusses different ways of classification of the teaching mode. 1.1 Research on the Concept of the Teaching Model The teaching mode is a compound concept. Therefore, first of all, we should make clear the definition of the mode, and then we can define what the teaching mode is. According to Chinese Dictionary edited by Wang Tongyi, the definition of “mode” is something established based on the authority, custom, or general consensus, and serves as a model or a sample that should be emulated. As believed by American comparative political scientists that a mode is a theoretical and simplified form which is the —1—
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
reproduction of reality. Li Peiwu and others define a mode as a model or a paradigm that can express things or the process of behaviors based on practical activities and their guiding thoughts and ② theories. The earliest researchers on the teaching mode were Joyce and Weil from the United States. In 1972, they published the book entitled The Model of Teaching where they first proposed the definition of it. They believed that the teaching mode is a plan or type that can be used to set up a curriculum, design teaching ③ materials, and guide classrooms or other instructional occasions. The publication of this book marked the beginning of the research on the model of teaching. In Joyce’s view, the teaching mode is the learning mode, because real teaching is to teach learners how to learn. In a word, a teaching mode is a kind of learning environment where learners can learn how to learn. The research on the teaching mode in teaching theorists in China began in the mid-1980s. Up to now, scholars in the field of education have not reached a consensus on the essence and the concept of it. Because of the different research angle and understanding of researchers, people have a variety of definitions of the concept of the teaching mode. The definition of “the teaching mode” in the Dictionary of Education is that: It is the structure of teaching activities specifically designed to achieve a relatively stable teaching task which can reflect the logical outline of a specific teaching theory. Xiong Chuanwu believes that the teaching mode is the analogical, concise, and hypothetical expression about the structure of teaching activities made by people for specific cognitive ①
Quyi. Analysis of constituent elements of the teaching mode [J]. Educational Exploration, 2005, 167 (5): 39. ② Li Peiwu, Li Zihe. Discussion on the teaching mode and its evolution [J]. Educational Exploration, 2010, 230 (8): 33. ③ Ding Zhenglin, Zhao Zhongjian, Qiao Xiaodong, et al. Contemporary ①
western teaching models [M]. Taiyuan: Shanxi Education Press, 1991. —2—
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purposes . Liu Haimin believes that the teaching mode is the mode of the teaching process, or a strategy system and teaching pattern related to teaching procedures, which is the strategy system of relatively stable teaching procedures and implementation methods formed based on the objective teaching rules and certain educational guiding ideas, which must be followed in the entire teaching ② process. Yang Xiaowei argues that the teaching mode is a set of methodological system established on the basis of teaching practice to organize, design and control teaching activities, consisting of educational (philosophical) themes, functional goals, structural ③ procedures and operational gists. Yu Shende and others believe that the teaching mode is the teaching structure, which is a relatively typical and stable teaching program established under the guidance ④ of certain teaching ideas. Li Rumi believes that the teaching mode refers to a stable and concise theory model of teaching structure and its specific and operable practice activity mode formed around a certain theme under the guidance of certain educational ideas to ⑤ achieve specific teaching goals and content. Some researchers believe that the teaching mode belongs to teaching methods, which is one teaching method or a combination of multiple teaching ⑥ methods. He Kekang believes that the so-called teaching mode refers to the stable structural form of the teaching process under the ①
①
Xiong Chuanwu. Essence of the teaching mode [J]. Educational
Research, 1993 (6): 46. ②
Liu Haimin. Discussion on the teaching mode [J]. Journal of Chinese
Society Education, 1988 (5): 34. Yang xiaowei. The teaching model in primary and secondary schools [M]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 1990. ④ Yu Shende, Zhu Xuesi. Exploration on new teaching models [J]. Shandong Education Research, 1989 (4): 31. ⑤ Li Miru. Discussion on some theoretical problems of the teaching mode [J]. Curriculum, Teaching Materials and Methods, 1996 (4): 25. ⑥ Yang Xiaowei, Kuang Ximo. Comprehensive reports on the second ③
Annual Conference of National Teaching Theories [J]. Educational Research, 1987 (12): 71. —3—
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
guidance of certain teaching ideas, teaching theories and learning ① theories. Xu Yingjun believes that the teaching mode is the basic structure and model of the teaching process designed and organized for specific conditions under the guidance of certain teaching idea or ② theory to achieve certain teaching goals. Li Peiwu et al. (2010) believe that from an inductive point of view, the teaching mode is a standard pattern with universal significance generalized and abstracted from various disciplines and teaching methods. From a deductive point of view, the teaching mode is the application of the mode in teaching activities of the education field. Yu Jian et al. believe that the so-called teaching mode is a structure system of teaching activity formed within certain time and space with teaching procedures as its external manifestation. It can influence various elements of teaching activities for the achievement of specific ③ teaching goals under the guidance of certain teaching ideas. The entry “the teaching mode” has not been included in the Chinese Encyclopedia·Education published in 1995, which indicates that “the teaching mode” was not recognized as a scientific concept in our country before 1995. However, with the publication of the book Model of Teaching, Chinese researchers of education have conducted more and more research on the teaching mode. It should be recognized that China has achieved remarkable fruits on the ④ research of teaching mode. However, the research at home and abroad shows that people still have different opinions on a series of basic problems on the teaching mode. Obviously, it is still necessary
①
He Kekang. Discussion on modern educational technology and further
reform of education (Part1): Demonstration on ME proposition [J]. E-Education Research, 1999 75 (1): 8. Xu Yingjun. Modern educational theories [M]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University Press, 2002. ③ Yu Jian, Han Yan. Exploration on the reform of the teaching mode [J]. Research in Higher Education Engineering, 2008 (4): 139. ④ Zhang Zhiyong. Some theoretical thoughts on the teaching mode [J]. ②
Journal of Chinese Society Education, 1996 (4): 35. —4—
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to strengthen the research on the basic theoretical issues related to the teaching mode. People’s different understanding of the concept of the teaching mode indicates that the basic theoretical problems such as the essence and orientation of the teaching mode require to ① be further studied. 1.2 Research on the Basic Elements of the Teaching Mode Each teaching mode is an organic whole composed of various elements with a relative complete structure itself. The elements of the teaching mode refer to the main elements that constitute it, substantially revealing the structure of the teaching mode, and then determining the function of the teaching mode. Therefore, it is of great significance for us to choose and apply teaching modes as well as to perfect and construct the teaching mode to clarify constituent elements of the teaching mode. (Qu Yi, 2005). Zhang Wusheng believes that a complete teaching mode generally includes the following factors: (1) Theme. The theme of the teaching mode refers to the teaching ideas or theories on which the teaching mode is based. (2) Objectives. All teaching modes are aimed at certain teaching objectives. It is established to achieve specific teaching objectives. (3) Conditions (or means). The condition refers to various conditions for the achievement of certain teaching objectives, thus enabling the teaching mode to be effective. (4) Procedures. All teaching modes have a unique set of operational procedures, elaborating the logical steps of teaching and tasks completed in each step, etc. (5) Evaluation. Evaluation is an important factor of the teaching mode, including the evaluation methods and standards related to the teaching mode, etc. The above five factors depend on one another and interact with one another to ② form a complete teaching model. ①
Hao Zhijun, Xu Jicun. Twenty-year research on the teaching mode:
course, problems and direction [J]. Theory and Practice of Education, 2003, (12): 52. ②
Zhang Wusheng. Discussion on the teaching mode [J]. Educational —5—
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
Li Yanbing believes that a complete teaching model is mainly composed of the following interrelated and interactive factors: (1) Guiding ideology. All teaching models are proposed under the guidance of certain philosophical ideas and theories, and the guiding ideology is the theoretical basis for the construction of various teaching models. (2) Teaching objectives. It specifies the qualities that a certain teaching model aims to achieve for students through teaching. (3) Strategies. The strategies of the teaching model refer to a series of approaches, means and methods systems to achieve objectives. (4) Procedures. Procedures of the teaching model refer to the steps and processes to achieve teaching objectives. (5) Evaluation. Each teaching model has its own evaluation methods and standards suitable for its own characteristics, based on which teachers and students make evaluations of the teaching process and results, and check the degree to which teaching objectives have been ① achieved. Qu Yi (2005) argues that a complete teaching model should have the following five elements: (1) Theoretical foundation. All teaching models are constructed under the guidance of certain teaching ideas, teaching theories and teaching concepts. It is their manifestation under specific conditions. (2) Teaching objectives. Teaching objectives here refer to teaching effects that the teaching model should achieve, and they are an advanced estimate about what kind of effects teaching activities in the teaching model will produce among students. (3) Teaching procedures. Teaching procedures refer to detailed logical steps of teaching activities and the operation process to fulfill specific functions. (4) Auxiliary conditions. Auxiliary conditions refer to the optimal combination or best options of various conditions (teachers, students, teaching content, teaching media, time, space, psychological atmosphere, etc.) that promote the effectiveness of teaching models. They are principles, methods and Research, 1988, (8): 61. ① Li Yanbing. Brief discussion on teaching mode [J]. Shandong Sports Research, 1994 (3): 22. —6—
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
techniques briefly proposed for teachers to use teaching models. (5) Evaluation criteria. Evaluation criteria refer to the evaluation scale and methods of teaching models. Hao Zhijun et al. (2003) believes that all teaching models should include elements such as teaching ideas (or teaching theories), teaching objectives, operation procedures, teacher-student combinations, teaching conditions and evaluation and so on. These elements occupy different positions with their own different functions. They differ from one another, but also related to one another, mutually inclusive and restricted, jointly forming a complete teaching model. Teaching ideas or teaching theories are the foundation and basis for the establishment of teaching models, which act as a guide to other elements. Teaching objectives are the core of teaching models, which restrict operation procedures, teacher-student combinations, conditions, and are also the standards and scales of teaching evaluation. Operation procedures are the links and steps for the implementation of teaching models. Teacher-student combinations are the arrangement of teaching activities for teachers and students by teaching models. Conditions ensure the effectiveness of teaching models. Evaluation enables people to understand the degree of achievement of teaching objectives, and adjust or reorganize operation procedures, the way of teacher-student activities, etc., so that the teaching mode can be further reformed and perfected. Generally speaking, all teaching models contain these elements, and the specific content of each element varies according to different teaching models. Li Peiwu et al. (2010) argues that teaching mode includes: (1) Teaching ideas and theories. Advanced teaching ideas and theories can play a role of positioning, navigation and regulation in educational reform. (2) Specific goals. Specific goals are core elements of the teaching mode, which play a guiding and restrictive role in other factors. (3) Teaching environment. Teaching environment includes situations and resources, as a material and psychological cognitive space created based on teaching, infiltrated —7—
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
with cultural implications, embedded with subject knowledge determining the type of the teaching mode. It is a comprehensive embodiment of various supportive conditions such as teaching resources, concepts, methods, imagination, activities and teacher-student relationships, etc. (4) Structure. The structure of the teaching mode mainly refers to the combination expression form of various conditions such as teachers, students, content, media, technology, strategy, method, time, space, and so on, which promote the function of the teaching mode. (5) Operational procedures. Operational procedures refer to the steps of specific teaching activities and sequences of the operation process, similar to algorithms in program design, which can be flexibly changed according to the actual teaching context, and its essence serves to handle the implementation of the teaching content in time sequence. Based on the above views, it can be seen that although people have different definitions of the concept of the teaching mode, their understanding of the structure of the teaching mode tends to be consistent. The basic elements of teaching mode mainly include theoretical basis or guiding ideology, teaching objectives, teaching strategies or teaching methods, teaching procedures, teaching evaluation, teaching environment or auxiliary conditions and so on. 1.3 Research on the Classification of Teaching Modes With the development of teaching practice and the expansion and development of research on teaching theories, there have appeared a variety of teaching modes with different characteristics. In the book entitled The Model of Teaching written by Joyce and Weil, they selected 22 teaching theories and school plans, and selected 25 teaching modes from hundreds of them, then summarized these teaching modes into four categories as follows: The first type of the teaching mode includes the group investigation mode, the role-playing mode and the mode of jurisprudence inquiry, aiming at promoting cooperative learning of learners, so as to cultivate democratic behaviors of citizens. The second type of the —8—
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
teaching mode includes the inductive mode, the deductive mode, the mode of concept attainment, the mode of scientific inquiry, the memory mode and the advanced organizer mode, aiming at promoting their thinking. The third type of the teaching mode includes the mode of program teaching, the mode of direct instruction and the mode of simulation training, which aims to improve learning ability of learners in systematic training. The fourth type of the teaching mode is represented by the non-directive teaching mode of American educator Rogers. In the first three kinds of teaching modes, a variety of activities are designed and implemented by teachers. In the non-directive teaching model, teaching is a communication between teachers and students. Teachers need to encourage learners to express their feelings freely and to avoid showing personal biases towards learners. As a result, ① teachers can’t predict what’s going to happen in the classroom. Mao Jinghuan believes, compared with Western teaching models, the overall characteristic of our national teaching model is diverse in form but single in function, “basically limited to imparting and acquiring knowledge in books”. Although there are various teaching models now, such as the subjective teaching mode, the ontological teaching mode, the mode of happy teaching, the mode of harmonious classroom teaching, but none of these go beyond the scope of imparting textbook knowledge. Even if the way to impart knowledge has changed, the purpose of acquiring textbook knowledge has not changed, and the function of imparting knowledge remains unchanged. The advanced part is nothing more than proposing more teaching goals for each certain teaching model, but whether or not these goals can be achieved is doubtful. Traditional holistic model of thinking in our country often leads us to hope to achieve all goals through one process. However, we are not good at applying a variety of approaches to achieve our various ①
Joyce, Will. The Model of Teaching [M]. 7 Edition. Jing Jianhua, Song
Fugang, Hua Qingliang, Translation. Beijing: China Light Industry Press, 2009. —9—
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
goals and conduct classified research. Therefore, many models are largely identical but with minor differences, with unclear division of ① labor, and unremarkable features. Liu Haimin (1988) classified teaching modes into the following five categories based on the intensity of activities done by teachers and students: the forced-feeding teaching mode, the heuristic teaching mode, the problem-based teaching mode, the model-based teaching mode and the herd-sheep teaching mode. As the first category, the forced-feeding teaching mode has the highest intensity of activity done by teachers and the lowest activity intensity by students. While these five categories show the intensity of activities in descending order (or progressive increase order). The fifth category shows the lowest teacher activity intensity and the highest student activity intensity. Meanwhile, according to Li Peiwu et al. (2010), the teaching model can be divided into two categories: the inductive teaching model and the deductive teaching model based on the method that the teaching model is formed or established. They believe that teaching modes are constrained by teaching thoughts and theories. As a result, different teaching ideas, teaching theories and different understandings of people about these theories or different schools will produce different teaching modes. In addition, different positions and roles of elements in the model structure also contribute to different teaching modes. Differences in teaching goals, levels of science and technology, productivity, social needs and research perspectives also correspond to different teaching modes. Moreover, different subject theories also form different categories of teaching modes. Therefore, teaching modes exhibit complexity and diversity. They have classified teaching modes into the following types: teaching modes based on learning theories, teaching theories, educational philosophy, the nature and organizational forms of
①
Mao Jinghuan. Comparative analysis of contemporary Chinese and
Western teaching modes [J]. The Modern Education Journal, 2000 (2): 48. — 10 —
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teaching activities and the position of teaching roles. Based on the analysis above, it can be seen that the classification of teaching modes by researchers is different. Different classifications of teaching modes by people indicate that there are different criteria and perspectives for classifications, which also imply people’s different understandings of the characteristics of teaching modes (Hao Zhijun et al., 2003).
2 The Concept, Constituent Elements and Classification of Physical Education Modes Physical education modes stem from teaching modes. Therefore, the research on physical education modes is based on the research on essential characteristics and connotations of teaching modes, which is the logical starting point for the study of physical education ① modes. This section first deals with the concept of the physical education mode, analyzes the meaning of the physical education mode, and discusses their classifications. 2.1 Research on the Concept of Physical Education Modes Since the early 1980s, people have explicitly put forward the concept of physical education modes and conducted systematical study on the theory of physical education teaching modes. In the course of optimizing physical education classroom teaching and improving its quality and efficiency, people have discovered that the research on physical education teaching modes could help us to grasp the relationship between teaching and learning better, and then optimize physical education. Therefore, since then, we have started to pay attention to the research on physical education. Since the mid-1980s, the study of physical education modes has been one of the hotspots in the field of physical education research. Many sport researchers have realized that physical education modes have
①
Xiao Huanyu, Zhou Li, Luo Haitao. Structure, type and application
condition of PE teaching mode [J]. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 2002 (2): 76. — 11 —
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
become an intermediary and bridge from the theory and ideas of physical education to practice. In recent years, there has been a lot of theoretical and experimental research on physical education. Based on different research perspectives, domestic researchers have conducted research on it respectively. There are different views on its concept from being macro to being micro, but no consensus has been reached so far. On the one hand, this indicates that the theoretical research on physical education modes is in a state of vigorous development, and on the other hand, it also hinders the overall grasp of physical education modes. The definition of the concept of physical education modes by Chinese scholars is shown in Table 1-1. Table 1-1 The definition of the physical education mode from some Chinese scholars Scholars
The concept of physical education mode
Editor of Sports
Physical education modes refer to physical education
Science Dictionary
teaching theories and the teaching activity model with corresponding structure and function designed according to certain physical education teaching theories or teaching ideas. Physical education model is a physical education program established under the guidance of certain
Mao Zhenming
physical education ideas and theories, including relatively
stable
teaching
process
structure
and
corresponding teaching method system, which is mainly embodied in the design and implementation of physical education teaching units and teaching courses.
①
Mao Zhenming. The teaching theory of concise sports courses [M]. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press, 2009. — 12 — ①
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
Continued Scholars
The concept of physical education mode Physical education modes refer to the strategy and
Yang Nan
modes of physical activities which embody certain teaching thoughts or laws, including relatively stable teaching groups and textbooks, relatively unique teaching process and corresponding teaching method system.
①
Physical education modes refer to relatively stable, systematic and theoretical teaching modes or models Wu Tao,
formed around a certain subject in physical education
Hu LIjun
under the guidance of certain physical education ideas. It generally includes teaching thoughts, teaching purposes,
operation
procedures,
teacher-student
relationship, teaching conditions and other elements.
②
Physical education model is an effective teaching activity structure and framework which realize their specific Li Jiekai
functions
under
a
specific
teaching
environment, and contain specific physical education teaching ideas, and aim at achieving specific teaching goals. They are physical education thoughts and the tactics of teaching arrangement expressed in a simplified form. It is also a link between physical education theories and its practice.
③
Yang Nan. Discussion on physical education teaching modes and subject teaching [J]. Journal of Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, 2000 12 (1): 3. ② Wu Tao, Hu Lijun. A comparative study of physical education teaching modes in primary and secondary schools in China, America, Japan and former Germany [J]. Journal of Tianjin University of Sport, 1994, 9 (1): 51. ③ Li Jiekai. Research on the general theory of the PE teaching mode [J]. ①
Journal of Shenyang Institute of Physical Education, 1995 (2): 3. — 13 —
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
Continued Scholars
The concept of physical education mode Physical education modes refer to a relatively stable
Shao Weide
teaching program designed with specific physical education teaching ideology which aims to complete the physical education teaching objectives of each unit.
①
Physical education models are a combination of Zhao Li
teaching models or methods aiming at completing specific physical education tasks under the guidance of a certain theoretical system.
②
Physical education modes refer to the archetype of Hou Jinlong
physical education activities with a certain structural design as the form, embodying a certain educational philosophy as the core.
③
The mode of physical education refers to the structure of teaching
process
and
corresponding
teaching
methodology that aims to achieve specific teaching Mao Yanping
functions, in accordance with specific teaching ideas, theories, as well as goals of physical education, social objectives, and related objectives, under certain teaching environments and conditions. It is primarily embodied both in PE ideology and the strategy paradigm of the method system of the design and implementation of the unit or teaching course, serving as a link and intermediary between physical education theories and practice.
①
④
Shao Weide. Physical education teaching modes [M]. Beijing: Beijing
Sport University Press, 2005. Zhao Li. Study on the group structure of the PE teaching mode [J]. Journal of Beijing Sport University, 2000, 23 (4): 532-533. ③ Hou Jinlong. The PE teaching mode: Concept and design [J]. Sichuan ②
Sport Science, 2005 (4): 103. ④
Mao Yanping. A scientific reflection on the relevant operational
definition and sub-concepts of the physical education teaching mode [J]. Jilin — 14 —
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
Continued Scholars
The concept of physical education mode Physical education mode is a model or strategy of physical education with corresponding structure and
Wei Yong
functions, designed according to certain principles under the guidance of certain physical education ideas. It is not only the concretization and practicalization of sport teaching system and teaching process, but also the comprehensive carrier of physical education teaching form and teaching methods.
①
The concept reflects essential attributes and features of things. The most fundamental work for any scientific research is to generalize the essence of the research object and define its connotation. Through comprehensive analysis, it is not difficult to find that all the concepts of physical education models emphasize the premise of teaching guiding ideology or teaching theory. Then, researchers define physical education models as models, procedures, strategies, methods, etc. Although its expression is not the same, the essence reflected by all the concepts is the same: The physical education mode plays a role in organizing and regulating physical education activities. It guides practice with a mature theory and in turn, enriches the theory with a lot of practical experience. It is the intermediary and bridge between theories and practice. 2.2 The Research on the Elements of the Physical Education Mode According to the principle of overall optimization in system
Normal University (Natural Science Edition), 2010 (3): 138. ①
Wei Yong. Research and analysis of the physical education teaching
mode in ordinary universities [J]. Journal of Shandong Institute of Physical Education and Sports, 2010 26 (2): 75. — 15 —
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science, the overall function of any system can only be optimized through the optimization of its elements and structure, because a system is an entity formed by various constituent elements connected in a certain way. Therefore, the overall function of a system is equal to the sum of the functions of isolated elements plus the function of the structure (Xiao Huanyu etc., 2002). This also applies to the teaching mode in physical education. So, what are the constitutive elements of the physical education mode in our country? According to Sport Science Dictionary, the physical education mode includes five major factors: the teaching theory or teaching guiding ideology, teaching objectives, teaching conditions, operational procedures, as well as the combination of teachers and students. Mao Zhenming believes that the concept of the physical education mode is mainly composed of three basic elements, namely, teaching guiding ideology, teaching process structure and corresponding teaching methodology. The relationship among these three is as follows: the teaching process structure is the “skeleton” that supports the teaching mode; the teaching methodology is the “muscle” that fills the teaching process; the teaching guiding ideology is inherent in the “skeleton” and “muscle” which plays a coordinating and commanding role as the “nerve”. The teaching guiding ideology (“nerve”) embodies the theoretical property of the teaching mode; the teaching process structure (“skeleton”) embodies the stability of the teaching mode; and the teaching methodology (“muscle”) stands for the intuitiveness and operability of the ① physical education teaching mode. Shao Weide (2005) believes that according to the arrangement of the production procedure of the physical education model, various elements composing it would include the content of physical education, its teaching conditions (including venues, equipment, local characteristics, etc.), guiding ideology on physical education, Mao Zhenming. Discussion on PE teaching [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2005. — 16 — ①
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
teaching operation procedures and sport education methods, the structure of teaching process, teaching practice activities, evaluation of physical education and teaching feedback. According to Xiao Huanyu etc. (2002), the structure of the physical education mode can be divided into four levels interrelated with one another. The first level is teaching guiding ideology, including theoretical basis, functional goals and application scope. The second level refers to teaching procedures. If one teaching mode needs to be referenced and imitated by people, in addition to specifying its objectives and conditions of operation, it is more important to clarify the operating procedures. The third level is the corresponding teaching methodology and the structure of teaching process. The teaching mode is different from teaching methods because it abstracts the teaching phenomenon from a higher theoretical level. A teaching mode is often the comprehensive application and embodiment of multiple teaching methods. The teaching process structure in the teaching mode mainly describes different forms of teaching rules, which is the combination of various elements of the teaching process. The fourth level is related to the conditions to achieve teaching goals, including teaching facilities and equipment, requirements for teachers and students and so on. The above-mentioned four levels constitute main variables of the physical education model, embodying main variables of the teaching process and regular relations among these variables. From the above points of view, it can be seen that the physical education mode is like an open system that can be controlled, including teaching ideas, teaching objectives, structural procedures, teaching and learning methods, evaluation system, teachers and students, course materials, teaching equipment and many other elements. The study of the physical education mode can be seen as the overall design and control of the combination of various elements in activities of physical education, and each element is an important part of the physical education mode. — 17 —
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2.3 The Research on the Classification of Physical Education Modes From the late 1970s to the early 1980s, the research on PE teaching ideology, the PE teaching method and PE process had been very active in China, finally forming the surge of research into the PE model. With the deepening reform of education and physical education in schools, the discussion and research on the physical education mode have become the hottest research topic at the front line of physical education. The broad mass of physical education teachers constantly seek new courses of physical education and teaching methods based on various new physical education thoughts and theories, combined with problems occurring in reality. They think, conceive and make experiments and theoretical summary about various teaching modes with different characteristics, and numerous reports on research findings of physical education modes emerge endlessly. Over the years, with continuous development of scientific research on PE, some mature, feasible or innovative PE models have been formed in the practice of PE in China, including “the skill-oriented PE mode” “the mode of goal-oriented happy PE” “the PE mode for small group teaching” and “the discovery-oriented PE mode” (Mao Zhenming, 2005). So, as for the classification of physical education models, what research findings do sport researchers in our country have? Xu Jian (2006) believes that the PE model originates from the basic theory and practice of physical education, which is originated from general teaching models. Due to different physical education ideas, teaching laws and principles involved in physical education theories, there are different levels on classification of physical education models. Considering the opinions of various domestic researchers, it has been found that from the perspective of conceptual research on physical education models, there are mainly three types of classification for physical education models: the structural view on PE models, the view of the physical education teaching degree mode and the view of the physical education — 18 —
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teaching method mode. In addition, based on these three basic research orientations of PE models, two combined model views are derived: one is the view of physical education structure-physical education program model; the other is the view of physical education program-physical education method model. Zhao Li (2000) argues that the group structure of the physical education model can be described by Figure 1-1. Several teaching models can be categorized based on different objectives of physical education. Generally, the models that belong to human emotional experience and deep-level (holistic and creative grasp) cognitive experience are more advanced ones, located on the right side. Models that involve general imitation and information absorption are relatively low-level ones, situated in the middle. The teaching models that reflect the characteristics of physical education are the most fundamental teaching models on the left side. At the same time, the left side forms the foundation for those on the right side, while the right side represents the rejection and progression of the teaching models on the left side, demonstrating the comprehensive nature of objectives.
Figure 1-1. the group structure of physical education model
①
Zhao Li believes that the current development of physical education modes, especially the emergence of some new physical ①
Source: Zhao Li. Study on the group structure of the PE teaching mode
[J]. Beijing Sport University Press, 2000, 23 (4): 532-534. — 19 —
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education modes, has developed in the adaptation of general teaching modes and in sport teaching practice, such as joyful sports originating from happy education, etc. It can be seen that the physical education mode is a concept of development that has evolved in the continuous pursuit of new ideas and methods. The physical education mode also has certain variations, such as the variations of joyful physical education modes including the successful sport mode and the situational teaching mode. According to Shao Weide and Wang Tian etc. (2004), they omitted some immature physical education modes and focused on more mature physical education modes to categorize, as shown in Figure 1-2. First, the sport skill-orientation physical education mode includes imitative method of the teaching mode, procedural teaching mode, and the teaching mode of ability cultivation, and these focus on the mastery sport skills. Secondly, the psychological development mode is divided into individual development mode the mode of and social adaptation ability development. Among them, the individual development mode focuses on intellectual and emotional development of students, promoting personality development, including the situational teaching mode, the heuristic teaching mode, the initiative development teaching mode, the mode of discovery teaching, the comprehension modal of teaching, and the mode of successful teaching with pleasure. In addition, the mode of social adaptation ability development focuses on the development of cooperative ability and social adaptation ability among students, including the mode of teaching in group and at level. Finally, the physical training mode focuses on improving physical fitness of students and develop their physical ability, including the mode of training-oriented teaching, the mode of activity-oriented teaching and the physical fitness-oriented teaching mode.
— 20 —
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Figure1-2 The classification of the sport education model
①
Through the above analysis, it can be seen that a large amount of research on the classification of sport teaching models have been conducted by domestic sport researchers. The classification of physical education models mainly depends on the characteristics of physical education, the purpose and tasks of physical education, and the pattern of organization of physical education. These classifications on PE models help us to deepen our research further on the PE mode. 2.4 The Traditional Model of Physical Education in Our Country Over the years, the traditional physical education model in our country has played an important role in physical education. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, we introduced Soviet Union’s educational theories in domestic education theoretical circle, dividing the entire physical education process into four basic stages: perception, comprehension, consolidation and ①
Shao Weide, Wang Tian. Research on the classification and strategy
selection of PE teaching mode [J]. Beijing Sport University Press, 2004, 27 (7): 947-949. — 21 —
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application. This teaching process is reflected in physical education as a procedure of physical education, designed to take the order of the mastery of sports skills as the main line. It includes the following teaching procedure: “the starting stage (classroom routines, activities for preparation, specific preparatory activities, etc.) → the basic part (skill learning and classroom practice) → the ending part (relaxation exercise and evaluation)”. It is also known as the “Three-stage” or “Four-stage” teaching procedure. This teaching model can give full play to the teaching of teachers role better, and is also conducive to systematic sport technique teaching, helping students to do physical exercise while mastering these sport skills. Therefore, this physical education model has occupied a dominant position from the establishment of the People’s Republic of China to the end of the “Cultural Revolution” for quite a long period, having formed a conventional physical education procedure. It has been referred to as the “Traditional physical education model” or “The imparting type physical education model” (Mao Zhenming, 2005). The traditional physical education model has unique advantages, playing an irreplaceable role in sport teaching in our country. However, with continuous improvement of the level of physical education and further development of teaching and scientific research work, workers on physical education have also found the shortcomings of the traditional teaching model in their teaching practice. Influenced by Keloff’s educational theories, the traditional physical education model emphasizes the basis of student cognition law and the formation law of sport skills, with teachers imparting sport knowledge, techniques and skills to students. It emphasizes the leading role of teachers. The teachers design and control the entire teaching process, and students’ chances of autonomous learning are relatively not enough. Most of the learning tasks are completed under the guidance of teachers, and students are in a subordinate and passive position and rely on teachers. In this traditional teaching model, students acquire sport knowledge, techniques, and skills step by step under the guidance of teachers, and accept commands, — 22 —
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requirements and evaluation from teachers. The traditional sport teaching model focuses more on the systematic teaching of motor skills, which can be said as a systematic teaching theory. It advocates arranging the teaching process based on the laws of the mastering motor skills. The unit design in the teaching process mainly focuses on the teaching on a certain sport technique and the unit size is judged by the standard of reaching a certain degree of difficulty. The medium and large units are mostly used, and the arrangement within each unit is in order of technical difficulty. The design of lessons mainly takes the learning and practice of a particular skill as main line, emphasizing the volume of practice and the arrangement of a necessary amount of ① movement, and advocates multi-practice. The teaching process mainly follows the cognitive laws of perception, comprehension, consolidation, and application, as well as the formation laws of motor skills, such as generalization, differentiation, shaping, and automation. Through the teacher explanation, demonstration, and the use of corresponding visual teaching methods, students are enabled to have a certain perceptual understanding. Then, with repeated motor practice under the organization and guidance of teachers, namely, teacher’s feedback and evaluation, students gradually master motor skills. The effect of the traditional physical education model in our country depends on the teacher’s level of motor skills, teaching art, effectiveness of teaching methods and means, as well as the learning consciousness and physical foundation among students. The traditional physical education model puts emphasis on the evaluation on the mastery of skills, taking the student mastery of skills as the main evaluation content, adopting terminal evaluation after student skill-learning. The evaluation subject is the teacher with ② single evaluation content and neglect the process evaluation. ①
Mao Zhenming. Research on the PE teaching model [J]. Journal of
Guangzhou Sport University, 2000, 20 (4): 45. ②
Jiang Xiaopei. A theoretical study on the introduction of the sport — 23 —
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3 The Basic Theory and Domestic and Foreign Research on “The Sport Education Mode” In 1982, Siedentop first proposed the teaching model of “the sport education” at the Conference of International Association for Physical Education in Higher Education (AIESEP). In 1994, he published the first book on sport education. Since then, “the sport education model” has been widely applied as a way to replace traditional physical education worldwide. After years of teaching verification, currently, “the sport education model” is the most fully researched teaching model in this field. 3.1 Theoretical Framework Related to “The Sport Education Model” 3.1.1 “The theoretical origins of the sport education model” “The Sport Education Model” is a curriculum and teaching model created by the retired honorary professor, Siedentop, from Ohio State University. Ohio State University has been using “the sport education model” to train physical education teachers for over 30 years. Since the adoption and promotion of “the sport education model”, there has been a fundamental change in the way and methods the school cultivates PE teachers. Correspondingly, a fundamental change occurred in the way physical education carried out in ordinary university. The “the sport education model” is a curriculum and teaching model that has achieved fruitful results in the field of physical education through many teaching experiments. After decades of development, “the sport education model” has been widely promoted in many countries around the world. A large number of empirical researches indicate that “the sport education model” has profoundly influenced students, teachers, and the physical education curriculum system in primary, middle and high
education model into sport optional courses universities [D]. Changchun: Northeast Normal University, 2006: 14. — 24 —
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schools, as well as universities in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Europe and other countries and regions. The main theoretical source of “the sport education model” is Play-Theory and Play- Education. Professor Siedentop believes that sports originate from games, and the essence of sports is games. Professor Siedentop in his early doctoral dissertation A Curriculum Theory for Physical Education in Schools, he focused on the theory of play-education based on the play-theory. As a prominent advocate of the sport teleology contemporary, he attached great importance to the game value of sports. He believes that the game is not a trivial concept. Instead, it has rich connotations in psychology, sociology and history, and is sufficient to prove the essence of sports, that is, sport is to engage people in games and attract attention from others. When sports have strong game-play, it is significant for participants; whereas when sports lose it, the number of participants will significantly decrease. Sports are developed games and an important symbol of health and vitality in human culture. When individuals engage in sports with a positive and proactive attitude, sports will assume the socialization function of human culture. Therefore, the purpose of sport education is to improve human characters and ability through competitive and demonstrative sports and ① competitions. 3.1.2 The concept of the sport education model Understanding the concept of “the sport education model” requires first understanding how American sport researchers view sports and competitive sports. Bryan A. McCullick and Liu Wenhao of the University of Georgia in the United States have made a general introduction to this. In the United States, physical education and sports are not only different but also interconnected. There is no ①
Gao Rong, Yang Cizhou, Zhang Jianhua, et al. Discussion on
contemporary sport education [J]. Beijing Sport University Press, 2006, 29 (7): 969. — 25 —
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universally recognized definition of physical education in the United States, but it is generally considered an integral part of the entire education system, with its specific manifestation being physical education classes. Professor Siedentop’s definition on competitive sports is: competitive sports are games and activities constrained by rules and determined by techniques, skills and tactics. The “Sport Education Model” involves using competitive activities as the teaching content of physical education classes, with a focus on ① imparting skills, knowledge and rules of the competitive activities. Professor Siedentop wrote in his 2004 publication A Complete Guide to Sport Education that sport education model is a physical education curriculum and teaching model aimed at enabling students to have authentic and enjoyable learning experiences in the process ② of physical education, dance and physical activities. The sport education model, as introduced in the textbook entitled Introduction to Physical Education, Fitness and Sport published by Ohio State University, it aims to provide all students ③ with authentic experiences of competitive sports. It said, The model focuses on competitive sports as the content of physical education classes, allowing all students to learn the sport in multiple ways. The authoritative sport education reference book entitled The Handbook of Physical Education includes an article entitled Sport Education: A View of the Research written by Gary D. Kinchin. In the article, “the sport education model” is introduced as a teaching model for physical education courses that combines many ①
Wei Liyu, Yang Wei, Han Fei. “Sport” is not “physical education”
question: combined with the discussion on the crux of the essence of sports in China [J]. Journal of Physical Education, 2011, 18 (3): 5. ②
SIEDENTOP D, HASTIE P A, VAN DER MARS H. Complete guide to
sport education [M]. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004. ③
SIEDENTOP D. Introduction to physical education, fitness, and sport
[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. — 26 —
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characteristics of competitive sports, and strive to provide children and adolescents with opportunities to learn sport culture and ① experience real competitive sports. Almost all English and Chinese literature lacks a standard definition of “the sport education model” but from the above relatively authoritative English literature, we can see that they all emphasize the real competitive sport experience that the “the sport education model” brings to students. 3.1.3 Characteristics of the sport education model Figures 1-3 illustrate the main features of “the sport education mode”. These features give physical education a special significance and distinguish “the sport education mode” from other physical education models. Under “the sport education mode”, the entire teaching unit is a season, and students belong to the same team throughout the season. The formal competition schedule spans the entire season, and training and competitions occur in an orderly manner throughout the season. As the season progresses, the final competition reaches the climax of the entire season, and the champion of the season is determined at this time. All the performances and regular scores of the whole season are recorded as the basis for judging the champion of the season. Physical education classes have a strong festive atmosphere, especially as the season progresses, this atmosphere gradually reaches its peak. This joyful atmosphere increases the significance for students to participate in sport activities and creates an exciting environment for participation.
KINCHIN G D. Sport education: A view of the research [M] // The handbook of physical education, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2006. — 27 — ①
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Figures 1-3 The main feature of the sport education mode
· Seasons In “the sport education model”, the entire teaching unit is a season. The season should be long enough to ensure that students can experience important sports. A season consists of both training and competition. As the season progresses, the final competition can reach the climax of the entire season. Season is an important feature of “the sport education model”. And the exact length of the season is determined by the number of physical education classes and the duration of each class. In foreign teaching studies, researchers have successfully designed and implemented a season with 12 classes of 45 minutes each in primary school physical education, and a season of half a semester in high school physical education. It should be 20-22 classes, If the standard length of the season is determined according to publicly published related papers. This result may be because the national experiment of “the sport education model” was conducted in New Zealand. This experiment required the entire season to consist of at least 20 classes, while the actual teaching conditions at that time also determined the length of the season to a certain extent. The length of “the sport education model” season is often longer than the traditional teaching model. Because during the season, students have more content to learn and complete, such as techniques, tactics, referee rules, performance records, etc. In — 28 —
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addition, it takes time to cultivate students into strong competitors. As student sport skills improve, they will enjoy the matches, gain confidence and hope for further improvement. · Constant teams Under “the sport education model”, all students are divided into several groups. Students always stay in the same team throughout the season. In 1994, research on elementary school physical education by Darnell grouped fixed pupils in the same team and conducted physical education classes throughout entire school year. This grouping way enhanced the cohesion of the team. As they continue to engage in sport activities after class or active recess, it greatly promotes the conduct of sports activities. Such grouping enables pupils to become part of a team during the season and also encourages all teams in the class to work together and compete for the annual sport trophy throughout the school year. This experience of solidarity and cooperation is also an important aspect of individual growth for students and a crucial part of positive sport experiences. In a team, team members can play different roles and take on different tasks. Therefore, most students not only have to strive for the team victory as team members, but also play other different roles throughout the season, such as statisticians, managers, trainers, coaches, or publicists, etc. The team members are full of sport enthusiasm. They support and help one another, at the seme time, and they may inevitably experience friction and problems. It is through the resolution of these frictions and problems that the team members gradually adapt to one another, and their sense of responsibility and tolerance is gradually strengthened. Students grow gradually and slowly mature through sports. · Formal competition The characteristic of competitive sports is that the entire season is full of a series of training and matches. There are various forms of formal competitions, including dual meet, round-robin and league matches. The schedule of competition is usually determined at the — 29 —
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beginning of the season, so each team can make full preparations for all matches. Therefore, training becomes more motivating and meaningful, since each match is part of the season schedule. As the season progresses, the final matches reach the climax of the entire season, which motivate students to contribute to their teams and enhance their technical and tactical abilities to a higher level. In “the sport education model”, the entire teaching unit constitutes a season. From the initial training, the entire course gradually advances until the final climax comes. Teachers can arrange each season schedule in different ways. The schedule of the season also depends on the specific sport chosen. For example, the season schedule for gymnastics greatly differs from the season schedule for basketball. · Culminating event: A major feature of competitive sports is to determine the best individual or team in every season. There are good examples in professional sport leagues and college sports leagues in the United States, such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the National Football League (NFL), and the Major League Baseball (MLB), which are important national events in America. In “the sport education model”, the climax can create small-scale exciting events and atmosphere in the classroom, and sometimes even have an impact on the whole school. Throughout the season, the climax also continuously motivates team members to strive for better rankings for their team until the end of the season. The design of the climax season is diverse. They can be one two-day track and field competition, a three-on-three volleyball competition, a group aerobics competition, or a basketball round-robin. The climaxes have a strong competitive and festive atmosphere, in which all students and teams celebrate their achievements and their excellent performance in competitions of the entire season. · Record keeping: It is used in three main ways: to provide feedback, to set new — 30 —
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goals and to judge the winners of the season. There are many types and contents of score records. Different games will record different contents, such as the baseball batting rate, the number of shoots and assists, the number of being forced out, time, distance, points in each game, shooting percentage, the number of steals and so on. These records provide beneficial feedback to the teams and players. For example, if a record shows that a team member’s short sprint time has decreased, it indicates that his or her athletic ability has improved. If the record shows that a basketball team has reduced misplays and increased the number of rebound steals, then this indicates that the team’s athleticism has improved. Record keeping also helps teams and players develop new goals. In athletic meeting, for example, existing records help teams and players set goals to go faster, farther and higher. In gymnastic competition or ice sport events, when the results of each event are recorded and published, then they become the standard against which athletes strive for. In addition, the record is also an important basis for teachers to evaluate students and judge the season champion. In “the sport education model”, the results of all competitions throughout the season and usual performance points of each team are recorded and eventually accumulated into the point-system of the season, which can be used to select the season champion. · Festivity: A joyful festival atmosphere of competitive sports can be seen in various sport events around the world, such as in the United States, from the National Football League to high school Friday night games; from the grandeur of the Olympic Games to the athletics finals in the states; from the FIFA World Cup to community youth soccer games on Saturday afternoons. The festival atmosphere of competitive sports continue to stimulate participants, making them excited. It gives a significant meaning to their participation in the competition, and closely connects the pure sport competition to the whole society. Under “the sport education model”, teachers make use of various means and factors to make the festive atmosphere run — 31 —
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through the entire season. For example, they design the names of each team, select colors and pictures represented for each team, regularly focus on and publicize the performance of each team and individual. Teachers also celebrate fair competition and promote the entire season on campus, etc. In a school in the Midwest of the United States, a physical education teacher made videos about the most exciting games of each week for all classes throughout the season, and the videos were played in a loop in the school cafeteria, thus becoming a very effective means of promotion. Seasons, constant grouping, formal competition, culminating event, record keeping and festivity are the main characteristics of “the sport education model” and important features of competitive sports. However, It is difficult to imitate and replicate these features of competitive sports in traditional physical education classrooms, which is also the reason why many physical education classes are not perfect and cannot provide students with a real competitive sport experience (Daryl Siedentop, 2004). 3.1.4 The teaching objectives of “the sport education model” The teaching objectives can be divided into overall objectives and specific objectives. The overall objective is to fully cultivate students to become outstanding athletes and to make them capable, cultured and passionate athletes. So, what constitutes a capable, cultured and passionate athlete? · Having the ability: A capable athlete is someone who possesses sufficient techniques and skills so that he/she can participate in sports. They are able to have excellent performance in a competitive environment, and are equipped with knowledge about the sport. A capable sportsman will have good performance. They are flexible and confident in a competitive environment. Only when students participate in competitions can they experience the psychological state in a competitive environment, and know how to display themselves, demonstrate their techniques better in the competition, — 32 —
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so that they can win the competition confidently at great ease. In helping the young to develop life-long habits of sports, it is found that many students are unwilling to participate in sport activities. The key is that they have never participated in real competitions and have never experienced how to perform confidently in a real competitive environment. · Having culture: A cultured athlete refers to someone who understands the sport, respects the rules of the competition and traditional customs. Students should be active participants and know how to appreciate the competition, discerning various performances by athletes in the competition, whether sports in school, community or on televised sports broadcasts, whether as an athlete or a spectator. Therefore, students can become cultured athletes to participate in sport activities more actively, rationally and safely. · Being passionate: Only one loves and is full of enthusiasm for sports, can he/she take the lead by example all the time, and actively promote the development of sport culture, whether it is for local sport culture or national sport culture. Those who are passionate about a particular sport are always inclined to participate in this sport for a long term, because they have experienced the fun in it. Through active participation in sports, these participants also influence those around them and even their generations, allowing others to experience the joy and benefits of participation. Consequently, it promotes the prosper development of the sport. “the sport education model” aims to enable students to acquire skills and knowledge of the sport in PE classes, so that they truly love this sport and become promoters of sports. These three overall goals not only involve sport education in school education for the youth, but also have profound implications for the national physical health and the development of national sport culture. The achievement of long-term overall goals depends on continuous realization of specific short-term goals. The specific — 33 —
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goal of “the sport education model” is achieved through student learning and experience during each season. It includes ten specific goals: developing sport techniques and special physical qualities; fostering tactical awareness and using it reasonably in competitions; enabling students to participate in learning and competition based on their own development level; sharing role-tasks and cultivating a sense of responsibility; developing leadership skills; strengthening team cohesion; focusing on project rules and conventions; developing a sense of fair competition; developing student referee’ abilities and coaching skills; cultivating students’ concept of lifelong sports. (Daryl Siedentop, 2004). 3.2. Research on “The Sport Education Model” by Foreign Scholars Since the 1980s, with nearly 30 years of development, the development and practical application of “the sport education model” in Oceania, North America, and Europe have been very mature. In 2005, Wallhead and O’Sullivan published a review of research on “the sport education model” based on the analysis of 28 experimental research-based literature. The review acknowledged certain advantages of the model, particularly its continuous team membership which benefits student engagement in learning tasks that put students in the center. However, in other aspects, there are some potential issues identified, such as student leadership skills. In addition, the review also made many comments and suggestions for ① future research. In April 2011, renowned scholar Peter A. Hastie and others published a retrospective study of “the sport education model” in the journal entitled Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy The study involved 38 experimental research-based literature. Among 38 literature, the majority of the experimental sites ①
WALLHEAD T, O’ SULLIVAN M. Sport education: Physical education
for the new millennium [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2005 (2): 181-210. — 34 —
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were in the United States, accounting for 41%. A significant number was in Britain and Ireland. Unlike before 2005, studies in non-English speaking countries also began to appear after 2005, including 7 from Russia and 1 from South Korea. There were 20 studies with middle school students as subjects, 11 on high school students, and a very small number on elementary school pupils. In these studies, offense-based projects accounted for 75%, while net group of the competitive project accounted for 19%. There were 23 primarily qualitative studies, 12 primarily quantitative studies, with 5 of them using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. The research found that compared with the past, the empirical research application of “the sport education model” expanded to more sports and countries with a trend toward more mature experimental designs and larger sample sizes. At the same time, more research need to be conducted in certain areas, such as peer coaching, transfer from school sports to community sports, and ① so on. 3.2.1 The impact of “the sport education model” on student health levels In 2005, the article written by Wallhead, and O’Sullivan pointed out, before 2005, there were the fewest studies on the impact of the “the sport education model” on students’ health levels. In fact, ② only Hastie and Trost’s article published in 2002 focused on it. In 2009, in the study with obstacle running as the teaching content, Hastie et al. found significant progress in aerobic cardiovascular endurance running test (PACER) for students through “the sport education model”. It is noteworthy that the selected sport event in
①
HASTIE P A, DE OJEDA D M, CALDERÓN A. A review of research
on Sport Education: 2004 to the present [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2011(2): 103-132. ②
HASTIE P A, TROST S G. Student physical activity levels during a
season of sport education [J]. Pediatric exercise science, 2002(1): 64-74. — 35 —
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this study was obstacle running, and its core task was to improve cardiovascular endurance. Currently, it still exists shortcomings in ① this filed of study for other sports. Similar to the study of Hastie and Trost’s in 2002, Parker and Curtner-Smith used the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) in 2005 to study student physical activity. The biggest finding of this study was that only 36.6% of the time students spent in “the sport education model” reached a moderate to vigorous physical activity level (MVPA), while in the traditional exercise-based teaching model, student time in moderate to vigorous physical activity level was slightly higher at just over 50%. However, it is necessary to note that the design of the season in this study was very short, with only 10 classes, each lasting for 30 minutes, in addition to 5 classes of competitive courses, which was taught by student teachers. But in Hastie and Trost’s 2002 study, the season lasted for 22 classes and was taught by experienced teachers, with over 60% of the student time spent in moderate to the vigorous level ② of physical activities throughout the season. 3.2.2 The impact of “the sports education model” on student technique level and tactical ability Since 2004, a total of 4 articles have studied the skill-development of middle school students in “the sport education model”. The articles published by Browne et al. in 2004 and by Pritchard et al. in 2008 both compared the teaching effectiveness of “the sport education model” and traditional teaching methods. In Browne’s article, the research findings showed that both in teaching models, students made significant progress in competition ①
HASTIE P A, SLUDER J B, BUCHANAN A M, et al. The impact of an
obstacle course sport education season on student aerobic fitness levels [J]. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 2009(4): 788-791. ②
PARKER M B, CURTNER-SMITH M D. Health-related fitness in
sport education and multi-activity teaching [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2005(1): 1-18. — 36 —
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
knowledge and techniques. Furthermore, in “the sport education model”, student awareness of perceiving learning increased, and ① they were able to understand the competition better. In 2008, Pritchard et al. also pointed out in their study on volleyball as a research project under “the sport education model”, students showed significant improvement in project knowledge. In contrast to the research findings obtained by Browne et al. in 2004, Pritchard et al. did not find an increase in student skill test scores, but they found an improvement in the quality of matches among students, especially in their ability to correctly decide the hitting technique to use and execute it, hence improving the accuracy of ② their techniques. Consistent with this study is that, in 2009, Hestie et al. applied “the sport education model” to eighth-grade students in Russia and found that they improved both in “correct decision-making” and “accurate execution”. In addition, in this study, students also made significant improvement in badminton technical ③ tests, such as ball-play skills and attacking shot. In 2009, using the assessment scale developed by Blomqvist and others in 2000, Hestie and other researchers tested student tactical awareness by having them watch badminton match videos. The findings showed a significant improvement in student ability to choose tactical methods. In their 2006 study, Hestie and other researchers also tested student development on tactical understanding. Within the theoretical framework of “the sport education model” the authors employed strategies such as BROWNE T B J, CARLSON T B, HASTIE P A. A comparison of rugby seasons presented in traditional and sport education formats [J]. European physical education review，2004(2): 199-214. ①
②
PRITCHARD T, HAWKINS A, WIEGAND R, et al. Effects of two
instructional approaches on skill development, knowledge and performance [J]. Measurement in physical education and exercise science, 2008(4): 219-236. ③
HASTIE P A, CURTNER-SMITH M D. Influence of a hybrid sport
education-teaching games for understanding unit on a teacher and his students [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2006(1): 1-27. — 37 —
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problem-solving and guided discovery. The study found that students were able to understand, appreciate and execute a large number of basic tactics. They also understand important principles, rules and methods of organization of matches and their importance, and they ① were able to transfer and apply them to other sport events. 3.2.3 The impact of “the sport education model” on student social abilities The article written by Wallhead and O’Sullivan pointed out that in the application of “the sport education model” there are still some difficulties in the transfer of classroom power and responsibility from teachers to students, such as the execution of role responsibilities of students, especially that students given responsibilities should not alienate or suppress other team members. Subsequent studies have arrived at different conclusions in this regard. For example, in Pill’s 2008 study, teachers believed that “the sport education model” could stimulate student learning motivation, ② including those who are not often engaged in. In addition, study of Kinchin and others in 2004 showed that students have a strong sense of team belonging in “the sport education model”. Evidence indicates that teamwork is an important factor to promote student performance in classroom. However, in 2009, an in-depth study by Brock and others found that there is a lot of evidence that not all students are able to express their choices. By observing all social activities and decisions of a team throughout the season, Brock clearly found that students with higher social status control over social activities of the team. In this case, both in and outside the classroom, students with outstanding
PILL S. A teacher’s perceptions of the sport education model as an alternative for upper primary school physical education [J]. ACHPER Australia healthy lifestyles journal, 2008(2/3): 23-29. ② KINCHIN G D. A survey of 9-boys’ perceptions of sport education in an ①
English secondary school [J]. The bulletin of physical education, 2004, 40(1): 27-40. — 38 —
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
appearance and attractiveness always have higher status. This thought-provoking finding Prompt us to consider how to break this inequality. How teachers can create a learning atmosphere that enables students to improve their physical, cognitive and social abilities through equal interaction and participation. Although some teaching research has affirmed that “the sport education model” can promote more equal participation of students, such as Ennis et al.’s “Harmonious sports” in 1999 and Hastie et al.’s Incentive approach” in 2000. There is still room for research in the field of whether “the sport education model” can effectively promote all students to participate in. (Peter A. Hastie, 2011) Additionally, the factors included in Brock et al.’s 2009 research design that contradict the purpose of “the sport education model” should not be ignored, such as not allowing everyone to participate in the competition. While teachers may observe that most of students interact with one another in a fair and equal manner, or that most students have a positive attitude towards the relationship among teammates, it is important to note that some students do not have a voice. In the future, “the sport education model” should pay more attention to the research on teamwork (Shane Pill, 2008). ①
3.2.4 The impact of “the sport education model” on student enthusiasm for sports There has been a lot of research on the influence of “the sport education model” on student sport enthusiasm. And many studies have gradually begun in non-English speaking countries and regions, such as the 2006 study by Hestie et al. in Russia and the 2006 study by Kim et al. in South Korea. Their researches all indicate that the use of “the sport education model” increased the attractiveness of
①
BROCK S J, ROVEGNO I, OLIVER K L. The influence of student
status on student interactions and experiences during a sport education unit [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2009(4): 355-375. — 39 —
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
physical education to students. These studies show that regardless of location, students enjoy participating in physical education classes, where they receive more attention and take the classes more seriously (Shane Pill, 2008). In English-speaking countries, researchers have shifted the focus of their research from general descriptions to objective explanations. For example, in MacPhail et al.’s 2008 study, researchers gathered a large amount of student comprehensive understanding about the concepts of “fun” and “enjoyment” and used interviews and a wide range of psychological methods in the study. They found that students found “the sport education model” extremely interesting and enjoyable, hence promoting and developing team cohesion. Student self-management awareness was also enhanced. In addition, student understanding of success also changed, as many students believed they improved in physical and psychological abilities in the program and gained more tactical ① awareness. In 2009, researchers such as Kinchin focused their research on the climax of the season. By studying student and teacher concepts and views on the climax of the season in “the sport education model”, they found that in the early stage of the season, students had uncertainty about the excitement and expected effects of the celebration activities. After the celebration activities, students focused on their team performance and positively discuss beautiful memories of their shared learning. Teachers believe that the success of celebration activities lies in sparking student interest in learning and making them eager to defeat opponents and achieve success by ② actively practice. ①
MACPHAIL A, GORELY T, KIRK D, et al. Children’s experiences of
fun and enjoyment during a season of sport education [J]. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 2008(3): 344-355. KINCHIN G D, MACPHAILA, NI CHROININ D. Pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of a culminating festival within a sport education season in Irich primary schools [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2009(4): 391-406. — 40 — ②
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
New methodologies were also used to study student concepts and views. Both the 2004 study by McPhail and Kinchin and the 2006 study by Mowling et al. both used drawing methods to study young students’ experience and understanding of “the sport education model”. In McPhail and Kinchin’s study, students behaved ① most in terms of fun, cohesion and a sense of belonging in learning. Mowling and others’ study expanded the research design, including more extensive analysis systems and multi-dimensional data analysis ② points. In the 2004 study, the most depicted aspects were team cohesion and celebration activities, as well as formal competitions. While in the study of 2006, in the second half of the season, many students considered winning to be the primary goal. In both of these studies, the most crucial information we obtained was that drawing provides a lot of information, but it only works when accompanied by language or text descriptions (Peter, 2011). 3.2.5 The impact of “the sport education model” on student values The main component of “the sport education model” is “fair competition system”. The season champions are determined by multiple factors, rather than a single win or loss, hence helping to enhance the educational value of sports experience. This is also what the founder of “the Sport Education Model” Siedentop advocated. The purpose of fair competition should be emphasized repeatedly during the whole season, and this has been confirmed in the research. In 2006, study by Mowling et al. found that as the season progressed later, winning games became the primary goal for students. In 2007, ①
MACPHAIL A，KINCHING D. The use of drawings as an evaluative
tool: students’ experiences of sport education [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2004(1): 87-108. ②
MOWLING C M, BROCK S J, HASTIE P A. The fourth grade student
drawing interpretations of a sport education soccer unit [J]. Journal of teaching in physical education, 2006(1): 9-35. — 41 —
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
Brock and Hastie’s research also indicated that although at the beginning of the season, players objected to the fact that the skilled students played longer than other students. However, as the season progressed, especially in the late season, if the game was very intense and there was a risk to win, then other students also felt that students with better skills should participate in more competitions. Therefore, authors suggest that in future “Sport Education Models”, young students should focus more on fair competition and the ① achievements obtained, rather than simply winning or losing. In 2009, Vidoni and Ward established the standards and scope of fair competition behaviors in their research and examined which fair-play standards of behavior intervention can lead to the occurrence of fair play behavior in the season. The findings showed that standards on fair competition behavior have a positive effect on increasing student participation in activities, but have limited effect on cultivating student cooperative behaviors. However, from a positive perspective, fair competition standards of conduct reduced ② the probability of harmful behaviors among students. 3.3. Research of Chinese Scholars on “the Sport Education Model” There are few literatures on “the sport education model” in China, and the depth of research is not sufficient. The author uses “sport education” and “the mode of sport education” as keywords to search on China Knowledge Network. and found that related Chinese literature was published after 2004. This indicates that research on “the sport education model” in China began after Professor Siedentop’s visit to China in October 2004. In recent years, there has been an increase in research by domestic scholars on “the sport education model” including theoretical and experimental BROCK S J, HASTIE P A. Student conception of fair play in sport education [J]. Sport education, 2007(1):11-15. ② VIDONI C, WARD P. Effects of fair-play instruction on student social skills during a middle school sport education unit. [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy,2009(3):285-310. — 42 — ①
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
research, with relatively few publications in core journals. the sport events involved in the studies include martial arts, athletics, basketball, table tennis, aerobics, volleyball, badminton and soccer. The experimental research subjects were students in middle schools, high schools and colleges. It is noteworthy that the research in China primarily focuses on college students, with fewer studies on high school and middle school students, which is the opposite of the situation in foreign research. Foreign research primarily targets at middle school students, with relatively fewer studies on college students. That’s because the extensive foundational research on “the sport education model” are conducted in primary and secondary schools abroad. Additionally, the current situation of physical education curriculum in Chinese primary schools and the reality of physical education in middle school entrance examinations may also lead to the limited application of “the sport education model” in physical education classes in Chinese primary and secondary schools. Currently, Chinese researchers mainly compare “the sport education model” with traditional teaching models, including comparisons of the form, content and the differences in knowledge and skills students acquired in different teaching models. The English name for “the mode of sport education” is “the sport education model” or the more complex one “the sport education curriculum and instruction model”. Chinese sport scholars often translate “the sport education model” as “the mode of sport education” or “the mode of competitive sport education” as shown in Table 1-2. Table1-2 Statistics of Chinese expression
Number
Chinese Names
1
运动教育模式
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THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
Continued
2
竞技运动教育模式
3
SE 模式
4
Sport Education 模式
The majority of domestic literature defines the Chinese name of “the sport education model” as “运动教育模式”(the mode of sport education). The term “the sport education model” is used throughout this study.
4 Conclusion After reviewing research at home and abroad, people’s understanding of a series of basic problems on the teaching mode is still different. Obviously, it is still necessary to strengthen the research on the basic theoretical issues related to the teaching mode The divergence in people's understanding of the concept of teaching models indicates that basic theoretical problems such as the essence and orientation of teaching modes need to be further studied. Although people have different definitions of the concept of teaching models, their understanding of the structure of teaching models is basically consistent. The basic elements of teaching models mainly include theoretical foundation or guiding ideology, teaching objectives, teaching strategies or methods, teaching procedures, teaching evaluation, teaching environment or auxiliary conditions, and so on. The comprehensive analysis reveals that researchers have different classifications for teaching models. Different classifications of teaching models indicate differences in the basis and perspective of classification, and also imply different understandings of the characteristics of teaching models. Although the concept descriptions of physical education teaching models may vary, the essence reflected by all the concepts is the same. The physical education teaching mode organizes and — 44 —
Chapter 1 The Teaching Mode, the Mode of Physical Education and “The Sport Education Mode”
regulates PE teaching activities, guides practice with a mature theory, and enriches theory with a lot of practical experience, which is the intermediary and bridge between theory and practice. A comprehensive analysis shows that the physical education teaching model is like a controllable open system, containing many elements such as teaching ideas, teaching objectives, structural procedures, teaching and learning methods, evaluation systems, teachers and students, course materials and equipment. Research on physical education teaching models is the overall design and control of the combination of various elements in physical education activities, and various elements are important components of the physical education teaching model. Researchers in China have conducted extensive research on the classification of physical education teaching models, which helps to further study. The classification of physical education teaching models is mainly based on the characteristics of physical education teaching, the purpose and tasks of physical education teaching and the form that physical education teaching is organized. The three goals of “the sport education model” include: developing athletes with the ability to participate in physical activities; cultivating athletes with cultural literacy who understand and respect rules, etiquette and sport traditions; cultivating passionate athletes who embrace sport culture and actively support and maintain these cultures. These three goals are transformed into 10 teaching tasks, enabling students to participate in “the sport education model” to develop skills and physical fitness; appreciate and execute specific game tactics and strategies; participate in physical activities that suit their physical and mental development patterns; plan and manage physical activities; cultivate responsible leadership skills; effectively collaborate in teams to achieve concerted goals; appreciate the etiquette and customs that give sports unique meaning; cultivate the ability to make rational decisions when social issues arise during physical activities; acquire and apply knowledge of refereeing, arbitration, and training; participate in — 45 —
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
competitive sports and physical activities outside the school as ① well.
Li Weidong, Wang Xiaozan. The physical education course teaching mode [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2018. — 46 — ①
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities of China With continuous development of physical education teaching and curriculum reform both domestically and internationally, ordinary universities of China are constantly exploring and researching new models of physical education teaching to adapt themselves to the requirements of the times and strive to cultivate new types of higher education talents that meet the needs of the country. The exploration and application of the Sport Education Model (SEM) in ordinary universities is an important aspect of promoting reform and innovation in physical education teaching. An in-depth analysis of this theory and the construction of a theoretical system are the theoretical basis for the next step of the SEM teaching reform experiment, which plays a very important role in promoting the development of physical education teaching reform.
1 Application of the Delphi Method The Delphi Method is a questionnaire drawn up by an investigator, and opinions of expert group members are solicited through letters according to prescribed procedures. Members of the expert group anonymously exchange opinions through the feedback materials of investigators. After several rounds of feedback, opinions are gradually concentrated. The opinions of experts are finally obtained with statistically significant expert collective judgment results. At present, the Delphi Method has become one of the most — 47 —
commonly used methods in the field of prediction and evaluation ① research. This study adopted the Delphi Method to obtain opinions from expert groups on the theme of the SEM. Through text analysis, relevant descriptions of the expert group were classified and organized to obtain the core vocabulary of description and expression from the expert group. Furthermore, common views of different experts on the same indicator expression were summarized. Finally, the weights of each indicator in the theoretical system of the SEM in ordinary universities of China are determined through hierarchical analysis, and the complex decision-making and thinking process are quantitatively expressed through the model. 1.1 The Steps of the Delphi Method This study adopts the Delphi Method to construct a theoretical system for the Sport Education Model (SEM) in ordinary universities in China. Specific steps include the following. 1.1.1 Form an expert group The number of experts can be determined based on the difficulty of the problem and the breadth of the scope involved. In the Delphi Method, the recommended number of experts is 10-50. The expert consultancy group for this survey consists of 10 members, all of whom are experts in curriculum and teaching theories, school physical education, sport education models, and aerobics teaching at home and abroad. All expert survey forms issued have been collected and all are valid 1.1.2 Compile expert survey forms Based on constituent elements of the physical education teaching mode and a comprehensive analysis of the SEM and ①
Yuan Qinjian, Zong Qianjin, Shen Hongzhou. Research on the
development and application of Delphi Method in China: Series of Knowledge Graph Research Group of Nanjing University [J]. Modern Intelligence, 2011, 31 (5): 3. — 48 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
aerobics teaching in ordinary universities of China, various indicators and specific contents of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China have been constructed. 1.1.3 Round robin consultation The classic Delphi Method generally requires four rounds of consultation. Of course, as long as opinions of experts have reached a consensus, it can be concluded without the need to adopt a four-round model. This survey has used two rounds of consultation. The first round: We distribute the Expert Survey and Evaluation Form for the Theoretical Construction of the Sports Education Model of Aerobics in Ordinary Universities of China (Part 1) (see Appendix 1), explaining in detail the specific meaning of each item to experts, avoiding comprehension errors, and ensuring that expert ratings are not influenced by others. then we ask them to fill out the survey scoring form based on their knowledge and experience. Experts are required to make judgments on all items and their contents in the theoretical construction system of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, based on the three levels of being unimportant, generally important and important. After retrieving the survey scoring table, we conduct statistical analysis on the results, calculate the level and the coefficient of variation of each item, and then delete unnecessary items based on the statistical results, supplement important items that do not appear in the system, merge overlapping items and modify the specific content of each item. The second round: We distribute the revised Expert Survey and Evaluation Form (II) (see Appendix 2), requiring experts to judge the importance of all modified items and their contents. The importance is divided into five levels: being unimportant, not very important, generally important, relatively important, and very important. After retrieving the survey scoring table, we conduct statistical analysis on the results again, calculate the level and the coefficient of variation of each item, and comprehensively process the statistical results to — 49 —
obtain the final survey result. 1.2 Related Statistical Indicators 1.2.1 Rank sum(Si) The Rank Sum representing the total score of expert evaluation for a certain item, are indicators that describe the importance of the item. The higher the score of Rank Sum, the more important the position of the item in the system. In the first round of consultancy indicators, being unimportant, generally important, and important were assigned to the value of 0, 1, and 2 respectively. When Si ≤ n/2, it indicates that the item is not needed in the system and should be deleted. In the second round of consultancy indicators, being not important, not very important, generally important, relatively important, and very important were assigned to the value of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively. When Si ≤ 2n, it indicates that the item is not needed in the system and should be deleted.
Si represents the rank sum, while Rij represents the evaluation level of item i by expert j In this study, there was a total of 10 members of the expert consultation group, with n=10. So in the first round of consultancy, we delete the items with Si ≤ 5. For example, when investigating constituent elements of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, we delete three items of sports teaching content, sport teaching conditions and theoretical basis. In the second round of consultation, we delete entries with Si ≤ 20. When all entries Si>20, it indicates that each entry is indispensable in the system. 1.2.2 Credibility testing The Credibility Testing refers to the degree of coordination of expert opinions. It can be used to determine whether there is significant disagreement among experts on the item, and the coefficient of variation (CV) is used for testing. CV indicates the — 50 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
degree of fluctuation, or coordination, of relative importance of the evaluation of item i by experts. The smaller the value, the higher the level of coordination among experts, and the higher their credibility. On the contrary, if the credibility is low, it indicates that there is significant disagreement among experts and the data are unreliable. It is necessary to make further modifications and then seek expert opinions until the credibility meets requirements, so it is ① trustworthy.
σ I represents the standard deviation of item i, while Mi represents the arithmetic mean of item i In both rounds of expert consultation in this study, the coefficient of variation (CV) of each item was calculated. For items with CV>0.8, modifications were made based on expert opinions. For example, in the first round of investigation into constituent elements of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, the teaching method system was changed to the teaching strategy system, the teaching operation program and teaching process were merged into the teaching process structure, and the evaluation of physical education teaching effectiveness was changed to the teaching evaluation system; When CV<0.2, it indicates a very high level of coordination among experts, and the results have relatively high credibility.
2 Teaching the Objective System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China Firstly, let’s take a look at the interrelationship between teaching modes and teaching objectives. Teaching objectives are similar to the teaching aims, which are commonly referred to as ①
Sujis. Construction of evaluation index system of international financial
center based on Delphi law [J]. Science and Technology Management Research, 2010 (12): 61. — 51 —
teaching tasks, and both refer to the effects that need to be achieved through teaching. Teaching objectives can be divided into long-term objectives and short-term objectives. The influential theories of teaching objectives abroad include Bloom’s classification theory of educational objectives, Gane’s classification theory of teaching objectives, and Hiroka Ryosuke’s theory of teaching objectives. It can be considered that the teaching mode is developed under the guidance of specific goals to complete specific tasks. Different teaching objectives lead to different teaching modes. A certain mode serves a certain goal. The evaluation of a certain model is based on whether or not the teaching goal is achieved in the end. The teaching objectives are not only the starting point of the teaching mode, but also the destination of the teaching mode (Zhao Li, 2000), and the same applies to the SEM. Can students receive high-quality aerobics teaching during this special and important stage at university? What kind of talents and abilities do we hope to cultivate through the teaching of aerobics classes, so that they can better embrace the life after entering society? How to make students perform better in aerobics classes? Can they truly understand the sport of aerobics and recognize its value? How can students continue to participate in aerobics activities outside the school after completing aerobics classes? How to help students distinguish the quality of aerobics movements in youth sport activities, school sport activities, and community sport activities? How to encourage students to participate in local organizations of aerobics and promote aerobics to better serve children, adolescents and adults? The answers can be found in the training objectives of the SEM. Based on five curriculum objectives proposed in the guidance outline issued by the Ministry of Education, combined with the results of the Delphi Method analysis, this study summarizes the training objective system of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China into the following aspects.
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Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
2.1 Develop Sport Techniques and Specialized Physical Fitness At present, the content of aerobics courses in ordinary universities in China is generally based on the National Aerobics Mass Exercise Standards (3rd set) approved by the China Aerobics Association. This standard is designed based on the laws of aerobic exercise, combined with the development trend of international aerobic exercise, and tailored to the specific situation of mass fitness in China. In the process of creation, we followed the principles of aerobic, safe, easy to learn, step-by-step, and improving basic physical fitness which are suitable for the needs of people of different ages and physical abilities. Through practice, the physical fitness level of the exerciser gradually improves, while increasing their awareness and understanding of fitness knowledge and their interest in exercise, thereby achieving the goal of fitness and mental health. The primary goal of the SEM for aerobics in ordinary universities in China is to develop student aerobics skills and specialized physical fitness through the use of the SEM, including accurately mastering movement techniques, maintaining good body posture, having good coordination, having strong movements, coordinating movements with music, and reflecting the emotions of music, simultaneously possessing various physical qualities that ensure good technical performance throughout aerobics ① competitions. 2.2 Enhance Tactical Awareness Having tactical awareness and using tactics reasonably in competitions are important aspects emphasized by the SEM. Traditional physical education teaching focuses on imparting skills, while tactical learning is a weakness. Tactics refers to the strategies or methods used by athletes or teams in a competition to achieve victory. According to event-group training theory, aerobics belongs ①
National aerobics public exercise standard: set3 [S]. Beijing: China
Aerobic Association, 2009. — 53 —
to categories of the performance of difficulty-lead group. The tactical application of difficult and beautiful item group projects is based on high development and proficiency of technology, and the reasonable use of tactics will ensure that technology is played more fully. The main characteristics of tactical application in aerobics include promoting strength and avoiding weaknesses in action arrangement, reasonable layout of actions, and striving for the success of prescribed action competitions or preliminaries. In the teaching of aerobics, on the basis of prescribed movements, it is possible to appropriately increase the competition of optional movements. For example, each team is required to arrange the beginning and end parts of the set of movements. The main tactical principles for forming optional movements are to maximize strength and avoid weaknesses, highlight ultimate moves, in order to leave the best impression on the referee and audience, and strive for the best score. In the SEM, the score of each game is often included in the final score. Therefore, students can improve the success rate of prescribed movements and ensure the best performance in the competition. This not only lays the foundation for the final victory, but also leaves a good impression on the referee and audience, thereby expanding their influence, enhancing their confidence and putting psychological pressure on opponents, which has important ① strategic significance. Under the SEM, students can learn basic competition tactics, participate in aerobics competitions, and truly understand projects of aerobics sports. 2.3 Understand Project Rules In the SEM, students will take on the role of referees. This goal emphasizes that the teaching purpose of the SEM is not only to enable students to learn sport techniques and tactics, but also to enable students to have a deeper understanding of this sport; On the contrary, understanding the rules of aerobics can help students Tian Maijiu. Item group training theory [M]. Beijing: People’s Sports Press, 1998. — 54 — ①
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
master aerobics techniques more accurately. In traditional physical education teaching, teachers rarely or even never impart knowledge about sport rules to students. In the SEM, if a student does not understand the rules, he/she cannot become a good referee, and participants will also make judgments on the referee's ability to perform. The sense of responsibility that arises during the season makes students study the rules very seriously, learning to make the right decisions in competitions, rather than just writing the right answer on the test paper. Students have a more complete and authentic understanding of rules, rather than just understanding them from the surface. Because the student serves as a referee in every season, they will realize the importance of good referees for good matches and immense task of referees. This awareness enables students to have a more objective perspective on judgment, making them more considerate and respectful of referees. 2.4 Enhance the Sense of Responsibility In the SEM, students need to play different roles, such as the captain, coach, fitness instructor, referee, scorer, propagandist, music planner, etc., and assume corresponding responsibilities. In order to achieve success in the season, students must have a high sense of responsibility and strive to fulfill their respective responsibilities. For example, equipment managers must ensure that sport equipment is always placed in the right place at the right time. If students do not have the opportunity to play different roles, take on important responsibilities, and become responsible individuals in physical education classes, they cannot become knowledgeable and enthusiastic athletes. It is obvious that the success of each team, and the success of each season, all rely on a high sense of responsibility of students. Forming an internal responsibility supervision system in the SEM enables students to take their tasks and responsibilities seriously and enhance their sense of responsibility. 2.5 Develop Leadership Skills In traditional physical education teaching, the only thing — 55 —
students need to do is to follow classroom norms and do what the teacher asks them to do. In this teaching state, students cannot become independent and responsible team members, nor can they become leaders in sport activities. In the SEM, by playing different roles, students also exercise their leadership skills while fulfilling their respective responsibilities. For example, student coaches work together with team members, arrange for team members to participate in different levels and matches, lead team members to warm up, organize group exercises, and resolve any potential conflicts. The captain must supervise team members to stick to their respective positions. The presiding judge must ensure that the referee and scorer arrive at the competition venue on time to ensure that the game takes place on time. Not every student will become a student coach, captain, referee, etc. every season, but if the entire university stage of physical education teaching is well planned, through several semesters of physical education classes, each student will be able to be assigned one or two roles. Therefore, through the SEM, teachers can help students learn how to lead others. Teachers can gradually develop and enhance student leadership abilities by starting with completing small leadership tasks and gradually expanding the scope of tasks. 2.6 Enhance Team Cohesion Under the SEM, students maintain the same team membership throughout the season. They work hard in the same team for a concerted goal. In physical education classes in American schools, students usually change their team membership once a season. However, some schools also allow students to stay in the same team throughout the semester, or even throughout the academic year, thus enabling them to learn to work together in a team to achieve concerted goals. In the SEM, the characteristics of seasons and groups create an atmosphere and promote the teaching goal of teamwork. The success achieved in the SEM is collective success, and only when each team member strives to contribute to the team — 56 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
can the entire team achieve success. What attracts team members the most is that they support and help one another for the success of the team. During the season, selecting the team name, team uniform color, team slogan is conducive to building a harmonious atmosphere, making each student feel his/her contribution to the team, thus deepening the friendship among team members and strengthening team cohesion. This creates a good learning atmosphere that teachers emphasize effective team participation and each student learns necessary interpersonal skills and becomes an excellent member of the team. 2.7 Establish Awareness of Fair Competition Sports are the embodiment of equality and the spokesperson for competition. Even before the birth of modern sports, the spirit of Fair Play had flourished in the English society from the 18th to the 19th century. Whether it was beauty, justice, courage, honor, or pleasure, progress or peace, its profound connotations were difficult to summarize in words. No matter how the times change and sports develop, the spirit of Fair Play should be the most vibrant foundation of sports. Fair Play is also one of the most important contributions of sports to the system of modern social ethics, and its connotation should continue to enrich with the development of the times. As one of the spiritual treasures of human society, if Fair Play loses its ① vitality, sports may truly become a war without gunpowder. In the SEM, it is necessary to develop student awareness of fair competition and cultivate their ability to make rational decisions in competitions. In seasonal competitions, conflicts among teams are inevitable in order to strive for victory and achieve a higher ranking on the points table. However, these conflicts must be properly handled and resolved. So, how to actively strive for victory in competitions, how to treat opponents correctly, and how to treat referees correctly, what is fairness and what are appropriate and Zhang Wei, Lin Lin. Discussion on Fair Play [J]. Sports Culture Guide, 2011 (4): 145. — 57 — ①
correct behaviors are all the concerns of the SEM. it is the best time to educate them when students face these doubts and conflicts in physical education classes. With the help and guidance of teachers, students learn to solve and handle these doubts and conflicts, making themselves more cultured when participating in sports, and making it easier to organize and carry out school sports, community sports, sports clubs, etc. 2.8 Cultivate a Life-long Sport Concept At present, the most frequently mentioned important purpose of physical education is to help students develop a life-long sport concept. The advantages of the SEM itself can help students form a life-long sport concept. Firstly, this mode conforms to the psychological, physiological, and interest characteristics of young people, as well as the laws of sports. Because it enhances student interest in actively participating in the classroom through competitions, with good sport feelings and experiences through experiences such as happiness and confidence thus promoting their formation of a life-long sport concept. Secondly, this mode adopts different roles and division of labor in the application process, promoting student understanding and ability improvement of how to organize and carry out aerobics sports. and it also promotes their communication in sports and accumulates experience for forming life-long sport habits. Once again, in the implementation of this mode, basic technical and tactical abilities have been cultivated through mutual assistance, understanding and recognition of competition rules have been strengthened. It provides skills and knowledge foundation for students to form a life-long sport concept. Finally, during the implementation of this mode, various forms such as teamwork and festive atmosphere were used to enhance student interest in sports. At the same time, this joyful festive atmosphere deeply infected all students, thus attracting more teenagers to participate in the fitness team. These experiences in school physical education enable students to participate more in extracurricular sport — 58 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
activities, even after graduation and entering the workforce. So they can still continue to participate in aerobics which promotes the formation of their life-long sport concept.
3 Teaching Process Structure of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China Physical education teaching is the educational process of implementing physical education teaching and achieving physical education teaching goals, whose structure is the basic skeleton that ① supports the physical education teaching mode. Therefore, in-depth analysis of laws and paradigms of physical education teaching process can not only scientifically construct physical education teaching models, but also has significant implications for effectively implementing teaching models. Professor Gao Rong from the School of Physical Education and Sports at Beijing Normal University conducted a detailed analysis of the teaching process structure of the SEM from both macro and micro perspectives. At the macro level, he believes that the macro teaching implementation process of the SEM refers to the teaching design of the entire sport season, requiring designers to comprehensively examine the teaching process of the season from a macro perspective. So the specific design should start from two aspects: the pre season preparation stage and the implementation of classroom teaching stage. Among them, the implementation of classroom teaching can be divided into the establishment of classroom routines, the season stage, and the celebration activity stage. At the micro level, he believes that teaching design and implementation should start from various aspects of each lesson, and further consider the specific classroom implementation and practical allocation in different ② teaching stages of the early, middle, and late seasons. In Chapter 8 ①
Mao Zhenming. New perspective on the reform of PE [M]. Beijing:
People’ s Sports Press, 2003. ② Gaorong, Zhang Jianhua, Gao Hang, et al. Analysis on teaching process of PE model [J]. [M]. Beijing: People’s Sports Press, 2007, 33(2),117. — 59 —
of The Guidelines for Sports Education Models, Professor Siedentop also highlighted the relevant content of pre season preparation, season schedule, daily courses and provided examples. In the SEM, the entire season is carried out according to the established schedule, which emphasizes the learning of skills and tactics, organizes a series of competitions, and allows all students to improve their skills and tactics through participation in the competitions. The end of the season is the climax, and the entire season ends in a festive atmosphere. In the pre season preparation stage, teachers need to do preparatory work, mainly including a comprehensive understanding of teaching objectives, methods, and processes of sports education, analysis and preparation of specific influencing factors during teaching, and preparation of all teaching materials and tables. Only by fully preparing for the season can we better carry out the teaching of the entire season. For the preparation work before the season, this book will not elaborate further. Based on the purpose of providing useful references for the localization and specific implementation of the SEM, combined with the results of the Delphi Method analysis, this study mainly analyzes the teaching process structure of the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China from two aspects: the season schedule and classroom teaching process. 3.1 The Season Schedule The teaching unit is the basic unit of the teaching process, whose size not only reflects the length and rationality of the teaching ① process, but also determines the capacity and quality of teaching. According to the characteristics of the SEM, it takes seasons as the teaching unit. The season schedule determines the structure of the teaching process from a macro level, which refers to the rough arrangement of teaching content for each class throughout the season. Professor Siedentop advocates increasing the length of teaching ①
Mao Zhenming. Research on scientific PE [M]. Beijing: Higher
Education Press, 2018. — 60 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
units, which is based on the reality of physical education classes in primary and secondary schools in European and American countries. He pointed out in the Guidelines for Sport Education Models that the length of the season is determined by the length and number of each physical education class. A large number of published literature indicates that the standard length of the SEM season is 20-22 classes, and he also pointed out that such a conclusion may be determined by the actual conditions during experiments in high schools in New Zealand. The SEM is to allow students to have more profound knowledge and understanding of a certain sport, to provide students with more interactive learning opportunities, so that students can learn deeply and thoroughly, have greater opportunities to develop in sport experience, and can be influenced by sport culture. This teaching process design, based on the sport season as a unit, has a distinct feature of involving students in sport competitions and allowing them to design their teaching process. It is also aimed at better reflecting the original teaching intention, which is to provide students with comprehensive sport education through the most realistic sport scenarios, making them capable, cultured and enthusiastic sport participants (Gao Rong et al., 2007). According to the physical education curriculum of ordinary universities in China, aerobics teaching in ordinary universities usually have one class per week, with each class lasting about 90 minutes, and less than or equal to 16 classes per semester. In the SEM, the course content of the season can be divided into three categories: the first category is learning and practice; the second type is practice and competition; the third category is competition. Courses with the same type of content have slightly different teaching rhythms: teacher-guided exercises are teacher-led teaching; Independent practice is usually conducted on a team by team basis, with the coach or captain leading the entire team in the training area of each team, and the teacher providing guidance to each team. Its task should be centered around the game and preparation for the game. Team members should encourage and help one another. This — 61 —
type of independent practice for each team should become routine, with teachers using this method throughout the season to provide students with opportunities to practice techniques in preparation for competition. Courses that focus on practice and competition are usually conducted when students have already learned a certain combination of aerobics movements and can get to know how to practice even without the teacher explanation and prompts. At this stage, independent practice has become a routine method, with focus on further refining technical movements and improving tactical awareness. At this point, the competition can be a warm-up match or an official match counted towards the total season score. Teachers should allocate time in class for each team to practice technical moves, prepare for the day’s competition, and make necessary adjustments to the formation. According to the needs of the total competition time, the teacher announces the start of the competition after the independent practice, and at the same time, students involved in refereeing, scoring, and equipment management make quick preparation. One of the responsibilities of a referee is to ensure smooth competition. During the competition, specific time should also be set aside for referees, scorers, etc. to prepare for the next game or the next team's match, while also preparing the next team for the upcoming game. Courses with game content can be arranged not only at the end of the season, but also during the season. Usually throughout the season, as the learning content increases, the difficulty of the competition gradually increases, or as the learning content changes, the competition content constantly changes. Students always need to constantly learn and practice to better prepare for all competitions. 3.2 Classroom Teaching Process As mentioned earlier, there are three main types of courses in the SEM. The first type of course is mainly focused on learning and practice, usually at the beginning of the season or during the season. — 62 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
The second type is mainly focused on practice and competition. The third type of course is formal competition. It is not that teachers do not need to teach in the second and third types of classes, but rather that during practice and formal competitions, teachers have been touring the museum to guide each team. After determining the season schedule from a macro perspective, it is necessary to determine the content of each class from a micro perspective, that is, to determine the classroom teaching process and develop a lesson plan for each class. Based on eight aspects of classroom teaching, American scholar Mohr and others proposed specific implementation principles of the teaching process and principles of classroom teaching time ① allocation. Gao Hang et al. also made a detailed introduction and analysis in the article entitled Research on Implementation Strategies ② of Sport Education Model, as shown in Table 2-1. Table 2-1 Classroom Time Allocation Table Time course content
Teachers
Check classroom roles and responsibiliti es
Students
allocation/min* early middle
Confirm classroom Provide a checklist；
roles;
Conduct supervision
Prepare for warm-up
3
1
activities or SC meetings
Mohr D J, Townsend J S, Bulger S M. Maintaining the PASE: A Day in the life of sport education [J]. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 2002, 73(1): 36-44. ② Gao Hang, Gao Rong. Study on the implementation strategy of the sport education model [J]. Sports Culture Guide, 2010 ( 2 ) : 62. — 63 — ①
last
1
Continued Time course content
teacher
Student
allocation/min* early middle last
Provide content for warm-up
warm-up activities;
activities.
Provide SC training plan;
lead group physical exercise
SC meetings Guide SC meetings** Assist Review techniques and tactics
students
10
12
14
10
15
15
15
10
5
30
20
5
in
reviewing;
SC guides the learning
Supervise learning
of the group,
progress;
.Helping individuals and
Provide assistance when groups make progress needed by the group
Teacher guidance technical and tactical teaching
Observing teacher
Review or learn new
teaching;
technologies and tactics; Guide the whole class to practice
Perform action demonstrations; Review techniques
Provide learning content; Provide coaching; Group
Supervise learning
exercise
progress; Provide assistance when
SC guides group practice and monitors the progress of the group
needed by the group
— 64 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
Continued Time course content
teacher
Student
allocation/min* early middle last
SC prepares for the
competition
Design competition
competition;
methods;
Statisticians keep
Provide statistical records records; of the competition;
Referees make
7
20
40
5
5
5
10
7
5
Provide advice to referees; judgments; Guide the competition
Athletes participate in competitions
Review techniques and tactics; Student questioning; Allow students to freely
Observe teachers;
demonstrate their
Answer questions;
End section movements; Teachers
Display actions; provide Raise questions for
feedback to students;
discussion
Preview the next class content; Assign Homework Summarize the learning situation
Provide evaluation
Collect and organize
criteria;
records of the group and
Check record keeping
individual learning
status
situations
*The class time is 90 minutes **SC (Student Coach) refers to a student who serves as a coach during the season.
From Table 2-1, it can be seen that the time occupied by these eight parts in each class is different, and the main influencing factors — 65 —
include teaching objectives, student development level and learning stages during the sport season (including early, middle, and late stages of the sports season). That is to say, as the sport season progresses and learning difficulty deepens, the time allocated to each section in each class will change. For example, in the early stages of the sport season, it may take more time to check the performance and responsibilities of characters, but in the future, more and more time will be spent on sports. For another example, in the early stages of the sport season, students spend more time practicing techniques and tactics, while in the middle and late stages of the sport season, students will have more and more time to compete. Every part of classroom teaching is very important, and even in the late stages of the sport season, it cannot completely exclude the teacher teaching of sport techniques (Gao Hang, 2010). In the teaching of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, the classroom teaching process mainly includes the following four basic parts when using the SEM. One is the preparation activity section, where each class starts with the preparation activity and is led by the team leader or the student coach. The content of the preparation activity can be physical fitness exercises, exercises related to aerobics techniques, or a combination of both. The second is the basic part，When students learn new movements and combinations, teachers usually lead them. When practicing or reviewing them, students usually practice in groups, led by the captain or the student coach of each team, and the teacher guides each team. In this section, teachers must ensure that students have time to practice aerobics techniques for the season’s competition and organize aerobics competition formations. The third part is the competition, which can be a warm-up match or an official match counted towards the total season score. The fourth part is the conclusion. At the end of each class of the season, the teacher should summarize the lesson, recognize and praise the outstanding performance of students in practice and competition, and also commend the fair competition behaviors of each team. — 66 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
Throughout the season, the classroom teaching process has undergone dynamic changes. Two major principles of change are: one is the proportion of teaching time led by teachers, showing a change from more to less throughout the entire classroom teaching process. The other is the proportion of student-led practice time changes from less to more throughout the classroom teaching ① process.
4 The Teaching Strategy System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China Strategy originally refers to the planning and command of large-scale military operations, and generally refers to the means or methods used to achieve a certain goal. In pedagogy, this term is often synonymous with methods and steps, and also refers to the sequence of teaching activities and communication between teachers and students. In his book entitled Teaching Theories for Physical Education, Teacher Gong Zhengwei defines teaching strategies as overall ideas, strategies, or wisdom of teaching procedures, methods, forms and media used by teachers to effectively achieve specific ② teaching objectives. According to the results of Delphi analysis, teaching strategies discussed in this study mainly include classroom management and behavior development strategies, student grouping strategies, allocation of roles and responsibilities strategies, design competition strategies and creation of festival atmosphere strategies. These five parts are also important contents of the SEM discussed by Professor Siedentop in his book, entitled Guidelines for Sports Education Models. It is the key for teachers to master these teaching strategies in order to successfully apply the SEM in teaching (Daryl Siedentop, 2004).
①
SIEDENTOP D. Sport education: A retrospective [J] .Journal of teaching
in physical education, 2002(4): 409-418. Gong Zhengwei. PE teaching [M]. Beijing: Beijing Sport University Press, 2004. — 67 — ②
4.1 Classroom Management and Behavioral Development Strategies In a teacher-centered classroom, the teacher leads the entire class, while the main role of students is to obey the teacher guidance. Although this teaching model has played a certain role, it is inconsistent with the teaching goals and strategies of the SEM. The SEM is student-centered, with the goal of cultivating student sense of responsibility and leadership abilities, and helping them manage and grasp their sports experiences. Therefore, students should be highly responsible for their behavior in class. In addition, compared with traditional physical education classes, students in the SEM have to learn more content, including aerobics techniques and tactics, roles and responsibilities during the season, etc. Therefore, time is very precious in the SEM. So limited time should be fully utilized to enable students to achieve greater improvement as much as possible. However, many behaviors that disrupt classroom discipline will occur when students do not actively participate in classroom learning or have no constraints on their own behaviors. In other words, students will always use this time to find something to do, which can disrupt classroom discipline and distract public attention. Classroom management strategies and behavioral development strategies are preventive management measures to develop and maintain a positive, predictable and task-oriented classroom atmosphere. 4.1.1 Classroom management strategy Teachers should apply traditional classroom routines and requirements to the SEM classroom. Classroom management strategies enable faster and better completion of classroom learning tasks, in which classroom efficiency is greatly improved and the class is more orderly. Teachers should be good at attracting student attention, effectively issuing commands, and estimating the time required for each stage of the class, from students entering the classroom to the team activity area, to the transition of each stage in class and finally to the end of each class. — 68 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
·The beginning of the class In ordinary universities, students may come to the class location in sequence before class. In this case, students should quickly reach their own practice area and begin regular technical exercises. These technical exercises are usually used at the beginning of each class and are content that students have already learned in previous classes, which can be well completed and help to further improve their skills. After starting the class, teachers or fitness instructors from each team lead the entire team to start warming up. Teachers can guide students in their preparation activities by posting posters or arranging warm-up plans for each team. Teachers supervise the beginning of each class and can also use this time to count the number of people. At the same time, the captain or the teacher of each team should also be responsible for reporting attendance status after the preparation activities. This classroom management strategy allows teachers to have time to interact with students and guide them, rather than spending all their time directing preparatory activities. · Conversion of various stages in class: The transition between various stages in class is very important. When the transition is carried out smoothly and quickly, it will produce many good results, which means that the classroom is organized very well, classroom teaching is rarely interrupted, and all planned tasks can be completed. When the conversion of each link fails, the classroom learning tasks can hardly be completed as planned, and students feel very frustrated. The situation of interrupting classroom teaching is also more likely to occur. The conversion of various stages in class mainly includes the effective execution of three signals: concentration signal, gathering signal, and dismiss signal. Usually, in the classroom, teachers need to attract the attention of the whole class. Teachers should give students a clear signal and teach them to react immediately upon hearing the signal. Teachers can loudly issue a quiet command, and students will immediately stop practicing and stand facing the teacher. Teachers can also use whistles or high fives to signal, and students can — 69 —
immediately respond with high fives upon hearing them, then stand facing the teacher and keep quiet. Sometimes teachers need to disperse students to a specific area and provide a gathering signal after the concentration signal is issued. In addition, teachers can use a whistle again to send a gathering signal again. This only requires teachers to make an agreement with students early in the season and practice using gathering signals, then give specific feedback and establish new goals to reduce the time spent on set. Students usually need to dismiss and go to their own practice area. The dismiss signal should include what tasks the students need to complete after arriving at the designated area and when to leave the gathering area. In the early stages of the SEM, teachers should record how long it takes from the signal of gathering to students arriving in dispersed areas to start competing or practicing. Teachers can not only verbally praise students who move quickly, but also record their good performance in classroom routines as reward points in the season scoring system. When students become accustomed to moving quickly and organizational efficiency improves significantly, the time required for students to dismiss also gradually decreases. Once proficient, students will immediately start preparing or practicing in their own team practice area, rather than waiting for the teacher to give further instructions. · The end of class: In the SEM, the end of class has many functions. Teachers not only can gather students to repeat and emphasize key techniques or tactics, and acknowledge their progress, but also provide feedback on the performance of each team, remind them of the content of the next class, and have them quietly leave the gym and return to the classroom. At the end of the class, students are required to gather quickly and systematically from scattered areas to one area. The classroom routine for the concluding section should also include how to leave the gym, return equipment and return to the classroom. As with all other classroom routines, in the early stages of the season, teachers should teach students how to follow the final part of the — 70 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
classroom routine. Once students master these classroom routines, they will form habits and execute them well, hence greatly improving classroom efficiency. 4.1.2 Behavioral development strategies Physical education can positively influence the development of social behaviors and contribute to the growth of personality. Many excellent athletes have proven this, as their sport experiences have helped them develop good self-control, teamwork and leadership skills, which will continue to have an impact on their future lives. But sports are also a double-edged sword. While it helps to actively promote social and personal development, it may also encourage selfishness, disrupt rules and lead to unfair behaviors. Therefore, developing and maintaining an orderly and fair environment is the key to cultivating positive factors and curbing negative ones. The SEM provides an environment where students learn the meaning of fair competition, that is, they should treat their teammates, opponents and referees in the right way, and compete according to the rules. Because all students have to play the role of referees, they know the feeling of being a referee and the contribution of excellent referee work to the entire competition. Through fair participation in competitions, students have the opportunity to learn perseverance, experience a sense of satisfaction in progress, and a sense of achievement in making contributions to the team, as well as receiving recognition from teachers and teammates. ·The central content of student behavior development In the SEM, fair competition is the central content of student behavior development which is a recognized principle in sport competitions, and the central content of the physical and mental development of young people. It has a very broad significance, not only referring to respecting the rules of the game, but also including respecting others, participating in the game with full enthusiasm and a positive attitude, cherishing equal opportunities for participation, and being responsible for one’s own and teammate behaviors. This — 71 —
study summarizes fair competition behaviors in the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, as shown in Table 2-2 Table 2-2 Fair Competition Behaviors Content Actively participate in
Performance Don't be late or leave early, actively participate in practice and competitions
Make the effort
Strive to fulfill their respective responsibilities
Respect teammates and
Respect everyone's right to fair participation in
opponents
practice
and
competitions,
and
appreciate
teammates and opponents Respect the competition and respect the rules and referees, remain humble in face success or failure
victory, and maintain a noble demeanor in failure
correctly Willing to help others and
Being willing to help others and learning to be
learning to be grateful
grateful for the help
The SEM provides a good educational environment. In this environment, many opportunities have been created to emphasize the goal of fair competition by grouping students, assigning roles and performing duties. The realization of fair competition also makes students realize the significance of achieving these goals. ·How to develop fair competition behaviors? In the SEM, teachers can choose various methods and means to develop fair competition behaviors among students in ordinary universities in China. This study summarizes the methods for developing fair competition behaviors, as shown in Tables 2-3.
— 72 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
Table 2-3 Methods for Developing Fair Competition Behaviors Methods
Content A code of conduct is a specific description of behaviors of a specific role. Teachers can establish an overall code of
Use Codes of Conduct
conduct for the entire class and emphasizing the goal of fair competition. The code of conduct should emphasize the difference between fair competition and unfair competition. Teachers can also develop specific codes of conduct specifically for coaches and referees. Fair competition contracts can be used. Before the competition, students are required to read aloud, discuss fair
Use fair
competition contracts, and sign them. Fair competition
competition
contracts specifically targeting coaches and referees can also
contracts
be used, and more explicit terms related to the responsibilities of these roles can be established. In order to enhance awareness of fair competition behaviors, teachers can display a poster of fair competition in the gymnasium, listing requirements for students and continuously comparing them. The expectation of fair
Use posters
competition in the poster does not need to include details such as fair competition goals, but should choose descriptive, age appropriate, and concise phrases that are suitable for students in ordinary universities in China. Students should have frequent opportunities to discuss issues related to fair competition. Conversations can take place within the team, at the end of the course, or at any
Behavioral
educational time in the classroom. Conversations often have
awareness
the best effect when unexpected events occur in the
conversation
classroom. Conversations should not only take place after unfair competition behaviors, but also after fair competition behaviors. They are role models for implementing codes of conduct and should be discussed with students. — 73 —
continued Methods
Content Teachers can develop specific procedures to deal with
Punishment
uncivilized behavior, ranging from the slightest to the most
Regulations for
serious, such as criticism, deduction of points, restriction of
Handling
competition rights, etc. It would be very effective to display
Uncivilized
these punishment regulations for uncivilized behavior in a
Behaviors
prominent position in the gymnasium, especially next to the code of conduct poster. The inclusion of fair competition behavior points in the season point- system is a very effective method. The final championship of the season should not only be determined by
Fair play conduct points will be included in the season points system
the competition results, but also include the behavioral points obtained by each team. Teachers can announce the fair competition point system at the beginning of the season. When a team member's behaviors violate the fair competition behavior regulations, corresponding points will be deducted from the total team score. When fair competition occurs, teachers should have a clear understanding, just like being able to recognize good tactical behavior and good technical performance in a
Using multiple
competition. Teachers should recognize and reward fair
methods to
competition behavior at the end of the course. Teachers can
understand fair
assign homework to students, such as drawing murals or
competition
designing posters for fair competition. Teachers should leave
behaviors
an area on the bulletin board for fair competition, and place a small star next to the team name to represent fair competition, or give other rewards to season fair competition team members
— 74 —
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4.2 Student Grouping Strategy Before or at the beginning of the season, students should be divided into different teams or groups which should be maintained throughout the season. Student grouping is the foundation for implementing the SEM, as it is the basic organizational form for implementing the SEM. At the same time, it is also a necessary link to maintain small learning groups for achieving the success of the SEM. In traditional physical education teaching, students are only grouped during competitions. In the SEM, students not only form teams during competitions, but also complete various tasks in the form of teams throughout the entire season whether it is practicing techniques, developing tactics, or any learning and training in daily life. Each student performance contributes to the overall performance of the team and helps the team successfully complete various tasks throughout the season. Teamwork creates a positive atmosphere, in which individual students also develop. When the outcome of the game is uncertain, team members will feel that the game is more interesting and challenging. That's why when the participating teams have equal strength, the competition becomes more exciting. No one, especially the participating team members, would like to participate in a game with a huge disparity in strength and no suspense about the outcome. In order to achieve a balance of strength between the two sides of the competition, it is necessary to evenly allocate participants to different teams as much as possible. In the SEM, teachers must form teams with comparable strength as much as possible, so that each team has the opportunity to succeed. In a situation where the strength of each team is balanced, the success of the competition depends more on the unity and cooperation of students. In aerobics classes, students should form a team with balanced strength, which is mainly based on their existing foundation in aerobics and various physical qualities that students possess which are conducive to learning aerobics. At the same time, teachers need to consider the number and gender of students in each team and try to achieve equal numbers and similar gender ratios. — 75 —
4.2.1 Determine the number of people in each team: Before forming teams, teachers must decide the number of teams throughout the season and the number of people in the teams. This depends on many factors, including the characteristics of the aerobics program, how to organize aerobics competitions, how to deal with possible student absence during the season, and how to enable students to better complete daily training and competition tasks. Sport aerobics are divided into five categories: individual women (IW), individual men (IM), mixed pairs (MP), trio (TR), and groups (GR). There is no specific number of people required for mass aerobics competitions, which are determined by the organizing units of each competition. In order to facilitate students to learn and understand the content related to aerobics competitions during the season, it is recommended to simulate the scale of sport aerobics six person exercises and form teams, with each team having a student size of around six people. Each team can participate in the competition in the form of a group of six people, and can also organize single player, double player and triple player matches ① among teams. When a team is formed, if the whole class is divided into multiple mixed teams of male and female students, both male and female competitions can be held, as well as mixed male and female competitions. At the same time, when matches of singles and doubles are organized, it is also possible to group students according to their technical level, so that students with weaker skills can compete together, while students with better skills can also compete together. The score of each game is counted towards the total score of the season championship, so that all students can have the opportunity to participate in the competition.
①
Ma Hongtao. Aerobics exercise tutorial [M]. Beijing: Beijing Sport
University Press, 2007. — 76 —
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4.2.2 Specific grouping methods: When using the SEM, students are very concerned about whether it is fair. Students hope for a team with balanced strength and fair competition. They are very interested in assigning team members because it is related to fair learning opportunities, reflecting the concept of fair competition. Therefore, it is particularly important to assign players to each team. Teachers can be fully responsible for the allocation of team members, and can also collaborate with students to allocate team members. In situations where students lack experience in the SEM, teachers are usually fully responsible for the allocation. After students have gained experience in the SEM, they can be encouraged to participate in the task of assigning team members. When assigning team members to each team, teachers can consider the following questions comprehensively: Do you understand your students? Do students understand one another? Are students familiar with aerobics programs? Are students familiar with the SEM? Because one purpose of the SEM is to encourage students to gradually take on more and more responsibilities for managing themselves, teachers can consider gradually involving students in the process of assigning team members. When students participate in the process of assigning team members, there are two options: one is to assign team members together with the student coach of each team. The second is to form a small group for assigning team members. When using a student coach, teachers must first select a good student coach. Usually, the methods for selecting student coaches are as follows: Firstly, teachers assign coaches at the beginning of the season; The second is for students to apply themselves and submit a written application, listing their strength, talents and leadership abilities; The third is to select the student coach they hope for through anonymous voting among students. When a group composed of students assists the teacher in assigning team members, the teacher can use a similar method to select student coaches to select group members. Students can become volunteers by — 77 —
voluntarily applying, or be voted into this team based on established standards. Students with basic aerobics skills can also be selected into this team. There are many methods for assigning team members to each team, but it should be emphasized that these methods do not include the one we usually see, which is that the most skilled students in the class first choose their teammates, then students with average skills start selecting the team, and finally students with the worst skills choose the team. In short, students should be divided into groups as soon as possible, as their growth comes from good sport experiences, which are closely related to whether they are in the team and whether they contribute to the success of the team. The following are several methods for assigning students. · Teachers allocate students before the season: Usually, this method is used when the teacher has a good understanding of students and divides them into groups before the start of the season. In the first class, the teacher announces the grouping situation, designates the activity locations of each team, and requires students to choose team names and team uniform colors. Teachers not only consider the equal distribution of students in terms of technology, but also consider the balance of gender, personality and ethnicity. One of the purposes of using the SEM is to help students learn to get along and experience the ups and downs of the season together. All students should learn as many skills as possible and contribute to their shared team. · Teachers and students allocate students before the season On the basis of the first method, teachers can involve some students in the allocation of work, students who are usually able to provide valuable and potential information. Students are allowed to participate in assignments, which grants them the authority to be responsible for the grouping work of the class. These students responsible for the grouping can be assigned by teachers or selected through anonymous voting. — 78 —
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· The group using a rating scale: In the process of using this method, scores are first obtained through a simple test of basic steps and movement combinations in aerobics, and then all students in the class are classified according to their technical level. The first category is the one with the best technology, scoring 3 points; The second category is those with moderate technical skills, earning 2 points; The third category is entry-level and earns 1 point. First, students with a score of 3 are divided equally into each team, then students with a score of 2 and students with a score of 1. The way to test whether the strength of each group is balanced is to see if the total score of each group is consistent or close. After achieving the goal of balanced strength, students with the same score can be further adjusted to achieve gender and ethnic balance, in order to avoid internal disharmony within the team. Once the groups are formed, teachers should inform the students in a timely manner, or post the grouping information in the physical education class notification column (Daryl Siedentop, 2004). 4.3 Strategy for Assigning Roles and Responsibilities With the development of society, we increasingly feel that sports are influencing the development of individuals and society. However, in many cases, sports have not fully played their role and have not achieved the goal of promoting personal and social development. Multi role-playing is a crucial part of the SEM that promotes the goal of student socialization. In the SEM, teachers need to design a series of roles for students in every season. When students experience various roles, they value their performance more, have a greater sense of responsibility for the success of the team, and actively promote the success of the entire season. In the teaching of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, it is very important to better utilize the SEM to design roles and responsibilities that conform to the characteristics of aerobics.
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4.3.1 Student role: In the SEM, in addition to team members, students also learn to play other roles such as the coach, the referee, the scorer, the propagandist and the statistician. Students are willing to play these roles and are very serious. At this time, they are not only participants, but also participate in the competition as masters. Playing these roles helps students to have a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the sport of aerobics, and become aerobics enthusiasts with rich theoretical knowledge. Usually, the design of characters is related to the age of students, their previous experience in the SEM, and the creativity of teachers. According to the characteristics of aerobics projects, teachers can set the following three types of roles for students in the SEM. ·Team members: Team members are the most important and fundamental roles, and actively taking on the role of team members means striving to make significant contributions to the team and the competition. Responsibilities of this role include working hard to learn techniques and tactics, competing diligently and fairly, supporting teammates, respecting opponents and referees. In the SEM, all students are given equal opportunities to compete and contribute to the team. · Contest organizers: In the SEM competition, all students have their own specific roles, which include not only the team members but also organizers of the competition, such as the chief referee, the referee and the scorer. Teaching sport knowledge is part of physical education. And the SEM emphasizes that students learn referee knowledge during the season, so all students need to learn how to play the role of contest organizers well during the season. Teachers need to allocate sufficient time for students to practice. Due to the fact that aerobics belongs to the scoring item, a judging group is formed during the competition to evaluate the performance of each team. Usually, during the aerobics season, teachers can have each team send a student to form a referee team (including the chief referee, referees, — 80 —
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and scorers) to officiate this match. The important task of the competition organizer is to ensure that the competition starts on time and proceeds smoothly. · The role within the team: The role within the team refers to the role that serves the team. Each team has these roles, including coach, the leader, the captain, etc. What teachers need to do is to determine how many roles there will be in this season. Teachers should strive to ensure that each student not only participants, but also takes on another role in the team. The setting of roles should be related to the characteristics of aerobics projects, such as action design, music production and other roles. In addition, other roles conducive to the better development of the season can also be set, such as promoters, photographers, broadcasters, news editors, and so on. Usually, more roles can only be set when students and teachers have some experience in the SEM. In the SEM, many roles can be set according to the needs and characteristics of the project whose types are endless. The only limitation for teachers is their imagination. In fact, all roles related to aerobics can be set. 4.3.2 Role responsibilities: Clearly defining the responsibilities of a role is crucial. Students need to have a precise understanding of responsibility of each role, as well as what each role should do before, during, after, and outside the classroom. Teachers can explain the responsibilities of each role in a small manual, detailing when the role should complete tasks. Teachers can also prepare posters and post them in the classroom, detailing the responsibility of each role. In the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, teachers can refer to Table 2-4 to assign student roles and responsibilities. Table 2-4 A list on roles and responsibilities
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Roles
Team members
responsibility 1. Strive to learn techniques and tactics 2. Diligent training and fair competition 3. Support teammates 4. Respect opponents and referees
The referee
1. Organize competitions 2. judgement 3. Keep the competition undisturbed and continue to run
The scorer
1. Record competition scores 2. Continuously updating scores 3. Calculate score 4. Submit the final grade record
The coach
1. Lead the entire team 2. Conduct technical and tactical exercises 3. Arrange the competition lineup
The team leader
1. Lead the team to participate in the competition 2. Organize team members during the competition 3. Help and encourage team members
The captain
1. Supervise team members to fulfill their respective responsibilities 2. Submit relevant forms 3. Assist team members in their respective positions and fulfill their responsibilities
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Continued Roles
responsibility
The equipment administrator
1. Collect and return equipment 2. Claim and return of competition team uniforms 3. Notify teachers promptly after equipment loss or damage 4. Design and produce props
The fitness coach
1. Organize a warm-up for the entire team 2. Lead the physical training of the entire team
The team doctor
1. Understand common sports injuries related to this sport 2. Provide first aid materials 3. When any sport injuries occur during training or competition, promptly handle them and notify the teacher 4. Assist teachers in carrying out first aid and recovery work
The propagandist
1. Announcement of results 2. Responsible for promoting season competitions in sports corners, school newspapers, and posters, or establishing a sports education model season brief
The journalist
1. Write a competition report 2. Responsible for writing and submitting season reports to promoters
The commentator
1. Introduce team members before the competition 2. Commenting on the competition during the competition
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Continued Roles
responsibility
1. Understand the characteristics of aerobics movements The action designer 2. Design action combinations for team members 3. Help team members learn action combinations
The music maker
1. Check and debug the audio system 2. Select, produce, and store music during training and competitions 3. Responsible for music playback during training and competitions
4.4 Design Competition Strategies In competitive sports, we sometimes find that only when the team is leading and has an absolute advantage, or when their score is behind and there is no hope of winning, the coach may send substitute players to participate in the game. The same situation can also occur in traditional school physical education competitions. Therefore, it is often students with good skills who participate more, while students with poor skills do not have equal opportunities to participate. However, in the SEM, all students have equal opportunities to participate in competitions. 4.4.1 Design competition format In the SEM, teachers do not need to fully adopt the scale and form of formal competitions, but rather enable students to participate in competitions on the basis of their own development level. Teachers can modify the competition methods according to the actual situation, so that students can learn techniques and tactics through participating in the competition, regardless of their technical level, as well as continuously develop on the basis of their original level. For aerobics projects, teachers can create more suitable and easier competitions for students by slowing down the music speed, reducing movement combinations and movement complexity, and — 84 —
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changing competition venues and competition rules, so that students can better utilize their skills and tactics in competitions. It is worth noting that the essence and main rules of the competition remain unchanged in the revised competition. The main rules of the competition specify how the event is conducted and how to win victory. It is an important educational and developmental goal of the SEM that the team members strive for a concerted goal. Members win competitions and season championships as a team. The key focus of the season competition is to examine the performance of the entire team, that is, everyone’s performance represents the team. In addition to individual competitions, sport aerobics also include collective events such as mixed pairs (MP), trio (TR), and groups (GR). In recent years, cheerleading projects that have received increasing attention have become key to winning through collective teamwork. In the booming mass aerobics movement, collective events are the most common form of competition. In the regular college aerobics season, team participation is the simplest and the most feasible way. On the basis of gaining some experience in the SEMs, students can also participate in events such as individuals, pairs, and trios. We know that when both sides are evenly matched in a game, it is more suspenseful, interesting and conducive to the development of skills. Level competitions can be set up. Each team sends players of different levels to participate in different levels of competition. All students compete with opponents of equal strength. However, it is worth noting that all game results are included in the team points, which is the basis for the team to win the final victory. For example, if there are four teams participating in a competition, according to the referee’s score, the first, second, third, and fourth places will be ranked in each match. The first place will score 4 points, the second place will score 3 points, the third place will score 2 points, and the fourth place will score 1 point. The scorer will accumulate scores from each game and record them in the table of aerobics season performance statistics . — 85 —
4.4.2 Determine the frequency of the competition: In the literature and related research on the SEM, there are no specific restrictions on the frequency of mid season matches. However, when designing the frequency of matches, teachers should follow the following principles: the first is to ensure that matches run throughout the entire season. The second is to combine and adapt the frequency of competitions with the characteristics of aerobics projects. Thirdly, the frequency of competitions should consider the arrangement of aerobics teaching content. The fourth is that the competition should be arranged based on the smooth progress of each match. According to the theory of Event Groups，competitive events are classified based on the dominant factors of competitive ability, and aerobic belongs to categories of the performance of difficulty lead group. According to the classification of competitive sport events based on their action structures, aerobics belongs to a fixed combination of multiple action structures. According to the evaluation method of sport performance, aerobics belongs to the scoring category. Therefore, in the design of competition frequency, aerobics has its own characteristics. This is significantly different from common projects in the study of the SEM, such as ball games. There is relatively little research on the application of the SEM in aerobics both domestically and internationally. In 2000 and 2003, foreign scholars published papers designing dance seasons. Due to the similarity in content and form between dance and aerobics, these two studies are worth learning from in the design of competition format and frequency (Daryl Siedentop, 2004). In the 2000 study, researchers intermittently arranged competitions in the middle of the season which consisting of five competitions, each focusing on popular dance genres and forms every 10 years. In each competition, each team can choose a popular dance genre from the past 10 years, and the season's climax is when each team selects its most skilled dance form from all dance forms and performs it for the entire class once again. Besides matches can also be arranged for each class, which can be alternating between large-scale and small-scale — 86 —
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matches, or gradually increasing the difficulty of matches as the learning content increases. At present, the teaching content of aerobics in ordinary universities in China is mostly based on the National Aerobics Mass Exercise Standards (3rd set) approved and issued by the China Aerobics Association. Usually, universities teach one or two sets of movements in aerobics class in each semester, usually starting from the first level of movements. Therefore, during the season, competitions can be scheduled once a day based on the level of movements taught. 4.4.3 Plan the season climax: Every Football World Cup Final attracts the attention of millions of spectators around the world, and youth leagues for most sports are the same. The final will push the season to its climax. In the SEM, the entire season runs through formal aerobics competitions, ultimately reaching the peak of the season and ending the entire season. The final championship match represents the climax of the season, but there is a key difference from competitive sports, which is that in most competitive sports, only two best teams can enter the final, while in the SEM, all teams can participate in the season’s climax. Teachers are committed to creating a festive atmosphere that allows all teams to participate. The entire season ends in an atmosphere of celebration and sharing in the entire class. The climax of the season can not be limited to the last day of the season, but teachers can hold championship matches and other competitions during the last few days of the season. The celebration of the season’s climax is not only about praising the winners of the competition, but teachers can also recognize and reward students for fair competition behaviors, fulfilling their respective roles, or individual contributions to the entire season or teams. Teachers can also play aerobics competition videos at the peak of the season, which is an essential part for all students to experience the atmosphere of sport festivals.
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4.4.4 Set up season awards There are almost no restrictions on the forms of awards and rewards for the season, and teachers can give these rewards to students at the peak of the season. It is worth noting that because teaching objectives of the SEM are very broad, not just about learning techniques, so these awards should reflect as many teaching objectives as possible. Teachers can design a season scoring system, where fair competition scores, competition scores and management responsibility scores are usually the most important components of the season scoring system, as student behaviors in these areas determine the success of the season. The team with the highest score in the season scoring system is the season champion. Although there is no doubt that season champions should be rewarded, teachers should also acknowledge other positive performances during the season, such as fair competition among students, completion of different role responsibilities, improvement of student sport skills, and outstanding performance in teamwork. In the experimental part of this study, based on the characteristics of aerobics projects, the following awards have been established and presented during the season: Season Champion, Best Music Award, Best Arrangement Award, Best Organization Award, Best Progress Award and Best Action Guidance Award, etc. 4.4.5 Formulating competition rules and referee laws The content of the aerobics competition in the aerobics season of ordinary universities in China is the level movements of the National Aerobics Mass Exercise Standards (Third Set) approved and issued by China Aerobics Association. Therefore, the formulation of competition rules and referee laws should fully consider the actual teaching objects and content. This study suggests that in the teaching of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, the formulation of competition rules and referee methods should follow two principles: (1) Competition rules and referee methods can be based on the 2009-2012 aerobics scoring rules approved by the — 88 —
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International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) and the Chinese Student Aerobics Competition Scoring Rules (3rd edition) approved by the Aerobics Artistic Gymnastics Association of Chinese Universities under the Ministry of Education. (2) The competition rules and referee methods are revised based on the principle of simplifying competition rules according to teaching objects in the SEM, aiming to strengthen the practicality of referee methods in aerobics classes of ordinary universities and better popularize knowledge of aerobics referee methods. 4.5 Strategies for Creating a Festive Atmosphere The festive atmosphere is one of the main characteristics of the SEM which sets it apart from ordinary physical education models. Around the world, the development of various sport events is accompanied by a strong and obvious atmosphere of sport festivals, such as the Olympics and the FIFA World Cup; However, this festive atmosphere is rarely manifested in physical education classes in ordinary universities. Few students find school physical education experiences particularly exciting or valuable, and many even consider physical education classes unimportant and often avoid them. For teenagers, once they form this understanding, it will affect their future life. A study in Canada shows that girls particularly dislike physical education classes and always find excuses to avoid them. In the teaching of aerobics in ordinary universities in our country, the majority of girls are willing to take aerobics classes. But most boys are not interested in it, especially those with poor athletic skills or those who have never experienced a sense of success in aerobics learning. Creating a festive atmosphere in the SEM can provide students with a very enjoyable experience and increase the possibility of engaging in this sport outside aerobics classes or on campus. In many parts of the world, one of the main purposes of physical education is to influence the life-style of young people, enabling them to develop a healthy life-style by participating in sport activities. To cultivate a healthy life-style, young people are required — 89 —
to attach importance to sports, participate in sports, and continue to participate. To make students value a sport, it is necessary to provide them with an unforgettable sport experience thus encouraging them to continue engaging in this sport in the future. A rich festive atmosphere often brings joy to athletes, making participation in sports more meaningful. Research has shown that the SEM is a very good way, and the festive atmosphere is a major feature of it, which potentially stimulates students motivation for participation. 4.5.1 Create a festive atmosphere in daily teaching: The goal of creating a festive atmosphere is to make the entire season full of a festive atmosphere, rather than just needing a festive atmosphere for the championship at the end of the season. We should strive to make daily exercises and competitions as festive as possible, and create a festive atmosphere in daily teaching by starting from the following two aspects. · Create a festive atmosphere by enhancing team cohesion: Students are divided into small teams and maintain the same group throughout the season, which forms team cohesion. This is also another major characteristic of the SEM. The team has increased student sense of belonging and enhanced their sense of responsibility to contribute to the team. Each team should have a team name personally chosen by its members and have an area on the bulletin board where their results can be posted. And each team can also choose the color of their team uniform. If conditions permit, students can make team uniforms representing their own team. Teachers can take photos of each team, and students can pose representing their team characteristics, and post these photos on the bulletin board. In addition, the promoters of each team can make and post personal introduction of team members. In sport stadiums or outdoor sports venues, teams are usually assigned with practice areas. Students should arrive at the practice area of their team after class, follow the classroom routine of entering the gymnasium, and engage in warm-up exercises or technical exercises. Teachers should also — 90 —
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encourage teams to practice outside the school, and can make additional practice as a way to earn season points. In the SEM, teachers can have each team representing different countries to participate, just like in the Olympic Games and the World Cup that each team has its flag and anthem, which are all designed to emphasize the identity of each team. These experiences make the entire season like a big aerobics competition, making it more meaningful for students. · Create a festive atmosphere by giving rewards: Many rewards can be set in the SEM. For example, teachers should recognize and reward the good performance of team members, the tactical awareness demonstrated by each team, the timely competition of team members on the correct field, the referee’s smooth progress of the game, the equipment administrator's correct placement of equipment and the scorer's correct scoring. Teachers can praise students in formal or informal forms, with formal feedback including the final reward certificate and trophy of the season, and post the names of outstanding students on the bulletin board. Informal feedback includes teachers being able to gather the whole class during or after each class to praise students for their good performance and fair competition behaviors. Teachers should encourage students in these appropriate ways to create a joyful and relaxed festive atmosphere for the entire season. 4.5.2 Enhance the festive atmosphere at the peak of the season: The sport education mode ends with the season climax, which is the most festive day of the entire season. There are many ways to design a season climax, but it should involve all students, not just two strongest teams. Usually, championship matches can be organized at the peak of the season to push the season to its climax; If the season competition is organized based on the student ability to perform aerobics, then each level will have a final competition. A series of aerobics technical challenge competitions can also be organized, with each team sending representatives to complete the — 91 —
challenges. If a series of technical challenge competitions are arranged within regular courses, then such a season peak will require several classes to complete. After a series of competitions, which is the last day of the season, a season award ceremony is arranged, usually inviting special guests to award, including school principals, department heads and figures in the aerobics program. In addition, teachers can also organize students to watch classic aerobics competitions at the peak of the season, including world and Chinese sport aerobics. Teachers can also use cameras to record the entire season, then edit and play it on the award day. Students can take the copied video home after class and share it with their families. With proficient use of the SEM, teachers can also organize competitions for students from different classes, or organize students to compete with teachers and parents. If students share their happiness with their parents, then aerobics courses and teachers will receive more support.
5 The Teaching Evaluation System of the Sport Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China Physical education teaching evaluation has always been a problem in physical education teaching and teaching theories. The key issue to be discussed in this section is how to objectively and comprehensively evaluate the teaching of aerobics teachers in ordinary universities and the learning of students in the SEM, as well as how to apply methods of practical and operational evaluation in the SEM. To design a teaching evaluation system for the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, the first step should be to clarify the training objectives, as the basis for designing a teaching evaluation system. What kind of learning outcomes do we want to see at the end of the season? Are these learning outcomes consistent with the pre season development goals? The overall goal of the SEM is to cultivate capable, cultured and enthusiastic athletes. Jin Qin evaluated student performance in his research by combining three training objectives of the SEM. It makes sense to conduct — 92 —
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assessments in conjunction with learning objectives, which should be very clear to both teachers and students at the beginning of the season. The characteristics of the SEM allow for the achievement of multiple goals, while also allowing the degree of achievement of each goal to be measured. The design of the teaching evaluation system for the SEM of aerobics in ordinary universities in China mainly focuses on three training objectives: cultivating athletes with sport ability, sport culture and sport enthusiasm. 5.1 Evaluation of Sport Techniques: Like the traditional physical education model, an important learning content of the SEM is to master sport` techniques and skills. The aerobics project belongs to the skill-driven performance difficulties and beauty categories. According to the level of the determining factors of the competitive ability of athletes in different categories, techniques play a decisive role in match while tactics only play a fundamental role. Therefore, in this study, the focus is on discussing the evaluation of student techniques. The evaluation of student aerobics skills can take the form of student peer evaluation and teacher evaluation, and can be comprehensively evaluated based on the performance of the student team in the competition. A series of competitions are designed in the SEM, where students are divided into many small groups to participate. As a result, students have more opportunities to showcase their learned techniques and tactics, while also allowing teachers to have more time to observe and evaluate their true performance in the competition environment, such as whether or not students have mastered the basic steps and routines of aerobics, whether or not the movements match the music perfectly, and whether or not the entire set of movements is smooth. Teachers need to use a method that combines process evaluation and summative evaluation to carry out evaluation throughout the entire teaching unit. In this way, assessments are embedded in daily classroom teaching, rather than only conducted in one day, resulting in a comprehensive, objective and dynamic evaluation of student — 93 —
technical performance throughout the season. The method of accumulating technical scores can be used to link each evaluation to the final evaluation, while also linking individual final scores with group scores. The main indicators for technical evaluation are set based on the characteristics of aerobics projects, including accuracy, proficiency and coordination between movements and music. 5.2 Evaluation of Exercise Intensity: The intensity of exercises can be obtained through multiple indicators, such as the percentage of maximum oxygen uptake (% VO2max), oxygen consumption reserve (VO2R), heart-rate reserve (HRR), age based maximum heart rate (HRmax) and metabolic equivalent (MET). These indicators have their own advantages and limitations respectively, but in terms of operability and feasibility, the heart-rate is the most easily obtainable and can accurately determine exercise intensity. Students only need to wear a hear- rate monitor, and teachers can collect their heart-rate indicators during physical education classes. When calculating the maximum heart-rate index for each student based on their age, the formula 220-age can be used to estimate the maximum heart- rate for men and women, or the most accurate prediction formula introduced by Gellish et al., HRmax=206.9-0.67 × Age. With the maximum heart-rate value, teachers can monitor student exercise intensity in class through the heart-rate activity range recorded by the heart-rate meter. In addition, pedometers can also serve as tools for measuring ① student physical activity levels. 5.3 Evaluation of Theoretical Knowledge in Sport Events: Compared with traditional physical education teaching models, in the SEM, students not only learn aerobics, but also need to acquire certain theoretical knowledge of aerobics projects. Although in many traditional physical education teaching models, teachers ①
Wang Zhengzhen. ACSM exercise testing and exercise prescription
guidelines [M]. 8Edition. Beijing: People’ s Medical Publishing House, 2010. — 94 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
have briefly introduced aerobics in the first class, the learning effect is generally poor because students rarely or no longer involve theoretical knowledge of these projects in subsequent learning. However, In the SEM, students are repeatedly reinforced with theoretical knowledge through group learning, serving as referees and theoretical testing, thereby further elevating their understanding of aerobics to a new level. The theoretical knowledge of aerobics projects mainly includes the development origins of aerobics, basic footwork and terminology and referee methods. The understanding of the development origin of aerobics can enhance student interest in learning. Learning the basic steps, terminology, and judging methods of aerobics enable students to learn aerobics better and judge the performance to some extent. Theoretical testing methods can be used in each class to evaluate the theoretical knowledge of aerobics projects that students have mastered. It should be noted that there are not too many theoretical test questions each time, and 3-5 questions are sufficient to avoid occupying too much class time. The theoretical test should be placed at the end of the course to avoid interrupting the basic part of the student exercise state (Daryl Siedentop, 2004). At the same time, special time can be arranged at the end of the term to conduct a comprehensive test of student theoretical knowledge of aerobics. 5.4 Evaluation of the Completion of Role Responsibilities: In the traditional physical education teaching model of aerobics classes, the classroom is teacher-centered, with the teacher leading students in practice, and students always follow the teacher demonstration for practice. While demonstrating, leading, and organizing student exercises, teachers simply do not have enough time to evaluate student performance. However, the SEM liberates teachers and provides them with many suitable opportunities to evaluate student performance. During group practice, teachers can observe the entire classroom and provide assistance and guidance to students in need. During the competition, teachers can observe the — 95 —
student performance while evaluating the referee performance. The evaluation of the completion of student role responsibilities can also be conducted in two aspects: self-evaluation and peer evaluation. 5.5 Evaluation of Fair Competition Behaviors: Fair competition is an important aspect of competitive sports. The previous text has already elaborated on the connotation of fair competition behaviors. In short, in the SEM, fair competition behaviors mainly include active participation, making efforts, respecting teammates and opponents, respecting the game, facing success or failure correctly, being helpful and learning to be grateful. It is very important to evaluate student fair competition behaviors based on the above factors, usually by evaluating fair competition behaviors on a team basis. Fair competition points should be included in the season points system. Teachers can design and publish fair competition points before the start of the season. If any team violates fair competition behaviors during the season, the corresponding points will be deducted from the points. A fair competition behavior checklist can also be used, where the number of √ is equal to the score obtained. In addition, it can also be rated on a scale of 2-1-0: when a team exhibits positive fair competition behaviors, it receives 2 points; When a team behaves appropriately, it earns 1 point. When a team performs negatively, it scores 0 points. For fair competition behaviors, not only formal methods can be used for evaluation, but informal evaluation can also be conducted at certain times, such as using thumbs up or down to indicate support or the need for efforts, indicating to students that the teacher is paying attention to them. At the end of the course, making informal comments can also achieve the purpose of evaluation and is very valuable because it clearly indicates to students that the teacher is paying attention to them and will provide feedback on some important behaviors.
6 Conclusion The teaching mode plays a mediating role in connecting — 96 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
theories and practice. It not only provides specific operating procedures and strategies for teaching practice, but also offers theoretical guidance for teaching activities. To construct a physical education teaching model, it is necessary to first clarify the constituent elements of the physical education teaching model, that is, from which aspects it should be constructed. Research by domestic and foreign scholars on teaching models and physical education teaching models shows that physical education teaching models are a multi factor system that includes multiple constituent elements. This study is based on the idea of the composition of the elements of the physical education teaching mode. Based on the characteristics of the SEM itself, a teaching model is constructed with aerobics projects as the carrier, aerobics competitions as the main line, students of ordinary universities in China as the target, and active participation and comprehensive improvement of all students as the goal. Based on the analysis results of the Delphi Method, the constituent elements of the SEM in ordinary universities in China include a teaching objective system, a teaching process structure, a teaching strategy system and a teaching evaluation system. The construction of the teaching goal system aims to solve what kind of teaching goals should be achieved by the aerobics SEM in ordinary universities in my country. The design of the teaching process structure aims to clarify how to plan the entire season and how to arrange teaching for each class. The design of a teaching strategy system aims to address specific measures in the application of teaching modes. The design of a teaching evaluation system aims to solve the problem of how to evaluate student grades and how to scientifically evaluate the effectiveness of teaching models. The teaching objectives of the SEM in ordinary universities in China include developing aerobics techniques and specialized physical fitness, enhancing tactical awareness, understanding project rules, improving sense of responsibility, cultivating leadership, strengthening team cohesion, establishing a sense of fair competition — 97 —
and cultivating a life-long sport concept. The teaching process structure of the SEM in ordinary universities in China includes seasonal schedules and classroom teaching processes. The teaching strategy system of the SEM in Chinese universities includes classroom management and behavior development strategy, student grouping strategy, assignment role and responsibility strategy, design competition strategy and creation of festival atmosphere strategy. The teaching evaluation system of the SEM in ordinary universities in China includes the evaluation of aerobics techniques, exercise intensity, the theoretical knowledge of aerobics projects, the completion of role responsibilities, and fair competition behaviors. (Figure 2-1)
Figure 2-1 Elements of the SEM for Aerobics in Ordinary Universities in China
It should be pointed out that the process of using the SEM for teaching is not uniform. Before the start of the season, teachers should design the entire season and formulate lesson plans for each — 98 —
Chapter 2 Theoretical Construction of the Sport Education Model in Common Colleges and Universities of China
class based on the specific content of the theoretical construction of the SEM in ordinary universities in our country, as well as the specific circumstances of the teaching objects and teaching conditions. For teachers using the SEM for the first time, there is no need to design it in a too complex way. Instead, they should design the simplest operating procedures, the most basic student roles, the most user-friendly season competition system and spend more time during the season familiarizing students with the SEM.
— 99 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on the Sport Education Mode in Chinese Ordinary Universities This part mainly studies and analyzes the teaching effect of the sport education mode and the traditional sport teaching mode in China from quantitative and qualitative aspects. Quantitative analysis includes the study and analysis of the exercise intensity and motivation of students in the experimental group and the control group. The qualitative analysis mainly serves to interview students in the experimental group, summarize and analyze the interview results.
1 Research Methods In this chapter, many methods such as experimentation, questionnaire survey and interview survey are used to study the student exercise intensity, motivation and the realization of educational goals. 1.1 Experimentation 1.1.1 Experimental design This study adopts the quasi-experimental method, and the experimental time span is one semester, from February to May 2012. Two teachers from two ordinary universities use the sport education mode to teach aerobics for two classes. Each aerobics class lasts for 90 minutes once a week and there is a total of 13 classes. That is the experimental group. At the same time, in the control group, other two teachers use the traditional physical education teaching mode to teach other two classes of aerobics classes. Each aerobics class in this group also lasts for 90 minutes once a week and there is a total — 100 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
of 13 classes. According to the guidance of the Ministry of Education on the content of physical education in universities, as well as the arrangement of the teaching content of physical education in two universities, the teaching content of aerobics in two universities is the second-level stipulated action from the National Standards of Aerobics for Public Exercise (Set 3). The purpose of this study is to explore the difference between the sport education mode and the traditional physical education teaching model in the teaching effect of aerobics teaching in ordinary universities in China. The independent variables of the study include the training of teachers on the sport education model before the experiment and the daily teaching feedback on the teaching situation of teachers using the sport education mode in the experiment. The dependent variables of the study include student exercise intensity test and motivation survey. In this study, China’s traditional physical education teaching mode, that is, the traditional physical education teaching mode, is an educational theory introduced from the Soviet Union after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. The whole process of teaching is divided into four basic stages: perception, understanding, consolidation and application. This teaching process reflected in the physical education class is the physical education classroom teaching procedure designed with the order of mastering sport skills as the main line, including the beginning stage (classroom routine, preparation activities, special preparation activities, etc.) → the basic part ( skill learning and classroom practice ) → the end part ( relaxing practice and evaluation ). It is also known as the three-stage system or four-stage system in teaching procedure. 1.1.2 Experimental subject There are two teachers in this experiment. The selection of teachers is based on the following three criteria: firstly, teachers agree and actively participate in the study; secondly, teachers must have rich teaching experience in aerobics in universities; thirdly, the — 101 —
two teachers should have high similarity to the learning experience and teaching experience. The situation of teachers is shown in Table 3-1. Table 3-1 A list on teacher situation Basic
Teacher A
Teacher B
Age/Year
31
34
Gender
Woman
Woman
the Han
the Han
nationality
nationality
Master
Master
Physical
Physical
Education and
Education and
Training
Training
information
The nationality The educational background The major
The specialty
Aerobics
Graduation
Beijing
school
University
Working time/year Working time in current unit/year Learning aerobics time/year Engaged in teaching aerobics/year
Sport
Aerobics Beijing
Sport
University 5
7
5
5
12
14
8
10
Students selected in this experiment are from four natural classes in two ordinary universities where two teachers are teaching. Among them, two classes of College A are mixed classes of boys and girls, and these two classes of College B are female classes. Students are shown in Table 3-2. — 102 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
Basic informati on
University A
Control Group
Experime nt Group 2
26
25
26
19
18
18
girl(100 %)
girl(100 %)
the Han
the Han
nationality(1
nationality(9
Control Group 1
Experiment Group 1
Number of people
23
Average age/year
19
Gender
girl(50 %) the Han
Nationalit y
nationality(100
The grade
Grade One
%)
University B
girl(60%) the Han nationality(98%)
Grade One
2
00%)
Grade Two
9%)
Grade Two
Table 3-2 A list of Student Situation 1.1.3 Independent variables Independent variables of this study include the training of teachers on the sport education mode before the experiment and the feedback of teacher daily teaching in the experiment. ·Sport education mode training The training content is mainly based on the content of the theoretical construction of this study, including teaching plans and lesson plans and the use of all teaching materials. After the end of each part of the training, researchers put forward relevant questions to the teachers to test and evaluate the teacher mastery of the training content. The training time, lasting for 16 hours, was carried out within 2 days. The specific time allocation is: related theory on the sport education model for 2 hours, teaching the target system of the aerobics education mode in Chinese universities for 2 hours, the — 103 —
teaching process system of the aerobics education mode in Chinese universities for 2 hours, the teaching strategy system of aerobics education model in Chinese universities (classroom management and behavior development strategy, student grouping strategy, distribution of roles and responsibility strategy, design competition strategy and festival atmosphere creation strategy) for 8 hours, the teaching evaluation system of the aerobics education mode in Chinese universities for 2 hours. The training content and time distribution of the sport education model are shown in Table 3-3. After the end of each part of the training content, researchers simulated the teaching scene of the sport education mode, requiring teachers to solve 5 to 8 problems by using the sport education model, and conducted a simulation demonstration to assess the teacher mastery. If the teacher fails to solve the problem well, he/she must increase training in the content of this part until all questions can be answered correctly.
Number
Training Content
Time Allocation/ Hour
1
Related Theories of Sport Education Models
2
2
Teaching Objective System of the Aerobics Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China
2
3
The Teaching Process System of the Aerobics Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China
2
— 104 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
Continued Number
Training Content
Time Allocation/ Hour
4
The Teaching Strategy System for the Aerobics Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China (classroom management and behavior development strategy, student grouping strategy, assignment role and responsibility strategy, design strategy for competition planning and creating a festive atmosphere)
8
5
The Teaching Evaluation System of the Aerobics Education Model in Ordinary Universities in China
2
Table 3-3 Training Content and Time Allocation for the Sport Education Mode
·Teaching feedback Researchers observe and record the teaching situation of teachers, guide and give feedback to teachers by using the sport education mode in time after each class or in class, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of this class, thus helping teachers apply the sport education mode correctly. 1.1.4 Dependent variables In order to observe the intensity of exercise in physical education class, it is necessary to select representative indicators from many physiological indicators. The indicator should have the following characteristics: (1) it is sensitive to the response of exercise stimulation and can accurately reflect different changes of the body burden; (2) its concept is relatively simple, easy to understand and nearly impossible to produce ambiguity; (3) it can be carried out in the laboratory, especially for on-site and real-time measurement; (4) it is easy to compare and evaluate the test results; (5) it is easy to apply into sport training practice. Heart- rate — 105 —
monitoring can basically meet these conditions at the same time. On the surface, the heart-rate seems to only reflect the number of heart beats per minute, but in essence, it is like a window that comprehensively reflects various physiological changes in the body. Through this window, it can describe the immediate response or chronic adaptation of the body function to exercise stimulation more accurately. The reason why the heart-rate can act as a window is due to the causal relationship between its changes and changes in the exercise load. Physical exercise will inevitably increase energy metabolism. The rise of energy metabolism will lead to the increase of oxygen uptake. The growth of oxygen uptake will bring about the increase of cardiac output, and the increase of cardiac output will cause the increase of the heart-rate. Therefore, exercise intensity and ① hear- rate change in parallel in a considerable range. The heart-rate monitor is one of the most common instruments in the sport training in China, and plays a vital role in the training of various sports. In this study, RS800CX multi-exercise heart-rate monitor was used to monitor the range of exercise heart-rate changes of students in each class. Before the experiment, 17 students were randomly selected from each experimental class and the control class. Totally, there were 68 students. They wore the heart rate meter in each class, and the 68 students were trained to wear the heart-rate meter to ensure that each student understood the accurate position of wearing the heart-rate meter and learned how to wear the heart-rate meter. Before the beginning of each class, 17 students in each class wore a heart-rate meter by themselves or each other, and then the researchers turned on the heart-rate meter one by one. In the class, researchers observed the process of students wearing the heart-rate meter, and gave prompt help to the slip of the heart-rate meter or the ①
Su Zhixiong, Hao Xuanming. The role of heart-rate monitoring in
exercise training and its influencing factors [J]. Journal of Chengdu Sport University, 2002, 28 (2): 89. — 106 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
accidental stop of the meter. At the end of each class, the researchers stopped the meter one by one, recovered all the heart-rate meters, and entered the heart-rate data into the computer. At the end of all courses, researchers conducted a statistical analysis of the range of heart-rate changes between the experimental group and the control group. According to the age of students, the maximum heart-rate of each student was calculated by using the most accurate prediction formula “HRmax = 206.9-0.67 × age” introduced by Galish, and two target heart-rates were determined according to the physical activity intensity grading table published by the US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), namely, heart-rate of moderate intensity (HRmax × 64%) and heart-rate of high intensity (HRmax × 77%) (Wang Zhengzhen, 2010). Then, the percentage of each student activity time above moderate intensity to the total classroom time, the percentage of activity time above large intensity to the total classroom time, and the percentage of moderate intensity activity time to the total classroom time were statistically analyzed. The results of the study were expressed as average value ± standard deviation. 1.2 Questionnaire Survey 1.2.1 Measuring tools By consulting a large number of domestic and foreign literature on the sport education mode, and according to the main research purpose and content of this study, researchers have selected the following scale to measure the sport motivation of students. ·The sport scale of intrinsic motivation The Sport Scale of Intrinsic Motivation was originally developed by Ryan in 1982. In 1989, McAuley, Duncan and Tammen revised the scale and used it in physical education. The subjects of the questionnaire need to answer 18 questions which are used to assess four dimensions of intrinsic motivation: interest or fun, efforts or importance, subjective ability and stress or tension. — 107 —
For example, in a football class, the scale questions include “I like football class very much”(interest or fun), “I work very hard in football class”(efforts or importance), “I think I play football well”(subjective ability), “good performance in class is very important to me”(stress or tension). According to their true feelings, respondents made choices from five levels of strong disagreement to strong agreement. In 1994, Nikos Ntoumanis used this scale in an ① article published in the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. The scale was also used in an article published by Michael Spitle and Kate Byrne in Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy in ② 2009. The internal motivation scale during exercise can be found in Appendix 3 of this book. · Task orientation and self orientation scale in sports At present, a large number of theoretical and practical studies have shown that task orientation is a positive, proactive and relatively ideal goal orientation state, while self-orientation is negative and fragile, and easily leading to individual maladaptation in goal orientation state. The “Task Orientation and Self orientation Scale for Sports” consists of 13 items, with task orientation questions being questions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13; The self-directed questions are questions 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12. When an individual is a task-oriented person, their goal is to develop personal skills, gain insight and master the knowledge they have learned. When individuals are self-directed, their focus is on displaying exceptional abilities. The ultimate source of subjective success for these individuals lies in competition, and it is the best to be able to defeat or surpass opponents with minimal efforts. The Task Orientation and WALLHEAD T L, NTOUMANIS N. Effects of a sport education intervention on students’ motivational responses in physical education [J]. Journal of teaching in physical education, 2004(1): 4-18. ①
②
SPITTLE M, BYRNE K. The influence of sport education on student
motivation in physical education [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2009(3): 253-266. — 108 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
Self Orientation Scale in Sports can be found in Appendix 4 of this book. · The motivational atmosphere scale for ports The “Motivation Atmosphere Scale for Sports” consists of 21 questions and includes two dimensions: an achievement motivation atmosphere and a mastery motivation atmosphere. Respondents will be asked what aspects of physical education they enjoy, such as “feeling very good when I do it better than other classmates”(academic motivation atmosphere), “students being punished for mistakes”(academic motivation atmosphere), “teachers rewarding me for doing aerobics hard” (academic motivation atmosphere), and “every student progress is important”(academic motivation atmosphere). Respondents made choices based on their true feelings, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. In 1992, J L. The research by J.L. Duda and L. Chi et al. has shown that the Motivational Atmosphere Scale for Sports is highly effective and reliable. In the study of “sport education models”, Michael Spittle and Kate Byrne used this scale in an article published in the journal Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy in 2009. The Motivation Atmosphere Scale for Sports can be found in Appendix 5 of this book. 1.2.2 Reliability and validity test The Scale of Task Orientation and Self Orientation in Sports was translated into Chinese by Chen Jian and Si Gangyan, and then translated and proofread by English professionals and psychologists to determine the consistency of Chinese and English questionnaires. Considering that it may be hard to understand in Chinese, the 11th question in the Chinese questionnaire of the Scale of Task Orientation and Self Orientation in Sports is slightly different from the original English version. From the correlation analysis results between the task orientation sub-scale and the self-orientation sub-scale in the questionnaire, the correlation coefficient r value is 0.01 (p > 0.05), indicating that there is no significant correlation — 109 —
between the sub-scales in the questionnaire. According to the concept of goal orientation theory, the scale has good structural validity. The α coefficient of the task orientation sub-scale is 0.73, and the α coefficient of the self-orientation sub-scale is 0.75. This result shows that the internal consistency of the sub-scale is ① acceptable. “The Sport Scale of Intrinsic Motivation and the Sport Scale of Motivational Climate” were translated from English. It is a common practice in social science, psychological science and educational science research to transplant and borrow foreign scales. Due to the differences in language and culture, this kind of transplantation and borrowing faces very obvious validity problems, which are embodied in three aspects of equivalence, namely, language equivalence, measurement equivalence and functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is based on measurement equivalence which is based on language equivalence. The three equivalences are in a progressive relationship or a necessary condition relationship. This study only uses foreign scales to observe a phenomenon and test a hypothesis, rather than cross-cultural comparison of scale scores. Therefore, this study mainly tests the language equivalence of the above two scales, and then calculates the internal consistency coefficient of three scales. The specific steps are as follows. ·Round-trip translation All English questionnaires were translated back and forth. One bilingual was asked to translate the self-report scale from an English questionnaire into a Chinese questionnaire, and then another bilingual was asked to translate the Chinese questionnaire into an English questionnaire. Then English native speakers are invited to compare and check the original English version of the self-report scale with the English self-report scale that has been translated back ①
Zhang Liwei, Mao Zhixiong. Evaluation manual of psychological scales
commonly used in sports science [M]. Version 2. Beijing: Beijing Sport University Press, 2010. — 110 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
and forth, and re-translate the questions with large meaning gaps. After two rounds of translation, all the problems are basically consistent. ·Bilingual test After the round-trip translation, in order to further improve the language equivalence of the scale, a bilingual test was conducted on the scale, that is, the testees proficient in English and Chinese completed the scale questions in English and Chinese, and then checked the consistency of the answers on the corresponding items of the two questionnaires. Then they analyze the reasons for different answers and revise the questions. After round-trip translation and bilingual tests, the language equivalence of the scale is greatly improved. ·Calculate concordance coefficient The Cronbach’s α coefficient was proposed by Cronbach in 1951, which is usually used to characterize the internal consistency of multiple test items, so it is often used as an important measure of reliability. It is generally believed that the Cronbach’s α coefficient below 0.35 is too low and should be rejected. Between 0.5 ~ 0.7, it is acceptable. The reliability is higher if the coefficient is above 0.7. It can be seen from Table 3-4 that the reliability of all dimensions is acceptable, and the reliability of some dimensions is high. Table 3-4 Cloning Bach α coefficient Scale
Internal Motivation Scale for Sports
Dimension
pre test a
Interest/Fun
0.80
0.77
Effort/Importance
0.81
0.74
Subjective ability
0.55
0.74
Pressure/Tension
0.58
0.59
— 111 —
post test a
Continued Scale Task Orientation and SelfOrientation Scale in Sports Motivationa l Atmosphere Scale for Sports
Dimension
pre test a
post test a
Task orientation
0.82
0.87
Self orientation
0.82
0.84
Academic Motivation Atmosphere
0.81
0.81
mastery motivation climate
0.81
0.82
1.2.3 Objects of questionnaire survey The questionnaire used pre-test and post-test. Before and after the experiment, all students in the experimental group and the control group filled out three questionnaires. 1.2.4 The distribution and recovery of questionnaire · Time and ways of questionnaire distribution The pre-questionnaire test is arranged before the beginning of the first class, and the post-questionnaire test is arranged after the end of the last class. In order to ensure the quality of the questionnaire, teachers called all the students in the experimental group and the control group to fill in the questionnaire in a relatively quiet and comfortable environment in the classroom. Before filling out the questionnaire, students were briefly explained all the questionnaire questions, emphasized to answer all the questions with real feelings, and asked to raise their hands to ask the teachers about the questions they did not understand. — 112 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
· The number of questionnaires issued and recovered A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed in the pre-test, and 300 were recovered. The total recovery rate was 100 %, and there were 300 valid questionnaires, with an effective rate of 100 %. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed in the post-test, and 294 were recovered. The total recovery rate was 98%, and the effective questionnaire was 294, with an effective rate of 100%. The statistics of the number of three questionnaires are shown in Table 3-5. Table 3-5 Statistics of questionnaire distribution quantity pre-test/copy Scale
post test/copy
Control
Experiment
Control
Experiment
Group
Group
Group
Group
Internal Motivation Scale for Sports
52
48
51
47
Task Orientation and Self- Orientation Scale in Sports
52
48
51
47
Motivational Atmosphere Scale for Sports
52
48
51
47
Total
156
144
153
141
1.3 Interview Survey 1.3.1 Interviewers Interviewers of this study were all students in two experimental groups. There are 52 people in total, including 42 girls and 10 boys, with an average age of 20 years old. The Arabic numerals 1~52 were used to number the interviewers for analysis and discussion. 1.3.2 Interview patterns Interviews were conducted after the end of the aerobics class — 113 —
throughout the semester, using semi-structured interviews. Researchers of this study did the interview. According to the interview outline, each group in the sport education mode was interviewed collectively for 30-60 minutes. With the consent of the interviewees, the whole interview was recorded. In the analysis of results, the recording data were repeatedly listened to, the interview data were analyzed by category, and the main results of the interview were recorded and analyzed. 1.3.3 Interview outline The main purpose of using the interview survey method is to fully and deeply understand the feelings of the experimental group students participating in the aerobics class through face-to-face communication with the students, and to judge the completion of the teaching objectives of the sport education mode. In 2003, Experts such as Moore revised the Physical Education Season Survey containing 9 questions. In 2006, Hearst developed the Sport Education Season Survey based on this scale. All questions revolved around six characteristics of the Sport Education Mode (seasonality, clustering, formal competition, performance record and festival atmosphere season climax). All questions were combined with open ① questions and closed questions. Before this interview survey, researchers of this study revised the interview outline of this study according to the Sport Education Season Survey and the teaching objectives of the sport education model of aerobics in ordinary universities in China, and repeatedly revised and certified by experts of the sport education mode. The purpose of the interview is divided into two parts, respectively, to examine the student subjective attitude towards the aerobics class using the sports education model this semester, and the self-evaluation of the completion of teaching objectives. For two interview purposes, there are 5 and 8 questions respectively. The survey adopts a combination of closed questions Hastie P A, SINELNIKOV O A. Russian students’ participation in and perceptions of a season of Sport Education[J]. European Physical Education Review, 2006, 12(2): 131-150. — 114 — ①
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
and open questions. The purpose and specific content of the interview are shown in Table 3-6. Table 3-6 Summary of Interview Objectives and Specific Content for this Study
Interview purpose
Specific content 1. Did you enjoy the aerobics class this semester? Why?
1 Examine the subjective attitudes of experimental group students towards the use of the SEM in aerobics classes this semester
2 Assess the self-evaluation of experimental group students on the completion of teaching objectives
2. Do you enjoy grouping and maintaining the same team membership throughout the semester? Why? 3. Do you enjoy taking on other responsibilities during the season? Why? 4. Do you enjoy the series of regular matches and the final championship matches arranged throughout the season? Why? 5. Do you enjoy the festive atmosphere throughout the entire aerobics season, such as using team names, flags, slogans, posters, mascots, etc? Why? 1. Have you improved your skills and physical fitness in aerobics? What are specific manifestations?
2. Do you have a certain level of tactical awareness? What are specific manifestations?
— 115 —
Continued
3. Have you acquired any theoretical knowledge about aerobics? What are specific manifestations?
4. Have you made efforts to fulfill your role responsibilities? What are specific manifestations? 5. Have you or your teammates improved leadership skills while fulfilling your role responsibilities? What are specific manifestations? 6. Is your team united? What are specific manifestations? 7. Have you enhanced your awareness of fair competition? Specifically reflected in what aspects? 8. Will you continue to pay attention to and participate in aerobics in the future?
2 The effect of the Sport Education Mode on Student Exercise Intensity Reasonable arrangement of exercise and promotion of student physical health are important parts to be considered in college physical education curriculum. The amount of exercise is determined by the frequency, intensity and duration of exercise, and the intensity of exercise is the key. Quantitative analysis of the effect of the sport education mode on student exercise intensity and the promotion of student physical health is the main research part of this section.
— 116 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
2.1 Research Results 2.1.1 The comparison of activity time above moderate intensity ( > HRmax × 64 % ) between the experimental group and the control group. The Polar table was used to monitor the range of heart-rate changes in 13 classes of 34 students in the experimental group and 34 students in the control group. At the end of all courses, the t-test was performed on the proportion of moderate and above activity time in the experimental group and the control group. The results are shown in Table 3-7. There was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the first three classes, but from the fourth class to the last class, there was a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group ( p < 0.01 ). Table 3-7 The experimental group and the control group with moderate intensity or above (>HRmax) × 64% of the activity time proportion
The number of times
Experiment Group
Control Group
1
43.52%±0.13%
44.17%±0.13%
2
52.83%±0.11%
47.59%±0.20%
3
56.33%±0.21%
56.69%±0.24%
4
60.48%±0.23%**
39.71%±0.24%
5
69.01%+0.15%**
47.80%±0.27%
6
61.04%±0.20%**
41.67%±0.22%
7
68.56%±0.18%**
49.85%±0.20%
8
66.10%±0.19%**
35.32%±0.21%
— 117 —
The number of times
Experiment Group
Control Group
9
56.02%±0.13%**
46.72%±0.10%
10
64.43%±0.16%**
45.81%±0.16%
11
62.32%±0.17%**
32.77%±0.22%
12
59.45%±0.18%**
30.74%±0.15%
13
58.73%±0.12%**
35.23%+0.02%
Note: * Representing a significant difference (p<0.05) between the experimental group and the control group ** There was a significant difference (p<0.01) between the experimental group and the control group. Figure3-1
It can be seen from Table 3-7 that in 13 classes of the experimental group, the highest proportion of activity time above moderate intensity (>HRmax × 64% ) was the fifth class, reaching 69.01 %, and the lowest was the first class, which was 43.52 %. In the experimental group, there were 12 times in which the proportion of student moderate intensity ( > HRmax × 64% ) activity time reached more than 50 %, of which 7 times reached more than 60%. In 13 classes of the control group, only the third class reached more than 50%, and the rest of the classes were less than 50 %. From Figure 3-1, it can be seen that in the first three classes, students in the experimental group and students in the control group are close to the time of moderate and above activities, and they are significantly lower than most of the classes after the third class in the experimental group. From the beginning of the fourth class, the proportion of students in the experimental group was higher than that in the control group. This shows that in most classes, the proportion of students in the experimental group with moderate and above activity time is significantly higher than that of the control group.
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Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
Figure3-1The trend chart on the proportion of activity time above moderate intensity (>HRmax×64%) between the experimental group and the control group
2.1.2 Comparison of the activity time of high intensity (>HRmax×77%) between the experimental group and the control group The Polar table was used to monitor the heart-rate changes of 34 students in the experimental group and 34 students in the control group in 13 classes. At the end of all courses, the t-test was performed on the proportion of high-intensity activity time in the experimental group and the control group. The results are shown in Table 3-8. There was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the first three classes. There was a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the ninth class ( p < 0.05 ), and there was a very significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the rest of classes ( p < 0.01 ). Table 3-8 Experimental and control groups with higher intensities (>HRmax) × 77%) The proportion of activity time
— 119 —
Note: * represents a significant difference (p<0.05) between the experimental group and the control group. ** There was a significant difference (p<0.01) between the experimental group and the control group.
From Table 3-8, it can be seen that in 13 classes of the The number of
Experiment Group
Control Group
1
13.78%±0.11%
13.60%±0.09%
2
14.59%±0.10%
15.72%±0.18%
3
16.47%±0.20%
17.19%±0.17%
4
22.16%±0.21%**
10.12%±0.10%
5
23.35%±0.13%**
10.67%±0.07%
6
22.01%±0.18%**
9.30%±0.09%
7
29.61%±0.22%**
11.64%±0.08%
8
20.60%±0.15%**
8.33%±0.05%
9
16.94%±0.10%*
11.80%±0.08%
10
22.30%±0.17%**
11.41%±0.08%
11
21.07%±0.16%**
10.09%±0.06%
12
19.15%±0.12%**
9.10%±0.09%
13
17.78%±0.05%**
7.96%±0.05%
times
experimental group, the highest proportion of activity time with greater intensity ( > HRmax × 77% ) is the seventh class, reaching 29.61%, and the lowest is the first class, 13.78 %; in the 13 classes of the control group, the highest proportion of activity time with greater intensity (>HRmax × 77%) was the third class, reaching 17.19 %, and the lowest was the last class, 7.96 %. — 120 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
From Figure 3-2, it can be seen that in the first three classes, students in the experimental group and students in the control group are close to the time of more intensive activities. From the fourth class, the proportion of students in the experimental group with more intense activity time was higher than that in the control group. The experiment shows that in most classes, the proportion of students in the experimental group with more intense activity time is higher than that in the control group.
Figure3-2 The trend chart on the proportion of activity time above high intensity (>HRmax×77%) between the experimental group and the control group
2.1.3 Comparison of moderate intensity (HRmax × 64% < x < HRmax × 77%) activity time between the experimental group and the control group The Polar table was used to monitor the range of heart-rate changes in 13 classes of 34 students in the experimental group and 34 students in the control group. After all courses, the t-test was performed on the proportion of moderate-intensity activity time in the experimental group and the control group. The results are shown in Table 3-9. There was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth classes, but there was a very significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in the eighth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth classes ( p < 0.01 ). There were significant differences between the experimental group and the — 121 —
control group in the second, fourth and sixth classes ( p < 0.05 ).
Table 3-9 Proportion of moderate intensity activity time between the experimental group and the control group (HRmax×64%<x<HRmax×77%)
The number of
Experiment Group
Control Group
1
29.74%±0.07%
30.57%±0.10%
2
38.23%±0.12%*
31.87%±0.11%
3
39.86%±0.13%
39.50%±0.14%
4
38.32%±0.15%*
29.59%±0.16%
5
45.66%±0.13%
37.13%±0.22%
6
39.03%±0.11%*
32.37%±0.16%
7
38.94%±0.12%
38.21%±0.16%
8
45.50%±0.14%**
27.00%±0.18%
9
39.08%±0.13%
34.91%±0.09%
10
42.13%±0.08%**
34.40%±0.11%
11
41.26%±0.11%**
22.68%±0.19%
12
40.30%±0.15%**
21.64%±0.11%
13
40.95%±0.11%*
27.26%±0.06%
times
Note: * represents a significant difference (p<0.05) between the experimental group and the control group. ** There was a significant difference (p<0.01) between the experimental group and the
— 122 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities control group.
It can be seen from Table 3-9 that in 13 classes of the experimental group, the highest proportion of moderate intensity activity time was the fifth class, reaching 45.66 %, and the lowest was the first class, which was 29.74%. In the 13 classes of the control group, the highest proportion of moderate-intensity activity time was the third class, reaching 39.50%, and the lowest was the 12th class, which was 21.64%. It can be seen from Figure 3-3 that in most classes, the proportion of moderate intensity activity time in the experimental group was higher than that in the control group.
Figure3-3 The trend chart on the proportion of activity time with moderate intensity between the experimental group and the control group
2.2 Analysis and Discussion The age of students in ordinary universities is generally 17 to 23 years old, and they are in their adolescence. At this stage, the physiological development is faster, the psychological activity is more complex, and the physiological and psychological changes are larger. College students in their adolescence have gradually mature physiological functions and organs, and the main signs are that physical development is improving, with a rapid growth in terms of the body shape, height, weight, chest circumference, shoulder-width and pelvis. The proportional relationship of each part of the body is normal and symmetrical. The visceral function was significantly enhanced and the function of tissues and organs in the body — 123 —
gradually matured. The pulse became more stable and decreased. The blood pressure was normal, the alveolar area and volume increased, and thus the lung respiration changed from being shallow and fast to being deep and slow. The gastric volume and the peristaltic force of the muscle both increased. The secretion of gastric juice was active. The length and volume of the intestine also increased. All this results in appetite increasing and the digestive force strengthening. The number of cerebral cortex cell activity increased so that the brain development gradually mature. The nervous system is mature, and the nervous system has strong ① excitability due to endocrine effects. In college physical education, teachers should strive to make the amount of exercise in class suitable for the physiological characteristics of ordinary college students, and promote their health.. The amount of exercise is determined by the frequency, intensity and duration of exercise and the intensity of exercise is the key. Promoting student physical health is an important goal of physical education. There is a dose-response relationship between the health benefits obtained through exercise and the intensity of exercise required. For sedentary people, even by increasing little physical activity to increase energy consumption, they can also become more healthy. With the increase of exercise intensity, the benefits of exercise also increase. For most adults, the combination of moderate intensity (40%≤60% VO2R) and greater intensity (≥ 60% VO2R) is an ideal exercise intensity to improve health. The ACSM Exercise Test and Exercise Prescription Guide (8th edition) recommends that most adults perform moderate-intensity exercise (40% ≤ 60% VO2R, heart-rate and respiratory rate are significantly increased) and high-intensity exercise (≥ 60% VO2R, ①
Wang Haihong. Research on exercise intensity and physiological
characteristics of ordinary college students in the National Aerobics Public Exercise Standard [J]. Journal of Guangzhou Institute of Physical Education, 2007, 27 (5): 72. — 124 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
heart-rate and blood pressure increase). It is recommended that most adults perform at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per day, at least 5 days per week, for a total of at least 150 minutes per week, or 20-25 minutes of high-intensity exercise per day, at least 3 days per week, for a total of 75 minutes, or 20-30 minutes of moderate-intensity and high-intensity exercise per day, 3-5 days per week (Wang Zhengzhen, 2010). Therefore, in the aerobics teaching of ordinary universities in China, what is the difference between two teaching modes of student exercise intensity? Does it achieve the combination of moderate intensity and greater intensity recommended in the ACSM Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescription Guidelines ( 8th edition ), which is conducive to improving the health level of exercise intensity? In this study, moderate intensity and above were identified as >HRmax × 64%. Through telemetry heart-rate, it was found that in most classes, the proportion of activity time in the experimental group was significantly higher than that in the control group. Most of the classes in the experimental group reached more than 50% of the total classroom time, and a considerable part reached more than 60%. In the control group, only a few classes reached more than 50% of the total classroom time, and most of them were less than 50%. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) recommended that moderate-intensity and above activity time in physical education classes should reach at least 50% of the ① total physical education class time. Subsequently, a number of foreign physical education researchers conducted an empirical study on the exercise intensity of the sport education mode, and the results were different in some respects. As early as in 2002, Hester and Troist published an article focusing on the health level of students. The season of the study lasted 22 classes, and the courses were taught by experienced teachers. The level of moderate and high PARKER M B, CURTNER-SMITH M. Health-related fitness in sport education and multi-activity teaching [J]. Physical education and sport pedagogy, 2005(1): 1-18. — 125 — ①
intensity activities of students throughout the season reached more than 60%, which was consistent with the results of this study. However, Parker and Cortner Smith used the Physical Activity Teaching Time Observation System (SOFIT) to study student physical activity levels in the Sport Education Mode. The greatest finding of this study is that in the sport education mode, students who reached the level of high-intensity activities only in 36.6% of the time. By contrast, in the traditional practice-based teaching mode, the proportion of students’ medium and high intensity activity time is slightly higher than 50%. However, Hester and his co-workers pointed out in a 2011 review article that in the 2005 study of Parker and Cortner Smith, the season was designed to be very short, with only 10 classes, 30 minutes per class, plus 5 classes of competition courses, and was taught by trainee teachers. These factors are likely to have an impact on the experimental results. At present, in many sports, there is still a gap in the research on the impact of the sport education mode on students’ health level, which deserves our attention. This study also analyzed the activity time of higher intensity (> HRmax×77%) and moderate intensity (HRmax × 64% < x < HRmax × 77%). The study has found that the proportion of students in the experimental group with more than high-intensity activity time and the proportion of moderate-intensity activity time were higher than those in the control group in most of the classes. It can be seen from the comprehensive analysis that the sport education mode has increased the proportion of student activity time above moderate intensity, among which the greater intensity and moderate intensity have also been improved, which is in line with the view in the ACSM Exercise Test and Exercise Prescription Guide(8th edition) that for most adults, the combination of moderate intensity (40% ≤ 60% VO2R) and greater intensity (≥ 60% VO2R) is an ideal exercise intensity to improve the health level, which is more conducive to promoting the improvement of student physical health. In addition, it was found that the proportion of the first three — 126 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
classes in the experimental group was lower and close to that in the control group in the analysis of the proportion of activity time above moderate intensity. From the beginning of the fourth class, the proportion of students in the experimental group with moderate and above activity time increased, and was higher than that of the control group. The main reason may be that teachers need to introduce the mode to students at the beginning of the season of sport education mode, complete the work of grouping students, assigning roles and responsibilities while students need to learn and adapt to the sport education mode. It takes a lot of time to complete these tasks. Therefore, in the previous classes, the proportion of students in the experimental group with moderate and above activity time is relatively low. This shows that the first three classes of the sport education mode are during the generalization period, and the effect of improving the proportion of students’ activity time above moderate intensity is not obvious. When students are familiar with the sport education mode, the mode promotes the experimental group. The intensity of activities in the class and the time of moderate intensity and above increased significantly, which is conducive to promoting the improvement of student physical health.
3 The Effect of the Sport Education Mode on Students’ Sports Motivation In college physical education teaching, student sport motivation can greatly improve student sport participation, influence student sport effect, promote student developing sport habits, thus affecting the formation of lifelong sports concept. The main research of this section is to quantitatively analyze the effect of the sport education mode on college student sport motivation by using motivation scale. 3.1 Research Results 3.1.1 Results of Internal Motivation Inventory (IMI) in exercise ·Pretest t test of IMI experimental group and control group Before the experiment, IMI was used to test all students in the — 127 —
experimental group and the control group. Independent sample t test was performed on the pre-test data of the experimental group and the control group. The results showed that there was no significant difference in four dimensions of IMI: interest/fun, effort/importance, subjective ability and stress/tension. This shows that before the start of the experiment, the internal motivation of students in the experimental group and the control group is at the same level, and the similarity of the experimental subjects is high. The specific results are shown in Table 3-10. Table 3-10 Pre test t-test results of the IMI experimental group and the control group Experimental group pre-test
Control group pre-test
(n=52)
(n=48)
Dimension
P
m
sd
m
sd
Interest/Fun
17.31
3.11
17.38
3.65
0.46
Effort/Importance
15.67
2.19
15.02
2.83
0.10
Subjective ability
14.56
1.98
14.60
2.19
0.46
Pressure/tension
11.60
2.38
11.19
2.10
0.18
· Pretest and post-test t test of IMI experimental group Before and after the experiment, IMI was used to test all the students in the experimental group. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the experimental group. The results showed that among the four dimensions of IMI, there was extremely significant difference in interest/fun and effort/importance(p<0.001), the difference is very significant in subjective ability(p<0.01), and there was no significant difference in stress/tension. This shows that through a semester of teaching, the sport education mode effectively improves the internal motivation — 128 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
level of the experimental group students in the movement. The specific results are shown in Table 3-11.
Table 3-11 T-test results of pre-test and post-test in the IMI experimental group Experimental group pre-test
Experimental group post-test
(n=52)
(n=51)
Dimension
P
m
sd
m
sd
Interest/Fun
17.31
3.11
19.59
3.13
0.00
Effort/Importance
15.67
2.19
17.08
1.83
0.00
Subjective ability
14.56
1.98
15.84
2.95
0.01
Pressure/tension
11.60
2.38
12.04
2.41
0.17
From Figure 3-4, it can be seen that the order of the scores of each dimension in the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group is: interest/fun>effort/importance>subjective ability>pressure/tension. It shows that the internal motivation of students to participate in physical education is first of all based on interest, followed by effort/importance, and then subjective ability. The pressure/tension dimension is the lowest. And the scores of the four dimensions of the post-test in the experimental group have changed. The average score of interest/fun dimension increased from 17.31 to 19.59. The average score of effort/importance dimension increased from 15.67 to 17.08. The average score of subjective ability dimension increased from 14.56 to 15.84. The average score of stress/tension dimension increased the least, from 11.60 to 12.04.
— 129 —
3-4 Comparison of the four dimensions between the IMI experiment group pretest post-test
·Pretest and post-test t test of the IMI control group Before and after the experiment, IMI was used to test all students in the control group. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the control group. The results showed that there was no significant difference in four dimensions of IMI: interest/fun, effort/importance, subjective ability, and stress/tension. This shows that the traditional sport teaching model in China has not changed the level of internal motivation of students to participate in aerobics classes through a semester of teaching. The specific results are shown in Table 3-12. Control group pre-test
Control group post-test
(n=48)
(n=47)
Dimension
P
m
sd
m
sd
Interest/Fun
17.38
3.65
18.47
3.96
0.08
Efforts/Importance
15.02
2.83
15.26
3.70
0.36
Subjective ability
14.60
3.19
15.64
2.59
0.10
Pressure/tension
11.19
2.10
11.15
2.54
0.47
Table 3-12 T-test results of pre-test and post-test in the IMI control group
— 130 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
3.1.2 Results of the Task Orientation and Self-Orientation Questionnaire (TEOSQ) in Exercise ·Pretest t test of TEOSQ experimental group and control group Before the experiment, all the students in the experimental group and the control group were tested with TEOSQ. Independent sample t test was performed on the pre-test data of the experimental group and the control group. The results showed that there was no significant difference in two dimensions of TEOSQ: self orientation and task orientation. This shows that before the beginning of the experiment, the task orientation and self-orientation of students in the experimental group and the control group are at the same level, and the similarity of the subjects is high. The specific data are shown in Table 3-13. Table 3-13 TEOSQ experimental group and control group pre-test t-test results Experimental group pre-test
Control group post-test
(n=52)
(n=48)
Dimension
P
M
sd
m
sd
Self-orientation
17.40
4.25
16.15
3.41
0.05
Task-orientation
28.46
3.96
27.54
4.88
0.15
·Pretest and post-test t test of TEOSQ experimental group Before and after the experiment, all the students in the experimental group were tested with TEOSQ. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the experimental group. The results showed that in the two dimensions of TEOSQ the difference in task orientation was very significant ( p < 0.01 ) and self-orientation has no significant difference. This shows that the sport education mode effectively affects the task-orientation level of the experimental group students in the movement through a semester of teaching. The specific results are shown in Table 3-14. — 131 —
Table 3-14 TEOSQ experimental group pre-test and post test t-test results Experimental group pre-test
Experimental group post-test
(n=52)
(n=51)
Dimension
P
m
sd
m
sd
Self-orientation
17.40
4.25
16.75
4.76
0.23
Task-orientation
28.46
3.96
30.45
3.26
0.00
It can be seen from Figure 3-5 that the scores of the two dimensions of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group have changed. The average score of self-orientation decreased from 17.40 in the pretest to 16.75 in the post-test. The average score of task orientation increased, the pre-test increased to 28.46, and the post-test increased to 30.45.
3-5 Comparison on the two dimensions between TEOSQ experiment group pretest and post-test
·Pretest and post-test t test of TEOSQ experimental group Before and after the experiment, all the students in the control group were tested with TEOSQ. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the control group. The results showed that there was a significant difference in — 132 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
self-orientation between the two dimensions of TEOSQ ( p < 0.001 ). Task-orientation has no significant difference. This shows that the traditional physical education teaching model in China has not changed the level of task orientation of students in the control group through a semester of teaching, but the level of self-orientation in sports has increased. The specific results are shown in Table 3-15. Table 3-15 TEOSQ control group pre-test and post test t-test results Control group pre-test
Control group post-test
(n=48)
Dimension
(n=47)
P
m
sd
m
sd
Self-orientation
16.15
3.41
19.17
4.80
0.00
Task-orientation
27.54
4.88
28.62
5.87
0.17
3.1.3 Results of the study on the Motivational Climate Scale in Sport (PMCSQ) ·Pretest t test of PMCSQ experimental group and control group Before the experiment, all the students in the experimental group and the control group were tested with PMCSQ. Independent sample t test was performed on the pre-test data of the experimental group and the control group. The results showed that there was no significant difference in two dimensions of PMCSQ: performance motivational climate and mastery motivational climate. This shows that the experimental group and the control group of students in the movement of the performance motivation climate and the mastery motivation climate at the same level, and the experimental object similarity is higher before the beginning of the experiment. The specific results are shown in Table 3-16. Table 3-16 Pre test t-test results of the PMCSQ experimental group and the control group
— 133 —
Experimental group pre-test (n=52)
Dimension
Control group pre-test (n=48)
P
m
sd
M
sd
Performance motivation climate
30.19
6.90
31.63
4.68
0.12
Mastery motivation climate
36.33
4.15
35.44
5.12
0.17
·Pretest and post-test t test of PMCSQ experimental group Before and after the experiment, all the students in the experimental group were tested with PMCSQ. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the experimental group. The results showed that there was a very significant difference in the two dimensions of PMCSQ(p<0.01). There was no significant difference in achievement motivation climate. This shows that the sport education mode effectively affects the level of student mastery motivation climate in sports through a semester of teaching. The specific results are shown in Table 3-17.
Table 3-17 T-test results of pre - and post tests in the PMCSQ experimental group Experimental group pre-test
Experiment al group post-test
(n=52)
Dimension
(n=51)
P
m
sd
M
sd
Performance motivation climate
30.19
6.90
28.86
7.01
0.17
Mastery motivation climate
36.33
4.15
38.63
4.01
0.00
— 134 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
It can be seen from Figure 3-6 that the scores of two dimensions of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group have changed. The average score of achievement motivation climate decreased, which was 30.19 in the pre-test and 28.86 in the post-test. The average score of mastery motivation climate increased, the pre-test increased to 36.33, and the post-test increased to 38.63.
3-6 Comparison on the two dimensions between the IMI experiment group pretest and post-test
·Pretest and post-test t test of the PMCSQ control group Before and after the experiment, all the students in the control group were tested with PMCSQ. The paired sample t test was performed on the pre-test and post-test data of the control group. The results showed that there was no significant difference between two dimensions of PMCSQ: achievement motivation climate and mastery motivation climate. This shows that the traditional physical education teaching mode in China has not affected the level of student sensory motivation climate in aerobics class through a semester of teaching. The specific results are shown in Table 3-18.
— 135 —
Table 3-18 T-test results of pre and post tests in the PMCSQ control group Control group pre-test
Control group post-test
(n=48)
(n=47)
Dimension
P
m
sd
m
sd
Performance motivation climate
31.63
4.68
30.04
5.70
0.07
Mastery motivation climate
35.44
5.12
34.66
5.40
0.24
3.1.4 Correlation analysis of three scales The Pearson correlation coefficients of the three scales are shown in Table 3-19. The results showed that task-orientation was significantly correlated with intrinsic motivation (p<0.01). The mastery motivational climate was significantly correlated with internal motivation and task-orientation (p<0.01). Achievement motivation climate was significantly correlated with self-orientation (p<0.01). TEOSQ
IMI Scale
IMI
dimension
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
0.62*
0.78**
-0.13
0.63**
0.03
0.64**
-0.41**
0.70**
-0.23** -0.18*
0.56** 0.62**
0 .14* 0.09
0.56** 0.60**
-0.36** -0.37**
-0.07
-0.02
-0.08
0.11
0.13
0.65** -0.05
-0.28** 0.38**
2 3 4
TEOSQ
PMCSQ
PMCSQ
5 6
-0.32
7 8 Table 3-19 Pearson correlation coefficients of three scales — 136 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities Note: 1. Interest/fun; 2. Subjective ability; 3. Effort/Importance; 4. Stress/importance; 5. Task orientation; 6. Self orientation; 7. Master the motivational atmosphere; 8. Achievement motivation atmosphere. *Representative significance (p<0.05). **The representative is very significant (p<0.01).
3.2 Analysis and Discussion The word “motive” comes from the Latin word “movere”, which refers to promotion. There are many words similar to motivation, such as desire, desire, ambition, purpose, need, drive, motivation, inducement and so on. In research, different words have ① different meanings. Motivation, as the starting point and cause of behavior, is very important in many fields involved in psychology, ② and the field of sports is no exception. Sport motivation refers to the motivation of people to participate in sport activities, which has the characteristics of initiating people’s behaviors and keeping the behavior in a certain intensity in sport activities. A certain level of sports motivation makes sport participants work harder in sport activities, concentrate more, practice longer and persist longer. Low sport motivation may make individuals give up and withdraw from ③ sport activities. This study used the Intrinsic Motivation Scale in Exercise, Task Orientation and Self-Orientation Scale in Exercise, Motivation climate Scale in Exercise, to investigate the exercise motivation of the experimental group and the control group. 3.2.1 Intrinsic motivation in sports The results of the study show that student internal motivation level in sports can be improved more effectively by using the sport ①
HOUSTON J P. Motivation [M]. New York : Macmillan Publishing
Company, 1985. Ma Qiwei, Zhang Liwei, Sports psychology [M]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education Press, 1998. ③ Zhang Liwei, Ren Weiduo. Progress in Sports Psychology [M]. ②
Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2000. — 137 —
education mode. This is consistent with the research results of the article entitled Influence of Sport Education on Student Motivation in Physical Education published by Michael Spittel and Kate Byrne on Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy in 2009. The motivation of individuals to participate in activities is generally caused by internal motivation and external motivation. However, behaviors induced by internal motivation refer to the behaviors of not accepting any kind of external reward, which itself is a valuable behavior. Intrinsic motivation is aroused by the need for a person to exert his inner talents and the need for self-determination to the environment. Many studies have found that internal motivation is more active than external motivation in promoting people to the goal, and it lasts longer. The important feature of internally motivated behavior is that even if the goal is achieved, the individual can still maintain a sense of self-ability, and the level of motivation does not decline. The feature of behaviors of external rewards is that after the individual achieves the goal and receives the reward, the motivation level may be reduced. So internal motivation is a positive form of motivation. In general, the stronger the internal motivation of students in sports, the higher the enthusiasm of practice, the better the potential and the higher the efficiency. Therefore, the influence of internal motivation in sports on student behavior effect or practice ① efficiency is unquestionable. From the results of the study, it can be seen that the internal motivation of students in the experimental group to participate in the aerobics class is first from the interest/fun, followed by the effort/importance, and then the subjective ability, and the pressure/tension dimension is the lowest. The interest/fun dimension shows that students are interested in aerobics classes. The experimental group uses the sport education mode to make students ①
Gong Wanda, Wang Junjie, Qiu Shun. Factor analysis of the internal
motivation of college student volunteers in sports games [J]. Journal of Hangzhou Normal University (Natural Science Edition), 2007, 6 (4): 300. — 138 —
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happier in aerobics classes. Students are interested in aerobics classes, and their fun in aerobics classes increases. The interest in aerobics classes is further improved. The dimension of effort/importance shows that students attach importance to aerobics classes. In the experimental group, the application of the sport education mode makes students pay more attention to aerobics classes, and students make more efforts in aerobics classes. The subjective ability dimension shows that students themselves have enough ability to participate in aerobics classes. In the experimental group, the sport education mode is used to enable all students to fully participate in aerobics classes, and to enhance the ability of students to participate in aerobics classes. The lowest score in the stress/tension dimension indicates that students are relatively relaxed in aerobics classes. Skinner’s behavioral psychology believes that excessive pressure makes it easy for people to evade tasks. If the enthusiasm of students to participate in physical education is hit, it will produce negative reinforcement, which will reduce the number of students participating in sports or reduce their quality, and a relaxed environment is easier to create a harmonious climate for participation. In addition, as the experimental group students first learn and apply the sport education mode, they are not familiar with the teaching model and are slightly unfamiliar with it, it may have an impact on the stress/tension dimension score. In the the sport education mode, when students are interested in aerobics classes, attach importance to aerobics classes, think they have enough ability to participate in aerobics classes, and can participate in aerobics classes in a more relaxed environment, their internal motivation is improved. 3.2.2 Task-orientation and self-orientation in sports The results show that through the sport education mode effectively affects the task orientation and self orientation level of college students in China. The task orientation level of the experimental group students in the exercise is improved, and the self — 139 —
orientation level of the control group students in the movement is improved. This is consistent with the research results of Michael Spitter and Kate Byrne in 2009 in The Influence of the Sport Education Model on the Sport Motivation of Students. The goal-orientation theory is a theory that recent cognitive psychologists try to use the principles of social cognitive theory to study the motivation and behaviors of individuals in achievement situations. Goal orientation theory proposes that there are two main goal orientations or the basis of people’s subjective definition of success in achievement situations. One is task- orientation, and the other is self-orientation ( Nicholls, 1989 ). Individuals may be a certain goal orientation, or both. These two goal orientations are related to how people define success and how to judge their own abilities. When an individual is a task-oriented person, the sense of success caused by ability perception and activity type is based on himself or herself as the reference standard, and the composition of his or her goal is to develop personal skills, gain insight and master knowledge. This type of person believes that in an achievement situation, success must be achieved through hard study, full understanding of what has been learned, and cooperation with peers. When individuals are considered being self-oriented, their focus is on the display of super-normal ability, and their judgment of their ability is based on social comparison as a reference standard. The ultimate source of subjectively defined success of such people is to defeat or surpass opponents with less effort in the competition. Achievement goal-orientation theory predicts that two different goal orientations are closely related to the behavior of individuals in achievement situations. At present, a large number of theoretical and empirical studies have shown that task-orientation is a positive, active and ideal goal orientation state, while self orientation is a negative and fragile state which easily lead to individual maladjustment goal orientation (Zhang Liwei, 2004 ). It can be seen from the research results that after the improvement of the task- orientation level of the experimental group, — 140 —
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they will more actively participate in the aerobics class, acquire knowledge related to aerobics more deeply and solidly, and know more about how to cooperate with peers to achieve success. “the sport education mode” is conducive to promoting the improvement of students’ task orientation level, and the reasons may come from many aspects, which is closely related to the characteristics of “the sport education mode”. First of all, “the sport education mode” emphasizes fair competition and develops students awareness of fair competition in physical education, encourage them to actively participate in practice and competition, strive to perform their respective duties, respect everyone’s right to participate in practice and competition, appreciate teammates and opponents, play seriously, correctly face success and failure, being willing to help others and learn to be grateful. Secondly, “the sport education mode” emphasizes that all students participate in sports, including students who never actively participated in sports in the past physical education, as well as students with physical restrictions, and takes students themselves as the reference standard and attaches attention to everyone’s progress. Thirdly, “the sport education mode” strengthens the team cohesion and teamwork spirit by student grouping, and students learn how to win through joint efforts of teams in sports. These favorable factors of “the sport education mode” in these aspects all promote the improvement of student ① task-orientation level. 3.2.3 Motivational climate in sports The results show that the motivational climate of students in the experiment group is improved effectively by the sport education model, but there is not much change in the level of student mastery motivation and achievement motivation in the sports in the traditional model. ①
Chen Jian, Si Gangyan. Preliminary examination of Task Direction and
Self-orientation Questionnaire in Sports and Task Direction and Self-orientation Questionnaire [J]. Hubei Sports Science and Technology, 1998 (3): 44-48 — 141 —
This is consistent with the results of a 2004 study by Tristan L. Wallhead and Nikos Ntoumanis. J. Seifriz et.al designed “the scale on motivational climate in sports” according to the theory of goal orientation to investigate how athletes perceive the team motivational climate created by the coach, and to explore their understanding about the relationship among the team motivation climate and the personal goal orientation and success belief. The results found that the motivational climate in the team will affect the individual goal orientation, especially in that the mastery of the motivational climate is positively correlated with the intrinsic interest, while the performance motivational climate is negatively ① correlated with the intrinsic interest. Therefore, a different environmental atmosphere has a significant correlation with the athlete motivation to participate. When an environmental atmosphere emphasizes individual competition, open evaluation and social comparison, it will promote individual mastery goal orientation. But if it emphasizes the participation of learning process, the mastery of individual skills and self-comparison, it will promote individual master goal orientation. Amis’ speculation of achievement goal theory is that it emphasizes the individual progress and the mastery of motivation climate. In this case, the individual is more likely to participate in the activity because of the purpose of the task itself, focus on personal improvement and development in finishing the task, and can maintain high perception ability and self-determination, hence leading to the improvement of intrinsic motivation. On the contrary, in the motivation climate which emphasizes the standard performance, individual competition and social comparison, because the individual attention is on the result of standard success and their ability to perception is guided by external standards, so they are more likely to lack perceived competence and self-determination, ①
SEIFRIZJ ， DUDAJL, CHI L. The relationship of perceived motional
climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball[J].Journal of sport &exercise psychology, 1992(4): 375-391 — 142 —
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which lead to weakened internal motivation, and the development of maintaining self-confidence is more difficult. Therefore, mastery of motivational climate is a positive motivational climate, and the achievement motivational climate is a negative motivational climate. It can be seen from the research results that “the sport education mode” promotes the improvement of the motivation climate of students in the experimental group, and the reduction of achievement motivation climate, which is more conducive to improving student interest in aerobics class, so that students can attend the aerobics class better. The emergence of this phenomenon is that “the sport education mode” has created a unique and positive learning climate in aerobics teaching which is realized through teaching strategies such as student grouping, responsibility distribution and a series of formal competitions carried out. Each student participates in the practice and competition, and strives to improve himself/herself for the common goal of the team, thus promoting the improvement of the climate level of mastery motivation. 3.2.4 The relationship among three factors Based on the above analysis, it can be seen that the use of “the sport education mode” in the teaching of aerobics in China is conducive to promoting the improvement of student internal motivation level, task-orientation level in sports, and the level of mastery motivation climate in sports. However, what is the connection among internal motivation in movement, task orientation in movement and self-orientation, and motivational climate in movement? Previous studies have demonstrated the relationship of goal orientation and internal motivation. Regardless of individual self-orientation and ability, high-task orientation has been found to be the best predictor of internal motivation, for example, happiness, satisfaction, ability, efforts and long-term participation. Instead, self-orientation produces optimal internal motivation only in two conditions: the sensation of high competence and in the environment of high task-directed. Without these two conditions, self-orientation — 143 —
will have low levels of internal motivation, such as anxiety, worry, stress, lack of efforts and persistence. Previous studies have also shown that the motivational climate has an important role. Mastery motivation climate was positively associated with emotion, efforts and persistence, while achievement motivation climate was negatively associated with efforts and pleasure. The study of goal-orientation theory proposes that whether a person is task-oriented or self-directed, it is a function of an individual’s personality traits and situation. Individual trait differences in achievement goals determine the potential to adopt a particular behavior, and context can evoke this potential possibility. When a situational atmosphere emphasizes individual competition, open evaluation and social comparison, it will promote individual self-orientation, and if the participation of learning process, individual skill mastery and self-comparison situation are available, it will promote individual task-orientation. Mastery motivation climate is positively correlated with intrinsic interest, while the performance motivation climate is negatively correlated with ① intrinsic interest. Some scholars have proved that the motivation climate in physical education is beneficial to improve the internal motivation in student physical education learning. The achievement motivation climate in physical education can reduce student intrinsic motivation; the motivation climate in physical education teaching is ② conducive to the formation of student task-orientation. From the results of the correlation analysis of three scales, we can see that task-orientation is very correlated with internal motivation (p<0.01), and mastery motivation climate is very correlated with internal motivation and task-orientation (p<0.01), Bao Xiaoling, Yang Junmin, Liu Yuefeng. The influence of motivation climate in physical education class on the goal orientation and social physique anxiety of students in Weihan high school. [J]. Journal of Xi’ an Institute of Physical Education, 2010, 27(2): 247. ② Su Yu. A study on the lack of motivation mechanism of high school students’ physical Education learning by using self-determination theory [D]. Shanghai: East China Normal University, 2007: 103. — 144 — ①
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while achievement motivation climate is very correlated with self-orientation (p<0.01). The results of this study are consistent with the those of previous studies.
4 The Sport Education Mode on Student Comprehensive Cultivation “The sport education mode” can achieve multiple educational purposes, which is also the goal of physical education in universities. It is not only to improve students physical quality, but also to cultivate people who can adapt themselves to the development and needs of the social development through physical education. This section, through qualitative analysis, interviews and surveys the experimental group of students to analyze and discuss the overall cultivation of students by “the sport education mode”. According to the interview outline, a group interview was conducted for each team in the experimental group after all classes. According to the group in the season, 52 students from two experimental classes were divided into 8 groups, and the researchers conducted group interviews respectively with eight groups. After the interview, the recorded materials of the interview were sorted out and the representative original interviews were captured which can be used to explain the text. The specific results are as follows. 4.1. Student Subjective Attitude Towards “The Sport Education Mode” 4.1.1 The overall attitude of students towards the aerobics class in this semester. First, interviewees were asked about their overall attitude towards the aerobics class of this semester. Question: Do you like the aerobics class this semester? And why? The emphasis on it is to examine the student overall attitude towards the aerobics class and to lay the foundation for subsequent interviews. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student7: “I used to be not interested in physical education, but — 145 —
aerobics class this semester is very interesting, and I am very excited in every class”. Student18: “I like our aerobics class very much, because it is much different from the previous aerobics class”. Student20: “I like the aerobics class. I have learned a lot in the aerobics class. I have gained a lot”. In the group interviews of each group, the vast majority of students said they liked the aerobics class this semester, and only 6 students did not say that or said it in general. The results of the interview survey show that most of the students hold a positive attitude towards the aerobics class this semester. Students are full of fun in the class having learnt a lot , and they are willing to take the aerobics class. After mastering the overall attitude of students towards the aerobics class of this semester, we continue to conduct in-depth interviews to investigate the student attitude towards respective aspects of the aerobics class by using “the sport education mode” in this semester. 4.1.2 Student attitude towards grouping At the beginning of the season, teachers grouped the students, and the interview survey is also conducted according to the groups during the season. Question: Do you like groups and want to stay on in the same team throughout the semester? It focuses on whether or not students like the form of grouping in the “sports education model”, and why they like it or dislike it. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student1: “I like being with my teammates. Because our team is very united, and everyone in my team is very enthusiastic to participate in the game”. Student10: “At the beginning of the season, we were in the same team. I like every student in our team, and we’ve got along very well”. Student39: “The form of grouping is very good. Each of us did not know one another at the beginning, but became very familiar at — 146 —
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the end. I am very happy to know so many new friends through the aerobics class”. Student51: “In each team, everyone has different work, and we cooperate with one another very well”. When asked about the attitude of the grouping, students are very active. In 8 groups, the majority of the students hold a positive attitude towards the grouping. Students said that they like to be with their teammates, and the group deepened their understanding among them. The team is very united, and enjoy the competition together. Only 2 students think it is unnecessary to group. And one student shows indifference. 4.1.3 Student attitude towards roles and responsibility assignment In the group, in addition to their role as a team member, each student also plays other different roles. Question: Are you willing to assume other responsibilities during the season? why? It focuses on the student attitude to play different roles and fulfill their respective responsibilities. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student3: “I served as the captain of our team. I felt my responsibility, sometimes there was pressure, but when I led the team to win the game, or because of our outstanding performance was recognized by teachers in class , I felt very proud and happy”. Student5: “It is the first time for be to serve as a referee of the aerobics competition, and I am very serious to learn how to be a good referee”. Student11: “Everyone has a different role, everyone has to take on different responsibilities, which makes each of us learn to take responsibility and take our own responsibility”. Student39: “In class, our teammates tried their best to fulfill own duties and make our training and competition orderly”. The interview results showed that most of the 52 students in the experimental group held a positive attitude towards roles and — 147 —
responsibility assignment and expressed their willingness to treat their roles and responsibilities in a positive attitude. Only 4 students did not show their attitude; 2 students believed that some referees were unfair in the competition. 4.1.4 Student attitude towards the formal competition The formal competition proceeds basically throughout the season, and students take participate in competitions in groups. Question: Do you like a series of regular matches and the final championship matches scheduled throughout the season? why? It focuses on student views on competitions in the season. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student23: “I have never participated in aerobics competition before, but this semester I can participate in aerobics competition, and this is what I dare not imagine before”. Student38: “The game is very interesting, every game is very exciting, I always want our team to be the first place in the game”. Student40: “I think through every competition, our aerobics skills can make big improvement”. Student43: “The outcome of the game depends on the efforts of everyone in the team. Everyone in our team has undergone difficult training. I hope our team can win.” The interview results show that most of the 52 students in the experimental group were positive and excited about the season competition, and wanted to rank well in the competition; only 3 students said they did not like the competition and were not interested in the outcome of the team in the competition. 4.1.5 Student attitude towards the atmosphere of festival celebration Throughout the season, teachers try to create a festive atmosphere, having culminated in the championship at the end of the season. Question: Do you feel the festive atmosphere of the whole aerobics season? Do you like the atmosphere? why? It focuses on the student feelings and attitudes towards the festival celebration — 148 —
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atmosphere. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student6: “Aerobics class this semester always gives me a very happy, enjoyable feeling. The classroom atmosphere is very good, everyone is particularly willing to attend the class”. Student11: “I really like our team name, team flag, slogan and the posters we put on the wall. Every time I stand in the practice area of our team in class, I have a special sense of belonging and pride”. Student17: “Competitions in each class push the classroom atmosphere to a climax, and our team-mates pay special attention to the game. Every time it was my team’s turn, I felt both nervous and excited”. Student35: “The final championship in the season is the most exciting part. Every one of us practices hard and hopes to get the best result in the final competition”. At the beginning of the interview, students gave less pertinent answers, perhaps because the meaning of “a festive celebration atmosphere” was unclear. By defining the “festive celebration atmosphere” and giving examples, researchers gradually guided the students and finally opened the chatterbox. The interview results showed that most of the 52 students in the experimental group liked the atmosphere in the aerobics class this semester and were willing to participate in the competition with their teammates to strive for good results. Only 2 students indicated that they did not feel the festive celebration atmosphere. 4.2. Student Self-evaluation on the Completion of Teaching Objectives 4.2.1 Technical level and physical quality Learning a sport and improving the technical level are the most basic thing. In this experiment, the main content of aerobics technical learning is the secondary action in the National Aerobics Public Exercise Standard (the third set). Through interviews, the self-evaluation of the experimental group students in terms of the — 149 —
technical level and physical fitness teaching objectives was investigated, and the influence of aerobics class this semester on student technical level and physical fitness was investigated. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student2: “At the beginning of the season, I thought it was difficult for me to do aerobics. I felt unable to learn it, but I was very happy that I was able to do the whole aerobics at the end of the season”. Student5: “Through this semester aerobics class, compared with the past, my ability to control the basic movements of aerobics is stronger, I think I am more coordinated and more standardized in movements”. Student19: “My level of aerobics has improved. I can make the music and movements with better coordination, and I can always learn new movements and movement combinations quickly”. Student23: “I have mastered a set of aerobics that I learned this semester, can participate in the competition with my teammates and complete the competition tasks excellently”. Student43: “Our team was messy at the beginning, but later, everyone’s movements became more and more standardized and more and more neat. Our aerobics technical level has really improved”. Student52: “Through the learning of aerobics class this semester, I think my coordination, flexibility and other aspects of the body quality have improved”. The evaluation of 52 students in the experimental group at their own technical level and physical quality shows that their technical level of aerobics and the special physical quality have been improved throughout aerobics learning this semester. 4.2.2 Tactical awareness According to event-group theory, aerobics belongs to skill-oriented which is difficult to perform. Although technique plays a decisive role in the competition, the rational use of tactics is also — 150 —
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conducive to winning the competition. Through the interview survey, students in the experimental group were asked about their self-evaluation of tactical awareness, and the influence and improvement of the student tactical awareness were investigated. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student1: “We value every game, because the season championship is determined by the points for all the games”. Student3: “When arranging our the game formation for competition, we try our best to highlight our team’ strength and strive for a higher score”. Student22: “At the beginning and end of the choreography, we tend to choose movements that all the team-members master to increase the probability of completing the full set”. Student37: “We attach great importance to the proficiency and standard of technical movements, and seem to rarely consider how to use tactics”. Student41: “I think technique is the key to winning the game. Other things are secondary”. Of the 52 students in the experimental group, 24 students talked about how to increase the tactical success rate; 16 students believed that the tactics were rarely considered in the competition; 7 students did not express their opinions; 5 students believed that the tactics were not important and did not need to increase. The results of the interview survey show that in “the sport education mode”, only some student’s tactical awareness has been improved to a certain extent, which may be because aerobics belongs to the skill-oriented difficult to perform, and the quality of student technical movements plays a decisive role in the outcome of the competition. 4.2.3 Theoretical knowledge The use of “the sport education mode” in aerobics teaching in ordinary universities in China should not only improve student sports skills and level, but also help students to have a deeper understanding of this sport and aerobics, and enhance student — 151 —
understanding of aerobics projects. In this experiment, it mainly includes the learning of the basic action names of aerobics, and the understanding and application of the aerobics judgment methods. Through the interview survey, we have asked students about the theoretical knowledge of aerobics. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student10: “I did not know much about aerobics before. Through this semester’s study, I have not only learned the techniques of aerobics action, but also learned the basic name of the basic pace, learned how to work as an aerobics referee and how to judge the quality of aerobics action”. Student21: “In this semester’s aerobics study, I have not only learnt aerobics movements, but also acquired theoretical knowledge of aerobics projects, so that I have a deeper understanding of aerobics”. Student22: “It is very important to learn the names of the basic steps in aerobics, and these movement names help me remember the whole combination of movements”. Student36: “In the process of learning the aerobics judging methods, with my further understanding of aerobics judging methods, I have mastered the essentials of aerobics more accurately”. Student37: “I think my theoretical knowledge of aerobics is not enough. I have failed to understand it”. Student45: “As for the teaching of theoretical knowledge of aerobics, there is little difference between this semester aerobics class and the previous aerobics class”. The interview results show that among 52 students, 27 students think that they have learned and mastered the theoretical knowledge of the aerobics; 20 students think that the study of aerobics theoretical knowledge is not enough and needs to be strengthened; 5 students think that the study of aerobics theoretical knowledge is not very different compared with previous aerobics projects. This also shows that in the limited number of 13 classes, it is challenging not only to learn aerobics technical movements, but also to organize — 152 —
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aerobics competitions and to master the theoretical knowledge of some aerobics better. When teachers can skillfully use “the sport education model”, this problem may be better solved. 4.2.4 Responsibility At the beginning of the season, teachers group students and assign roles, and students perform their duties during the season to develop a sense of responsibility. Through the interview survey, students were asked whether they had fulfilled their responsibilities, so as to investigate the realization of the teaching goal of cultivating student sense of responsibility. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student3: “I served as the music planner, and I always tried to choose and edit the good competition music for our team”. Student13: “At the beginning of each class, as the coach of our team, I led the whole team to do warm-up activities. I always prepared carefully before class. I hope my teammates could fully warm up under my leadership and review the action combination learned in the last class”. Student14: “As a referee, I think I have a very heavy responsibility. I should accurately understand the referee rules, and strive to do a good job in judging every match”. Student28: “I am the equipment administrator. At the beginning and end of each class, I always distributed and recycled the hear-rate meters carefully”. The interview results showed that most of the 52 students in the experimental group evaluated that they had completed their responsibilities seriously and their awareness of conscientiousness and responsibility were improved; 2 students thought that their sense of responsibility was not improved much. 4.2.5 Leadership In “the sport education mode”, each team has its captain, coach and other leadership roles. Whether or not students in these roles have developed the leadership skills during the season is the purpose — 153 —
of the interview survey. Through the interview survey, students are allowed to evaluate whether or not they have improved their leadership ability, so as to investigate the realization of leadership teaching objectives. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student4: “I never served as a student cadre before, but I served as the captain of our team in this semester. At the beginning, I felt that I may not do well. But with the teacher encouragement and guidance and under the support of teammates, I led our team in winning the season champion, I think aerobics class this semester has enabled me to have learnt a lot”. Student25: “The coach of our team is very good, and everyone likes him very much. We are willing to practice with him, and he can always lead us to play our best in the game”. Student33: “As a coach, I always try to pay attention to the way and methods while treating my teammates. Through the aerobics class this semester, I have found that my status in my teammates has improved. Everyone trusts me very much and follows my command”. Student34: “My captain is very good. He always makes all our team-members practice hard to win the game”. Student45: “As the team leader, I am very proud, because our team is very united, having achieved excellent results under my leadership. I think I am a very successful captain”. Student49: “I don’t think the coach of our team talks very friendly. He doesn’t consider much about our feelings”. Student50: “I don’t want to listen to the captain’s command, because he can’t convince me”. The interview results showed that among the 52 students in the experimental group, most of the students rated themselves or the captain or coach of their team as having strong leadership ability in fulfilling the responsibility of leading the whole team well; 3 students gently criticized the team leader and the coach, and 5 students did not express their opinions. With comprehensive analysis — 154 —
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of the study of “the sport education mode” at home and abroad, it is not difficult to find that the cultivation of student leadership is the difficulty in it. Future research should focus on how to better cultivate student leadership, so that students can lead team members in a better and more appropriate way, and avoid the emergence of wrong behaviors such as dictatorship. 4.2.6 Team cohesion In the aerobics class this semester, students in the experimental group practiced as a team and participated in the competition. Only by helping one another and learning from each other can students improve together and achieve the victory of the team. Through the interview survey, students were asked about their self-evaluation on team cohesion, which aim to investigate the realization of the teaching goal of team cohesion. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student8: “Our team is very united. Everyone hopes to win the team through our own efforts”. Student9: “In the process of learning the basic movements of aerobics, when I meet difficulties, my teammates always took the initiative to help me, so that I could successfully master all the technical movements, so I am very grateful to them”. Student13: “Once I sprained my foot in practice, it is my teammates who took turns to carry me back to the dormitory”. Student20: “Before each game, the captain organized us to shout out the slogan of our team. Every time, we were particularly excited and felt that we were an important part of the team”. The results of the interview survey showed that all of the 52 students in the experimental group believed that the team members were very united in aerobics class in this semester. In the process of winning the season championship, each player has made great efforts and contributed to the victory of the team. In the whole learning process, the team cohesion has been vividly reflected.
— 155 —
4.2.7 A sense of fair competition The consciousness of fair competition in sports is the excellent cultural product of competitive sports. Through the interview survey, whether or not students in the experimental group have or enhance their sense of fair competition through the aerobics class learning is investigated. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. Student5: “In order to win the competition, we practice more actively and strive to improve the level of aerobics skills”. Student15: “We always take every game seriously”. Student29: “When other teams played, we cheered for them and wish them to play their true level”. Student38: “When our points lagged behind, we did not hate other teams, but encouraged them. We practiced hard, fighting for the next game”. Student49: “When we won the season championship, we communicated well with the rest of our teammates and thanked for their congratulations”. The results of the interview survey showed that all of the 52 students in the experimental group believed that the team members were very united in aerobics class this semester. In the process of winning the season championship, each player has made great efforts and contributed to the victory of the team. In the whole learning process, the team cohesion has been vividly reflected. 4.2.8 Lifelong physical education concept The concept of life-long sports has always been an important goal of school PE. Only by enhancing the student concept of life-long sports, can they still keep the habit of participation after going out of the campus and entering the society, so as to improve the physical health level of the whole people from a long-term perspective. Through the interview and investigation, we feel that the aerobics class in “the sport education mode” is conducive to the formation of student life-long physical education concept. Typical interview records and analyses are as follows. — 156 —
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Student13: “Through aerobics class, my level aerobics sports has been greatly improved. I hope to enter the school aerobics team through my own efforts, and I will continue to practice aerobics in my spare time”. Student20: “Through this semester’s aerobics class, I have acquired a deeper understanding of the aerobics, I will pay more attention to the development of this event in the future”. Student31: “I like aerobics, and I hope to continue to participate in this sport after I graduate and go to work”. Student43: “This semester’s aerobics class is very special. I have gained a lot in class, hence having improved my interest in sports. I like physical education and physical exercise”. The results of the interview survey showed that most of the 52 students in the experimental group said that they would pay attention to or participate in aerobics in the future; 3 students said that they might not actively participate in aerobics after the class. From the above statements of the interviewees, we can feel that most students hold a positive attitude towards “the sport education mode”, and students also affirm the completion of the teaching objectives. However, due to the limited time and energy of researchers, the interview was conducted in the form of group interview. Therefore, it is inevitable that some students would not fully express their views and opinions because they cared about the feelings of other teammates. In future studies, researchers should design the interview process more comprehensively and rigorously.
5 Conclusion In the empirical research part, the author mainly uses “the sport education mode” and the traditional sports teaching mode in the aerobics teaching in ordinary universities in China to investigate the differences in the exercise intensity and sport motivation of students under two different PE modes, and investigates student subjective attitude toward “the sport education mode” and the self-evaluation on the realization of teaching goals. — 157 —
By monitoring the variation range of student hear-rate under two different teaching modes, the following results have been found. (1) In most classes, the proportion of activity time about medium intensity, the proportion of activity time about large intensity and the proportion of medium intensity activity time under “the sport education mode” are significantly higher than the traditional sport teaching mode in China. The improvement of the proportion of student activity time about moderate intensity is conducive to the improvement of student health level, especially when the proportion of moderate intensity and high intensity activity time is increased, which is in line with the ACSM Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescribing Guidelines (8th edition), "For most adults, The combination of moderate intensity (40%≤60%VO₂R) and high intensity (≥60%VO₂R) is the ideal exercise intensity to improve the level of health, which is more conducive to the healthy development of students. (2) In most classes, the proportion of time spent at or about moderate intensity in “the sport education mode” met and exceeded 50% of the time spent at or about moderate intensity in physical education, which met the standard set by the United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) in 2000. (3)The first three lessons are the generalization period of “the sport education mode”. Under two teaching modes, student sport intensity is similar. The main problem in the generalization period is that at the beginning of the “the sport education mode” season, teachers need to introduce the mode to students, complete the work of grouping, assigning roles and responsibilities, etc. While students need to learn and adapt themselves to “the sport education mode”. It takes more time to complete these tasks. As students are getting familiar with it, they can better participate in the aerobics class, and their exercise intensity will also improve. By investigating the difference of student sport motivation under two different teaching modes, we have found the following theoretical construction and empirical research results of “the sport education mode” in Chinese — 158 —
Chapter 3 The Empirical Study on Sports Education Mode of China Ordinary Colleges and Universities
universities. (1) Through the use of “the sport education mode”, the average scores in the four dimensions of “internal motivation scale in sports” were improved, especially in two dimensions, interest/fun and efforts/importance, and the difference is extremely significant (p<0.001). As for subjective ability, the difference is very significant (p<0.01). However, by using the traditional physical education teaching mode in China, there is no significant difference among students in the four dimensions of the scale. (2) Through “the sport education mode”, the mean scores of task-orientation scores in the “Task-orientation and self-orientation scale” have increased, and the difference is very significant (p <0.01); the mean value of self-orientation scores has decreased with no significant difference. However, through the traditional physical education teaching mode in China, the average self-orientation score in the "Task-orientation and self-orientation scale in sports" has increased, with extremely significant difference (p<0.001), and the mean score of task-orientation has increased with no significant difference. (3) Through “the sport education mode”, students can improve the means of mastery motivation climate in “the sport motivation climate scale”, and the difference is very significant (p<0.01); the mean of achievement motivation climate is decreased with no significant difference. However, through the use of the traditional physical education teaching mode in China, there is no significant difference among student mastery motivation climate, achievement motivation climate in the “motivation climate scale in sports”. (4) The correlation analysis of three scales shows that task-orientation is very much related to internal motivation (p<0.01); mastery motivation climate is very much related to internal motivation and task-orientation (p<0.01); and achievement motivation climate is very much related to self-orientation (p<0.01). Through interviewing students in the experimental group, and investigating the subjective attitude of students in participating in the — 159 —
aerobics class and the self-evaluation on the realization of the teaching objectives, the following results have been found. (1) Most students have a positive attitude towards “the sport education mode”, and are willing to participate in each link of it. They like the form of grouping, take their roles and responsibilities seriously, actively participate in formal competitions and enjoy the climate of aerobics class. (2) Most of the students hold a positive attitude towards the realization of the teaching goals. They believe that through the application of “the sport education mode”, they have better developed aerobics skills and special physical qualities, having enhanced their tactical awareness to a certain extent. They can have a better understanding about the events rules. It has also enhanced their responsibility, cultivated their leadership, enhanced team cohesion and developed a sense of fair competition which are conducive to cultivating their life-long sport concepts.
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Appendix I “The Sport Education Mode” of Aerobics in Universities in China Evaluation Table for Expert Survey on Theory Construction (1) Dear teachers, The purpose of this study is to introduce “the sport education mode” into the aerobics teaching of universities in China, to build a theoretical system of “the sport education mode” through digging the connotation and essence of “the sport education mode”, and to promote the reform and development of physical education in universities in China. The theoretical construction part of this research mainly consists of two steps: First, the primary index is determined according to the constituent elements of the physical education model. Secondly, according to “the sport education mode” and the characteristics of aerobics teaching in universities of our country to determine the secondary index. The following table shows the indexes at all levels of the theoretical system of “the sport education mode” of aerobics teaching in Chinese colleges and universities. Please evaluate and score the primary and secondary indexes according to the three grades of being “unimportant” (0 points), “moderately important” (1 points) and “important” (2 points). Thank you for your help and support!
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THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND EMPRICAL RESEARCH ENTITLED “ THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION MODAL” IN ORDINARY UNIVERSITIES
Primary indexes
Secondary indexes
Theoretical basis (score：
1.Play Theory and Play Education
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
) 1.Develop aerobics techniques and special physical qualities 2.Have tactical awareness and apply it properly in competitions 3.Value sport events rules and conventions
Teaching objective system (score：
(score：
)
4.Develop student responsibility and leadership 5.Develop student executive and coaching ability 6.Increase team cohesion 7.Develop a density of fair competition
Teaching process
8.Develop a life-long sport mindset
(score：
)
(score：
1.Season schedule
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1.preparations before the season
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2.Classroom instruction
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1.Classroom management strategies
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2.Behaviour development strategies
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3.Strategy about selecting caption
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)
Operation procedures of teaching (score：
)
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Continued Primary indexes
Secondary indexes
The system of
4.Strategy about students grouping
(score：
)
5.Strategy about the role-setting
(score：
)
(score：
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7.Strategy about competition design
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8.Strategy about festivity creation
(score：
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1.Evaluation on exercises
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
(score：
)
teaching methods (score：
) 6.Strategy about responsibility assignment
2.Evaluation on students’ referee ability Evaluation of the effect of the sport education mode (score： )
3.Evaluation on team cohesion 4.Evaluation on student responsibility and leadership 5.Evaluation on the mastery of knowledge about aerobics 6.Evaluation on fair competition behavior
Your other valuable comments and suggestions:
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Appendix Ⅱ “The Sport Education Model” of Aerobics in Universities in China Evaluation Table for Expert Survey on Theory Construction (2) Dear teachers, The purpose of this study is to introduce the “sport education mode” into the calisthenics teaching of universities in China, to build a theoretical system of the “sport education mode” by digging the connotation and essence of the “sport education mode”, and to promote the reform and development of physical education in universities in China. The indicators at all levels are revised according to the analysis results of the first round of consultation. The following table shows the indicators and specific contents of the revised “the sport education mode” theoretical system of Aerobics in Chinese universities. Please evaluate and score the primary and secondary indicators according to five levels of being “unimportant” (1 point), “not very important” (2 points), “generally important” (3 points), “relatively important” (4 points) and “very important” (5 points). Thank you for your help and support!
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Appendix
Primary indexes
Secondary indexes 1.Develop techniques
aerobics and
specific
(score：
)
physical fitness Accurately master the movement technique, maintain a good body posture, have good coordination, dynamic strength, movement and music coordination and can reflect the mood of the music, and have physical qualities to ensure that the technique is always well played in the aerobics competition. 2.Enhance tactical awareness Teaching objective system (score：
)
(score：
)
Learn to develop strength and avoid weakness in the choreography, rationally arrange movements and strive for the success of the prescribed movement competition or preliminary competition.
3.Understand the rules of events
(score：
)
Students act as referees, learning the rules and being able to make correct judgments in the game. 4.Promote a sense of responsibility
(score：
Students take on different roles and assume corresponding responsibilities. — 165 —
)
Continued Primary indexes
Secondary indexes 5.Develop leadership
(score：
)
Have students started by completing small leadership tasks and then gradually broaden the scope of the tasks to gradually develop and enhance the student leadership skills.。 6.Build team cohesion Teaching objective system (score：
)
(score：
)
Building a harmonious atmosphere, so that all students can feel their contribution to the team, so as to consolidate the friendship among the team members and strengthen the cohesion of the team. 7.Develop a sense of fair (score： ) competition To cultivate student ability to make rational decisions in competitions, so that students can become more cultured when participating in sports. 8.Develop a life-long concept of sports
(score：
)
Get students more involved in sports activities outside the school, even after graduation out of the campus or on the job, so that they can still continue to participate in aerobics. 1.Season schedule
(score：
)
Determine the structure of the teaching process from the The structure of teaching process (score：
)
macro level, which refers to the general arrangement of the teaching content of each class in the whole season. 2.Classroom teaching process
(score：
)
Determine the content of each lesson from the micro level, which means that the determination of classroom teaching process and the teaching plan of each lesson. 1.Strategy for classroom management and behavior development — 166 —
(score：
)
Appendix
Continued Primary indexes
Secondary indexes Apply the traditional classroom routine and classroom requirements to
"the sport education mode" classroom.
The system of
Classroom management strategies make the classroom
teaching strategy
learning tasks completed faster and better, improve the
(score：
classroom efficiency, and set up more orderly classrooms.
)
Fair competition is the central content of student behavior development. 2.Strategy for students grouping
(score：
)
Divide students into teams or groups before, or at the beginning of the season and maintain the same teams or groups throughout the season. 3.Strategy for role and responsibility assignment
(score：
)
Design a series of roles and responsibilities for students who are consistent with the characteristics of aerobics. 4.Strategy for competition design
The system of teaching strategy (score：
)
(score：
)
Design the competition according to the characteristics of aerobics so that all students have the same opportunity to participate in the competition. 5.Strategy for festivity creation
(score：
)
Create a festive atmosphere in the daily teaching and create a festive atmosphere in the climax of the season 1.Evaluation techniques
on
aerobics
(score：
)
Student evaluation is combined with teacher evaluation, and process evaluation is combined with final evaluation, and individual performance is combined with group performance. 2.Evaluation intensity
on
exercises
(score：
)
A heart-rate meter or pedometer is used to monitor student exercise intensity during class. — 167 —
Continued
Teaching evaluation system (score： )
3.Evaluation on knowledge about aerobics events
(score：
)
Using the theoretical test method, the test is conducted at the end of each class. 4.Evaluation on the completion of responsibility
(score：
)
Student self-evaluation, peer evaluation and teacher evaluation were used to evaluate the fulfillment of roles and responsibilities. 5.Evaluation on competition behaviors
fair
(score：
)
Assessments are made by using a formal scoring system, but informal assessments can also be made at certain points.
Your other valuable comments and suggestions:
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Appendix
Appendix III The Internal Motivation Scale in the Movement Note: The number 1 to 5 represents five levels from “disagree completely” to “agree perfectly”. Please read each of the following statements carefully and make a choice according to your true feelings. 1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree In physical education: 1. I like the aerobics class very much···························· 1 2 3 4 5 2. I think I am very good at aerobics····························· 1 2 3 4 5 3. I work very hard in class········································ 1 2 3 4 5 4. I think it is important to learn aerobics well in class········1 2 3 4 5 5. I feel nervous when doing aerobics···························· 1 2 3 4 5 6. I worked very hard when doing aerobics····················· 1 2 3 4 5 7. Aerobics is fun ···················································1 2 3 4 5 8. I think our aerobics class is very interesting················· 1 2 3 4 5 9. I am very satisfied with what I have achieved in class····· 1 2 3 4 5 10. I feel stressed when doing aerobics·························· 1 2 3 4 5 11. I feel anxious when doing aerobics·························· 1 2 3 4 5 12. When doing aerobics, I don’t work very hard··············1 — 169 —
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
3
4 5 13. When jumping aerobics, I always think how much I like it··········································· 1 3 4 5 14. Soon after learning aerobics, I felt that I danced very well··········································· 1 3 4 5 15. I was very relaxed during aerobics exercises··············· 1 3 4 5 16. I do an excellent job at aerobics······························ 1 3 4 5 17. Aerobics can’t catch my attention···························· 1 3 4 5 18. I don’t do a good job at aerobics····························· 1 3 4 5
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Appendix
Appendix IV Task-orientation and Self-orientation Scales in the Movement Note: The number 1 to 5 represents five levels from “disagree completely” to “agree perfectly”. Please read each of the following statements carefully and make a choice according to your true feelings. 1= completely disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, and 5= perfectly agree I feel successful most in the PE class, when: 1. I am the only one who can dance well························ 1 2 3 4 5 2. I have learned new techniques, having made me want to do more exercises················································ 1 2 3 4 5 3. I jump better than my classmates······························ 1 2 3 4 5 4. Others do not dance as well as I do···························· 1 2 3 4 5 5. Learning what I find fun ······································· 1 2 3 4 5 6. Other people jump in a mess, but I don’t ····················1 2 3 4 5 7. I have learned new technology through hard work··········1 2 3 4 5 8. I practice very hard···············································1 2 3 4 5 9. I have got the highest affirmation or score··················· 1 2 3 4 5 10. I have learnt a technique that inspires me to do more practice··························································· 1 — 171 —
2 2 2 2
3
4 5 11. I was the best person············································1 3 4 5 12. I have a good command of new movements················ 1 3 4 5 13. I have tried my best·············································1 3 4 5
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Appendix
Appendix V Motivational Atmosphere Scale in Sports Note: The number 1 to 5 represents five levels from “disagree completely” to “agree perfectly”. Please read each of the following statements carefully and make a choice according to your true feelings. 1= completely disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, 5= perfectly agree In physical education: 1. When I do better than other students, I feel very good··················································1 2 3 4 5 2. Students are punished for mistakes···························· 1 2 3 4 5 3. Students lose the opportunity to practice because of mistakes·············································· 1 2 3 4 5 4. It is important to over-run classmates························· 1 2 3 4 5 5. Teachers pay more attention to the “star” students·········· 1 2 3 4 5 6. It is important to do better than others························ 1 2 3 4 5 7. Teachers only like some students······························ 1 2 3 4 5 8. Students are encouraged to over-run their teammates······ 1 2 3 4 5 9. Everyone wants some high marks····························· 1 ················································································2 3 4 5 10. Only the best students get the attention of their teachers· 1 2 3 4 5 — 173 —
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
11. Students are afraid of making mistakes······················1 4 5 12. Only a few students can become “star” students··········· 1 3 4 5 13. Do excellent aerobics can be rewarded by the teacher···· 1 3 4 5 14. Teachers should focus on improving student technical levels·················································1 3 4 5 15. Every student’s progress is important······················· 1 3 4 5 16. Students try to learn new techniques·························1 3 4 5 17. Students are encouraged to challenge their own weakness··········································· 1 3 4 5 18. Teachers want us to try new techniques····················· 1 3 4 5 19. Students like to play against good teams···················· 1 3 4 5 20. All the students have their own important roles············ 1 3 4 5 21. Most students will have the opportunity to participate in the competition····························· 1 3 4 5 3
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Appendix
Words: 47, 000 Author: Xiong Yan Translator: Zhang Lichao, Li Ning Planning Editor: Ren Wenyu Proofread Editor: Li Hanyang, Wei ying，Yang Xinyao， Lei Haiwei zpkjkyzx@edit.ntesmail.com
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