Humanity Research in S.T.E.A.M.

VOLUME 1 | ISSUE 2 | 2023

Humanity Research IN S.T.E.A.M.

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VOLUME 1 | ISSUE 2 | 2023

Humanity Research IN S.T.E.A.M. Science-Technology-Engineering-Art-Math

HUMANITY RESEARCH in STEAM. (Volume 1, Issue 2, 2023)

Publisher: Toronto Education Press Ltd., Canada Editor-in-Chief: Erwin Sniedzins Address: 2300 Yonge Street, Suite 1600: Toronto, ON M4P 1E4 Website: www.torontoeducationpress.com Email: info@torontoeducationpress.com Language: English Folio: 8.5 inches by 11 inches Frequency: Quarterly

Editorial Board Erwin Sniedzins – Editor, Toronto Education Press, Canada Karim Mirshahi – University of Guelph, Canada Thomas Pepper – Ryerson University, Canada Dave WANG - Douglas Biber, Northern Arizona University, USA. Alister Cumming - Toronto University, Canada John Corbett - Lynne Bowker, University of Ottawa, Canada Julia Galinsky – York University, Canada

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Table of Content

Dr. Nina Oukhina ● Development of an Advanced Dynamically Real-Time Information into Knowledge eReader – kReader / 6 Diane Devenyi ● Literacy Beyond 2022—Return to a New Better / 12 Dr. Dave Williams, Canadian Astronaut ● The Astronaut journey to Space / 23 Javid Sharifi, Haniyeh (Ramona) Fayazfar ● Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Polylactic Acid-Wood and How it Compares with Injection Moulding / 26 Xiaoxi Zhang ● Benevolence or Pretext: An Exploration of U.S. Foreign Policy Toward China in the Early 20th Century from the Perspective of Social Darwinism / 34

Hanyang Li, Guangxi University ● The Doxology of Chinese Literary Works--Exploring the Way of Compilation and Translation from The Orphan of Zhao Family to The Orphan of China / 40

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Development of an Advanced Dynamically Real-Time Information into Knowledge eReader–kReader™ Dr. Nina Oukhina

Summary Abstract: Mount Knowledge Inc. (MK) provides products and services which are changing the way that consumers of all ages learn and retain subject matter, starting in childhood and continuing for the rest of their personal and business lives. MK has developed software learning tools and teaching methodologies used by more than 300 million students in China and other countries, from grade school to university, who are seeking to learn English. kReader is designed to deliver a real-time reading and learning system that easily converts static information into Knowledge (iiK) faster and easier than traditional learning and reading methods. With kReader, an eBook can be not only easily read anywhere but also absorbed by using advanced patented iiK learning tools.

A. Scientific Technological Advancements MK started to develop a new web application named kReader to create new functions for online books.

The kReader web application not only provided the opportunity to read an eBook conveniently, but it also provided an environment to allow a user to convert a book’s contents into knowledge acquisition faster and easier with reader speed training tools such as eye fixation and keyword realization over traditional methods.

MK development produced the following advancements: 1. Based on an analysis of various front and back-end web technologies, the MK dramatically improved the layout and GUI design for eBook services to find solutions for the issues created by implementing intuitive design techniques for kReader. With this new intuitive design, users could easily understand the GUI’s behaviour without requiring extra assistance or special training.

2. The MK developed new presentation formats for eBook services to deliver various tools to a client and provide learning functions such as book summarization, keyword highlighting, note-taking, and “mind webbing” from a book’s contents.

3. kReader components were intended to promote effective online text processes through a creative 6

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GUI design to provide a user with the flexibility to collect the information from the contents of a book and convert it into knowledge in a manner that is most helpful to them.

4. The MK designed additional data processing procedures to extract data that would be able to be absorbed as knowledge which was drawn from an eBook’s contents.

5. The MK successfully developed an e-reader web application to process large amounts of data online and create learning aids as additional pages inside the original book without any additional delays.

B. Technological Base Knowledge and Obstacles The E-reader web applications on the market support common functions such as inputting, process and saving in a database with different formats (pdf, ePub, Mobi, doc...) of electronic books, selecting a book function, automatic page turning, bookmarking, zooming, choose half-age view, use of a dictionary and provide text-to-speech support. They also provide different book presentation formats such as book summarization, keyword highlighting, note-taking, etc. However, those web applications don’t include learning functions. kReader, a web application which mixes reading and learning functions, had to be created for new functions for online books. It includes a lot of detailed procedures for processing online data and delivering content for learning purposes. All these procedures require a selection of implementation tools that can deliver data to the client without visible delays or loading (waiting) time. The obstacle is how to process large amounts of data online and create learning content as additional pages inside the original book without delays or loading (waiting) time.

An implementation of kReader is needed to develop many client-side components. Currently, there are only two possible approaches to apply to this development: Asp.net server controls or Jquery add/remove class approach.

Asp.net server controls or jQuery add/remove class approach have their own advantages and disadvantages.

Experimental development had to be conducted to compare the two approaches to determine the right one for building GUI layouts for kReader.

As an e-reader web application, kReader is presented with many forms (shapes), contents and behaviours which depend on versions, modes (reading, speed reading, keywords reading, mind web reading, etc.), options (with images, with score tracking, with tips, etc.), and parameters (for book page navigation, flipping, scrolling, etc.)

The number of layouts to kReader implementation could have reached a significant value: N = (number of versions) x (number of modes) x (number of options) x (number of parameters).

The main objective was minimizing the number of GUI layouts required to implement all the spectra of kReader functionality. The functionality was presented by behaviours that could be generated by combinations or a variety of versions (V), modes (M), options (OP) and parameters (P).

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Behaviours = F (V, M, OP, P); Also, the MK systematically related various behaviours accordantly integrating reading or learning scenarios for support or to implement a user’s learning goals or needs: Logic = {{E1, E2, E5, E4}, {E1, E3}, ... ,{En, Em, ..., Ez}}.

Each approach would be evaluated based on the results of various combinations of these parameters.

Technological Uncertainties: The approaches for comparison had different programming bases. Even though the evaluation process had its own difficulties, it was possible to compare the approaches using this methodology. Experimental measurement of parameters for both approaches with different user behaviours was a challenge that could bring information to justify the GUI layout implementation.

C. Description of Work in this Taxation Year The MK investigated different technologies and determined the problems with the current technologies for an e-reader service.

There were two approaches, the asp.net component or jQuery add/remove class approach, that could be chosen to develop a possible e-reader web application for both learning and reading functions.

The MK created prototypes using both the “asp.net control approach” and “jQuery add/remove class approach” and determined the parameters necessary to calculate in order to compare the two approaches.

The MK measured loading, waiting times, and other parameters to choose more appropriate deployment tools.

The MK started to develop GUI components and defined problems and data modelling for both approaches.

The MK experimentally compared the two approaches to determine the more optimal one for project implementation, including: 1. Finding a formal routine for the comparison of the two approaches: Behaviors = F (V, M, OP, P).

2. Defining parameters to compare the two approaches. The MK used the following eight parameters: 1 ) source code transparency 2 ) code tuning and modification ability 3 ) number of event handlers 4 ) value and content of the initial procedure 5 ) Class dependencies.

6 ) loading time 7 ) rendering time 8 ) recovery ability after interruptions 3. Measuring parameters of the components using two approaches

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Reading Component Development This component developed a loading process for loading an eBook’s contents.

- loading an entire book as one stream.

- preloading a few pages and then loading more pages after a turning pages event request.

- loading one current page and each page loading as requested.

- creating a behind-the-scenes buffer to load pages by an asynchronous process.

All these procedures were tested by using the jQuery and asp server controls approaches to measure loading time and specifying architectural elements to support them.

Eye Fixation and Speed iiK Training Component Development The average reading speed is a function of eye fixation on each word and the space between the word.

Anther component is the movement of the eyes along the page and the vocabulary of the reader. To overcome the reader’s internal vocalization habits the components uses artificial intelligence to engage the eyes with an animated ball that moves from on keyword or subject to the next. This forces the eyes to break the internal fixation and the speed of the ball helps to train the eyes to gather larger sections of each sentence focusing on the key idea and then move to the next. The component was to ensure that the reader understood the vocabular used in the sentences and paragraph. This was accomplished by exploring the size of the readers vocabulary against the words used in the story, article or book against the used knowledge bank.

The results enable the reader to increase their reading speed and comprehension at least 54% faster and with practice up to twice their reading speed.

Keywords Component Development This component was created to work with loaded pages and to asynchronously process each page to extract keywords and highlight them in the text of a page. The MK defined how to link (synchronize) two processes: the loading page and starting keywords calculation process. There were a few variations of this process: - calculating keywords on a server and then loading a page with the keywords highlighted on the page.

- just loading the page and then calculating keywords on the client side.

- calculating keywords for a few pages in advance (again on both a server and a client-side basis); All these variations were tested together with the page loading process.

Summarization Pages Component Development Page summarization included keywords (see above) and summary calculations.

There were three asynchronous processes: page load, keyword calculations, and summary calculations. A prototype component was developed to estimate the stabilization of these processes together. Also, the MK created more complicated architecture and event map processes that had to be selected, designed, confirmed, and estimated.

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Mind Webbing Component Development This component had to load pictorial representations of any word, keyword, summary sentence or userprovided word.

Loading images used the Web Browser pool, their own application buffer or loaded directly to the page. All variations were tested—also, this component needed to save mind webbing pictures that the user created.

Mind webbing was presented by using a graphic area with images, text and a list of links. This data could be recorded as an XML document, a data struct or a serialization string. Prototypes were developed to test strategies and tools for loading and saving images and other data.

Main Character Component Development For novels, the main character component was designed to obtain information that required processing more than one page at a time.

This was an extremely complicated calculation scheme. At least one book chapter at a time should be processed to extract the main characters properly. It included the following variations: - processing text of the chapter pages on the server and main characters for each page on the server; - processing text of chapter pages on the server and main characters for each page on the client; - processing text of chapter pages on the client and main characters for each page on the client.

This text processing in all variations had to be synchronized with loading page processes and had to share space in the application pool for saving intermediate transitional data. The MK selected data processing procedures with supported architectural solutions.

The MK analyzed the results of the two approaches and reached the following conclusion: the results of using the jQuery approach in parameters 1, 2 and 8 were superior to using the asp.net approach, and the system performance of using the jQuery approach in parameters 4, 6 and 7 was better than using asp.net approach. jQuery approach was chosen for project development because it could be initialized using an asynchronous procedure and started as a background process eliminating unnecessary loading time process.

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Author Note Dr. Nina Oukhina graduated from St. Petersburg State Marine Technical University with a philosophy degree in mathematics. Before migrating to Canada, she was a Professor at the State Marine Technical University, Computer Science Department. Her main research interests are learning efficiencies in education, gamification, blockchain technology and student engagement.

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Literacy Beyond 2022—Return to a New Better

By Diane Devenyi

Abstract In this article, I will consider the new challenges faced by educators in the wake of two years of interrupted classroom experiences due to a global pandemic. The literacy and learning gaps exposed for many students reveal the need to revisit how we educate our children. As the world returns to more in-person learning, there is a unique opportunity to whole-heartedly integrate decades of educational research that has yet to be experienced by millions of students. I will review various components believed to be necessary for literacy and learning development as I construct what I feel is a well-rounded approach to literacy for current inperson classroom and distance environments. I will also pay special attention to universal pedagogical practices that accelerate learning for all participants while giving those considered “at risk” the solid foundation they require.

Introduction: For more than 20 years, I have been passionate about the effect that solid, well-rounded foundations in literacy and learning skills can have on human potential. I have also seen how challenging it has been to integrate decades of wisdom from those who study learning into universal classroom practices. My passion for reform has never waned as I developed hands-on workshops that apply accelerated learning techniques to turn around common literacy issues of poor spelling, messy writing, slow reading, and trouble turning thoughts into spoken or written words. When the world shut down in March 2020 for two weeks and then two years, I had to do what many businesses did: pivot to online learning experiences. It has been frustrating to see the challenges and failures of distance learning for many. I also saw, however, an opportunity to reshape learning so that the recent hyper-acceleration of technology in our lives can also accelerate learning and literacy skills for all.

In furthering this aspiration, I consider what constitutes a holistic literacy program that can meet the needs of more students than is currently the case in most in-person and distance classrooms.

Background: I will conduct a literary review of theories and practices in literacy and learning and also add my personal experiences and observations in an attempt to define the components of a foundational literacy program that 12

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could maximize enriching the outcomes for all students.

Discussion: In 2022 and beyond, schools are facing increasing challenges because recent distance learning options not only demonstrated uneven access to technology and a range of parental support, they made it clear that many students do not have the learning or literacy skills necessary to thrive in the distance or blended educational settings, or beyond, in their adult lives. The latter fact has serious implications for future social and economic experiences for these students and a country’s economic success.

In January 2021, The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that nearly half of the Canadian adults struggle with literacy. The fact that many Canadian jobs are resource based, and do not require people to maintain literacy to do their jobs, has been proposed as an explanation, as well as the high percentage of newcomers to Canada for whom English or French are not their first language. Canada has not paid attention to this issue and is falling behind other countries in international skills assessments, such as Japan, Australia, Sweden, Finland and Holland. A change has been long overdue, and the capacity to bring higher literacy levels into reality must become a priority for the government.

There are two primary reasons for promoting a literate populace: one is to achieve the humanitarian goal of offering opportunities to all citizens to participate fully in society; the other is to strengthen a country’s economy by maximizing the number of self sufficient individuals who contribute in various ways to the economy.

De la Mothe (2006) writes: In a knowledge economy, Canada needs skills and knowledge in the emerging areas of information, data, media and communications development, manipulation and acquisition…. The place to learn these skills is in schools. Schools – which are not traditionally considered part of a nation’s science system – provide the building blocks for the future of nations.

Indeed, schools are the place to develop what students will need to participate meaningfully and successfully in the world; and literacy skills are at the top of the needs list (Slavin 1996; Weaver 1990, as cited in Pfeiffer, Davis, Kellogg, Hern, McLaughlin, Curry 2001). Gee (1996) states, “The most striking continuity in the history of literacy is the way in which literacy has been used, in age after age, to solidify the social hierarchy, empower elites, and ensure that people lower on the hierarchy accept the values, norms and beliefs of the elite, even when it is not in their self-interest or group interest to do so (Bocock 1986; Gramsci~1971). Our new global capitalism may well change the sorts of skills and values the society wishes to distribute to ‘lower’ and ‘higher’ kinds of people, but, without strong resistance, it will not eradicate these ‘kinds” (p. 36).

Literacy is at the hub of complex social systems. For this reason, it has received a great deal of attention from the academy over the past 100 years, which has generated significant disagreement about how to achieve reading fluency in the education system (Kammenui, 1998). Based on what I have read in the 13

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literature and personally experienced, I will define what I consider to be critical components for a wellrounded literacy program that can be used for any age and any skill level. Just as with any recipe, the outcome depends on the input; if we alter or omit any of the ingredients, the result may or may not be desirable. I submit that we risk leaving some citizens behind if we do not do our best to incorporate each element as fully as possible. Every person has their hook for engagement; the wider we cast our net, the greater our chances are for connecting to more students. Also, because I believe that an effective program will meet the needs of all learners, I will scrutinize each component to consider its potential for success with different populations.

The Components: • Define the paradigm There are two areas to address: 1. How we believe education should be delivered, and 2. What we believe about the potential of every child.

A reflection upon the following passage by Haim Ginott (1972) can be both stimulating and sobering: “I have come to a frightening conclusion. I am the decisive element in the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my mood that makes the weather. As a teacher I possess tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated, and a child humanized or de-humanized.”

As we consider shifting a paradigm we must remember that this is not an easy task. In the classic book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions science historian Thomas Kuhn describes how the scientific community holds paradigms “like an accepted judicial decision in the common law.” He explains: Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of practitioners has come to recognize as acute. The success of a paradigm…is at the start largely a promise of success discoverable in selected and still incomplete examples. Normal science consists in the actualization of that promise.

This means that scientists (and all of us) are compelled to produce more data to support the paradigm, preferring consistency to novelty. Anomalies are overlooked until they become too disruptive to ignore.

The classroom “anomalies” have been increasing in number; now is the time to apply a consistent paradigm within which they will all succeed.

We are still largely under the influence of an education system that has its roots in ancient Greece and with Plato. It was believed then that if we could articulate something, that was an indication of our rational grasp of it. This intellectual activity was seen as the only path to true adult knowledge (Egan 1996). The development of triadic dialogue – teacher initiate, student response, teacher follow-up, particularly when 14

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teachers follow a script to ensure students get the “right” answer—matched the framework of this system well (Wells 1999).

Unfortunately, in many instances, this context for learning has not been satisfying for students and educators, particularly when meaningful feedback is not part of the process. In Dumbing Us Down, upon receiving an award for excellence in teaching in New York City, John Gatto describes himself as “the sevenlesson school teacher” who has been hired to teach English but finds himself instead teaching confusion, class position, indifference, intellectual and emotional dependency, provisional self-esteem and that one can’t hide (unless you go to the bathroom).

In recent years some teachers have moved toward a classroom paradigm that incorporates the inquiry approach: a system of shifting traditional forms of dialogue by having teachers ask students for explanations, justifications, amplifications and points of view as they co-construct meaning (Wells 1999). Characteristics of more effective teachers have been identified as follows (Mercer 2004): 1. They used Q&A sequences not just to test knowledge but also to guide the development of understanding.

2. They taught not just “subject content”, but also procedures for solving problems and making sense of experience.

3. They treated learning as a social, communicative process.

How a teacher approaches his or her students can have a tremendous impact on the learning experience for everyone (including the teacher). The more time educators practice sensitively facilitating learning, scaffolding when necessary and scheduling in time for student discovery opportunities and reflection, the more satisfying the outcome is likely to be for everyone. A New York Times on the Web (2006) article quotes Tim O'Reilly, the founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media: Creativity is no longer about which companies have the most visionary executives, but who has the most compelling “architecture of participation.” That is, which companies make it easy, interesting and rewarding for a wide range of contributors to offer ideas, solve problems and improve products?

Imagine how a classroom that provides an “architecture of participation” would feel for everyone, and particularly for those students who only thrive when their input is valued. The best teachers know the effectiveness of this approach; sometimes we need to step back and re-evaluate our practices. We may in fact give students many opportunities to contribute but discover, upon self-assessment, that we control student engagement with interruptions and well-intentioned “guidance” (Cunningham 2002).

The second aspect of the recommended paradigm is the attitude toward student potential. Academic success is attributable to a variety of social, emotional, intellectual and academic factors (Samway & McKeon 1999). Social stigma attached to caste-like minority groups affects the performance of minority students in different settings. For example, Korean students perform poorly in schools in Japan (where they are treated 15

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as a caste-like minority) but do well in schools in the United States (DeVos & Lee 1981, as cited in Samway & McKeon 1999).

Another factor that can have an impact on a student’s success is the Pygmalion effect. First identified almost 40 years ago, it is now widely accepted that a teacher’s expectations about a student’s success can influence that student’s behaviour and ultimate success (Rosenthal & Jacobson 1968). Teachers must be aware of their assumptions and hold visions of success for their students. Teachers who maintain a persistent belief in the abilities of all students to learn mathematics have demonstrated that students can achieve significantly greater results than were previously achieved (Mighton 2003). While the specific program taught did have an impact, at the core of the program was a belief that students who were struggling could succeed and would be more likely to learn if they had an enriched experience rather than a watered-down version of the curriculum. Stanford professor Carol Dweck has more recently been sharing the power of growth mindset, where individuals believe in and work toward developing their talents through effort, strategies and input from others (Dweck 2017). Mindset is not a magic bullet she cautions, and praise for process must reflect result so that improvement is continually iterated.

• Minimize disorientation How we observe the world affects its “reality” to us. The act of seeing involves much more than physical awareness, and all prior experiences of the observer affect the processing of images (Hanson 1972). Many individuals can disorient their perceptions by using their mind’s eye (imagination) to see something other than what we would call reality (Davis 1997). This can be valuable for creative endeavours such as fine art, music, drama, writing, athletics and science. It can feel very comfortable for these individuals, who may or may not know they are disoriented when expressing their talents. However, the same disorientation will not likely serve them well when they practice literacy. If the symbols we use (the alphabet and punctuation marks) are not consistently perceived and integrated, some individuals will struggle with reading and writing; others will find these activities impossible.

Awareness of the tendency of some students to be disoriented is the first step toward resolving their confusion, both for the teacher and the student. Visualization and physical exercises can create neural pathways in the brain to maintain, at will, orientation for reading and writing (Davis 1987). As many people who practice some form of meditation will attest, even those who do not struggle with this difficulty will benefit from learning how to be focused, relaxed and ready to learn. For this reason, activities that enhance focusing, balancing (in the body) and taking responsibility for one’s learning are appropriate for all learners and enhance classroom management in a way that honours everyone. Also, activities that develop resiliency facilitate the release of any stress that disorientation may have caused. These could include simple breathing exercises, and to paraphrase Adlerian psychologists, learning to adjust one’s energy to “meet the needs of any situation.”

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• Create learning communities!

Studies about achievement in cooperative learning groups (Yager 1985; Yager 1986) have spawned programs that provide guidelines for, inter alia, creating more inclusive classrooms where participants practice knowing, respecting and learning with each other (Gibbs 2001). The extra effort involved in becoming literate when we already have the ability to communicate orally demands some incentive. When we feel a connection to others, we are more likely to want to communicate with them using appropriate cultural modes. In a society where literacy is a valued form of communication, children will be naturally inclined to seek inclusion via literacy (Tardella 1999). If an individual who is so motivated experiences literacy in playful and relaxed ways, accelerated learning can occur (Rose & Nicholl 1997).

Second language learning environments are very effective when the group only moves forward once every student has mastered a concept and each is motivated to keep up with the group (Rose & Nicholl 1997). A commitment to supporting each other maintains both relevancy (connection) and relaxation (due to support).

There is also research that shows that socialization is necessary for comprehension because readers must use prior knowledge to give meaning to written words (Just and Carpenter 1987; Perfetti 1985, as cited in Stanovich 2000).

The oral nature of many community-building activities needs to be appreciated as the foundation upon which literacy can be built rather than as a less sophisticated step in the process of becoming literate. By examining non-literate traditions, we may better understand the transition of Western children from orality to literacy, improve literacy rates, and improve the richness of literacy we can achieve (Egan 1996). More attention must be paid to developing exploratory talk among students, which is “that in which partners engage critically but constructively with each other’s ideas” (Mercer 2004, p. 133).

In the inclusive classroom, a context of connection and acceptance becomes even more important. Everyone wins when every member of the class experiences a sense of value and support; learning how to be together with each other is recognized as being a life-long process. Imagine how it would feel for everyone if every class established a collective vision of confidence in each student’s ability to succeed and together knew how to recover from stress, whether caused by confusion, embarrassment or regret.

• Maximize phonological awareness Phonological awareness is one of the best predictors of future literacy. Students who arrive at school exhibiting a weakness in phonological awareness, whether due to a disability, a lack of pre-school exposure to discourse and/or written materials, or diversity of culture (so that English phonological awareness is lacking) need extra support (Lyon 1994, Lyon 1995). Many children with learning disabilities are limited in their ability to process phonological information. Most importantly, they do not readily learn how to relate letters of the alphabet to the sounds of language (Lyon, 1995).

Much of the attention given to developing programs for increasing phonological awareness has focused 17

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on the sounds of letters and letter combinations (Donnelly, Thomson, Huber & Schoemer 1999). What if instruction in phonological awareness included more hands-on experiences with the alphabet? What if some individuals cannot integrate these symbols without exploring the letters in ways beyond merely seeing them on cards or books and copying them onto paper with a pencil? We may presume that the phonological awareness challenge is related to the processing of sounds, but we cannot be sure. Literate cultures prepare their children with distinctive forms of thought and understanding (Egan 1996). Part of this preparation includes early exposure to written language through books; we also encounter written language from signage visible everywhere we go. Pre-literate students can usually demonstrate their knowledge of the written language used in their culture by creating marks that resemble the language’s alphabet (Harste, Woodward & Burke 1984). If the letters themselves are causing confusion, then making connections between letters and sounds will be hindered.

A K-1 pilot of the Davis Learning Strategies program that introduced the alphabet by having students create their own alphabets out of modelling clay and learn 100 basic sight words (meaning and symbol) through visualization and sculpting found that first grade students in the program scored significantly higher than a control group in the mastery of the words. Follow-up data collected two years after the pilot was completed indicated that no special education referrals had been made for any of the 86 children who had participated, and gifted referrals were higher than for the average population (Pfeiffer et al. 2001). This type of experience appears to be remedial for some and can enrich learning for everyone. An experienced teacher has asked: “…

Teaching decoding and phonemic awareness doesn’t hinder those lucky children who would become readers almost effortlessly, but it does allow those who need better instruction to become readers too….Opening up the world this way also has benefits for the rest of us….Surely there is such an enrichment for the able reader who is exposed to the wonderful songs, word play and word games that we use for teaching decoding and phonemic awareness?” (Stanovich 2000) I submit that we all benefit when we practice learning through all of our senses, even if we are learning “almost effortlessly.”

• Make it meaningful, interesting and fun All discourse, whether oral or literate, is in aid of something. As social beings, we learn to communicate our physical and emotional needs by developing our basic interpersonal communication skills. We could all live and die with these abilities, but as humans, we are living organisms who are programmed to seek out richer experiences. This is why we have created schools and opportunities for deeper learning where cognitive academic language proficiency is required.

When introducing children to the world of higher order thinking, we need to be careful not to see orality as a replacement for literacy; both can contribute to each other (Egan 1996). It is also important to keep learning exercises meaningful for children (Vygotsky 1978). According to Teale, “the field has, de facto, acted as though there is a literacy learning process that is essentially acontextual and a cultural” (Teale 2003). One 18

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way that meaning has been brought into the classroom is through the use of play.

The effect of play on learning has been well studied and reported. Play leads to written language development through the use of second-order symbolism of objects—for example, a block can represent a bakery in a community structure—that develops into the system of second order symbolism known as writing (Vygotsky 1978, p. 110). It is also natural and fun for children. The Waldorf, Montessori, Reggio Emilia, Sudbury Valley and many other school systems value play as an important part in learning.

Introducing a classroom mailbox center into a kindergarten class is one effective way to use play in developing literacy skills in children (Tardella 1999).

The use of psychological triggers to gamify experiences in social media motivates millions of users to seek likes and shares as they scroll endless feeds. Online learning is also being gamified and the online platform Xperiencify.com boasts a student transformation success rate of more than 50% when the industry standard for online students to complete and report a transformation from a course has been closer to a mere 3%.

What about bringing meaning to children by offering them opportunities to process deep understanding while engaging the whole brain and body? Hands-on learning is essential for some activities, for example, driving a car or performing surgery. I submit that it is as important for developing deeper cognitive and literacy skills. The Davis system referred to above uses dialogue, visualization and sculpting of abstract concepts to facilitate a richness of meaning that is rare in most pedagogy. It was originally designed to meet the needs of learners whom Davis refers to as “picture thinkers” –people who cannot understand abstract words and concepts unless they can attach a visual picture to it in their mind (Davis 1997). For picture thinkers, and most of us to some extent, all pronouns and articles can present challenges to comprehension, as do the myriad abstract concepts we encounter every day. When a child can create a sculpture of the definition of the word “the”—“that one which is here or has been mentioned” is but one of thirteen definitions in a children’s dictionary (Agnes 1999)— depth and comprehension happen.

According to Chomsky (2002), “Language is a kind of latent structure in the human mind, developed and fixed by exposure to specific linguistic experiences.” In other words, the brain is much like a computer: if we do not run the proper program in either one, neither works effectively. By offering a more holistic literacy practice in our classrooms, we will meet the needs of all students and ensure that those who flourish when their hands and imaginations are fully stimulated are running the appropriate programs in their brains.

• For 2022 and beyond In case we didn’t know it, the past two years have demonstrated our need to be connected when we cannot be together physically. We have also seen how that desire drove the technology to change how we interact and learn radically. Zoom and other virtual meeting platforms jumped forward to make in-person meetings an option rather than a requirement. Blended learning (both in-person and virtual lessons) can also now be successful in ways never imagined a few short years ago. Khan Academy has been working since 2005 to “flip 19

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the classroom” by offering high-quality lessons as homework lessons so that teachers can spend classroom time identifying blocks and working to resolve the confusion. Lessons that would normally be assigned as homework benefit from immediate teacher support. When in-person learning is not an option, we now have choices. These advances do require access to technology, however, and even developed countries such as Canada and the United States have yet to fill the digital divide among some populations.

As parts of the world return to life that permits being physically together again, we need to remember what was learned about foundational gaps among many students during distance learning as we push forward to integrate new possibilities. Literacy remains as important as ever in the foreseeable future (if there is such a thing!) despite visual technologies that promise experiences beyond words.

Summary: There are many effective methods for teaching literacy, as well as ever-increasing challenges being presented to teachers in the form of students’ diverse life experiences and abilities. I believe that it is time to gather the ingredients we know to be supportive of student engagement and success and include each one of them in our future universal design pedagogy with deliberate awareness. This is a task that requires effort and flexibility on everyone’s part that will produce great dividends. Given the growing complexity of needs in our classrooms, I believe that the time for creating the necessary shift is now.

References: Agnes, M. (1999). Webster’s new world children’s dictionary. Cleveland, OH: Wiley.

Chomsky, N. (2002). Language and the mind. In B. Power & R. Hubbard (eds.), Language development: A reader for teachers (pp. 36-42). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Cunningham, A. (2002). Teacher research extension: “You talk too much.” In B. Power & R. Hubbard (eds.), Language development: A reader for teachers (pp. 95-96). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Davis, R. (1997). The gift of dyslexia, New York: The Berkley Publishing Group. de la Mothe, J. (2006). Innovation strategies in interdependent states essays for smaller nations, regions and cities. New York: Edward Elgar, 32.

Donnelly, K., Thomson, S., Huber, L., Schoemer, D. (1992). More than words: Activities for phonological awareness and comprehension. Tucson, AZ: Communication Skill Builders Inc. Egan, K. (1996), Literacy and the oral foundations of language. In B. Power & R. Hubbard (eds.), Language development: A reader for teachers (pp. 189-208). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Gatto, J. T. (1992). Dumbing us down, Gabriola Island, BC, New Society Publishers.

Gee, J. P. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Falmer.

Gibb, J. (2001). Tribes: A new way of learning and being together. Windsor, California: Centersource Systems, LLC. 20

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Ginott, H. (1972). Teacher and child: A book for parents and teachers. New York: Macmillan.

Hanson, N.(1972). Patterns of discovery: An inquiry into the conceptual foundations of science. Cambridge: University Press.

Harste, J., Woodward, V., & Burke, C. (1984). Language stories and literacy lessons. Exeter, NH: Heinemann.

Kameenui, E.J. (1996, Winter). Shakespeare and beginning reading: The readiness is all. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27 (2).

Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 23.

Lyon, G. R. (1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-27.

Lyon, G.R. (1994). Research in learning disabilities at the NICHD. Technical document. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Mayer, C. (1998). Deaf children learning to spell. Research in the Teaching of English, (33), 158-180.

Mercer, N. (2004). Development through dialogue. In T. Grainger (ed.), The RoutledgeFalmer reader in language and literacy (pp. 121-137). New York: Routledge-Falmer. Mighton, J. (2003). The myth of ability. Toronto: The House of Anansi Press Inc. Pfeiffer, S., Davis, R., Kellogg, E., Hern, C., McLaughlin, T.F., & Curry, G. (2001). The effect of the Davis learning strategies on first grade word recognition and subsequent special education referrals. Reading Improvement, 38 (2), 74-84.

Rose, C. & Nicholl, M. J. (1997). Accelerated learning for the 21st century. New York: Dell Publishing.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Ross, M., Brackett, D., & Maxon, A. (1991). Assessment and management of mainstreamed hearing impaired children. Austin TX: Pro-Ed Inc. Smith, S.B., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (February, 1995). Synthesis of research on phonological awareness: Principles and implications for reading acquisition. (Technical Report no. 21, National Center to Improve the Tools of Education). Eugene: University of Oregon.

Stanovich, K. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers (pp. 392417). New York: The Guilford Press. (p. 416) Tardella, A. (1999, August). Emergent literacy and play in kindergarten: The mailbox center. Masters MRP, Toronto: York University.

Taylor, W.C., (2006, March 26). Here’s an idea: Let everyone have ideas. New York Times on the Net, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/business/yourmoney/26mgmt.html?ex=114412680 0&en=3154ce4b0a 19e212&ei=5070&emc=eta1.

Teale, W. H. (2003). Questions about early literacy that need asking—and some that don’t. In D. Barone & L. Morrow (Eds.), Literacy and young children: Research-based practices (pp. 23-44). New York: The 21

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Guilford Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wells, G. (1999). Language and education: Reconceptualizing education as dialogue. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 19, 135-155.

About Author Diane Devenyi, JD, MEd, is a former tax lawyer and education advocate; when her three children were young, she experienced the challenges of learning differences.

It has become her life-long passion. With more than 20 years in the field, she shares her research on literacy and learning in a 4-book Dear Genius series. Dear Genius, Your letter dis-order is showing! as the first available on Amazon in February 2022. She hopes that children everywhere (and even adults) can finally find relief and the freedom to soar in their zone of genius.

Diane can be reached at diane@thelearningforce.com or https://www.linkedin.com/in/dianedevenyi/ New Facebook group: https://www.facebook.com/groups/englishliteracy5.0

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The Astronaut journey to Space Dr. Dave Williams, Canadian Astronaut

There is no greater opportunity to contemplate globalization and planetary change than the view of the International Space Station. Now celebrating its 25th anniversary, the ISS has been home in space for over 266 visitors from 20 different countries. Travelling 25 times the speed of sound, the Station orbits the Earth every ninety minutes, giving astronauts frequent opportunities to glimpse the planet’s beauty. The spectacular view defies description.

The simplest description of the impact of seeing the Earth from space is that it provides an overview effect, leaving a broader planetary perspective in those lucky enough to have witnessed it firsthand. Many think of this as something new, yet 55 years ago, on December 24th, 1968, the Apollo 8 crew first shared images of the Earth rising above the lunar surface. It happened a few minutes after 11:30 am (ET) when the spacecraft was coming around from the far side of the Moon. Looking out the side window of the command module, astronaut Bill Anders commented, “Look at that picture over there! The Earth is coming up. Wow, is that pretty!”

For the astronauts, the unexpected Earthrise was one of the mission highlights, and Ander’s many photos 23

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became iconic images of the 20th century. I was fourteen at the time and, to this day recall watching the live coverage of the mission. It was incredible! Little did I realize that one day I would become an astronaut who would fly into space twice and perform three spacewalks helping build the ISS. In a decade of change, the Apollo 8 photos captured the essence of the term “global village,” a concept proposed at the time by Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan. He suggested that all parts of the world were being brought together through shared telecommunication, creating interconnections between people everywhere. Today, the power of sharing stories, thoughts and ideas through social media is changing our planet in many ways. Using social media to share images of the Earth from space has helped share the planetary perspective.

I have been fortunate to have lived and worked in outer and inner space, the undersea world that makes up roughly 70% of our planet. Those experiences helped me understand the role that humans play in shaping the future of our planet and the opportunities that can arise from working together for the betterment of our global village. The magic of seeing the Earth from space on my first spaceflight was a life-changing experience. The spectacular beauty of the oceans, forests, mountains, and deserts provided an everchanging vista that was a mesmerizing experience. However, on my second spaceflight, I felt the planetary perspective's profound impact.

Of the roughly 625 people that have travelled in space, less than half have been outside their spacecraft on a spacewalk. It is a sobering moment when the airlock is depressurized to the vacuum of space, and one realizes that survival depends on the unique combination of technology and human frailty. Spacewalking has been described as the ultimate team sport, with many experts in mission control available to help the two astronauts succeed in their objectives. Yet for those outside, if something bad happens, it is understood that you might have the rest of your life to solve the problem. It is an environment intolerant of error but striking in its beauty. I was fortunate to spend 17 hours and forty-seven minutes in its harsh embrace while performing three spacewalks on my visit to the space station that were part of the Space Shuttle mission STS-118.

The mission’s second spacewalk focused on replacing one of the four space station gyroscopes that help stabilize the station as it orbits the Earth. My spacewalking colleague Rick Mastracchio and I would follow a carefully choreographed timeline to complete the task, during which I would spend the majority of my time riding the robotic Canadarm transferring the new and old gyroscopes to and from the worksite. Perched on the end of this icon of space technology, the ride was unlike anything I had ever experienced. The following 24

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excerpt from my memoire “Defying Limits Lessons From the Edge of the Universe” captures the moment.

“I will never forget the amazing epiphany of looking down and seeing our 4.5-billion-year-old planet, a beautiful blue oasis, cast against the endless black expanse of outer space. There it was: my home, home to us all. The entire history of humanity had taken place on the planet beneath me. Minus my crewmates, everyone I cared about was down there. Everything that had ever happened to me had taken place there.

From my distant vantage point, there were no boundaries evident, no divisions between countries, only majestic continents surrounded by deep blue oceans.” At that moment, I embraced the planetary perspective and experienced a sense of interconnectedness with humans everywhere.

Many in the Traveler’s Century Club share that sense of interconnectedness, whose more than 1500 members have visited one hundred or more territories of the world. The myriad experiences associated with such trips provide insights into the different cultures, languages, history, and diversity that represents the human experience. It is a source of inspiration for both growth and self-fulfillment, as well as creating shared experiences with others that last a lifetime. For the author, after travelling 18,489,253 km to see the planet from a distance, it is now time to try to visit another 72 countries or territories to become a TCC member. Whether I make the destination or not, the journey will be an incredible experience!

Dave Williams OC OOnt MSc MD CM CCFP FCFP FRCPC FRCP FRCGS LLD (Hon) DSc (Hon) Canadian Astronaut March 28th, 2023.

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Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Polylactic Acid-Wood Flour Biocomposite and How it Compares with Injection Moulding Javid Sharifi, Haniyeh (Ramona) Fayazfar Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, Ontario, L1G 0C5, Canada.

Abstract. This study investigates the development of high solid content wood flour-polymer biocomposites as sustainable feedstock, using industry wood waste as natural filler and Polylactic acid (PLA) as biobased polymer, compatible with fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing and injection molding (IM).

Various formulations were developed, including wood flour concentrations up to 40 wt.% and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a plasticizer. Mechanical properties were analyzed, revealing that IM samples illustrated superior tensile strength and modulus compared to 3D-printed samples as a result of more porosity in the 3D printed parts. However, the results were comparable for 40 wt% wood and 10 wt% plasticizer for both processes. These findings emphasize the importance of optimizing 3D-printing parameters for highperformance biocomposite applications in industries such as construction and automotive.

Keywords: Fused filament fabrication (FFF); Injection molding (IM), 3D-printing; Wood flour; Polylactic acid

1. Introduction Additive manufacturing (AM), also called 3D printing, has emerged as a prominent technology for fabrication 3D objects by layering materials, offering various advantages such as design flexibility, cost and waste reduction compared to traditional manufacturing such as injection molding (IM) [1, 2]. Fused deposition modeling (FDM), among various AM techniques, is one of the most affordable and user-friendly AM techniques, which employs extruded filaments through a nozzle with an adequate melt flow index [3].

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a widely used FDM 3D-printing material known for its sustainability and biodegradability, while suffering inherent limitations like low flexibility and brittleness [4]. To address these 26

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limitations, researchers have investigated developing PLA composites by adding fillers[5, 6]. Among others, the incorporation of wood flour (WF) to PLA matrix offers advantages like reduced material costs, enhanced compostability, while enhancing the woody aesthetic of the resulting biocomposite [6]. Wood flour, a byproduct of the wood processing industry, is shown to yield high modulus, low abrasion, sustainability, low density, low cost, and excellent biodegradability. Some studies have explored addition of WF to PLA to fabricate wood-plastic composite (WPC) feedstock for FDM [7–9]. For example, Kariz et al. [8] studied the effect of WF content on FDM-printed PLA-WPC, revealing that concentrations above 20 wt.% resulted in nozzle clogging and compromised part quality. Additionally, controversial variations in the mechanical properties of 3D-printed and IM PLA and PLA-based WPCs in literatures highlight the need for further investigation on the effects of manufacturing processes on final properties [10–12].

As such, this study evaluates the influence of manufacturing processes, FDM and IM, on the structural and mechanical properties of PLA-WF biocomposite parts. Composites with up to 40 wt.% wood filler and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a plasticizer were developed successfully without any nozzle clogging issue, for the first time. Filaments were prepared using a simple desktop single screw extruder, and 3D-printing was performed on a low-cost desktop FDM 3D-printer without nozzle clogging. The findings revealed comparable tensile strength and modulus values for both 3D-printed and injection molded samples at 40 wt.% wood and 10 wt.% PEG concentrations. Such developed green biocomposites using the waste products of industries as natural fillers and biodegradable polymers step towards the sustainability goals to reduce the environment impact and address climate change issues.

2. Materials and Methods PLA Luminy LX 175 from Total Corbion, PEG 400 from Sigma, and wood flour (0.3-1 mm particle size) were used in this study. Wood flour and PLA were dried at 80 ℃ before processing. Different formulations with PLA, wood (10-40 wt.%), and PEG (5 and 10 wt.%) were mixed using a HAAKE Rheomix 3000 batch mixer at 170 ℃ and 100 rpm. Then, all compounded formulations were ground into smaller granules.

Filaments were extruded with a Filabot EX2 single screw extruder at 155±5 ℃, and type V dog-bone specimens (ASTM D638) were printed using Creality Ender 3 Pro 3D printer, with a 100% infill density and 20 mm/s print speed, at nozzle temperature of 180 ℃ and bed temperature of 70 ℃ with nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm.

In contrast, a HAAKE Mini-Jet Pro injection molding unit was employed to mold tensile test specimens with two heating zones set at 200 ℃ and 70 ℃. At least five replicate specimens were created for each formulation using both injection molding and 3D-printing.

The surface morphology of composite materials was analyzed employing an Oxford Instruments Quanta FEG 250 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) integrated with an energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) system (Abingdon, Oxon, UK) without any sputter coating. The micrographs were provided from 27

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cross-sections of broken tensile specimens to investigate the material failure under load.

To explore the viscoelastic behavior of the formulated materials, rheological analysis was conducted using a HAAKE Mars III parallel plate rheometer (Thermo-Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) to assess the shear storage (G’) and loss (G”) moduli.

3. Result and Discussion 3.1.Mechanical Properties Different composite formulations including different amounts of wood fillers and PEG plasticizers were successfully FDM 3D-printed and injection molded to evaluate and compare their mechanical properties (Figure 1). As per Figure 3, there were no significant differencesin the mechanical properties of 3D-printed and injection molded virgin PLA and PLA:PEG5 composites. However, PLA:PEG10 composites displayed a slight decrease in tensile strength and modulus, and an increase in elongation at break due to PEG’s plasticization effect, which caused PLA chains to slip more easily past each other, thus reducing stress [13, 14].

Figure 1. (A) Manufactured filaments with different percentages of WF and PEG; (B) 3D-printed dog-bone shaped tensile specimen with PLA:30WF:10PEG. The addition of WF to PLA led to an increase in elastic modulus for injection-molded specimens but decreased elongation at break with minimal changes in strength. This can be attributed to adding the wood fillers enhancing stiffness while reducing ductility. For 3D-printed specimens, the tensile strength and elongation at break decreased with increasing WF concentration (10 to 40 wt.%), while the changes in 28

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modulus were insignificant. The observed differences can be linked to the manufacturing processes itself; injection molding involves high pressure, improving interfacial bonding between composite materials and resulting in enhanced ductility and elongation at break. In contrast, 3D-printing involves layer-by-layer deposition with limited interlayer bonding, leading to a more porous and irregular microstructure.

Figure 2. SEM micrographs of 3D-printed and injection molded WPCs at 40 wt.% wood flour with 5 wt.% PEG. Figure 2 represents the cross-sectional SEM micrographs for both 3D-printed and injection molded PLA:40WF:5PEG samples. The images reveal voids and fiber pull-outs in both manufacturing methods.

However, the 3D-printed WPCs exhibit a higher number of voids as the wood content increases, which negatively impacts the mechanical properties of the WPC composites. Additionally, the rasters of the print (indicated by white arrows) can be observed in the 3D-printed sample.

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Figure 3. Mechanical properties of 3D-printed and IMed specimens. (A) Tensile strength; (B) Tensile modulus; and (C) Elongation at break.

Overall, the addition of plasticizer to WPCs decreased tensile strength and modulus for both 3D-printed and injection molded specimens, with varying effects on elongation at break. Fabrication methods significantly influence the tensile properties of WPCs, with injection molded samples outperforming 3D-printed specimens, except for cases with 40 wt.% wood and 10 wt.% PEG, wherein the 3D-printing and injection molding demonstrated comparable results. To further enhance mechanical properties of 3D printed parts, optimizing 3D-printing parameters such as raster angle, nozzle temperature, flow rate, and printing speed is crucial, as this can improve stress transfer and fusion between print lines, which is under study.

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3.2. Rheology analysis The rheological behavior of different feedstock materials showed that (Figure 4), the storage modulus decreased as PEG content increased for all angular frequencies, with the most significant reduction observed at 10 wt.% PEG. At low and intermediate frequencies, PLA, and PLA+PEG exhibited liquid-like behavior, as the loss modulus (G”) surpassed the storage modulus (G’); however, at higher frequencies, a crossover point emerged where G’>G”, indicating solid-like behavior. The incorporation of wood increased the moduli values, as the composites became more resistant to deformation, but the trend concerning G’ and G” crossover points remained consistent. The sole exception is the PLA:PEG:WF (50:10:40) formulation, where the storage modulus exceeds the loss modulus, suggesting that WF particles are agglomerating and separating from polymer resin due to minimal plasticized PLA inclusion and a decrease in its molecular weight.

Figure 4. Storage and Loss modulus as well as frequencies crossover points for (A) PLA and plasticized PLA; (B) PLA and PLA WPCs without plasticization; (C) WPCs with 5 wt.% PEG; and (D) WPCs with 10 wt.% PEG. 31

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4. Conclusion This study examined the influence of different manufacturing processes on the mechanical, rheological, and microstructural properties of virgin PLA and high-solid-content PLA-based wood composites. Composites with up to 40 wt.% wood filler and PEG as a plasticizer were developed successfully without any nozzle clogging issue, for the first time. The incorporation of 10 wt.% PEG plasticizer resulted in a slight reduction in tensile strength and modulus for both 3D-printed and injection-molded specimens, while elongation at break increased. Injection-molded samples displayed greater tensile strength and modulus in comparison to 3D-printed ones. However, the results were comparable with 40 wt% wood and 10 wt% PEG for both manufacturing processes. The findings underscore the significance of 3D-printing parameters optimization (e.g., nozzle and bed temperature, infill density, print speed, orientation) using a methodical and systematic design of experiment to produce highquality 3D printed biocomposites without porosity and defects, suitable for demanding applications such as construction, automotive, and sustainable packaging. Additionally, it is worth developing feedstock formulations with more suitable physico-mechanical properties by optimizing wood distribution in polymer matrix and utilizing more efficient compatibilization agents alongside plasticization.

References 1. Fayazfar H, Sharifi J, Keshavarz MK, Ansari M (2023) An overview of surface roughness enhancement of additively manufactured metal parts: a path towards removing the post-print bottleneck for complex geometries. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2023 1253 125:1061–1113.

2. Tamez MBA, Taha I (2021) A review of additive manufacturing technologies and markets for thermosetting resins and their potential for carbon fiber integration. Addit Manuf 37:101748.

3. Penumakala PK, Santo J, Thomas A (2020) A critical review on the fused deposition modeling of thermoplastic polymer composites. Compos Part B Eng 201:108336.

4. Yang TC, Yeh CH (2020) Morphology and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Wood Fiber/ Polylactic Acid Composite Parts Using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): The Effects of Printing Speed. Polym 2020, Vol 12, Page 1334 12:1334.

5. Aida HJ, Nadlene R, Mastura MT, et al (2021) Natural fibre filament for Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM): a review. https://doi.org/101080/1939703820211962426 14:1988–2008.

6. Yu W, Li M, Lei W, et al (2022) Effects of Wood Flour (WF) Pretreatment and the Addition of a Toughening Agent on the Properties of FDM 3D-Printed WF/Poly(lactic acid) Biocomposites. Mol 2022, Vol 27, Page 2985 27:2985.

7. Tao Y, Wang H, Li Z, et al (2017) Development and Application of Wood Flour-Filled Polylactic Acid Composite Filament for 3D Printing. Mater 2017, Vol 10, Page 339 10:339.

8. Kariz M, Sernek M, Obućina M, Kuzman MK (2018) Effect of wood content in FDM filament on 32

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properties of 3D printed parts. Mater Today Commun 14:135–140.

9. Narlıoğlu, N., Salan, T., and Alma MH (2021) Properties of 3D-printed wood sawdust-reinforced PLA composites. BioResources 16:5467–5480 10. Ecker JV, Haider A, Burzic I, et al (2019) Mechanical properties and water absorption behaviour of PLA and PLA/wood composites prepared by 3D printing and injection moulding. Rapid Prototyp J 25:672–678.

11. Selva Priya M, Naresh K, Jayaganthan R, Velmurugan R (2019) A comparative study between inhouse 3D printed and injection molded ABS and PLA polymers for low-frequency applications.

Mater Res Express 6:085345.

12. Komal UK, Kasaudhan BK, Singh I (2021) Comparative Performance Analysis of Polylactic Acid Parts Fabricated by 3D Printing and Injection Molding. J Mater Eng Perform 30:6522–6528.

13. Sukthavorn K, Nootsuwan N, Veranitisagul C, Laobuthee A (2022) Development of luminescence composite materials from poly(lactic acid) and europium-doped magnesium aluminate for textile applications and 3D printing process. Polym Compos 43:6637–6646.

14. Rogovina SZ, Aleksanyan K V., Loginova AA, et al (2018) Influence of PEG on Mechanical Properties and Biodegradability of Composites Based on PLA and Starch. Starch - Stärke 70:1700268.

———————————————— Dr. Ramona (Haniyeh) Fayazfar, PhD, P.Eng., is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at Ontario Tech University. Dr. Fayazfar received her Master’s and PhD degrees at Sharif University of Technology. Prior to joining Ontario Tech, she was a postdoctoral fellow in MultiScale Additive Manufacturing research group at the University of Waterloo. She has more than 20 years of experience in developing novel multifunctional composite materials, advanced manufacturing, sustainable energy, and 3D printing. She has been actively involved in several industrially sponsored projects for aerospace and automotive applications with Burloak Technologies (Samuel, Son & Co.), Lockheed Martin, Toyota Motor Corporation, Rio Tinto Company, NRC, etc. Her current research concentrates on addressing current challenges of AM with a focus on development and optimization of novel AM-specific categories of materials for low-cost point-of-need additive manufacturing of recyclable and sustainable products. Also, her research works aim to address critical challenges facing the industrial adoption of AM for example in aerospace and tooling manufacturing and biomedical devices. To this end, new engineering advanced materials compatible with AM have been designed, developed, and characterized in her group to expand the range of possible products and enhance performance outcomes for end-use applications.

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Benevolence or Pretext: An Exploration of U.S. Foreign Policy Toward China in the Early 20th Century from the Perspective of Social Darwinism Xiaoxi Zhang 1 School of English Studies, Sichuan International Studies University, Chongqing, China E-mail: xiaoxizhang@sisu.edu.cn

Abstract: Applying Darwin’s principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human society, social Darwinists in the late nineteenth century proposed the Manifest Destiny of the Anglo-Saxon race.

Based on the social Darwinism theory, this paper looks into the United States overseas expansion, especially its foreign policy toward China in the early 20th century. It further argues that the alleged American “protection” for China in military, diplomatic and cultural domain was just an embodiment of racial superiority in U.S. foreign policy, which was a justification for the United States to invade and enslave other countries and establish world hegemony.

Keywords: Social Darwinism; U.S. foreign policy; protection; racial superiority In the late nineteenth century, the dramatic industrial developments in America propelled it to the top of the world’s economic powers. America’s resources and powers boomed to an unprecedented extent. In 1893, the United States became the world’s second largest exporter, after Britain. Its railroad, steel, coal, banking, and food processing industries created an economic powerhouse second to none. Thus, the United States desperately needed market to sell its excessive products and to make capital investment. A wide range of

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Xiaoxi Zhang is a lecturer and PhD candidate on American Studies at Sichuan International Studies University in Chongqing, China. Her main research interests are Sino-U.S. cultural relations, American Studies and intercultural communication.

This work was supported by Sichuan International Studies University under Fund Project: (sisu 202137) “A Study of John Dewey’s Thoughts on Sino-U.S. Community (1919-1929)”; Post-Graduate Scientific Research Project of Sichuan International Studies University for the year 2021 (SISU2021XK004) “A Study of John Dewey’s Thoughts on Sino-U.S. Community After World War I”.

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influential Americans including capitalists, politicians, intellectuals encouraged the vigorous promotion of American interests. China, an ancient and mysterious country located in the Pacific naturally caught the attention of industrial America. Abundant in population and resources, China was an excellent market for commodities and the origin of raw materials. Contrast to the prosperity of American industrial and economic development, China, owing to its internal affairs and politics, declined and deteriorated. In the United States, the voices came from different social positions supporting American overseas expansion, especially in China. Social Darwinism, at that time, served to provide the theoretical basis for the United States to justify its overseas expansion.

1. Advocates of Social Darwinism and Its Justification of Overseas Expansion Spencer tried to explain human society with Darwin’s theory of biological evolution. He believed that the relationships among different groups, nations and cultures within human society were “survival struggle”, and the result was inevitably “survival of the fittest.” Thus, Darwin’s principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest in the biological world were applied to human society. In his view, the result of such a long struggle would be a “good and prosperous society” composed of the most physically and intellectually strong. In this society, all evil and immorality would be eliminated, and altruism would be the norm.

John Fiske, a famous American historian and philosopher, was a follower of Spencer and actively promoted social Darwinism. In some of his works, he used Darwin’s biological evolution law to explain social phenomena, and absurdly attributed the relationship of oppression and exploitation among countries, nations and classes to natural selection and survival of the fittest. He went on to declare that “by natural selection, the United States has become a winning nation, showing that the fittest Americans naturally and logically should rule over the weak, i.e. the unfit” (Williams, 1962, p.332). This was the Manifest Destiny of the race.

Josiah Strong, a prominent pastor and secretary of the Evangelical Society of the United States, was a social Darwinist in rank with John Fiske. He preached racial superiority under the cloak of religion. In 1885, he published a best-selling book, Our Country, in which he portrayed Americans as the ordained elect, Christians chosen by God to lead backward peoples. He wrote: “This race has an unsurmountable power, and behind it lies all the forces of wealth and untold riches. We should wish it to be the great depositary of freedom, of pure Christianity, and of the highest civilization. This race exhibits some very progressive qualities, sufficient to spread its institutions to all mankind, and its dominion to the whole earth” (Strong, 1885, p.116). And as to the unoccupied lands of the world, Strong declared: “Then will the world enter upon a new stage of its history…If I do not read amiss, this powerful race will move down upon Mexico, down upon Central and South America, out upon the islands of the sea, over upon Africa and beyond” (Hofstadter, 1955, p.179).

Other social Darwinists also trumpeted the racist theory that only the Anglo-Saxon race was the “superior race” and that it had a duty to intervene in the affairs of other peoples in the interest of civilization.

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Burgess also extended the doctrine of racial superiority to the study of American foreign policy, advocating “the use of any means necessary to compel the subjugation of backward peoples” (Williams, 1962, p.333).

This view is fully adapted to the needs of the American imperialists’ overseas expansion.

2. Justifying Military Invasion in the Pacific The Pacific, especially China occupied vital strategic importance for the United States. Many an influential figure in contemporary America realized the significance of this region. In 1907, Theodore Roosevelt wrote that “The Pacific era, destined to be the greatest of all, and to bring the whole human race at last into one great comity of nations, is just at the dawn” (Chang, 2015, p.102). The “fate” of the American people was to lead this new association of peoples of the West and East. “We cannot escape our destiny,” Roosevelt trumpeted. Alfred Thayer Mahan, the prominent military strategist who is best known for his work on the importance of naval power expressed a heightened appreciation for Pacific politics and the importance of Asia, especially China, for the United States. He concluded that America was, and should be, a great world power: its particular location in world geography, its size and economic heft, and its history determined its great responsibilities and its expansive interests. For Mahan, empire was a given destiny, not a choice.

Senator Albert J. Beveridge likewise argued that America must be a Pacific power and have access to “China’s illimitable markets.” “China is our natural customer” (Ibid, p.102), he declared. Therefore, after annexing Hawaii and grabbing the Philippines from Spain, the United States could not wait to bring China under its control.

Similarly, in conquering the countries in the Pacific region, the United States was obsessed with AngloSaxon racial superiority and contempt for other peoples. In taking the Philippines, President McKinley justified the American invasion by saying, “The United States will not allow the Philippines to become independent, for this would lead to anarchy and indiscipline worse than Spanish rule; the only thing that the United States can do is to take the entire Philippine Islands and educate the Filipino people with Christian ideas and Western civilization” (Liu & Yang, 2001, p.108). In 1900, the anti-imperialist and patriotic Boxer Movement broke out in China. Mahan denounced the Boxer movement as a reactionary movement from the imperialist standpoint and advocated the use of force against the Boxer movement. President Roosevelt also insisted that sending troops to China was legal because the United States needed to “defend the interests of the open market for its own merchants, farmers, and wage earners” (Ibid, p.122). He also urged the Western powers to unite against the Boxer rebellion. In their view, the Chinese, like the Filipinos, had to be “liberated” from barbarism by western powers, so the use of foreign troops was necessary. In May 1900, the United States joined the eight-power allied forces to invade China and suppress the uprising in a bloody way. The United States thus prides itself on securing permanent security and peace for China. Similar to the Philippine Uprising of Aquinado, the uprising was brutally suppressed at the expense of tens of thousands of innocent lives, throwing the nation into huge calamity. However, the United States felt they were justified to do so.

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As far as they were concerned, they were “liberating” the Chinese and “leading” them out of their doomed destiny. This is the full embodiment of Roosevelt's deep-rooted theory of white superiority.

3. Claiming Diplomatic Protection In the early 20th century, President Roosevelt developed the Monroe Doctrine; the message conveyed was that the countries of Latin America were backward and uncivilized places that needed to be governed by civilized nations, and that the civilized nation with the responsibility for governance was none other than the United States of America. It is incumbent upon the United States to assume responsibility for the maintenance of stability and peace in Latin America as an international police force. The Open Door Policy ranked second only to the Monroe Doctrine in the history of American foreign affairs.

In face of the possibility that China would be dismembered by foreign powers, Secretary of State, John Hay first presented the Open Door Policy in 1899. In the summer of 1900, the Boxer Uprising erupted and the West declared that China was at war with civilization itself. The Great Powers, including the United States, formed a combined expeditionary force to invade the country to rescue the surrounded foreign community in Beijing from the upsurge against foreigners in north China. At that time, the United States was afraid of losing its interests in China because the balance of power among the Great Powers would be broken. Thus, John Hay sent notes to the Great Powers again on behalf of the American government, stressing “a solution that will secure permanent security and peace for China, preserve China’s territorial and administrative integrity, preserve all the rights of friendly nations guaranteed by treaties and international law, and protect the principles of equal and fair trade throughout the world within the territory of imperial China” (Ibid, p.117-18). In it, the United States declared that it had a vital interest in seeing that China should be open to all. No one power or group of powers should dominate that vast country’s resources and markets. The United States claimed that it was the United States who rescued China from partition and dismemberment.

It manifested that the United States acted as a unique friend and presumed protector of China. The Open Door Policy was thus seen not as a defense of American commercial or even strategic interests alone; they were also perceived to be a noble expression of the American values of fair play and respect for others.

Americans tried to distinguish themselves from the avaricious Europeans and Japanese. It declared “America stands alone as their constant friend and advisor, without territorial aspirations, without schemes of selfaggrandizement—the unpretending but firm advocate of peace and justice” (Chang, 2015, p.106). As a matter of fact, what the United States really cares is the national interests; it never explicitly stated what Washington would do if other powers did not respect them. After the suppression of the Boxer Uprising, the United States, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, Italy, and other foreign powers united to force the Chinese government to accept the humiliating Peace Treaty of 1901. It included such invasive terms as imposing staggering indemnities amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars, and permanently installing foreign military personnel in Beijing to protect resident foreigners, etc. Even Mark Twain condemned 37

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American behavior in China and the Philippines as just as cynically imperialist as European colonialism.

4. Spreading Cultural and Moral Superiority In terms of overseas expansion, not only business and politics, but also cultural and the moral superiority of the American people should spread outside the United States to the rest of the world. When Woodrow Wilson came to power, he proposed moral principles rather than economic interests or political power in dealing with foreign countries. Wilson believed in the invigorating power of democracy and anti-imperialism and spoke loudly about self-determination. At the end of World War I, many intellectuals in China had high hopes for President Wilson’s leadership. To those hopeful Chinese, Wilson was the most qualified politician who could take the lead in defending human rights in the world. Many Chinese saw Wilson as a world leader in “spiritual democracy” and their country’s best hope, among them included early Chinese communists.

While carrying out the Open Door Policy, President Wilson also paid great attention to the cultural infiltration of China in the ideological and cultural fields. “There were 400 million subhumans who, with appropriate protection and enterprise, could become 400 million customers and open endless vistas for American trade and industry. There were 400 million benighted souls which, with appropriate guidance and instruction, could be saved from damnation and add a vast realm to God’s kingdom on earth” (Isaacs, 1973, p.125).

With the active support of the US government, American missionaries actively carried out educational undertakings, established medical and health services, propagated Western culture and spread Christianity in China. An extraordinarily large number of Americans viewed themselves as the saviors, protectors, and benevolent guardians of China. In a word, besides assuming responsibility for China’s political independence and administrative integrity, the United States also assumed responsibility for the minds, bodies, and immortal souls of the Chinese.

However, Wilson asserted that the United States had “no hampering ambitions as a world power,” and “We do not want a foot of anybody’s territory” (Hart, 1918, p.81). As to his country’s history, Wilson expressed: If we have been obliged by circumstances, or have considered ourselves to be obliged by circumstances, in the past, to take territory which we otherwise would not have thought of taking, I believe I am right in saying that we have considered it our duty to administer that territory, not for ourselves, but for the people living in it, and to put this burden upon our consciences—not to think that this thing is ours for our use, but to regard ourselves as trustees of the great business for those to whom it does really belong, trustees ready to hand it over to the cestui que trust at any time, when the business seems to make that possible and feasible. (Ibid, pp.164-65) Thus, Wilson disclaimed all territorial ambition and cast the apparent territorial grabs of the past as selfless acts of paternalist obligation, evidence of Americans’ willingness to shoulder the white man’s burden. In Wilson’s view, Americans, as trustees of a “great business” had been guided not by material interests but by 38

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obligation and the sound business principle of feasibility. If Americans had been “obliged by circumstances” to shoulder the burden of trusteeship, according to Wilson, Asians, especially Chinese had been similarly obliged to hand over their “great business” to those “in the main field of modern enterprise and action,” namely the Americans.

Thus, it can be seen that Social Darwinists applied Darwin’s principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human society, and proposed the Manifest Destiny of the Anglo-Saxon race. In U.S. foreign policy toward China in the early 20th century, the United States presented a “benevolent” image, claiming “protection” for China in many a domain. In military domain, the United States believed it had the destiny to lead. In conquering the countries in the Pacific region, the United States was obsessed with Anglo-Saxon racial superiority and contempt for other peoples. In this way, it justified its military invasion in the Pacific.

Moreover, in diplomatic domain, owing to the Open Door Policy, the United States boasted itself as a unique friend and presumed protector of China. As a matter of fact, what the United States really concerns is China’s abundant resources and immense markets. Last but not least, in cultural and moral domains, the superiority of the United States was also embodied fully. In order to propagate Western culture and spread Christianity in China, the Unites States carried out educational undertakings and established medical and health services. The United States assumed responsibility for the minds, bodies, and immortal souls of the Chinese, positioning itself as a savior, protector and benevolent guardian of China. From what had been analyzed above, it can be concluded that the alleged “protection” was nothing more than a pretext. The Unites States’ foreign policy toward China in the early 20th century fully embodied its racial superiority.

Shouldering the white man’s “responsibility”, the United States, actually found itself a justification to invade and enslave other countries and establish world hegemony.

References Chang H. Gordon. (2015). Fateful Ties: A History of America’s Preoccupation with China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Hart B. Albert. (1918). Selected Addresses and Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Boni and Liveright.

Hofstadter Richard. (1955). Social Darwinism in American Thought. Boston: Beacon Press.

Isaacs R. Harold. (1973). Scratches on Our Minds. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Strong Josiah. (1885). Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis. Baker & Taylor co.

Williams W. Appleman. (1962). The Shaping of American Diplomacy, vol. 1. Chicago: Rand McNally & Co. 刘绪贻，杨生茂. (2001). 美国通史（第四卷）北京：人民出版社，2001年.

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The Doxology of Chinese Literary Works--Exploring the Way of Compilation and Translation from The Orphan of Zhao Family to The Orphan of China Hanyang Li, Guangxi University

Abstract The Orphan of Zhao Family is a classic Chinese literary work created by Ji Junxiang. It has been widely spread in the West, and has a great influence on Britain and France. In the eighteenth century, it was introduced to France by several translators, and later changed to The Orphan of Zhao Family by Voltaire.

Later, there are also several British translators who recreated it. The spread and circulation of The Orphan of Zhao Family gave Europeans a better understanding of Chinese drama and Chinese culture, and promoted the exchange of Chinese culture and Western culture.

Key words: The Orphan of Zhao Family; The Orphan of China; doxology; compilation; Vlotaire

Introduction Ji Junxiang's The Orphan of Zhao Family in the Yuan Dynasty is considered to be the first literary work in China that went abroad. Scholars, writers and directors from various countries not only researched it, but also adapted and recreated it. At the beginning of the dissemination, The Orphan of Zhao Family was translated for the first time by a missionary who preached in China. When this drama was introduced to Europe, it attracted not only the attention of critics but also the interest of playwrights. They believe that the theme and expression of The Orphan of Zhao Family are worthy of reference and are the essence of oriental culture. Therefore, from the 1840s to the 1980s, more than four adaptations appeared in Europe.

The earliest of these was published by William Hatchett in 1741 (Fan Cunzhong 1991). In the 18th century, Europe which had emerged from the ignorance of the Middle Ages, entered a new stage of development, and at this time, Sino-Western exchanges became increasingly frequent. China's political system and culture inspire enlightenment thinkers who attacked the authoritarian Christian culture. Therefore, Europe set off a climax to promote and spread Chinese culture. Therefore, during this period, the introduction of The Orphan of Zhao Family had a huge impact on Europe (Yi Yuexiang 2004). One of the most famous adaptations 40

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comes from the French Enlightenment thinker Voltaire. The Orphan of China he compiled have been very successful and have had a huge impact. His work’s height of determination is also unique.

I Related Concepts and Knowledge As one of the most basic research paradigms of comparative literature impact research, hermeneutics is closely related to the development and evolution of impact research. Due to its influence, the early studies of comparative studies limited the research object of comparative literature to the interrelationship between the literature of the two countries. In the early days, it was very important to study the regional differences of national literature, but the influence relationship of national literature in this period was always connected with the concept of national identity centered on Europe. The British historian Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859) once expressed his views. Never before have any oriental scholars denied that a good European library can display a complete literary work of India and Arabia in a summer vacation; Which oriental scholar dare to insist that poetry in Arabic and Sanskrit can be compared with the works of great European countries (Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction 1993). In addition to imitation and inheritance, the influence of foreign literature will also be used for reference, absorption, innovation and even mutation.

These are the horizontal forces for the development of literature in other countries in the process of communication and dissemination. For the 18th-century Europeans, The Orphan of Zhao Family is not only a literary work, but also a moral handbook, which can be used to satirize and criticize the declining morals of European society during the development of capitalism.

The Orphan of Zhao Family tells the story of the family hatred of the two generals during the Jin Dynasty.

The introduction of this zaju made Europe have a profound influence on certain writers at that time and even the entire Enlightenment period, promoted their reflection on European cultural hegemony and weak cultural self-rebellion, and strengthened the cultural exchange between Asia and Europe.

II Translation and Adaptation of The Orphan of Zhao Family 1. Source of Communication: Sinologist Joseph de Prémare The earliest introduction of The Orphan of Zhao Family to the West was the English Sinologist Joseph de Prémare. As a missionary, Joseph de Prémare is proficient in Chinese and has a deep study of Chinese culture. In 1732, Joseph de Prémare translated The Orphan of Zhao Family into French in Guangzhou. The reason why he chose The Orphan of Zhao Family for translation in hundreds of Yuan dramas is because he has hidden motives. He hoped that through this real Chinese tragedy, Europeans can observe the degree of Chinese civilization and morality.

Joseph de Prémare was sent to China as a missionary after strict education and selection by the Jesuits, when he was 32 years old. He didn't understand Chinese completely before coming to China. After arriving in China, he began to work hard to learn Chinese. At that time, the scale of Chinese and Western exchanges was limited, and his foreign language learning conditions were simpler than they are now. But through 41

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unremitting efforts, Joseph de Prémare's Chinese level gradually improved until he was fully proficient.

From the perspective of language level, Joseph de Prémare is fully equipped with the ability to translate The Orphan of Zhao Family. In terms of Sinology research, Joseph de Prémare also experienced many difficulties to break through academic difficulties. Despite the political influence of the Qing Dynasty and the deterioration of his health, Joseph de Prémare did not give up his translation.

2. Climax: The Adaptation of Voltaire Joseph de Prémare translated The Orphan of Zhao Family and introduced it to France, which attracted the attention of Voltaire, the leader of the French Enlightenment. He believes that the Chinese drama represented

by The Orphan of Zhao Family does not meet the requirements of Western drama, but its connotation and enveloping ability are no less than any outstanding Western drama. Voltaire was keen to borrow Chinese drama to promote the spirit of enlightenment and rationality, so he adapted The Orphan of Zhao Family into the opera The Orphan of China (L' Orphelin de la Chine) and performed it in France, and this opera became a sensation. Europe. In Voltaire's view, China represented by porcelain, silk and lacquer can be used as the best weapon for criticizing ignorance of Europe. Genghis Khan in Voltaire's script advocates force and tries to solve everything with violence, but in the end it is convinced by lofty morality. He tried to demonstrate the great power of ethics. Voltaire expressed his thoughts in a letter in 1755, which is a perfect proof of the natural superiority of reason and talent to the blind and brutal power.

Throughout Voltaire's life, he has authored a total of 52 dramas and a large number of drama criticisms.

He is also the only translator who has the identity of dramatist among the translators of The Orphan of Zhao Family. Some people think that Voltaire's adaptation of The Orphan of Zhao Family has two main motives. One is to find a paradigm for governing the country in Oriental culture, and the other is to reform French theater. In the adaptation, Voltaire changed the dispute of loyalty within a country into a battle between civilization and barbarism between two peoples. Representing the savage Genghis Khan, under the inspiration of civilization, he turned from a conqueror to a conquered one. Such changes are aimed at expressing the aesthetic ideal of the 18th century enlightenment, where reason is better than emotion and civilization is better than brutality. In an age when the monarchy increasingly strengthened its reactionary rule, French drama entered the 18th century in a state of total decline. The French classicist theatre industry used the old art form of classicism to express the content of new enlightenment thoughts, so enlightenment classicism came into being. Voltaire was the representative writer of this classicism tragedy. In order to reform French theater and improve its artistic level, Voltaire often learned from foreign theater.

Looking back in history, the sequelae brought by France in the first half of the 18th century due to the expansion of Louis XIV's national policy are fully reflected. At this time, Louis XV launched a series of wars in order to pass on the crisis, and the results ended in failure. These have caused a lot of social contradictions and the people do not talk about life. Under such circumstances, enlightenment began to emerge. People are 42

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anti-feudal, anti-autocratic, and resistance to the church. Based on rationalism, they advocate social change and try to overthrow feudal rule. The Orphan of China compiled by Voltaire and The Orphan of Zhao Family have obvious differences and also cater to the needs of the times. Because China and France have different drama backgrounds and different national conditions, Voltaire adjusted its content. Voltaire's extreme praise of Confucian ideology and morality is also a secret satire of French autocracy, which provided ideological resources for the Enlightenment. Voltaire’s The Orphan of China uses the background of the Yuan Dynasty in China, following the laws of neoclassical drama and shortening the time span of The Orphan of Zhao Family from more than 20 years to one day and night. Voltaire has been emphasizing the power of human civilization, highlighting human reason, and using these ideas to inspire the public. These have made ideological and public preparations for the social transformation of France. More than thirty years after The Orphan of Zhao Family was staged, the French Revolution broke out in 1789. The result of the revolution was to overthrow the feudal monarchy, and France gradually became a capitalist society. In this major historical turning point, Voltaire made great contributions as an enlightenment thinker. The Orphan of Zhao Family he compiled also played an important role.

The circulation of The Orphan of Zhao Family shows that in the course of historical development, this can not only serve as a medium for cultural exchange, but also provide ideological resources for cross-cultural social transformation, thereby promoting the development of the entire human social civilization.

3. Adaptation of The Orphan of Zhao Family in Britain There were at least three adaptations of The Orphan of Zhao Family in Britain in the 18th century, namely The Orphan of China: A Tragedy by William Hatchett in 1741, The Orphan of China by Voltaire translated

by Thomas Franklin in 1756 and 1759 The Orphan of China by Arthur Murphy. These three versions draw on different plots of the original work and express different demands of the adaptor.

British dramatist William Hatchett first adapted The Orphan of China based on the French translation of The Orphan of Zhao Family. This drama is based on the theme of the prime minister’s power and corruption of the dynasty and the government. The irony is directed at the time of the British Prime Minister’s rule.

Compared with The Orphan of China, which was adapted by several British, French, German and Italian writers later, William Hatchett's version is the closest to China. Even so, this play was not made for the spread of Chinese drama art, but a political satire in the form of a play. Perhaps because of this, the script was published shortly before Walpole was forced to step down in 1742.

Inspired by the translation, Voltaire adapted The Orphan of China and then translated it into English in 1756 by the Englishman Thomas Franklin and introduced it to the United Kingdom. This version of Voltaire had a far-reaching effect in the United Kingdom, and later Arthur Murphy was adapted on this basis.

Arthur Murphy's version is mainly adapted from The Orphan of China by Voltaire. He kept some of Voltaire's designs, but also changed a lot of content according to needs and background. As far as characters 43

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are concerned, Murphy retains the names and identities of some characters, or retains their names but changes their identities. In the plot, Murphy also retained some plots in Voltaire's play. Although some plots are similar, there are appropriate changes.Murphy's The Orphan of China is not closely related to Ji Junxiang's The Orphan of Zhao Family, but it was indeed inspired by Voltaire to imitate Shakespeare for creation. There are many details in this drama that can support this view as evidence. Murphy borrowed Voltaire's The Orphan of China in terms of name, plot, scene and theme. Both reflect that civilization defeated barbarism, and barbarians were influenced or eliminated.The Orphan of Zhao Family was originally about the story of Cheng Ying in Jin Dynasty during the Spring and Autumn Period to protect Zhao's orphans for his loyalty. The adapted version of Murphy tells the story of China’s resistance to aggression and the resistance of one nation to another. This has practical political significance for Britain during the Seven Years of War between Britain and France (1756-1763). At the time, the play was a huge success after being staged in London, preaching themes of loyalty, justice and patriotism.

The tragic consciousness and spirit contained in The Orphan of Zhao Family became the earliest representative of the west spread in Chinese classical drama.

III The Dissemination of The Orphan of Zhao Family’s Communication 1. Adaptation during Communication Whether it is William Hatchett, Arthur Murphy, or Voltaire’s adaptation has its own characteristics, but in some aspects also have some common characteristics.In fact, they do not understand the situation in China, because the characters in their works are very European. Second, from the perspective of traditional hermeneutics, the adaptors misread The Orphan of Zhao Family. But it is precisely because of this that each adaptation has its own style characteristics. The most important thing is that these authors are based on the political situation and social phenomena of their own country. Starting from reality, they hope that their works can have an enlightening and persuasive effect on the historical environment.As Le Daiyun said, any culture only makes a choice of identification, this choice is often derived from the needs of local culture.

2. Impact and Importance on European Culture Europeans in the 18th century did not understand Chinese literature. Whether it is a Jesuit who has lived in China or a European who has learned about China through the Jesuits, the Chinese drama is not highly rated.

But the moral concepts in Chinese literary works have attracted the attention of many Europeans. For example, Voltaire was adapted because he took a fancy to the moral meaning contained in The Orphan of Zhao Family.

In fact, the kindness and morality in The Orphan of Zhao Family not only attracted Voltaire, but also moved Goethe at the end of the 18th century. At that time, the Chinese factor was a popular topic in Europe.

Through the dissemination and adaptation of The Orphan of Zhao Family, it is not difficult to find that European intellectuals in the 18th century attached great importance to social and moral issues. The previous moral system was based on theocracy. The Orphan of Zhao Family brought inspiration and impact to 44

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European enlightenment scholars, inspiring them to establish a system that is independent of religion but can effectively maintain social order.

A variety of adapted versions of The Orphan of Zhao Family combines Chinese and Western cultures. On the basis of adapting to Chinese traditional culture, it also promotes rationality and civilization and achieves the perfect fusion of Chinese and Western cultures.

Conclusion The Orphan of Zhao Family had a huge impact after it was introduced to Europe, and produced a large number of translations, adaptations and subsequent imitation works. Westerners recognize the charm of The Orphan of Zhao Family and the Chinese thought it embodies, including the spiritual outlook, morals and values of the Chinese. By borrowing Chinese elements and Chinese literature, the translators conveyed their political needs for their country and their persuasion to the people. The understanding of Chinese drama during the European Enlightenment period is of great significance in the cultural process of Europe.

It enables Europeans to understand Chinese drama and the politics and culture embodied in the drama.

It expands the Europeans’ horizons and promotes European thinking. progress. At the same time, the Europeans' idealized understanding of the ideas of Chinese drama expression has unearthed the meaning of these works that have not been recognized, and has also promoted the re-recognition of these works in China. The discovery and adaptation of The Orphan of Zhao Family in Europe during the Enlightenment reflected this kind of benign interaction, which played a positive role in the exchange of Chinese culture and Western culture.

Work Cited John Francis Davis. A Romance, translated from the Chinese Original with Notes and Illustrations: to which is Added a Chinese Tragedy. The Fortunate Union. London: Oriental Translation Fund, Vol.2, 1829, p.216.

William Hatchett. The Chinese orphan: an historical tragedy. Alter’ d from a specimen of the Chinese tragedy, in Du Halde’ s History of China. Interspers'd with songs, after the Chinese manner.

London: Printed for Charles Corbett, 1741. 白晶玉 .“比较文学视域下的《赵氏孤儿》解读.”名作欣赏 . 08(2012):148-150. 靳小蓉 .传统戏曲的经典化与再生产 . 2014.武汉大学，PhD dissertation. 李亚方 . “浅析《〈赵氏孤儿〉杂剧在启蒙时期的英国》的价值论 .” 今古文创 . 08(2022):22-24. 刘畅 .“18世纪西方眼中的中国形象：跨文化视野下的陈受颐《赵氏孤儿》西译考证研究 .”今古

文创 . 25(2022):37-39. 卢迪 .“从顺应论分析《赵氏孤儿》跨文化传播中的文化融合 .”淮北师范大学学报（哲学社会科

学版 ）37.04(2016):69-72. 曾艳兵 .“中法文化交流史上的先行者——伏尔泰对《赵氏孤儿》的改写 .”群言. 09(2014):31-33.

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Humanity Research in S.T.E.A.M. is a multidisciplinary and multilingual journal published by Toronto Education Press Ltd., Canada, in electronic and printed by Quarterly. The journal will serve the scientific research and academic industry. It will cover subordinate subjects of: technology, science, engineering, philosophy, humanities and social sciences, including but not limited to research and reviews in the fields of ethnology, history, linguistics, arts, aesthetics, religion, culture and communication, classical and contemporary literature, library and philology, international policy, Asian studies and traditional culture, ancient books, rare books and book publication.

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