The New York State Invasive Species Cookbook by ESF Knothole

ThE NEW York State

INVASIVE SPECIES

CookBook RicK Nelson, Greg chapman, & Amanda VELZIS

The New York State Invasive Species Cookbook

The New York State

Invasive Species Cookbook Rick Nelson, Greg Chapman, & Amanda Velzis

Photo Credits Rick Nelson, 2011, cover Tom Huette, 2010, USDA Forest Service, pg. 6 N. L. Britton and A. Brown, 1913, USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database, pg. 8, 20 Andy Hamilton, 2011, Self Sufficientish, pg. 11 A. E. Radford, H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell, 1964, pg. 14 Joan Kovatch, 2008, pg. 19 Chris Evans, 2010, River to River CMWA, pg. 23

© 2011 Created by Rick Nelson, Greg Chapman, & Amanda Velzis for Dr. Dylan Parry’s Ecology and Management of Invasive Species (EFB502) course at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science & Forestry at 1 Forestry Drive Syracuse, New York 13210. View online at http://www.issuu.com/esfknothole/eatinginvasives

Contents Japanese Knotweed

Japanese Knotweed Recipes Autumn Olive

Autumn Olive Recipes Garlic Mustard

Garlic Mustard Recipes References

Tom Huette

An enormous infestation of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) in Alaska, United States.

Introduction Foraging for wild foods often benefits the forager in ways beyond the nutrition received. The process of learning what items in the natural landscape can be harvested leads to a greater understanding of how diverse our world is; the process of searching for and identifying these items almost inevitably leads to a greater awareness and improved observation skills. As our ability to observe the natural world improves, we realize that many of the choicest natural items can quickly become scarce due to overharvest. Therefore, a skillful forager knows not only what to harvest and when to harvest it, but also just how much to harvest to ensure a future supply. This cookbook has several goals. First, it is intended to illustrate one easy method of combining ecological responsibility and a desire to forage for wild foods. By focusing on edible invasive species, a forager need not worry about overharvest – unlike many native species that we often try to protect and conserve, harvesting of the non-native invasive species outlined in this book has no suggested limitations. This is due to the fact that you might, in fact, be helping out some ecosystems by consuming some of their problem invaders. However, this book also hopes that by providing an incentive to search out and recognize these invasive plants, the forager may become aware of some of the many harmful impacts these invaders have on native plants and animals. Inside, you’ll find recipes, but you’ll also learn just why so many people are so concerned with the spread of these plants – delicious or not. Non-native invasive species can be a major problem for regions where the invading species outcompete the native species for resources such as food and space. Non-native invasive species can cause a multitude of problems for ecosystems that they invade because they change the interactions and dynamics within the systems. In an effort to prevent the further spread of non-native invasive species, we kindly ask that you DO NOT attempt to cultivate any of the species used in the following recipes. We hope this cookbook further facilitates your interest in foraging while increasing your awareness of the impacts of non-native invasive species on ecosystems. Happy foraging!

Japanese Knotweed Polygonum cuspidatum

Greg Chapman

Native to Japan and much of eastern Asia, Japanese knotweed is a tall, fast-growing herbaceous plant of the buckwheat family, growing in dense bamboo grove-like thickets. It was first introduced into North America and Europe in the 1800s as an ornamental for hedging and for erosion control and has been used for land reclamation at disturbed sites. Primarily a vegetative reproducer from underground rhizomes and plant fragments, Japanese knotweed establishes in new areas incredibly well and once established it spreads rapidly, displacing other native flora. At the end of its growing season, the tall stems die back to the rhizome and remain erect. From the perennial rhiMid-Spring along the Salmon River in New York zomes, new shoots emerge in mid-April of the following year and grow quite rapidly; some growing at a rate of 3-4 inches per day.

Invasive impacts

An aggressive invader, Japanese knotweed effectively prevents the establishment of all other plant species, creating an impenetrable wall of stems, and greatly reduces the biological diversity of the sites where it invades. The species colonizes new sites opportunistically and spreads rapidly. Plant fragments can be unintentionally spread through the movement of fill-dirt, landscaping equipment, and the soles of shoes. Although primarily a vegetative reproducer, Japanese knotweed also reproduces from seed. The plant manufactures an enormous abundance of flowers that yield and equally enormous amount of seeds that are spread to new areas primarily by waterways and wind. Seed viability is incredibly high and seed bank densities have been measured at over 1,750 seeds per square meter. Along roadsides, thickets of Japanese knotweed can pose problems to automobile drivers by obstructing their ability to see around corners where the plant has established. In many regions of the United States, the responsibility of controlling these thickets has fallen into the hands of highway maintenance departments. The problem with this is that, without sufficient knowledge regarding the biology of the plant, highway maintenance departments resort to removing only the aboveground stems through manual means such as mowing. This kind of removal leaves behind plant fragments and carries stem and rhizome fragments to new areas where they eventually reestablish through vegetation reproduction.

To control this invasive, environmental agencies have turned to and have been encouraging concerned homeowners to utilize herbicide spray application or injection to rid sites of the thickets. Glyphosate-based herbicides such as Roundup© and Rodeo© are suggested for use by homeowners to discourage Japanese knotweed growth. USDA PLANTS Database

Occupied territories

Since the 1800s, Japanese knotweed has become naturalized in both North America and Europe being commonly found along disturbed sites, roadsides, field edges, and stream banks. Spanning the North American continent, it can now be found in almost all fifty of the United States and reaches as far north as Alaska and parts of Canada to as far south as Louisiana.

Japanese knotweed distribution throughout North America

When to harvest

Harvesting should take place when the plant shoot is a few inches above the soil surface and it resembles asparagus. This is before any of leaves begin to really unfurl. In the northeastern United States, the best time to harvest is in late April on into very early May. If you harvest too late, you risk collecting tough shoots with less of the desirable tartness and more of a bitter flavor.

Similar species

Japanese knotweed is almost identical to another species native to Japan and eastern Asia, giant knotweed (Polygonum sachalinense). The most distinguishing characteristic separating the two is the size of the leaves and shape of the leaf base. Giant knotweed leaves are somewhat more oblong with a heart-shaped base, while Japanese knotweed leaves are more rounded with a base that is abruptly squared-off. Fortunately, either can be used in all of the culinary preparations outlined in the following section of Japanese knotweed recipes. There are no poisonous look-alikes.

Identification The shoots that arise in the early spring are spike-like and resemble asparagus, poking up among last year’s dead stalks. Wrapped up in underdeveloped leaves, the shoots are green and flecked with reddish purple and stand only a few inches tall. Fully grown, the plants are green or reddish brown with hollow, cane-like stems resembling bamboo and stand nearly 10-ft high. The leaves are ovate, squared-off at the base, and abruptly pointed. This plant grows in dense thickets, so it’s difficult to miss.

Andy Hamilton

Japanese Knotweed Recipes Although harvesting the shoots of Japanese knotweed may not have any noticeable impact on the spread of the species, you may be effectively suppressing a number of stems that might otherwise crowd out native species, for at least some time. If you harvest more of the shoots than you need, either seek out another recipe to use them in, allow them to dry completely, or burn them before discarding. DO NOT discard any fresh Japanese knotweed vegetative material onto a compost pile. It is a prolific vegetative reproducer and you will find your compost pile overrun with the invasive very soon. You wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be using the rhizome in any food recipes, but if youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re looking for an effective laxative, it has been used for just that purpose in traditional Chinese medicine for some time. Removing the rhizome from the ground and processing it for medicinal use will be a fairly arduous and near impossible task though, so itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s not recommended that you try it. Eaten raw, the shoots are juicy and have a bright, tartness with a flavor said to resemble that of Granny Smith apples. The flavor of the raw shoots may not be palatable to some, however. Most often though, the shoots are peeled, chopped, and cooked before eating.

Go Anywhere Knotweed Squares From the New England Wild Flower Society

Docaitta

You’ll need to harvest Japanese Knotweed stalks at the “wild rhubarb” stage for this recipe, which typically shows up around late April to early May. Look for stalks about 10-18 inches long, select the fattest stalks you can (at least ¾ inch in diameter – they’re easier to peel that way), cut at ground level. Once you’ve got them home, peel the very outer layer (which is stringy) off of each stalk; Japanese Knotweed stalks are hollow, though, so don’t peel too deeply or all you’ll have left is the hole. You can eat the peeled stalks raw if you want (their tart, juicy, crunchy texture and flavor is somewhat like that of a Granny Smith apple), or just chop them up for use in the recipe below or just about any other recipe calling for rhubarb. Ingredients for crust: 1 cup flour 1/3 cup confectioners sugar 1/3 cup butter (cold)

1/4 cup flour 1 teaspoon vanilla extract 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon 1/2 teaspoon allspice 1/2 teaspoon grated nutmeg 3 firmly-packed cups peeled stalk pieces (about 1” long)

Ingredients For filling: 2 eggs, lightly beaten 1 cup sugar

Preheat oven to 350ºF. Grease an 11” by 7” by 2” baking pan. Put crust ingredients into a food processor and pulverize until mixture resembles coarse crumbs. Press into the bottom of the baking pan and bake at 350ºF for 12 minutes. To make the filling, place all the ingredients except the Knotweed into a bowl and mix together; then stir in the Knotweed pieces. Pour filling mixture over the warm crust and spread evenly. Bake at 350ºF for 35-40 minutes or until a toothpick stuck into it comes out clean. Cool on a wire rack. Cut into brownie-sized pieces and serve warm.

Applesauce-Knotweed Cake From the New England Wild Flower Society

Docaitta

For this recipe, you’ll need to harvest Japanese Knotweed stalks at the “wild rhubarb” stage, which typically shows up around late April to early May. Look for stalks about 10-18 inches long, select the fattest stalks you can (at least 3/4 inch in diameter – they’re easier to peel that way), cut at ground level. Once you’ve got them home, peel the very outer layer (which is stringy) off of each stalk; Japanese Knotweed stalks are hollow, though, so don’t peel too deeply or all you’ll have left is the hole. You can eat the peeled stalks raw if you want (their tart, juicy, crunchy texture and flavor is somewhat like that of a Granny Smith apple), or just chop them up for use in the recipe below or just about any other recipe calling for rhubarb. Ingredients: 3 eggs 1 1/4 cups granulated sugar 1/4 teaspoon salt 2 cups all-purpose flour 1 teaspoon baking soda 2 teaspoons cinnamon 1/4 teaspoon allspice 1/4 teaspoon nutmeg

1 cup plain applesauce 4 firmly-packed cups peeled Japanese Knotweed stalk pieces (chop or knead the peeled stalks into small pieces <1” long) 1/2 cup chopped walnuts powdered sugar

Preheat oven to 350ºF. Grease a 13” by 9” baking pan. Beat eggs, sugar, salt and vanilla in a large mixing bowl until blended. In the meantime, mix the flour, baking soda and spices together in a separate bowl. Add the flour mixture to the mixing bowl, then add the applesauce, knotweed pieces and walnuts and mix until blended. Pour the batter into the greased baking pan and spread evenly. Bake at 350ºF for one hour, then remove from the oven and cool on a wire drying rack. Dust the top with powdered sugar. Serve warm or cold. Makes 15 good-sized servings. Any leftovers can be stored in the refrigerator for use in the next few days or frozen for longer storage.

Autumn Olive Elaeagnus umbellata

Autumn olive is a shrubby tree native to east Asia that was first intentionally introduced to North America in the 1830s. Due to its ability to thrive in poor soils and its prolific fruiting abilities, autumn olive was aggressively planted during the mid20th century for erosion control, wildlife browse, and for reclamation of disturbed land by several federal and state agencies. Like other aggressively invasive shrubs (such as honeysuckle [Lonicera x bella], buckthorn [Rhamnus cathartica], and multiflora rose [Rosa multiflora]), autumn olive was once highly recommended by state and federal agencies for planting by homeowners. Today, the ecosystem alterations caused by this fast-spreading shrub are well recognized, and planting is no longer encouraged.

Greg Chapman

Autumn olive at Green Lakes State Park in New York

Invasive Impacts

On the surface, autumn olive sounds like anybody’s dream plant. Its ability to convert abundant atmospheric nitrogen to a form usable by plants allows it to thrive in the poorest of soils; this nitrogen fixing ability also “improves” the quality of these soils. It produces abundant fruit annually, eaten by many species of birds (and, hopefully, you as well) and provides shelter for a variety of small mammals. So, what’s the problem? Unfortunately, those same benefits listed above, when combined with this shrub’s rapid spread, lead to significant and often irreversible changes in natural ecosystems. By adding nitrogen to previously poor soils, autumn olive often displaces native plant species whose only competitive advantage is their ability to live in poor nutrient conditions. These soil “improvements” may also set the stage for invasion by other aggressive alien plants. Although birds may freely gorge themselves on autumn olive’s bounty during the early fall, the replacement of other fruiting plants and shrubs may actually decrease food availability during other times of the year. Of particular concern is the suggestion that fruiting by autumn olive may occur too early to be of benefit to birds migrating in the late fall. These shrubs also provide a reliable, tasty meal for other less desirable species, such as the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica), which is known to feed heavily on autumn olive leaves. Finally, the same shelter provided for small mammals by autumn olive can hinder the movement of other animals when this shrub comes to dominate larger

areas. And, as with other invasive shrubs, the early leaf-out of autumn olive shades out many native plants species.

USDA PLANTS Database

Occupied Territories

Autumn olive is found in many open or semi-shaded places, such as grasslands, forest edges, open woods and roadsides. It tolerates poor soil and is drought-tolerant, but does not do well in perpetually moist soils or under shade. It is found throughout the northeastern Autumn olive distribution throughout North America United States, and typically enters new areas either through intentional planting or through widespread seed dispersal by birds.

When to harvest

Harvesting should take place between September to November in the northeastern United States. This is when the berries are at peak ripeness, but if you wait too late into autumn the berries will fall off the plant on their own before you can harvest them.

Similar species

The closely related Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) is similar in form and flowers, however leaves are silvery on both sides and the fruit is a yellow mealy drupe that is unlikely to be confused with autumn olive. Several honeysuckles (Lonicera spp.) also have red berries in the fall, however they are not speckled and the leaves are generally more oval-shaped and lack any silver scales.

Identification Autumn olive is a woody shrub with alternate, lance shaped leaves with wavy margins and silvery-scaly undersides. White to pale yellow funnel-shaped flowers with four pointed petals appear in mid-May and last as late as July. Fruit is a red round berry (actually a single-seeded drupe) often flecked with orange or silver, found in abundance as early as late August and last until October.

Leslie of Dreams and Bones

Autumn Olive Recipes Harvesting autumn olive berries is unlikely to have any noticeable impact on this shrubâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spread; nonetheless, every berry eaten by you is one less potentially spread by a bird. However, be sure to properly dispose of seeds if they are separated in the course of processing these fruits; donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just throw them on the compost pile! Seeds that have been subjected to boiling may be less viable, but those wanting to make absolutely sure their foraging habits donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t unintentionally spread this aggressive invader may want to consider crushing the seeds with a hammer or a brick. Autumn olive berries can be eaten out-of-hand without special preparation, although their strongly tart flavor may not be appealing to some. Adding a few cups of sugar, however, decreases the tartness and makes for a pleasant jam.

Autumn Olive Fruit Leather From Leslie’s Dreams and Bones blog

Leslie of Dreams and Bones

Ingredients: 4 cups of autumn olive berry pulp 1 tablespoon lemon juice (optional) 2 tablespoons honey (helps make the leather more pliable) To make the berry pulp, add one half cup of water to every 4 cups of berries and boil on the stove until the seeds have separated from the berry. Run through a food mill or a sieve and return pulp to a saucepan on the stove. Add the honey. If you want a sweeter fruit leather, then add sugar one tablespoon at a time to the simmering pulp, tasting for desired sweetness. Lay a piece of parchment paper on a cookie sheet and spread the pulp on the parchment to a 1/8-1/4 inch thickness. Place in a 140ºF oven (if your oven doesn’t get that low, 170ºF will do) for 10-12 hours. You can tell if it is ready by peeling it from the parchment and by touching it in the center of the tray. When it is done it will be tacky but not sticky. Also when it has cooled it is more likely to be less sticky than when you test it when it is warm.

Autumn Olive Jam From Rebecca Eckstein

Joan Kovatch

Ingredients: About 8 cups of ripe autumn olive berries 1 cup of water 3 ½ cups of sugar One package of pectin

Add the autumn olive berries to the water and bring to a boil. You will need to allow it to simmer for anywhere from fifteen to twenty minutes. This will get the autumn olive jam started, there are other steps but every step has a purpose. Preparing your autumn olive berries is almost the most important step. This is because if you mess up the berries then you will have to start over. Your second step is to run the mash through a food mill or a potato ricer. This will mash all of your boiled berries down, and you will end up with about 5 cups of pressed fruit for your autumn olive jam. This is also another very important step, because you want your jam to be perfect, you will not want any berries that have not been milled correctly. The third step will be to add 1/3 cup of sugar, and mix it with the pectin, and then bring to a boil. When you do this, you are preparing to bring all the ingredients together and make your autumn olive jam. There is another step before you can add the rest of the ingredients. Shortly after the last step, you will want to add the rest of the sugar and continue to bring to a boil for a minute or two. This will ensure that you did not add too much sugar at once, and that you will not end up with clumps or have any other problems with your jam. Now is the time to mix all of the ingredients and make your autumn olive jam. The result should be a perfect mix of fruit, sugar, and pectin. Now that you’ve finished making autumn olive jam, we hope you enjoy it! This recipe will leave you with about six jars of jam. Follow the instructions that came with the jars you’re storing your jam in so that you can increase its shelf life.

Garlic Mustard Aliaria petiolata

Garlic Mustard Allaria petiolata

Greg Chapman

Garlic mustard is originally from Europe but has been spread throughout most of the Northern United States since the 1860s when it was introduced into America as a culinary herb. Europeans also brought garlic mustard to the United States for its medicinal purposes. The seeds are spread by the fur of animals, flowing water and human activity.

Invasive Impacts

Garlic mustard has spread quickly throughout the U.S. because once it is introduced into a new area it spreads easily into an undisturbed plant community and becomes the dominant understory species. Seed productivity and compeFlowering garlic mustard in Montezuma, New York tition with native species is increased when garlic mustard spreads because the United States lacks the European biological control insect and fungal species that keep its population under control in its home environments. There are many consequences associated with this rapid spread of garlic mustard. This plant produces allelochemicals which inhibit the growth of mycorrhizal fungi. Most plants and some native trees cannot grow to full potential without these important fungi. Native plants are further affected by garlic mustard because animals, such as white-tailed deer, do not eat garlic mustard. They may shift their attention to the dwindling populations of native plants already being outcompeted. Very few animals eat garlic mustard because it produces a number of secondary compounds that make it unpalatable. Some butterflies and other insects are being affected by these compounds as well because they lay eggs on the plant but they eggs do not survive because they are unable to withstand the chemicals that garlic mustard emits. Garlic mustard also creates seed banks. These are dormant seeds that reside in the soil for about 20 months before germination. This makes it very hard to eradicate the plant. All of these factors contribute to the fast and easy spread of garlic mustard. Since garlic mustard has spread greatly throughout the years, many attempts of control have been tried. Pulling from the root, cutting new sprouts, applying herbicide and repeated fire (3-5 years) are some management techniques that are commonly used for controlling garlic mustard. There has been ongoing research in attempt to find any biological controls that will aid in the reduction on garlic mustard in the United States. So far, nothing has been found but hopefully future research will find something. One of the easiest and most effective ways of

controlling garlic mustard in New York State is education to the public. Many parks and wildlife reserves have educational hikes through the woods that teach people about garlic mustard. They even organize garlic mustard “pulls” where groups of people get together, go into the parks or forests and pull out the plant by their roots. Although this is effective and gets a lot of garlic mustard out of the woods, it is not a permanent solution and the weed will grow back eventually. One other way to help control garlic mustard is to eat it!

USD21A PLANTS Database

Occupied territories

Garlic mustard is found all over the United States. It is a shadetolerant plant that is found most abundantly in the understory of non-acidic woodlands. It grows in upland and floodplain forests, savannas, yards, and along roadsides. Although it requires mostly shady environments, it is occasionally found in sunny habitats. One plant yields many others that surround it, so it usually is found growing in large groups.

When to harvest

Garlic mustard distribution throughout North America

Garlic mustard is one of the first green plants to appear in the beginning of spring. Its leaves first appear as heart-shaped, coarsely-toothed, and veined, close to the ground. Since garlic mustard is a biennial, second year plants send up a flower stalk. The leaves alternate along the flower stalk and become thinner, and small, white four-petaled flowers will appear at the top. Leaves become bitter with time so it is ideal to harvest the leaves from early spring to early summer. The roots can be harvested in early spring and again in late fall (when no flower stalks are present). Seeds can be collected in late summer to early fall.

Similar species

There are several garlic mustard look-alikes, such as sweet cicely, cut-leaved toothwort, and early saxifrage. The first year young sprouts can look like creeping Charlie, violets, and kidney-leaf buttercup. None of these plants are poisonous and none of them have the strong garlicky smell. Fortunately, there are no poisonous look-alikes to this plant.

Identification

First year garlic mustard plants form basal rosettes (about 4 inches tall) and the leaves are kidney-shaped. Second year plants have large, heart-shaped, toothed leaves that alternate on the stem. When the leaves are crushed, a strong smell resembling garlic is released. The flowering stems are 2-4 feet tall with small white flowers and may be singly or doubly branched. Plants develop a white, slender taproot, which often branches below ground. The top of the root typically has a bend or “S”-shape as it emerges from the ground. Seeds are oblong dark brown to black with greed pods that turn tan with time.

Chris Evans

Garlic Mustard Recipes In addition to the recipes on the following pages, garlic mustard can be sampled plain along the trail, or added fresh to salads – try pairing it with the young leaves of (non-native) dandelion or chicory for a truly “exotic” salad. If used fresh, garlic mustard should be harvested as soon as possible in the spring, as it may quickly become too bitter. You will no doubt find more than enough for your uses – if you harvest too much (or, just want to remove more of this invader than you need, so as to give some other plants a chance), be sure to allow any excess plant material to dry before disposing of it, and avoid transporting (or harvesting) plants with the distinct elongated seed pods present. When removing garlic mustard to eat, make sure to keep the plants in a sealed container until you get home and properly dispose of any not consumed. Do not toss unused plant material onto a compost pile, or anywhere else outdoors. NEVER plant garlic mustard as a garden herb. There is plenty to be found in the wild that needs to be harvested anyway.

Garlic Mustard In Lemon Sauce From Friends of Sligo Creek

Garlic mustard is a great vegetable, but it must be handled correctly so its intrinsic bitterness is held in check and prevented from running rampant. Stir-frying followed by simmering in a strongly seasoned sauce does the trick. Serve this Asianflavored side dish with brown rice. 4-1/2 tablebspoons kuzu or tapioca flour 3 tablebspoons vegetable glycerin, barley malt, rice syrup, or honey 2 cups water 1/2 tablebspoon liquid stevia 6 tablebspoons lemon juice 1/2 tablebspoon lemon extract 3/4 teaspoon salt 3/4 teaspoon cloves, ground 3/4 teaspoon allspice, ground 3/4 teaspoon star anise, ground 4-1/2 tablebspoons peanut oil 6 cups young garlic mustard leaves, chopped 3 cloves of garlic, chopped 1. Mix together all ingredients except the garlic mustard leaves, garlic, and peanut oil in a saucepan with a whisk, bring to a boil over medium heat, stirring constantly, reduce the heat to low, cover, and simmer 5 minutes stirring occassionally. 2. Meanwhile, heat the oil in a wok or skillet and stir-fry the garlic mustard and garlic 1.5 minutes, stirring constantly. 3. Pour the sauce over the garlic mustard mixture and cook over high heat 3 minutes or until the garlic mustard leaves are tender, stirring constantly.

Garlic Mustard and Spinach Raviolis with Garlic Mustard Pesto From Friends of Sligo Creek

Developed by Robert Dunn, Executive Chef, Belmont Conference Center

Ravioli ingredients: 4 shallots 1 clove garlic 2 cups spinach 2 cups garlic mustard 4 ounces ricotta cheese 2 ounces Parmesan cheese 2 ounces chopped sundried tomotoes 6 sheets fresh pasta

Pesto ingredients: 1 cup garlic mustard 1/2 cup basil 3 cloves garlic 2 ounces toasted pinenuts 4 ounces olive oil Juice of 1 lemon

Saute shallots and garlic in 2 tablespoons butter until tender. Add spinach and garlic mustard greens and wilt. Season with salt and pepper. Remove from pan and cool slightly. Squeeze excess liquid from greens and roughly chop. Combine all ingredients and season to taste. Cut pasta sheets to desired size. Eggwash pasta and fill with garlic mustard and spinach mixture. In a food processor, combine all ingredients except olive oil. PurĂŠe and slowly drizzle in olive oil with the food processor running. Toss cooked raviolis with pesto.

References Czarapata, Elizabeth J. Invasive Plants of the Upper Midwest: An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification and Control. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005. Print. Eastman, John. The Book of Field and Roadside: Open-country Weeds, Trees, and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. Print. Gibbons, Euell. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. New York: D. McKay Co, 1962. Print. Hartman, Paul and Sharon Morrisey. Garlic Mustard â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Major Threat to Wisconsinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Woodlands. Wis: University of Wisconsin-Extension, 2002. Print. Huebner, Cynthia D, Cassandra Olson, and Heather C. Smith. Invasive Plants Field and Reference Guide: An Ecological Perspective of Plant Invaders of Forests and Woodlands. United States: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, 2005. Print. Swearingen, Jil. Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas: 4th Ed. Washington, D.C: National Park Service, 2010. Print. US Forest Service. Weed of the Week: Japanese Knotweed. 2004. Web. Gover, Art, Jon Johnson, and Jim Sellmer. Managing Japanese Knotweed. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, 2007. Web.