Frankincense Info-graphic by Muscat Media Group

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

TIMES O F OMAN

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE

FRANKINCENSE TREE AND ITS GIFT

Cutting tool Al manqaf is a unique iron knife which the Dhofari frankincense harvester used to tap or peel the bark:

Frankincense, also called olibanum, is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfume. It is obtained by cutting the treeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bark of the genus Boswellia which grows in Arabia, Africa and South Asia. The English word is derived from Old French franc encens (high quality incense). Many centuries ago, a huge enterprise of caravan was established along the Arabian peninsula when the Mediterranean civilizations discovered and fell captivated by its aroma. Soon this commodity became even more expensive than gold, and up until petroleum was discoverd in Arabia. Many experts agree that the best kind of frankincense is produced by the species which are native in Oman.

60 - 100 years

Harvesting

Average life span of frankincense tree

10 - 20 kg

Blade

7cm

Wooden handle

20cm

Optional blade

7cm

Average yield of resin for each tree per season

Boswellia sacra tolerates the most critical conditions and often grows on rocky slopes and ravines and can start to produce resin from 8 to 10 years old.

Frontal view

Side view Most of the trees are leaďŹ&#x201A;ess during the frankincense resin harvesting season. On this illustration we added leaves to show how the tree looks in all its splendor

MAKING INCISION According to studies, wounds are made on the eastern and western sides of the tree to allow sufficient exposure to sunlight for quick drying of the resin. However on bigger trees, they are on the sides where they do most of the tapping.

Main tapping areas

East

South

West

Trunk

Sunrise

Sunset

B North Harvesters prefer to tap the branches to avoid scabs from old wounds.

The lower portion of the tree trunk produces more resin

Scab The tree responds to an injury quite similar to the human body. After the cut, scabs will appear.

Bark The total number of cuts per tree:

Fresh wound As soon an incision is made, the sap begins to surface. The optimal size of tapping must not exceed a surface of 12 sq cm.

from

20 40 to

Remaining scar after the scab fell off

Minimum separation between the cuts

Precious white sap turns into resin as it dries

4 cm

3 cm

The reason why a plant or a tree produces saps or resins is it serves as a defence mechanism to seal off its injury, to prevent desiccation, and to protect against insect and fungal attacks, as well as decay.

East

Frankincense trees grow favourably in stony soils rich in limestone

West

Average daily production per worker: 8 to 12 kg

TAPPING PROCEDURE

Trees are induced to bleed by making incisions in the outer bark. Wounding is made in the trunk and on larger branches.

The sap oozes

The resin hardens into clumps or chunks.

After two weeks the harvester returns to the tree and collects the accumulated batch of resin and cuts again. This step is repeated every two weeks during harvest season.

Sources: Dendrochronology and bark anatomy of the frankincense tree by Motuma Tolera Feyissa | Burseraceae of Dhofar by Ahmed Mohammed Mustahil Al Kathiri | The Plant List (theplantlist.org) | Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew, London) Frankincense & Myrrh: A Gift of Tree History by Kim Coder | Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead by Shimshon Ben-Yehoshua | Interview to Mr. Amin Saad Said Al Mahri

The resin is left to harden for a few weeks before being brought to market.

Scab

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

Species The Burseraceae is a family of trees or shrubs characterized by the peeling or ﬂaking aromatic bark and the resin present within the plant tissue. The resin from many species in this family is being used as incense. There are two prominent genuses in the Burseraceae family: the Bowellia (its resin is called frankincense) and the Commiphora (its resin is myrrh).

GENUS

BEISELIA FAMILY

1 species

SUBTRIBE

SPECIES

The resin considered as frankincense is produced by all 30 species in the Boswellia genus but only four are considered the ‘true frankincense producers’, the other 26 species produce resin with lesser compounds that characterizes its distinctive aroma.

AUCOUMEA

Boswellia frereana Somalia

1 species

CANARIEAE

MINOR GRADE OR NOT FRANKINCENSE

170 species

GARUGA BOSWELLIA

37 species

TRUE FRANKINCENSE

30 species

Boswellia sacra

4 species

BURSERA

BURSERACEAE

Boswellia papyrifera Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda & Sudan

26 species

5 species

BOSWELLIINAE

Boswellia serrata India

Oman, Yemen & Somalia

TRUE MYRRH

120 species

645 species

Commiphora myrrha Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Yemen & Oman

1 species

BURSERINAE 342 species

MINOR GRADE MYRRH

Commiphora abyssinica

4 species

COMMIPHORA

Commiphora foliacea

222 species The genus Commiphora encompasses 222 different species of trees, from which only ﬁve produce a resin, but only one single specie is considered as ‘true myrrh’.

PROTIEAE

Commiphora playfairii Commiphora serrulata

96 species

Frankincense tree geographic distribution

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Pakistan

Boswellia papyrifera

The Burceraceae family grows in the tropical regions of all the continents but its genus Boswellia is constrained to Africa and Asia.

Oman Eritrea Boswellia sacra

Sudan Caribean Mesoamerica

Tropical zone

Burceraceae family

India

Saudi Arabia

Asia

North America

Tropic of Cancer

Yemen

Southeast Asia

Africa

Boswellia serrata

Socotra island

Ecuator Ethiopia

True frankincense South America

Minor grade frankincense

Somalia

Australia

Arabian Sea Boswellia frereana Ecuator

Uganda Other Boswellia species Mainly in East-Central Africa

Vascular system of the tree Madagascar

Burseraceae trees are characterized by resins that are present within the plant tissue from the resin ducts in the bark. Two types of resin canals in frankincense tree:

SPROUTING RESIN

Radial resin canals Bear low amount of resin

When the scab is formed, it develops a rose-like shape incrustation surronded by thin papery bark layers.

Axial resin canals Bear great amount of resin and located in the inner bark

Growth rings

Radial resin canals

A resin is a mixture of many compounds but its characteristic aroma is due to terpene, a volatile hydrocarbon.

Outer bark Resin pockets With limited resin circulation

Stages of extraction One single frankincense tree is cut on nine occasions at the same locations during the season. The seasons for cutting the trees vary from one region to another. The best season in Oman is called Hojari which starts on April 15 and ends on September 1 . Month Day

April 1

May

June

4 Workers collect frankincense and cut again in the same wound

Monsoon

2 Cut in the same wound. Frankincense still not coming

3 Cut in the same wound. Frankincense still not coming

July

Workers cut the trees

SHAPES OF NUGGET

August

Collect the resin and make a cut in the same wound

Collect frankincense and make a cut in the same wound

5 Again, collect frankincense and cut in the same wound

September 1

15 Chief workers declare the end of the season. They collect frankincense without cutting more

Collect frankincense and make a cut in the same wound

Tapping season statistics

45 - 60

In Oman, frankincense is distributed in markets as solidiﬁed resin pieces which usually range in size from one to ﬁve centimetres and are sold in bulk and by weight. Each resin comes in a variety of shapes, but the most common appearance is like a drop or a tear Medium size frankincense nuggets (Actual size)

Average number of trees per worker in a season

800 - 1,600 kg Average production of each worker per season

10 - 20 Usual number of workers per location

Globular Sometimes, during burning produces a leftover core

Pear shape

Nail shape

Stalactitic Burns completely

TIMES O F OMAN

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE Jabal Khadar (Al Hajar Mountain range) Elevation: 2,200m Sur

The steep slope of Samhan mountain serves as a natural barrier against the rain-charged clouds which can signiﬁcantly reduce the quality of the highly prized frankincense

Masirah Island

Ra’s Al Mishayu

Ra’s Al Hadd

Jabal Samhan Ridge Clouds

Wahiba Sands

Ra’s Al Madrakah Duqm

Ghubbat Sawqira h

NOR TH

Haima

HASKI

The typical landscape of Dhofar where Boswellia sacra cohabits with other species of shrubs and trees

Ra’s Qarwaw Al Qibliyah Ra’s Manja Al Hallaniyah

Ra’s Ash Shuwaymiyyah As Sawda

Gulf of Al Hallaniyat

Marmul

Al Hasikiyah

HOJARI

Wadi

CROSS SECTION 1

Hasik

The best quality class produced from eastern dry parts of Dhofar

Andur

Ra’s Muntajib Jabal Habarit

Jabal Naws

Jabal Musayrah Sadah

SHEQUOF

F Wadi Dawkah (Frankincense Reserve)

Ayun

Jabal Shibob Jabal Mithwil

RIDGE

G Port of Salalah (Raysut)

Jabal Darmat

Ra’s Hamar

Jabal Darat

Najdi Trees Growing conditions vary signiﬁcantly, affecting the tree development and resin produced. Trees in the narrow fog-laden zone where the desert meets Dhofar mountain range, a region known as the Nejd, grow extremely slowly and produce very high quality resin.

Mughsayl

Jabal Had

SHAZRI

SAHLI

Dhofar, located at the southern part of Oman, prides itself as the home of the world’s best quality frankincense resin known as the Royal Hojari. This is due to the fact that Dhofar’s perfectly situated geographic location produces quite unique weather. To understand this map, start from the ridge of Dhofari mountain chain (blue line) which divides Dhofar into two main domains: the coastal plain which annually receives monsoon rains (or khareef), and the plateau, a drier tract which produces the best frankincense.

Ghubbat al Fazayih

Third best quality class, produced from trees found in the wadies of the western parts of Dhofar.

Jabal Kamah

Jabal Duzah

Ra’s Sagir

THE BLESSED DHOFAR REGION

Al Baleed

Tomb of Nabi Ayoub (Job)

Jabal Juz

The second best quality class, produced from trees found in the desert parts behind the mountain.

SALALAH Ittin

Taqah

NAJDI

Desert

N BIA ARA

Mirbat

Khor Rori

Khasbar cave

IA N

Jabal Al Qara

A Wadi Hinnah

Jabal Aram

Jabal Nashib

Bandar Qinqari

Jabal Shereef

Jabal Ashur

Jabal Khasbar

Thumrait

Jabal Qinqari

Jabal Daw’an

Taiq sink hole

Jabal Hiﬁt

Rawiyyah

The inferior quality which is produced from trees that spread throughout the coastal plains of Dhofar.

Jabal Samhan

CROSS SECTION 2

SHAIBI

AB AR

Jabal = Mountain

Jabal Al Qamar

Wadi = Dried up riverbed

Unesco site

Ancient frankincense collection point

RIDGE

Rakhyut

Plateau

Coastal plain

Jabal Rakhyut

SHEQUOF

SOURCE AND QUALITY The primary factor that determines the quality of resin is the location of the frankincense trees. The coastal areas in Dhofar receive too much rain in the months of July and August which affect the quality of resin, as well as the increasing humidity and impurities. Fresh frankincense produced by the trees far from coastal areas look greenish but turn yellowish when they get older. Resin produced by the trees near the coastal area are light brown when fresh and darker brown when older.

Dalqut

Best

With impurities but still good

Good

With impurities

The older the frankincense, the darker its colour

Fresh

Old

Jabal Sayq

DHOFAR CROSS SECTION

Distance (kilometres) 57

Best quality

Inferior quality

Sarfayt Elevation (metres)

HOJARI

Good quality

The famous Hojari frankincense is produced in a zone which goes 25 kms inland from Jabal Samhan ridge.

Exagerated ten times for explanatory purpose This zone receives occasional rains so the resins obtained from the trees are not damaged by the rains but such dryness would almost kill the trees as their roots couldn’t receive the needed nutrients.

Ra’s Darbat Ali 1,500

500

NOR TH

1,500

W in d

Fog

Elevation (metres)

Fog

1,000

Hawf

Too much impurities in frankincense resins are due to rain.

nd ra in

880

Andur CROSS SECTION 1

Thumrait

CROSS SECTION 2

Wadi Dawkah (Frankincense Reserve)

MO N

From this point and the density of Boswellia sacra starts to decrease towards the inland

Desert

Dry Plateau North-facing cliffs

Foothills

Coastal plain

Sea

Escarpment

SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE TREE Plant species have certain range and characteristic. They are greatly dependent on the climate, the availability of water, quality of sunlight, temperature and soil. Thus, the Boswellia sacra in Oman may vary in many ways:

IRAN Muscat

VANTAGE POINT The map above is seen from the coast of Yemen facing the Sultanate and the location where frankincense trees abundantly grow spanned within the area of the page. Note however that in this perspective the scale is a bit skewed due to the roundness of the Earth’s surface.

UAE SAUDI ARABIA

Ra’s Al Hadd

OMAN

DHOFAR Point of view Salalah

Coastal Plain Single-stemmed tree up to 6m tall in areas with good water supply

Hasik peninsula

YEMEN Arabian S

Plateau & Desert Multi-stemmed trees and shorter than the ones in the coastal plain

Trees under extremely dry condition: Up to 1 metre

Desert

Plateau

Sources: Burseraceae of Dhofar by Ahmed Mohammed Mustahil Al Kathiri | Interview to Annette Patzelt (Oman Botanic Garden’s Director of Science) | Phytogeographic zones of Dhofar by Mauro Raffaelli & Marcello Tardelli | Boswellia sacra Flueck in the Hasik area, Mauro Raffaelli, Stefano Mosti & Marcello Tardelli | Around Guides

TIM ES OF OMAN

SUNDAY, S U N DAY, NOVEMBER N OV E MB E R 20, 2016

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE

INCENSE BURNING

On natural charcoal

Frankincense provides one of the most redolent scents in the history of aromatics. Its fresh, fruity, pine-lemon bouquet with delicately sweet and woody undertones, slows and deepens breathing and has been used since ancient times to awaken higher consciousness, and enhance spirituality, meditation and prayer. It is burnt daily in Oman to welcome guests, perfume clothes and home spaces and erase cooking smells, among other uses.

In Oman, the charcoal used is either from Sidr or from Sumr tree.

Uses

Take some charcoal and burn it in a pan made with holes in the base.

Once ignited, place them inside the incense burner.

Take the resins, and place it over the coal. To obtain more smoke, add more charcoal and more frankincense.

Home The incense is carried around and its smoke is wafted into a person’s beard or over one’s body. After dinner or house functions, incense is burnt as a sign of farewell.

On smoldering charcoal

In the morning, it is used regularly in the kitchen and in the living room.

In the evening, it is used in other areas of the house, such as bedrooms.

Light an edge. When it starts to sparkle a bit or makes a slight crackling sound, the saltpeter has been activated and the coal is igniting.

The charcoal is ready in about 4 to 5 minutes. The coal can burn at up to 1500 degrees farenheit.

Take a small piece of frankincense and place it in the middle of the coal.

Clothing It is often used by Omani families to soak their clothing with the smoke using special wicker frames called mabkharah. Adding sand or white ash to the censer is recommended. It absorbs the heat from the censer and lets air under the charcoal for better burning.

A thermal isolation chamber is present in most of the Omani majmars, to protect the surfaces where the censer is placed and to protect the majmar itself.

Wedding Frankincense is burnt just before the ceremony.

Omani censers Birth Burning incense throughout labour to protect the mother and also after safely delivering her baby.

Incense is burnt near the baby’s cradle to honor and protect new life. During and after birth, frankincense was burnt for 40 days in order to protect mother and child.

Omani censers are called majmar. Most popular are the terracota hand made models. Omani women usually paint them and each censer is unique. Its size varies depending on the ability to burn more or less incense

The biggest majmar, mainly used in Mosques and weddings.

Medium size models is often used at home, offices and places outside houses.

Four squre censers are popular. They are sold with or without paint at the same value.

This is a machine-made burner. Cheaper than hand-made models. The smallest type is used only as souvenirs

Price range in Omani Rial (at Muttrah Souq)

25.0

22.5

20.0

17.5

15.0

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0

Life of a frankincense nugget We conducted a test inside a room 20 square metres. In 20 minutes, a nugget is completely burnt but smoke stays longer. After the smoke disappears, the fruity smell persists in the air. More charcoal and more incense make the smell stay longer and stronger. Frankincense release oils ﬁrst

In a few minutes the smoke begins to rise in a thin line

After 10 minutes the tear loses colour and turns black

At 15 minutes, it is almost completely consumed

In 20 minutes, it stops emitting smoke and is completely charred

Thereafter it is preferable to remove the tear. You can replace it with a new one and extend the effect.

Minutes

01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 24:00 25:00 26:00 27:00 28:00 29:00 30:00

Source: The Power of Omani Frankincense, Sultan Qaboos University | The craft heritage of Oman, Marcia Dorr & Neil Richardson | Typology of incense burners, Sterenn Le Maguer | Interview to Mr. Amin Saad Said Al Mahri

TIMES O F OMAN

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE EUROPE 3500 BCE

3200 BCE

The earliest tangible record of incense use in the region is an incense burner found in the ruins of a temple at Tepe Gawra, near Mosul in modern Iraq

Humanity first began trading frankincense from Dhofar in response to a demand from southern Mesopotamia. Sumerian clay tablets tell the story of the sailors and the caravaneers who brought the incense to the region.

Trading aromatics was already in place in eastern Arabia by the third millennium BCE and most likely by circa 5000 BCE.

Tepe Gawra MESOPOTAMIA Uruk

BEFORE COMMO N ERA

ARABIA

BCE

3500

EGYPT

Dhofar Region

For almost thirty centuries, Ancient Egypt was the dominant civilization in the Mediterranean world, and perhaps the main frankincense consumers at that time.

BABYLON

Since frankincense plant distribution was restricted botanically to southern Arabia, the trade would necessarily have come northward either by land or sea.

3000 - 2000 BCE

300

Consumer area

EGYPT

1 Before 6000 BCE, monsoon rains disappeared in the Arabian region and frankincense trees prospered in the drought conditions.

Harvest area

DIL

Its frangant white smoke first recorded spiralling upwards in Summerian temples.

Archeological evidence indicates that dromedary camels were first domesticated in the southeastern Arabian Peninsula around 3000 BC. Then overland trade routes were vastly extended.

The Babylonians living in the Fertile Crescent region around 3000 to 600 BCE imported frankincense from Africa.

2800 BCE

Since its discovery, frankincense has been linked to the human need to have a solemn connection to their gods. It became a symbol of luxury associated with prestige and tradition. Trade gave life to powerful kingdoms in southern Arabia and its decline also caused the collapse of these societies. Today, the frankincense trade is a shadow of what it was and it is incredible to imagine that a long time ago it was one of the most prized possessions in the ancient world.

HOW TO READ

KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES

Egyptians used frankincense. A form of aromatherapy was being practiced using infused oils.

2500

BCE

2500 BCE By the early dynastic times extending through the early Bronze Age, seafaring boats linked Oman with the Indus Valley, the Emirates, Bahrain, Eastern Arabia, and the Sumeria.

Chronological milestone

Trivia

Egyptian

Duration of each dynasty or empire for over time

Babylonian Asiatic

Main consumers in ancient times

In the early years of the overland trade, frankincense was carried in donkey caravans in which the distances between water sources were difficult.

2630 BCE

0 Major milestone

It is possible that Egypt was receiving high grade Boswellia sacra from Oman to the north east via the Red Sea

EUROPE

Greek Persian

Roman Incense trade saw growth in several kingdoms and its decline meant their extinction

Rome

Sayhadic (Southern Arabia) Trade agents

Frankincense’s soothing power was well known to the royal family. Imhotep (2,667 2,600 BCE), an Egyptian high priest, cleaned and applied the princes’s eyes with a cream with frankincense.

Nabatean (Northern Arabia) Hymiarite (Southern Arabia)

2000 B

4 NORTH AFRICA

2000 BCE EGYPTIAN DYNA

Consumer area By 2000 BC, caravans were using the main south-north route following the coast of the Red Sea. The journey covers as much as 2,400 miles linking production areas with markets.

Harvest area

STI ES

The use of sntr incense in Egypt, was replaced by frankincense and myrrh. They believed that their souls would fly up to the sun god Ra on the wings of the smoke, holding long-handled smokers called amschirs beneath their noses.

The Roman Empire in 117 CE, at its greatest extent

1600 - 1046 BCE The use of incense in China would appear to be as ancient as the civilisation itself. The Shang Dynasty has bequeated a legacy of ornate bronze incense burners. Incense was originally conveyed along the Silk Route.

1800 BCE In temples for the Babylonian sun deity Baal and the Greek god Apollo, frankincense was burnt in large quantities as a chemical substance with the power to bring devotees close to their divinities.

In the wall reliefs of a Karnak temple, artwork depicting Ramses II offering an incense.

150

1224 BCE

950 BCE A visit by Queen Sheeba to King Solomon was to ostensibly test his wisdom but almost certainly to secure an agreement on frankincense and myrrh.

1000 BC

A thousand talents (or 30,000 kilogrammes) of frankincense was burnt every year during the feast of Baal in Babylon.

30,000 kg (30 tonnes) is the equivalent weight of six adult African elephants.

1478 - 1457 BCE Queen Hatshepsut commissioned a big temple which she described as “a garden for my father Amun”. The temple was lined with incense-bearing plants including myrrh (and most likely, frankincense).

SAYHADIC Sayhadic (Old South Arabian) is a group of four closely related extinct languages spoken in the far southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula.

GREECE Although Greeks were importing incense from Syria (5th century BCE), Herodotus knew that frankincense came from further south of Arabia.

1200 BCE

1333 BCE

Rameses III had a special building constructed near Thebes to store incense for the veneration of Amon.

Frankincense was used for the tomb of Tutankhamun and other ancient Egyptians.

Sources: Frankincense, Oman's Gift to the World by Juliet Highet | Food for the Gods by David Peacock & David Williams | The True, Legendary Omani Frankincense: Boswellia Sacra by Scott Johnson | Ancient Arabia: A brief history and time-line by M.Macdonald & N. Nebes

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

Presently, 10 to 12 tonnes of frankincense are exported from Dhofar annually. The bulk goes to thriving modern Arab perfumery.

10 tonnes

2007 CE

2000 CE

The Land of Frankincense Museum, located at Al Baleed (Dhofar), opened its door to the public, showcasing fossils and artefacts found in Oman’s archeological sites

UNESCO inscribed four new World Heritage Sites in Oman, collectively called “The Land of Frankincense”

Khor Rori is an ancient fortified town and one of the four places included in the Land of Frankincense. The remains of the fortress are located on a rocky spur. The port was refounded at the end of the 1st century to control the frankincense trade in Dhofar.

2000 CE

1895 CE Nowadays, steeped in perfume culture, many Arab households burn incense every day at sunrise and sunset.

The Bents reported that 450 tonnes of frankincense was exported annually from Dhofar to Bombay.

1900 CE The beginning of the era of oil, black gold supplanting white after the World War II. The fatal blow for the mass Omani export of frankincense was delivered by the development of a synthetic substitute.

1830 CE Indian markets re-export incense in different forms from Mumbai.

The periplous route: From Dhofar to China From the first century ships were plying their periplous route laden with aromatics. Maritime routes from the Arabian Gulf to South China Sea.

Before 1970, bedouins still used frankincense as currency Hong Kong

7,000 tonnes

Canton (Quangzhou)

When Poppaea died in 65 CE, it is said that her husband Nero burned a year’s worth of Arabia’s incense production (7,000 tonnes) at her funeral.

Al Baleed Nicobar Islands Sri Lanka

1500 CE

Maldives Chinese city of Quanzhou imported approximately 174 tonnes of frankincense from Al Baleed.

At Roman funeral ceremonies, frankincense was heaped onto the pyres to honour the dead and disguise the stench of burning flesh.

Hong Kong In 9th century, the thurible, a swinging ng from chains, had been censer hung invented. Its construction allowing clouds of sacred smoke to stream out.

1285 CE

Marco Polo recorded in his journal that Al-Mansura (Al Baleed) was engaged in exporting both white incense and horses with China.

By 7th century, the Arabs traded with areas producing fragrant materials as far as South East Asia. Their chemists discovered the techniques of distillation, blending and fixing. The landed price of frankincense in China reflected the hazards and longeurs of the two year round trip.

The apex of trade 1000

Roman Republic heralded the most intensive use of frankincense in its entire history. The sacred incense was an indispensable element of imperial culture for devotional and state ceremonies.

Per fumun Burning frankincense

ASIA

Perfume

During the Tang Dynasty (618 - 906 CE) and Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 CE), sophisticated refinements of China were introduced to Japan. The Song Dynasty in China sent its porcelain to Arabia to trade for frankincense.

Jabir ibn Hayyan (721 - 815 CE), known as the father of Arabic chemistry, described distillation using an alembic in the 8th century.

600 AD There were still huge caravans of two thousand or so camels traveling north which carried frankincense. Although increasingly, more oriental and African luxury goods were carried. Pre-Islamic traders from Mecca revived the control of the overland route. Trade by sea continued to areas outside the Roman Empire.

1300 - 1700 tonnes of frankincense were being carried to Rome in some 7,000 - 10,000 camel-loads

Arab and Persian traders had been granted leave to establish settlements on the outskirts of Canton, one of the great incense markets of the world.

300 CE

Alexandria Petra

The economic crisis within the Roman Empire meant that demand for frankincense and other eastern luxur luxuries went into steep decline. T This marked the fragmentation fragmen and weakening of the incense in kingdoms of southe southern Arabia.

NORTH ARABIA

Fragant Harbour Etymology of Hong Kong’s name (fragant harbour) relates the reception and processing of incense.

500 CE 500 CE

From 6th to 9th century, there was a great decline in the frankincense production and trade. Desiccation and over-grazing caused the withering of trees.

323 CE With the introduction of Christianity, the earliest followers rejected the pagan rituals of the past, outlawing the use of frankincense in religious ceremonies.

Petra was a thriving trading centre and the capital of the Nabataean Empire between 400 BCE and 106 CE

NABATEA The grandeur of the Nabatean cities flourished, as Petra gained profits from the Arabian incense trade by selling to the Greek and then Roman Empire.

ROM

500 CE

RE AN

4 BCE

7 C LI

R E 0C NE O

At the time of the birth of Jesus Christ, who was given frankincense, as well as myrrh and gold, the incense trade was at its height.

M M CO

In Wadi Rum (south of Petra), a 3,000-year-old cave paintings depict camel caravans passing through the valley and the bandits who preyed on them.

PERSIA Alexander the Great was so enthralled by the prospect of owning the means of production of frankincense that he considered adding Arabia to his conquests. Only his death prevented him from fulfilling his ambition.

Admiral Nearchos, sailed with a fleet of fifteen hundred vessels from India and in his journal, refers to Maketa on the Cape of Arabia. He describes it as “the emporium for the sea-borne trade in frankincense and all the other fragrant products of Arabia.”

Darius I (522 - 486 BCE) was already receiving voluntary tributes of frankincense from Arabia.

Rise and fall of Sayhadic kingdoms These kingdoms (Sabaea, Quataban, Ma’in and Hadhramau) emerged to the west of Dhofar: Saba (1000 BCE to 200 CE)

The rise of a new powerful tribal group, the Himyarites, shifted the centre of power away from the Sayhadic kingdoms.

Hadramawt (1000 BCE to 300 CE) Qataban (800 BCE to 200 CE) Ma’in (600 to 100 BCE)

Himyar (110 BCE to 525 CE)

BCE (Before Common Era)

CE (Common Era)

1000

326 BCE

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, recommended frankincense as treatment for ulcers.

500

400 BCE

In Greek society, frankincense had replaced animal sacrificies.

1000

600 BCE

In Persepolis and Susa (modern day Iran), frankincense was a prized commodity. Monuments at the Persepolis show King Darius I himself offering incense.

500

During the Roman Empire, 2.5 to 3 million kilogrammes of frankincense were reported to have been exported to Rome from Southern Arabia.

Rome expanded and annexed Nabatean Kingdom.

ROME

117 CE

Romans outlawing the use of frankincense in cremation rites in favour of simple burials without the embellishment of incense.

TIMES O F OMAN

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE

THE FRANKINCENSE TRAIL

Land of Frankincense Wadi Dawkah, Shisr, Khor Rori and Al Baleed are the four components known collectively as the Land of Frankincense declared in the UNESCO World Heritage list. They dramatically illustrate the trade in frankincense that ﬂourished in this region for many centuries and constitute outstanding testimony to the civilizations in south Arabia since the Neolithic age.

A network of trade routes had been established between kingdoms for many centuries, carrying goods such as salt, wheat, wine, weapons, dates, and animal skins from one fortified settlement to another. These paths were the basis of the frankincense trade routes between the kingdoms of southern Arabia, which formed the starting point of the route towards the north. Frankincense was a sought after commodity throughout Egypt, Rome, Greece, Persia, Assyria and Babylon and was one of the most prized substances of the ancient civilized world, valued as highly as gold and the gift of kings. For centuries, incense trade routes from Arabia Felix to the Mediterranean where specifically made via camel caravans, although, this was not the only route. Several possible routes varied over time. From the Dhofar region where the frankincense trees were grown, our Arabian ancestors had to make several long journeys trough some hostile territories.

Northward crossing Rub’ Al Khali 2

Shisr

Wadi Dawkah served as one of t main production areas. There w several collection points, such a Andhur and Hanoon.

Wadi Dawkah 1

Kho Rori Khor Baleed Al Bal eed d

Inland routes Route 1

Exit to sea r

Route 2 From Sumhuram west (inland) to Shabwa, then north through Dedan and Petra until it reaches Gaza and Mediterranean. Also a connection with Route 3, and north to Jabrin linking with Route 1.

The oldest land route. Starts from Ain Humran (Dhofar) and travelling north to Shisr, then across the Empty Quarter to Jabrin, Gerrah, and Mesopotamia.

Route 2A

Route 2B Alternative routes connecting the other main inland routes.

From Hegra, routes went to west via Myos Hormos and Caenopolis, crossing Red Sea, then onwards to Alexandria.

From Petra, the route branched in ﬁve directions, most signiﬁcant was the one heading to Alexandria (or Gaza, Jerusalem, Jerash) then to Damascus.

To E u

rop e

Petra Gaza, the main spice entrepot of the ancient Greco-Roman world, was the ﬁnal stop on this northward journey. And from Gaza, frankincense was shipped to Mediterranean.

It is clear that Nabataea was a bridge for the importation and exportation of frankincense and other highly esteemed south Arabian produc products.

Palmyra Damascus

To Greece and Rome

ANCIENT TRADE ROUTES

Jerusalem

Gaza

Silk road

Jerash

Palmyra Alexandria

The three ancient routes converged in Palmyra and Petra. Frankincense route was the oldest.

Petra

Alexandria

Dhofar Frankincense road

Hegra ensured safe passage of trade caravans in return for large tax which made its people ultra rich.

Hegra (Madine Salah)

Luxor

The theories range from as late as the 9th century BCE (Before Common Era) to as early as the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE period. Then overland trade routes were vastly extended.

Archaeologists believe that the domestication occurred in the 3rd millennium BCE

At ﬁrst, donkey caravans transported the merchandise, but they could carry only small loads for short distances

2000

1000

Myos Hornos

was a commercial hub where several trade routes

(Al Ula)

Yathrib

Yathrib, a key trading town and a thriving oasis known for its dates palm produce, was an important stop for the incense caravans and pilgrims

(Medina)

Caenopolis BCE

3000

Dedan Dedan, the seat of the north Arabian Lihyanite kin

9 Leukê Kômê

Domestication

Alternat goods f

Cairo

Alexandria was an important sorting and processing centre for frankincense destined for the Roman Empire since ﬁrst century CE

Spice road

10 Petra

Aelana

FINAL HUB

CE 0

Humans began using camels as a pack animal in this area no later than the 16th century BCE

Mecca

Berenice

Cargo and transportation R

Camels

Load capacity

A north Arabian saddle was more practical to ﬁnd a way to sit on the hump itself.

Despite the camel’s bad breath and bad temper, it often provided companionship as well as meal-ticket for its driver.

As an average Arabian camel weighs between 880 to 1,320 pounds. Each animal carried somewhere around half to third of its body weight.

Goods on each camel (in pounds) Frankincense Saffron

200

1,320 pounds or 598 kg which is equivalent to 15 junia

300 200

North Arabian Creating some framework that shifts the weight to the animal’s ribcage on the sides.

300

Orris

Saddle

Keeping pace with the frankincense trade, camel caravans were increasing from two to three thousand.

Caravan

Myrrh

Cassia

It was not a fixed load, this representation is made based on the bibliography consulted.

Junia Each bag contains 40 kg

Size of a 1 kg bag of frankincense

According to Pliny, the expense for each camel before it arrives at the shore of the Mediterranean Sea is 688 denarii

OMR 19,208.96 1 denarii = OMR 27.92 (current amount)

The camels learn to follow implicitly a donkey that heads the procession. A cord is is tied to a ring that is fastened to leather strips on the hips of the donkey.

Courtyard

The caravansary A speciﬁc form of architecture evolved in Arabia serving as lodging places for travellers and their animals. Constructed to provide merchants, cameleers and animals with a secure place to rest, and spend a night or longer. Shisr was one of those caravansaries, the most important from Dhofar northward.

Camel types To shuttle the incense from the growing areas to the collection points, camels with small, smooth hooves were employed.

For long journeys, the cargoes were transferred onto large caravans ready to cross the sands on camels with bigger, calloused but soft-soled hooves.

Route elevation and stopovers According to Pliny the Elder, the journey consisted of 65 stages divided by halts and stopovers for the camels, and places for merchants to pay for services. Over sea level

START START

Shabwa was the mandatory point of taxation for all the caravans. Every merchant would have had to enter by law, and on pain of death if someone tried to pass another way long, during his journey.

16-30 days

1,500 m

The overland journey to Shabwa was a punishing thirty days or more.

Najran 1,700m

Marib 1,080m Shabwa 949m

FR The Bu in t

3 days 4 - 5 days

1,000 m

In the ground ﬂoor, there storerooms, landing dock for animals. Perhaps a fur within the complex.

10 days

Timna 1,035m

2,000 m Shisr 283m

The upper ﬂoor was often dormitories, bedrooms, an suites for travellers.

500 m

Arabian Sea 0m

Shisr to Shabwa: 643 km

177 km

72 km

105 km

Shisr to Gaza:

Sources: The Incense Trade by Pliny the Elder, cited in Food for the gods by David Peacock & David Williams | Frankincense, Oman's Gift to the World by Juliet Highet | Frankincense and the Nabataeans: Historical and Archaeological Evidence by Zeyad Al-Salameen | Past Scents, Historical Perspectives on Smell by Jonathan Reinarz | Documentary on the Frankinc

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

Wadi Dawkah

Shisr

Khor Rori

This natural park represents a region where the frankincense tree grows. Estimated by ﬁve sqare kilometers.

A caravansary and an oasis where camel trains entering the desert of Rub Al Khali (The Empty Quarter) stopped for water.

Hadhramaut Kingdom established Sumhuram in order to control main routes to the Red Sea, Arabian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

the was s

A major area where the Boswellia sacra specie are grown and cultivated.

Al Baleed The heavily fortiﬁed part is on the north, where the entrance is located.

The gate itself is a massive structure with three successive gates at the steep entry path.

Al Baleed was a trade hub and a commercial centre with ships leaving from Salalah to carry cargoes of frankincense to China and Rome. Chinese traveller Jan Jokao wrote that frankincense was one of the main commodities produced by Al Baleed. The Chinese city of Guangzhou imported about 174 kg of resins from this town.

North

Outline of the collapse

West

Centre

East

The west is the area for the ruler. Grand Mosque and Citadel are also located here.

Residential area, with housing, markets, and mosques

There was an open space which probably held horse stables, sardine drying elds, and frankincense storage areas.

Structural collapse (schematic view)

To Muscat To Salalah 40 km

A door towards the southeast served as an access to carry the incense to the sea

The sides facing east, south and west are naturally defended by steep slopes.

routes Shisr’s fortiﬁcation was built on an underground water source. When the underwater cavern had been drained, the city collapsed into the sands, presumably spanked by an earthquake.

The town plans shows that it was surrounded by a wall and defense towers.

Today, the pillars of Al Baleed’s great mosque are one of the remnants of this ancient town, which was built during the 10th century.

Ninevah

Collection of tributes The capital cities of the kingdoms acted as important stopping points for the merchants, who were charged high taxes or tributes on entry, and who paid substantial fees for services such as food, shelter, water, fresh camels and local guides.

tive route brought from Ur to Petra

Shisr At Wubar a tenth of the cargo would be demanded.

Shabwa Caravans had to pay 10% of its loads.

Petra Traders were to pay a quarter of the goods upon entering Nabataean kingdom.

Dilmun

ngdom, meet.

Al-Hassa

Dedan alterative rou te

connect east w ith Gerrha.

Gerrha The people from Gerrha were generally wealthy and made great proﬁts from their position as middlemen buying frankincense, myrrh, and other aromatics from the south Arabian merchants.

Jabrin

After Najran, some merchants would branch north-east to Jabrin, heading for the port-town of Gerrha on the Arabian Gulf.

START

Yathil

1 Andhur

Hanoon

Ain Humran

Qarnaw

Yathil was a small and prosperous city ringed by high, strong walls and surrounded by ﬁelds and palm groves.

Shisr

S E A

Najran

Najran offered an oasis for merchants where they would ﬁnd food, shelter and water.

An oasis of green ﬁelds and trees, which were irrigated by the vast Marib Dam, surrounded Marib.

5 4

Al Baleed Salalah

Shabwa required mandatory taxation for all caravans taking aromatics up to the north. Syagrus

Shibam

Marib

Hasik

Khor Rori

I A N

From Shisr, frankincense was transported north by camel train.

Sana’

To India

Shabwa

Mughsayl

3 Qana’

Aden

Several sea routes from Dhofari ports, as Sumhuram, to Qana, then inland to Shabwa.

Qana’ was one of the key points in the ancient aromatics trade since the ﬁrst century CE — both overland and maritime routes

Socotra’s precious goods at the end of each harvest were shipped to Qana’ on small boats and rafts held up with inﬂated animal skins.

At Qana’, goods were either sold to passing merchant ships, or stored for transportation inland to Shabwa.

Timna’, the capital of Qatabanian Kingdom, was an inland terminus for the Indian and far-eastern luxuries that were transported from the coast at Aden.

Timna’

Socotra

Aden’s merchants handled some 600 tonnes of gums and resins, including 300 tons of frankincense and 70 of myrrh in 1875.

Sea routes To the deeply entrenched pattern of overland trade was added in the ﬁrst century BCE a new set of routes and a new pattern of Indian-Arabian-Mediterranean trade. With Egypt and its Red Sea ports now part of the Roman Empire, the volume of sea-traffic increased at an incredible rate.

Mukalla

n used for nd even lavish Malao

was ks, and stables rther open yard

Lateen sails The Red Sea was constantly exposed to contrary winds. The lateen sail allowed ships to sail into the wind.

65 days Pliny estimated that the journey from Timna to Gaza was 2,437,500 steps, 65 days travelling.

25 - 60 days

Yathrib 612m

Over sea level

RAME OF REFERENCE: urj Khalifa, the tallest building the world, stands at 829.8 m

Hegra Dedan 806m 654m

11 - 15 days

Petra 1,065m

2,000 m

5-7 days

1,500 m

9 - 11 days Gaza 28m

10 8

7 1,014 km

: 3,096 k m

cense Trail, BBC documentary | Google Earth

402 km

1,000 m

9 500 m 482 km

201

Mediterranean Sea 0m

TIMES O F OMAN

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE

INCENSE BURNER: VISUAL TIMELINE

Material: Colour key Metalware

4000 3900 3800 3700

Gold Bronze Silver

3600 3500 3400 3300

Brass Copper alloy Iron

Earthenware

People from various cultures practiced incense burning for a variety of reasons, including for meditation or for aromatic pleasure, but incense burning is primarily performed as part of a community’s ritual — either secular or religious in context — which is evident on the vessel’s appearance or design. On this page, we chart the incense burners (also known as censers) found around the globe as proof that incense burning is as old as ancient civilizations.

Cloisonne enamel

3200 3100

Terracotta (clay)

3000

Ceramic

2900

Glazed stoneware

2800

Porcelain

Wood

3850 - 2960 BCE Egypt 3200 BCE Egypt

2700

Faience Stoneware

The oldest known censer

2600

Limestone | Calcite

2500

Jade | Nephrite

2400

Granite | Sandstone | Soapstone

2300

Lacquer

2200

2700 - 1500 BCE Greece

2100 2000

PAGE GRID AND NAVIGATION

1900 2000 - 1700 BCE Eastern Europe

1800

The vertical axis is ordered in chronological while the horizontal axis is in geographical order.

1700

1700 BCE Greece

4000 BCE

1500 1400 1300 1200

Ancient Europe

These dish-like censers prove that Ethnic groups from prehistoric Europe practiced incense burning in burial customs. They were found inside catacomb caves that served as burial grounds.

The oldest censer found in Oman

Before Common Era (BCE)

1600

ANCIENT EUROPE

2500 -2000 BCE Sharqiyah Oman

NOTE: To organise and classify all the censers, the chronological grid has been scaled logarithmically

1000 BCE Mediterranean

1567 - 1320 BCE Egypt

Year 0 MIDDLE EAST

Mesoamerica

Common Era (CE)

1000 CE

1100 East Asia

Modern Europe

1000

2000 CE

1200 - 925 BCE Jerusalem

900 800

700 - 500 BCE Poland

600 BCE Egypt

1000 - 900 BCE Jordan Valley

700 700 BCE Italy

600

700 BCE Italy

700 BCE Egypt

300 BCE Italy

500

300 BCE Yemen

400 300

500 - 400 BCE Russia

600 - 500 BCE Italy

500 BCE Italy

400 BCE Tunisia

200 350 - 325 BCE Italy

100

460 - 450 BCE Greece

500 BCE Greece 500 BCE Italy

300 BCE Italy

300 BCE Greece

MEDITERRANEAN 100

30 BCE - 364 CE Egypt

Throughout the Mediterranean, censers came in various shapes and sizes. Popular designs were sculpted in the form of human ﬁgures and animals.

1 - 200 CE Italy

1 - 50 CE Greece

200

300

300 BCE - 300 CE Saudi Arabia

450 CE Mexico

1 - 100 CE Saudi Arabia

100 BCE - 100 CE Saudi Arabia

300 - 600 CE Guatemala

400 CE Guatemala

400 - 700 CE Colombia

400 200 - 550 CE Guatemala 500

301 - 799 CE Egypt

600

301 - 799 CE Egypt 400 - 700 CE Egypt

700 695 CE Honduras

500 - 650 CE Syria

500 - 600 CE Guatemala

800

600 - 900 CE Peru

600 - 850 CE Mexico

600 - 900 CE Honduras

900 600 - 900 CE Mexico

700 - 900 CE Mexico

1000

Spain in that time was considered part of Arab domain 1100 500 - 1350 CE Costa Rica

900 - 1200 CE Mexico

1101 - 1200 CE Iraq

700 - 1200 CE Costa Rica

1200 1101 - 199 CE Italy

MESOAMERICA 1300

Similar to Mediterranean censers, the Mesoamerican counterparts were fashioned before anthromorphised ﬁgures. Interestingly, most of these censers were molded from earthen (terracotta) materials yet were very detailed in their designs.

1200 - 1400 CE Mexico

1101 - 1200 CE Spain

1201 - 1350 CE Syria

1200 - 1400 CE Mexico

1238 - 1240 CE Iraq

1319 - 1335 CE Iraq

1400 1530 - 1540 CE Italy 1500

MODERN EUROPE 1600

1300 - 1700 CE Turkey

The most common incense burners from modern Europe are shaped like a kettle or a coffee pot and are suspended in the air by metal chains. These types of censer are called thuribles and are used in important functions. Smoke from these censers is dispersed by swinging back and forth.

1300 - 1700 CE Turkey

1500 CE Syria

Omani majmars 1649 CE Turkey

1700

1708 - 1709 CE England

1800 1760 - 1800 CE Portugal

1760 - 1765 CE England

1770 CE England

Oman’s incense burner (locally known as majmar) is popular and coveted for its decorative and elegant design, which embodies Omani culture and hospitality. The more recent version comes in goblet or cup-like form showcasing highly elaborate design and decoration on the exterior, using mirrors, coloured metals and glasses.

The four-pointed, cube-shaped variation is inspired from the Dhofari architecture

1700 - 1720 CE Italy 1775 CE France

1901 - 2000 CE Oman

1900

1901 - 2000 CE Oman

1801 - 1900 CE Yemen 2000

1901 - 2000 CE Oman

1300 BCE CE Iraq

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

4000 3900 3800 3700

The earliest artifact The earliest resemblance of a censer found was made out of clay and limestone. Though rudimentary in composition, the ingenuity of our ancestors is notable by the elegantly carved depictions of early life in Ancient Egypt.

3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100

Omani landmark: Al Riyam Cinser

Incense burners as monuments

A prominent ﬁxture towering along the rocky mountains of Muttrah Corniche is the collossal incense burner at Al Riyam Park. This larger-than-life landmark overlooking the glimmering Gulf of Oman provides a cozy attraction for locals and tourists alike. Its construction was completed in 1990 in time for the 20th Oman National Day celebration.

The tradition of incense burning is very much alive in Oman, so much so that the common design of modern urban structures or architecture are modeled or inspired from the shape of the censers. But the practice of building a larger-than-life structure is not only exclusive to present-day Oman, as prehistoric bronze mega structure censer can be found in China. Legend has it that it was commissioned for the King of Shang to offer sacriﬁces to his deceased mother.

3000 2900 3000 - 2000 BCE Pakistan

20m

2800 2700 2600

30m

2500 2400 2300 2500 - 1500 BCE Japan

2200

80 metres above sea level

2100 2000 1900 2000 BCE Syria

2000 BCE China

Modern enlarged version of an ancient censer (1700 - 1000 BCE) China

Circa 2012 Wadi Kabir roudabout Muscat, Oman

1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000

900 1000 BCE Iran

800

1000 - 800 BCE Iran

400 BCE Saudi Arabia

500 - 400 BCE Iran

600

400 - 300 BCE Saudi Arabia

500

600 - 500 BCE Iran

300 BCE Saudi Arabia

400 - 1 BCE Saudi Arabia

400

100 BCE Pakistan

500 BCE Iran 300 BCE Saudi Arabia

700

1027 - 256 BCE China

300 200 BCE China

247 BCE - 224 CE Iran

400 - 1 BCE Saudi Arabia

200 100 0

100 BCE Khor Rori Oman 1 - 100 CE Yemen

247 BCE - 224 CE Iran

199 BCE - 400 CE Oman

100 CE Shabwa Yemen

247 BCE - 224 CE Iran

100 BCE Southern Arabia

206 BCE - 220 CE China

200

1 - 300 CE Vietnam

100 BCE - 200 CE Iran

100

100 - 200 CE Pakistan

199 BCE - 400 CE Oman

300

18 BCE - 660 CE Korea

501 - 600 CE Pakistan 600 CE Pakistan

400

500

MIDDLE EAST

China

In the Arab world, censers are called by many names. The two most common are majmar and mabkhara. They are distinct for their exquisite patterns and engravings fashioned by seasoned artisans. Traditionally, they have square supporting bases and inward sloping sides on its head section — the shape of a cup.

Incense burning was part of Ancient Chinese daily tradition, especially in noble families. A common habit was to place incense burners inside the house, and even near the bed. Noblemen would have their clothes fumigated with smoke before leaving the house so that the sweet aroma of incense is relished all day long.

600

Iran

700

800 The censers dating from 12th century were mostly found in the Greater Khorasan area of Northeast Persia and depicted in meticulous detail of bird-like ﬁgures and other animals, made of bronze and silver.

900

1000

Japan 1100

918 - 1392 CE Korea

The Japanese censers called koro were often found during tea ceremonies. They would come in ﬁgures of animals found in everyday life, such as roosters and buffaloes. These censers can be traced back from the Edo or Tokugawa Japanese era. 1200

1101 - 1199 CE Iran

1101 - 1250 CE Iran

1101 - 1200 CE Iran

1101 - 1199 CE Iran

1101 - 1399 CE Iran

1200 CE Iran

1101 - 1199 CE Iran

1300 1350 - 1399 CE Iran

1201 - 1300 CE Iran

1200 - 1300 CE Iran

1368 - 1644 CE China

1400

1368 - 1644 CE China

1575 - 1600 CE China 1368 - 1644 CE China

1300 - 1600 CE Philippines

1644 - 1911 CE China

1615 - 1868 CE Japan

1558 - 1637 CE Japan 1600

1635 CE Vietnam

1662 - 1722 CE China

1368 - 1644 CE China 1500

1720 CE Japan 1644 - 1911 CE China

1368 - 1644 CE China

1615 - 1868 CE Japan

1650 CE Japan

1500 - 1600 CE Nepal

1644 - 1911 CE China

1368 - 1644 CE China

1615 - 1868 CE Japan

1644 - 1911 CE China

1800 CE Japan

1750 CE Japan

1700

1644 - 1911 CE China 1800

1644 - 1911 CE China

1644 - 1911 CE China 1820 CE Japan

1750 - 1850 CE China

1770 CE Japan 1800 CE Japan

1775 - 1800 CE Japan 1900

1801 - 1899 CE Japan

1850 - 1900 CE Japan

1800 - 1900 CE Japan 1868 - 191 CE Japan

1850 - 1900 CE Japan

1850 CE Japan 1850 - 1900 CE Japan 2000

TIMES O F OMAN

SUNDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 2016

OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE

THE VALUE OF FRANKINCENSE HOW TO READ

Retail Price

The data is represented according to the size, colour, and position of the bubble. In order to ﬁnd which frankincense products are sold fairly and which are overpriced, we have shown here both the retail price and the unit price.

Resin state Amount

Unit price

High

Represented by the vertical position of the bubble. The higher the bubble is located within the page, the higher its retail price.

Mid range

Low

Here’s a price guide on buying frankincense. We did an online survey to determine the various prices of frankincense and compared this data with the price in the Omani market. We focused our inquiry on these three incense products — raw resin, essential oil, and incense sticks — which are sold and packed in various ways (weight and volume)

Represented by the size of the bubble. The bigger the bubble, the higher the unit price of the product.

More costly

If you buy 224 grammes of frankincense and the retail price is OMR 8.683, you will arrive with the unit price by calculating the following:

Moderate

Cheaper

Unit Price =

RP | UP Retail Price | Unit Price

224 g 9

8.683 |

38.763

8.208 |

36.643

8.683 x 1,000 gm / kg 224 grammes

Colour key

Oman (Boswellia sacra)

The source and tree species are factors that determine the price of frankincense.

Yemen (Boswellia sacra) Somalia (Boswellia frereana) Ethiopia (Boswellia papyrifera) Eritrea (Boswellia papyrifera) India (Boswellia serrata)

Oman’s market price

OMR 38.763 per kg

Kenya (Boswellia neglecta) Not speciﬁed

Raw resin

Essential oil

Joss stick

The solidiﬁed frankincense resin is sold in packs weighing from 10 grammes to a kilogramme

The distilled frankincense resin is sold as oil in bottles ranging from 2.3 millilitres to a litre

Frankincense paste is formed around a stick and sold in packs containing 5 to 50 pieces

Tear (nugget)

Powder

GRAMMES

28 56 112 448 1,000

MILILITRES

1 2 4 1 1 OZ OZ OZ LB KG

Equivalent volume

10 14 20 25 28 50 56 70 100 112 140 200 224 250 448 500 1,000 1 OZ

Equivalent weight

2 OZ

3.5 4 OZ OZ

1 LB

1 KG

2.3 5 10 15 25 30 50 60 100 120 240 250 480 1,000 0.5 FL OZ

RETAIL PRICE

1 FL OZ

2 FL OZ

4 8 FL OZ FL OZ

16 1 FL OZ LT

STICK PER PACK Equivalent weight

5 10 12 20 30 40 50 10 20 G G

50 G

RP | UP 456.000 | 456.000

In Omani Rial (OMR) RP | UP 392.962 | 392.962

400

Most costly 1 kg pack 300

300

200

Most expensive and most costly 100 gm pack NOTE: To organise and classify all the values, the price grid has been scaled logarithmically

The price of 1 kg of Omani frankincense ranges from the cheapest to the most expensive

RP | UP 164.160 | 345.800 Most expensive 15 ml bottle

RP | UP 84.200 | 842.004

RP | UP 59.386 | 3,959.600 100

100

90 80 RP | UP 56.134 | 280.668

Most expensive 10 ml bottle

70 RP | UP 36.100 | 3,610.000

RP | UP 42.096 | 420.964

With OMR 30 per kilo, Oman is the cheapest and the best place to buy fresh and high quality frankincense

RP | UP 30.000 | 30.000

RP | UP 22.450 | 449.008 20

This bubble pattern forming an inverted cone indicates that some prices are inﬂated. Evidently, this happens when the frankincense oil is bottled in 5, 10 and 15 ml. Hence, buyers must be cautious in buying the product in such packaging if they don’t want to end up paying more.

RP | UP 21.124 | 4,225.600

Most expensive frankincense oil. Having the highest unit price per 5 ml bottle, a litre would cost OMR 4,225

10 9

The dominance of orange bubbles is indicative that most of the oil distilled from India has lower prices than the Omani due to its inferior quality

8 7

8 7 6

6 This 10-stick pack is costly and also the unit price per stick

5 RP | UP 4.123 | 412.300

This 50-stick pack is the most expensive but would come out cheaper per stick

RP | UP 3.363 | 0.336

RP | UP 3.000 | 3.000

10 gm of raw resin from Somalia costs more than OMR 4. Yet another product from Kenya would cost half its price.

RP | UP 3.903 | 0.078

3 Generally, the packaging containing more pieces of stick would be cheaper in its unit price per stick, hence the size of the bubbles found in the right tend to be smaller than the ones in the left.

1 kg pack of powdered frankincense in Oman ranges from OMR 1 to 3, which is comparably the cheapest in the world

2 RP | UP 2.090 | 209.000 Though this 28 gm pack is very affordable, by calculation the unit price of 1 kg would cost more than OMR 16, so this is not really cheap.

Costing OMR 1, this is the cheapest 1 kg powder

Cheapest price per stick RP | UP 1.136 | 0.057 1

1 0.9

RP | UP 1.056 | 0.088

RP | UP 1.000 | 1.000

RP | UP 1.045 | 37.320

This 12-stick pack has lowest retail price

RP | UP 0.452 | 16.150

0.8

0.9 0.8 0.7

0.7

Grammes

10 14 20 25 28 50 56 70 100 112 140 200 224 250 448 500 1,000

28 56 112 448 1,000

Millilitres

2.3 5 10 15 25 30 50 60 100 120 240 250 480 1,000

STICKS PER PACK

5 10 12 20 30 40 50