Tinkering With Type

Tinkering With Type a course in typography Edited by Elizabeth Heywood

Part One Introduction to Semiotics Typographic Tautologies Typographic Anatomies Typographic Simulacra Typographic Metaphor

5 8 11 22 31

Part Two Book Review: “The Elements of Typographic Style”

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Part One

from Greek that is anything that appeals to our senses – visual, tactile, auditory, olfactive, and gastratory. His three terms are signifier(s), signified(s) and referent(s); Morris’ version of this linguistic terminology are as follows: sign vehicle(s), designatum(a) and dendtatum(a).

A signifier, or sign vehicle, is any phenomenon that serves as a sign. An example of this could be the word “b-a-n-a-n-a”. When a person sees that word, a mental image of what they know a banana to be appears in their head, this is the signified (or designatum). This is a mental construct that can be either sensory or conceptual which typifies that individual’s reaction to the specific signifier.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMIOTICS SEMIOTICS Semiotics is the theory of signs. Thinkers such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, and Jean Baudrillard have had different theories about semiotics; two of the most notable being Ferdinand de Saussure of the French / Swiss discourse as well as Charles Morris, a member of the American Positivist Pragmatic Philosophy.

Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, is considered to be one of the most influential minds in the field of semiotics because he introduced technical terms. All of his terms relate to the idea of phenomenon, a word derived

A referent (or dendtatum) is any other sensory phenomenon than the signified that is pointed out by the signifier. So if the signifier is the word, the referent is the object and all other senses of it; in our example it is an actual, physical banana. It is import to note that a signifier can also be a referent. Morris believed that interpretation is the act of connecting a sign vehicle to the designatum or denatatum or both. Subject commits the act of interpretation, making them interpreters. These are necessary for transmission of information. All species are interpreters, although they do differ in sensory organs, abilities and neurological capacities.

Semiosis is the process by which something becomes a sign and semiotics describes semiosis. There are two categories of signs: natural and artificial. Natural components are connected as cause and effect, for example, a falling apple is a sign of gravity. Artificial signs are held by a matter agreement or convention, an example being traffic lights. We all accept that green means go and red means stop. Artificial and natural phenomena can be intertwined, such as when we construct stories or theories to explain natural signs. In graphic design every sign is artificial.

LINGUISTICS All languages are natural, artificial or special. Natural has been labeled for all spoken languages today and in the past. Special languages have appropriated natural languages and have given then new meaning, for example “tail” and “tale”, “leading” (from

“lead”) and “geometry” (Gaia being the primal Greek goddess of the earth and metrein meaning to measure) in the English language. An example of an artificial language is programming or math. There are three major dimensions to semiosis: syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

All languages are structural because they have grammatical rules. Common structural rules are as follows: phoneme are specifically selected and practiced sounds, morphemes are composed of phonemes in spoken language and graphemes in written language, such as “ma” and “pa”, and finally groups of morphemes make up words. These are all different levels of syntax. The relationship between words and what they mean is semantics.

THE HISTORY OF WRITING Humans have gone through four phases in the history of the written word: 1) pictographic writings was simplified images, 2) ideographic writing is a combination of pictographs to signify something else, for example the Egyptian ankh, 3) logographic writing, or “word drawing” was created of simple marks that stood not for ideas but for words, and then finally 4) alphabetic writing in which each sign stands for a phonetic element of language. These written marks are graphemes. Languages have a distinctive number of sounds, allowing us to record all words. There are approximately 30 marks for western languages and 4,000 for eastern languages. Many believe that the reduced number of graphemes led to a rise in democracy, whereas knowledge could be more easily spread.

TYPOGRAPHY Typography didn’t exist before 1456, when Gutenberg invented the printing press because the practice is about setting graphemes and using a mechanical device. Calligraphy is beautiful writing, not setting.

Syntax for written word of language has a different syntax than spoken word. This starts with a need to organize info according to rules so people can decipher; it must resurrect a spoken mode of language. Visual graphemes are subjected to an additional set of rules, encryption and aesthetic indulgences.

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NIHIL EST IN INTELLECTU QUAD NON FUERIT IN SENSU

NISI INTELLECTUA IPSE Setting phrases that aren’t understood forces the designer to focus on the letterforms and the messages that they themselves could be sending.

“Nothing is in the mind that does not go through senses except the mind itself.”

Once the designer understands what they’re setting a new interpretation develops.

then a grapheme refers to the phoneme.

The major function of graphemes is to point out phonemes, and each grapheme should be used in such a way that it refers to the phoneme and nothing else. Since letter and sound technically are different things how can we experience tautological redundancy with letters? This would mean that the written letter “a” = the sound “ah” and nothing else.

9 San serif typefaces are closer to what we think graphemes look like because they are focused on portraying geometric purity, rather than simulating handwriting as serif typefaces do.

Fewer strokes make a letter simpler, making san serif typefaces closest to our phonetic values. We are economical creatures and geometric shapes (circle, triangle, and square) can be retained in our memories with the least amount of energy. Certain researchers of Gestalt psychology believe that our social environment influences us and the way we see the world. We are constantly bombarded with visual fragments and are sensitive to certain ranges of frequencies: we register radiation and then our brain processes it.

TYPOGRAPHIC TAUTOLOGIES True by Necessity of their Logical Form In linguistics, tautology is a redundant and unnecessary repetition in a sentence or idea using different words. In logic it is a formal statement that is, in itself, absolutely true.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica it a statement so framed that it cannot be denied without inconsistency (brittanica.com). A tautological expression from math is “a” equal “a”; it is not really an informative statement and it repeats itself.

Like a theory it cannot be checked, but it must be accepted as a fact and logically correct.

How does this apply to typography? If graphemes stand for phonetic values of a language,

What are the conditions for us to recognize objects? Our eyes have specialized regions that take in certain aspects of an object- some parts understand movement, others color, ect.

Something needs to arrange this; according to Gestalt theory we have diagrams in our brains that serve as these organizing principles and that we classify everything according to patterns reminiscent of Euclidian geometry. For example, everything ovoid can be recognized as fitting into a circle shape. We organize the world around us according to these basic shapes: a tree’s branches as a whole are seen a circle. These perfect shapes (circle, square, triangle) cannot be found in nature, although everything fits closely into it.

“Gestalt” is a German word meaning a whole comprised of many elements, yet it is more than a mathematical summary. It means that something more is added when the parts come together. In graphic design, complex gestalt escapes our mental capacity. We cannot, for example, successfully create a symbol for a concept such as infinity. Simple gestalt, on the other hand, is more economic because it’s easier to comprehend and retain.

We always look for simpler things. In history, simplest images have even gained veneration, such as the cube shaped meteorite in Mecca. Simplification makes everything more memorable- this is why we prefer simple forms for logos. Modernism understood our optical aesthetic and strove to create as simple of a gestalt as possible.

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There are three parts of tautologically correct text. First of all, it is san serif because simple shapes are more memorable. Secondly is the placement; white space needs to be able to cushion it without becoming distracting. The space must be large enough to be space and not a shape. Centered objects are noticed first because they are in the middle of our visual field and take less effort to comprehend due to optical clarity and accessibility. Also, even spacing around the text quiets the mind, making it less prone to other thoughts. Finally, the size of the type affects the spacing around it, depending on the size of the surface it’s placed on. It is important to keep in mind how close or far away the viewer will be seeing the piece. These three factors make up what we call “function” in typography. Clarity and optical accessibility affect our comprehension, so picking a typeface that gives the viewer ease in discernment is important so they can focus on the ideas of the text, and not just the type.

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How can a letter be made tautologically correct? By placing a san serifed letterform with enough space around it to cushion, one can create a letter that mimics the sound it creates as purely as possible.

letters are constructed according to optical rules. Typefaces are specified by their width, distribution, and angles. Looking closer at the structures, all parts of type – distances, angles, height, width, and thickness of stroke – can be measured mathematically. All of the numbers we find in typography then can be reduced into formulas with ratios and proportion. There have been twelve major proportions found; the rule of thirds is the simplest. The two proportions that are favored by typographers are the Golden Mean (also called Divine Proportion) and the Fibonacci series.

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A ratio is comprised of two numbers in the same incremental system. The result is the index of the ratio, and when all of the ratios have the same index, it is called a proportion.

For example, a letter that is 10 cm tall and 5 cm across would have a ratio of 2:1 and a proportion of 2. Fibonacci’s number series starts off as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, and on and on. They follow a simple mathematical pattern: 1+1 = 2, 2 +1 = 3, 3 +2 = 5, ect. These numbers used as proportions can be put together in a grid and used for layout.

TYPOGRAPHIC ANATOMIES Proportionally Structured by Necessity of their Optical Appearance Graphemes can have a simple or complex gestalt. Technically, there’ts no reason why we couldn’t rely on an alphabet with only one case, either lower or upper as the Romans did, but as a society we have learned to need both of them; we know they are technically redundant but we choose to follow conventional rules. All we need are simple graphemes to signify spoken word and punctuation to show pauses in speech.

When we talk about anatomy of type we are really talking about syntax; this is because

The higher the Fibonacci numbers the more they gravitate towards the Divine Proportion index, making the Golden Mean the most intriguing proportion. This number, 1.618…, is a transcendental number so it is approximated and not definite. This number is not only present in our artifacts, but also in nature; generally manifesting itself in living organisms, particularly ones with skeletal systems. Just as the Fibonacci series can be assembled into a grid, so can the Golden Mean; the spiral created in it has been found throughout nature, such as in the shells of snails. This number rules how our bodies are proportioned, how we grow from stem cells to adult. You could even say that it’s the proportion of growth. Similar proportions have found in classical temples and statues of deities. The formula has been used to depict gods in Greek sculpture because it is ideal.

To define the margins of a book you can use geometry based off of the divine proportion; this proportion can also be used to determine where lines of text and imagery are placed on the page. Letterforms are subjected to the same geometric analysis.

Cannons such as these define our cultural sense of beauty. Our personal opinion is a necessary factor in the development of the universal. In communication there is a special instant when the message points out the same signified that both sender and receiver understand mutually. Personal opinion is formed on universal communication principles, being convention (one of such being diving proportion) and social acceptance. Because of this, there is no such thing as a private language.

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A 0.0694 in B 0.3472 in C 0.2778 in D 2.9236 in E 2.8542 in F 2.5764 in

There are various proportions that can be found within a typeface, yet they tend to revolve around one.

Measurements and calculations (seen on the following pages) will help you find this number.

2.3889 in

2.7917 in

1.9861 in

1.9861 in

2.3889 in

e

0.4028 in

5 in

d

4.5972 in

4.5972 in

c

4.1944 in

2.6111 in

b

2.2083 in

2.2084 in

a

1.8055 in

0.4028 in

G 3.3957 in

f

g

h

i

j

k

l

m

n

o

H 3.3263 in I

3.0485 in

J 0.4722 in

5" x 3.3263" Helvetica letter E Width A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C D D D D D D D D D D D D D

Height a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m

width (in) height (in) ratio rounded ratio 0<x<3 0.0694 0.4028 5.80403458 5.804 0.0694 2.2084 31.8213256 31.821 0.0694 2.6111 37.6239193 37.624 0.0694 4.5972 66.2420749 66.242 0.0694 5 72.0461095 72.046 0.0694 1.8055 26.0158501 26.016 0.0694 2.2083 31.8198847 31.82 0.0694 4.1944 60.4380403 60.438 0.0694 4.5972 66.2420749 66.242 0.0694 0.4028 5.80403458 5.804 0.0694 2.3889 34.4221902 34.422 0.0694 2.7917 40.2262248 40.226 0.0694 1.9861 28.6181556 28.618 0.0694 1.9861 28.6181556 28.618 0.0694 2.3889 34.4221902 34.422 0.3472 0.4028 1.16013825 1.16 1.16 0.3472 2.2084 6.36059908 6.361 0.3472 2.6111 7.52044931 7.52 0.3472 4.5972 13.2407834 13.241 0.3472 5 14.4009217 14.401 0.3472 1.8055 5.20017281 5.2 0.3472 2.2083 6.36031106 6.36 0.3472 4.1944 12.0806452 12.081 0.3472 4.5972 13.2407834 13.241 0.3472 0.4028 1.16013825 1.16 1.16 0.3472 2.3889 6.88047235 6.88 0.3472 2.7917 8.0406106 8.041 0.3472 1.9861 5.7203341 5.72 0.3472 1.9861 5.7203341 5.72 0.3472 2.3889 6.88047235 6.88 0.2778 0.4028 1.449964 1.45 1.45 0.2778 2.2084 7.94960403 7.95 0.2778 2.6111 9.39920806 9.399 0.2778 4.5972 16.5485961 16.549 0.2778 5 17.9985601 17.999 0.2778 1.8055 6.49928006 6.499 0.2778 2.2083 7.94924406 7.949 0.2778 4.1944 15.0986321 15.099 0.2778 4.5972 16.5485961 16.549 0.2778 0.4028 1.449964 1.45 1.45 0.2778 2.3889 8.59935205 8.599 0.2778 2.7917 10.0493161 10.049 0.2778 1.9861 7.14938805 7.149 0.2778 1.9861 7.14938805 7.149 0.2778 2.3889 8.59935205 8.599 2.9236 0.4028 7.25819265 7.258 2.9236 2.2084 1.32385437 1.324 1.324 2.9236 2.6111 1.11968136 1.12 1.12 2.9236 4.5972 1.57244493 1.572 1.572 2.9236 5 1.71022028 1.71 1.71 2.9236 1.8055 1.61927444 1.619 1.619 2.9236 2.2083 1.32391432 1.324 1.324 2.9236 4.1944 1.43466959 1.435 1.435 2.9236 4.5972 1.57244493 1.572 1.572 2.9236 0.4028 7.25819265 7.258 2.9236 2.3889 1.22382687 1.224 1.224 2.9236 2.7917 1.0472472 1.047 1.047 2.9236 1.9861 1.47203061 1.472 1.472

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D D D D D D D D D D D D D E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G H H H H H H H H H

c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I

2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263

2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972

1.11968136 1.12 1.12 1.57244493 1.572 1.572 1.71022028 1.71 1.71 1.61927444 1.619 1.619 1.32391432 1.324 1.324 1.43466959 1.435 1.435 1.57244493 1.572 1.572 7.25819265 7.258 1.22382687 1.224 1.224 1.0472472 1.047 1.047 1.47203061 1.472 1.472 1.47203061 1.472 1.472 1.22382687 1.224 1.224 7.08589871 7.086 1.29242891 1.292 1.292 1.09310252 1.093 1.093 1.610679 1.611 1.611 1.75180436 1.752 1.752 1.58083633 1.581 1.581 1.29248743 1.292 1.292 1.46955364 1.47 1.47 1.610679 1.611 1.611 7.08589871 7.086 1.19477584 1.195 1.195 1.02238779 1.022 1.022 1.43708776 1.437 1.437 1.43708776 1.437 1.437 1.19477584 1.195 1.195 6.39622642 6.396 1.16663648 1.167 1.167 1.01346841 1.013 1.013 1.78435026 1.784 1.784 1.94069244 1.941 5" x 3.3263" Helvetica letter 1.941 E 1.42697314 1.427 1.427 1.16668931 1.167 1.167 1.62800807 1.628 1.628 1.78435026 1.784 1.784 6.39622642 6.396 1.07848801 1.078 1.078 1.08356622 1.084 1.084 1.29721565 1.297 1.297 1.29721565 1.297 1.297 1.07848801 1.078 1.078 8.43023833 8.43 1.53762905 1.538 1.538 1.30048639 1.3 1.3 1.35382984 1.354 1.354 1.4724505 1.472 1.472 1.88075325 1.881 1.881 1.53769868 1.538 1.538 1.23520924 1.235 1.235 1.35382984 1.354 1.354 8.43023833 8.43 1.4214492 1.421 1.421 1.21635563 1.216 1.216 1.70973264 1.71 1.71 1.70973264 1.71 1.71 1.4214492 1.421 1.421 8.25794439 8.258 1.50620359 1.506 1.506 1.27390755 1.274 1.274 1.38207618 1.382 1.382 1.50317169 1.503 1.503 1.84231515 1.842 1.842 1.50627179 1.506 1.506 1.26098067 1.261 1.261 1.38207618 1.382 1.382

G G H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J a a a a a a a a a a a a a a b

n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o b c d e f g h I j k l m n o c

3.3957 3.3957 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.3263 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 3.0485 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4722 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 2.2084

1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.2084 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.6111

1.70973264 1.4214492 8.25794439 1.50620359 1.27390755 1.38207618 1.50317169 1.84231515 1.50627179 1.26098067 1.38207618 8.25794439 1.39239817 1.19149622 1.67478979 1.67478979 1.39239817 7.5682721 1.38041116 1.16751561 1.50802034 1.64015089 1.68845195 1.38047367 1.37588978 1.50802034 7.5682721 1.27611034 1.09198696 1.53491768 1.53491768 1.27611034 1.17229394 4.67683185 5.52964845 9.73570521 10.5887336 3.8235917 4.67662008 8.88267683 9.73570521 1.17229394 5.05908513 5.91211351 4.20605676 4.20605676 5.05908513 5.48262165 6.48237339 11.4131082 12.4131082 4.48237339 5.48237339 10.4131082 11.4131082 1 5.93073486 6.93073486 4.93073486 4.93073486 5.93073486 1.18234921

1.71 1.421 8.258 1.506 1.274 1.382 1.503 1.842 1.506 1.261 1.382 8.258 1.392 1.191 1.675 1.675 1.392 7.568 1.38 1.168 1.508 1.64 1.688 1.38 1.376 1.508 7.568 1.276 1.092 1.535 1.535 1.276 1.172 4.677 5.53 9.736 10.589 3.824 4.677 8.883 9.736 1.172 5.059 5.912 4.206 4.206 5.059 5.483 6.482 11.413 12.413 4.482 5.482 10.413 11.413 1 5.931 6.931 4.931 4.931 5.931 1.182

1.71 1.421 1.506 1.274 1.382 1.503 1.842 1.506 1.261 1.382 1.392 1.191 1.675 1.675 1.392 1.38 1.168 1.508 1.64 1.688 1.38 1.376 1.508 1.276 1.092 1.535 1.535 1.276 1.172

1.172

1

1.182

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a a a a a b b b b b b b b b b b b b c c c c c c c c c c c c d d d d d d d d d d d e e e e e e e e e e f f f f f f f f f g g g g g g g

k l m n o c d e f g h I j k l m n o d e f g h I j k l m n o d e f g h I j k l m n e f g h I j k l m n f g h I j k l m n g h I j k l m

0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.2084 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 2.6111 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083

2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.6111 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 4.5972 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 5 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 1.8055 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.2083 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861

5.93073486 5.931 6.93073486 6.931 4.93073486 4.931 4.93073486 4.931 5" x 3.3263" Helvetica letter E 5.93073486 5.931 1.18234921 1.182 1.182 2.0816881 2.082 2.082 2.26408259 2.264 2.264 1.22315148 1.223 1.223 1.00004528 1 1 1.89929361 1.899 1.899 2.0816881 2.082 2.082 5.48262165 5.483 1.08173338 1.082 1.082 1.26412788 1.264 1.264 1.1119279 1.112 1.112 1.1119279 1.112 1.112 1.08173338 1.082 1.082 1.76063728 1.761 1.761 1.91490177 1.915 1.915 1.44619219 1.446 1.446 1.18240275 1.182 1.182 1.60637279 1.606 1.606 1.76063728 1.761 1.761 6.48237339 6.482 1.09301352 1.093 1.093 1.06916625 1.069 1.069 1.31468708 1.315 1.315 1.31468708 1.315 1.315 1.09301352 1.093 1.093 1.08761855 1.088 1.088 2.54621988 2.546 2.546 2.08178237 2.082 2.082 1.09603281 1.096 1.096 1 1 1 11.4131082 11.413 1.92440035 1.924 1.924 1.64673855 1.647 1.647 2.31468708 2.315 2.315 2.31468708 2.315 2.315 1.92440035 1.924 1.924 2.76931598 2.769 2.26418512 2.264 1.19206561 1.192 1.192 1.08761855 1.088 1.088 12.4131082 12.413 2.09301352 2.093 2.093 1.79102339 1.791 1.791 2.5174966 2.517 2.517 2.5174966 2.517 2.517 2.09301352 2.093 2.093 1.2230961 1.223 1.223 2.32312379 2.323 2.323 2.54621988 2.546 2.546 4.48237339 4.482 1.32312379 1.323 1.323 1.54621988 1.546 1.546 1.10002769 1.1 1.1 1.10002769 1.1 1.1 1.32312379 1.323 1.323 1.89937961 1.899 1.899 2.08178237 2.082 2.082 5.48237339 5.482 1.08178237 1.082 1.082 1.26418512 1.264 1.264 1.11187755 1.112 1.112 1.11187755 1.112 1.112

f f f f g g g g g g g g h h h h h h h I I I I I I j j j j j k k k k l l l m m n A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B C C C C C C C D D

k l m n g h I j k l m n h I j k l m n I j k l m n j k l m n k l m n l m n m n n B C D E F G H I J C D E F G H I J D E F G H I J E F

1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 1.8055 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 2.2083 4.1944 4.1944 4.1944 4.1944 4.1944 4.1944 4.1944 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 4.5972 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 0.4028 2.3889 2.3889 2.3889 2.3889 2.7917 2.7917 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 1.9861 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.0694 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.3472 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 2.9236 2.9236

2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 4.1944 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 4.5972 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 0.4028 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 2.7917 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 1.9861 1.9861 2.3889 1.9861 2.3889 2.3889 0.3472 0.2778 2.9236 2.8542 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 0.2778 2.9236 2.8542 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 2.9236 2.8542 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 2.8542 2.5764

1.54621988 1.546 1.546 1.10002769 1.1 1.1 1.10002769 1.1 1.1 1.32312379 1.323 1.323 1.89937961 1.899 1.899 2.08178237 2.082 2.082 5.48237339 5.482 1.08178237 1.082 1.082 1.26418512 1.264 1.264 1.11187755 1.112 1.112 1.11187755 1.112 1.112 1.08178237 1.082 1.082 1.09603281 1.096 1.096 10.4131082 10.413 1.75578718 1.756 1.756 1.5024537 1.502 1.502 2.11187755 2.112 2.112 2.11187755 2.112 2.112 1.75578718 1.756 1.756 11.4131082 11.413 1.92440035 1.924 1.924 1.64673855 1.647 1.647 2.31468708 2.315 2.315 2.31468708 2.315 2.315 1.92440035 1.924 1.924 5.93073486 5.931 6.93073486 6.931 4.93073486 4.931 4.93073486 4.931 5.93073486 5.931 1.16861317 1.169letter 1.169 5" x 3.3263" Helvetica E 1.20280953 1.203 1.203 1.20280953 1.203 1.203 1 1 1 1.40561905 1.406 1.406 1.40561905 1.406 1.406 1.16861317 1.169 1.169 1 1 1 1.20280953 1.203 1.203 1.20280953 1.203 1.203 5.00288184 5.003 4.00288184 4.003 42.1268012 42.127 41.1268012 41.127 37.1239193 37.124 48.9293948 48.929 47.9293948 47.929 43.926513 43.927 6.80403458 6.804 1.24982001 1.25 1.25 8.42050691 8.421 8.22062212 8.221 7.42050691 7.421 9.78024194 9.78 9.58035714 9.58 8.78024194 8.78 1.36002304 1.36 1.36 10.5241181 10.524 10.2742981 10.274 9.27429806 9.274 12.2235421 12.224 11.9737221 11.974 10.9737221 10.974 1.69978402 1.7 1.7 1.02431504 1.024 1.024 1.13476168 1.135 1.135

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B B C C C C C C C D D D D D D E E E E E F F F F G G G H H I

I J D E F G H I J E F G H I J F G H I J G H I J H I J I J J

0.3472 0.3472 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 0.2778 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.9236 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.8542 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 2.5764 3.3957 3.3957 3.3957 3.3263 3.3263 3.0485

3.0485 0.4722 2.9236 2.8542 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 2.8542 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 2.5764 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 3.3957 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 3.3263 3.0485 0.4722 3.0485 0.4722 0.4722

8.78024194 1.36002304 10.5241181 10.2742981 9.27429806 12.2235421 11.9737221 10.9737221 1.69978402 1.02431504 1.13476168 1.161479 1.13774114 1.0427213 6.1914443 1.10782487 1.18972041 1.16540537 1.06807512 6.04447268 1.31800186 1.29106505 1.18324018 5.45616264 1.02086402 1.11389208 7.19123253 1.09112678 7.04426091 6.45595087

8.78 1.36 10.524 10.274 9.274 12.224 11.974 10.974 1.7 1.024 1.135 1.161 1.138 1.043 6.191 1.108 1.19 1.165 1.068 6.044 1.318 1.291 1.183 5.456 1.021 1.114 7.191 1.091 7.044 6.456

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1.7 1.024 1.135 1.161 1.138 1.043 1.108 1.19 1.165 1.068 1.318 1.291 1.183 1.021 1.114 1.091

1.447

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The final structure illustrating the word â&#x20AC;&#x153;cornersâ&#x20AC;?. All sizes and placements are selected according to the proportions of the letter E set in Helvetica.

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it covered it, the same happened to the rocks, the trees, the mountains, ect. Eventually the large map covered the entire empire, and soon it began to decay into the land. When the empire fell all that was left was the disintegrating map, and people could no longer tell where the map ended and where the real land began, as many of them grew up only knowing the map.

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Relating this story to real life, Baudrillard believed that we are now in hyper reality – similar to how the citizens of the empire only knew the residue of the map, we can’t discern reality from symbol. In fact, the symbol now replaces the real. There is no connection between the two, and the symbol precedes the real.

Language is a map that charts the territory of the human experience and symbolism is an important aspect of it. As we can see through the history of written language our symbols get more and more abstract as time progresses.

The roman letter “E”, for example, no longer is a small drawing of (presumably) a windowpane, but a simplified symbol that has been reduced over time. Language is no longer a reflective tool of the object.

TYPOGRAPHIC SIMULACRA Represented by Necessity of Substitution In Simulations by Jean Baudrillard, the author quotes that “simulacrum is never which conceals the truth – it is the truth which conceals that there is none. The simulacra is truth.”

Our illusion of truth relies upon our method, but we are often deceived by our own methodssome want to call this “art”. In his text, Baudrillard uses an analogy from Jorge Luis Borges’ “On Exactitude in Science”. In this story, a large Empire commissioned royal cartographer to create the most detailed, perfect map possible. The map became so perfect in scale that it ended up as large as the land itself: a drawing of the river mimicked the river so exactly that

Our perception of “real” is only what we can decipher of the world through our senses, this being and abstract gestalt. Through the tools provided to us through our multiple branches of science we try to understand what is real, but in the end we will only see the “map”. We don’t have the cognitive means to compare the real and the symbol; the truth conceals that there is none and we are still trying to discern the truth. We can’t explore real versus fake because a symbol is our only truth.

Baudrillard identified three phases of simulacra and identified them with a specific historical period. In the first phase the image reveals the basic reality, which is a utopian concept that Baudrillard identifies with the pre-modern world. There is a clear separation between symbol and reality. By being a picture of a picture, these symbols are second order simulacrum. Secondly is when the image masks and perverts basic reality, which is associated with the mass-produced copies created by the Industrial Revolution. In this stage, the characteristic of the image frame the stage in which simulacra takes place and everything within

the frame is subject to geometry. Finally comes the postmodern condition in which the image no longer bears relation to reality. The original separation between symbolism and the real has broken down; we are the citizens who only know the map.

As we impose another syntax to our objects we are perverting it through language. When we give rules we replace the reality of the word with the reality of spoken language.

Since the spoken word ephemeral and writing lasts forever, the written has become fact â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for example written contracts or social security numbers. The written mode is a simulacrum of the spoken mode, therefore the construct of letters serve as our frame of reference for the verbal. We create new typefaces so to give a more realistic voice to what we hear.

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Natural objects that resemble the letter I: cucumber bacteria cob of corn bone stalk of wheat turkey feather

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Artificial objects that resemble the letter J: candy cane sink pipe fish hook faucet lamp post saxophone

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Natural environments that resemble the letter O: the moon full rainbow hurricane school of fish nebula sink hole near Belize

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Artificial environments that resemble the letter X: ceiling supports skyscrapers jet exhaust power lines underneath a bridge courtyard

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The evolution of typefaces for the English letter “E”: Times New Roman, Regular Palatino, Roman Lucida Fax, Regular ITC Lubalin Graph, Book Rockwell, Regular

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The historical development of the letter E: Early Name: He Probable Meaning: Lattice Window Greek Name: Epsilon Cretan pictograph Phoenician Early Greek Classical Greek Latin Modern English

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The letter S represented in six modern alphabets: Arabic Armenian Cyrillic Greek Hangul Latin

being a comparison made in certain cultures between ladies and frogs. Metaphors are not symbols.They appear frequently in natural languages, although rarely in artificial ones.

Metaphors populate our language: we speak in metaphors. Our language is a map that doesn’t always literally look the same. Word sounds mimic natural sounds, such as animal sounds.

All words rely on other words and create references to objects of sensory nature. Does “B-IR-D” sound like a bird? Sometimes language reflects similarities between different objects such as woodchuck being derived from wood.

TYPOGRAPHIC METAPHORS Symbolic by Necessity of Transferred Signification A metaphor is a comparison that must have at least two elements that can come from different or similar families; these can be either visual or linguistic in nature. The function of metaphor is not only to compare the two, but also to transfer certain attributes of one to another and vice versa. The two combined produce something greater than themselves and the result is a third entity. All metaphors are of triangular nature.

Similar objects can be so close that we can’t see the difference and they can be so dissimilar that no apparent connection can be made between the two – and example of this

Shakespeare once said, “Life is like a stage”.

A stage is a platform where stories play out, where ritual takes place, and where time and space are compressed. In ancient Greece theatre was spoken and acted out in real time.

Allegories about human life are made and archetypal structure shows us our values and morals. We are naturally drawn to the emotional experience of stories because feelings are part of the human experience, some believe that we enjoy the cathartic value of them. These emotions are liberating, serve to unleash, and help us empty ourselves. Perhaps someday we’ll become desensitized from all of this, but narratives are training us how to react in real life. These experiences become didactic tools of moral messaging.

You enter the stage, you act and then you leave; this is representational of birth, life and death. Designers create and make use of metaphors to influence people and five them experiences they would otherwise not have (like plays). The V shape of a tree could make you think of the word violence; these associations of metaphorical events can be rich and complex. We each have our own personal chains of associations, but all starting points will appear familiar.

While still meeting function of construct, we need to keep individuals engaged; the most efficient way to promote anything is to connect with the individual. If this strikes a similar chord then it is an efficient way to communicate.

Individual engagement and communication should entertain, engage and communicate.

It must be functional and informative as well as be able to keep attention. Understanding associations are important because they bring

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unique factors and lead to unique judgments of the work. Characters in a typeface have enormous importance because shared similarities help give us direction.

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Rhetoric, especially visual rhetoric, in the ancient world was the skill of finding means in the given circumstances to persuade. There were three major argument styles. Logos was logically consistent speech that appealed to reason and had three different styles: syllogism followed the logic of if A=B and B=C then A=C; antithesis said that if, for example, if all people are tall and Jacques is a person then he is probably tall… it relied on intrinsic knowledge; and then narrative is a logical argument that utilizes anecdotes. Pathos presents things in a way that makes the audience sentimental and emotionally moved. It is usually narrative with characters that the audience identifies with; Pathos is most effective when the author connects with an underlying value of the reader.

Ethos, from where the word ethic is derived, appeals to the moral concerns of the audience.

According to Wikipedia it can come from being a notable figure in the field in question (such as a college professor), by having a vested interest in the matter, by showing impressive logos that shows the audience that the speaker is knowledgeable on the subject, or by appealing to a person’s ethics or character.

Each of these three argument styles must be supported by five elements: invention, arrangement, style, delivery and memory. Invention is when one creatively comes up with a story, arrangement is the skill of placing something so someone can experience all three persuasion types, arrangement is hierarchy of the argument or elements, style is the choice of syntax or the visual vocabulary (such as modernism), and memory is the speaker’s knowledge or the material – or in design terms, the designer’s knowledge of the subject matter. Delivery is important. We need to engage the audience to listen, comprehend and react. American’s are exposed to over 3,000 messages daily; therefore we must look into analogies and the metaphoric world to create a richer syntactical experience that will get noticed.

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Next page: a poster advertising the Didot typeface.

Metaphor between a wineglass and the typeface is illustrated.

Part Two

The choice of typeface can either make or break a piece. A well-made book, for example, is clear, balanced and flows well no matter how long it is. Pieces work because they have style.

This isn’t a superficial style, such as personal or historical decoration, but what Bringhurst describes as “the power to move freely through the whole domain of typography, and to function at every step in a way that is graceful and vital instead of banal. What this means is that “typography can walk familiar ground without sliding into platitudes, typography that responds to new conditions with innovative solutions, and typography that does not vex the reader with its own originality in a self-conscious search for praise” (Bringhurst, 19).

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THE ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHIC STYLE: SUMMARY THE GRAND DESIGN

From “The Elements of Typorgaphic Style”

by Robert Bringhurst.

First published by Hartley & Marks Publishers in 1992.

First and foremost, there are certain principles behind typography; it must, as it states, honor its content. This means that at some point it must legible and convey its message effectively to the reader. Printing is no longer about simply copying written text as fast as possible and type is now more than just imitation of handwriting. Letterforms have their own unique personality and the typeface choices one makes have significant impact on the text that they are used with.

In order to create well-set type it is of great importance to read the text before designing it.

This should go without question since designers must understand the nature of the problem in order to solve it. The text must be logically analyzed before it can be set. Are there multiple levels of information? In that case subheads and running heads may be required to organize the information. Are there multiple languages used? This may effect the arrangement of columns, such as having a one on each page for each language and having them run concurrently. If other elements are being set on the page, how should the text interact with them? Notes, images and captions all affect the page and must be in relation to the copy.

The choosing of individual or groups of typefaces must reflect the character of what they’re conveying. Letterforms have rhythm, metaphor and historical associations. The shape of the page and the textblocks also affect the message; they are the active space, the breathing space, and the frame. The amount of text, the content, and all other elements in it are taken into account when deciding this. All details, no matter how mundane they may be, must be given full typographic attention.

Typography should invite the reader into the text, reveal the tenor and meaning of the text, clarity the structure and order of the text, link the text with other existing elements, and induce a state of energetic repose – these are the ideal condition for reading comprehension.

Rhythm and Proportion

The motion of type is horizontal and vertical.

Horizontally, the word space must define to suit the size and natural letterfit of the font.

While type is normally measured in picas and points, the horizontal space is measured in ems, which are equal to the type size (ex: in a six point font, the em is six points long). Half of an em is called an en. In ragged set type, the word spacing can be fixed, but in justified text bodies the word spacing can be changed to fit; the best justified spacing being M/4, with the minimum at M/5 and the maximum at M/2.

Lines should also be set comfortable, generally at 45 to 75 characters long, with 66 (counting letters and spaces) as the ideal. If the text is suitable for ragged setting, by all means set it ragged; left justification is the easiest to read.

Spacing between sentences should be set to a single word space and little or no spacing should be used within a string of initials to minimize awkward spacing. Also, strings of capitals, small caps and digits should be letterspaced to increase legibility. In headers set in all caps, extra letterspacing – such as M/4 or M/5) – is desirable, but under no circumstances should lower case be spaced. Kerning should be consistent, or none at all, and the widths and shapes of letters should not be altered without cause. Spacing shouldn’t be exaggerated, such as with dot leaders in lists, because it disrupts the information.

As for vertical motion: leading should be chosen to suit the typeface, text and measure.

Solid set type is, for example, and eleven point font set at 11 points of leading – 11/11. Text measurements are shown through formula: The Elements of Typographic Style is 10 point font with a 12 point leading and has a line length of 21 picas, and therefore is shown as 10/12 x 21. Sometimes ragged depths in paragraphs are preferable, in such case add and delete vertical space in measured intervals. As for the amount of text on a page, make sure that the page can breathe – white space is necessary.

When setting blocks and paragraphs of text, make sure to set opening paragraphs flush left; it is unnecessary to start with a pause.

In the continuous text afterwards, mark all paragraphs after the first with an indent of at least one en. Outdents, ornaments, pilcrows and droplines can also be used. Extra lead-

ing should be added before and after block quotations in order to distinguish them from the main text, there must be a distinction between the main text and the quote. Verse quotations should be either indented or centered.

With hyphenation and pagination, hyphenated line-ends should have at least two characters left behind and at least three forward.

One should avoid leaving the stub-end of a hyphenated word (or any word shorter than four letters) as the last line of a paragraph, as well as to have more than three consecutive hyphenated lines. Hyphenating proper names should be only used as a last resort unless they occur with the frequency of common nouns, and, as always, hyphenate according to conventions of the language used. Link short numerical and mathematical expressions with hard spaces, avoid beginning more than two consecutive lines with the same word, and never begin a page with the last line of a multiline paragraph. Finally, balance facing pages by moving single lines (not changing leading or word spacing!), avoid hyphenated breaks where the text is interrupted, and abandon the rules if they fail to serve the needs of the text.

HARMONY AND COUNTERPOINT Numerals, capitals and small caps all have rules associated with their use. When using numerals, use titling figures with full caps, and text figures in all other circumstances. When using abbreviations and acronyms in normal text, use spaced small caps – except for two letter geographical acronyms or acronyms that stand for personal names. Small caps are not tiny upper case letters, but their own font. As for everything else, solve typographical problems through language. For example, when an acronym becomes a word don’t use capitals (the word radar for example).

Ligatures are special characters created to connect two letters more smoothly, common English ligatures being ff, fi, fl and fj. Use the ligatures provided by your font, and the characters required by the language you are setting in. Consider typefaces to be like families. Originally capitals and lowercase were considered separate typefaces, as well as italics. Later they joined together into families and were used in conjunction with one another

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on the same page. Bold and semi-bold faces should seldom be used, if at all. Romans that are slope should be used sparingly, and should be the legitimate ones when used.

Typically roman is used for the text body, and italic for preface, notes, verse, or block quotations. Finally, when it comes to contrast of letterforms, don’t make the differences larger than they need to be and don’t clutter the foreground with too many bolded words.

STRUCTURAL FORMS AND DEVICES

three-to em dashes between the digits; by setting them closely, the dash stands in the place of the word “to”. When introducing a speaker to the narrative, you can use an em dash as Europeans do. When repeating things in lists, such as a bibliography, use three em dashes in a row without any spacing. When showing dates, use the virgule – a less angular form of the solidus (which is used for fractions). When showing a multiplication problem, use the multiplication sign rather than a lowercase x, and be sure ellipses that fit the font.

The title page of a body of text should be given a special presence, and the poise of the type should is valued. At the same time the title shouldn’t take up the entire space if it shares a page with the body copy; make sure that however you chose to set up the title it works harmoniously with the page. Be sure that the beginning of the text is obvious, and should it starts with a quotation, never forget to include the quotation marks.

When using parentheses, always give them adequate space and always keep them roman, even if the type set inside them is italic. When using quotation marks, keep them at a minimal, and make sure that they fit with the rest of the punctuation. Finally, when spelling a foreign word, make sure to find the correct alphabetic symbols with accents.

Headings should be set in a way that they contribute to the form as a whole, whether they are symmetrical or asymmetrical, but use as few as possible to avoid confusion. If notes are to be included, set them in a smaller typeface and consider putting them in the margin. Use superscripted numbers to denote the order in the text body, but in the actual note make sure the number is full sized. If you are including tables, make sure that they are set well and are easy to read. If lists are included, avoid overpunctuating and align them flush right or on the decimal. As always, leave adequate space to breathe.

When picking out type, consider the historical time period in which the piece was created, paying attention to type choices and printing methods. Any historical associations should be harmonious with the text. The typefaces must survive the test of time and suit the paper choices. Make sure that your chosen typeface suits both the task as well as the subject and has any symbols needed.

ANALPHABETIC SYMBOLS The oldest symbol is the small bullet, or midpoint, which is useful in lists and letterheads today. Whatever symbols are used, make sure that they belong to the font that is being used for the body, since the symbols are designed to fit with those letterforms. In titles, use the best available ampersand; a sign derived from the Latin word for “and”, et. When using dashes, be sure to use spaced en dashes instead of spaced em dashes or a hyphen to set off phrases. When setting off phrases, use an em dash with a full space on either side. To indicate a range, use close-set en dashes or

CHOOSING AND COMBINIG TYPE

When mixing typefaces, start with a single family and examine the italic and bold choices; if not overused, the bold typeface can be an asset. Most pages can be laid out well with only a single type family. When pairing multiple faces, chose title faces that reinforce the body, and when matching a serif to nonserif be sure to look at the inner structure of the letters.

Keep in mind that often the same designer’s typeface designs mixe well. When printing in other languages be equally as careful in typeface choice. The type choice should match the continuity of thought, and always consider type optically rather than just mathematically. If you need to add a symbol to your design, do it only when it is absolutely necessary and make sure that it is visually distinct.

HISTORICAL INTERLUDE The earliest European letterforms were constructed from straight lined Greek capitals with large apertures. Lines thickened, and majuscules and miniscules (known in the modern day as upper and lowercase) were developed.

When printing came it brought several classifications with it.

Renaissance roman was developed in northern Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

These letters have a modulated stroke, where the width varies in direction, and a humanist axis, meaning that they look like they were made with a broad nib pen with a comfortable grip. The renaissance in Italy also produced the renaissance italic- with their sloped stems and low contrast.

Mannerism brought subtle exaggeration of length, angularity and tension, and during this time typographers began using roman and italic in the same book. During the Baroque period there were large variations in axis and an increase in x-height and contrast â&#x20AC;&#x201C; letterforms were dramatic and contradictory. Generally more static, Neoclassical letters were built on a vertical rationalist axis, had uniform slopes in italics, and serifs were thinner, flatter and more level. Romantic typefaces were dramatic in contrast, thin and abrupt serifs, and reduced apertures; while they are beautiful; they lack the rhythmic flow that invites readers into a book.

The blunt and simple letters of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were Realist. They featured tiny apertures, uniform strokes and either slab serifs or none at all. Geometric Modernist faces focused on mathematical purity and made no distinction between serif and stroke.

Lyrical Modernism rediscovered the broadnib pen and humanist axis, and the Expressionist letters were created from varying materials such as carved wood and rough paper. Postmodernism can be split into two categories: Elegiac, which recycles past styles with a touch of humor, and Geometric, which are based on mannered and asymmetric shape instead of put geometric form.

In the history of mechanical typesetting, the Linotype machine held until recently. Like a typewriter, letters were slid down chutes and cast as a single metal slug. Weaknesses included the inability to adjust kerning, the em was not subtle, and roman and italic had the same widths. The Monotype machine cast individual letters from molten lead, so kerning is possible and roman and italics could keep their actual width. Original printing was actually three-dimensional since the lettershapes were stamped into the paper; the development of lithography changed this and some of the old letters lost their luster in the two dimension. Phototypesetting was fast, but led to the demise of good typography â&#x20AC;&#x201C; forgetting even ligatures and some basic accented characters.

As characters are now digitalized, some think a few have lost their original luster.

SHAPING THE PAGE Pages can be compared to music. When choosing what size to make your page, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s import to consider time-honored proportions that have been found in music and nature and are pleasing to the eye. Hexagons, octagons, pentagons, circles and squares can help a designer chose page proportions. So can the golden proportion when used correctly. No matter what, the proportions of the page must suit the needs of the content, which can be historically guided. The proportions of the text block are also important; it should balance and contrast with the shape of the page as well as provide breathing room in the margins.

Margins are excellent places to insert folios, notes, bullets, or outdented titles. They lead the reader and provide a space to hold. Grids are useful for organizing the page. They can be symmetric or asymmetrical, and can be deduced through mathematics.

If the type needs to be adjusted after setting, improvise. Change the spacing in the white areas, but not in the lines of type. Sometimes the proportions of the book will have to be changed or the grid changed in order to suit.

THE STATE OF THE ART When adding in all capitals, marks, numbers, symbols, accents and such, the Latin alphabet consists of not merely 26 letters, but thousands. There may never be a font that covers

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all of these, but good fonts should strive to.

This has become a problem for digital typesetters since Unicode restricts this. Designers have worked to fight the regularity of the computer by creating multiple glyph collections and programming variations into their typefaces. Others have worked on programs that allow the individual to decide what ligatures to use where. When designing today, keep your medium in mind. Will it be read on screen or paper? Check the type at every stage and follow your work to the printer. Finally, look to the past for guidance in typesetting.

Date: Spring 2009

Copyrights: All copyrights reserved

Place: Savannah

Copyrights NOTA BENE: I understand that the content of Profesor Belic’s lectures is copyrighted material and that I cannot publish (in print, via Internet, or in/by any other media) or otherwise disseminate my notes based on these lectures.

Institution: Savannah College of Art and Design Art Direction: Zoran Belic, Professor Design: Elizabeth Heywood Copywriting (based on Professor Zoran Belic’s Lectures and Robert Bringhurst’s book: “The elements of Typographic Style”): Elizabeth Heywood Photography: Michael Aw, Robert Gendler, Jamie Grill, Elizabeth Heywood, Tony Hutchings, Beverly Joubert, P.E Reed, JanStromme, Paul Taylor, Nicolas Vallejos Photography and Design Typefaces: ITC Lubalin Graph, Helvetica Print and Production: Blurb.com

I can only use this material to meet the course requirements, i.e. include it in the course design projects, and/or partially in my portfolio design examples.

Should I ever intend to publish any design project containing all or any part of Professor Belic’s lectures, I declare herein that I will strictly adhere to copyright regulations and laws, i.e. I MUST acquire an explicit written permission from either Zoran Belic or his heirs in order to publish and disseminate in any media, form or format the above said materials.