Contents I. Aerial Navigation II. Air cargo III. Air traffic control IV. Air travel V. Aircraft VI. Aircraft spotter’s guide VII. Airline image & insignia VIII. Airports IX. Cabin X. Flight XI. Landing XII. Systems 5
Aerospace Junior And this is my aim: ÂŤ He found him in a desert land And in the wasteland, a howling wilderness; He encircled him, He instructed him, He kept him as the apple of His eye. As an eagle stirs up its nest, Hovers over its young, Spreading out its wings, taking them up, Carrying them on its wings, So the LORD alone led him, And there was no foreign god with him. Âť Deuteronomy 32:10-12 NKJV
I. Aerial navigation What is aerial navigation? Aerial navigation related to Air navigation: the act or art of sailing or floating in the air, as by means of airplanes or balloons; aviation; aeronautic. The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the process of planning, recording and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to another. Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the ground. 6
Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways; Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position on route. Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are safetylimited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most Aircraft. Additionally, collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for Aircraft pilots. The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the Aircraft is flying under visual flights rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR). In the later case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using “dead reckoning� combined with visual observations, with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids. To be able to find his way around the skies, a pilot needs to know his position and his direction. Finding direction is easy using the simple magnetic compass, and there is at least one of these on every flight deck. Another kind of aircraft compass uses a gyroscope. Modern aircraft compasses are complex and highly efficient. Finding position is more difficult for a pilot than finding direction, and needs complex aids. But even the most sophisticated radio navigation system has something in common with the simple method of leaning out of the cockpit to take a visual bearing upon ground-based aids. Ultra-modern devices such as Doppler radar and weather radar are entirely selfcontained, and so are the inertial guidance systems whose accurate measuring devices can record barely perceptible accelerations in aircraft speed. 7
In future years these systems will be completed by a network of very low frequency Omega radio stations, by laser devices and by satellite systems. Dead-reckoning is the process of calculating one’s position, especially at sea, by estimating the direction and distance travelled rather than by using landmarks of astronomical observations. Dead-reckoning (sometimes called “ded” – for deductive – reckoning). The oldest and simplest form of aerial navigation is still used by pilots of light aircraft. It depends on recognizable ground landmarks. The pilot plots his track on the map before takeoff and, using his compass, flies in the right direction. Knowing his speed will enable him to calculate when he should fly over certain landmarks, and so check his progress. Astro-navigation - Celestial navigation, also known as astronavigation, is the ancient art and science of position fixing that enables a navigator to transition through a space without having to rely on estimated calculations, or dead reckoning, to know their position. Position-fixing is the branch of navigation concerned with the use of a variety of visual and electronic methods to determine the position of a ship, Aircraft or person on the surface of the Earth. These techniques include: Position lines and position circles. A non-directional (radio) beacon (NDB) is a radio transmitter at a known location, used as an aviation or marine navigational aid. The low-frequency radio range (LFR), also known as the four-course radio range, FF/MF four-course radio range, A-N radio range, Adcock radio range, or commonly “the range”, was the main navigation system used by Aircraft, for instrument flying in the 1930s and 1940s, until the advent of the VHF omnidirectional range.
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Weather radar also called Weather surveillance radar (WSR) and Doppler weather radar, is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and estimates its type (hail, rain snow etc.).
Doppler radar The Doppler radar is used weather forecasting measures the direction and speed, or velocity, of objects such as drops of precipitation. This is called the Doppler Effect and is used to determine whether movement in the atmosphere is horizontally toward or away from the radar, which aides in weather forecasting. Inertial Navigation System (INS) - an INS is a navigation aid uses a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Omega navigation system - Omega was the first truly global-range radio navigation system, operated by the United States in cooperation with six partner nations. It enable ships and Aircraft to determine their position by receiving very low frequency (VLF) radio signals in the range 10 to 14 KHz, transmitted by a network of fixed terrestrial radio beacons, using a receiver unit. It became operational around 1971 and was shut down in 1997 in favour of the Global Positioning Satellite system.
Laser navigation The laser navigation system may be used to autonomously drive some robots into automatic recharging stations. Satellite navigation systems is a system of satellites, usually managed by one company or country that provides geo-spatial positioning, which is a technical term for specific location on or above the Earth in three dimensions. 9
II. Air cargo Air cargo Air cargo is any property carried or to be carried in an aircraft. Air cargo comprises air freight, air express and airmail. Air transport is a component of many international logistics networks, managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources like products to the marketplace. Logistics involves the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process and finished.
How the air cargo industry is changing? This highly interactive course provides 360° management perspective from industry experts working at the most successful airlines and freight forwards about the air cargo industry; the cargo management system with an international perspective focusing on the business, operations and regulatory fundamentals.
What is some of the air cargo security involved? Security is a critical element of the air cargo supply chain. Regulator and industry are working together to further secure the supply chain while ensuring the flow of commerce. Air cargo services - Cargo airlines (or airfreight carriers, and derivatives of these names) are airlines mainly dedicated to the transport of cargo by air. Some cargo airlines are divisions or subdivisions of larger passenger airlines. Loadmaster, is a crew member on a cargo aircraft responsible for loading freight and personnel, and for calculating the aircraft’s weight and balance prior to flight, which must be within the aircraft manufacturer’s prescribed limits, for safe flight. 10
III. Air traffic control (ATC) ATC - Air traffic control Air traffic control is the ground-based personnel and equipment concerned with controlling and monitoring air traffic within a particular area. Air traffic control is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspaces. The sky around an airport is full of different kinds of aircraft flying at different speeds in different directions, crossing over each other at different heights. Keeping them separated is the main task of the air traffic (or tower) controller. There is usually a minimum separation time of one minute between two aircrafts of the same type taking off in different directions. If they are taking off in the same direction, the time gap is two minutes, and a light aircraft taking off behind a wide-bodied jet may be held by ten minutes to avoid the turbulent air it leaves in its wake.
Ground control - Ground movement controller Ground control is responsible for the airport “movement� areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons of intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined on local documents and agreements at each airport.
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SID - Standard Instrument Departure Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing of departure aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airport’s operation. When a flight has been safely separated and is climbing away on its SID (Standard Instrument Departure) the air controller will transfer it to the care of the first radar sector (departure) controller for further climb clearance toward its cruising level.
VOR navigation beacon Some busier airports have surface movement radar (SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or ASDE-X, designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are used by ground control as an additional tool to control ground traffic, particularly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being modernized. Older systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Never systems include the capability to display higher quality mapping, radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts, and to interface with other systems such as digital flight strips.
VHF omnidirectional range VHF is a system of radio navigation employing a network of radio transmitters whose bearings are determined by receivers in the aircraft. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from ground control. This is normally done via VHF/UHF radio, but there may be special cases where other procedures are used. Aircraft or vehicles without radios must respond to ATC instructions via aviation light signals or else be led by vehicles with radio. People working on the airport surface normally have a communication link through which they can communicate with ground control, commonly either by handled radio or even cell phone. 12
IV. Air travel (the rules & regulations) AT - Air travel Air travel is a form of travel in vehicles such as helicopters, hot air balloons, blimps, gliders, hang gliding, parachuting, airplanes or anything else can sustain flight. Air travel is the action or process of making a journey by aircraft. Most Air Travel starts and ends at a commercial airport. The typical procedure is check-in; border control; airport security baggage and passenger check before entering the gate; boarding; flying; and pick up of luggage and limited to international flights another border control at the host country’s border.
AS - Air safety Air safety is the theory, investigation, analysis, and categorization of flight failures (aircraft incidents and accidents), and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training.
AS - Aviation safety Aviation safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation, and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education, and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel.
Airport Security Regulations To insure passenger safety, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) maintains strict security procedures at the nation’s airport. Here are some tips to help travellers navigate TSA regulations and make their travel experience as smooth as possible. 13
Before arriving Review TSA’s Security Procedures for “Getting through the Line Faster”. Prepare your one quart-sized, clear, plastic, zip-top bag of liquids before arriving at the airport. Monitor local broadcast for announcements of security checkpoint delays at local airports. Pack all your coats and jackets in your checked baggage when possible. Do not wrap gifts. Check-in online. Check your flight status online. Wear easy to remove and replace shoes. Check airline arrival time recommendations and plan to leave adequate time to check baggage and move through security.
Airport Arrival Approach the initial security check-point with your government issued identification and paper or electronic boarding pass in hand. While waiting for the next available security screener or screening device, remove and place in bins: all metal (i.e. belt buckle, coins, eye glasses etc.); Plastic, zip-top bag of liquid containers. Items from your pockets, including mobile phone. Laptops from bag and place in separate bin; Coat; Shoes (usually required to be placed directly on conveyor belt). Do not escape in trash talk about security or do anything else to call attention to you – this will only cause delays. Remember, if you are selected for an enhanced pat-down, you have the right to request it be done in private.
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Airport Security and Freight Check-In You plan for potentially long lines at check-in counters and airport screening stations. You must have a picture I.D. (identity) such as driver’s license, passport, or other government-issued identification. Insure that you make your reservation in the exact name that appears on the identification you plan on presenting at the airport. If your name has recently changed and the name on your ticket and your I.D. are different, bring documentation of the change (e.g., a marriage certificate or court order).
Airport Security Checkpoint means Getting to the gate Passengers who do not have baggage to check and already have a boarding pass may proceed directly to the security checkpoint. To enter the secured area beyond the security screening checkpoint, you must show a valid governments-issued picture I. D. and an airline boarding pass. Provisions will be made for parents who need to meet unaccompanied minors, for disabled persons and persons with special needs who need to be accompanied by healthcare assistants or guardians and for medical personnel who need to respond to medical emergency beyond the check point. All passengers should check with their airline or airport, or visit the airline or airport website for additional information. More information can also be found on the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) website.
Airline Baggage (Luggage) Keep your luggage and carry-on bags with you at all times prior to arriving at the airport and while in the terminal. Unattended bags will likely be confiscated and possibly destroyed by airport security. Check with your travel agent or airline for information on carry-on luggage restrictions. For more specific information on what you can and cannot pack in checked luggage or airline carry-on baggage see Essential Guide to Airport Security Regulations & Airline Baggage. 15
Travel Alert The Transportation Security Administration restricts the amount of liquids passengers can carry on an airplane; Canada, the United Kingdom and European Union have imposed similar restriction. Do not accept any packages or materials from strand site for an up-to-date list of gears. Do not carry any sharp instruments (i.e., letter openers, knives, box cutters, scissors, etc.) in carry-on luggage. They will be confiscated at airport screening stations. (Visit the Travel Agency Web site for an up-to-date mist of prohibited items). If you see any suspicious activity or see unattended bags, contact airline or airport personnel immediately. Carry medications in your carry-on-bags. Hold onto your baggage claim check. Individual airports may elect to provide more security in the baggage claim area.
Economics of air travel Costs: Short-haul routes are considerably more expensive to fly than intercontinental routes. The short-range airliner has to spend nearly as long on the ground during turnaround as the long distance jet, as long is the stack waiting to land, and often has to pay the same landing charges per ton and per passenger. The cost of air travel is going up, and airlines are counting on us not to notice. Travel expenditures are important to the average consumer, and to the economy as a whole.
Expenditure The airliner incurs large charges every time it lands and takes off. It is charged by its weight, by the number of passengers it is carrying, sometimes by the distance it has flown, and according to the time of a day. 16
The charges vary widely according to the size of the airport and are usually revised every six months. In one survey of large US airports it was found that landing charges and services provided to airliners on the airfield represented about third came from services provided to airlines in the terminal, and the rest came from concessions, such as restaurants.
Investment Investment - Commercial aviation is big business, the capital investment is impressive. Modern airlines have service lifetimes of around 15 years, during which they are repeatedly overhauled and rebuilt. Large airlines sell many old, but perfectly airworthy, airliners to smaller operators; at present, over half of the world’s jet airliners are more than ten years old. Air travel reduces local investment bias and facilitates portfolio investment in distant firms, with variation in flight schedules reshuffling the investor base of firms. These results are confirmed using variation in air routes attributable to air hub openings. Portfolio investment increases immediately after air routes are initiated but not before. Furthermore, air travel broadens the investor base of small firms, and lowers their cost of equity. This improvement in risk sharing is also confirmed using air hub openings. Overall, air travel improves the diversification of investor portfolios and lowers the cost of equity for firms.
Profit The airline industry is historically not a very profitable industry. Average net margins (net being after all business expenses is paid) are usually under 5%. It’s very competitive, so a company can’t just charge 20% more than the next one without offering something unique for it - and most people that buy plane tickets care more about pricing than anything else (Like airplanes). 17
The load factor, the percentage of total capacity that is actually sold, is crucial to the profitability of a service. Standard weights for passengers and baggage are used in the calculation. At the break-even load factor total cost equals revenue. Increasingly, airliners are being designed as “convertibles” so that the passenger space can quickly be turned into cargo space, and vice versa.
Revenue Revenue passenger’s miles can be considered the basic amount of “production” that an airline creates. The revenue passenger miles can be compared to the available seat miles over an airline’s system to determine the overall passenger load factor. These measurements can further be used to measure unit revenues and unit costs. The pricing of air tickets is a complex matter, decided internationally and agreed to by governments. In general, the air traveller pays more the more flexible his arrangements are. Tickets remain valid for one year, and the changes are without charge. All these uncertainties help to push up fares. In addition, a large variety of reduced fares are available on many routes. By booking a long way ahead and limiting the period during which he can return, a passenger can make substantial savings. Commercial aviation is said to be a marginal industry, always working close to the borderline, between profit and loss.
Flier’s Guide to air travel Business travel Most businessmen fly scheduled flights. They are usually more reliable and offer the most flexibility for changes of plan; tickets can be transferred to the next flight, to another airline, or even refunded. 18
A business trip is a trip undertaken for work or business purposes, as opposed to other types of travel, such as for leisure purposes or regularly commuting between one’s home and workplace. Air travel can be separated into general classifications: domestic, national and international flights. Domestic flight is a flight that begins and ends in the same country. International flight is a flight that takes off in one country and lands in another.
Internal flights Internal commuter or shuttle flights, as casual as bus services, are operated on an increasing number of busy routes. Travel class on an airplane is usually split into a two, three or four class model service. Domestic flights usually have two classes: Economy Class and a Domestic First Class partitioned into cabins. International flights may have up to four classes: Economy class; Premium Economy; Business Class or Club Class; and First Class.
Travelling for pleasure Travels: time spent travelling, especially in foreign countries and for pleasure. Those travelling for pleasure can take advantage of reduced-rate night flights, and can opt to travel outside peak holiday seasons.
Baggage / Luggage Luggage is the usual word in Britain, but baggage is also used, especially in the context of the bags and cases that passengers take on flight. Both these words are uncountable nouns. The term hand luggage or cabin baggage refers to the type of luggage that passengers are allowed to carry along in the passenger compartment of a vehicle instead of moving to the cargo compartment. 19
Booking & Paying Reservations may be made by telephone and confirmed at the same time, but tickets are not issued until paid for in cash, by cheque or by credit card; payment does not have to be in the local currency, but payments in foreign currency will be at the current rate of exchange.
Check-in (Getting there) Your airliner, or another one acting for it, will almost certainly have a terminal in town, often associated with a rail station and usually with a baggage check-in facility.
Checking in Checking in for a flight is the process whereby a person announces their arrival at the airport. If you have had only telephone confirmation of your reservation, go to the airline ticket sales desk for your ticket before checking in. The check-in desk will have the name of the airline, and possibly your flight number, over it. Here baggage intended for the hold will be weighed and passed to the baggage handlers, while your ticket is checked and you are given a boarding pass.
Check-in summary Three ways to check-in: In person at a staffed check-in counter at airport. Checking-in in person allows you to check in your baggage, if checking luggage, at the same time as checking in for your flight. Items needed to check-in counter check-in:  Passport (when travelling internationally).  Paper ticket (less and less common) or  A Confirmation number-usually sent via email if ticket is purchased online or through a travel agency or printed itinerary with a confirmation number. 20
In person at airport using a self check-in kiosk. At this time passengers can select a seat (if hasn’t happened already or allowed by airline), enter number of bags to be checked (if desired), and print boarding passes. Passengers will then need to submit luggage to staffed counter or checked luggage stations. Items needed for kiosk check-in: Confirmation number – (usually) sent via email if ticket is purchased online or through a travel agency. Credit card used for payment of the ticket. Passport required when travelling internationally. Check-in online before arriving to airport. Passengers can check-in online 24 hours (usually) before departure. Passengers will need to submit luggage to staffed counter or checked luggage to staffed counter or checked luggage stations if checking luggage. Benefits of online check-in: Avoid potential check-in in lines at airport. Print boarding pass at home (can also wait or reprint at selfservice kiosk at the airport). Select seat assignments before others (if applicable). Choose to get updates of possible changes to departure times leading up to flight.
Check-in and Boarding timelines Check-in deadlines Many airlines have a deadline for passengers to check-in before each flight. Check-in deadlines are usually between 60 to 30 minutes before boarding, and you are often not able to check-in after those times (meaning you cannot go on your flight). Check-in deadline allows airlines to load luggage onto the plane, offer potential unclaimed documentation for take-off. 21
Boarding deadlines (list of common airlines and check-in information). Boarding times are usually between 30 minutes to an hour before scheduled take-off. Your boarding pass will list the time the flight will start boarding. Flights tend to board in shifts-they might call by rows or by groups. Your boarding pass will indicate your row or group. Timeline considerations for boarding – be sure to take into account the time it takes to get through the check-in, to pass security and then to walk or ride (tram, bus) from the check-in area to your boarding area (your terminal and gate-listed on your boarding pass). Getting through the airport steps can take several hours at some airports or during busy travel times of the year. On international flights, you will need to account for more time to clear immigration and customs. For international travel, a good rule is to arrive 2 hours for domestic travel. International flights often start boarding 45 minutes to 1 hour prior to the departure time. Most airlines will list their specific check-in policies and timelines, so visit your airlines’ website for details.
Checking luggage Checked luggage refers to the items of luggage delivered to an airline for transportation in the hold of an aircraft which means it is inaccessible to the passenger during the flight. Checked luggage has a size and weight limit, and all excess requires a fee.
Check list Baggage allowances vary for economy (coach) and first class. Put your name and home address inside your bags, and display your destination address only on the outside, so as not to advertise your departure to professional housebreakers; keep a list of the contents. 22
Insurance The Warsaw Convention automatically insures all travellers while in the air. Otherwise, you should be covered for money and goods, medical expenses, flight cancellation and personal accident and medicine can find treatment without it being dismayingly expensive; they should buy health insurance. Airlines insure baggage, but do set limits: so take out additional insurance on valuables. Comprehensive holiday insurance schemes can be had which promise cover for all these things, based on the areas to be visited and the duration of the stay. Selective policies enable the traveller to choose the cover he requires.
Medical It is wise to have polio, typhoid, tetanus and smallpox vaccinations regardless of where you are going. Check with the relevant embassies which certificates you will need to enter their countries. You must be vaccinated even if your stopover in a potentially infections area is brief. Have the injections well before the trip, in case of side effects. Take with you any medicines you regularly use. Even aspirin mixtures vary greatly from country to country. There is no vaccination against malaria, so take a prophylactic regularly as long as there is a chance of passing through a malaria country.
Money A traveller’s cheque is a medium of exchange that can be used in place of hard currency. Their use has been in decline since the 1990s. Around this time, a variety of more convenient alternatives, such as credit cards, debit cards and automated teller machines, became more widely available and were easier for travellers to use. Traveller’s cheques are no longer widely accepted and cannot easily be cashed, even at the banks that issue them. Other factors that have led to a decline in traveller’s cheques include the fees charged by the issuer and agent, as well as the less favourable foreign exchange rate commonly used on traveller’s cheques, especially compared to those on credit card transactions. 23
Passport Passport is an official document that identifies you as a citizen of a particular country, and that you may have to show when you enter or leave a country: a valid passport. Check that your passport has not expired – a new one may take several weeks to arrive. If abroad, your consulate will issue a travelling document.
Ticket check An airline ticket is a document, issued by an airline or a travel agency, to confirm that an individual has purchased a seat on a flight or an aircraft. This document is then used to obtain a boarding pass, at the airport. Then with boarding pass and the attached ticket, the passenger is allowed to board aircraft. There are two sorts of airline tickets – the older style with coupons now referred to as a paper ticket and the now more common electronic ticket usually referred to as an e-ticket.
Visas A Visa is most commonly a sticker endorsed in the applicant’s passport or other travel document. The visa, when required, was historically granted by an immigration official on a visitor’s arrival at the frontiers of a country, but increasingly today a traveller wishing to enter another country must apply in advance for a visa, sometimes in person at a consular office, by mail or over the internet. The actual visa may still be a sticker or a stamp in the passport or may take the form of a separate document or an electronic record of the authorization, which the applicant can print before leaving home and produce on entry to the host country. Some countries do not require visas for short visits. Consult travel agents, airlines or the embassy concerned about whether or not you need a visa for the country you are visiting (visas are required for the US, but an American does not need one to enter Britain). 24
Submit your passport and, if necessary, vaccination certificates to the appropriate embassy or consulate well in advance. Airliner and package tour organizers often take care of visas for their customers, but it is the traveller’s responsibility ultimately. Carry extra photographs for any additional visas needed en route.
Freedoms of the air The Freedoms of the Air are international commercial aviation agreements (traffic rights), (Chicago Convention) to establish uniformity in world air commerce. The Freedoms of the Air are a set of commercial aviation rights granting a country’s airlines the privilege to enter and land in another country’s airspace, formulated as a result of disagreements over the extent of aviation liberalization in the Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944, known as the Chicago Convention. The United States had called for a standardized set of separate air rights to be negotiated between states, but most other countries were concerned that the size of the U.S. airlines would dominate air travel if there were not strict rules. The Freedoms of the Air are the fundamental building blocks of the international commercial aviation route network. The use of the terms “freedom” and “right” confer entitlement to operate international air services only within the scope of the multilateral and bilateral treaties (air services agreements) that allow them. The First Two Freedoms concern the passage of commercial aircraft through foreign airspace and airports, the other freedoms are about carrying people, mail and cargo internationally. The First through Fifth Freedoms are officially enumerated by international treaties, especially the Chicago Convention. Several other freedoms have been added, and although most are not officially recognized under broadly applicable international treaties they have been agreed to by a number of countries. 25
The Lower Numbered Freedoms are relatively universal while the higher-numbered ones are rare and more controversial. Liberal open skies agreements often represent the least restrictive form of air services agreements and may include many if not all Freedoms. They are relatively rare but examples include the recent single aviation markets in the European Union and between Australian and New Zealand.
Price warfare Price warfare can destroy a business. How sales managers can survive price warfare? As the recession churns on, price warfare is on the rise. Many sales managers face a choice: let salespeople drop prices, or require them to defend higher prices by selling value. But old approaches to selling value aren’t always working. Customers are focused on cash – they don’t have enough of it, they can’t easily borrow it, and they’re spending as little of it as possible. To sell value during a deep recession, your salespeople must learn to speak “the language of money.”
Takeoff Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle goes from the ground to flying in the air. For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition from moving along the ground on a runway.
The Warsaw Convention The Convention for the Unification of certain rules relating to international carriage by air, commonly known as the Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates liability for international carriage of persons, luggage, or goods performed by aircraft for reward.
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V. Aircraft Aircraft Aircraft is any vehicle that can fly and carry goods or passengers: fighter/military aircraft/transport. Light aircraft is a small plane with seats for no more than about six passengers. Air-flow is the flow of air around a moving aircraft or vehicle. Air-foil (US)/aero-foil is the basic curved structure of an aircraft’s wing that helps to lift it into the air. Aileron is the wing of a plane that moves up and down to control the plane’s balance. Cabin is a metal cover for an engine, especially on an aircraft. Elevator is a part in the tail of an aircraft that is moved to make it go up and down. Fin is a thin flat part that sticks out from the body of a vehicle, an aircraft used for improving its balance and movement. 27
Flap is a part of the wing of an aircraft on the rear of the wing that can be moved up or down to control upward or downward movement. Flight deck is an area at the front of a large plane where the pilot sits to use the controls and fly the plane. Fuselage is the main part of an aircraft in which passengers and goods are carried. Hold is the part of the plane where goods are stored. Jet engine is an engine that drives an aircraft forwards by pushing out a stream of gases behind it. Leading edge is the front or forward edge of something moving, especially an aircraft wing. Nose is the front part of a plane. Rudder is a piece of metal at the back of an aircraft that is used for controlling its direction. Slat is a part of the wing of an aircraft, on the front of the wing that can be moved up or down to control upward or downward movement. Tail is the back part of a plane, spacecraft. Tail plane is a small horizontal wing at the back of an aircraft. Trailing edge is the rear edge of something moving, especially an aircraft wing. Undercarriage (also landing gears) is the part of an aircraft, including the wheels, that supports it when it is landing and taking off. Wing is one of the large flat parts that stick out from the side of a plane and help to keep it in the air when it is flying.
Aircraft design The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are designed. 28
Aircraft maintenance Aircraft maintenance is the overhaul, repair, inspection or modification of an aircraft component. Maintenance may include such tasks as ensuring compliance with Airworthiness Directives or Services Bulletins. The maintenance of aircraft is highly regulated, in order to ensure safe and correct functioning during flight. National regulations are coordinated under international standards, maintained by bodies such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The maintenance tasks, personnel and inspections are all tightly regulated and staff must be licensed for the tasks they carry out. Aircraft maintenance is highly regulated, because the smallest slip can lead to an aircraft crashing with consequent loss of life. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets global standards which are then implemented by national and regional bodies around the world.
Aircraft painting - Aircraft livery An aircraft livery is a paint scheme applied to an aircraft, generally to fuselage, empennage (tail fin), wings, or jet engines. To promote their brands, airlines typically use a standard livery, prominently displaying their logo or name that is applied to all or most of their fleet. Special liveries are used in certain circumstances, such as significant anniversaries, such an airline or as part of a marketing agreement. Government and military aircraft also have liveries. The term is derived from the more general term “livery�. Painting in multiple layers has changed for the application of a basecoat-clearcoat system, improving gloss and colour retention, having a long service like, lower weight and being quicker drying. 29
Aircraft spotter’s guide Aircraft spotter’s guide is the story, and point out the unique features, of different aircraft, from piston-engine light planes to Concorde, taking in helicopters, seaplanes, hovercraft and the newest business jets. The first letter of an aircraft’s registration designates the country and is followed by the aircraft’s own series of letters and numbers.
Aircraft structure Structural members of an aircraft’s fuselage include stringers, longerons, ribs, bulkheads, and more. The main structural member in a wing is called the wing spar. The skin of aircraft can also be made from a variety of materials, ranging from impregnated fabric to plywood, aluminium, or composites. A modern airliner flies more hours in one year than pre-World War II aircraft flew in their entire lifetime. A modern airframe has to take the strains of flying through turbulence, and of pressurization to some nine pounds per square inch at cruising height, as well as those of normal flight and landing. An aircraft’s strength lies in its monocoque construction: though reinforced by a supporting frame, the skin takes most of the flight loads. Aircraft are subject to more extreme changes in temperature than any other form of transport. An hour or so in the hot sun of the tropics can heat airframe to over 120 degrees Fahrenheit, yet within 30 minutes of takeoff it will be cruising at high altitudes where the temperature may be 100 degrees below freezing. Aluminium-copper alloys are the lightest materials able to stand up to this treatment. They account for more than 95 per cent of the structure of most modern jetliners. Highly-stressed parts such as the landing-gear are made of forged steel whose extra weight is more than offset by its greater strength. 30
Airframes are as lean as they can safely be. So that aircraft can take off with as big a profit-making load as possible, all excess weight is pared away with computerized precision. Wing skins are chemically milled in acid baths to exactly predetermined strength and weight requirements; control surfaces are often stiffened with light honeycomb structuring and floors are based on strong metal frames. CFRP (carbon-fibre reinforced plastic) is a new material often used in Boeing 747 floor beams because it is much lighter than the alternatives. Composite materials of glass, carbon or graphite filaments in an adhesive matrix are superlatively light, strong and heat-resistant, and may prove themselves in the future. Today’s airliners fly ten to 12 hours a day for 20 years or more. The stresses produced by continual movement, and even intense noise, cause fatigue, the cracking and breaking that occurs in metals under constant flexure. Fatigue is an aging process that cannot be avoided, but weak points such as holes and joins can be reduced by using adhesives instead of rivets and bolts, and by casting wing skins in gigantic panels. Fatigue can start from a scratch, so surfaces are polished and sharp corners rounded off. Safe limits are set to the lives of susceptible components, and frequent testing and replacement ensure that catastrophes no longer happen. The centre section of the aircraft, where the wing passes through the fuselage, is the strongest part of any airliner. Here the weight of the entire fuselage is transferred to the wing during flight. Long metal spars stretching from one wing-tip to the other take the bending loads in flight, and on the ground the weight of the whole plane is chancelled down to landing-gear. The Airbus is built in segments by several companies located hundreds of miles apart. 31
Hovercraft A hovercraft also known as an air-cushion vehicle or ACV, is a craft capable of travelling over land, water, mud or ice and other surfaces. Hovercraft is hybrid vessel operated by a pilot as an aircraft rather than a captain as a marine vessel. Hovercraft use blowers to produce a large volume of air below the hull that is slightly above atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference between the higher pressure air below the hull and lower preserve ambient air above it produces lift, which causes the hull to float above the running surface. For stability reasons, the air is typically blown through slots or holes around the outside of a disk or oval-shaped platform, giving most hovercraft a characteristic roundedrectangle shape. Typically this cushion is contained within “skirt”, which allows the vehicle to travel over small obstructions without damage. The first practical design for hovercraft was derived from a British invention in the 1950s to 1960s. They are now used throughout the world as specialized transports in disaster relief, coastguard, military and survey applications as well as for sport or passengers service.
Seaplanes, skiplanes and flying boats Seaplanes A Seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing (alighting) on water. Seaplanes that can also take off and land on airfields are in a subclass called amphibian aircraft. Seaplanes and amphibians are usually divided into two categories based on their technological characteristics: floatplanes and flying boats; the latter are generally far larger and can carry far more. These aircraft were sometimes called hydroplanes, but currently this term applies instead to motor – powered watercraft that use the technique of hydrodynamic lift to levitate their main hull above the water running at speed. 32
Their use gradually tailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war. In the 21 st century, seaplanes maintain a few niche uses, such as for dropping water on forest fires, air transparent around archipelagos, and access to undeveloped or roadless areas, some of which have numerous freshwater lakes.
Skiplanes Skiplane is an airplane equipped with skis so it can land on snowfield. Skiplanes are designed specifically for landing on snow and need no special landing strip. They have no brakes, but in mountainous areas they usually land on upward slopes. They “weathercock� in wind, making steering a highly skilled technique.
Flying Boat A Flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on water that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It differs from a floatplane as it uses a purposedesigned fuselage which can float, granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by under-wing floats or by wing like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Flying boats were some of the largest aircraft of the first half of the 20th century, exceeded in size only by bombers developed during World War II. Their advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue. Their use gradually trailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war. In the 21st century, flying boats maintain a few niche uses, such as dropping water on forest fires, air transport and archipelagos, and access to undeveloped areas. Many modern seaplane variants whether float or flying boat types, are convertible amphibious aircraft where either landing gear or flotation modes may be used to land and take off. 33
Jet Engine A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates by jet propulsion. This broad definition includes turbojets, turbofans, rocket engines, ramjets, and pulse jets. In general, jet engines are combustion engines. In common parlance, the term jet engine loosely refers to an internal combustion airbreathing jet engine. These typically feature a rotating air compressor powered by a turbine, with a propelling nozzle – this process is known as the Brayton thermodynamic cycle. Jet aircraft use such engines for long distance travel. Early jet aircraft used turbojet engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Modern subsonic jet aircraft usually use more complex highbypass turbofan engines. These engines offer high speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long distances.
Piston engines & turbojets An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion systems for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. In today’s aircraft piston engines, gas propulsion replaces steam in creating pressure within the engine. Piston engines were used to power all aircraft until jet engines were first conceived in the early 20th century, by the quest for aircraft that could fly at greater speeds and higher altitudes. Today piston engine aircraft remain popular for both personal and business use for their low cost of entry and solid performance.
Propellers An aircraft propeller or aircrew converts rotary motion from an engine or other mechanical power source, to provide propulsive force. It comprises a rotating power – driven hub, to which are attached several radical airfoil – section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The blade pitch may be fixed, manually variable to a few set positions or of the automatically variable “constant-speed” type. 34
The propeller attaches to the power source’s driveshaft either directly or, especially on larger’ designs, through reduction gearing. Most early aircraft propellers were carved by hand from solid or laminated wood, while metal construction later become popular. More recently, composite materials are becoming increasingly used. Propellers are only suitable for use at subsonic airspeeds up to around 480 mph (770 km/h/, as above this speed the blade tip speed begins to go supersonic, with the consequent shockwaves causing high drag and other mechanical difficulties.
Turbofans The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. The word “turbofan” is a portmanteau of “turbine” and “fan”: the turbo portion refers to a gas turbine engine which achieves mechanical energy from combustion, and the fan, a ducted fan that uses the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to accelerate air rearwards. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine (through the combustion chamber), in a turbofan some of that air bypasses to the thrust. The ration of the mass flow of air bypassing the engine care compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination of these two portions working in concert; engines that use more jet thrust relative to fan thrust are known as low bypass turbofans, conversely those that have considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust or known as high bypass. Most commercial jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, and most modern military fighter engines are low-bypass. Afterburners are not used on high bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. The geared turbofan is a more efficient type of turbofan aircraft engine. Gears allow the compressor-turbine assembly and the fan to spin at different angular velocities. 35
Turboprops A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engine’s exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, since almost all of the engine’s power is used to drive propeller.
Aircraft supersonic The aerodynamics of supersonic flight is called compressible flow because of the compression (physics) associated with the shock waves or “conic boom” created by any object travelling faster than sound. Aircraft flying at speeds above Mach 5 are often referred to as hypersonic aircraft. Supersonic aircraft cruise at the muzzle velocity of a 303 rifle bullet. As they approach the speed of sound, Mach I, the warning signals become shorter. The molecules have less time to move out of the way as the plane catches up on the pressure waves ahead, compressing them until at Mach I (around 660 mph at 50.000 feet) they form into a vertical wave, a shockwave, more violent than a sound wave. Its pressure rises instantaneously, and near the source it sounds like the crack of a whip. As the aircraft accelerates beyond Mach I, the sjockwave forms a cone, with the aircraft at the vertex, “towing” it along. Because supersonic transports (SSTs) travel faster than sound only at high altitudes, the shockwave cone has time to expand enormously before it reaches the ground, where it is weak enough to be heard as a dull boom. Even so, many people are concerned that shockwaves may damage human ears or even buildings. There is usually more than one shockwave in the cone, one from the nose and another from the tail 200 feet farther back, giving a double boom, or continuous air disturbance sounding like thunder or a distant explosion. 36
Aircraft systems Aircraft system is a complex system, in the design stage and in the operating process to ensure continued airworthiness of the aircraft. It is broken down into simpler sub systems that carry out homogenous functions. Some examples include but are not limited to: Flight controls; Landing gear. Electrical system; Bleed system. Hydraulics. Avionics System. Oxygen. Fuel. Power plant. Navigation. Communication. Ice protection (anti-icing and de-icing). Cooling system. Instrumentation and recording. Fire protection; Safety system. A computer, programmed by an army of personnel with data about the aircraft, its payload of passengers, freight, baggage and fuel, and updated with weather changes at high altitudes and at the destination, prints out several possible routes (minimum cost) and selects the best. Several crews may want to fly the same airway at the same time. Routes are allocated on a “first come, first served” basis. The best route may ride a jet stream, a fast river of air which offers the most economical way of getting from A to B at high altitudes. It will be high above the weather, around the 250 millibar level at 34.000 feet. Aircraft fly along designated airways. They are numbered like high-ways on the ground. 37
VI. Aircraft spotter’s guide During the 1930s, thousands of aircraft spotters at Croydon Airport in the UK used to crowd the terminal roof and a special enclosure on the airfield. The first letter of an aircraft’s registration designates the country (G for UK, N for the US) and is followed by the aircraft’s own series of letters and numbers.
1. Douglas DC-1 (Douglas Commercial 1) (1933) In 1932, that Douglas should build a three-engined successor to the Fokker and Ford trimotors. With only two engines on a low cantilever wing, the resulting DC-1 flew in 1933. Its advanced design included retractable main wheels, flaps, fully-cowled engines, variable-pitch propellers and all-metal stressed-skin construction.
2. Douglas DC-2 (1933) The 196-nph DC-2, an improved version, provided the first nonstop flights over the New York / Chicago route. American Airlines commissioned an enlarged DC-2 for its transcontinental sleeper services.
3. Douglas 21-seat DC-3 (1935-1936) By far the most important civil airliner in aviation history, the Douglas DC-3 evolved from a proposition by TWA in 1932. Douglas DC-3 which first flew in 1935 and is still the most numerous civil airliners in the world. In September 1936 it made the east bound journey in 16 hours. The daytime version, the 21-seat DC-3 was already flying the New York / Chicago routes.
4. Douglas Sleeper Transport (DST 1935) The DST, fitted with 21 seats and convertible to 14 bunks, was commissioned by American Airlines in 1935 to fly passengers in comfort on the 16-hour US transcontinental route.
5. Douglas DC-4 (1940) The 204-mph DC-4 was the first of a series of four-engined airliners that were to pioneer long-range routes during the 1940s. 38
6. Douglas DC-6 The 315-mph DC-6 was the first civil airliner to be designed after World War II, could fly up to 108 passengers.
7. Douglas DC-7 The 310-mph DC-7 was the first airliner to fly coast to coast across the USA non-stop.
8. Douglas DC-8-63 The DC-68s: unlike Boeing, Douglas made the first five versions the same size, differing only in power and fuel capacity.
9. Douglas DC-9 Series 50 Douglas flew the first DC-9, America’s first rear-engined twin-jet airliner, in 1965.
10.
Douglas DC-9 Super 80
In 1967, Eastern Air Lines began operating the first of a fleet of 67 long-range DC-9-30s, one of the most popular models.
11.
Douglas DC-10
Douglas designed the DC-10 in 1966, competing directly with Lockheed to produce an airbus capable of operating from normallength runways.
12.
Comet (1947)
Comet is the very first commercial jet, which thrilled the world by flying higher and faster than anything else.
13.
Fokker F27 Friendship (1950)
Conceived in the 1950s, and likely to continue to be produced into the 1990s, the twin-engined Dutch Fokker-VFW F 27 Friendship may be the much sought-for successor to the legendary DC-3.
14.
Fokker-VFW F 28 Fellowship
In 1962, Fokker launched a successor to the F27. The F28 Fellowship is a short-haul jet, smaller and lighter than other contemporary twin-jets such as the BAe One-Eleven.
15.
Convair 340 (1951)
The turbine engine was not produced in the USA for ten years after World War II, so the Convair 340, produced in 1951, was driven by piston engines. 39
16.
Convair 880
In 1956 Howard Hughes sponsored the Convair 880, so-called because it could fly at 880 feet per second. It was followed by 990.
17.
Hawker Siddley Comet (1952)
On May 2, 1952, the world’s first jet airliner, the de Havillard (later Hawker Siddeley) Comet, made history by flying the 6.724 miles from London to Johannesburg at an average cruise speed of 490 mph, in under 24 hours.
18.
Handley Page Herald (1955)
The British Handley Page Company designed a promising 44-seat feeder-liner, the Herald, which first flew in 1955, but made an error of judgment in fitting piston engines.
19.
Hawker Siddley BAe 748
The Hawker Siddeley (now BAe) 748 followed the Fokker F 27 and the Handley Page Herald F 27 and the Handley Page Herald as the last of the twin turboprops designed to replace the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3.
20.
Hawker Siddley BAe Trident (1958)
The British Trident began life in 1958 as the de Havilland 121, first of the new rear-engined T-tailed trijets.
21.
Bell Jet Ranger
The Bell JetRanger is one of the most popular helicopters in civil use.
22.
Sikorsky S-76
The new streamlined 12-seat Sikorsky S-76 is the first Sikorsky helicopter to be aimed wholly at a civilian market.
23.
Mil Mi-8
The Mil Mi-8 is the USSR’s most popular helicopter. The fuselage can be fitted with a hook for rescue work.
24.
Aérospatiale/Westland Puma
The Aérospatiale/Westland Puma was chosen in 1968 as the tactical transport helicopter of the British Royal Air Force. The Bell 212 is twin-engined for extra safety when flying over water. 40
25.
Ilyushin IL-18
The IL-18 first flew in 1957 and became Aeroflot’s second most numerous purchase.
26.
Ilyushin IL-62
The IL-62, the first long-range airliner to be produced in the USSR, has already been exported widely. It flies at 550 mph over a range of 4.000 miles.
27.
Ilyushin IL-86
The IL-86 has entrance doors at under floor cargo-hold level. Here, passengers stow their baggage and climb stairs up to the cabin.
28.
Lockheed L-188 Electra
The L-188 Electra, the first US turboprop airliner, was designed to meet both the challenge of the post-war British jets and turboprops, and the short/medium-haul requirements of American Airlines.
29.
Lockheed L-1011 Tristar
The TriStar’s autoland equipment enables it to land at airports equipped with Category III (zero visibility) landing facilities. There are ten variations, including the short-bodied, long-range 500, seating up to 300 and able to fly the London to Los Angeles route non-stops. Supercritical wings are projected for future TriStars.
30.
NAMC YS-11/Floatplanes and Flying boats
The NAMC YS-11, the only post-war Japanese airliner, enhanced its country’s reputation for cheap but reliable exports.
31.
Piper Aztec
The Piper Aztec is usually seen with wheels but converts to floats top or skis. It seats seven, and thousands are in use as charter planes, air taxis and private planes.
32.
Noorduyn Norseman
The Noorduyn Norseman is a backwoods plane. It is still used in Canada and the Arctic, and pre-World War II versions can be found, flown privately or as forest-patrol planes. 41
33.
Grumman Mallard
The Grumman Mallard, an amphibious flying boat top, is still flown on some inter-island services, notably in the Caribbean.
34.
Short Sandringham
The Short Sandringham is a civil version of the famous longrange Sunderland flying boat, armed versions of which served as patrol and anti-submarine aircraft during World War II.
35.
Shorts 330
The Short Brothers of Northern Ireland made the first floatplane to sink a ship by torpedo in World War I. The Shorts 330 is quieter than most turboprops.
36.
Beechcraft B99’s
The US Beech Aircraft Corporation, a major builder of Cadillacstyle private and executive aircraft, now has a range of 23 models. The Beechcraft B99’s 680 hp twin turboprops give this aircraft a speed of 285 mph and an increased range of 520 miles with a full load, reducing the need for refueling stops.
37.
Cessna 402
The US Cessna Aircraft Company is the world’s largest producer of light aircraft. Among the most popular models, the Cessna 402 is one of a family of light piston-engined twins, seating up to ten, which can fly more than 1.000 miles at 264 mph.
38.
Cessna 404 Titan
The Cessna aircraft are often identified by the high-winged, single-engined models with fuel tanks fitted to the wing tips; but on the 402 these are optional, and on the 414, and the Titan, they were abandoned entirely. Canted wing-tip tanks, no longer fashionable, can improve lift. The Cessna 414 first flew in 1968 and an improved variant was introduced from 1978 as the 414A Chancellor.
39.
Cessna 441 Conquest
The Cessna 441 Conquest is one of the most luxurious jets of the Cessna range and the first to have been fitted with turboprop engines. 42
40.
Piper Navajo
The US Piper Corporation, founded in 1931, ranks second in output of general-aviation aircraft. The Navajo comes in several versions; in the C/R, supercharged Lycoming engines drive counter-rotating propellers, a refinement that helps to reduce torque reaction, causing the air to flow symmetrically around the aircraft, minimizing the need to use the rudder and making handling easier.
41.
Piper Cheyenne
The Cheyenne, the first Piper turboprop is among the cheapest of the mass-market turboprops. It seats five to seven, has a pressurized cabin, a cruising speed of around 300 mph (as fast as a Spitfire) and a range of well over 1.000 miles.
42.
Piper Chieftain
The Piper Navajo Chieftain is the biggest member of the family. An unpressurized 10-seater commuter model, rather like a minibus, it can be converted to a business configuration.
43.
Supersonic Concorde (1957)
The Concorde flies high at 50.000 feet or more, where air density is around one tenth that at sea level, temperatures are low and supersonic engines efficient.
44.
Tupolev Tu-2 bomber
Andrei Tupolev, a leading Soviet aircraft designer, was imprisoned during the 1930s purges and in the 1940s was awarded the Stalin prize for the Tu-2 bomber.
45.
Tupolev Tu-104
The Tupolev Tu-104 was the world’s second turbojet airliner, beaten only by the Comet 1. A distinctive glazed nose can still be seen on early Tupolev airliners. It contains a navigator’s station, and is used for dead-reckoning.
46.
Tupolev Tu-114
The Tupolev’s Tu-114 turboprop was the world’s largest airliner until the Boeing 747 was produced in 1970. Large fairings, projecting behind the wings, identify the T-134 and 154. 43
47.
Tupolev Tu-134
The Tu-134 (1964) is a rear-engined trijet, the Soviet counterpart of the BAe One-Eleven. With a cruising speed of 540 mph, the 80seat Tu-134 has been of the most widely exported Soviet airliners.
48.
Tupolev Tu-144
Beating Concorde by a few months, in December 1968, the Soviet Tu-144 was the first supersonic airliner to fly. The foreplanes (or canards) and trailing-edge flaps enhance lift at takeoff, giving the Tu-144 a shorter takeoff run than Concorde, whose elevons impose a down-load.
49.
Tupolev Tu-154
The sixth and latest Tupolev airliner, the Tu-154, is the world’s largest narrow-bodied trijet, bigger, faster and with a longer range than the Boeing 727 which it closely resembles, it carries fewer passengers.
50.
Subsonic Airbus A 300 (1957)
The sophisticated Airbus design means that for similar passenger capacity, a wide-bodied trijet has an extra engine, 7° more wing sweepback, 27% extra wing area, 60% more tailplane and 20 tons of additional structure. They are likely to remain the most advanced in service for several years.
51.
Rockwell International Sabreliner (1957)
The Rockwell International Sabreliner, designed in 1957 for the US Air Force, was produced by the company that more recently produced the US B-1 supersonic bomber, the most expensive combat aircraft ever built.
52.
Lockheed JetStar (1957)
The Lockheed JetStar, the world’s first executive jet, flew just 241 days after design began, in 1957. Redesigned in 1959 it became, and has remained, the only four-engined business jet. Fuel is contained in fixed wing pods.
53.
Vickers Viscount (1959)
The Vickers-Armstrong (now BAe) produced the world’s first turboprop airliner, powered by four Rolls-Royce Dart engines. 44
54.
Caravelle (1959)
Caravelle, the high-flying, long-range Comet was the only, first short-haul jet airliner to enter service 1959. The intercontinental 320, the largest passenger jet of its era which flew the first ever round-the-world service in 1959 and the short range -720.
55.
Vickers Vanguard (1960)
The Vanguard, which followed in 1959, could carry twice the load at higher speeds, but was unable to compete with the 1960s jets.
56.
VFW-Fokker VFW 614
The VFW-Fokker VFW 614 is the only post-war German airliner to have been produced. This aircraft can use rough strips only 4.500 feet long.
57.
Yakovlev Yak-40
The Yak-40, the first turbofan-powered feeder-line aircraft, was produced to replace the Li-2 (the Soviet-built DC-3).
58.
Yakolev Yak-42
The Yak-42 has recently been designated “Clobber” in the West, in accordance with established military practice.
59.
52-seater An-24 (1960)
52-seater An-24 is a short-range twin turbo-prop, similar to the Fokker-VFW F27 Friendship.
60.
FAA –certified commercial jet (1962)
The First Learjet was designed in Switzerland by Bill Lear (creator of the Canadair Challenger) who, in 1962, moved operations to Kansas.
61.
Hawker Siddeley HS 125 (1962)
The Hawker Siddeley (now British Aerospace) flew in 1962 as the de Havilland 125.
62. Business Jets: Falcon 20/50/Gates Learjet (1963) France’s Dassault - Breguet Falcon 20 was chosen by Charles Lindbergh in 1963 for Pan Am’s new Business Jets Division. 45
63. Business Jets: IAI JetStar/Rockwell Sabreliner
Westwind/Lockheed
Israel’s IAI Westwinds, with unswept wings mounted in the midfuselage, were designed by Aero Commander of Oklahoma, and first flew in 1963.
64.
MBB HFB 320 Hansa turbojet (1964)
The Hansa is unique in having swept-forward wings, which allow a spacious cabin, but because they have a tendency to bend in flight need additional stiffening.
65.
Airbus 300B (1965)
Airbus 300B is the most advanced aircraft currently in airline service, proposed in 1965 by the British & French governments & West Germany joined the team.
66.
Vickers (later BAC) VC10s
Few jets have been as enthusiastically received by passengers and pilots as the Vickers (later BAC) VC10s. A trim 65/89-seater, it was the first modern short-haul twinjet on service in 1965.
67.
An-28 (1969)
An-28 designed for STOL (Short takeoff and landing) performance from the most inaccessible “hot & high” airstrips, seats up to 19 passengers.
68.
De Havilland DHC-7 Dash 7 (1972)
In 1972, de Havilland Canada’s expertise in STOL (Short takeoff and landing) was applied to 50-seat airliner with large four-blade propellers, geared down to only 1 210 rpm to minimize noise levels. The special reduction gears, propellers, pressurized cabin and high-lift system make it an expensive aircraft suitable only for airlines having a clear need for its first year of production, notably from airlines serving “hot and high” airports.
69.
JetStar II (1976)
The 1976 JetStar II has more powerful turbofan engines, and a scoop at the base of the fin rams air into the air-conditioning system. 46
70.
Concorde (1976)
In January 1976, 29 years after the first aircraft broke the sound barrier, two Concordes took off from Paris and London on the first supersonic passenger service. Concorde flies high at 50. 000 feet or more, where air density is around one tenth that at sea level, temperatures are low and supersonic engines efficient.
72.
An-72 (1977)
An-72 has two powerful turbofan engines mounted above the wing.
73.
Grumman Gulfstream II (1977)
The Grumman Gulfstream II, designed by a famed American builder of warplanes, is the fastest business jet, cruising at 581 mph. A much modified turbofan version of the long-range twin turboprop Gulfstream I, the first executive aircraft certificated to fly at 30. 000 feet, the 200th Gulfstream II was delivered in 1977. Future models will have winghts.
74.
Civil Sabreliners 65A
The Sabreliner 65A has distinctive tri-angular windows, with a cabin area of 550cm ft and a 5 ft 3 in aisle height. It costs under $ 4.000.00. Civil Sabreliners include the long-range turbofan-powered 65 A.
75.
Civil Sabreliners 75A
The 75A, with a “stand-up� cabin, has square windows, unusual in pressurized aircraft, and a long-span tailplane (horizontal stabilizer).
76.
Civil Sabreliners 80A model (1978)
The 80A model has an aerodynamically improved new wing. The Rockwell International Sabreliner, designed for the US Air Force.
77.
Combi aircraft 320C
320C Combi aircraft in commercial aviation is an aircraft that can be used to carry either passenger. By 1966, Northwest was operating jet combi service with Boeing 707-320C aircraft between US and Asia. 47
78.
Boeing 707 (1979)
The Boeing 707, the first American turbojet airliner, revolutionized post-World War II air transport. The 707’s cruising speed of over 500 mph and its 4.000-mile range made intercontinental jet travel a commonplace. The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, fourengine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Developed as Boeing’s first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines.
79.
Boeing 727 (1984 )
The Boeing 727 is a mid-sized, narrow-body three-engined jet aircraft, built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1960s to 1984. The Boeing 727 followed the 707, a quad-jet airliner, with which it shares its upper fuselage cross-section and cockpit design.
80.
Boeing 737 (1986)
The Boeing 737 is an American short-to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967 and entered airline service in February 1968 at Lufthansa. Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, subsequently referred to as the Boeing Classic series. The Boeing 737 classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements.
81.
Boeing 747
The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, Jumbo Jet, or Queen of the Skies. Its distinctive “hump” upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft makes it among the world’s most recognizable aircraft, and it was the first wide-body produced. The four-engine 747 uses a double deck configuration for part of its length. 48
82.
Boeing 747SP
The Boeing 747SP is a modified version of the Boeing Jet airliner which was designed for ultra-long-range flights. The “SP” stands for “Special Performance”. The 747SP is similar to the 747-100 except for the shortened fuselage, larger tailplane, and simplified trailing edge flaps. The weight saved by the shorter fuselage permits longer range and increased speed relative to other 747 configurations. The 747SP first entered with PAN AM in 1976. The aircraft was later acquired by VIP and government customers.
83.
Canadair Challenger 600 (1986)
The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets. It was first produced by Canadair as an independent company and then produced from 1986 by Canadair as a division of Bombardier Aerospace.
84.
Cessna Citation I
The Cessna Citation I is a turbofan-powered small-sized business jet that was built by Cessna Aircraft Company in Wichita, Kansas. The Citation line of business jets encompasses several distinct aircraft families, and the Citation I was the basis for the first of those. The Citation I/SP aircraft is another member of this family.
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Cessna Citation III
The Cessna Citation III was the first of the Model 650 series of Citation jets, which are mid-sized, high performance business jets. The Citation III led to the later development of the Citation VI and Citation VII. The 650 series was the second of six distinct “families” of jets marketed by Cessna aircraft under its Cessna Citation brand.
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Dassault-Breguet Mercure
The Dassault-Breguet Mercure was designed by a team headed by the French tycoon, Marcel Dassault, to fill a market gap for a short-haul “mini-airbus” similar to the Boeing 737 but carrying more passengers and less fuel. 49
«You yourselves have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’wings, and brought you to Myself. » Exodus 19:4 KJV «Who satisfieth thy mouth with good things; so that thy youth is renewed like eagle’s. » Psalm 103:5 KJV «The first was like a lion and had the wings of an eagle. I kept looking until its wings were plucked, and it was lifted up from the ground and made to stand on two feet like a man; a human mind also was given to it. » Daniel 7:4 KJV «Behold, he goes up like clouds, And his chariots like the whirlwind; His horses are swifter than eagles. Woe to us, for we are ruined. » Jeremaih 4:13 KJV « For thus saith the LORD; Behold, he shall fly as an eagle, and shall spread his wings over Moab. » Jeremiah 48:40 KJV «As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and they four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle. » Ezekiel 1:10 KJV
Sources The Bible KJV & NKJV The Flier’s Handbook: Marshall Editions Ltd London The Media 50
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