Digital Magazine Oct. - Dec., 2011
Our Neighbor
Tiger Temple in Thailand
Mobile & Internet Today in Cambodia
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TTe : + Tel +855 (0) 63.969.200 T/F +855 (0) 63.969.201 T F:+ T/ //P : +855 (0) 17.906.721 H/P Charles@CorporateMarketingIntl.com Charles@C l @ C Co Corp CorporateMarketingIntl.com SkalCambodia.org
PUBLISHER’S NOTE Dear Readers, It’s hard to imagine anything that’s harder, more fun, and ultimately more satisfying, than completing the first 24 months of a new venture still standing. This issue of Cambodia Insight is our eighth quarterly publication. It’s been, as the Navy promises, not a job but an adventure. Heartfelt thanks to our many readers. You’ve proven again and again that you’ll visit an online publication. We appreciate your attention, as well as your comments and suggestions. Every one of them was read, and many adopted. We’re grateful. Heartfelt thanks, too, to our advertisers. We don’t charge our many readers, and your generous support has made this possible. We hope that your business has benefited from the attention your ads garnered both locally and internationally. We’re grateful. Heartfelt thanks, as well, to our contributors. You’ve supplied us with interesting – indeed fascinating – insights into this Land of Wonder and its warm, welcoming people. The quality of your work shone brightly. We’re grateful. Heartfelt thanks, finally, to our staff. You’ve worked tirelessly and without complaint under the pressures of deadlines.
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You’ve brought creativity to Cambodia Insight, along with a full measure of talent, hard work and good spirits. We’re grateful. As we look ahead to 2012, we’re encouraged that we’ve weathered the initial growing pains and can focus now even more on producing the leading publication about Cambodian life, business, culture, and especially responsible tourism. What will future issues bring? We’ll continue to spotlight the growing numbers of visitors and investors, the important role of investment and relations with our neighbors. And most of all we’ll continue to bring to our readers the wonders of the Land of Wonders, our adopted home. As always, your readership, your advertising support, and your comments will help us make this the leading publication of its kind on the internet. We’re truly grateful. Sincerely,
Charles R. Evans, Publisher Tel: +855 (0) 63.969.200 Fax: 63.969.201 H/P: 017.906.721 Charles@CorporateMarketingIntl.com
OCTOBER - DECEMBER, 2011
CONTENTS The society and its environment
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Cambodia - Social Staructure and Organization
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Tiger Temple
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Mobile & Internet
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16
Today in Cambodia
Cambodia Tourism Plans for near future
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Fisheries Cambodian
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Khmer Art
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Map
44
Victoria Angkor Hotel
48
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A Quarterly Magazine on Business, Economy, Tourism, Culture and Society in English for Cambodia. Founded in Siem Reap City in January, 2010 by Evans Marketing Charles R. Evans Don Finck Don Finck Kanyapat Evans Jeroen Mylho Savuth Sao Atchariya Priabnan Seriya Chan Bunleab Hong Mookda Jamsai Eric Larbouillat Peter Richards
Publisher and Managing Director Editor - in - Chief Senior Creative Director Creative Director Art Director Manager, Graphic Design & Print Production Graphic & Web Design Sr. Webmaster & Programmer Jr. Webmaster & Programmer Production Assistant Sales Executive Thailand Bureau Chief
28 Evans Marketing Business Adviser Co. Ltd., Wat Damnak Village, 0453 Sala Kam Reuk Commune, Group 4, Siem Reap - Angkor, 17000, Kingdom of Cambodia Tel: +855 (0) 63.969.200/201 Fax: +855 (0) 63.969.201. Advertising & Subscriptions E-Mail: Advertising@CambodiaInsight.com E-Mail: Subscription@CambodiaInsight.com
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@ Copyright Evans Marketing Business Adviser Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. The name Cambodia Insight.com, in either English or Khmer languages, its associated logos or devices and the contents of this publication and website may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in print or electronically, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without written permission of Evans Marketing Business Adviser Co., Ltd. Cambodia Insight.com is a wholly owned publication and website of Evans Marketing Business Adviser Co., Ltd. Licensed by the Ministry of Information. Although every care has been taken in the production of this magazine and website, no responsibility for errors or liability is assumed through the use of the information contained herein. Cambodia Insight.com is an independent publication dedicated to providing our readers with informative content presented in a positive light helping to boost business investment, tourism, cultural awareness and the image of the country.
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Camb dia Business Investment
BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
WHEN BUYING OR SELLING A BUSINESS IN CAMBODIA Tel : +855 (0) 63.969.200 H/P : +855 (0) 17.906.721 T/F : +855 (0) 63.969.201 Charles@CorporateMarketingIntl.com www. CambodiaBusinessInvestment.com JULY - SEPTEMBER, 2011
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CAMBODIA - THE SOCIETY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
S
INCE 1975 CAMBODIA has suffered through one of the most catastrophic periods in its long history. The takeover of the country by the communist Khmer Rouge in 1975, its violent aftermath, and the constant warfare between communist and noncommunist factions has resulted in widespread and major changes in the Cambodian social fabric. The country was plunged into a dark age from which it was slowly emerging in the late 1980s.
Under the Khmer Rouge, the entire social structure of the country suffered radical and massive changes. An estimated 1 million to 2 million Cambodians died during the first three - and - one-half years of communist rule. Traditional family life was violently disrupted and virtually abolished between 1975 and 1979. Nuclear families - the most important units of Cambodian society - were broken up and were replaced with communal groupings. 12
About 97 percent of the population was forced into communal economic programs. Urban dwellers were driven into the countryside in mass marches that caused great suffering and many deaths. Rural society was reorganized into interfamilial units known as krom (groups). Urban Cambodians, ethnic minorities, and educated people suffered especially harsh treatment. The ethnic Chinese, because they were engaged extensively in small businesses and were mainly urban dwellers, were targets for communist persecution, as were the Cham, a prominent ethnic minority group. Educated people were special targets for extermination, and most of the teachers and physicians fled the country or were massacred. Those who showed evidence of Western influence, such as using the English language, were suspect. Although freedom of religion was guaranteed in theory under the Khmer Rouge, in fact Buddhism and other religions were repressed ruthlessly.
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Temples were destroyed or put to secular uses, and monks were defrocked and forced do manual labor. The Vietnamese invasion in December 1978 ameliorated the situation somewhat. As a result of the invasion, the Khmer Rouge government of Democratic Kampuchea was overthrown, and the People’s Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) under Heng Samrin was installed in 1979. The PRK allowed considerably more freedom than had its predecessor. In the late 1980s, Marxist-Leninist socialism as it existed in Vietnam was the goal of the PRK government in Phnom Penh. The regime was not pushing hard to convert the country, but was planning a gradual conversion instead. Religions were allowed to function. The government allowed Buddhist monks to return to their temples, although narrow limits were placed on those who could become monks and on aspects of ritual.
The public health service was functioning again in the mid - 1980s, and modern medical services were available although trained medical personnel and some medicines continued to be in short supply. The shortage of medical personnel was partially filled by foreign doctors and technicians. The PRK did not neglect to court ethnic minorities. Members of one of the Khmer Loeu (or highland Khmer) tribal minorities were made leaders in several northeastern provinces, and members of the Cham minority served in the central government.
Social Structure and Organization -The Khmer -The Cham -The Khmer Loeu
The education system, which had suered almost total destruction under the Khmer Rouge, was reconstituted, and the number of students attending formal classes rose dramatically in the early 1980s.
-The Chinese -The Vietnamese
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CAMBODIA - SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
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he ethnic groups that constitute Cambodian society possess a number of economic and demographic commonalities for example, Chinese merchants play middlemen in many economic cycles, but they also preserve dierences in their social and cultural institutions. The major dierences among these groups lie in social organization, language, and religion. The majority of the inhabitants of Cambodia are settled in fairly permanent villages near the major bodies of water in the Tonle Sap Basin - Mekong Lowlands region. The contemporary locations of major Khmer population centers date back to antiquity according to geographer Jacques Nepote. He points out that contemporary Khmer Krom settlements are located in the same areas as the ancient site of Funan, and that the Khmer settlements extending from Phnom Penh in a southeastern direction are located where pre - Angkorian archaeological sites are clustered. 14
The Khmer Loeu live in widely scattered villages that are abandoned when the cultivated land in the vicinity is exhausted. The permanently settled Khmer and Cham villages usually are located on or near the banks of a river or other bodies of water. Cham villages usually are made up almost entirely of Cham, but Khmer villages, especially in central and in southeastern Cambodia, typically include sizable Chinese communities. In his study of the coastal Chinese in Kampot Province and in Kaoh Kong Province, French geographer Roland Pourtier points out that the Chinese dwellings and shops usually in the same structures are located at the center of the town or village, while the Khmer houses are scattered at some distance from the center. He also finds that there are some villages made up almost entirely of Chinese.
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The infamous Thailand Tiger Temple is located at Kanchanaburi, a couple of hours drive from Bangkok. It is very popular with visitors to Thailand and many people end up visiting either directly or as part of a combination tour. Some visitors actually make the trip to Thailand specifically to visit the Tiger Temple! Wat Pha Luang Ta Bua, or the Tiger Temple, is a Theravada Buddhist forest temple in western Thailand. It is a sanctuary for numerous animals, including several tame tigers. The tigers walk around freely once a day and can be petted by visitors. The Tiger Temple is located in the Saiyok district of the Kanchanaburi province, not far from the border with Myanmar, along the 323 highway.
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o begin with, some people came to the temple to let loose their animals. Than Chan did not expect any animals to come and roam around his temple. People brought them to him. He saw that he had an empty space, a place free from all kinds of animals, a safe place for any animals. Food is abundant and convenient to find. It must be like that. People came to present him with wildlife, asking him to accept them. It is not because he went out and looked for them. He had never done that, I believe in that right away. Out of necessity he had to accept those animals. Once he accepted them, other kinds of animals kept on coming on their own accord. They came altogether and all of them are wildlife, including wild horses
which I had never seen anywhere else. There also came to live there some red bulls and wild oxen. At Baan Taad there are some too, I have heard. They also came down here. Red bulls came from these mountains. I have heard about it but I have never heard about wild horses. They also came to live there. This is quite strange. He took care of them. Did he intend to be a monk to take care of these animals or tigers? No, he did not have that intention at all. Necessity kept popping up. At first there came animals of the deer kind, followed by tigers. Some tigers came to ask to be raised by him. Then came the peacocks, the wild boars. This latter category came in a hundred. It
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turned out to be like that. What else could he do? In the morning, the wild boars came to the temple. It began from the time when the first boar was hurt by human beings. It was hit at the waist part of its body. The wound there was large enough to cause the boar to be crippled. Only one boar started it all. This is a matter worth pondering about. How could it send a message to him? Pigs or boars certainly have language among them. We have thought about this point. It was only one wounded boar. It came from the mountain to stay in the temple. Than Chan found some food for it. He accidentally saw it and took pity in it. Oh! How could people be so cruel and do this to this animal? So he arranged for some food for the boar to eat…only a single boar, called in Thai a tok or a loan boar. 18
In the northeast, the word tok means ‘lone’ like ‘wat phu tok’ means a temple with only one hill. So this boar is a tok boar. He took care of it and afterwards it left the temple. The boar later returned with several friends and they all came down into the temple. They came to eat food with Than Chan. So Than Chan had to set things in proper order… He set food for the boars and the boars came in hordes, not a few, but by a hundred. Then came the peacocks. They came in the same fashion – a large number of them at a time. Other animals living in the forest came too. So he could see wild animals, real wildlife from the deep forest turning in to live with man.. Without a place for them to live, they live on their own in the forest according to the law of nature. Briefly speaking, most of the animals under care in the temple are wildlife. Man brought
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them up so they became household animals. When they live in the forest, they are called wild or untamed animals. But then they turned to be household animals. There are some cattle too, like oxen and buffaloes. There are quite a large number of wild buffaloes. This is due to individual habit and charismatic qualities. It happens naturally. At the Tiger Temple, Than Chan did not enter monkhood in order to keep animals. No, he does not have that intention. But once they came, it turned up to be that way. Small - size animals came first: wild boars, wild peacocks and some household animals let loose by their owners. Then the whole thing expanded. In the end, wild boars all over the whole mountain came, countless in number…not knowing how many hundreds of them. In the end red bulls and gaurs came. They are all wildlife. Even wild horses have been spotted in the temple too. They came on their own accord, Than Chan said. They came down from the mountain. That’s why we have come to learn that formerly these animals were wildlife. Those that we raise in household now came from the forest. They were not born by nature as household animals. They were first and foremost natural wildlife. Than Chan’s temple is therefore the temple that so many animals are raised. He did not intend it to be like that at all but it kept on being so on a continual basis. Each species of animals has friends. For example, there was this lone boar, a crippled boar. It was crippled because man beat it. It had nowhere else to go so it crawled down the hill. Than Chan gave it food and treated it until it fully recovered. Its wound was healed. It left the temple and went up the hill, rallied a large number of friends, and came down to the temple again. Later, after that first big one left, hundreds of them came pouring down from the hill into the temple ground. We do not know what kind of message the first bore sent to its friends. The first big one was
the main messenger, causing hundreds of wild boars to come down the mountain. So things turned up that way to present the temple with a heavy burden. Food had to be found for them. Later, some farangs (white men) came and helped us looking after them. They even arranged for food to feed these animals.
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There seems to live about 19 or 20 tigers in the temple (18 tigers, Venerable Luangta). A long shed was built to cover several cages with animals inside. The minute they saw us there, they would run in a straight line in the cage. The cage is made of steel with peep - holes for us to look inside. I went around the peep- holes to watch tigers walking back and forth in the cage. I did not realize that one tiger had squeezed itself out of its cage and came to strike me. Its action was so swift. I was walking around nonchalantly and innocently, taking time and having fun looking at the animals with tigers in the cage walking this way and that. Suddenly, a tiger attacked me from behind, but it did not use its nail. It hit me lightly as if teasingly. There were narrow slots in the cage. I did not know how and when the tiger managed to come out. I was standing without any awareness. Suddenly it attacked me at the back, just to give me a slight feeling of hurt. But it did not hit me out of malice; it only teased. It did not use its nails. Bang! It hit me here. I stared at it and it walked away to a certain spot beyond. Aha! Did you strike me? I admit that I was not guarding myself properly. Its striking came swiftly. The minute it squeezed itself out through the open slot, it followed me closely, but it did not use its nails. How cute! Swift follower! So now the temple has become Tiger Temple. In the end, the temple turns up to be a temple with all sorts of animals flocking in seeking refuge. The number is enormous. They came down from the hills. So I know that these animals are by nature wildlife. They came to seek man’s assistance, such as those at Than Chan’s temple. Whichever animals I picked out and asked where they came from, I learnt that they came out of the forest. Some were let loose by their owners. They later turned out to be wildlife and came down in hordes. One good thing now is that
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the farangs are providing them with food. That has helped lessen our burden. The area is quite extensive, very spacious now. But the soil there is not very fertile. We notice that the trees there do not grow properly and do not look fresh.
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TODAY CAMBODIA TELECOMS, MOBILE INTERNET AND FORECASTS
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H
ot competition continues in Cambodia’s mobile sector as market rationalisation begins Cambodia has successfully managed its transition into a vibrant telecom market. Despite the country’s status as one of the least developed nations in the world and whilst it remains one of the poorer countries in Southeast Asia, Cambodia’s efforts to expand and upgrade its telecom infrastructure have certainly been bearing fruit. There was very little infrastructure remaining from before the tumultuous Khmer Rouge days. As a result, Cambodia bypassed rebuilding the fixed-line market and quickly launched into alternative technologies, jump-starting its telecommunications infrastructure with digital technology. Not surprisingly, mobile services completely overwhelmed the market.
have
By end 2010, there were nine mobile operators vigorously competing with each other in a market segment that was growing at a healthy rate. Coming into 2011 there were an estimated 8.4 million mobile subscribers (penetration 55%) in the country. The market was still in a very strong expansion phase as evidenced by the keenness shown by foreign operators seeking to be part of it. Most significantly some rationalisation had commenced in the market with two operators merging, thereby reducing the number of operators to eight. Some limited fixed-line growth had earlier come about in Cambodia through investment under foreign assistance, but this mainly benefited the capital Phnom Penh and geographical coverage has not increased significantly since that effort in the 1990s. The number of fixed-line services remained relatively static for some years at around 50,000; by early 2011 the numbers were starting to edge upwards. In the absence of any substantial fixed - line growth, however, mobile telephone services
continue to completely dominate the overall telecom market in Cambodia. In fact mobiles represent more than 99% of the total number of telephone services in the country. Wireless technology has been especially advantageous for Cambodia in achieving rapid network roll-out and replacement of a fixed network badly damaged by 20 years of war. In addition to the thriving mobile networks, wireless local loop has been useful for rapid provision of a limited number of fixed - line services. However, while Cambodia has exemplified the fact that wireless local loop offers a viable option for rapidly expanding telecom access in developing countries with low levels of fixed infrastructure, the potential of this technology has yet to be fully exploited in the country. The expansion of internet services has also been overshadowed by the mobile phenomenon. Internet uptake rates remained disturbingly
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low for many years, presenting one of the lowest penetrations in the region.
Market highlights:
Of course, the limited fixed - line infrastructure has been a major inhibiting factor in the rollout of both dial - up and ADSL internet services.
• Cambodia’s mobile market continued on its positive expansion path in 2010 and into 2011, although the annual growth was slowing;
The internet market started to change in 2007 when wireless broadband services first began to appear in a serious manner.
• With mobile penetration of around 56% coming into 2011, the market has passed the eight million subscriber milestone;
There has been a surge in the number of operators interested in this particular form of broadband and especially WiMAX.
• Cambodia had nine licensed mobile operators in a crowded, highly competitive market that invited questions about its likely overcrowding and the possible need for some sort of early rationalisation. The expected rationalisation had started in late 2010;
By 2010 there had been a major upturn in internet numbers on the back of the increased broadband penetration. Overall penetration remained low, however. The country’s telecom regulatory regime appeared in total disarray in 2010. Early in the year the licensed WiMAX operators were waiting on their frequency allocations from the government. But the MPTC awarded the same frequency bands to another operator. This triggered a long-running dispute that was threatening to disrupt the WiMAX market. Given the strategic importance of wireless infrastructure in Cambodia this was shaping as a major blow to the country.
• The development of fixed - line services continues to languish, although the market has picked up a little momentum; • The internet segment has also been languishing for some time, but there are promising signs that the widespread introduction of wireless broadband services will see a long - term surge in growth; • By 2010 there was evidence that the anticipated surge was starting, after internet subscriptions grew by almost 100% in 2009.
By early 2011 there appeared to have been some resolution of the problem.
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Cambodia - key telecom parameters, 2010 - 2011 Category
2010 (e)
2011 (e)
Fixed-line services: Total number of subscribers
60,000
67,000
Annual growth
11%
11%
Fixed-line penetration (population)
0.4%
0.5%
Fixed-line penetration (household)
2.2%
2.4%
Total number of subscribers
45,000
55,000
Annual growth
32%
22%
Internet subscriber penetration (population)
0.30%
0.35%
Internet subscriber penetration (household)
1.7%
2.0%
Total number of subscribers
8.4 million
10.0 million
Annual growth
50%
19%
Mobile penetration (population)
56%
67%
Internet:
Mobile services:
(Source: BuddeComm)
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CAMBODIA Tourism Plans for near future
Cambodia plans to receive 7 millions tourists in 2020
A
bout 1.3 million International visitors arrived in Cambodia in semester one, 2011 reported a 13.4 percent upsurge comparing to the responding period in 2010 that the Kingdom received more than 2.4 million visitors and also increased more than 16 percent if compared to 2009, Tourism Minister announces. Cambodia tourism is expected that about 2.8 millions tourists pour in to Cambodia by the end of 2011, 3 million - 2012, 3.5 million -2013, 4 million - 2014, and 4.5 million - 2015. Importantly, Cambodia plans to receive 7 million tourists in 2020 in which US$5,000 - US$10,000 millions revenue is expected to generate annually, and lifting the Kingdom to be one of the world-class tourist destinations, according to Cambodia’s Minster of tourism H.E. Thong Khon said at the sum - up meeting of the clean resort competition and the tourist communities improvement seminar on August, 16, 2011 in Phnom Penh.
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Excitingly, H.E. Tith Chantha, Director General, Cambodia’ Ministry of Tourism feels optimistic that by the end of 2011, Cambodia can absorb more than 2.8 millions tourists and possibly reaches 3 million. “Due to the Cambodia - Thailand frontier conflict has been formalized recently, more tourists can pour in Cambodia through Thailand border checkpoints, and there is high possibility that we can receive more tourists, not only 2.8 million, he believes.
The Minister points out six strategies have already optimized in order to reach the desired goals: - Develop tourist products, - Market study and tourism promotion, - Connection and transportation facilitation to reach tourist sites, - Tourism security system and tourism impact management, - Legal system and managing mechanism, and 6. human properties development serving in tourism.
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Presently, according to Director - General, Cambodia’s tourism zones are updated from four zones (long been recognized) into six different regions due to the recognitions of newly discovered destinations: Zone 1 - Cultural attractions (Siem Reap, Phreah Vihear and its nearby areas) Zone 2 - Phnom Penh and its nearby provinces Zone 3 - The coastal areas (recently recognized as member of the Club of World’s Most Beautiful Bays) Zone 4 - The northeastern provinces (eco - tourism) The two newly added zones are: Zone 5 - Provinces surrounding Tonle Sap Lake Zone 6 - The provinces along the link of Mekong River - Tonle Sap River, and Basak River, 1,883 Resorts are Blooming in Cambodia to Welcome Visitors. Cambodia’s attractions have been reported to reach 1,883 resorts including 46 tourist communities which are blooming and show great potential for tourism development throughout entire the country.
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Importantly, most of the sites are safe and available for visitations from locals and internationals, according to the latest report from the Cambodia’s Tourism Ministry. Cambodian tourism has been prioritized in culture, and natural attraction sites, but new tourist products and resorts have been constantly developing to welcome first - time and revisit tourists such as cultural tourism, eco-tourism, agro - tourism, home-stay tourism, village-visit tourism, rural tourism, community - visit tourism, recreational tourism, sporting tourism, adventure tourism, and jungle trekking, ethnic tribe home stays, and so on. Despites, Tourist communities’ developments are remarkably slow if compare to resort
booming, but tourism communities which are people-based management will be more prosperous and beneficial, unlike resorts which are quasi-private ownerships, Minister of Tourism said. It is fortunately that recently Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen decided to quit Titanium extraction at Gipath tourism community in Koh Kong to prevent negative impact to the attraction, and make the region a solely 30
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ecological tourism- based site to benefit the people so as to conserve the virgin nature there, according to the Minister. He, anyway, proposed for the compilation of all resorts’ history in Cambodia making the documents useful for guides so as to easily develop the sites related to the background. Responding to the optimism to maximize benefits from tourism, he, however warns to properly mange the negative impacts spread out by this smokeless industry on economy, culture, nature, and society as well. “In conforming to harvesting the fortunes, we have to ensure that our economy, culture, nature, and society are not negatively affected from tourism as well…” He said adding that the expensive airfares really contribute widely to preventing tourists to decide for their stay in Cambodia. But recently, the Kingdom has opened many direct flights from far and near-by countries to bring those peoples to Cambodia with cheaper travelling airfares.
Anyway, it is worth mentioning that Cambodia on July 28, 2009 established a movement of clean resort and good services to enhance tourism industry, and appreciated result can be notified since than on mainly the sanitation improvements on sites. To effectively promote and ensure hygiene at those resorts, Ministry of Tourism sent requests to all provincials and cities governors to help ensure hygiene, deploy permanent cleaners, and build public restrooms into resorts, “The hygienic installations on resorts are the critical step we have to urge for completions in order to ensure the prosperity of this movement…,” Minister added. In conform to the white gold, i.e. the rice; the government determines Tourism as the green gold, which benefits largely to the nation too. “Revenue gaining from tourism will be immediately injected into the economic pulse on the free-market economy manner by formulating professions for the people, and contribute vastly into the nation’s macro economic context,” he stressed.
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LET’S START OUR TRAVEL TO
CAMBODIA
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FISHERIES CAMBODIAN he freshwater capture fisheries of Cambodia are among the most productive in the world (Baranetal 2006, MRC 2010).
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and therefore are a significant economic activity. Inland capture fisheries dominate national fisheries production.
Fishing has been central to rural livelihoods in Cambodia at least since the times of Angkor; along with rice farming, it holds a central place in rural livelihood strategies and cultural practices, involving 2 million to 4 million rural people (Baran et al 2006, MRC 2010).
While it is known that natural production varies from year to year and is strongly influenced by hydrological patterns, determining estimates of production is very difficult (Coates 2002).
Fish and other living aquatic resources are enormously important for food security and nutrition, as noted earlier, contributing up to three-fourths of animal protein in rural diets (Hortle et al 2007). In 2009, fisheries contributed 25.2 percent to agricultural sector activities
Generally production is estimated using catch records and is stated as being between 280,000 tonnes and 400,000 tonnes per year of fish, with additional production of around 60,000 tonnes per year of ‘other aquatic animals’16 (OAA) (MRC 2004). This ranks Cambodia as the fourth - largest inland fisheries producer in the world (MRC 2004).
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Cambodia’s vulnerability to climate change in the fisheries sector is therefore likely to be felt at the micro level of households and communities, as well as at the level of the national economy. A recent global study of the vulnerability of national economies to the impact of climate change on fisheries ranks Cambodia as 30th most vulnerable in the world (Allison et al 2009). The productivity of the natural capture fisheries of Cambodia is closely related to natural hydrological patterns and the integrity of fish habitats. This is not simply a matter of volume of water equalling volume of production. The onset of the flood season acts as a trigger for migration, with fish moving along the main stems of the rivers or between the rivers and floodplains, where they migrate to breed, spawn and feed and then retreat as waters recede. While the amount of water in any given year is a contributory factor, the timing of the flood, combined with the number of peaks during the flood season and the area of land inundated, are also important factors.
These figures may well be underestimates, often overlooking the small rice-field and floodplain fisheries that could alone be in the region of producing 285,000 tonnes (Hortle 2007).
The area of land flooded provides important habitats for feeding, breeding and spawning, while the quality of the vegetation, such as flooded forests and wetlands, and the interconnectivity of the floodplain ecosystems
Estimates based on people’s consumption patterns, and which are therefore more likely to be inclusive of all fishery types, suggest that total production levels are in the region of 524,000 to 616,000 tonnes per year (Hortle 2007). The natural production of aquatic animals in rice fields is estimated as worth at least US$100 per hectare (Hortle 2007), compared with the value of rice production at US$150 per hectare.
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also represent important factors in fishery production (Baran 2007). Inland fisheries productivity is strongly influenced by actions from other sectors. Fisheries constitute the main sector that is vulnerable to development of water resource infrastructure, with hydropower development, both within Cambodia and in upstream countries, considered to constitute the greatest threat to natural production and rural livelihoods (ICEM/ MRC 2010,Allen et al 2008). At local level, land use change – such as conversion of flooded forests along the Tonle Sap for agriculture – and unplanned development of rural roads also have significant impacts on natural fisheries (Baran, Starr and Kura 2007). Despite their economic importance, the concerns of fisheries are rarely addressed in planning processes for other sectors. In particular, hydropower projects have failed to identify costs and implications of impacts or to identify specific mitigation measures for fisheries impacts (Friend et al 2009).
Recognising the importance of fisheries for rural livelihoods, Cambodia has supported the establishment of Community Fisheries and is turning over commercial fishing lots to local communities (FiA 2009). This process began in 2001 as a response to conflicts between commercial and small-scale fishers, but performance to date has been mixed. In some areas of the country, the number of Community Fisheries (CFis) established has been high, but in other areas progress has been limited. Slow progress has been attributed in some cases to complex bureaucratic procedures and the need for official approval at key stages. In many areas, privatization of public water bodies, as a result of land concessions, has denied public access. There also exists competition from large - scale commercial fishing, which often uses eďŹƒcient yet destructive gear and is often illegal.
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KHMER ART HISTORY Prehistory Several prehistoric sites are known in Cambodia (inc. Samrong Sen, Anlong Phdao, Melou Prei, and Laang Spean).
at the Dong Son site in Vietnam (thought to be used in rain and war ceremonies), and ancient ceramics have been found and documented.
It is believed that many more prehistoric sites exist, but have yet to be discovered.
Current archaeological research into Cambodia’s extensive prehistory will no doubt provide better insight into the lives of the people who made these objects, and give us a more concrete time-frame for their dates of manufacture.
However, remnants of circular earthwork villages dating from the Neolithic times are found in the province of Kompong Cham. Ancient stone, bronze tools and weapons, enigmatic bronze drums similar to those found
Ceramics Recent archaeological excavations at Angkor Borei (in southern Cambodia) have recovered a large number of ceramics, some of which probably date back to the prehistoric period. Most of the pottery, however, dates to the pre-Angkorian period and consists mainly of pinkish terracotta pots which were either hand-made or thrown on a wheel, and then decorated with incised patterns. Glazed wares first appear in the archaeological record at the end of the 9th century at the Roluos temple group in the Angkor region, where green-glazed pot shards have been found. A brown glaze became popular at the beginning of the 11th century and brown-glazed wares have been found in abundance at Khmer sites in northeast Thailand.
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Decorating pottery with animal forms was a popular style from the 11th to 13th century. Archaeological excavations in the Angkor region have revealed that towards the end of Angkor period production of indigenous pottery declined while there was a dramatic increase in Chinese ceramic imports. Direct evidence of the shapes of vessels is provided by scenes depicted on bas-reliefs at Khmer temples, which also oer insight into domestic and ritualistic uses of the wares. The wide range of utilitarian shapes suggest the Khmers used ceramics in their daily life for cooking, food preservation, carrying and storing liquids, as containers for medicinal herbs, perfumes and cosmetics.
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Bronzes Use of bronze-casting began in Cambodia sometime between 1,500 and 1,000 BCE. It is widely assumed that this technology was introduced to Southeast Asia through contact with the Chinese, but the possibility of independent development of bronze casting in Southeast Asia has yet to be conclusively ruled out. Whatever the case, bronze-casting had become a major industry throughout mainland Southeast Asia by 500 CE - at which time bronze was used to make a wide range of tools, weapons, ritual objects and ornaments. After Indian political and religious ideas began permeating Cambodia (around the time of Christ), a tradition of casting bronze Hindu and Buddhist divinities emerged. This tradition reached its pinnacle of output and skill during the Angkor period. The large bronze figure of the ‘Reclining Vishnu’ (late
11th century) demonstrates the level of mastery which Khmer bronze artists achieved. The museum’s Bronze Gallery contains bronzes dating from the 7th to 20th century. Besides the objects which were made in veneration of religious divinities, the other types of bronzes on display can be divided into two categories: ritual objects and secular goods. Many of the ritual objects in the collection, including popils (stylised candle holders), bells, bowls and conches for ritual water, are still used in a variety of Khmer ceremonies today. Many of the secular goods are objects which would have been bestowed by the royal court as an insignia of rank for officials. These include ornate hooks for palanquins, gilded rings from the handles of parasols, fans, and military or official seals.
Pre - Angkor period Recent excavations at a site known as Angkor Borei and earlier work at Oc-Eo are confirming that this region was the site of important kingdoms that predate the Angkor empire - those of Funan and Zhenla (Chenla). The oldest known Khmer stone sculptures date to the early 6th century and were found in cave temples which were carved into the side of Phnom Da, a small hill near Angkor Borei. Angkor Borei, today a small town in the Mekong Delta region, was a major city - centre within what is thought to have been the first large-scale centralised Khmer state (c.1st-6th century; often called ‘Funan’ as it was denoted in Chinese annals of the period).
The Phnom Da sculptures were carved from single blocks of fine-grained sandstone and depict both Buddhist and Hindu divinities. Although the sculptures reveal traditional Indian stylistic influences, one can also see that the Khmer artists strove to break away from their mentors. Moving away from the Indian tradition of sculpting in high-relief, the Khmers attempted to make free-standing statues, supported by an arch or by an attribute of the divinity (such as a piece of clothing or a hand-held object). In the 7th and 8th centuries, the power base shifted north to the plains east of the Tonle Sap Lake.
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Funan’s dominance ended when King Isanavarman I established the first capital of this new power centre (called ‘Zhenla’) at ‘Ishanapura’ (Sambor) in present day Kompong Thom province.
The majority of the sculptures from Zhenla and Funan depict Vishnu, while another popular deity, Shiva, is usually symbolised by a linga (stone phallus).
In the 8th century, Zhenla was divided into two competing powers, ‘Land Zhenla’ and ‘Water Zhenla’.
Pre-Angkorian sculptors often combined these two Hindu divinities into one deity, called Harihara. Statues of Buddha and other Buddhist divinities were also popular with preAngkorian artists of both Funan and Zhenla.
This situation remained until Jayavarman II set up a capital on Mount Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) in the Angkor region in 802 and successfully unified the Khmer people.
The Zhenla period saw an increase in relief carvings on stone lintels and pediments.
Angkor period Cambodia is rich in sandstone deposits. Throughout the Angkorian period, sandstone was quarried from the Kulen hills (to the north of Angkor) and floated on rafts along rivers and canals to the building sites. The first recognisable art style of the Angkorian period is the Kulen style (c.825-75), named after the hill on which Jayavarman II built his capital and had his royal consecration ceremony initiating the cult of the devaraja (god-king) which would be followed by all subsequent Angkorian kings. This style was the first to dispense with supporting arches - as a result the figures became heavier. The body is sculpted rigidly upright with distinctive Khmer features - round faces and broad brows.
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The Koh Ker style (941-944) shows another interesting development with gigantic figures - human and animal, captured in dynamic movement. ‘The Wrestlers’ and the ‘Monkey Kings, Valin and Sugriva’, are good examples of this style. In contrast, the Banteay Srei style of the late 10th century is unique in the intricacy and richness of the decoration, and the warm tones of the pink sandstone.
The statues of the Baphuon style (1010-1080) are slim and graceful. This was made possible by adding subtle supports behind the ankles. The eyes are often incised and they may have been fitted with gems and precious metals.
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The Angkor Wat style (1100-1175) presents the highest achievements in architecture and ornamentation of buildings and bas-reliefs. Besides the world famous Angkor Wat temple, Phimai temple (in Thailand) was also constructed during this period. Sculpted figures are upright, muscular and formal, and are prominently adorned with ornate belts and jewelled necklaces and bracelets. The Bayon style of the late 12th to early 13th century, produced a great number of Buddhist images due to the religious preference of King Jayavarman VII.
Still highly revered today as one of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII, although a devout Buddhist, was tolerant of other religions as evidenced by the combination of Hindu and Buddhist symbols in Bayon art. An example of this is the portrayal of Buddha wearing a diadem (ornamented crown) similar to that normally worn by Vishnu. The intention was to portray the Buddha as a powerful universal monarch in keeping with the contemporary images of Hindu gods. Another defining aspect of the Bayon style is the development of portraiture-particularly the portrayal of royalty in the guise of Buddhist deities.
Post - Angkor period Not long after the end of Jayavarman VII’s reign, stone art production and monumental temple building become almost non-existent in Khmer culture.
In post-Angkorian wood sculpture, artists began applying one or two layers of lacquer which played a decorative as well as protective role.
With the wide-spread conversion to Theravada Buddhism (c.15th century), wood becomes the primary medium for Khmer sculpture.
Also during this period, artists developed the technique of decorating wood figures with encrusted ornaments - frequently using ivory, mother-of-pearl, or vitrified lead inlays.
Although wood would have certainly been used for statues since pre-Angkorian times, due to its susceptibility to rapid decay, only a small number of wood statues have survived from the late Angkorian period.
Most of the wooden statues in the museum’s collection were carved in the last few centuries. One can see varied influences in many of the post-Angkorian works of art.
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