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Establishing Gene Sanctuary of Fodder Crops at Thumburmuzhy Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY) (No. R1/66055/07of DR KAU Dated :11.01.2008)
Final Report 2009 Cattle Breeding Farm Thumburmuzhy, Kerala Agricultural University Konnakuzhy. P.O 680 721 Chalakudy. Thrissur
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CONTENTS 1
Introduction 1.1 Relevance 1.2 Objectives
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Technical Programme and Physical Progress 2.1 Location 2.2 Museum of fodder grass 2.3 Fodder plots development 2.3.1 Fodder grass collection 2.3.2 Bamboo for fodder 2.3.3 Trees for fodder
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Irrigation Management 3.1 Rain Water collection pond 3.2 Permanent Sprinklers
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Fodder Varieties collected
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Nutritional Analysis of collected fodder
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Development of a New Fodder Thumburmuzhy1
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Fodder grass description
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Extension /Interactive CD on Fodder
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Training /field work Appendix 1
Financial statement
Appendix 2
Utilization certificate
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1. Introduction: The primary reason for decline of cattle population in the state of Kerala, is the shortage of fodder. As there is acute shortage of fodder for livestock in the country, the farmers are to be motivated to cultivate their own fodder resources for feeding the livestock. Inadequate nutrition especially energy shortage and protein shortage is jeopardizing the dairy sector of Kerala. Fast shrinkage of cultivable land due to the erodes by commercial ventures and the increased pressure on the remaining cultivable land is a major agrarian crisis in all districts of Kerala. So far there is no regional fodder bank or a gene pool collection of indigenous fodder crops in Agricultural University though we have large dairy units under Kerala Agricultural University. Fodder crisis has three roots - one lies in agriculture policy based on Green Revolution technologies which undermined the sources of fodder from agricultural crops. High Yielding Varieties were bred for grain and led to decline in fodder. The second source of the fodder crisis lies in aid programmes such as "social forestry" and "farm forestry" projects which promoted the planting of monocultures of non-fodder species such as Eucalyptus, thus aggravating the shortage of fodder. Finally, the enclosure of the commons has also led to scarcity of grazing lands and pastures. In addition there has been a scarcity of cattle feed both because traditional sources of cattle feed such as oil cakes have declined as a result of the Green Revolution which displaced oil seeds and because new sources such as soya bean cake, are largely exported Majority of the livestock in Kerala is traditionally fed the agricultural crop residues. Soaring price of concentrate feed and ingredients make it a tough job to carry on livestock raising in the state.42 million ton is the feed concentrate availability in the country though the requirement is 79 million ton. The green fodder availability in the country is 574 million tones as against a need of 745 million tones. There exists a large gap between the requirement and availability .It is also evident from the land utilization records of Kerala which shows that out of the 3885497 hectares of available area, grazing land is only 253 hectares at a time when the milk production of Kerala has touched a higher level of 26.01 lakh tones with its dairy cattle population of 2490707; buffaloes 111465 and goats 1601013. The main handicap of dairying prospects in Kerala is meagre fodder production.
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The geographic area of Kerala is 38.5 lakh Ha comprising of 30.3 lakh Ha of cropped area, 22.04 lakh Ha of net sown area and 451 Ha of permanent pasture. Out of a gross cropped area of 30.3 lakh Ha in the state (according to 2002-03 data); food crops comprising rice, pulses, minor millets and tapioca occupy only 15%.This means that 85% of crops do not contribute to Animal production. Kerala is far ahead in cultivation of cash crops like rubber, tea, coffee, spices etc. which does not provide any scope for fodder production and dairying prospects. Things are further aggravated due to the decline in cultivation of crops like paddy which provide by products for animal feeding. 1.1. Relevance: Highest energy diet is most expensive and supports not only growth, reproduction and maintenance but also production. Free feed at all times to increase and support production is another challenge for the dairy farmers of the state. Good quality fodder can considerably reduce the feed cost, and hence the milk production can be economically restructured to be more feasible. There are improved varieties of fodder and local indigenous varieties available which can be cultivated under irrigation from the slurry of the research station. These fodder varieties can be preserved and made available in the fodder museum. The excess fodder cultivated by the farmers can be collected back for farm use. Hence a regional effort to establish a fodder bank is an immediate requirement of the farming community. So far there is no regional fodder bank in this University though we have large dairy units under Kerala Agricultural University. It is under this context that “Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana� (RKVY) supported Cattle Breeding Farm (CBF) Thumburmuzhy, with the project for strengthening the research capability of this research station of KAU. The state level sanctioning committee (SLSC), Government of Kerala has sanctioned the project for the Cattle breeding Farm Thumburmuzhy, under Kerala Agricultural University for Infrastructure development in the first phase. The project was sanctioned in January 2008.The technical and administrative sanction was accorded in March 2008(R6/66055/07/xxi based on G.O. (MS) No. 214/08/AD dated 4-2-2008). Anent the same orders, Administrative and Technical sanctions were accorded by the Hon Vice chancellor, KAU for the implementation of the RKVY project at an outlay of Rs. 20/- lakh, under the Principal Investigatorship of Dr. Francis Xavier, Professor, Cattle Breeding Farm, Thumburmuzhy and Dr. K. Shyama, Assistant Professor, Cattle Breeding Farm, Thumburmuzhy, Dr. John Abraham, Assistant Professor, College of
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Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Pookot as associates of the project. Sanction was also accorded for undertaking the construction work as per the proposal by the Director of Physical Plant and for the purchase of the equipments as above observing store purchase rules. 1.2. Objectives: The envisaged project had the following broader objectives; 1. Developing a gene sanctuary and a museum of fodder plants at CBF campus. 2. The gene sanctuary at CBF will have a collection of all available hybrid and indigenous
fodder varieties suitable for the region.
3. Collection of annual and perennial fodder varieties for sustainable production in plots. 4. Collection and documentation of fodder trees for future establishment of a fodder tree nursery.
2. Technical Programme and Physical Progress: Anent the objectives listed above, the envisaged objectives could be achieved within the shortest time in Cattle Breeding Farm Thumburmuzhy under the Kerala Agricultural University. Evolving an organic fodder production strategy prototype is tested now under different seasons in this research station.
2.1. Location: Cattle Breeding Farm Thumburmuzhy (Fig 1) under the Kerala Agricultural University is situated in the Valley of Kumbalamkuzhy Mountains, 14 kms east from Chalakkudy in the Sholayar road. Farm is located in Konnakuzhy village of Pariyaram panchayat in Mukundapuram taluk of Thrissur district. This is an agricultural zone of the District of Thrissur. In 1972, the farm was taken over by KAU and again converted to dry salvage farm. In 1993, this farm was upgraded to a milch cattle breeding farm with animals. The cow dung and slurry are used in the farm itself for fodder cultivation.
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Fig. 1.Satellite picture of the implementing Research station-CBF
Fig. 2.The fodder plots and layout of Research station
The research station has a total land holding of 25.5 hect. At present the fodder for the dairy stock is from an area of 10.52 hect. and rain fed area of 8.09 hect.The irrigation activities are mainly based on the irrigation canals of the Government irrigation department. Water shortage is severe during the summer months. Since the research station has topography of sloping area adjacent to Reserve forests of the state the rain water flows away to the adjacent Chalakudy river very fast. The fodder plots and the waste lands of the research station are located in three different areas. They are designated as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K and L blocks respectively (Fig. 2).
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2.2. Museum of fodder grasses: A fodder museum is a novel idea in the state .So far meagre efforts are taken up for fodder conservation though we have large numbers of indigenous fodder varieties which may perform well in our agro-climate. The fodder scarcity is the biggest problem faced by the Dairy farmers of the state. They now mainly depend on the agricultural waste to feed the animals. As there is acute shortage of fodder for livestock in the country, the farmers are to be motivated to cultivate their own fodder resources for feeding the livestock. Fast shrinkage of cultivable land due to encroachments by commercial ventures and the increased pressure on the remaining cultivable land is a major agrarian crisis in all districts of Kerala. Majority of the livestock in Kerala is traditionally fed the agricultural crop residues. High price of concentrate feed and ingredients make it a tough job to carry on livestock farming in the state. The green fodder availability in the country is 574 million tones as against a need of 745 million tones. Highest energy diet is most expensive and supports not only growth, reproduction and maintenance but also production. Free feed at all times to increase and support production is another challenge for the dairy farmers of the state. Good quality fodder can considerably reduce the feed cost, and hence the milk production can be economically restructured to be more feasible. There are improved varieties of fodder and local indigenous varieties available which can be cultivated under irrigation from the slurry of the research station. These fodder varieties can be preserved and made available in the fodder museum. The excess fodder cultivated by the farmers can be collected back for farm use. Hence a regional effort to establish a fodder bank is an immediate requirement of the farming community. Research on fodder grass is also meagre in the University. The importance of fodder grass in dairying has to be emphasised if the sector has to be run profitably. In order to create awareness among farmers in this area a fodder museum acts as a knowledge centre. RKVY project envisaged a Fodder museum with a built up area of 1500 sq ft. A properly designed building was constructed by the Directorate of Physical plant. A fodder museum hall and an implement shed were constructed for the fodder bank. An amount of rupees 9.75 lakhs was handed over to the DPP wing of Kerala Agricultural University. The exhibition area holds photographs of the major fodder varieties collected under the RKVY project. The scientific identification will be made possible by this venture. Large
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photo exhibition boards were prepared and 25 of them will be displayed in the hall at a time. Metallic laminated prints of the fodder grass will be displayed on these boards permanently. Another set of Exhibition boards with fodder pictures will be ready for outdoor exhibitions conducted by Kerala Agricultural University at different locations. Farmers visiting the farm and the tourists passing by this road -as the station is in proximity with Athirapally water falls, a very famous tourist destination of the State of Kerala- will visit the Museum. Regular, ‘Farmers Exposure programmes’ are taken up by the Cattle Breeding farm and hence they will also be the beneficiaries. More over the students from different faculties of the University who get trained in this research station will also get exposed to the museum. Fig. 3. New Fodder museum under RKVY project.
Since we have on an average around 500 farmers representatives visiting the station annually the knowledge dissemination through the Fodder museum is immense. With this primary minimum number of farmers getting exposed to the knowledge another 1000 members each of the farming community will also get exposed to this knowledge. The students visiting the research station every year from Veterinary faculty for internship, Dairy science students for work experience and forestry students for exposure training comes to around 100 and the fodder museum acts as a data station for the use of the students.
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2.3. Fodder Plots Development: 2.3.1. Fodder Grass Collection: Almost all the fodder grass varieties of the state and some rare national and international fodder grass varieties were purchased /collected, to be preserved and propagated under the RKVY project. Fig. 4. Fodder plots making under the scheme
Boulders removed –Land leveled- Bunds made-Plots designed
Indigenous fodder grass collection was also done with the help of dairy farmers and tribals engaged in livestock farming. Good specimens were collected from Wayand and Idukki districts of the state.
Fig. 5. Indigenous fodder varieties collected(a,b,c,d)
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(b)
(c)
(d)
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2. 3. 2. Bamboo for fodder: Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI) located in Peechi; from their ‘Bamboo setum’ supplied the fodder bamboo varieties both indigenous and exotic to be planted at the RKVY plots in Thumburmuzhy. Saplings of Fifteen number of Bamboo varieties which could be used as fodder in seasons of scarcity were also planted in such a way that when grown into bamboo thickets, will act as biological fencing protecting the fodder lands from crop raid by wild animals as the station has reserve forests forming its boundaries. Many varieties of bamboo can grow in the agro-climatic conditions of Kerala. These huge grass varieties can be utilised as fodder varieties if proper preservation and analysis is done .More over these bamboo varieties are fast growing and act as a natural barrier preventing soil erosion, preserves water and acts as a barrier to prevent rain water from flowing off to the nearby rivers. In irrigation management these fodder bamboo varieties are a boon. Fig.6 (a). Fast growing fodder bamboo variety planted under RKVY project at CBF Thumburmuzhy.
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Fig.6 (b). Different fodder bamboo varieties collected for RKVY project at CBF Thumburmuzhy.
2.3.3. Trees for fodder: Fodder trees are another unexplored potential source of fodder for livestock. A preliminary effort was done to plant 500 trees which may be used for fodder after thorough nutritional analysis and feeding trailas are taken up. A tree nursery (Fig 7) shade house was also made to preserve the planting materials as and when the tree species are collected from different parts of the state. College of Forestry Under KAU, Kerala Forest department under the Government of Kerala were the two sources for collection of fodder trees used in RKVY project. Efforts are made to collect indigenous fodder tree varieties used traditionally as cattle feed .The tree nursery infrastructure is developed under the present RKVY project. The land under the research station which cannot be utilised for fodder cultivation are selected for fodder tree planting. Many varieties of indigenous fodder trees are available in the state. The growth of these trees varies in different climatic zones. Hence the trees which grow under the agro-climatic zone of Thumburmuzhy were selected initially for planting. The tree nursery holds samples of fodder trees which may be a source material for students to learn and farmers to get accustomed. Due to six months of heavy monsoon in the area, the preservation of the fodder tree varieties in the tree nursery green house is an achievement.
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Fig 7 (a &b) Tree nursery constructed under RKVY project of CBF Thumburmuzhy
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3. Irrigation Management under RKVY project: 3.1. Rain Water collection pond: Scientific planning and implementation of the water resource management including rainwater harvesting was done which solved the water scarcity faced by the research station for many years. This venture has helped the station to ward off water shortage which was a major problem in all these years. A new pond (24m x 16m x 4 m) was designed (Figs 8,9,10 and 11) in such a way that all the rainwater and the run out water will be stored for the irrigation purpose. The mud pond was lined with Geo membrane and made it leak proof. The existing smaller tank (Fig. 12) was also lined with geo membrane and seepage of water was effectively prevented. This work was done before the monsoon and the water was utilized for the newly prepared fodder plots. Fig. 8. New pond in the making
Fig. 9. Pond with a bund to be lined with geo-membrane
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Fig. 10. Pond lined with geomembrane before the monsoon
Fig. 11. Water collected after two weeks of monsoon (10 Lkh lit) July2008
Fig. 12.Rainwater storage in geomembrane lined pond (17 Lakh lit) February 2009
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Fig. 13. Existing small water tank of CBF
3.2. Permanent Sprinklers: After making the fodder plots, a survey of the land was done by the agriculture wing of CBF and a detailed plan for fitting permanent sprinkler irrigation system was designed. The plan was approved by Water management engineer of KAU. Sixty (60) modern Sprinklers were permanently set up in the higher planes based on a topographic survey and after consultation with the Associate Professor water management KAU,to irrigate all the waste lands and to utilize that area too for fodder production (Fig 14).
Fig. 14. Fully functional Permanent Sprinkler irrigation at Thumburmuzhy
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Fig. 15. New fodder plots with new fodder varieties and irrigation system
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4. Important fodder varieties collected:
New Varieties of Fodder collected under RKVY project
Fodder Trees collected under RKVY project
Bamboo Varieties collected under RKVY project
African Napier
Sesbania agathi
Bambusa wamin.
Austarlian Napier
Subabul leucocephala)
(Lucina Pseudosetenthera stocksii
THUMBURMUZHY 1 (New)
Gliricidia(Gliricidia sepium)
Mattupetty local-1
Venga marsupium)
Mattupetty local- 2
Kaini
Dentrocalamus longispathus
Mattupetty local-3
Thani
Travancorica ochliandra
Setaria anceps (Idukki)
Chadichi
Bambusa mutans
Cowpea.(Vigna angulata)
Mullu venga
Bambusa multiplex
Brachiaria humidicola
Jack
Bambusa valgavis
Brachiaria decumbens
Murikku
Bambusa tulda
Brachiaria brizallia
Kumizhu
Bambusa multiplex verigata
Jowar (Sorghum bicolor)
Mango
Dentrocalamus variety 1
brandissi
Desmanthus
Mulberry
Dentrocalamus variety 2
brandissi
Maize(Zea mays)
Dentrocalamus variety 3
brandissi
KKM from Ambalavayal- 6 varieties(Wayand)
Pseudoxitic manthra
Dentrocalamus (tall)
sikkimensis
(Terocarpus Dentrocalamusgigantius (tall)
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5. Descriptive features of some important grass varieties: Variety of fodder
Height of fodder(cms)
Number of tillers
Length of leaf (cms)
Width of leaf (cms)
TM 1
250
120-125
104.5
5
Australian Napier
160
25-30
82
5.5
African Napier
250
30-35
117
6.5
Killikulam
255
15-20
133
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CO3
170
30-35
107
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6. Nutritional Analysis of the collected fodder varieties at CBF: Fodder
Co1
Co3
Co6
Killik ulam
Africa Australi n n.
*THU MBU RMU ZHY1
Con go
Guin ea grass
Para Gra ss
Hybrid Guinea grass
sign al
Lab Reg.no
51/0 8
52/0 8
44/0 8
53/08
45/08
46/08
43/08
54/0 55/08 8
56/0 8
57/08
Moisture
77.5
89.1
81.7
78.5
78.8
85.2
80.1
82.7
84.3
84.6
89.6
Crude protein
16.6
16.0
14.0
16.0
15.8
14.8
17.5
15.9
15.5
16.2
15.0
Ether Extract %
1.5
0.9
1.4
0.8
1.7
1.4
1.3
0.6
1.3
0.7
1.5
Crude fibre %
25.6
22.1
23.3
31.3
20.0
22.2
19.9
28.4
38.6
25.0
23.5
NFE %
42.5
46.2
52.2
40.3
52.1
49.2
50.2
44.4
29.4
45.0
46.1
Total Ash %
13.8
14.8
9.1
11.6
10.4
12.4
11.1
10.7
15.2
13.1
13.9
AIA %
2.0
4.5
2.3
7.0
4.4
4.6
5.6
6.4
3.9
4.1
3.5
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6. Development of a New Fodder THUMBURMUZHY 1: (TM-1) Under the RKVY project a major collection of fodder grass varieties were made at CBF Thumburmuzhy in an year. A combination of Napier, Bajra grass was obtained from a farmer of Hyderabad to our collection. This fodder grass when combined with a local variety gave a hybrid fodder (Fig. 16).The plant was carefully selected and with the help of the Scientists from the College of Horticulture under Kerala Agricultural University trials were run at the research station. A temporary name was ascribed to the fodder as THUMBURMUZHY 1 .The major qualities were presence of 17 % protein in the whole plant which itself is a major advantage as far as Dairy cattle feeding is concerned. Feed protein is a costly factor and the total feed cost in Dairy enterprise in Kerala state comes to 75% of the total cost. The second major advantage with Thumburmuzhy 1 is the number of tillers it had after the first cut. We could get 125 tillers on an average in CBF.The field trials at dairy farmers plots also yielded more tillers (Fig. 17) when compared to all other available fodder grass in the state. With regard to the palatability the Thumburmuzhy grass has tender tillers and hence animals consumed all the grass and wastage was negligible. Where as in all other types of fodder grasses the stem which is hard will be wasted by animals. The economic feature as far as the fodder grass is concerned is a blend of the tender stem and high protein content. More over the field trials at the farmer’s plots showed that this fodder plant is not water intensive. Fig. 16. New Variety of Fodder from RKVY project at CBF Thumburmuzhy
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Fig. 17. The new THUMBURMUZHY 1 (TM1) Fodder grass experimental plots
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7. Fodder Grass Description: Fifty (50) varieties of fodder crops - exotic and indigenous; are collected till date. Salient details of the important varieties collected are given below. (a)Guinea grass (Panicum maximum):
Fig.18 Guinea grass Guinea grass is a native of tropical and sub-tropical Africa. It is suited to areas with an annual rainfall of over 1100 mm, but grows better with higher rainfall. It is the most popular fodder grass grown under irrigated conditions in the tropics. The grass thrives best in hot humid climate and has got good shade tolerance. It is well adapted to the agro climatic situations of the Kerala State. This can be conveniently and profitably grown as a component of agro-forestry systems and comes up well under coconut and other trees. It can be grown together with leguminous plants such as centro, cowpea, stylo etc.Guinea grass is palatable to all kinds of livestock, and it is usually fed directly as cut fodder. It can be used for making good quality hay and silage. It is a perennial bunch grass, 0.5 to 4.5 m high. The stem is stout to slender, erect or ascending, glabrous or hairy. Leaves are 10 to 100 cm long and 3.5 cm wide. Panicle loose and much branched, the lower most branches being in a distinct whorl. The small seeds are enclosed in smooth glumes. The seeds shatter. The root system is deep, dense and fibrous. The important varieties are Makueni, Riversdale, Hamil, PGG-4, FR-600, Haritha, and Marathakom. Makueni is a drought resistant cultivar suited to rainfed situations in the state.
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Guinea grass thrives well in warm moist climate. It can grow from sea level to 1800 m altitude. It is frost sensitive. It thrives between temperature ranges of 15 to 38 ยบC. The grass is adapted to a wide range of soils. It usually grows on well-drained light textured soil, preferably sandy loams or loams, but is better suited to medium to highly fertile loams. It cannot tolerate heavy clays or prolonged waterlogging.Under Kerala conditions; the best season of planting is with the onset of southwest monsoon during May-June. As an irrigated crop planting can be done at any time of the year. Seeds and slips can be used as planting material. Since seed germination is poor vegetative propagation is preferred. To obtain slips for planting, old clumps are uprooted and slips with roots are separated. For planting one hectare, 1.25 lakhs of slips are required. If seeds are used (3 kg/ha), it should be sown in nursery and the seedlings transplanted in the main field. The grass requires thorough cultivation to prepare a weed-free seedbed for establishment. For this, two or three ploughings and one levelling are sufficient. In the prepared field, trenches of 10 cm width and 20 cm depth are made. In these trenches, FYM should be applied along with phosphorus and potassium fertilizers. Mix with soil and cover the trenches and form ridges of 15 cm height for planting slips. In acid soils, application of lime @ 500 kg/ha in alternate years is desirable. At planting two irrigations are required within seven to ten days for quick establishment. The crop should be subsequently irrigated depending upon the rainfall and soil type. Usually irrigation once in 7-10 days is required. Irrigation with cowshed washing or sewage water within 3-4 days after cutting gives better growth. The delicate seedlings or newly emerged shoots from slips or cuttings require protection from weeds in the first two months. Two intercultivations should be given during this period. Later, intercultivation may be necessary after three or four cuttings. The crop is ready for harvest when it reaches 1.5 m height. Cutting at 15 to 20 cm above the ground level is advised. The first cut is usually ready in 9-10 weeks after planting and subsequent cuts are taken at 45 to 60 days intervals. About six to seven harvests can be made in a year. Approximately 80-100 t/ha of green fodder is obtained per year. Guinea grass can be grown mixed with leguminous fodder crops such as cowpea, stylo and siratro.The grass is nutritious, palatable and free from oxalates. It makes good hay and silage. Good quality hay can be made from common guinea grass and Riversdale.Guinea grass will tolerate burning and it is
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extremely tolerant to shading by trees and other pasture species. The crude protein and the crude fibre content of this grass vary from 8 to 14% and 28 to 36%, respectively.
(b)Para grass (Brachiaria mutica):
Fig. 19 Paragrass This grass is also known as Buffalo grass, Water grass, Angola grass, Mauritius grass etc. Native to tropical Africa and perhaps tropical South America (perhaps introduced), but now widely distributed throughout tropics as fodder grass.The crop responds well to sewage irrigation and is usually grown near large sewage disposal farms. It is a coarse, trailing perennial that spreads by surface runners which root profusely at the nodes with flowering stems 1 to 2 m high. The culms are erect, leafy, hollow, succulent and glabrous with hairy nodes. The leaf blades are dark green in colour, 25 to 30 cm long and 1 to 2 cm broad. Inflorescence is a panicle. Flowering is hastened in shorter photoperiods.The grass prefers hot and humid climate of the tropics and subtropics with high annual rainfall ranging between 1000 and 1500 mm. It can withstand short term flooding and waterlogging but cannot be grown in dry land in arid and semi-arid regions. It is sensitive to cold. It makes no growth during winter months. The grass grows in moist, but not in highly wet soils. It thrives best on highly fertile clay loam to clayey textured soils with high moisture retention capacity. It can be grown even on sandy soils with good irrigation facility. It tolerates slightly acid to alkaline soils. It is highly tolerant to saline or sodic soil conditions. So it is an excellent grass in soil reclamation. It
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grows well on field bunds, banks of streams and canals, lowlands and soils too wet for normal farm crops. Prepare the land thoroughly by three or four ploughings and remove weeds. Planting can be done at any time other than winter months. The rainfed crop is planted with the first monsoon showers.Stem cuttings or pieces of creeping shoots 15 to 30 cm long with about three joints are generally planted in a slanting position. In order to save time and labour, the planting materials are scattered in the field and covered by ploughing crosswise during monsoon season. Seeds can also be used for direct sowing or sowing in nursery for transplantation. But poor seed setting usually discourages seed propagation. Slips can be planted 50 to 60 cm apart both ways between plants and rows. The growing runners quickly root at the joints, tiller profusely and cover the field. The requirement of slips for planting ranges from 27000 to 40000 per ha. The seed rate recommended is 2.5 to 3.5 kg/ha. The crop is highly responsive to irrigation with cattle-shed washing or sewage water. Two or three light irrigations are to be provided for the initial establishment of the crop. Later on, irrigation once in 10 to 15 days in summer is advantageous. The land should be kept weed free for the first two months. Since it is a sturdy and aggressive grass, once it gets established, the weeds that appear later are suppressed. The competitive vigour of para grass interferes with the co-existence of legumes. The first harvest takes about three months after planting when the grass attains a height of about 60 to 75 cm. Subsequent cuts are taken at 30 to 40 days interval. Annual yield of about 70 t/ha is obtained. The para grass herbage dries slowly when cut. So it is hardly suitable for hay-making. This is mainly used for ensiling. It is a nutritious high yielding and palatable forage grass. The grass appears to be free of any toxic effect. Nutritive value is comparatively less. The crude protein ranges from 2.8 to 16.1 per cent and crude fibre from 28 to 34 per cent.Seed yields are generally low. It is observed that shorter or longer day lengths hasten flowering. The correct stage of harvest is soon after the end of anthesis. Germination is affected if the seed is harvested late. There is no post-harvest dormancy for seed.
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(c) Congo signal grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis):
Fig 20 Congosignal grass Congo signal is more shade tolerant than signal or Para grass and better adapted for use in pastures under coconut gardens. It is a tufted, creeping perennial with short rhizomes forming a dense leafy cover. Culms arise from many-noded creeping shoots and short rhizomes, growing to a height of 1.5 m when flowering. Leaves are soft but hairy, up to 25 cm long and 15 mm wide. Inflorescence consists of 3–9 relatively long racemes (4–10 cm), bearing spikelets in 1 or 2 rows on one side of a broad, flattened and winged rachis. Spikelets are hairy and 5 mm long. Seed weight 250,000/kg.It prefers a warm moist tropical climate. It can be grown in almost all types of soils but cannot tolerate water logging. It also tolerates shade. So it is recommended as an intercrop in coconut garden. It can be grown either as a pure crop or mixed with other grasses and legumes. The crop is generally planted in May-June and September-October with the onset of rains. Prepare the land by ploughing one or two times, remove weeds and level the land. Both seeds and slips can be used. A seed rate of 2-5 kg/ha is recommended. For sowing, a fine seedbed is required and seeds are broadcast at 1-2 cm depth. To protect the seeds from ants, dusting carbaryl 5% DP at the time of sowing is effective. When slips are used, they are planted at a spacing of 40 x 20 cm. Intercultivation during early growth stage is advisable to check weed growth. It can also be grown as a crop mixture with leguminous fodder crops. The first harvest can be done 50 days after planting and subsequently at 30-40 days interval. The rainfed crop yields about 35-45
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t/ha of green fodder whereas the yield will be increased to about 50-100 t/ha under irrigated conditions. Congo signal grass is highly palatable and has good quality. Seed yields are also high. The grass establishment from seeds or cuttings are rapid. But certain limitations are also there which includes the need of a fertile and well drained soil, lower DM production compared with B. decumbens, poor persistence on infertile and/or poorly drained soils, poor dry season growth and the susceptibility to spittlebug.
(d) Anjan Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris): 4 varieties
Fig. 21 Anjan grass It is also known as Buffel grass ,or Kolukkattai grass. Widely naturalized in subhumid and semi-arid tropics and subtropics. It is a perennial grass and is able to survive prolonged drought. It is propagated mainly through seeds.Buffel grass is usually raised as a rainfed crop and it does not tolerate waterlogged conditions. It is a particularly aggressive grass, by virtue of its extensive root system competing with associated species for water and nutrients. It also appears to be allelopathic (suppression of other species by exudation of phytotoxic chemicals that inhibit germination and growth of other plants). This is an extremely variable species, tufted (sometimes shortly rhizomatous) perennial, with types ranging in habit from ascendant to erect, and branching culms from about 0.3-2.0 m at maturity. Leaf blades linear, 2-13 mm wide and 3-30 cm long; green, blue green to grey green in colour, scabrous, mostly glabrous, sometimes hairy at the base. Panicle an erect or
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nodding, straw, grey or purple coloured, bristly, false spike, 2-15 cm long and 1-2.5 cm wide, with seed units or fascicles inserted along a zig-zag axis. Each bur-like fascicle comprises a single spikelet or cluster of 2-4 spikelets, 3.5-5 mm long surrounded by an involucre of bristles of various length up to 16 mm long; bristles barbed and ( hairy, giving the fascicle an adhesive quality. 330,000-550,000 seed units/kg, or 900,000-2,000,000 caryopses/kg. Deep, strong, fibrous root system to >2 m. The grass is ready for utilization about 9-12 months after sowing.Buffel grass is ideal for silage, grazing, ensiling and hay. The crop is established through seeds. There are 3 varieties of this Anjan grass at present in the fodder sanctuary, black white and blue and the ordinary variety. Mainly used as a permanent pasture, but can be used for hay or silage. Not suited to short-term pasture because too difficult to remove and binds nutrient. Nutritive value: Crude protein values are mostly in the range of 6-16% and P levels are usually higher than in other tropical grasses and range from 0.15-0.65% in the DM. Palatability is generally less than Panicum coloratum and P. maximum but more palatable than Setaria incrassata. Oxalate levels can be high. However, with soluble oxalate levels of 1-2% in the DM, there is rarely a problem with mature ruminants.Yields depend greatly on soil fertility and growing conditions, but are mostly in the range of 2-9 t/ha DM, and under ideal conditions, up to 24 t/ha DM.Nitrogen is essential for seed production, yields being raised 10-fold and more with nitrogen fertilizer, usually at rates of 100 or 200 kg/ha N. Depending on growing conditions and variety, seed yields range between about 150 and 500 kg/ha.(e) Potha Grass (Themeda cymbaria):
It is a perennial densely tufted rhizomatous grass. The grass is propagated through slips. It survive drought well. This is a hardy grass and survive drought. This is suitable as a
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soil conservation grass as it has a shy flowering habit. Being a fodder grass with good quality, it could be an alternative as a soil conservation grass, who also raises livestock.
f) St.Augustine Grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum):
Fig. 22 St.Augustine Grass St. Augustine grass is native to North America (the shores of the Atlantic) and has subsequently been distributed extensively through Central and South America, India, Australia and the Pacific, generally in coastal areas. It is a tropical and subtropical creeping stoloniferous perennial grass which is established by vegetative propagation (sod, sprigs, and plugs). It may take 5-6 months to form a complete cover and once established resists weed invasion. This grass is used as a cover crop in plantations (coconuts, papaya, coffee), for erosion control, as a low quality pasture grass, and as a popular turf grass. It had moderate salt tolerance. It is very shade tolerant to shade-loving in nature. St. Augustine grass is a stoloniferous perennial with upright or ascending stems, very branched, 10-50 cm high. Its leaves are slightly bluish, flat, blunt, glabrous, 3-15 cm long and 4-10 mm wide. Spikes are 4-10 cm long and 3-7 mm wide. Seeds are oblong and about 2 mm long in size. None or very little seed is produced. St. Augustine grass is usually propagated vegetatively.Sprigging or plugging: Use well-rooted sprigs or 3-4 inch square sod plugs planted on 12-inch spacing. Planting rate: 40-80 bu/ac, sprigs or stolons, maximum 3x3 ft. spacing. The yield of this particular grass is 275-400 kg/ha. St. Augustine grass declines in quality through its growing season. Although the young grass is very palatable; it matures very rapidly and becomes unpalatable. N concentrations range
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between 2.6% and 2.0%. Digestibility of crude protein declines from 53% to 31%. Dry matter digestibility decline from 60% to 50%. St. Augustine grass can be used for different purposes such as cover crop in plantations (coconuts, papaya, coffee etc.), erosion control, low quality pasture grass, and as a popular turf grass.
(g) Napier and Hybrid Napier (Pennisetum spp.):
Fig. 23 KKM 1 and Hybrid Napier grass Hybrid Napier is an inter-specific hybrid between Napier grass and Bajra (Pearl millet). Compared to Napier, Hybrid Napier produces more tillers and numerous leaves. It is also called as Elephant grass due to its tallness and vigorous vegetative growth. The plants tiller freely and a single clump may produce 50 tillers under favourable climatic and soil conditions. Unfortunately, the grass is coarse-textured, the leaf blade and sheaths hairy, leaf margins sharply toothed and stems less juicy and fibrous. In 1953, a cross was made in India with Bajra which is more succulent, leafy, fine textured, palatable, fast growing and drought resistant than Napier to combine these qualities with its high yielding potential. Compared to Napier grass, Hybrid Napier produces more tillers and numerous leaves. It grows faster and produces more herbage but the stems are hard and the plants less persistent. Pusa Giant Napier has larger leaves, softer and less persistent hairs on leaf blades and sheaths and less sharp leaf edges. The stems are also less fibrous than Napier. The tillers are more numerous and grow faster.
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The grass grows throughout the year in the tropics. The optimum temperature is about 31ยบC. Light showers alternated with bright sunshine are very congenial to the crop. Total water requirement of the grass is about 800-1000 mm. Hybrid Pennisetum can grow on a variety of soils. Light loams and sandy soils are preferred to heavy soils. The grass does not thrive well on waterlogged and flood prone lands. Phenomenal yields are obtained from very deep fertile soil rich in organic matter. It tolerates pH ranging from 5 to 8. Hybrid Napier requires a deep, thorough weed free and compact seedbed. Three or four ploughings followed by disc harrowing is ideal. The popular hybrids are Pusa Giant Napier, Gajraj, NB-5, NB-6, NB-21 and NB-35. Planting is done with the onset of southwest monsoon. Being a sterile hybrid, the grass is planted by rooted slips or by stem cuttings. Cuttings of moderately mature stems (3 months old) and preferably from the lower two thirds of the stem length sprout better than the older stems. The cuttings with three nodes are stuck into the soil with the basal end down, either vertically or at an angle to such a depth that two nodes remain within the soil and one above the soil surface. The under ground nodes develop roots and shoots while the upper ones develop shoots only. A spacing of 60 x 60 cm is recommended for pure crop of Hybrid Napier. In intercropping system, spacing is adjusted to accommodate the companion crops. The planting rate depends upon the spacing and the weight of the cuttings or rooted slips used. It is modified in crop mixtures or intercropping with other forage crops.The field should be provided with good drainage during the rainy season, as the crop cannot withstand water stagnation. Frequency of irrigation depends upon the rainfall and weather conditions. Early intercultivation once or twice is necessary before the plants establish and grow vigorously. Subsequently, intercultivation should be given as and when necessary. The first cut is taken 9-10 weeks after planting. Subsequent cuts are taken after four to six weeks or when the plant attains a height of 1.5 m. Annually at least six to eight cuts are possible. In order to encourage quicker regeneration from the basal buds, stubbles of 10-15 cm is left out at harvest. Green fodder yield ranges 200-250 t/ha per year from 6-8 cuttings. The grass can be intercropped with legumes such as cowpea, Calapogonium, Centrosema and Glycine legumes. Intercropping with legumes improves the quality of fodder.
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Hybrid Napier is superior in quality than Napier grass and contains about 10.2% crude protein and 30.5% crude fibre. The leaves are larger and greener, the sheaths are softer and the margins less serrated and hence the herbage is more palatable. It is juicier and succulent at all stages of growth. It is less fibrous and more acceptable. The oxalate content of some of the varieties may be high. It can be mitigated if harvested at longer intervals (45 to 60 days). The grass is ideal for green fodder, silage and hay. The fodder can be chaffed and ensiled. Legume fodders may be mixed with the grass in the ratio of 1:2 to produce better-balanced silage. The fodder can also converted into hay during the dry summer periods. The chaffed material is exposed to the sun only for a day. Further drying is done under the shade to preserve the colour. The quality of the silage or hay remains more or less the same as green fodder. (h)CO-3:
Fig. 24 CO-3 grass
In Kerala, the fertile soil rich in organic matter, provide an annual yield upto 300 to 350 tons for Hybrid Napier variety CO-3. The crop requires high organic matter (up to 25 tons/ha) by way of Cattle manure or other organic sources. Irrigation with cattle shed washings immediately after cutting helps to realize very high yields. The fodder can be harvested once in 30-40 days with at least 7-8 cuttings per year. (i) Killikulam:
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Fig. 25 Killikulam grass at CBF Thumburmuzhy A tall, high tillering and non-lodging Cumbu-Napier hybrid grass has been developed from IP15507 X FD 429 by the scientists at the department of Agricultural Botany, Agricultural College and Research Institute (AC&RI), Killikulam in southern Tamil Nadu in 2000. Christened KKM 1 Cumbu Napier Hybrid, the fodder grass has been found to be ideally suited for cultivating in the garden land red soil areas in the Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. A derivative of a cross between inter specific cross of Cumbu IP 15507 and Pennisetum purpureum FD 429, developed through hybrid grass is highly leafy with long broad leaves. The leaves are softer when compared with those of Co 2 and Co 3 hybrids. It has very quick regeneration capacity as compared to other hybrid grasses, and much higher yield than these two. It recorded an average green fodder yield of 288 tonnes per hectare in a year over a period of four years in the trials conducted in the research station, which is 44% higher than that of Co 2 and 50% more than the yield of Co 3, according to the scientists. A tall growing grass, this hybrid has recorded high tillering in CBF Thumburmuzhy (19 tillers per clump), and it is found to be non-lodging. It produced as high as 168 broad, long and soft leaves per clump. The leaves contained high amounts of calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous and vitamin Thiamine with low oxalate content when compared to Co 2 and Co 3. It accounted for higher quantities of micronutrients such as zinc and manganese. The fodder has more crude protein (9.85g per 100g dry matter) than the check varieties.
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Mainly propagated vegetatively through stem cuttings and root slips, the hybrid grass are maintained as a perennial crop for up to 4 years. Endowed with quick regeneration capacity, it is harvested once in 45 days. The hybrid grass is free from pests and diseases in field conditions. It is planted at a spacement of 50 cm x 50 in irrigated conditions in garden lands. About 40,000 slips will be required to cover a hectare with this hybrid grass. Rich organic supplementation will prove to be highly rewarding. The crop is harvested for the first time when it is 60 days old. Subsequent cuttings can be had once in every 45 days. After each harvest, the crop should be topdressed with 100 kg nitrogen per hectare, according to the scientists. The fodder of this hybrid grass is highly palatable and non-toxic.
(j) African Napier:
Fig. 26 African Napier Collected in collaboration with Andhra Pradesh agricultural university for RKVY Project at CBF Thumburmuzhy and the initial performance of the African Napier was excellent. Trial plots were maintained and field trials were done in Idukki, Wayanad and Eranakulam districts with the help of dairy farmers and KLDMM Board.
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(k) Australian Napier:
Fig. 27 Australian Napier A fodder from Australia collected for RKVY Programme at CBF Thumburmuzhy;was found to be performing excellently well in farm yard manure fertilized plots. Trials were done in the field also in Idukki, Wayanad, Thrissur, and Palakkad districts. The performance of Australian Napier at Attappady, a tribal hamlet is worth mentioning. The Napier is sturdy and the violet shade on the stem makes its identification easier. (l) Golden Thimothy (Setaria anceps):
Fig. 28 Golden Thimothy
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Setaria anceps is also called as Golden Timothy. The grass comes up well in the medium rainfall areas in the tropics and subtropics. Setaria is palatable, establishes easily from seeds and persists under grazing on a wide range of soils.Setaria can be grown either alone or in mixtures with perennial grasses and legumes. Propagation is usually by rooted cuttings or divided root stocks or by seeds.Setaria grows luxuriously with irrigation and manuring.Important varieties are Nandi, Narok and Kazungula.The grass is a tufted perennial with erect stems and grows 1-2 m in height. Leaves are about 40 cm long, 8-20 cm wide and green to dark green in colour. Panicle is dense, cylindrical, about 10 to 30 cm long and orange to purplish in colour. Spikelets are two in number, the lower one is the male or sterile and the upper one is bisexual. Usually the grass grows under an annual rainfall of over 750 mm. It grows vigorously under high annual rainfall ranging from 1000 to 1500 mm. It can also survive long, hot and dry seasons. The grass grows well at 20 to 25 ยบC. It is more cold tolerant than most of other tropical and subtropical grasses. It can come up in a variety of soil types. This perennial grass requires thorough land preparation; two or three ploughings / diggings followed by one levelling. The land should be free from weeds. Propagation is through rooted slips as well as through seeds. Seedlings can be raised in nursery and transplanted during rainy season under rainfed conditions. If irrigation facilities are available, planting can be done at any time between February and November. As a pure crop it is planted at 50 x 30 cm spacing. The row-to-row distance may be increased to 60-70 cm when the soil is poor and irrigation facility is absent. For intercropping with legumes, 100 x 30 cm spacing is followed. If seeds are used, seed rate varies from 3.5 to 4.0 kg/ha. In case of rooted slips, the number of slips required varies from 33500 to 67000 per ha.Organic manure, either FYM or compost @ 10 t/ha may be applied at the time of land preparation. The fertilizer requirement depends on the initial nutrient status of the soil. The grass flourishes in moist, but not wet soils. Setaria plots should be well drained during rainy season. At establishment, the crop requires two successive light irrigations in 7-10 days interval. Subsequent irrigation should be given as and when necessary.One or two weeding or intercultivation is given in the first 2 to 3 months. To control weeds and to encourage fresh sprouts, one or two intercultivation has to be carried out every year.The crop is ready for
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harvest by 9-10 weeks. Subsequent cuts can be taken after every 40 to 60 days depending on the crop growth. At harvest, a stubble height of about 8 to 10 cm is left for good regeneration. Generally, about 25-40 t/ha of green fodder can be harvested per year under rainfed situation. Irrigated crop yields about 75-150 t/ha/year.The grass can be used as green cut fodder, silage and hay. The grass gives satisfactory silage with molasses. The crude protein and crude fibre content of the grass range from 4.8 to 18.4 per cent and 24 to 34 per cent, respectively.Seed yields are low due to prolonged emergence of panicles, prolonged flowering of the same panicle, early shedding of spikelets, bird damage etc. Denser stands give more uniform panicle emergence than widely spaced plants. Fertilizer application is compulsory in seed production. (m) Signal grass or Sheep grass (Brachiaria decumbens):
Fig. 29 Signal grass Signal or Sheep grass is suitable for intercropping in coconut gardens .It can be propagated through seeds as well as stem cuttings. It will be ready for grazing for the first time about 45 days after planting and subsequently grazed or cut at 30-40 days interval. It is a low-growing, erect or decumbent, rhizomatous and stoloniferous perennial with bright green, moderately hairy leaves 7–20 mm wide and 5–25 cm long. Leaves arise from trailing stolons that root at the nodes. Leaf blades are lanceolate . Typical ‘signal’ seed head with 2– 7 racemes, 1–5 cm long, borne on an axis up to 10 cm long. Racemes almost at right-angles to the axis. Elliptical spikelets, 4–5 mm long, borne in 2 rows on flattened (winged) rachis. (In comparison, spikelets are borne in single rows for B. brizantha ). Seed weight is 280,000/kg. B. decumbens intergrades with B. brizantha and the species may be difficult to distinguish. The main difference is in growth habit with B. brizantha more tufted and B.
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decumbens more decumbent and forming a denser cover. The two are distinguished morphologically by the shape of the rachis, which is crescent-shaped in B. brizantha , and the arrangement and texture of spikelets.
Grows on a wide range of soil types including those of low fertility, low pH (as low as pH 3.5) and high Al saturation. Also moderately tolerant of Mn. B. decumbens is much more tolerant of high Al than B. ruziziensis as it can detoxify Al in the root system by chelation with citrate and malate. It does not respond to lime when grown on acid soils. The root system of B. decumbens has finer and longer roots than some other Brachiaria species providing superior uptake of P and N from the soil. However, it is less frequently grown on heavy clays subject to water logging , where it will not persist. Grown in the humid tropics and warmer subtropics with rainfall generally 1,000–3,000 mm AAR (preferably >1,500 mm) but with a dry season up to 5 months. Stays green well into the dry season (better than B. brizantha ). It can tolerate some short-term flooding but not temporary water logging (where B. humidicola is superior).
Moderately high (similar to other tropical grasses) but greatly dependant on the fertility status of the soil. Intermediate to high digestibility (50–80%), chemical composition and intake. CP ranges from 9–20% depending on soil fertility and management, but can decline rapidly with age of leaf, from 10% at 30 days to 5% at 90 days. The inclusion of the legume D. heterocarpon subsp. ovalifolium increased the nitrogen concentration of the grass and the total N yield equivalent to 200 kg/ha N. Signal grass has high productivity under intensive management and it withstands heavy grazing. This grass persists on low fertility, acid soils and good seed yields and therefore relatively low cost seed. It has certain limitations such as, poor compatibility with many legumes, low tolerance of poor drainage, and it causes photosensitization in sheep and goats.
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(n). Kikuyu grass:
Fig.30 Kikuyu grass Kikuyu grass is a warm-season grass that spreads quickly and thrives in areas with moderate temperatures. It can tolerate heat and will do well under relatively shady conditions. Because of its extremely vigorous growth habit, it is considered to be a weed in coastal and some inland areas of California. It is seldom established as a desired turf grass. Leaves of this grass are light green in color and range in length from 1 to 10 inches. It has pointed leaf tips and flat leaf blades that are about 1/8 to 1/4 inch wide. St. Augustine grass, on the other hand, has rounded leaf tips with sharply folded or creased leaf blades. Another identifying characteristic of kikuyu grass is the long fringe of hairs that parallels the stem in the region. Prefers warm, moist and fertile soils, but is drought resistant. Widespread and abundant. A common dominant pasture grass. Kikuyu grass has a low disease incidence and is susceptible to cold temperatures, but is able to recover quickly from moderate wear or severe injury. Although once considered to be primarily a weed, kikuyu grass is now sometimes managed as a turf species. It is a coarsetextured, light green grass, sometimes mistaken for St. Augustine grass. The leaves are folded in the bud, the ligule is a fringe of hairs, and there are no auricles. It has slightly flattened, hairy leaf sheaths and tapering leaf blades with files of hairs. Kikuyu grass spreads by its thick rhizomes and vigorous stolons. Because of its low DM content, low WSC content and intermediate buffering capacity, farmers ensiling kikuyu grass will need to rely on wilting or silage additives to improve the probability of achieving a satisfactory lactic acid fermentation.
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(o). Jowar (Sorghum bicolor): Sorghum is a vigorously growing cereal plant and is highly drought resistant. Fodder sorghum is characterized by quick growth, leafiness, high green herbage yield and better palatability. The cultivars collected are COFS-29 which is a multi-cut type. Fodder sorghum is grown as a rain fed crop. However with irrigation the crop can be sown at any time of the year except winter. It is very palatable especially in the young and flowering stages. At the flowering stage the herbage contains low amounts of HCN.Sorghum is one of the best crop for silage. Mostly in an annual rainfall range of 400-750 mm. It is grown in areas which are too dry for maize. The great advantage of sorghum is that it can become dormant under adverse conditions and can resume growth after relatively severe drought. Shoot removal lowers its capacity to withstand drought. Early drought stops growth before floral initiation and the plant remains vegetative; it will resume leaf production and flower when conditions again become favourable for growth. Late drought stops leaf development but not floral initiation. Fodder sorghum can be raised during both monsoons. All soils except sandy soils are suited for the crop. Important varieties are M.P.Chari, MPK V-1, JS-20, S-1049 and JS-3. Sowing time and rate: Spring to summer after rain (soil temperature should be above 18.5°C) at 2-12 kg/ha, depending on soil-moisture expectancy and density of stand required, the heavier seeding being for forage production. Grain production in the 675-750 mm rainfall areas calls for 7-8 kg/ha of seed. Sorghum is one of the best crops for silage because of its high yields, the sugar content and juiciness of its stalk and its adaptability to areas receiving too little rain to ensure crops of maize. The ensilage of sorghum also usually effectively stops stock losses from prussic acid poisoning. It is quite a useful crop for standover and deferred feed, especially in frost-free areas, as it will continue to tiller and give a new green leaf for grazing while there is any moisture available in the soil. In common with other Sorghum spp., it can contain lethal amounts of prussic acid. Greatest dry matter yields are obtained at maturity, or when stems are 80–120 cm tall, such heights are suitable for hay, silage, and green chop; best grazed at 20–30 cm height; best regrowth when 10–15 cm stubble left. Cut when grain is in dough stage, and feeding value of fodder is at maximum. Harvesting for green chop or silage is well-suited to mechanical
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harvesting due to bulk and mass involved. Sorghum for silage should be harvested when seeds are in milk to dough stage.
Fig. 31 Jowar
When used for hay, 2–5 harvests may be made per season, each with a potential yield of 2MT/ha or more. Hay is difficult to cure because of the thick culms, requiring several days in sunshine. A forage crusher helps reduce the time. Pasturing is cheapest method of harvesting forage. For seed, crop is cut by hand or mower, smaller dwarf types combined. If cut by hand, heads dried in heaps on ground or on threshing floor. If entire plant is cut by hand or binder, it should be stooked and left in field to dry and mature for 10–14 days, and then threshed. Seed stored at 12–13% moisture or less. Freshly harvested seed may show dormancy. Hard textured seed may be scarified to improve germination .(p). Desmanthus:
Fig. 32 Desmanthus
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Occurs on a range of soil types from sandy and gravely soils to calcareous soils and rocky clays. In exotic locations, Desmanthus spp. are generally selected for their persistence on duplex podzolics and cracking clays, including alkaline and acidic soils, but will grow productively on lighter soils of neutral to alkaline reaction. Occurs naturally in a wide range of rainfall environments from continually wet to those with extended dry seasons. Welladapted to 550-1,000 mm average rainfall environments in exotic locations. Prostrate, decumbent or erect herbaceous perennial shrub, typically to 0.7 m, occasionally to 1.5 m tall; strongly branched from the base, with a taproot to 0.5 m depth and 1-2 cm in diameter Young stems green and hairless (or with sparse white hairs), angular with golden corky ridges. Older stems hairless, shiny red or brown. Bipinnate leaf 2.4-8.0 cm long, with 2-5 pairs of pinnae 11-30 mm long and 11-23 pairs of leaflets/pinnae, 2.4-7.0 mm long and 0.7-1.6 mm wide. Persistent stipules 2-9 mm long. Small flowering heads (condensed spikes) 0.5-0.9 cm long, occur singly in leaf axils on short peduncles (to 4.0 cm long). Heads contain 3-22 flowers that may be perfect, functionally male or sterile. Sterile flowers 0-8 occur at the base of the head. Male flowers usually absent, occasionally 1, occur towards the base of the head above the sterile flowers, but below the perfect flowers. Perfect flowers 3-14 occur apically. Fruiting stalks 1.0-5.2 cm long bear 111 pods. Pods are linear , 5.5-8.5 cm long and 3.2-4.9 mm wide, opening along both margins. Reddish-brown to nearly black at maturity. Seeds 11-26/pod, 2.4-3.1 x 1.7-2.4 mm, flattened and ovate in shape and reddish-brown or golden-brown in colour. The biomass yield per acre for six cuttings from Desmanthus virgatus was 39.81 tons and the mean crude protein and crude fibre content were 15.20 and 19.77 percent. The mean dry matter intake in terms of percent body weight and metabolic body weight was 4.97 percent and 104.52 g per kg. The DCP and TDN content were 10.86 and 59.79 percent. From the results obtained in the present study, it is apparent that Desmanthus virgatus fodder can be used as potential leguminous fodder source for small ruminants. Desmanthus has the advantage of high rates of seed production, it is tolerant of heavy grazing, very persistent in low rainfall environments, combines well with grass pastures in sub-humid, moderate fertility environments, and tolerant of alkaline, acidic, saline and heavy clay soils. Desmanthus has certain limitations such as recruitment in the years following planting is limited by hardseededness, relatively low DM productivity in vigorous grass
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pastures, limited potential as a ley legume species due to low DM yields, high seed yields and early seed production, and highly specific in its rhizobium requirements.
(q). Maize (Zea mays):
Fig. 33 Maize
Maize is an annual cereal grass. It cannot tolerate heavy rains and dry hot winds. It is a fast growing crop and can be best utilized for silage. Maize stems superficially resemble bamboo canes and the internodes can reach 20–30 centimetres (8–12 in). Maize has a very distinct growth form; the lower leaves being like broad flags, 50–100 centimetres long and 5– 10 centimetres wide (2–4 ft by 2–4 in); the stems are erect, conventionally 2–3 metres (7– 10 ft) in height, with many nodes, casting off flag-leaves at every node. Under these leaves and close to the stem grow the ears. They grow about 3 milimetres a day. The ears are female inflorescences, tightly covered over by several layers of leaves, and so closed-in by them to the stem that they do not show themselves easily until the emergence of the pale yellow silks from the leaf whorl at the end of the ear. The silks are elongated stigmas that look like tufts of hair, at first green and later red or yellow. Plantings for silage are even denser, and achieve an even lower percentage of ears and more plant matter. Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears, and these are the source of the "baby corn" that is used as a vegetable in Asian cuisine.
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Due to its shallow roots of only one to two inches deep, maize is susceptible to droughts, intolerant of nutrient-deficient soils, and prone to be uprooted by severe winds. Maize makes a greater quantity of epigeous mass than other cereal plants, so can be used for fodder. Digestibility and palatability are higher when ensiled and fermented, rather than dried.Maize grows best in warm climate where the day temperature is fairly light. Heavy rains and dry hot winds are not suitable. Favourable annual rainfall is 60-100 cm. The crop comes up well in soils with good drainage and fair moisture status. The optimum season for sowing is the last week of June to second week of July and September to October. The crop can be raised throughout the year in areas where irrigation facilities are available. The land is ploughed two or three times and beds and channels are formed. Seeds can be either broadcasted or dibbled at a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 15 cm between plants. Hybrid varieties are Deccan, Ganga-5, Ganga safed-2, and Ganga-3 and composite variety Vijay. Maize silage is high in metabolisable energy (9–12 MJ/kg DM) but relatively low in crude protein (7–8%). Digestibility of silage can be increased by the addition of urea or molasses. Urea also increases the crude protein concentration as does intercropping with a compatible legume , whilst molasses improves the water-soluble carbohydrate concentration. Stover contains 3.5–4.0% crude protein and requires an additional crude protein source to achieve moderate levels of animal production. Crude protein concentration can be increased to 8– 10% through urea treatment or to 10–14% by addition of a high quality legume forage , however low digestible energy concentrations may also limit growth. Lactic acidosis can occur if moderate to large quantities of grain, such as corn, are fed to ruminants not yet adapted to grain diets. Acidosis results from the rapid fermentation of highly digestible carbohydrates, resulting in a dramatic increase in production of lactic acid and a lowering of rumen pH. Mild cases cause dehydration and loss of appetite, whereas serious cases result in acidification of the blood causing heart failure, kidney failure and death. Livestock should be gradually introduced to high-grain diets over a period of 3 weeks to prevent risk of acidosis. As a forage, maize is capable of producing 15–25 tonnes of DM with 10–12 MJ/kg DM of metabolisable energy within a four to five month period if correctly managed. Yield is directly related to days to maturity, so that long duration cultivars (120 days) have a greater
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yield potential than short duration cultivars (80–90 days), assuming adequate soil moisture over the growing season . Maize grown in the tropics generally produces a larger number of leaves and is generally leafier than temperate grown maize. Maize produces high DM yields over short seasons, high metabolisable energy concentration, excellent for silage production. This fodder has certain limitations such as high soil moisture and fertility requirements, poor acid-soil tolerance, and must be replanted annually. (r). Cowpea (Vigna angulata):
Fig. 34 Cow pea
Cowpeas are one of the most important food legume crops in the semi-arid tropics covering Asia, Africa, southern Europe and Central and South America. A drought tolerant and warm weather crop, cowpeas are well-adapted to the drier regions of the tropics, where other food legumes do not perform well. It also has the useful ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through its root nodules, and it grows well in poor soils with more than 85% sand and with less than 0.2% organic matter and low levels of phosphorus. In addition, it is shade tolerant, and therefore, compatible as an intercrop with maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and cotton. This makes cowpea an important component of traditional intercropping systems. A number of varieties like Karnataka local, RS-9, UPC-1956, UPC-5287 and UPC-9805 are recommended for cultivation for fodder purpose. It is a vigorously growing herbaceous
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annual herb. It can be grazed, cut and fed as green fodder, or can be made to silage or hay. Cow pea has very good feeding value. Cowpea generally is day neutral. Cowpea is best suited for moderately humid areas of the tropics and subtropics. It usually grows in latitude between 30ยบ N and S and up to 1500 m elevation. The plant cannot withstand frost, excessive and prolonged waterlogging, while some varieties are resistant to heavy rains. The optimum temperature required for its growth varies from 15 to 27ยบC. Cowpea can be grown on a wide range of soils from heavy to sandy loam with a pH range of 5.0 to 6.5. Saline, alkaline or waterlogged soils should be avoided. Heavy clays encourage vegetative growth with less seed production. Cowpea for fodder purpose can be grown in any month provided irrigation facilities exist. In Kerala, it is raised as a rainfed crop during May and also as summer crop in rice fallows. Two to three ploughings are required to produce a coarse seedbed for the crop. Shallow furrows at 3 m apart for leading irrigation water may also be provided. It can be broadcasted or drilled in lines. For seed crop, line sowing is preferred. Seed rate recommended is 40 to 50 kg/ha for a broadcast crop and 15 to 40 kg/ha for drill sown crop. For drilling, spacing of 30 to 40 cm between rows and 6 to 15 cm between plants is recommended. One or two weeding may be required in the early growth stages to combat weed problems. Usually high seed rates are effective in smothering weeds. Cowpea is tolerant to moderate shade. So it can be successfully grown as intercrop with maize, sorghum, bajra, guinea grass, Napier grass etc to get high yields. In Kerala cowpea is also raised as an intercrop in coconut gardens. As a fodder crop, the first cutting can be given 45 days after planting and subsequent two cuttings at 30 days intervals. A single cut crop yields 25 to 30 t/ha whereas green matter yield of 40 t/ha is obtained from multi-cut cowpea. Cowpea is used as fodder crop for green feeding, hay-making, grazing and also for ensiling in mixtures with sorghum or maize. The grains are used as human food as well as animal feed. Cowpea is also used as green manure crop and as cover crop in plantations. The feeding value of cowpea forage is high. It is superior to other legumes like soybean because of its low fibre content and minimum wastage in feeding livestock. It has about 16 per cent crude protein and 20 per cent crude fibre.Cowpea is a self-pollinated short day plant. Though the seed is well formed, harvesting is difficult. The percentage of hard seed is low and viability under storage lasts for 3 years.The protein in cowpea seed is rich in the amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, compared to cereal grains; however, it is deficient in methionine and cystine
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when compared to animal proteins. Therefore, cowpea seed is valued as a nutritional supplement to cereals and an extender of animal proteins. The CP content of cow pea is about 25%. Recommended seeding rates include: 10-40 kg/ha if sown in rows. 8. Extension/ Inter-active CD on fodder in vernacular released: A CD on varieties of fodder collected, its nutritive value and the package of practices for planting and caring has also been made and it is made available to farmers. A copy is enclosed for perusal .The NABARD has also requested us to supply this interactive CD for the newly formed Farmers clubs in the State of Kerala. This will sure promote fodder cultivation among the farmers. The Malayalam CD narrates with lots of visuals on the types of fodder (exotic and indigenous), its cultivation techniques, yield and visuals on bamboo and fodder trees. Its narrations are in simple Malayalam and hence easily discernable. Farmers can learn through watching about the importance of fodder in dairying.
Fig .37 The interactive DVD on Fodder released for farmers use under RKVY project 9. Out come: Training /Field works: Recognizing that the dairy farmer’s and officers, dealing with livestock production; subjective assessment of a project is the critical determinant of adoption, after the implementation of the RKVY project in the research station officers of NABARD, Animal Husbandry dept of the State of Kerala, Officers of the Agricultural department, Students and Farmers from different districts of the state visited the station to have exposure training in
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fodder production and related Dairy husbandry. More over the new fodder variety Thumburmuzhy 1 slips were distributed to the farmers of different districts and members of milk societies and SHGs from different agroclimatic zones of the state so that the performance of the fodder crop could be evaluated. All the farmers were satisfied with the performance of this fodder variety. In water scares areas also this fodder could thrive well with average 125 tillers developing after the first cutting. On analysis the whole fodder showed 17 % protein and hence this can be considered as the best fodder for Kerala .The list of other related programmes is appended:
1. Farmer’s exposure training camp on “Capacity building for adoption of technology� (CAT) organized by NABARD for 40 selected farmers of Eranakulam and Thrissur district of Kerala state was conducted on 1st September 2008 in fodder production management.
` 2. Twenty five farmers from Vazhakkulam block of Eranakulam district under the ATMA Scheme have visited the farm for a one day sensitization programme on 26th November 2008, under the guidance of Dr.P.N.Sasidharan, Senior Veterinary Surgeon. The farmers were exposed to the farm management aspects as well as fodder cultivation techniques. The rain harvesting system, geomembrane in the pond and aerobic composting system etc. were explained to the farmers.
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3. A team of 6 field veterinary surgeons visited the farm on 26th November ‘08. 4. Twenty officers of NABARD visit for a days exposure programme in new methods of fodder production at CBF on 27th November 2008 along with the Chief General Manager National Bank for Agricultural and rural developmet, Mr.Bhawar Puri. 5. The Pariyaram Gramapanchayath members visited the farm on 27th November 08. Sensitisation programme in rural fodder production.
6. Twenty seven farmers from Vadavucodu block of Eranakulam have visited the farm, under the ATMA Scheme one day sensitization programme on 17th December 2008, under the guidance of Dr.Mariamma Mathew, Senior Veterinary Surgeon. The
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farmers were from 6 panchayat viz. Thiruvaniyur, Poothrikka, Puthenchira, Mazhuvannur, Kunnathunadu, and Aickavanadu.
7. Team of farmers from Wayanad district on 22nd January ‘09 visited the farm for fodder cultivation exposure. Described different fodder cultivation techniques to them and distributed Thumburmuzhy slips to be planted as trail plots in Wayanad.
8. Twenty five farmers from Dairy Extension Service Kothamangalm had visited the farm on 11th February 2009, for a days exposure programme in Fodder production.
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9. Seventy two students from St Sebastian’s School Kuttikkat visited the dairy farm to get hands on training in fodder planting. 10. Thirty farmers representing members of ATMA Scheme visited under guidance of Dr Reghu Veterinary surgeon, AH department, Kerala on 28th April 2009.
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Appendix – II1 UTILIZATION CERTIFICATE 1. Certified that out of Rs.20,00,000 (Rupees Twenty lakhs only)
of grants in-aid sanctioned during the year 2008 – 2009 in favour of RKVY Project under this Ministry/Department Letter No. given in the margin and Rs. Nil on account of unspent balance of the previous year, a sum of Rs.Nil has been utilized for the purpose of Nil for which it was sanctioned and that the balance of Rs. Nil remaining unutilized at the end of the year has been surrendered to Government (vide No.Nil dated )/will be adjusted towards the grants-in-aid payable during the next year Nil. Sl no. Letter no. and date Amount 1.
Letter no. EP/B2 - 10103/08 dated 19.04.2008
20,00,000 20,00,000
Total
(Rupees twenty lakhs only)
2. The Utilization Certificate should also disclose whether the specified, quantified and qualitative targets that should have been reached against the amount utilized, were in fact reached, and if not, the reasons thereof. They should contain an output-based performance assessment instead of input-based performance assessment. 3. Certified that I have satisfied myself that the conditions on which the grants-in-aid was sanctioned have been duly fulfilled/are being fulfilled and that I have exercised the following checks to see that the money was actually utilized for the purpose for which it was sanctioned. Kinds of checks exercised 1. Verified with voucher – war expenditure bills 2. Verified with cheque book, counterfoils. 3. Verified with Cash book.
Signature_________________ Designation: Professor & Head Date: 31.03.2009