Programmschrift english

Herrenknecht AG

Contact: Dr. Ute M端nch GEOTECHNOLOGIEN coordination office Telegrafenberg 14473 Potsdam, Germany Fon +49 (0)331-288 10 71 geotech@geotechnologien www.geotechnologien.de

Guaranteeing the future for man and earth Concept for the promotion of geoscienctific research and development programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN of the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG)

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GEOTECHNOLOGIEN

Guaranteeing the future for man and earth Concept for the promotion of the geoscienctific research and development programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN funded by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG)

Editorial Board: Hans-Peter Harjes · Hans Joachim Kümpel · Ute Münch · Monika Sester · Ludwig Stroink · Gerold Wefer

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Table of Contents Preface ....................................................................................................................................................................

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GEOTECHNOLOGIEN – The Research Programme

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Research Priority Programmes ........................................................

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Climate Change – learning from the past for the future

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The Biosphere – habitats and changing ecosystems

3.

The Deep Sea – technological and scientific challenge

4.

Soil – the skin of the Earth

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Future Area Underground – georessources and geotechnics .............................................

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Geomaterials – from the use of their surface properties to innovative high pressure properties ............................................................................................................................

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Geohazards – dealing with extreme natural events ...................................................................

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The V irtual Earth – information technologies

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Global Monitoring – explore the Earth from space ....................................................................

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Our Blue Planet – the importance of the Earth in the solar system .................................

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Annex Picture Credits/Imprint .............................................................................................................................................

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List of Authors

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Abbreviations

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Science Reports

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Table of Contents

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Preface

The devastating consequences of natural disasters, global climate change, and the intensive exploitation of natural resources have become enormous challenges for politics and science. Solutions only appear to be possible if the earth is viewed as a complex system of interactions between the geosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and the anthroposphere.

The research and development programme (R&D) GEOTECHNOLOGIEN follows this comprehensive approach. Its interdisciplinary orientation allows innovative examinations of the “system earth”, ranging in scope from global observations from space down to the atomic dimensions of its individual components. For these purposes, a wide range of modern technologies are applied to provide geoscientists with completely new possibilities to study processes at different temporal and spatial scales, and at high quantitative resolution. The overall research objectives of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN are: – – –

To better understand natural processes and their interactions, Assess the impacts of humans on these processes, and Achieve sustainable Earth management on the basis of this system and process-oriented understanding.

A prerequisite for successful implementation of this system-oriented approach is a discipline-comprehensive research environment. In the affiliated projects of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN, earth-scientists, physicists, biologists, chemists, engineers, computer scientists, physicians and social scientists all work together. Through this integrated approach, ideas and knowledge are bundled and create new synergies that could not arise within the individual fields of research themselves. The programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN has consequently developed the paradigm shift from isolated disciplinary research to trans-disciplinary concepts and approaches.

Furthermore, the wide and diverse range of topics within GEOTECHNOLOGIEN allows the development from basic knowledge to products / technology, processes and services. The research programme has proven attractive enough for smalland medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to appeal to over 50 companies already participating in the various collaborative projects. This has distinctly set the programme apart from earlier initiatives in the field of geological research.

After nine years of research, we believe it is now time to take stock and shift our perspective to the future. A strategy workshop toward this purpose was held on 25 / 26th May 2009 in Berlin, attended by more than 70 scientists. The aim of the multi-disciplinary and cross-institutional discussion was to raise new research questions, discuss current goals and to draw important challenges into focus. The outcome of this discussion is presented in this concept paper.

Preface

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GEOTECHNOLOGIEN – The Research Programme

Coordinated research spanning multiple disciplines and institutions A spirit of optimism prevailed as, just over nine years ago, the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG) presented the new research and development programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN to the general public at a joint press conference. This was an ambitious step, not only in establishing a joint research programme between the two major German research institutions themselves, but also in laying the foundation for a global “Earth System Management” as a concerted action across thematic borders and across the boundaries of the federal states. By the turn of the millennium, the first projects had already been funded. It is therefore time to take stock and set new priorities for future tasks.

Operationally, the programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN is organized as a nationwide network of interdisciplinary research collaborations. The collaborations include academic and non-university research institutions, as well as closely cooperating companies.

Since the start of the programme in 2000, many of the topics initially proposed have been implemented in formal research projects (Table 1). They were and are handled either in the context of the BMBF project funding or as priority programmes of the DFG. Scientifically they are closely networked. Today a total of 46 universities, 34 research institutions and 55 companies are involved in over 100 collaborative projects (Fig. 1). The BMBF and DFG have supported this research so far with around 140 million euros.

Through the R&D-programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN, many new research initiatives have also been launched with funding of over € 40 million.

Fig. 1: Overview of the universities and research institutions involved in the R&D-programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN

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Tab. 1: Overview of the dates in R&D Programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN-funded themes (SPP = priority programme).

Topic

Funding Status

Funding Institution

Observation of the Earth system earth from space

· 17 research groups from 2001 · 10 projects under the standard procedure (NV) · SPP: »Mass transport and mass distribution in the Earth System«

· BMBF · DFG · DFG

The interior of the earth as the driving force of geoscientific processes

· SPP: »Geomagnetic variations - Spatiotemporal structure, processes and effects on the system earth« (2000 2006)

· DFG

Continental boundaries: Hot spots in the usage and hazard potential of the earth

· 3 research collaborations (2004 – 2007) · 11 projects in NV as a contribution to ESF-EUROMARGINS (2003 – 2008) · SPP: SAMPLE: South Atlantic Margin Processes and Links with onshore Evolution (since 2008)

· BMBF · DFG

Resonance imaging of the earth’s crust

· 9 collaborations recommended (2010)

· BMBF

Sedimentary basins – the greatest resource of mankind

· SPP: dynamics of sedimentary systems (2002 – 2008)

· DFG

Gas hydrates in a geosystem

· 20 research groups (since 2000)

· BMBF

Cycles of materials: a link between geosphere and biosphere

· Public announcement planned

· BMBF

· 4 Collaborative projects (2005 – 2009)

· BMBF

· 20 collaborative projects (since 2005)

· BMBF

Mineral surfaces: from atomic processes for geotechnics

· 13 collaborative projects (since 2008)

· BMBF

Early warning systems in earth management

· 11 collaborative projects (since 2007) · Graduate programme METRIK

· BMBF · DFG

Information systems in earth management

· 6 collaborative projects (2003 – 2005)

· BMBF

Global climate change – cause and effect

· German Climate Research Programme DEKLIM (2001 – 2006)

· BMBF

The coupled system earth-life

· round table discussions are in planning

· BMBF

Exploration, exploitation, protection of underground areas (1) development of innovative advanced exploration technologies in underground mining (2) Geological storage of CO2

· DFG

GEOTECHNOLOGIEN –The Research Programme 7

Market positioning – Cooperation between scientific research and industry The research topics of the R&D-programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN are trans-disciplinary and are often located at the interfaces between earth sciences, engineering sciences, life sciences, physics and chemistry. The applications for basic technology developed here are correspondingly broad. In this respect, earth-science differs from many other scientific areas. A particular challenge is therefore to involve private companies in the research, and to assist with knowledge transfer in the application.

Both the scientific steering committee and the coordinating office of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN support cooperation between companies and research institutions. The principal idea is to integrate commercial enterprises so that they can make their own contribution to the objectives of the alliance.

Only in this way can an economic (and personal) interest in the development of innovative technologies and methods ultimately ensure the overall success of the network. The desire for cooperation is thus mutual, which has a positive effect on the willingness of companies to participate in the programme. Through this “demand-oriented” strategy, the number of participating companies could be significantly increased over time. Over 50 companies from different market segments have been involved in various collaborative projects. This explicitly distinguishes the R&D-programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN from previous initiatives in the field of geological research.

Complementary to these measures, the communications platform Geotechmarket was established in 2007. The aim is to identify technical innovations from geo-scientific research early and to successfully place them in the market. The often cited “matching” finds its implementation in this effort.

Preference will be given to small and medium-sized companies without their own research departments. In this way, access to the application knowhow of universities and research institutions will be facilitated. In addition, Geotechmarket will support the development of networks and the formation of strategic alliances in the geoscience environment.

New alliances between research institutions and companies also produce surprising and innovative developments. This is the result of a systematically

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developed communication concept, which, through well directed intervention, could motivate both sides. The most important research results achieved so far are reported briefly in the next few chapters under the heading of each funding status.

Public relations Structuring research transparently and communicatively is a further feature of the GEOTECHNOLOGIEN programme. Nationwide touring exhibitions bring topics and results from the research programme to the public in understandable and exciting ways. Broad segments of the public can get an impression of the importance and everyday relevance of geoscientific research in the truest sense of the word. More than 100,000 people visited the exhibition “In die Tiefe gehen” (Going Underground). Between April 2004 and October 2005, this exhibition was displayed at six locations and brought possible uses of the subsurface into the focus of public interest. An even greater success was achieved with the exhibition “Unruhige Erde” (Restless Earth), which ended in the autumn of 2009. It introduced the recently launched research topic “Innovative early warning systems against natural hazards”. In Frankfurt / Main, Münster, Bremen, Munich, Bonn, Berlin, Dresden and Rostock, a total of nearly 250,000 visitors were inspired by the spectacular interactive exhibits and computer animations. Many broadcasts on the radio and television and over 60 newspaper articles reported on the event. “Restless Earth” was supported through contributions by over 30 institutions from science and industry.

Future prospects After nine years of successful research, it is time to put existing research concepts to the test, and adapt them to current requirements brought to the attention of geoscience by business, politics and society. The central aim must be to adapt it to scientific and technological needs and to define new areas of know-how, to not only guarantee cuttingedge research, but also to explore specific application prospects. The “application” must consider not only economic, but also social factors.

On 25th and 26th of May 2009, a symposium on future challenges for the geosciences was therefore conducted on the premises of the Federal Press Conference in Berlin. The meeting was initiated by the scientific steering committee of GEO-

TECHNOLOGIEN and the “Senatskommission” of the German Research Foundation. More than 70 scientists from 20 research institutions and companies participated in this meeting.

The goals of the two-day event were to discuss current aims and results, raise new research questions, and identify the focus of important challenges. The results of this constructive discourse are incorporated into 10 broad key topics. These will gain significant scientific, economic and social importance in the future, and will only work in broad trans-disciplinary cooperation.

Regarding the content, various issues from the previous programme were discussed. In the course of this discussion many new aspects were brought

up that were at that time either not yet envisaged, or could only be confronted with today's level of knowledge and technology.

The result is this concept paper “GEOTECHNOLOGIEN"– Guaranteeing the future of man and earth”, taking account of the latest scientific technological findings and future research requirements. The possibilities for concrete action and new commercial application can thus be demonstrated to ensure that political and social decision makers are well informed.

Prof. Dr. Gerold Wefer Chairman of the Steering Committee GEOTECHNOLOGIEN

GEOTECHNOLOGIEN –The Research Programme 9

NASA

1. Climate Change – learning from the past for the future Despite major advances in climate research, climate projections for the coming decades are fraught with large uncertainties. The reduction of these uncertainties with data from paleoclimate research is urgently required. Thus, earlier climate variations can be reconstructed, environmental changes quantified and causal processes decoded. Through the combination of modern climate models with paleo-climatic data, the natural fluctuations, which the climate was exposed to, can be estimated, before man began influencing it. Paleo-data are therefore necessary to distinguish natural climate variations from human influences. Future sea level changes for instance are linked closely to the development of the ice caps on Greenland and Antarctica. To assess this development more effectively, available ice sheet models must urgently be improved using global paleo-data. Further research is needed into the technological equipment of observatories, which can continuously measure the manner in which ice sheets respond to changes in temperature of the surrounding seawater. Such data is very important for the development of ice sheet modells. In the global water cycle, the uncertainties of the projected changes are so large that, for wider areas of the globe, it cannot be safely estimated whether the annual precipitation amount will increase or decrease by the end of this century. Here again, climate models need to be tested and improved on the basis of paleo-climatic data.

The worldwide distribution of rainfall should be gathered with new reconstruction methods. In particular, marine and terrestrial climate archives lend themselves for this purpose. With regard to the development of climate system models, the focus should be placed on increasing the efficiency of existing numerical models and improving regional climate models. In addition an information system should be developed to make model results more accessible to users.

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1. Climate Change – learning from the past for the future Introduction The modern industrial society is carrying out a large-scale experiment in the climate system with an uncertain outcome. Despite immense advances in climate research, climate projections for the coming decades are flawed with large uncertainties (see the fourth assessment report of the IPCC).

Such projections for future climate change require a very good understanding of the underlying processes in some aspects and rely on complex mathematical models of the climate system in others.

All climate projections for the 21st century, for example, show that the temperatures will be higher in the Polar Regions than in lower latitudes. However, it is uncertain how big this polar amplification in climate change will turn out to be. Geo-scientific climate reconstructions can help to predict this effect in more detail in the future. It is particularly important to better isolate the stability of ice sheets on Greenland and the Antarctic. The question of how much and how fast the sea level will rise in the future is closely linked to this.

The available water resources will also be altered due to global change. This will have a severe impact on some societies. In addition to changes in available water, it is mainly changes to the course of the annual rainfall distribution which are of great importance. Currently, projections of future rainfall distribution for large parts of the world still show large uncertainties. The reason for the uncertainties associated with the projections of future climate still is, the insufficient understanding of central processes in the climate system. The documented time series of climate change cover at best a few decades, making them too short to sufficiently analyze the dynamics of the underlying processes precisely. Given the short duration of observation the testing of climate system models is restricted. It is not clear how reliable these models are for a state, like the climate of the future, differing significantly from todays.

Against the background of the uncertainties of climate projections the IPCC has highlighted the role of paleo-climate research in its fourth progress

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report. Using geoscientific data, past climate variations can be reconstructed, environmental changes measured and causal processes decoded.

In addition, such reconstructions provide the opportunity to test climate system models and improve them. The combination of models and paleo-climatic data allows us to also estimate natural fluctuations the climate was exposed to, before man began influencing it. Such reconstructions help to distinguish human influences from natural climate variations. They are therefore of considerable value for research on global climate change.

To reach the widest possible analysis of global environmental variations, modern approaches of paleoclimate research combine all the available climate archives (terrestrial, marine and glacial). Together, paleoclimatic reconstructions and the results of climate system modeling allow far-reaching insights into the dynamics of climate variations which are important for projections of the future climate.

Through interdisciplinary approaches to research on a global scale, it is also possible to decipher the spatial occurrence of variations in the earth system, so that an even more detailed analysis of regional aspects of global climate change are possible.

Climate research is a socially relevant and essential precaution for detecting how the climate system works and obtaining the necessary practical knowledge for possible preventive and adaptative measures.

Funding status As a genuine cross-section topic climate research is present in most of the projects within the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. Under the proviso “georesearch is climate research”, numerous research projects can be found in several topics with specific, targeted climate relevance. Among the different topics, foundational and orientational suggestions for important practical climate protection measures are developed under the different GEOTECHNOLOGIEN projects. Complementary and almost simultaneously with the start of the R & D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN 2001– 2006, the BMBF supported the German Climate Research Programme DEKLIM with a total of 37 million euro’s.

Research status, development and application Changes in the cryosphere Through satellite remote sensing by (e.g. GRACE) and reconnaissance flights, changes in the mass balance of ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland have become apparent over several years. The Greenland ice sheet is melting increasingly at the edges while it is growing in parts at its centre. In the overall balance however - despite uncertainties between the different measurement methods – for several years now it is melting. Especially at the edges of the ice sheet, the flow velocity varies widely. Why, however, is so far only very inadequately understood. Ice sheet models cannot depict these dynamics properly. The changes of the Antarctic ice sheet are even more difficult to assess. The observed changes in the mass balance there are fraught with such large errors due to the short observation period that currently no reliable evidence is available about whether the ice sheet is melting or growing in total.

Similarly, the projected rise in sea level is flawed with large margins of uncertainty.

In the last interglacial period about 125,000 years ago it was warmer in much of the Arctic than it is today. Reconstructions show that the summer temperatures in Greenland were about four to five

degrees Celsius above today’s temperatures. This is approximately the temperature increase expected by the end of the 21st Century in Greenland. In the last interglacial period, however, different earth orbital parameters led to the increase in temperature, while the warming in this century can be attributed mainly to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Thus, while the cause of the warming is different, the effects are probably similar. The comparison of glaciological findings and results from climate system models suggest that 30-50 percent of today’s Greenland ice cap melted in the last interglacial period. This represents an increase in the mean sea level of about two to three meters. The decisive factor is how fast the sea level could rise in future. Here again, paleo-climatic data provides important information. In warm periods, sea rises of up to one or two meters in a hundred year period cannot be ruled out.

Substantial changes are currently taking place in the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean. Here, the summer sea ice cover shrunk from the late 1970s to 1996 by two percent per decade, and since then at ten percent per decade. Whether the observed dramatic increase since 2007 in ice decline (Fig. 1-1) is part of a natural cycle, or whether a threshold has

Fig. 1-1: Summer minimum ice cover in the Arctic ice-covered surface 14th September 2007 (white) and average coverage for the period 1979 – 2007 (amber). The time series (top left) shows the steady decline in sea ice since the beginning of satellite recording in the late 1970s.

Climate Change – learning from the past for the future 13

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been crossed out on the ice-free Arctic, cannot currently be resolved. None of the proposals under future climate projections used in climate system models has correctly predicted the decline of recent years.

Natural climate variability in warm periods on socially relevant time scales The warm period of the Holocene is the starting point for future climate developments and should be investigated accordingly. The range of natural climate variability can, however, only be seen if the Holocene is compared with earlier interglacials. To estimate the effects of current climate change, it is the climate variability on time scales of several decades up to a few hundred years which are of special interest. Records of climate variability over the past decades have shown that the climate system changes even within such short time spans.

The most well-known example of such climatic fluctuations in historical times is the so-called “Medieval Warm Period” in the 11th Century, with the subsequent “Little Ice Age,” whose coldest section lasted from the 17th to the 19th Century. Although the average temperature between the two periods on the northern hemisphere differed only by about 0.4 degrees Celsius, the cooling of the “Little Ice Age” dramatically affected the people of that time.

The historical records show. Fluctuations of solar activity or volcanism could have caused the climate fluctuations during the Middle Ages. Climate variability over long periods of time is hardly documented, as very few instrumental and historical records exist from past centuries. Through the time series of the past 300 years regional trends can indeed be detected, but it was only an extension of the instrumental records by paleo-climatic data gave indications that these trends were often sections of lengthy climate fluctuations.

On a time scale of a few years so-called “climate modes” dominate the variability of the climate.

These include, for example, the El Niño - Southern Oscillation, the Arctic Oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation. It is a primary goal of modern climate research to understand and predict these fluctuations. Whether global warming will weaken or

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strengthen these modes, cannot be answered unequivocally. The long-term development of these modes can be investigated using paleo-climatic archives and climate system models (Fig. 1-2).

In addition to temperature changes, changes in the water cycle are especially important. They ultimately decide on the availability of water resources and thus agricultural yields. Particularly in monsoon areas the high population density strengthens the sensitivity of societies to fluctuations in the hydrological cycle. Therefore, various hypotheses were formulated in recent years on the basis of observational data as to what influence e.g. the ocean surface temperature could have on the hydrological cycle of these regions. The brevity of the observation time series, however, allows no ultimate test for the different hypotheses. Thus the drought in North America in the 1930s and the Sahel region in the 1970s for example, are blamed on changes in ocean temperatures and alterations in large-scale ocean circulation in the North Atlantic. This correlation is indeed corroborated by paleo-climatic data, however, there are still large uncertainties about future rainfall distribution and variation.

Atmospheric aerosols influence the global radiation balance significantly. The manmade input of aerosols into the atmosphere currently contributes to a cooling, so that the global warming remains lower than would be expected as a result of greenhouse gas concentrations. While the role of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is now well understood many questions remain about the processes that are affected by aerosols (Fig. 1-3). They concern, for example, the aerosol-induced cloud formation and changes in the formation of aerosols in a changing climate. In addition, aerosols are an important link in the earth system, such as providing the biosphere with nutrients over large distances.

Natural climate archives show that, the content of suspended particles in the atmosphere can change significantly between cold periods and warm periods, but also on a scale of a few years or decades.

Thus, the ice cores show ten to a hundred times as much sea salt and mineral dust aerosols in cold periods as in warm periods. How the aerosol sources and transport in the atmosphere change over time,

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Fig. 1-2: The dynamics of past climate variations can be deciphered by the combination of geoscientific climate reconstructions with results of the climate system modeling.

has so far only been inadequately modeled. It is therefore largely unknown what causes are responsible.

Necessary R&D tasks In order to reduce critical uncertainties associated with predictions of future climate, the following tasks need to be tackled: (i) ice dynamics and sea level rise One of the biggest challenges is to make reliable statements about the rise in global sea levels. With current ice sheet models the observed changes of the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps cannot be simulated correctly. It is therefore essential to better reflect the ice dynamics in models. Primarily a closer cooperation between glaciologists and fluid dynamics is needed. Concurrently, remote sensing data should be included in inland and ocean-ice models. This technique is well established for models of the atmosphere and ocean and allows a realistic modeling of changes.

In addition, the interface between the ocean and inland ice cap, especially the contact area between ocean water and ice sheets (Greenland fjords, West Antarctic ice sheet) has to be observed increasingly. Scattered observations indicate that the expected increase in ocean temperature could accelerate the melting rate of ice sheets. This perhaps significant accelerating effect is currently not included in climate system models. The data base must be improved accordingly so that the iceocean interface may be appropriately presented in the next generation climate system models.

From a technological viewpoint ongoing glaciological and oceanographic measurement systems are necessary to record the activity of the ice sheets and the hydrographic conditions at the same time.

Such installations would be particularly useful at the foot of the great glaciers of Greenland. There is need for development here, in order to carry out such relevant measurements in polar environmental conditions over long periods. In addition to automatic monitoring stations with data transmis-

Climate Change – learning from the past for the future 15

Fig. 1-3: Components and uncertainties of the global mean radiative forcing (SA) since the beginning of the industrialisation for anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and other important factors and mechanisms, together with the typical geographical scope (spatial scale) and present day knowledge.

sion via buoys and satellites, those wired to observatories in the ocean would also be suitable in this regard. To test the new generation of ice sheet models, particularly data on extreme situations are necessary. Key challenges here exist in view of the stability of ice sheets. It is important to quantify the maximum melting rate correctly and consequently the maximum rate of sea level rise. Both can only be derived from paleo-climatic data. The necessary high-resolution, continuous sea-level reconstructions may be generated from marine archives. This requires high-resolution marine sequences at key positions (e.g. the Red Sea, Southwest Atlantic), which allow the quantification of regional patterns in sea level changes of the past more accurately.

Through comparison with geophysical models of ice sheets, crucial insights into the dynamic behavior can be derived from this data.

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(ii) Water cycle Possible regional changes in the global water cycle are not yet fully understood, for example, to reliably estimate the risk of mega-droughts in the subtropics or changes in global monsoon systems.

Given the large number of people who would be affected by such climate change, current predictions are inadequate from a planning point of view. The combination of modeling and high temporal resolution paleo-climate time series will bring substantial new insights into the operating modes of the global water cycle. Using targeted sampling along hydrological gradients, on the one hand the shift of precipitation belts can be documented, on the other changes in rainfall can be quantified. For this purpose, transects along the continental margins with marine archives as well as terrestrial transects all lend themselves.

The presence of mineral dusts which have a major influence on the radiation balance of the atmosphere as aerosols is closely related to the global water cycle. If the reconstruction of aerosol records in the atmosphere (for example, from ice cores, marine and freshwater sediments) is combined with climate system models, it would be possible in the future to better quantify the role of aerosols. However, in order to capture the transport of aerosols and their effect on the radiation balance, the models must be improved.

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(iii) Climate system models With paleo-climatic data, the dynamic behavior of climate system models can be tested outstandingly. Provided however, that identical models for past and future changes in climate can be used.

Many questions developed through paleo-climatic data, however, require long computing times, so often models with reduced complexity or resolution are used. To close the chain from paleo-applications to predictions, faster models are necessary.

Development is needed here in the implementation of more numerically efficient algorithms.

Therefore, the cooperation between numeric and climate modeling needs to be strengthened.

Regional climate models and their further development are important for the research on global climate change as well as how to deal with it. Their success, cannot be measured by how well they meet the needs for information for current social decisions alone. It is also crucial, that they increase the knowledge about the climate and its development and create new (interdisciplinary) research approaches. The future development of climate models should take components such as the dynamic vegetation and the dynamics of the North and Baltic Sea into account and better represent key processes such as convection, precipitation origins or the coupling of soil and atmosphere. Regional climate models for developing regions like Africa and Asia should be encouraged.

In order to plan according to these new models the results of the model calculations should be made available through a a suitable expert system and context-based query.

Climate Change – learning from the past for the future 17

Bohrmann, MARUM Bremen

2. The Biosphere – habitats and changing ecosystems The earth is habitat to humans and a large – but previously only known to a very small par – diversity of animals, plants and microorganisms. The living environment covers the entire planet to several hundred meters below the ground, sea or ice. The earth is the only known celestial body with a biosphere. It consists of a huge diversity of ecosystems and has been exposed in its history to wide fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry, environmental conditions and biodiversity. The biosphere is a key component in the earth system: it affects all major near-surface substance cycles, such as water, carbon and nitrogen, and acts directly on weathering, erosion and sedimentation as well as on the climate. The biosphere also supplies humanity with numerous products and ecosystem-services whose yearly value is now estimated at over 30 trillion euro’s. The biosphere also has great potential for the development of a sustainable earth-system management or geo-engineering. However, the biosphere has so far been insufficiently researched in its importance for earth and climate system and thus for humanity. Especially a quantitative understanding of the processes that allows the development of consistent biosphere models is missing. In addition, the biosphere is increasingly threatened by intensive land use and climate change, so that one already speaks of Earth’s sixth mass extinction. Therefore two large themes of biosphere research should be handled within the framework of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN research: (1) Observation of the local and global change in ecosystems and its function / service and from this the development of concepts for sustainable earth-system management.

(2) To explore new, e.g. extreme and unknown ecosystems (such as “deep biospheres”, polar habitats) for more complete coverage of the diversity of life and its functions. For this purpose, a variety of new geo- and biotechnologies are required such as: site monitoring, system modeling, experimental ecology, satellite and submarine technology and high-resolution and sensitive analytical measurement methods.

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2. The Biosphere – habitats and change in the ecosystem Introduction The biosphere is – together with water – the most important resource for humanity. Man is not only part of the biosphere, he lives off it. The biosphere is the basis for our nutrition and provides many other important products, such as lumber, and raw materials for paper making and pharmaceutical products. As an energy source it continues to play an important role. For example, one quarter to a third of annual anthropogenic carbon emissions originates from the combustion of biomass. The growing field of bionics technology, that is, the decoding of natures inventions and their innovative application also draws its ideas for “smart” technology solutions from the biosphere. But above all, biological systems have always had the largest and most decisive influence on the inanimate nature, as impressively demonstrated in the development of the oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.

The potential for use of the biosphere, especially microorganisms, is huge and so far only understood and developed in its infancy. As an example pharmaceuticals: In the U.S. alone each year biopharmaceuticals worth many billion dollars are sold. But so far the pharmaceutical industry uses only a few organisms to develop new drugs although one in five of the 350,000 known land plants have a potential medicinal value. Also in the bionics, the possibilities are not exhausted. However in Germany bionic products with a value of several million euro’s are sold yearly.

The biosphere plays a central role in the complex system earth. So almost all cycles of the earth’s crust are controlled or influenced by the biosphere, especially the cycles of water (H2O), the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N). Parts of the rock cycle as weathering, erosion and sedimentation are significantly influenced by the biosphere. Reefs, carbonate platforms or coals form entire mountain ranges and geological strata demonstrating the importance of the biosphere in the Earth history. Last but not least, however, the biosphere, takes on an important function in the climate system: it alters – through vegetation cover – the albedo (reflection of incoming solar energy) and thus the radiation balance of the earth. Through material cycles it influences the atmospheric concentration of green-

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house gases like water vapor, CO2 and CH4 and aerosols, and it influences the wind field. Important aspects for GEOTECHNOLOGIEN are the production of biofuels, the use of biogas, or the improved formation of soil organic matrix as a function of carbon storage. But also the influence of bioavailability and thus the ecotoxicological concentrations of heavy metals that are released by the mining on large areas with the associated wastes and tailings could be modified through a deeper understanding of the processes involved and with that the usable agricultural area extended. The functions of the self cleansing (“natural attenuation”) could also be used if the understanding and thus a targeted promotion of desired processes were possible.

With that the multiple functions of biosphere, not only play an increasingly important role for foodnetworks but also for GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. The biosphere is thus a key component in earth and climate systems. The functions of this system are also known as humanity’s “ecosystem services” and take in, along the influence of climate, water quality and quantity, the role of the biosphere for environmental stability and resilience, soil quality, or air pollution control. The total economic value of the biosphere is still difficult to grasp, but it is estimated at about 30 trillion euro’s yearly. Given the central importance of the biosphere for humans and the climate and earth systems we are today essentially facing two major challenges: thus the biosphere needs to be explored fully with its interactions and its importance to humanity. In particular our knowledge in the quantification of processes is very rudimentary so far. Although the biology achieved great progress in recent decades on the molecular and physiological level, on the organic, ecosystem and biosphere level one is still a long way from a similarly deep and comprehensive understanding, especially because only about 0.1 % of microbial species are known, and these are even less accessible as a pure culture of a physiological investigation. In addition, microorganisms never live alone, but in their natural habitat in consortia with distributed functions and syntrophic communities have emerged that are difficult to measure with an experimental approach.

Today nearly two million animal and plant species are known and some few thousand micro-organisms, but this is only a fraction of the biosphere, there are probably well over 100 million species on earth. Whole habitats such as the deep sea or the so-called “deep biosphere” that reaches deep into the earth’s crust to several hundred meters are almost never explored. Major, fundamental knowledge gaps exist regarding the reactions of the biosphere to climate change. The dynamic vegetation and biosphere modeling is still in its infancy.

The earth as the only known habited planet will only be fully understood if the role of the biosphere in the earth system and earth system models is understood and included in dynamic biosphere models.

A major challenge is the sustainable conservation and sustainable use of the biosphere. Human activities now influence or dominate all habitats and biogeochemical cycles of the earth - the amount of reactive nitrogen in the environment has quadrupled, for example, in the last 50 years at least and altered landscapes, lakes, rivers and the coastal ocean. Climate change and its impact on regional temperatures, precipitation and drought, leads to significant shifts of species and ecosystems. These range from the genes of individuals through to the species level right up to the diversity of the communities and the interactions between organisms and their environment.

As a result of human intervention in the environment today we see a mass extinction of species.

The “Red List” of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists nearly 40 percent of the animal and plant species as threatened.

Every day more than 100 species die out, many habitats are threatened and by 2050 probably more than 50 percent of reefs will have been destroyed. What the consequences of biodiversity loss for the earth und climate system and to the ecosystem services will be, is not yet known. What is certain is that the consequences will be far reaching. The biosphere could play an important role especially in mitigation and adaptation strategies. It is therefore imperative for geoscience to deal with the exploration of the biosphere and its significance for the earth and climate system and

the sustainable use and protection of the biosphere. This concerns in particular the development of quantitative earth and biosphere observation methods and their related archives.

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Funding Status The main topic “The coupled earth system – life” is currently in preparation. A round table discussion is planned. Then a proposal to tender to the BMBF is expected by the mid of 2011 based on the science plan to be developed. Aspects of the priority topic “cycles of matter: a link between geosphere and biosphere” will also make an important contribution to the research “biosphere habitats and change in ecosystems”. A public notice for the topic “cycles of matter” (see also Chapter 4) is still pending.

Research status, development and application The research on fossils and the reconstruction of past environmental conditions have made it possible to record changes in biodiversity - that is, the diversity of genes, species and communities on earth – throughout the planet’s history. One of most interesting questions is why the diversity of life has rapidly increased or declined several times.

Particularly interesting are the mass extinctions during geological history (Fig. 2-1). In the earth’s history biodiversity dipped drastically several times.

Several mass extinctions occurred. While these crises have long been researched, their triggering factors are still controversial. Another extinction event is linked to the colonization of the earth by humans in the Pleistocene and Holocene and their exponential increase in population worldwide. The consequences were shrinking natural habitats and flora and fauna displaced and destroyed by exhaustive use and introduction of foreign species and diseases.

The effects of human activities can be observed in all ecosystems of the earth. A new problem is the fact that some environmental changes occur much more rapidly than assumed. Apart from the overfishing of the seas was only recently announced that the enhanced uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere, the oceans can become acidic and thus the calcareous deposits of organisms (such as reef

The Biosphere – habitats and change in the ecosystem

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corals and calcareous plankton) hindered. Especially the little-known polar ecosystems are severely threatened by climate change and are shrinking.

Sea ice and glaciers are disappearing in an unimaginable pace, some marine areas like the Arctic are acidifying and heating up rapidly, thus the functions of the ecosystem suffer such as O2 generation, CO2 fixation and food production (plankton and krill), which represent an essential energy source for marine mammals and fish.

Many land regions are increasingly affected by unexpectedly grave droughts and floods. A major problem is the global distribution of persistent and toxic new substances that find their way from the developed countries to distant regions and accumulate in the food chain there. In very few cases, are the distribution channels and effects known.

The systematic investigation of processes – apart from the discovery of new phenomena – is a task for the future, closely linked to an environmental monitoring.

Man has always discovered and developed new regions. This was motivated by the need for a geographical information on one hand and knowledge of habitats and their inhabitants on the other.

Thanks to new, high-resolution geophysical methods for mapping the seafloor and the use of diving research submersibles and robots in the sea new habitats are more often discovered. The sea is not a single ecosystem, but a huge variety of different systems. When drilling in deep soil and ice layers new habitats of unknown micro-organisms have also been discovered, the so-called “deep biosphere”. On earth, there are many extreme environments, such as salt lakes, acidic or basic water, ice or hot liquids. The study of ecosystems in these extreme habitats demonstrates the limits of life on Earth and other planets. It also helps to understand the origin of life.

Without a broad knowledge of the importance and the threat to biological diversity there can be neither a sustainable use nor a sufficient protection

Fig. 2-1: Mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic (black diamond’s) and the triangles correspond to ice ages. In C, the temperature profile in the Phanerozoic over the current temperature is shown.

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of the biosphere. Fast and reliable methods of species identification and phylogeny will have to be developed. Amongst the necessary developments, just a number are: imaging in situ procedures with rapid identification and high sample throughput and the link to the excellent, internationally available DNA and species collections with well-networked and accessible environmental databases. The earth sciences contribute to this by mapping such habitats on land and at sea, geographic information systems (GIS) develop and measure environmental conditions over time. The question of how the biodiversity changes at the genetic level, population level and community level in the course of history, is difficult to answer.

Despite technological advances, important variables of biodiversity are still unknown. No one can say how many different plants, animals and microorganisms there are in the world, the estimates vary between ten and 500 million.

Necessary R&D tasks From the above presentation it is clear that GEOTECHNOLOGIEN can contribute in particular to two large themes of the biosphere research: – Observation of the local and global changes of ecosystems and their functions/services and from development of concepts and models for sustainable earth system management – Research into extreme and unknown ecosystems (e. g. “deep biosphere”, polar habitats) and to measure the diversity of life and its functional diversity in the development of innovative methods. (i) Dynamics and functioning of ecosystems and their possible contribution to a sustainable earth system management Today, one thing above all is required from biosphere-research: to answer the question of how life on earth responds to climate change and to anticipate the environmental change. If one speaks of environmental crises today, it is about tangible changes in ecosystems and their influence on quality of life. Such crises occur, for example, when climate zones move, ice-covered habitat shrink or deserts expand: Grave consequences that also occur when large amounts of greenhouse gases (e. g. CO2 and CH4) and nitrogen gases are

emitted, when El-Niño-related climate anomalies accumulate or if genetic resources and functions of ecosystems are reduced due to a decline in biodiversity.

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A key challenge in the GEOTECHNOLOGIEN programme is therefore to quantify the biogeochemical turnover processes that drive the global elemental cycles, to explore and develop consistent models. This is important because such “ecosystem functions” and “ecosystem services” are crucially important for humans and climate change.

Man interferes with the natural cycles mainly through his land use worldwide. At the same time there are complex interactions between climate and other environmental factors and element cycles. In order to understand these cycles and interactions, one must know how the system changes in time and what factors control it. This requires that high-resolution in situ investigations on land and at sea be conducted and the findings incorporated into global models. In particular, the biological CO2 sinks and the nitrogen cycle have to be comprehensively researched in future and quantified. Another task is to investigate the response of CO2 sink and the nitrogen cycle significant species and ecosystems, the biogeochemical processes to changes in climate and atmospheric chemistry.

The global carbon cycle and in particular the increase of the greenhouse gas CO2 in the atmosphere is of a high political and increasingly economic interest. For the global trade of CO2 emission quotas all CO2 reservoirs, sinks and sources must be better known. The most urgent task is also to determine whether and to what extent the biological storage capacity of the oceanic CO2 for alteration in the course of global change will play and what role changes in biodiversity will play.

Some greenhouse gases are also significantly more effective than CO2 with regard to its greenhouse effect. They are involved with high reactivity in atmospheric chemical processes (e. g. ozone depletion) or in the formation of clouds. However, little is known about the biological processes of key organisms that lead to variations in the production of trace gases such as dimethyl sulfide, nitrous oxide or methane.

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An important component in the global material system is the nitrogen cycle, which is also subject to major changes by man. Already, global over 100 x 1012 grams (100 million tons) of nitrogen per year are produced as fertilizer – a growing trend.

Natural, biological nitrogen fixation is about 40 x 1012 grams (40 million tonnes) compared to nitrogen per year. In particular, coastal waters are greatly influenced by the input of agricultural and industrial runoff and nitrogen oxides that are produced by combustion. The nitrogen cycle is closely linked to the oxygen content in the ocean, since nitrogen is removed from the biological cycle by microbial processes when oxygen is deficient (denitrification). A warming of the ocean, an altered ventilation in the middle depths, and especially the eutrophication of coastal and marginal seas cause the oxygen content in the sea to decrease. It must therefore be investigated how oxygen deprivation, which can – to some extent – be currently observed and is set to further expand, will regionally and globally impact the material cycles.

However, the effect of altered dust and aerosol distributions on the biosphere is also an important issue for the future. Trace metals -for example- are often limiting factors for biological processes and thus the biodiversity and the transformation of the biosphere. Thus iron limits the growth of algae in the oceans.

What the causes and consequences of changes in local ecosystems of the earth are, is known only in isolated cases. Many of the current problems have a global and societal context. Modeling a problem with global implications, and predictions can develop a common understanding of the system of geographic and biological sciences is needed which provide the basis of the GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Earth system monitoring, experimental interventions as well as the information systems and databases. Another major task for the future of earth and life sciences will be to understand the coupled biological and geological processes of the earth system on different time scales. Current

Fig. 2-2: Autonomous oxygen consumption measurement from bacterial mats in 1,100 meters water depth at the Pakistan continental margin.

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ecosystem observations encompass – depending on the problem posed – time scales from hours to decades. Using environmental archives scenarios can be developed to examine how ecosystems develop over time.

The tight feedback between the terrestrial and marine ecosystems and the climate are not yet reflected sufficiently in joint research approaches.

Many important questions remain unanswered, therefore. For example, the significance of biodiversity for the functioning of ecosystems and landscapes and how living things interact with each other over long distances and time periods, is not clear. To solve these problems earth and life sciences need to work together in a multidisciplinary fashion. In European and international research programmes for ecosystem research long-term observations and analysis system are already regarded as a multidisciplinary task of earth und biosciences. In Germany, this interdisciplinary strategy for research, education and infrastructure is still missing. This applies in particular to plans, to consciously steer the sustainable development of the earth through “ecosystem management” or even to control it through “Geo-Engineering”. The public discussion is increasing about how to reduce the excess CO2 in the atmosphere, such as through iron fertilization in the sea, through the use of plant biomass for energy or by the longterm storage of CO2 on land or sea. Geoscientific expertise is particularly sought after to assess the risk to ecosystems. (ii) Biodiversity and extreme habitats A major future challenge is to gain knowledge about the function, stability and recovery ability of biodiversity. This may include the great crises in the earth’s history, as documented by fossils and sediments. Studies have shown that after a mass extinction it takes about ten million years for the original diversity to be achieved in animals again, regardless of the intensity of the crisis. Plants and microorganisms are particularly difficult to collect through fossils. This means that the current loss of biodiversity is not repairable on human time scales.

So it is important to explore why some life forms have become extinct in full due to global catastrophes, while others could survive almost unscathed.

In this context, the phenomenon of so-called living fossils is interesting. The difference in speed of evolution is regarded as one of the most interesting current questions in evolutionary research. This problem can only be solved by using detailed studies of fossils, based on high-resolution archives of stratigraphy, dating, reconstruction of environmental conditions - combined with recent earth and ecosystem and biodiversity monitoring coverage.

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In the marine environment, coral reefs are ecosystems with the greatest biodiversity, on land, it is the rain forests of the tropics and subtropics, but soils in general also hold an abundance of unknown life forms. Even the hitherto little explored deep sea is considered to have a high biodiversity, however micro-organisms with a body size of less than one centimeter dominate there (Fig. 2-2), apart from the now famous deep water reefs known only since a few decades. The way in which shallow reefs developed in the course of the earth’s history is relatively well known, as many fossil reefs have survived. On the other hand we know very little about the past and present diversity of life in the ocean. How various protozoa (e. g. bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes) came to exist on land and at sea may still not yet be determined. Moreover, the world long-term observations have so far been carried out in only a few regions.

Biodiversity research is still missing the simplest basics to this day. A publicly accessible database of all existing species along with their biological properties and interactions, including the documentation of reference specimens is necessary. These biological characteristics include the blueprint, the genetic information, physiology, changes in behavior, their substances und active agents, life history, used habitats, habitat requirements, distribution, inventory and collection development, relations with other species as well as the contributions to material sales and services in the ecosystem. Such complex biological information must be part of the Earth system database to be able to model, observe and to predict the development of the biosphere. In future, geological and geographical tools will be further combined to represent

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processes of change in ecosystems spatially. Other tasks will be linked to the expertise of universities, institutes and museums, to store information in user databases and use modern visualization techniques to represent relationships.

Unknown and extreme ecosystems and their biodiversity can only be explored with substantial technical effort. The goal of exploration is to map the habitats geographically, geologically, geophysically, chemically, and biologically and functionally understand the newfound habitats. This effort is worthwhile: often entirely new creatures are found as a result of such research. Moreover, it is possible to better understand adaptability, development and the limits of life. Thus one can find out which genes enable organisms to colonize acidic, extremely cold, hot, saline or alkaline sites. This is interesting not only for basic research, but also for applied biotechnology.

Using submersible boats, remote-controlled underwater vehicles, anchored and towed camera systems to observe life on the sea floor and to study its interaction with the environment, has led to a variety of new discoveries. We now know above all that we know only a fraction of the diversity of life and its habitats in the sea. Some of the newly discovered marine environments are so strange that they will be investigated as a possible parallels to habitats on other planets (gas hydrate, CO2 seas, salt lakes, “deep biosphere”). Others host microorganisms, whose metabolism play a previously unsuspected role in global biogeochemical cycles, or are inhabited by living things that show behavior in their life cycle or adaptations to the marine habitat, previously unknown.

Completely underestimated so far, is the biomass and diversity of microorganisms in sediments and rocks beneath the seabed and its interaction with mineral surfaces and geo-fluids. For the quantification of processes in extreme aquatic habitats remote controlled underwater vehicles (ROVs) are (Fig. 2-3) and geophysical measurement systems and sensors with autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV) are used to detect the bottom topography and to locate the sources of geo-fluids. Increasingly, infrastructure for large-scale experimental work is required (such as in pressure tanks

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and mesocosmos) as well as various drills to delve into underground life.

A new finding – for example – is that similar ecosystems to those at thermal springs also exist in some distance from the oceanic spreading ridge. Chemical reactions between seawater and mantle rocks, generate large amounts of CO2, hydrogen and methane. These substances form the basis of life for specific chemosynthetic communities. In the Pacific we have discovered other types of thermal vents and gas-discharge areas. Here large amounts of CO2 pour from the soil, which is transformed into frozen CO2 clathrate. On the basis of existing communities one can explore how life responds to the acidification of the oceans. At continental margins oases of life exist, similar to the communities at hydrothermal vents. These so-called “cold sources” were only recently examined in more detail. The communities establish themselves, where gas or liquid escapes from the seabed. This is often the case near deposits of gas hydrates. The important question here is which biological, chemical and physical processes react on theses methane emission from the ocean into the hydro and atmosphere.

The discovery of the “deep biosphere” in the earth’s crust was one of the largest geoscience sensations of the last decade (Fig. 2-4). This discovery has shown that a large part of life on earth is so far barely known. The “deep biosphere”, alongside the deep sea is the single largest ecosystem on earth. It contains one third of the total biomass on Earth. Life in the “deep biosphere” seems to be limited by two factors, temperature and the availability of water. The ‘deep biosphere’ exists only in the areas of the earth’s crust where the temperature is less than 120 degrees Celsius. So far it is unclear how microorganisms can survive in such conditions, for perhaps millions of years. The exploration of the “deep biosphere”, therefore, will help to broaden the understanding of metabolism, biochemistry and thermodynamics of life in the next few years significantly. Many researchers worldwide are currently investigating which microorganisms occur in which rock and sediment layers, their diet, and what function they have for substance cycles, mineralization and weathering. Geo-microbiologists now have a permanent place on board

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Fig. 2-3: Underwater-Robots (ROVs) to study the deep-sea

research drilling ships. To examine individual cells on micrometer scales, methods like mass spectrometry, chromatography, microscopy, element and gas analysis, chemical sensors and enviro-

genomics have to be further developed. Different fields of earth sciences will benefit from such technical advances, such as astrobiology and cosmic chemistry, but also the study of the early Earth.

Fig. 2-4: The "deep biosphere": micro-organisms are intact and viable in old, deeply buried sediments (up to 1,000 m sediment depth). This is shown by microscopic images and geochemical analysis.

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MARUM, Bremen

3. The Deep Sea – technological and scientific challenge Oceans cover more than 70 percent of our earth’s surface and form, with an average water depth of 3800 meters, one of the largest biospheres on earth. This habitat is determined by complex interactions between atmosphere and biosphere which affect our climate. At the same time the deep-sea is home to natural resources we already use, but which could in the future acquire even greater importance. The past three to four decades of deep-sea research have brought fundamental new insights, which are essential for an integrated, comprehensive understanding of the function and importance of the earth system. For the first time vents of hot fluids at the spreading zones of lithospheric plates were detected by using a deep-sea submersible. Alongside the high energy exchange which leads to the formation of metallic deposits and very specific forms of life through special adaptations of microbes and macro-organisms. The study of continental margins with video controlled sampling shows that sources on the seabed exist there, which are part of a deepreaching fluid and gas circulation. Bathymetric surveying with sonar and seismic methods indicate that the upper continental margins are characterized mostly by landslides and the sediments with free gas -and in the gas hydrate stability zone- associated with methane hydrates. Constantly, new discoveries in deep-sea research show how incomplete our understanding of this part of the earth is, so great efforts are necessary in the future to pursue a broad-based deep-sea research on a multidisciplinary basis. Increasingly, national and international strategies and planning frameworks for the seas are being developed to better manage this habitat. To make this meaningful and effective for the future, it also requires the scientifically established knowledge of the deep ocean, its settlement, its geological and biological processes and its significance for the entire earth.

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Similar to space-science, the development and application of technology in the deep sea research is crucial. Research ships are still one of the main platforms of marine research, but other base stations, for example, deep-sea observatories wired and mobile systems such as robots and autonomous vehicles, will become more important in future. Progress in exploring the deep sea will depend crucially on the additional technology to be deployed. This is only partially available and must be adjusted according to the research needs or more newly developed. The remote seabed drill (MeBo) developed in Germany should be further developed to extend the maximum drilling depth. With such developments, Germany could expand its technological advantage in the field of remote-controlled deep-sea drilling.

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3. The Deep Sea - technological and scientific challenge Introduction Because of its inhospitable conditions of high pressure, darkness and cold, the deep ocean is a relatively unknown region of the earth, with much fascination. Its research is still a challenge, because, in the context of the social use of our geo-resources, the ocean plays an increasingly important role.

While fishery and military use of the oceans of used to be of primary interest, today’s research questions deal with geo-resources of hydrocarbons (HC), metallic deposits and the use of the ocean and its geological subsoil as landfill.

Gas and oil reserves are important as reservoirs for hydrocarbons, and are now explored in ever deeper areas of the continental margins. Thus extraction already takes place in the Gulf of Mexico in 1400 meters water depth and in the area of the Niger fan and Brazil in more than 2000 meters deep. A basic understanding of the key geological and biological processes there is the basis for a rational and sustainable targeted extraction of hydrocarbons.

Methane hydrates that occur at high pressures by the and low temperatures in marine sediments from 400 m water depth in all oceans deserve special mention. The high concentration of methane in the gas hydrate structure and the global distribution of methane hydrates form a hydrocarbon

resource whose future use cannot be assessed at this stage (Fig. 3-1). Potential methane hydrate extraction for energy in the future will depend on many factors. Before gas hydrates can be used at all, it must first be better understood, how such gas hydrates are distributed in the sediments and how they dissolve. Methane hydrate deposits could continue to play an important role in the CO2 sequestration. CO2 hydrates are more stable than methane and are formed during the injection of liquid CO2 into a methane hydrate reservoir. The CO2 bound in this way in solid mineral form is probably more stably withdrawn from the atmospheric circulation, as done by sequestration on land and in shallow seas like the North and Baltic Sea. Coupled with the natural gas production from methane hydrate deposits this CCS Technology (Carbon Capture & Storage) supporting the necessary changes in the climate CO2 reduction could be an alternative to normal CCS technology. It probably allows much more secure CO2 sequestration procedures than those previously planned. In addition, the supply of methane from methane hydrates is essential for the development of chemosynthetic living faunal communities and for the “deep biosphere”.

Metallic raw materials are in the ocean as formations from hydrothermal vents, from crusts and manganese nodules are known in large water

Fig. 3-1: Fluid circulation of the earth’s crust in interaction with the ocean. Schematic representation of the main processes at "Cold Springs" (B) and "Hot Springs" (C).

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depths between 3500– 5500 meters and important for raw-material-strategic reasons. These are mainly the metals nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and Copper (Cu). Further rare metals with special properties such as gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), indium (In), selenium (Se) and terbium (Tb) are set to be in high demand in future technologies such as computers, electronics, or solar industry. In part they appear to be more enriched in marine reserves, which could facilitate their production. The marine geophysical exploration of such resources beyond the exclusive economic zones will be conducted in consultation with the International Seabed Authority of the United Nations, in which Germany is a member alongside more than 150 other countries. The investigations make it possible not only to tap the resources of the seabed. They contribute to the protection of the marine environment in mining areas and ensure a fair distribution of economic benefits. Many of the potentially useful areas are outside national economic zones and therefore need to be regulated internationally.

Fluid and gas seepages of hot and cold sources are extreme habitats on the seabed in the deep ocean.

They are dominated by organisms that exist in symbiosis with chemosynthetic bacteria. In particular, these micro-organisms that live at great depths of the oceans in extreme conditions, are seen as a possible source of biological substances that can be used for technical processes (blue biotechnology). For example, some deep-sea bacteria at hydrothermal jets have enzymes that work well in extremely hot conditions as bio-catalysts, whereas normal enzymes denature at high temperatures. The microbial populations that can survive for long periods and found in several hundred meters depth of sediments of the crust, present a large amounts of biomass (“deep biosphere”).

Specific metabolic processes and enzymatic catalysts remain hidden and may have great potential for biotechnological applications. To this extent, biogeochemical and bio-ecological research will bring new deep-sea bio-technological applications. The fluid and gas circulation of the continental margins is associated with a series of sea floor changes such as the seafloor cementation (e.g. carbonates, barite and gas hydrates) or gas emissions into the water column.

Gas hydrates are in a delicate balance with the natural environment. Changes in pressure and temperature can very quickly lead to the de-stabilisation of gas hydrates. On one hand, unstable gas hydrate release the greenhouse gas methane. On the other hand they can contribute to the instability of the continental slopes and trigger sea waves (tsunamis). Tsunamis have disastrous consequences for densely populated coastal regions. In its special report from 2003, the Scientific Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU) considers, the exploration of gas hydrates, therefore, of particular importance.

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Funding status Germany was one of the first countries, which in the context of its own research programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN initiated a study gas hydrates.

This built upon the pioneering studies on the gas hydrate zone of the Cascadia subduction zone, on the west coast of the United States, which were carried out with the German research vessel SONNE. The multidisciplinary work led to a drilling campaign on the Hydrate Ridge in the context of the “Ocean Drilling Program” (ODP), which was first carried out a reliable quantification of methane hydrates in a regional framework.

Since then, German researchers have taken up international leading position in several areas of gas hydrate research. This includes the development of new technologies, particularly in the areas of sensor technology, exploration, extraction and production techniques as well as plant construction.

Since 2000, the BMBF promotes gas hydrate research within the framework of R&D-programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. Twenty interdisciplinary research collaborations in science and industry have so far been supported with € 25 million. Involved were a total of 13 universities and private research institutions and seven private companies from the construction and energy supply branches. The research activities initiated a number of international collaborations. Among others, extensive contacts were built up, to joint research programs with the countries bordering the Black Sea, with China,

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Japan and Korea. In addition, German scientists were partners of the world’s first production well (Mallik) for methane (CH4) from gas hydrates, carried out in the permafrost soils of northern Canada.

Through the coordinated research support from the BMBF and the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi) since 2008 in the cooperative project SUGAR exploration and production technologies have been optimized and further developed to promote commercial production of gas hydrates in the medium term .

The edges of the continents are among the most important habitats and economic areas to man.

Continental margins have therefore shifted worldwide into the focus of research. To protect humanity but also because the basic processes of the earth system can be studied in situ as if in a giant natural laboratory. Between 2004 and 2007, the BMBF funded three research groups with a total budget of six million euro’s. While the consortia and TIPTEC SUNDAARC concentrated on active continental margins, the NAMIB GAS group made important new discoveries about processes at passive continental margins. In addition, in the years 2003 to 2008, the DFG supported eleven projects with about two million euro’s as a contribution to the European research programme Euromargins; a programme coordinated by the European Science Foundation (ESF). Based on the previous projects the DFG ultimately started the special programme SAMPLE: South Atlantic Margin Processes and Links with onshore evolution in 2008.

To strengthen the amphibian seismology -essential for the modern continental margin research technology- the German equipment pool for amphibian seismology (DEPAS) was founded in 2004.

This is a device pool of broadband seismometers for long-term missions on land and on the seabed. It currently consists of 100 land stations and 80 ocean bottom seismometers (OBS) and five ocean bottom hydrophones (OBH). Part of the equipment was funded by the BMBF R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN with a total of three million euro’s.

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Research status, development and application More than 95 percent of the water on the earth is in the oceans. It is estimated that this huge volume of about 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of water is pumped about every one million years through the submarine parts of the crust and mantle. Sea water circulates along fault systems through open crevasses or permeable channel systems of the lithosphere, the hydrological circulation is maintained primarily by heat distribution and advection. The circulating water flows through the altered rock formations and thereby changes its chemical composition. This circulation also leads to the formation of metals on the seabed. In subduction zones circulating water is transported into the depth with the crust and influences geological processes like earthquakes and magmatism there. Circulating seawater at convergence zones, but also at passive continental margins, can take in higher concentrations of hydrocarbons, which are then transported to deeper floors to form oil and gas deposits. Overall, the submarine circulation of water or aqueous fluids at the seafloor leads to very varying vents where an intense interaction between lithosphere and hydrosphere takes place.

Hydrothermal vents The most famous vents are those of of the hydrothermal fields. These are vents of convection cells, which are usually a few kilometers in size and are driven by energy absorption in the vicinity of crustal melting chambers. This occurs, for example in the areas of plate tectonic divergence zones along mid-ocean ridges, which represent 60,000 kilometers, one of the largest geological provinces.

With 21 cubic kilometers of magma, the annual oceanic divergence zones are responsible for more than 60 – 65 percent of the magma of the earth.

This oceanic magma production lead to, cold sea water, which penetrates into the crust, being heated by the magmatic heat source and then transported to the seafloor along an ascending branch of the convection cell, partially in a supercritical state. The hydrothermal circulation ensures effective heat transfer, which is responsible for much of the global energy transportation. With this convective circulation through intense rock fluid interaction, a hydrothermal fluid is formed,

which now has fundamentally different properties from the former sea water. Such high-temperature, hydrothermal solutions are usually characterized by low pH and Eh values, are oxygen and hydrogen sulphide rich and have a large number of dissolved substances (e. g. Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, S) absorbed. By mixing the hot fluids with cold, alkaline and oxygen-containing seawater near the seabed there is a severe over-saturation and spontaneous precipitation of trace-metal-rich sulphides, sulphates, oxides and silicates. In doing so they form mineralized stacks, the deposit potential varied depending on the metal deposits. The focused hydrothermal outlets are mostly black and white smokers (Fig. 3-2), while larger areas of diffuse outlets appear less spectacular. The recent studies of hydrothermal vents show a very broad spectrum, whose inventory is still not covered in its fullness. Recently highly concentrated CO2 outlets

have been discovered in the Okinawa Trough and pure sulfur outlets at submarine hydrothermal vents, which are fed by the Mariana-Island volcanism.

Cold sources of the continental margins Although less well known, cold springs (“cold seeps”) are probably of even greater significance than the hot spring because of their global occurrence. “cold seeps” are found in both passive and active continental margins. They are the near-seafloor manifestations of fluid circulation at the continental margins. While, in active subduction zones due to the convergence and the resulting tectonic stresses the drainage of the continental margin sediments has tectonic causes, the causes at passive continental margins are more diverse. Thus, for example, advective fluid circulations are maintained in the mighty continent margin sequences

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Fig. 3-2: Black Smoker "Kandelabra" in 3,000 m water depth in the Logachev hydrothermal field, Mid-Atlantic Ridge; application of temperature sensors.

The Deep Sea - technological and scientific challenge

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due to the release of freshwater, which is usually supported by migration of hydrocarbon compounds such as methane. The release of fresh water is caused by mineral reactions such as the conversion of smectite into illite or Opal-A into OpalCT or quartz. Saline waters, which are connected to the salt domes common at passive continental margins, mix with freshwater and cause fluid circulation controlled by the density differences in the water. Fault systems, caused by the general stretch tectonics or caused by halokinetics in the roof area of a salt dome, are frequently used, natural circulation paths. Outlet zones with very high flow rates are mud volcanoes in which usually water-rich-sludge associated with free gas is transported to the seabed. Mud volcanoes generally have cylindrical chimneys from 0.5 to five kilometers in diameter, through which the mud is transported to the sea bed from between two and 15 km deep fluid-rich strata origins. The rapid transport causes so-called bulk cones at the seafloor, igneous volcanoes are not dissimilar. As with all cold springs, the emission of fluids and gases from the seabed into the water column also occur in mud volcanoes. The outlet points themselves are characterized by biogeochemical processes that lead, for example, to the formation of authigenic carbonates, or barite. Many of these submarine cold seeps are characterized by leaking free methane. Thus today worldwide continental margins gas bubble outlets often detected with acoustic systems on the seafloor, which are not insignificant for the overall balance of carbon input.

Geosphere-biosphere interaction / “deep biosphere” Both “hot vents” and “cold seeps” are characterized by chemoautotrophic organism communities.

There are mainly mussels and beard worms that live in symbiosis with methanotrophic and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) oxidizing bacteria, colonizing the liquid and especially gas seepages. The symbiotic bacteria oxidize the reduced fluids containing the chemical compounds (hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen and methane) and develop organic compounds using the energy thus obtained. The newly formed molecules are then taken on by the host animal, who depend on this food source and in turn represents a food source for other organisms such as

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crabs, snails, sponges and anemones in the deep sea. Chemoautotrophic prokaryotes and archaea also exist, which are transported in part with the fluids from deeper sediment horizons. Although the seep and vent organisms colonise only the immediate area of the sources and are more likely to be very local phenomenons, investigations in recent years that have clearly shown that -mainly along the continental margins- seep organisms a much more widespread than previously thought.

The biomass formed is correspondingly high, which leads to a significant oxygen depletion in the soil and contributes to biogeochemical interactions.

Gas hydrates Gas hydrates are stable compounds from gas and water molecules, which, depending on the ocean water temperature and corresponding pressure from 300 to 700 meters depth, occur in the form of methane hydrates. A cubic meter of methane hydrate of Structure I contains up to 164 cubic meters of methane under earth surface conditions. Although the chemical structure of gas hydrates has been known for almost 200 years, we have only gradually realized their importance. So far, three structures have been discovered in nature (sI, sII and sH). The physical conditions (pressure P and temperature T) of natural hydrate deposits can be easily described, so that in principle, the gas hydrate distribution on the seabed is known. The availability of methane as a further prerequisite for methane-hydrate formation is however dependent on other geological factors, so that quantitative gas hydrate deposits, similar to the oil and gas , can only be developed by local studies (geophysical surveys and drilling). Such studies have been performed under the international Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) on the Blake Ridge and Hydrate Ridge on the continent at the edge of Oregon. Global estimates of methane-hydrate concentrations are very uncertain and vary from 500 – 75000 gigatons of carbon. These estimates are based on calculations of only a few holes and global numerical models. Most scientists assume an existing amount of approximately 5000 – 10000 gigatons of carbon in gas hydrates. The investigations of recent years have shown that gas hydrates are involved in many more processes than was pre-

viously thought. Since many developing countries pursue active gas hydrate programmes for power production, great progress is expected to be made in this area in the next few years.

Hydrogenetic manganese nodules and crusts In addition to the hydrothermal metal accumulation in the ocean, manganese nodules of the deep sea are also important, of commercial interest due to their metal content. These are concentrically grown tubers that are formed in parts of the deep sea furthest from, where an extremely low sedimentation prevails. In addition to iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) is the most common element, which due to its large adsorption capacity takes in mainly the cations Ni2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ from the ocean water and integrates them into the bulbous structure. Because of their slow growth it takes millions of years to create the nodules 25-centimeter in size. Mn and Fe are both redox-sensitive and wander in principle from the less oxic sedimentary environment in the highly oxic ground water environment. Also hydrogenetically formed cobalt-rich manganese crusts with Co-concentrations of about one percent are typically five to 100 millimeters thick, and can often be found in the Pacific mainly in 3000 – 11000 meters depth- as a growing crop on exposed rocks of old seamounts (100 – 60 million years old).

Necessary R&D tasks Future research in marine science in the context of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN needs to improve the knowledge on the following questions: 1. How does the exchange between the lithosphere, seabed and water column and what mass transfer is essential for climate change?

What are the effects of climate changes on the mass exchange? How big is the proliferation of chemoautotrophic organism communities and the importance they have in comparison to heterotrophic marine organisms? How does the circulation of fluid function in certain geological regions, and what impact does the cementation of the rocks have on the marine hydrology? How can the assessment of gas hydrates in oceanic sediments be improved and the dynamics of methane hydrates quantified correctly?

2. What factors affect the ecology of the seabed and how can a sustainable exploitation of the seabed be ensured during growing use of geo-resources? What geo-resources are of economic value and which could play a role in future?

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3. What are the causes and triggers of landslides on the upper continental slope? Which causes are natural and which are man made? What techniques are needed for the investigation of “geohazards” and how can past events be better dated? How can future disasters be prevented or their damage mitigated?

These very general questions cannot be answered easily or quickly by individual research projects.

There are questions that must be pursued as part of a middle to long-term research perspective.

There are, however, some issues to be solved with research projects, whose individual contributions are important foundations for further studies. Marine research in this area should be used as foundational research on a broad basis. Because of the complexity an interdisciplinary approach is required, between geologists and geophysicists together with biologists, geochemists, oceanographers and biogeochemists. A very important aspect is the provision of infrastructure and technology, which can only be developed in collaboration with engineers.

The immediate need for research is primarily recommended in the following areas: (i) Biosphere geosphere interaction in the deep sea Studies are needed to understand the mechanisms, such as how the organisms of the deep biosphere use organic material or other substance as an energy source. (ii) Fluid circulation in hydrothermal areas and continental margins A focus should be put in part on the quantification of methane and its distribution in the sediment.

Reliable studies on the economic prospects and environmental (climate impact) risks are also still to be undertaken.

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Fig. 3-3: Deployment of a seafloor drilling device from the research vessel METEOR.

(iii) Sustainable use of deep-sea resources While the marine research in the past depended mainly on the availability of research ships and their technological equipment, the development and use of innovative devices and monitoring stations will play a crucial role in the future. The application of key technologies is particularly important, depending on the focus of the research topic involved to include existing resources and quantify the risk of the planned undertakings. Efficient remote und close sensing methods with high spatial resolution and technologies will have particular importance in support of deep-sea mining. In the deep ocean today, up to 75 m long cores in water depths up to 2,000 meters can already be obtained by the seabed drill (MeBo; Fig. 3-3) developed in

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Germany. It makes sense to promote the development of the seabed drilling rig for larger drilling and operation depths.

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The Deep Sea - technological and scientific challenge 37

Oliver Bens

4. Soil – the skin of the Earth

The term “critical zone” describes the boundary layer of the earth’s surface, in which all exchange and turnover processes between lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere take place. A central part of the “critical zone” are soils (pedosphere). The pedosphere is the starting point of the massive transport of sediments by rivers and the transfer of chemicals into the oceans. Soils, including river valleys and connected coastal regions are the most important human habitats for and also the earth’s most vulnerable regions. In the context of global climate change, man directly or indirectly influences the underlying processes and structures of the “critical” zone, usually in a negative way. It is unclear how the sensitive “skin of the earth” will respond to this influence.

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Currently a research field is developing with the “critical zone”-concept that will provide solutions across all scales, technologies and products to meet the challenges of the next decades. New modern high performance techniques to identify and quantify the relevant processes can applied successfully. Finally, more new products such as soil additives are being produced with defined properties which drive to protect and restore soil functions in land-use processes. These specific technologies include high-resolution measurements of the Earth’s surface with geodetic techniques (high-precision, real time), the use of new geochemical process proxies polite and the determination of rates of erosion and material transactions with cosmogenic nuclides. In addition, they include the exploration of the shallow subsurface with noninvasive geophysical techniques, the identification of biogeochemical processes at the reactives, heterogeneous and three-dimensional interfaces of the soil using new microspectroscopic and microtomographic methods at nanometer to micrometer levels and access to molecular biological methods to help investigate the important biological processes for the functioning of the near-surface soils. The development of these modern techniques presents significant market potential for research, on the one hand, but also their further development into applicable routine methods for business/industry, government and third-world countries, on the other.

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4. Soil – the skin of the Earth

Introduction As an interactive interface between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, anthroposphere and lithosphere, the pedosphere as the skin of the earth (geoderma) is an existential basis for the habitat of man. The demands on soil sciences are therefore enormous: the world’s population is expected to grow by 2050 to nine billion people. At the same time, the prosperity of developing countries should improve. These results –particularly in the areas of nutrition, water supply, raw material supply and biodiversity– in increasingly diverse demands on soil resources. Demands through global changes, such as the climate change currently taking place with its specific regional effects, are made stronger. Both by the use of the anthropogenic pedosphere and through natural changes, the soils are changed in their properties and their sustainable capacity. Globally, over-exploitation and the resulting degradation of the resource soil are increasing.

International experts agree that soil is the most important – non increasable – georesource of the future. The above challenges can only be overcome through an in-depth understanding of the pedosphere and its interaction with the system

earth-mankind. The term “critical zone” describes the boundary layer of the earth’s surface from the top of the unweathered rocks to the top of the vegetation that holds most land-based, chemical, physical and biological exchange and transfer processes (Fig. 4-1, 4-2). The definition thus also includes the processes that are influenced by human activity. A central part of the “critical zone” are the soils (pedosphere). They are the product of the processes in the “critical zone”. As the skin of the earth, they control not only the global material cycles, but also soil clean the atmosphere and hydrosphere as a reactor, and provide the nutrition of the organisms on earth. In particular, river valleys and river deltas that contain the erosion products of the soil, are among the most important human habitats. At the same time they are among the most vulnerable regions of the planet.

Within global change, human increasingly influence the process of the pedosphere, directly or indirectly. Currently it is not yet clear how sensitive this skin will actually respond to changes. But surely it makes sense to use the georesource soil today as part of a sustainable soil engineering.

Specifically, this means, production, raw material and buffer functions should be used more care-

Fig. 4-1: The "critical zone" as an interface between litho-, hydro-, atmo- and biospheres.

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fully, and above all more sustainably. With regard to the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions this applies particularly to the transformation function of soils.

The global importance of pedosphere becomes clear when one considers the vast cycles, which take place at the surface: – 20 x 109 tons of sediment are eroded every year in a natural way and transported to rivers.

– 2 x 109 tons of chemical elements are annually weathered out of rocks and transported into the oceans.

– The chemical weathering removes about 0.1 x 109 tons of CO2 each year from the atmosphere and has been stabilizing the greenhouse effect for billions of years. This keeps the atmosphere temperature in a “habitable” state, in reverse, the evolution of Earth’s surface is a result of the prevailing local climatic conditions. If they change, the development of soils is also affected.

– Even on short (decadal) time scales, the processes of the “critical zone”, work against global change. With the natural sequestration of carbon during photosynthesis of plants, carbon is incorporated into the soil as stable or-

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ganic matter. So, approximately 120 x 109 tons of carbon is removed from the atmosphere each year by photosynthesis. The stored amount (up to 3,000 gigatons) exceeds that of the entire biosphere and the atmosphere contained amounts of CO2. Therefore, even small changes in carbon stocks in soil lead to relevant changes in the CO2 partial pressure the atmosphere. At the same time, these processes are also massively affected by climate-related changes in the vegetation and the degradation of the soil.

Since higher plants absorb significant amounts of metals and silicon, a large proportion of these elements is fed by the plant’s straw to the element cycle. The amount moved in this way is a multiple of the annual river transport of these elements. Through this efficient recycling plants use nutrients, which they would otherwise only slow and insufficiently obtain from the geosphere. Similarly, biological processes maintain an important position in the soil plant interactions, such as by engaging actively in the weathering and so provide nutrients to accumulate biomass.

Since the start of the Holocene, man has increasingly intervened in natural processes. The

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Fig. 4-2: Issues and contexts "of the" Critical Zone, connecting the processes of the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere at the surface.

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quantity of sediment and soil, which is moved each year by land use and settlement amounts to 100x109 tonnes. Of these, 30x109 tonnes for construction and 70x109 tonnes to agricultural land. This corresponds to a fivefold increase of the global ablation, making it one of the greatest human interventions in terrestrial systems in general.

The great scientific and socioeconomic importance of cycles for our society has strengthened research into the processes of the earth’s surface and the teaching thereof. In this the boundaries merge between the classic geoscientific disciplines of geology, geomorphology, physical geography, geochemistry, geophysics and soil science. They are also complemented by new branches of soil science (e. g. geopedology and hydropedology) and of microbiology, botany, plant physiology, biogeochemistry and environmental chemistry. Scientifically, it is about the in-depth exploration of fundamental questions. These include the landscape and sediment-forming processes and process-based functionality structure and including pedogenesis of the soils with the important interfaces pedosphere-atmosphere, pedosphere-biosphere, lithosphere-pedosphere respectively. The hydropedology hydrosphere-lithosphere at the interface (including soil physics/mechanics/hydrology) is also part of the modern soil research.

The “critical zone” forms a compartment of ecosystems or landscapes. In this context, the heterogeneity of soils is of particular importance. Only when the small-scale differences and patterns translated from them, that recur for example an the landscape scale, are known, can the scale transitions necessary be implemented. The heterogeneity in soil-chemical or soil-physical properties as well as in the composition and function of microorganisms and soil-microbiology affects the soil diversity. This includes the gas budget of soils in the sense of the “critical zone”. It develops a new conceptual approach of the biosphere of the surface over the deeper to “deep biosphere” (gas budget of the upper inhabited crust). Without the knowledge of how these factors interact with each other, neither an understanding of the cycles nor the quantification of material households is possible.

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New methodological and analytical approaches play an important role in this context, such as isotope analysis, the quantitative assessment of landscape forms with methods of Earth observation, the soil metagenomics and innovative modeling approaches, global change observatories and the transfer of information across scales (e. g. soil structure / laboratory experiment to planar mapping/modeling). In this context, a very dynamic research field is currently developing that to provide solutions and technologies across scales to meet the challenges of the next decades. Hence the use of modern high technology to identify and quantify these processes is promising. Also, the market potential of new technologies which, although designed for the research, but improved so that they can eventually be used routinely by the private sector, public authorities and from third world countries, is significant.

Funding Status First major work on this subject was carried out by the BMBF with the public tender for proposals “Tomography of usable sub-surface space – through ultrasonic scanning and real-time monitoring”, in January 2009. 47 research institutions and 32 companies participated with a total of 38 sketches and a total value of 33 million €. Nine collaborative projects have been recommended for funding by an international panel of experts. Funding is due to begin in early 2010. In 2008, upon the recommendation of the coordinating committee GEOTECHNOLOGIEN held three round table discussions for the characterization and quantification of individual nutrient cycles (C and N) and what initiates their reservoirs. Here the focus was mainly on today’s ecosystems and the development of new technologies for the C and N storage and its quantification. On the basis of a science plan developed in these round tables with the BMBF, a proposal for public notice was made.

Research status, development and application The starting point of all biological and geochemical events on the earth’s surface are the processes in the “critical zone”: unweathered rock is broken down, the basic material for soil formation is formed, solids and dissolved freight accumulate for

river transport, nutrients are made available to ecosystems. The “critical zone” approach – provide the following for these processes (1) permanent monitoring in model watersheds and (2) a virtual continuous observation, which is especially noteworthy. They identify, in globally distributed type localities, time-dependent and time-integrated results of the processes observed with morphometric, geochemical, geophysical and biogeochemical methods and simulates the different stages of a system. Under particular observation are the transient ecosystem boundaries and limits of progressive states such as permafrost or desert, but also lowering of groundwater, rewetting, young ablation and sedimentation areas or successional areas. This is done at three spatial scales (Fig. 4-3): a) the river basin, with its very heterogeneous soil landscapes; b) the individual pedons, and c) the scale of the nanometer-to micrometerstructures (or minerals and organic-mineral associations).

The following fundamental questions are raised: 1. What are the spatial and temporal scales over which, the sediment flows and solution rates and their drivers vary? What is the architecture of the soil and how is its interaction with physical and biogeochemical processes at the smallest spatial scale (what holds the soil together and causes its reactivity)? How can this knowledge at scales of small watersheds can be extrapolated to continents?

2. What are the relationships between erosion rates, relief and rate of crustal deformation as well as between crustal deformation, silicate weathering and the removal of atmospheric CO2, depending on the offset amount of disturbance and climate-controlled processes at the surface?

3. Which covers of change between climate and Earth surface? How do particular forms of relief and soils respond to climate change, and to what extent do pedogenic process depend on climate?

4. How can interactions between life and earth’s surface be quantified and characterized? This includes the search for the topographic fingerprint of the life on the Earth and the search for the characteristic isotope-geochemical systems

of certain microorganisms and higher plants and to assess the impact of biodiversity on the development of the earth’s surface.

5. To what nature or to what extent are the interventions of man in the earth’s surface system from the beginning of agrarian societies to this day? Included in this question are: the influence of systemic processes (e. g. climate, land use), the increased denudation as a result of the land degradation, the sequestration and transport of organic carbon, the contamination of the soil, solute fluxes and nutrient supply the rivers and oceans. Moreover, the implications for sustainable agriculture and forestry, with wind and water erosion, soil compaction, soil contamination, soil salination and desertification are considered beyond the puffer/ transformation and recharge capacity of the soil.

6. How can the system be used sustainably through soil engineering and hydrological management? These include the attainment of sustainable resource use and the reclamation and restoration of over-exploited or degraded sites, but also the improvement of soil condition and soil function through targeted interventions. Furthermore, to be mentioned in the context of protection against soil degradation caused by climate change, soil hydrophobicity, drought induced damage and nutrient losses.

7. How does the system genesis continue on from “point zero” (direction, intensity) under defined conditions as a basis for large-scale restoration and reclamation activities in devastated or degraded sites and landscapes? This includes the development of geo- to geo-hydro and finally to geo-hydro-bio-systems, which are intended to serve as part of a valorisation of land use or the process and biodiversity.

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For the “critical zone”-observatories four systems have been identified in the current process geomorphological research, which are regarded as critical for the management of material cycles. Of these, the first two are interpreted in terms of a stationary equilibrium, while the third and fourth describe extremely imbalanced systems: 1. Weathering is limited by reactivity – physical erosion is too fast for complete mineral weath-

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Figure 4-3: The three spatial scales, on which there Earth surface processes take place and are investigated. (Left) River basin in Sri Lanka heavily modified by deforestation; (middle), chemical and physical processes in the "critical zone", (Right) Scanning electron microscope image of a weathered feldspar, which decomposes to clay minerals.

ering, but plants are constantly supplied with fresh mineral nutrients (tectonically active mountain range).

2. Weathering is limited by availability – physical ablation processes are too slow, the chemical weathering zone is below the reachability of plants, so they are undersupplied with mineral nutrients (tropical cratons).

3. Weathering, formation and biotic colonization begins at “point zero”. The initial transformation of the natural loose/ bedrock material takes place through initial exposure. This happens naturally, for example, after the retreat of a glacier, sediment deposition or the eruption of volcanic lavas; or through human activities, for example, through mining with tip and stockpile re-naturation.

4. Erosion and weathering accelerated by land use. If the land is not adapted to the site that the weathering changes intensity changes too.

Together they accelerate the wind-and waterbased erosion in the “Critical Zone” strongly.

How high as a result are the anthropogenic fluxes through accelerated soil erosion and what effect will this have on the C, N and water cycles?

The exploration of these relationships benefits from new methods to place these processes in a physically and chemically profound correlation.

Moreover, the processes in complex numerical models are simulated in four dimensions. There is,

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for example, currently no knowledge of whether the soils in Germany are a C-source or a C-sink, whereby in climate modeling –at least as far as the carbon budget is concerned– these deficits have not really addressed, but rather accepted as more or less known in a black box approach.

Necessary R&D tasks In the focus of the necessary R&D tasks are (1) the four system conditions of the “critical zone” and its influence on the present and the geological past, (2) the material cycles, the production, transport and deposition of sediments, and ( 3) sustainable management in the sense of “geo and soil engineering”, and (4) the distribution of anthropogenic “high-tech elements” on the terrestrial Earth surface. These core issues are to be explored with the following development projects: (i) Terratraces Terratrace deals with the geochemical traces left by cycles on the terrestrial surface. The project is to weigh up the influence of natural processes and human activities on cycles of important elements such as carbon (C), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), alkali and alkaline earth metals and nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) in the “critical zone” at different scales. Germany has unique scientific expertise and analytic infrastructure in the field of geochemistry of the elements and their isotopes. In the area of global carbon budget, there are also unique opportunities with these methods to quantify the an-

thropogenic impact on material flows in the “critical zone”.

Terratraces expertise should apply to all processes, including those of the soil, groundwater, river and rain water and the sedimentation systems that develop from it. This includes trace gases through anthropogenic emissions which pass into the geosphere; also those processes that lead to the formation of supergenous metal raw materials and the material cycles, which are induced by the vegetation. Terratraces has strong potential for application in the field of geo-resources, environmental technology, food science, the distribution of artificial radionuclides in the environment and to improve soil management (e.g. related to the erosion influenced and /or drought altered Cbudget of the pedosphere), also in the use of aggregates (known as soil additives) and the development of new analytical techniques and methods for the introducing these soil aid substances through companies from the soil, soil remediation and specialty crops areas. (ii) Cosmogenic nuclides: Timeline of Earth surface processes The measurement of rates and aging is essential to quantify material transactions in Earth surface processes. The measurement of cosmogenic nuclide-materials in the earth’s surface offers an excellent tools for this purpose. Cosmogenic nuclides are very rare isotopes resulting from nuclear reactions of cosmic rays with atoms in the atmosphere or on the surface. With the installation of the DFGfunded accelerator mass spectrometer at the University of Cologne, from 2010, Germany has an outstanding research opportunity in this area. The potential methods there include the cosmogenic nuclides beryllium-10 (in-situ and meteoric), carbon-14, aluminum 26, chlorine 36, and even the fallout nuclide-iodine-129 and the actinides.

Now it is important to develop new applications that take advantage of this. A program is proposed that ensures the measurement of large amounts of data (size: 1000 data per project) and the accompanying sample preparation, of amongst others: ice cores, sediment cores, recent stream sediment, soil and groundwater. Technol-

ogy transfer takes place here in the area of AMS technology and analytical periphery development.

In the latter case there is strong pent-up demand.

Furthermore, the erosion rates and exposure ages obtained are important time markers in the field of georisk assessment (earthquakes and landslide reoccurrence rates), flood research, sedimentary basin development and the formation of loose rock and soil, the scarcest georesource in Germany.

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(iii) Non-destructive investigation of the shallow subsurface using geophysical technologies – Identification and localization of internal structures (permafrost, waterlogged horizons, slip surfaces in landslides, etc.) through the combined application of relevant procedures (electromagnetic induction, electrical resistivity tomography, ground penetrating radar, seismic reflection and refraction, magnetotelluric, microgravimetry) – Identification and quantification of subsidence, subsidence, landslides, and densities in the shallow subsurface. Coupled with analysis for the detection and early warning of natural hazards, such as landslides and other mass movements – Quantification of sediment bodies (2D / 3D), coupled with geomorphic processes and highresolution data (DTM, TLS) and with topography or sediment budget models – Monitoring by means of permanent measuring devices (such as resistance tomography) for monitoring parameters in slope, etc. cliff stability (humidity, conductivity, ice-/water content). (iv) Morphology and crustal movements A programme is proposed for worldwide flight mission research with LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). The goal is high-resolution 3-D topography. An example is NCALM (U.S. National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping) (Fig. 4-4). (v) Management of anthropogenic biogeochemical cycles of carbon and hydrological systems Carbon is at the focus of the discussion on adaptation to climate change. Especially in its oxidized form as CO2 and its reduced form as CH4 carbon

Soil – the skin of the Earth

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reinforces the radiative force and contributes thus to global warming. In addition to traditional combustion processes it is biological processes of respiration and fermentation / digestion in particular that produce these gases. Biological processes, however, are controlled mainly by the presence of water and nitrogen. This finding has until now only slightly been reflected in the interdisciplinary study of cycles. In the area of the anthropogenic impact of accelerated erosion on the global carbon budget no agreement prevails, even on the direction of this process. The development of use-specific soil management for agricultural and agroforestry systems and recultivation and restoration tasks that bring all three streams with the functions and services of these systems (ground water, food production, carbon storage, nutrient supply) in line, looks particularly promising. In addition, options for the modification of soils, including the unsaturated zone to the increase in C-storage and the related soil functions (such as water – and nutrient retention, sustained profitability) will be developed (soil engineering using soil additives). (vi) Carbon storage and location type humus content in soils and the deeper unsaturated zone The humus content in soils is mainly determined by

processes and structural properties that maintain the natural soil functions and therefore the usage properties. At the same time the natural site characteristics and the human use define the humus content and humus quality of a soil. For the protection of the soil, but also in the context of the current climate debate, the humus of soils and carbon stocks are of scientific, social and economic interest. The fundamental importance of the organic substance in natural soil functions is scientifically well documented, and relevant relationships have been explored qualitatively.

A comprehensive assessment of the status quo of the humus content and humus supply of soils in Germany and a reliable derivation of potentials for carbon sequestration can – based on the available data – not be made. Especially for agrarian soils, it is necessary to collect the humus content and other parameters that characterize the soil organic matter properly for an areal assessment. The development of a national soil-C monitoring is a central and strongly demanded measure by various expert panels. (vii) System genesis and development from point zero under conditions of stationary equilibrium

Fig. 4-4: Example for the development of the relief displacement along the active San Andreas fault.

The digital elevation model was achieved with LIDAR.

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and induced disorder as a basis for large-scale restoration and recultivation measures New research approaches investigate which control structures and processes and which interactions between the structures and processes steer the development in an ecosystem or landscape segment during the initial phase and how to distinguish the nature and intensity of these developments from the type and intensity of more mature phases. The subject of investigation is the “critical zone” in the four aforementioned system states: 1. Weathering is limited by reaction 2. Weathering is limited by availability 3. Weathering, formation and biotic colonization begins at “point zero” 4. Erosion and weathering are accelerated by land use.

forecasting models have been based on not quite quantifiable systems. Furthermore these had already undergone a development which was generally not sufficiently well known. Using the approach presented here can be improved future statements will be realized, for example, in the development of the carbon budget of terrestrial ecosystems. Particularly important is also the fundamental understanding of how plants – depending on soil quality – can be supplied with nutrients.

How does, for example, the nutrition of plants on the availability limited soils of the tropics differ from the plants of reactivity limited soils, such as those found in active mountain ranges? Exactly for this necessary comparison of the rates of the various process systems, the new technologies allow tremendous scientific progress. A greatly improved forecasting ability will be associated with it.

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The central hypothesis is: The initial phase shapes the further development, this knowledge improves the prognosis of the future state of ecosystems.

These studies are designed with defined boundary conditions at the level of landscape segments (global change observatories, artificial water basins). Recognized processes and structural changes and their interactions are experimentally verified. The aim of the study is the analysis of the initial development processes that are influenced and controlled under the prevailing site factors by forming structures and to explain their dependencies. In the phase of the stationary equilibrium, the investigation to what extent the initial system development traces through and what the control factors (e. g., crustal movements, climate change) are. Ultimately integral concepts on the ecosystem structure development and process dynamics and the underlying chemical and geomorphological processes should be developed. These interactions are analyzed during the initial phase and the subsequent equilibrium phase and after subsequent disturbances of the ecosystem genesis on the basis of clearly delineated hydrological watersheds and form the basis for model validation. This enables the quantification of the relevant processes such as the material and water balance. Based on the assumption that the initial phase shapes the further development, the predictive modeling of ecosystem – also of more mature systems – will be significantly improved; for until now ecosystem

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K+S / Wintershall

5. Future Area Underground – georesources and geotechnics

The ground under us contains the main georesources energy, water and infrastructure. The geosciences offer concepts for a responsible use of the surface: (1) for a sustainably available and environmentally compatible energy supply, geothermal resources, hydrocarbon reserves and geological storage possibilities can make a decisive contribution.

(2) for the switch to new energy supplies, new generation technologies can be developed and (3) new ore systems can be explored to meet the needs of high tech metals to cover future demands.

(4) for infrastructure developments of the future, which in many places can only be built underground, new exploration methods and technological strategies have to be developed.

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In order for Germany to play an international leading role in these areas in the future – from development and exploration through to monitoring – a targeted effort in multidisciplinary pilot and demonstration projects are needed. In these projects, we must succeed in developing results through basic R&D activities through to pre-production products. The german engineering and german companies, determine the status of knowledge and development in many areas. The projects proposed here, that are planned in close cooperation between university, research institutes and small and large companies, will help to maintain this advantage. georesources are finite, and only if we start to use this responsibly today, will we be able to inherit a healthy environment for future generations. It is our responsibility to use the georesources more intelligently, securely and with greater protection.

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5. Future Area Underground – georesources and geotechnics Introduction The earth is now home to more than 6.75 billion people. They all live on and from the georesources underground. To satisfy the basic needs of people for food, clothing and housing, raw materials and energy are increasingly needed and used to an unprecedented extent. With a net population growth of about 75 million per year and an ever strong population concentration in cities, the responsible management of the underground is a major challenge. If about 2 percent of world population in 1800 lived in cities, it was 30 in 1950 percent and 47 percent in 2000. In 2008, for the first time more people lived in cities than outside them. If the prediction of UN-Habitat is correct, by 2030 about 60 percent of the world population will be city dwellers.

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Environment (climate variations, human influence on climate and environment).

The demand for georesources is reinforced by an economic development – especially in the industrial and emerging countries – based on energy and raw material consumption. The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects a doubling of energy demand in the coming two to three decades (Fig. 5-1) and, consequently, a doubling of CO2 emissions.

The growing population concentration particularly in large cities requires the building of infrastructure to supply the population with water, energy and goods.

This infrastructure must be shifted underground as far as possible to guarantee a secure supply.

The energy supply in Germany as in the whole world rests essentially on a “mix” from fossil fuel supplies (petroleum, natural gas and coal), renewables and nuclear energy (Fig. 5-1 right). The fossil fuel supplies with about 80 percent make up by far the biggest share of the total energy supply. Despite all efforts to reduce the dependency on fossil fuel supplies for reasons of climate protection and for aspects of sustainability, petroleum, natural gas and coal will be used worldwide for many years to bear the brunt of the energy supply.

Against the backdrop of a steadily growing world population the 1996 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Richard E. Smalley formulated the biggest challenges for the 21st Century. The four largest of these depend directly on limited georesources: – Energy (now predominantly covered by fossil fuels) – Water (new challenges posed by projected climate change) – Food (now very energy intensive due to artificial fertiliser, management, transport)

Since the 1990s the world consumed more than was newly discovered (Fig. 5-1 left). Although the sum of carbon-based fuels will be sufficiently available for the coming decades at least (including the unconventional fossil fuels such as oil sands, unconventional gas, etc.), significant bottlenecks and price increases are in sight, drawn by an increase in consumption. Only through the use of so-called unconventional fossil fuel supplies can the situation in relation to the medium-term energy supply be alleviated, although there are still manifold geo-

Fig. 5-1: (Left) Global oil production (consumption) and newly discovered deposits. Since the 90 years, more oil has been consumed, than new deposits are discovered. (Right) Projection of future energy demand

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technical problems. This requires the development of intelligent exploration and production technologies.

Potential effects of burning fossil fuels, particularly coal, include desertification, to modify the water balance of the earth, sea level rise or retreating of the glacier ice. In addition to direct CO2 reduction technologies (such as Carbon Capture and Storage, CCS), where CO2 is stored geologically, in the short to medium and long term, there are significant R&D efforts to create a shift in a low-CO2 energy production. One example is the use of geothermal energy. In shaping the human habitat for coming generations, alongside reduction technologies, the appropriate adaptation technologies is also needed.

Most technologies that are being considered for a reduction of CO2 emissions, require valuable raw materials. It is often unknown, that the currently known reserves of raw materials will not meet the needs of the next decade, if the proposed CO2 reduction technologies in various climate scenarios should in fact be used. To meet growing demand for raw materials, new ore types including, oxidic platinum ore and manganese nodules and crusts are to be used.

Besides the demand for ores, fossil fuels or mineral substrates, the georesource underground is increasingly used for the storage and disposal of substances or as a geothermal energy resource. To achieve a responsible use of the limited underground, R&D efforts must be made with which the subsurface can be used as synergistically as possible. This means, technologies must be developed, which instead of creating competing uses of the underground, allow a common, intelligent use of this valuable resource.

Any interference in georesources underground means a risk. To minimize risks, increase efficiency in the use and make economic use of the underground possible –also for future generations– we need new insights into complex feedback processes. Innovative geotechnologies must be developed and successfully used in pilot, demonstration and large-scale experiments. A responsible

use of the georesources underground requires a multidisciplinary approach, concentrating not on individual compartments, but rather the underground as a whole. For this, the entire process chain will be covered from the exploration through to the exploitation up to the supervision. In particular, the area of our planet near the surface (meters to several kilometers) is for the daily lives of people of great importance. Here are the vital water and natural resources, important storage areas and environmentally friendly energy resources. As a foundation for the building industry and underground transport facilities, the highest part of the earth’s crust is also important. The exploration technologies for these economically and ecologically sensitive areas are, however, only weakly developed. There is particular need for technologies and methods that enable high-resolution imaging of structures and processes in the subsurface at various spatial and temporal scales.

In addition to new and further developments in the field of mathematical geophysics, and field measurement, it is particularly important to develop approaches that allow a specific and application-specific linkage of existing procedures. These include, for example, reflection seismology, geomagnetism, or electromagnetics. Using these methods could open up new application areas – e.g. for testing materials or the exploration of underground space as a potential storage area for the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2).

Funding status On the recommendation of the coordinating committee GEOTECHNOLOGIEN, BMBF and DFG have so far focused their promotional activities in this topic for the future on three priorities: (1) Development of innovative pre-exploration technologies in mining Between 2005 and 2009 BMBF funded four joint with a total of four million euros. Technologies developed the projects, include new seismic pre-exploration systems that can be installed directly into the tunnel boring machines. They are especially suitable for the deployment in cities. Here, a reliable geophysical survey of the ground before the start of the construction project is restricted or not possible because of the dense development. Thus

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a wide range of applications opens for a technology developed in Germany and now marketed for mass production.

(2) Geological storage of CO2 Through the framework of the R&D program GEOTECHNOLOGIEN the BMBF has taken over the leadership in Germany for R&D work on the topic of geological storage of CO2. For fundamental and site-specific projects approximately 45 million € in 2011 are available. Since mid-2005, 20 interdisciplinary research have been funded, involving companies, university and other academic institutions.

The work is limited primarily to fundamental research on laboratory experiments or model calculations. The projects are the first nationally coordinated activities for the underground storage of CO2 and contribute greatly to strengthen the know-how in Germany on this issue. All research projects are carried out in close cooperation with international research activities. Complementary to the R&D work, the BMBF supports the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi) in the COORETEC research program to develop new and improved technologies for CO2 capture and efficiency enhancement of future power plants.

(3) Sedimentary basins – the greatest asset of humanity Although sedimentary basins are sometimes many thousands of square kilometers in size, they occupy only a relatively small part of the whole Earth’s surface. As the interface between atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere sediment basins contain the greatest part of the major raw material and energy resources – so important for humanity– such as the fossil fuel supplies petroleum and natural gas. However, geothermal energy, natural building materials and much of the vital drinking water is also produced from sedimentary basins.

Moreover, these areas of the earth’s crust constitute important economic areas, such as a locations for landfill or storage caverns. The sustainable use of sediment basins by their populations requires a comprehensive understanding of the processes involved here.

Between 2002 and 2008, the DFG funded the priority programme “dynamic sedimentary systems

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under varying stress regimes on the example of Central European Basin System” with just under 6.5 million euros. Representatives of 19 research projects from 13 university and non-university research institutions were involved. The work was carried out in close cooperation with domestic and foreign energy companies and contributed significantly to the establishment of the course “Applied Earth Science” at the German University of Technology (GUTech), a private university in Muscat, Oman affiliated to RWTH Aachen.

Research status, development and application (i) Geothermal resources Geothermal energy is already successfully commercially used in sediments (eg Molasse) and bedrock (eg in Iceland) (Fig. 5-2). Through the development of specific geophysical reservoir characterization, drilling technologies and advanced management through extended management of the reservoirs, it is possible to use such geothermal sites that were previously classified as not suitable. However, for the large-scale use of geothermal energy, which was to enable a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2050 by approximately one gigaton contribute to CO2 per year range, the existing technologies are not advanced enough. (ii) Geological storage of CO2 The large-scale geological storage of CO2 requires management of the underground in an unprecedented dimension. This is particularly true in areas with high population density. Here, the exploration of underground storage areas, the storage of CO2 and its monitoring have to be ensured in the long term. In Ketzin a unique research infrastructure exists that allows us to map the entire process from exploration through to monitoring and to test new procedures. (iii) Non-conventional hydrocarbon resources In view of the importance of fossil fuel supplies for our society, it is astonishing that with the current exploration methods on global average only a third of the available petroleum in the reservoirs can be recovered. The greatest part of the oil remains, technically or economically unavailable in the reservoirs.

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Fig. 5-2: (Left) geothermal energy in more than 3000 m depth, hot dry rock process.

(Right) storage of heat and cold as part of the holistic energy supply of the Reichstag.

In the future evermore unconventional hydrocarbon resources will take the place of traditional petroleum and natural gas. These include as oil slates, tar sands, low permeability gas source rocks, gas hydrates, low permeability gas-enriched sandstones, extremely low-lying gas fields (below 4 km depth) and adsorbed methane in coal seams.

The recovery of unconventional hydrocarbon resources is associated in part with substantial negative environmental impacts (e.g. tar sands). On the other hand some unconventional gas reservoirs offer the possible longer use of the cleanest fossil fuel, natural gas, than otherwise produced from the traditional natural gas fields. In Europe, little is known about the potential of these deposits. The efficient exploration and exploitation of unconventional hydrocarbons require new geological and geotechnical and microbiological methods and strategies. In particular, the recovery of such deposits in densely populated areas of Central Europe is a technical challenge (iv) High technology metals Metals for a future technologies and prospective future technologies (e. g. solar energy, electric power, fuel cells) require a number of rare metals.

The required quantities for these strategically important high technology metals such as gallium (Ga), neodymium (Nd), indium (In), scandium (Sc), germanium (Ge), platinum (Pt) and tantalum (Ta) significantly exceeds today’s annual production (Fig. 5-3).

(V) Use of the subterranean space in urban areas Any interference underground is an intervention in a complex feedback oriented system. There are a number of empirical and process-based methods for construction projects to assess their impact on the environment. Adjacent buildings can be significantly endangered (Fig. 5-4, left). Well known are, the description of the interaction between buildings and soil, the use of the known material laws, the use of observation and forecasting models and the use of geophysical methods and geostatistical analysis to avoid or minimize deformation in the subsurface.

In future it will be important to find quantitative material laws (e. g. alter solid rocks, effects of fluids) with even better, more robust parameters. It must also make predictions for complex construction sites and technical operations possible. This is

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Fig. 5-3: Requirements of metallic raw materials for a future technology in 2006 compared with 2030 in terms of today’s global production.

especially important in the hitherto little explored depths below three kilometers. Therefore the considerable improvement of geophysical methods and (geo-)statistical analysis methods is necessary.

Innovative construction techniques and procedures for examining material in the laboratory under the given pressure-temperature circumstances, and other stress conditions, must also be developed. (vi) Critical phenomena Natural and anthropogenically triggered critical phenomena such as landslides, sinkholes or mud volcanoes and dam failures or slope instabilities cause billion’s of damage annually (Fig. 5-4, right).

The influence of climate on critical states (e. g. rock fall due to changes in permafrost soils in high mountain areas) as well as a process understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the critical phenomena (e. g. alterable solid rock, leaching and phase-transition processes etc.), belong to the current challenges of modern GEOTECHNOLOGIEN research. (vii) Sensor Networks The increasing use of the ground requires new, automated, and structurally integrated sensors. In initial projects, it has been possible to develop automated alerting using methods of artificial intelligence (AI) (neural networks). Increased computer power and new methodological approach to AI currently allows the development of new monitoring and evaluation technology. Not only do they lead to an integrated analysis (Joint inversion) of different observations (seismics, DC resistivity, gravimetry, etc.), but they also enable the analysis of observations in real time.

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Necessary R&D tasks The responsible use of the subterranean space raises a series of questions with great potential for innovation. To be able to map out the entire chain from fundamental research to application, project topics will be proposed which can effectively target and handle urgent issues. This approach requires close multidisciplinary cooperation that brings the geoscience research community together to overcome the limits of individual facilities . (i) Reservoir Characterization: From competing for synergistic use of the subterranean space In Europe, several billion euros from the public hand is expected to flow to large geologic CO2 storage projects in the coming years. It still has not been established, how and where geothermal energy and CO2 storage influence each other positively or negatively. A scientific monitoring of demonstration projects, would make it possible to test a synergetic use on real examples (Fig. 5-5).

These projects range from geo-exploration (geological, geophysical, geochemical, petrological and space-based methods) across the reservoir characterization and development (drilling technology, reservoir engineering, geomechanics, reservoir modeling) to the short-, medium-and long-term monitoring with geochemical, geophysical and biological methods. Here, the geochemical, physical, and biological process parameters that affect the surface, need to be understood quantitatively.

New risk-assessment methods will be used to develop, apply and validate best practice guidelines.

5 Fig. 5-4: (Left) Collapsed city archive Cologne due to a basic hydraulic fracture in a tunnel construction site.

(Right) rockfall in Topanga Canyon, California, USA.

Large scale research is also needed concerning the distribution of porosity and permeability in the area of hydrocarbon reserves, especially unconventional natural gas deposits. Stimulation processes are almost always necessary at very low permeability for efficient use. Their success depends, however, on the most accurate knowledge of the porosity and permeability distribution, the gas saturation and cleft-and fault distribution. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the reservoir properties is prerequisite for successful exploration. New research approaches must therefore join different geoscientific data sets according to an optimized reservoir management.

Two large real-scale experiments are proposed: – Geothermal usage in advance of a CO2-Enhanced oil /gas recovery – Combined geothermal/CCS-project to optimize the reservoir capacity, while incrementing the storage security. (ii) Unconventional energy source: from reservoir analysis to reservoir management The permeability of unconventional gas resources, for example in low permeability sandstones, shales, or in coal seams lie far below those of conventional deposits. To use these reservoirs, new methods must be developed so that the gas can be mobilized. The microbiological and geochemical questions on gas formation at high temperatures and the increase in exploitation of the deposits form the key challenges.

In Germany, there are probably significant occurrences of the aforementioned unconventional energy deposits. Their responsible exploitation requires cross-disciplinary R&D projects. Thus, after geological, geophysical and geochemical exploration in certain circumstances three-dimensional models of the subsurface geological structures and their temporal evolution must be reconstructed and modeled. Only then can we quantify the hydrocarbon systems and understand their formation, migration, accumulation and alteration processes quantitatively.

The search for fossil fuel supplies and their production requires extensive practical research. With rising energy needs in the future petroleum, natural gas and coal will remain the main source of energy and energy security in the coming decades. (iii) High Technology Metals (HTM) The young technologies (such as white LEDs, CIGS solar cells, rapid and low-energy chips, high-performance permanent magnets, Li-ion batteries or fuel cells) will grow dramatically in the coming years. Here, the availability of rare metals such as gallium, scandium, indium and germanium will play a major role. The industrial supplies of these metals is complicated by the fact that they are usually associated with other elements in ores. Further, for some of these high-tech metals individual mining companies or single countries are worldmarket leader, so a strong concentration of producers is to be reported.

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Fig. 5-5: Utilizing the synergy of the background on the example of CO2 storage and geothermal exploitation.

The aim is to improve the provision of raw material and expand production, while increasing the resource efficiency. In this way can ensure that supply of the rare high-technology metals to industry.

To achieve this goal, the entire production and value creation chains of mineral resources from the deposits across the processing and metallurgy to recycle un-investigated. In other words, “Life Cycle”-strategies for rare metals of strategic importance for future technologies must be developed. (iv) Critical processes: from the material property to risk minimization To describe critical phenomena about substance laws and probabilistic approaches, the mechanisms and processes that the material properties are based on, must be known quantitatively and linked to the appropriate modeling strategies. The properties mostly have an unknown scale dependency, which is important to reduce the risk to constructions. Strategies should be developed to increase the security of geotechnical projects. Here, new materials must be developed (for example, on the basis of nano-particles), tested and used. In this

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context, laboratory studies, field experiments and appropriate technologies are necessary to detect the approximation to critical conditions so that timely action can be taken. Further it is necessary to examine exactly how accurate predictive modeling strategies are. (v) Exploration and monitoring technologies: From sensor networks to real-time information Innovative concepts are required to increase the safety of constructions (infrastructure under and above the surface, dams, buildings, etc.) and for monitoring of geological storage and disposal sites, such as automated and continuous monitoring and enable real-time alerting. To accomplish this, different monitoring technologies must be networked intelligent and evaluated (sensor fusion, network merger, joint inversion).

Suitable monitoring is required in advance exploration technologies (in geophysics, geology, geochemistry and biology advance). They are the basis for the development of appropriate monitoring concepts. In addition to new developments in geotechnical developments – from new sensors to innovative experiments and analysis algorithms –

here sensor networks and evaluation logic can be implemented based on evaluation algorithms or neural networks. This should confront the complex data with an appropriate evaluation logic.

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by John Kashuba (Johnkashuba.com)

6. Geomaterials – from the use of their surface properties to innovative high-pressure properties The dynamics of the Earth are decidedly formed by the properties of the minerals and rocks at its surface and in its interior. The investigation of material properties therefore has a similar meaning in the modern earth sciences to the molecular biology for the study of life. Only a complete understanding of the causes and mechanisms of geological processes from the atomic to the planetary scale allows quantitative predictions of the in the Earth’s system. Geomaterials have a practical significance not just as raw materials and building materials. The structure principles studied in them are applied in mesoscopically structured ceramics or microscopic functional materials (e.g. fast electronic memory). The principles can be even be used in special extreme materials that have an extreme hardness and elasticity. Many of these special properties result from the combination of texture (clusters, grain boundaries, inner and outer surfaces) and atomic structure (disorder/order and defect concentration) of geomaterials. Thus, the local structure and symmetry of the material defines physical and chemical properties such as electronic, magnetic or optical qualities. Further, with additional texture effects, the macroscopic material behavior can be changed drastically. Geomaterials can be exact adapted to industrial applications (such as low dimensional conductors, fast ferroelectric memory, biomimetic ceramics). Similar effects also play a large role in the magnetization of natural rock, which ultimately gives us information about the movement of tectonic plates in the geological past and about the evolution of the Earth’s magnetic field.

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Methods and procedures which have been developed to better understand the processes of the Earth’s interior, are now also used for the synthesis of new industrial materials. The high-pressure research and its methods, enable the synthesis of materials with new properties. An example is advanced semiconductors, but also ultrahard materials such as industrial diamonds, which are now produced synthetically for the greater part.

The current need for research focuses on the following applications of geomaterials: (1) reactions on external and internal interfaces (e.g., immobilization of toxic elements /compounds and metamikter, radioactive irradiated phases) and bio-mineralization (such as biomimetic functional materials, tooth-bone implants).

(2) development of high technology and its applications for the exploration of the Earth’s interior on the one hand and the synthesis of new materials (e. g. deformation hardening, ultra hard phases) on the other.

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6. Geomaterials – from the use of their surface properties to innovative high-pressure properties Introduction The geochemical exchange between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere is usually takes place through reactions between aqueous solutions and minerals and on mineral surfaces and internal interface surfaces. The chemical weathering affects important element cycles near the surface (carbon, oxygen, sulfur, iron) on a global level. It controls, for example, the chemical composition of water bodies and rivers or enriches the soil with nutrients. The mobility of contaminants is controlled by weathering reactions. Often the events are in are additionally catalyzed by microorganisms. Weathering is the most important geological process that over long periods removes CO2 form the atmosphere and thus regulates the climate on Earth.

Processes of the mineral surfaces take place at atomic and molecular length scales. Elementary reactions such as dissolution and the growth and mineral transformations, adsorption and ion exchange are important for a variety of geological processes. Even with technical procedures weathering reactions are taken advantage of: for example, in fixation of pollutants (including radioactive elements) on mineral surfaces (Fig. 6-1) (in particular for the availability of drinking water), in corro-

sion processes, or in the activation and making industrial minerals functional (e.g. sheet silicates).

Even in the industrial sequestration of CO2 the study of mineral reactions is of particular interest.

Because only if local interactions are understood, the storage capacity and safety of possible geotechnical approaches can be assessed.

Funding status Since April 2008, thirteen collaborative projects on the topic of mineral surfaces – ”Mineral surfaces; from atomic processes to geotechnics” – have been funded by BMBF with a complete volume of nearly eight million Euros in funding. Nine collaborative research institutions, 23 hospitals and 20 companies were involved. The aim of the research is to understand and quantitatively assess mineral surfaces and inner interfaces in their full complexity from nanometer to millimeter scale in terms of new processes and products to alter chemical, physical and biological functionalization. Clay minerals by their specific charge distributions are of particular interest. Also biotechnological processing procedures and the development of bioactive mineral surfaces are to be investigated. These new technologies could one day come to be used in the environment or medical technology.

Fig. 6-1: Partially weathered glacial sediment with precipitation of fanshaped manganese oxides. Besides the element mobilization by the transformation of primary minerals, retention of metals in the pore space and thereby solidification also takes place. Backscattering-electron image (left) and color-coded elemental map (right). Red = silicon, manganese = Green, Blue = iron.

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Research status, development and application In order to investigate processes of the Earth’s interior in high-pressure experiments, the pressure and temperature conditions are simulated as well as possible. Extremely high pressures, which correspond to the conditions at the core of the earth, can be achieved with diamond anvil cells. The sample between the tips of two diamonds is compressed. The disadvantage of this method is that: only extremely small samples of 0.01 to a maximum of 0.1 millimeters can be examined. Such small samples are neither sufficient, to measure all the necessary physical properties that are essential for understanding the Earth’s interior, nor can new materials arise from cells in the anvil. If one wants to simulate the conditions found in Earth’s core, temperatures over 5000 degrees Celsius also have to be met. These temperatures can in principle be reached through special laser-heating in diamond anvil cells, but the resulting high temperature gradient always causes chemical heterogeneity, so that chemically complex systems such as minerals and rocks of the Earth’s interior are can not be examined with this technique.

deformation experiments of up to only a maximum pressure of about eight Gigapascal are possible, so that neither the rheology of the transition zone nor that of the lower mantle can be investigated at all.

In-situ tests in which samples can directly investigated at high pressure and high temperature have gained considerable importance in the earth sciences and materials sciences in recent years. Most of these methods use X-rays, both for structural analysis using diffraction methods as well as for the radiographic visualization of probe and spectroscopic studies. Since light atoms cannot be –or only with difficulty – located with X-ray methods, the neutron diffraction has proved to be a useful alternative. Especially in the study of materials with light atoms, it has great advantages over the X-ray diffraction. So far, however, it is hardly used in this context. A key technical requirement for the successful application of neutron diffraction under pressure is the development of high-pressure apparatus, with which to implement large sample volumes.

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Necessary R&D tasks Using multi-anvil presses some of the above mentioned problems can be circumvented. In this apparatus, the sample is compressed from several sides by 6 to 8 anvils. This allows larger sample volumes of approximately one cubic millimeter to be achieved. Temperature gradients can be so far reduced so that chemically complex systems can be studied. However, with conventional multi-anvil presses maximum pressure of only 26 Gigapascal can be reached , corresponding merely to the pressure in the uppermost part of the lower mantle.

The predominant part of the earth’s interior is not accessible experimentally. Basically these devices can also execute deformation experiments, which let the deformation of minerals and rocks in the mantle be examined. Such experiments are extremely important for understanding the dynamics of our planet, as the convection of the mantle ultimately drives the movement of the plates on the earth’s surface, causing phenomena such as mountain building, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. With the present technology, however,

(i) Mineral surfaces and surface interface processes To understand physical-chemical processes at mineral surfaces and to be able to apply this technology specifically, structure and composition must be known. The new and further development of precise chemical and physical measurement methods is necessary to carry out quantitative structural studies of mineral surfaces. A new generation of experimental research technology allows for the first time, to capture reaction processes in almost real time with sub-micron spatial resolution. Further R&D is needed for targeted manipulation of mineral surfaces. Treatment and finishing processes can be, for example, adapted to specific functional mineral surfaces.

The migration of pollutants and their fixation on mineral surfaces with the help of mineral resources plays an important role in natural drinking and domestic water use. The adsorption behavior of minerals can be explained through a detailed understanding of the physical and chemical processes

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and the properties of mineral surfaces. In addition to the inorganic-geochemical processes, questions need to be answered about the interactions of organic matter with mineral surfaces. Special research is required regarding the role of micro-and macro-organisms. Through the inclusion of dissolved substances and the release of metabolic products they modify, for example, the chemical nano-and micro-environment decidedly and induce the precipitation, solution and conversion of minerals.

Based on an improved understanding of the physical and chemical processes mineral surfaces should be altered specifically. The type of surface modification is achieved through by chemical and physical means and/or by the action of microorganisms.

Important R&D-requirements are: – in terms of rheological mechanisms between mineral mixtures and additives in aqueous systems, – in the field of chemical functionalization, particularly with respect to the stability of an aqueous dispersion, once the mineral mixture is in the mineralogical composition and their physical and chemical surface properties change, – in ion exchange processes and deposits, – activation of the technologically, highly versatile bentonites at chemical conditioning and functionalization of mineral surfaces (e. g. control of the charge of sheet silicates, or the mechanical stability of aggregates and mineral adhesive bonds between reaction partners). The mechanical functionalization of mineral surfaces can be brought about through the micronization of mineral resources and thermal treatment.

– impact on the question of how mineral transformation and regeneration processes in the hydrothermal treatment of raw materials for the targeted application of production-properties and in washcoat-development for improving the mechanical durability under extreme reaction conditions of the thermal influence on the surface structure, – In the development of technologies and methods for the construction of metal ion deposits in clay and bentonite, as well as in the heterogeneous catalysis on the surface of ash parti-

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cles. These processes are widely used for example in the paper industry due to the modification of the kaolin surface in the micro-and nanoscale. Other applications are in the ceramic, foundry and catalyst technology. (ii) Biomineralization The field of biomineralization is currently earning particular geoscientific attention. The processes at surfaces and interfaces of biominerals are important under various geoscientific aspects. Thus it is feared that, through the acidification of the oceans that comes with increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere, in particular calcite and aragonite building organisms (e. g. corals, mollusks) will no longer be able to form a calcareous skeleton (Fig. 6-2). In addition to such environmental effects, the local structural phenomenon of biomineralization, or rather the details about it, such as the manner in which organic-inorganic composite materials are formed, have so far been only insufficiently studied. Accordingly, the correlating possible industrial applications have scarcely been employed. Currently, methods are being developed on how to optimally use the natural microstructure, texture and surface reactivity of biominerals for technological applications, such as implants or dental ceramics. However, this requires a better understanding of the surface chemistry interactions of the inorganic with the organic components. Research is also needed into interface surface processes which serve to support and control the natural mineral formation and solution of mineral in the body. (iii) Extending the pressure range of multi-force equipment Through the use of anvils made of sintered diamond, the pressure range of multi anvil apparatuses could probably be expanded from 26 gigapascal to almost 100. Practically the entire pressure and temperature conditions of the mantle would then be experimentally accessible. Japanese groups have been working for several years on the solution to this problem. They have already achieved some impressive breakthroughs in individual experiments and were able to reach pressures of up to about 90 gigapascal at relatively low temperatures.

The preliminary tests showed the Japanese coun-

Fig. 6-2: Section through mollusk shells Patella crenata.

1) calcite cross slats, 2) aragonitic Myostracum, 3) aragonitic hypostracum, internal cross-lamellar structure. Organic material is located primarily in the interface between the calcite and aragonite zones, lamella.

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terparts that also some fundamental problems with this technique, must be solved: – The anvils of sintered diamond are extremely susceptible to shearing, which occurs in small deviations from the ideal orientation of the anvil. Since the pressure transferring system always deforms at high loads, hydraulic presses have to be designed, with which changes can be offset in the relative orientation of the anvil under high pressure. So far, experiments have regularly broken the extremely expensive anvils made of sintered diamond.

– Because of the very high thermal conductivity of diamond, it is difficult with anvils made of sintered diamond to achieve the high temperatures (up to about 2000° C) which prevail in the Earth’s deep interior. It is therefore necessary to develop new materials to shield the sample thermally from the anvils. Possibly it is useful to combine the new materials with new methods of heating the sample (e. g. by induction).

– With the technical developments outlined here, on one hand the structure of the lower mantle of the Earth could be directly examined in the laboratory. On the other hand, the high pressure phases of numerous oxides, nitrides and other substances were synthesized for the first time in large quantities. These completely new possibilities resulted in the synthesis of

ultra-hard materials, semiconductors and ferroelectric materials (Fig. 6-3). Not least because of possible technical applications of this technology is currently being pressed ahead in Japan with great effort. There are no comparable research efforts, in either Europe or the USA. (iv) Development of new equipment for deformation experiments under high pressure The investigation of how minerals deform under high pressure, new devices must be developed to achieve pressures of at least 26 gigapascal and simultaneously control the sample deformation under pressure. An example would be a new generation of multi-anvil press with multiple, movable hydraulic anvils, completely independent of each other. Conventional presses on the other hand, have only one anvil, a force is then diverted through a system of driving blocks so that an allround pressure is generated on the sample. At the same time, these presses have to be designed so that direct observation of stress and strain by using x-ray diffraction and radiography is possible.

With such equipment, it would be possible for the first time to investigate the mechanical strength and flow behavior of minerals in the transition zone and lower mantle directly in the laboratory.

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Fig. 6-3: Ultra-hard materials. The surface of a natural diamond is scratched by synthetic nanodiamonds. The scratch marks (red arrows) show that these nano-diamonds are harder than an ordinary diamond.

This data is essential for the development of geodynamic models to reflect the evolution of the entire planet Earth correctly. In materials research such equipment could furthermore be used to investigate mechanisms of deformation hardening under high pressure. (v) Development of apparatus for neutron diffraction under high pressure For neutron diffraction experiments typically relatively large sample quantities are needed. Even with modern, high-intensity neutron sources sample volumes of more than 10 cubic millimeters are still necessary. For this reason, the neutron diffraction is currently relatively rare for studies under applied high pressure. Most high-pressure experiments with neutrons have been executed in the Paris-Edinburgh cell. The possibility, of maintaining high temperatures and high pressures over long period with this cell however, are very limited. For this the technical development of a multi-anvil press is necessary (Figure 6-4). Large sample volumes could be realized if – as outlined above for

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the deformation apparatus – the pressure of several independent hydraulic anvils could be generated at the same time. Further the press must be modified so that the diffracted neutron beam is accessible over a wide range of angles. The materials of seals, pressure transferral medium and radiator must be modified so that the absorption for neutrons is minimized.

An apparatus for neutron diffraction up to 26 gigapascal and 3000 degrees celsius would be unique worldwide. It would make the direct investigation possible, for example, of hydrous silicate melt and water-and CO2-rich fluids. Geoscience applications of neutron diffraction under high pressure are at present pursued intensively at the new “Spallation Neutron Source” of the United States. The technology used there are not suitable for high pressure experiments at simultaneous high temperatures.

Germany could take on an international leading role in the field of geo-scientific application of neutron diffraction with the development of the technology outlined above.

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Fig. 6-4: A multi-anvil press with a pressing force of 1000 tons (left image). With this press conditions in the uppermost part of the lower mantle can be simulated. Right are shown seven of eight tungsten carbide cubes, which transferred the pressure on the sample. The sample capsule (right image, the very front), just a few millimeters in size. Furthermore, parts of the electrical heating units to the sample, a thermocouple to measure the temperature can be seen. By replacing the tungsten carbide cube with a cube made of sintered diamond the pressure of this equipment increases so that virtually the entire mantle would be accessible for experiments. For this a complete redesign of the hydraulic press would be necessary.

Geomaterials – from the use of their surface properties to innovative high pressure properties

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David Liverman, Geologischer Dienst Neufundland

7. Geohazards - dealing with extreme natural events

The exponentially growing number of damages in recent years caused by natural disasters reflect a changing risk-landscape that is shaped by climate change factors and a growing population. The consequences are – New threats (often hail, landslides due to retreating permafrost and extreme precipitation, new patterns of precipitation and flooding, cyclones in the Mediterranean regions, etc.)

– New risk groups (high population numbers and many states affected, instabilities of urban areas, large loss of infrastructure systems, etc.) and – Extreme events with unknown dimensions in the field of geological and hydrometeorological hazards.

The R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN has already led to significant scientific results in the areas early warning systems in Earth, subterranean space, satellite technology and information systems. It has developed technologies to which one can utilize to overcome the new challenges. The range of future methods include: – Geo-scientific experiments like deep drilling and long-term monitoring of the processes of the earth, – Development of physical and computer assisted models to simulate complex dynamic processes under adequate assimilation of data and observations, – Instrumentation and monitoring of processes and areas of high risk potential, – Development of information systems for a effective use of existing information resources (e. g. data, models) to prepare and respond quickly to events; early warning belongs here too, – Development and design of effective protection and prevention; exposure and exploration of social defense and adaptation measures.

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R&D work with these objectives constitute a direct contribution to the German adaptation strategy on climate change (DAS) and its European and international counterparts. They support global efforts for the reduction of natural hazards on a scientific level (ICSU Science Plan for Integrated Research on Disaster Risk) and a political level (UNISDR Hyogo Framework for Action).

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7. Geohazards – dealing with extreme natural events

Introduction Natural disasters in the past two decades have led to ever higher damage. In 2008, the amount of damage was about 200 billion U.S. dollars. A particularly significant increase is shown in the damage caused by hydro-meteorological events and can be interpreted as a result of climate change.

This includes the increasing frequency and intensity of events such as hailstorms, heat waves, or the increased occurrence of tornadoes – even in Germany. At the same time the world population increases- predominantly in developing and emerging countries. The consequences are enormous urban agglomerations (megacities) and the coastal regions are more and more densely inhabited.

These circumstances taken together contribute to a growing risk that in total will lead to disasters of previously unknown extent being the scenarios of the future. Examples of such events were of the tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004, the earthquake in Kashmir in October 2005 (Fig. 7-1),

Wenchuan (China) in May 2008, Port-au-Prince (Haiti) in 2010 and the tropical cyclone Nargis, which devastated Myanmar in 2008.

These challenges require the development of new scientific methods and technologies to forecast and mitigate the damage of future disasters. The range includes: – Earth science experiments like deep drilling and long-term monitoring of the processes of the Earth, – Development of physical and computer assisted models for simulation of complex processes under adequate assimilation of data and observations – Instrumentation and monitoring of processes and areas of high risk potential, – Development of information systems for a effective use of existing information resources (e. g. data, models) to prepare and rapid response to events. Early warning is also related to this.

Fig. 7-1: Not only earthquakes, but landslides in Pakistan in 2005 have caused grave destruction.

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Development and design of effective protection and prevention; exposure and exploration of social defense and adaptation measures.

These requirements include a high potential of technological developments, such as instrument development, communication technologies, software development, satellite technologies and evaluation methods. They also include so-called “soft technologies”, which are essential for the implementation of preventive measures and the efficient use of technologies. The development of science and technology for the reduction of risk represents a contribution to ensuring sustainable development, and therefore serves the millennium goals of the United Nations and is also contributing to the German adaptation strategy (DAS) in which climate change is considered.

Funding status Acting within the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN 2010 –11, the BMBF funded collaborative projects on the theme “Early Warning Systems in Earth Management” with a total of 11 million €. These projects are early warning earthquake resistance (six projects), against volcanic eruptions (a project) and against landslides (four projects). The projects are complementary and sometimes in direct cooperation with the projects for flood prevention in the BMBF-RIMAX funded programme and for building a tsunami early warning system for the Indian Ocean (GITEWS) . The researchers are also in regular exchange with colleagues from the DFG-Graduate College METRIK and the DFG-Special Research Area 461 (Karlsruhe) “Strong Earthquakes: From Earth science fundamentals to engineering measures”. The activities in GEOTECHNOLOGIEN are thus fully in line with the promotional activities of BMBF and DFG to mitigate through research and development, the dangers of natural disasters in the future.

Research status, development and application The program GEOTECHNOLOGIEN with its main topics “Early Warning Systems in Earth Management”, “Exploration, Exploitation and Protection of the Subterranean Space”, “Coverage of the Earth System from Space” and “Information Sys-

tems” has led to scientific results and technologies that can be capitalize on to handle extreme natural events. At the same time, the following proposed research should be seen as a contribution to major international programs such as the International Continental Deep Drilling Programme (ICDP) and the Global Earthquake Model (GEM). (i) Development of physical models of natural disasters A wide range of developed models and software implementations for the simulation of earthquake catalogs, risk analysis and modeling of wave propagation including nonlinear phenomena, can be relied upon here. Furthermore, it is possible to integrate various record, such as strong earthquake observation and GPS data into inversion programs of fracture phenomena during an earthquake. In the field of hydro-meteorological disasters methods are available for which flood can be simulated over large areas and relevant simulated flood parameters such as flooding depth, duration and flow rates can be observed. Instationary morphodynamic flow processes, which have a large impact on the flow characteristics during extreme events and their resulting damage patterns, are still not predictable. The same is true of interactive phenomena such as dikes or dam failures. Although, in principle, they can be implemented in the models. The physical and geotechnical process which they are based upon are not yet sufficiently researched to be able to predict them. Several types of unstable slopes are systematically equipped with measuring instruments and were analyzed at different observation-scales. Also, the observation base for dwindling permafrost soils in alpine areas and the resulting instability have been improved in the past few years. Inversion methods for the detection of permafrost and its temporal changes are available. Several so-called decade volcanoes are monitored with a number of monitoring systems. These include both seismic and hydrological monitoring systems and GPS, slope measurements and satellite methods. The models were implemented in various projects in the form of complex software systems. The challenges connected with this software are the subject geoinformatic research and allow new forms of generation, integration and management of information.

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(ii) Monitoring systems Monitoring systems are the key for the systematic observation of natural self-altering systems. More and more accurate deformation measurements using GPS and radar interferometry and an improved evaluation method and seismological instrumentation open up new possibilities for future projects. The same is true of new technologies, which can assess condition parameters in soil and underground constructions. An example of such a condition parameter is the humidity, which is paramount for both geohydraulic and geomechanical processes at the surface. The increasing availability and density of sensors and sensor configurations promises a better and better data availability for monitoring. This includes the development of socalled self-organizing sensor networks, which have helped to only observe a number of environmental parameters but to intelligently process and communicate them in networks (Fig. 7-2). In the GEOTECHNOLOGIEN programme, for example, nine terrestrial self-organizing monitoring systems such as SOSEWIN (Self-Organizing Seismic Early Warning Information Network) were developed. At the same time standards for data transmission, data presentation and integration have emerged to be further expanded in the future with regard to the specific requirements of sensor networks. Satellitebased monitoring methods and their applications

in the optical window and in the radar window are particularly important for monitoring. Through the systematic use of existing satellite data and the data of coming missions, the changing, disaster afflicted inventory of the earth can be observed locally in high resolution and globally documented.

Of particular importance are the increasing populations of urban areas and the concomitant alteration of the building quality, but also the changing infrastructure in urban and rural regions, and changes in land use. (iii) Information systems Information systems, which prepare for disasters and provide information to emergency relief organizations quickly and efficiently, have been significantly improved over the past ten years. Many disaster information systems today can already handle hydro-meteorological and geological disasters, manage risk projections, damage and early warning information, in real time. In the field of hydro-meteorological events, methods already partially available which demonstrate the effectiveness of reactive measures in the short term and can assist decisions in operational service. The development of international or European accepted standards of information exchange in the telecommunications sector and in the area of the Internet (Web) has proved to be extremely helpful. Large

Fig. 7-2: The measurement and communication system SOSEWIN (Self-Organizing Seismic Early Warning Information Network) was developed within the framework of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN by the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences and the Department of Computer Science, Humboldt-University of Berlin, a prototype of mobile and flexible technologies for real-time measurement of arbitrary input data. The picture shows an installation on the Fatih bridge over the Bosphorus Istanbul for earthquake early warning.

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amounts of data can be transfered in real time, with the help of established protocols and services, using Web services to a wide spectrum of users.

The prognostic simulation of the entire risk chain in an earthquake is well advanced. Risk groups, damage to buildings or the need for precautionary measures can be predicted. The modeling of risks (the sense of future damage) is established and disposes of a wide range computer assisted tools.

Within GEOTECHNOLOGIEN, a damage simulation tool for real-time applications has been adapted, which in case of disaster provides information via fast web services about existing damage and regarding which tasks have priority for rescue and reconstruction efforts. Such systems are have also been developed under the program RIMAX for risk of external flooding events. In other projects, virtual control stations were developed to manage natural hazards and the necessary service infrastructures prototypically built (e.g. integrated environmental control station).

Necessary R&D tasks (i) Physical models Physical models generally focus on individual types of disasters and only unsystematically include secondary or cascading effects. Extreme events of the future must also be quantitatively understood as cascade recurring events. This creates additional potential for the prognosis.

Considering the number of victims of some natural disasters of recent years, then landslides, tsunamis and ground liquefaction can no longer be categorized as so-called secondary effects. So in the December 2004 it was not the earthquake off the coast that caused the most victims of Sumatra, but the ensuing tsunami. Similarly, the many victims of the Kashmir earthquake (October 2005) were actually victims of the ensuing landslides. Heavy rain over the active volcano Casita in Nicaragua in October 1998 generated mud flows that buried several towns, and the Wenchuan quake in China in May 2008 demonstrated how prolonged rain can lead to massive problems with landslides, instability of dams (e.g. dams ), and dikes and other infrastructure facilities. The task at hand therefore is, to develop complex models,

forecasts and evaluation systems (scenario-based and probabilistic), which quantify the actual impacts and form a basis for scientific early warning, planning and prevention activities.

Volcanoes represent an example of systems with complex interactions of various phenomena. The link between tectonic earthquakes and volcanic eruptions is statistically proven, but physically only initially understood. Different processes are held responsible for the temporal correlation of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, including changes of the stress field in the crust as seismic waves passes through it and the thus associated cascades within fluid-and gas-rich reservoirs in the Earth’s interior. In addition to probabilistic and stochastic models, earthquake and their different effects on volcanoes should be simulated. The understanding of such the interactions sets high standards on early warning, long-term prognosis and trans-regional impact. Without this understanding precautionary measures will remain patchwork.

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Another example is the prediction of extreme precipitation events and their impact in terms of flooding. Even now - albeit only in its beginnings regional climate models and hydrological models are being quantitatively joined. In fact, this method is the prerequisite for adaptation strategies. They are the necessary basis for the estimation of hydrological extremes (floods, droughts) of the future (Fig. 7-3), their probability of occurrence and the associated uncertainties on the planning scale. In the formation of a flood wave, anthropogenic factors are also to be considered, for example, protection by dikes which fail, but also influence from dike-defense. Particularly the failures of dikes are subject to a pronounced probabilistic, which amplify uncertainties in part by a lack of knowledge of the relevant processes or process chains. Risk-based approaches to describe the behavior of dams are, therefore, to be improved and developed.

A second access to understanding the impact of climate change on hydro-meteorological extremes is possible through the appropriate analysis of historical data. Advances in climatology and paleohydrology allow us to derive annually or seasonally

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resolved flood series in the magnitude of thousands of years. If such time series of hydro-meteorological characteristics of river basins are correlated, quantitative statements about the natural range of hydro-meteorological extremes or the relationship between frequency and magnitude of climate variability and extremes are likely to be possible.

Local heavy rains and associated flooding play a growing role in a warming atmosphere. Small river basins can be modeled well hydrologically, but the prognosis for early warning tools are missing. In contrast to larger systems with relatively long times, the warnings in small basins have to depend heavily on meteorological parameters and a model-like understanding of the hydrological system, and less on gauge measurements. For an improved flood risk management in large river basins,

simulations are required that capture the dynamic behavior of the system quantitatively. Interventions and events (e. g. dike failure) have such a direct impact on the risk of an undercurrent. Such interactions in large river basins are now only taken into account in exceptional cases. Advances in numerical analysis and computing power make are it possible to use process-based simulation models in large catchments. This is the only way to scientifically secure the necessary priority setting for protective measures of extreme events.

Extreme rainfall events – and particularly long-lasting precipitation or precipitation events over a long period – often trigger landslides, which under certain conditions may occur in the form of debris flow (Fig. 7-4). To evaluate the risk of such events requires precise knowledge of local conditions (e.g. in a georeferenced GIS), but also the relevant geo-

Fig. 7-3: Flooding on the Elbe in 2002 had dramatic consequences, even for the developed country Germany. In the future flood events could increasingly affect the poorest countries of our planet. Technology and know-how transfer from developed countries to the emerging and developing countries is therefore a priority task for research and development.

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hydraulic and geomechanical processes needed.

The conditions are more serious when permafrost soils are affected in the high mountains. Only through appropriate observations on the ground and with satellites will risk assessment be possible at all. Extreme climatic conditions such as drought and also flooding lead to cyclical processes of shrinking and swelling of the substance and alter the behaviors of geomaterials. These cyclical effects act as self-healing and solidifying or failure triggering mechanisms. Such effects of cyclic degradation or partial consolidation, however, have so far not adequately modeled.

Another critical point is the integration of the anthropological model-like factors in the physicsbased models: The reaction and interaction of human behavior in the event of disasters must be better quantified and compared in a model-like

way. Progress in the assimilation of data, especially the so-called ‘fuzzy’ data by probabilistic approaches are needed to develop the best models and forecasting tools. (ii) Monitoring and Information Systems A risk landscape, which alters in response to climate change and human impact (urbanization) constantly requires ongoing monitoring by ground-based and satellite-based methods. This should include the new types of self-organized networks for new applications. In addition, methods are to be developed, with which the necessary information can be drawn from the fullness of data. Also, the different observation scales (local observations to large scale satellite images) should be linked quantitatively to extract information as best we can. In particular, the use of ground-based monitoring tools to improve and integrate satel-

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Fig. 7-4: Landslides and so-called mudslides are already a very serious threat in Germany and Central Europe. With the projected climate change, their number could rise in the next decade significantly.

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lite-based systems. High-resolution spot measurement systems are to be combined with tomographic systems, to identify involved phases on the ground (solid, water, air and ice) to improve secondary parameters (e. g. joint-inversion) and transferred to the next larger scale. In conjunction with satellite information, the findings can selectively transferred to large catchments. This was already implemented for example, with the surface humidity. It will be a major scientific challenge to capture multi-parameter data set with ground-based multiscale sensors and combine these with intelligent sensor networks.

Only recently started satellite missions and those planned for the near future will provide new optical data and radar data in completely new quality.

The data obtained will be spatially and temporally significantly better than previous data for all parts of the world. This is particularly true of: the RapidEye system in the framework of GMES planned satellite missions, the hyperspectral EnMAP mission and the TerraSAR-X and X-TanDEM missions. Optically they will provide data in new spatial, temporal and spectral resolution classes. The radar area will attain improved spatial and temporal resolution over a number of new detection modes and polarizations. From this, completely new possibilities arise worldwide for a detailed monitoring of potentially dangerous natural processes and for a differentiated characterization of their triggering factors. Especially the latter factors are the basis for suitable early warning systems. As part of risk analysis the vulnerability of a region or group could also be better estimated with this data. To be able to exploit this potential fully, automated procedures for multitemporal thematic information extraction have to be newly or further developed for different spatial and time scales. Thus far, the process development has not kept pace with the progress on the sensor side. Difficulties arise especially through the huge information content of the original and derived data. In spite of existing and promising approaches in the automatic analysis of optical and radar data (such as differential radar interferometry, imaging spectrometry, object and pattern recognition, knowledge-based systems) in the field of theory and method development, there is still a great need for research. It is therefore nec-

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essary to establish interdisciplinary research approaches that develop problem-related evaluation strategies with the involvement of other information collected. This requires a close relationship with research in the field of information systems. In scientific and technical developments in this area, it is particularly important to use modern communication systems and to use them optimally, based on standards for developing new methods of information presentation. (iii) Risk forecasting and risk analysis Risk simulations, modeling and real-time estimation of damage must also quantitatively include complex systems (such as the infrastructure of cities). They must simulate damage and its effects, vulnerabilities must be understood not only in a physical but also in a social sense and deliver socioeconomic forecasts simultaneously. At the same time they are the basis to assess and plan mitigation measures. The quantification of flood damage in urban regions, for example, requires new approaches, in addition to the hydrologic and hydraulic parameters (discharge, water level, flow rate) and the dynamic interaction with the topography must also be considered. Building structures must also be recorded and reproduced in the simulation model. It is also necessary to consider infrastructure facilities and their influence (bridges or culverts with possible blockages or transfer of a transported material) and other damage patterns (by debris). Also the drainage on the land surface and runoff in underground infrastructures are inter-dependent. Depending on the localities these interactions can lead to the dampening of a flood wave through retention or lead to an increased risk by flooding land-based areas without surface connections.

Risk models usually capture damage to infrastructure without quantitative methods. Similarly, indirect or socioeconomic damage and influence on the environment are scarcely taken into account.

The analysis and quantification of the impact of disasters on networked systems is an essential task of modern risk research. Such systems are, for example, traffic and transportation, as well as water and energy supply, communications and networked production of goods (supply chains); all

systems in which society is increasingly dependent.

For geological hazards, particularly earthquakes, it is therefore necessary to develop systemic approaches and software tools that address these shortcomings. Methods and tools such as HAZUS and ELER can be accessed here, which are on their way to becoming international standards; ELER is available as an open source tool. R&D requirements on existing systems are: (a) methodological improvements in damage assessment; (b) probabilistic considerations and quantification of the uncertainties and the description of the uncertainties due to the present data shortcomings; (c) the inclusion of indicator methods in damage prognosis, particularly in the assessment of social vulnerability, the impact on industry and infrastructure or to supply; (d) Integration of remote sensing data to measure the endangered inventory, its vulnerability and the change of these parameters over time. This depends on the “intelligent� combination of ground-based and satellite-based information.

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Fotosearch

8. The Virtual Earth – information technologies

A variety of spatial data is available to the earth sciences - but it cannot be used entirely, because the data are either inaccessible or not formally described, which is a necessity for its exploitation. Thus, they resemble a library where the books are available but not indexed. The use of existing and future data collected thus requires: – The development of data stocks via geo-ontologies, i.e. abstract concepts that describe the contents of the data. For this, such ontologies must be designed or completed; on the other hand, geodata stocks can be annotated with concepts by automatic interpretation methods.

– The automatic integration of geodata stocks through the development of semantic and geometric data integration methods, hereby particular the procedure “ontology alignment” and setting object-boundary conditions is necessary in which integration is possible and control of the integration.

– The integrated use of a completely new type of sensor, known as geosensor-networks, which allow a mixture of measurement and evaluation, and at the same time enable the coupling to the underlying models of the observed phenomena.

In particular importance here, is the development of methods for decentralized geoprocessing.

– The further development of spatial data infrastructures towards geoservices infrastructure, which allow distributed processing of available spatial data.

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This research and technologies is of fundamental importance for many geoscientific issues. The observation of the earth system and the processes that shape it, can be made with ever better measurement systems, which leads to the fact that models can become more refined. However, this requires access to all available data. Thus, for example, georisks can better assessed or the safety of buildings increased.

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8. The Virtual Earth – information technologies

Introduction The rapid technological developments in sensor technology and computer science have led to the fact that various facets of the earth have been – or are increasingly being – collected in huge geodatasets. Thus, the topography, cores, temperature, soil moisture, gravity, micro-seismic signals, GPS positions are all recorded for example as measurement data. With the help of this data extensive earth analysis will be possible and leading an increased understanding, also about the earth’s internal effect relationships. Provided, however, that all this data is systematically arranged and placed in databases.

While today’s search engines are based primarily on the keyword search, in the future, semantic search engine will also process the meaning and put them in the proper context. This requires, however, that the terms are known and were taken from a predetermined conceptual vocabulary. But not only must the objects themselves and their properties must be known, but also how this data will be combined with other data – or exclude each other mutually. If the conditions and properties are known, data can transfer automatically and become associated with other information and thus new knowledge is generated. The more detailed such conditions are known, the more precise the questions that can be posed and with that automate tasks of analysis but also pre-select possible answers for man. The automation plays a crucial role against the backdrop of the huge datasets, since manual analysis fails here.

However, data are often present in raw form, which initially requires interpretation in order to be usable or automatically evaluated. Today’s search engines are so successful because they are designed for the human evaluation, and provide people with a pre-selection of their desired requests. Judging the usefulness of the website or drawing the appropriate conclusion remains a human task. To even go a step further and provide not only text pages, to which the keyword is likely the best match, an interpretation of texts is also necessary. Interpretation techniques are also needed to find data that are not textual (such as images, laser data, cores, GPS time series). There-

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fore, automatic procedures for data interpretation are a relevant field. A manual annotation of the data fails here too because the datasets are too large. These procedures make it possible to derive knowledge from raw data. This requires that methods of pattern recognition, classification, spatial database analysis and text comprehension be used or be adjusted accordingly. It is important that the methods provide us with information about the quality of interpretation. Only data that have certain semantics, are later retrievable and usable in the extensive geodatasets. The objective is therefore to create a so-called “Semantic Web” or “Web of (geo) data”.

In addition to the specific instrument, mass sensors are increasingly come to the fore, that individually only capture a small measurement spectrum, but in combination with a geosensor network (Fig. 8-1) they can capture and process a variety of data.

Thus, manifold phenomena can be observed with unprecedented accuracy. Geosensor networks are, in principle, composed of a large number of highly miniaturized wireless sensors and can be applied widespread in the area. Each sensor observes its surroundings and has the possibility to communicate with its neighbors. It is this networking and communication chance, which ultimately gives the sensor network as a whole a global perception.

Advantages of this technology lie in its extreme scalability, and in its robustness, because of failing a sensor can be replaced by its neighbors. The sensors will not only measure, but also interpret the data. The great potential of geosensor networks lies in their high spatial and temporal resolution as well as their potential real-time capabilities. Thus, such networks are now used even in a simple form for monitoring tasks.

Their potential is considerably larger, especially when it comes to the use of massively available sensors: Examples are mobile phones of drivers, used for the congestion detection, use navigation systems that can perform an update of their street data by the users themselves, GNSS data, which are used – in addition to their the real purpose – for the determination of water vapour in the atmosphere. This means that available data or sensors can be used for completely different purposes.

Fig. 8-1: Sensor networks for monitoring and warning systems for geological risks, spatial environmental monitoring in real-time monitoring.

Key to this new technology is networking and communications. Here, however, the quality and reliability of the data must be ensured and misuse of data excluded.

Benefits of GIS technology, resulting for each user, are the higher spatial, temporal as well as thematic resolution of the data yielded arising from their diversity and integration possibilities. For the economy, this data also has a very strong potential on which to develop various services for different applications.

Funding status Through the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN from 2003-2005, the BMBF promoted –with a topic on information systems in earth management– six collaborative projects with a total volume of almost four million euros. The aim of the project was, for example, the design and development of intelligent geoservices for the application of interoperable information architectures. In early warning against natural hazards, these technologies play a crucial role as they link various subsystems of the alarm chain in a sensible way. Under the promotional measures fundamental knowledge and initial practical applications have already been developed on this issue. In the development of early warning systems (see Chapter 7), therefore, emphasis is placed in particular on purposefully developing and implement information technology. The close linkage of the themes early warning systems and information systems can contribute to the higher-ranking aim of the R&D programme GEO-

TECHNOLOGIEN, the development of instruments for a global earth management, which can be implemented in the long term.

Research status, development and application In the field of geoinformation technologies considerable progress has been achieved in recent times by the development of standards for spatial data description as well as for spatial data exchange. These are de-jure (ISO, CEN, DIN) and defacto (OGC) standards. This leads to a variety of spatial data portals, where geodataset catalogue services are described and available via standard interfaces. With this data from various organizations can be researched and further integrated.

The data are often stored in spatial databases, which increases data security and enables efficient access by a large number of users at the same time. While thus standardized descriptions and uniform access are regulated, more recent activities typically turn to the processing of large amounts of data. Here methods of parallelization and recently grid computing (D-Grid) are applied.

The standardized processing of spatial information is to be carried out through the so-called Web Processing Services (WPS).

Applications that can be realized on the basis of spatial data infrastructures of the first generation (GDI1.0) are, however, primarily static. Thus, for example, the ad-hoc integration of new sources, or functionality is hardly feasible. Furthermore, the communication is usually only one-way: The

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currently defined services usually only allow read access to the geoinformation services. Future research will have to publish self-generated geo-information and clearly facilitate communication to it. Current requirements are in the following areas: – Support for automated request translations in accordance with the necessary process chains from geoservices (workflows).

– Automated search for suitable geo-information services for such process chains as well as support in the comparison with competing services.

– Possibility of evaluating the response received.

– Notification on submission of new information (about results and reviews) for the formulated request.

– Formal description of the restrictions and constraints that apply in the workflow and data integration.

While services are already implemented for the syntactic description of spatial data, the semantic description, i.e. the description of data contents,

still has to be undertaken. In the field of research on ontologies formal description languages are being developed, in which the concepts about segments of the world are described (e.g. RDF, OWL), and inference mechanisms that allow draw automatic conclusions from such formally described concepts. For manageable applications, these ontologies have already been created, whereby ideally this concept development should take place through large user groups to ensure that a common terminology is mapped.

The assignment of data collected on specific ontologies is another important research question (Fig. 8-2). This annotation is often performed by hand, which is very expense and not scalable. It is a data interpretation problem. Good approaches exist here, especially in word processing but also in image analysis. However, these must be further developed and adapted specifically to the needs and characteristics of geographic data. Probabilistic approaches are particularly important as well as procedures that take different resolution levels of the information into account.

Fig. 8-2: Automatic allocation of geotechnologies: utilization of the identity of object instances to determine correpondences on semantic levels

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The requirements in this area lie in the following aspects: – Integration of different ontologies – Description of vague concepts and inferences on these concepts; integration of uncertainty – Automatic annotation of data with concepts of the ontology with data interpretation procedures.

Geosensor networks are already used successfully in some areas of the geosciences. For example, the monitoring of earthquakes or landslides (Fig. 8-3) or as a prominent example, the tsunami in the Indian Ocean early warning system. The current networks are characterized, however, by the fact that they generally have a fixed predetermined network topology and the data processing is carried out by a central unit. However, this leads to the problem of scalability and the associated real-time processing. Moreover, the power of the individual sensors is a problem that can be reduced only if abstracted information is forwarded.

In the field of geosensor networks there are also standardization efforts. The standards should make parts of development re-usable and save unnecessary effort. In addition, the standards serve as a guideline for future, unified projects. The current requirements are: – Scalability of geosensor networks – Ad-hoc integration of sensors

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Distributed and multiscale data processing Coupling with simulation models.

Necessary R&D tasks To fulfill the visions outlined above, research efforts in the following areas are crucial.

1) The potential of geosensor networks must be exhausted through the combination of measurement and analysis and modeling is pushed on.

2) Geodata stocks have to be developed by making the transition from pure data into information in a so-called semantic web. Methods must be developed, which allow their automatic semantic annotation. This must be done on the basis of developing or widening geoontologies that are created for certain tasks.

3) It is necessary to develop methods, which allow the integration of data from different sources. Based on the annotations and ontologies, extensive information about the objects themselves is possible, but also about possible deferrals to other objects, which can be used for the integration and fusion. Distributed geoprocessing services must be formalized and integrated into spatial data infrastructures. (i) geosensor networks The networking of various sensors and measuring instruments for the purpose of monitoring and obFig. 8-3: Project SLEWS (Sensorbased Landslide Early Warning System): Monitoring of landslides using a geosensor network

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servation of environmental information is a fundamental task of geodesy. Beyond this geosensor networks offer, ad-hoc networking, distributed data collection and analysis. These methodological studies concern, in particular, the adaptation of algorithms and the development of new algorithms that operate locally and are thus already able to gain knowledge in a local environment without requiring all data to be communicated to a central server and processed there. This is particularly true fo hierarchical and multiscale approaches.

essence with regard to the annotation it is a problem of interpretation in which data is viewed in the light of a particular ontology. Therefore, methods for automatic data interpretation must be provided. These are methods of spatial “data mining”, especially methods for classification and machine learning. This metadata is not only for human understanding, but even machine processable! This opens up the possibility of automation. It makes sense to collect the data directly according to their ontology.

A geosensor network still allows an increasing mix of measurement and evaluation or a direct coupling with models. In this way, model parameters can be determined during measurement or even adapted, and thus a direct confirmation of the models is made, for example, for the coupling of physical models of natural disasters with sensor networks. However, issues concerning numerical modeling, must be solved close association with geoscientists, mathematicians and numerical geoinformatics. Another research question is the quality-relevant processing of spatial data, which especially in the context of the use of distributed possibly unsafe – information, is of vital importance.

The allocation of quality information is needed, indicating the safety of an interpretation or affiliation to a particular concept class. Probabilistic methods are therefore particularly suitable for the interpretation; in the automatic image analysis, so-called graphical models offer a promising approach here.

The interpretation here pertains to all types of spatial data, i.e. image data, vector data, terrain models, individual sensor data (such as GPS measurements) and even texts. Such interpretation methods are needed to quickly find relevant information in large geodatasets (spatial data mining).

A geosensor network of the future will integrate all possible sensors and sensor data, in particular data from different spatial, temporal and thematic resolutions. So for example, highly specific data can be combined with widespread information from satellite missions. (ii) Semantic Geo-Web – Web of Geodata Geodatasets must be suitable annotated so that searching and an accessing these explicit descriptions are enabled. This means that geoontologies must be developed for certain tasks. This enables the effective use of existing information resources, as it is required for example, for monitoring and early warning.

This semantic annotation is typically difficult, since in principle, each data item must be mapped to a corresponding concept of the ontology. To circumvent this manual effort and make widespread annotation possible at all, automation is necessary. In

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Promising solutions seem to be, those that can exploit the knowledge of many, such as Wikipedia also referred to as “folksonomies”. This results in a linkage of formal ontologies that are created by experts, with ontologies as they are created by users.

Finally, research is needed in the field of visualization and specifically required in the visual inspection and exploration. Under the term “Visual Analytics”, methods are being investigated, which allow operator supported inspection of large datasets and offer assistance in filtering, classifying specific statistical values, to classify, as well as identify possible accumulations or special situations.

This is a challenge especially for high-dimensional datasets that also involve the question of visual communication. (iii) Data integration and data assimilation The standards mentioned above enable, the combination of data from various sources and quality and viewing in a synopsis by superposition. However, a pure superposition of spatial information does not mean that this data can be processed in

an integrated manner. For this, a semantic and geometric data integration is required. For the former the so-called “Ontology Alignment” (semantic data model transformation) is necessary. If this information is known, the data can be combined semantically. However, this can lead to geometric inconsistencies, perhaps because the data with collected with less accuracy or with different thematic granularity. Therefore, the mapping approach should be developed, to identify a geometric conformity of the data. During database merging, it must be taken into account, for example, that certain objects share a common border and / or certain objects do not intersect. Research is needed to integrate geometric and topological aspects for the automatic identification of “constraints” in the integration of any record. Such methods of data integration should be in the form of Web Processing Services (WPS) and therefore available for the adequate processing and analysis of spatial data of wider user base.

spatial data through real-time applications in web-based GDI be supported effectively?

Overall, it is necessary to create a theoretical or abstract specified superstructure for the current developments of a very generic “Web Processing Services” in order to be able to describe formalized distributed geoprocessing and process chains accordingly. Such abstract specification can then easily be mapped to different technological platforms.

The further development of unnecessarily individual solutions for the Earth sciences is so avoidable.

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(iv) Distributed geoprocessing in geoservice-infrastructures In the future geoservices infrastructure will be put in place similar to the current discussions about Web 2.0 developments. Besides the inclusion of “Volunteered geographic information”, it is particularly to improve the distributed geoprocessing of spatial data to derive ad hoc geoinformation and decision-assistance. The following research questions should be clarified: – How can geoprocessing descriptions be formalized (for instance based on Tomlins map algebra, Egenhofer Operators Total, etc.) and how fine-grained can or must be the individual geoprocessing steps be in a GDI? – Are current GDI architectures suitable, for the orchestration of distributed services? How can input and output data streams be used as efficiently and as quickly as possible without unnecessary transfers of large amounts of spatial data?

– How can quality descriptions of these service chains be propagated?

– How can such geoprocessing and distributed geosensors and simulations be connected?

How can the need to deal with 3-D and 4-D

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9. Global Monitoring – explore the Earth from space

The Earth’s surface is the boundary layer between the atmosphere and the land, ice as well as ocean surfaces. Its terrain and its constant change, has reflected the dynamics of the Earth’s interior for billions of years and continues to do so to this day.

At the same time, the morphological and climatic areas of the land, ice, sea surface are exposed to climatic influences of the external Earth system as well the various influences of man.

Satellites capture the global earth, with relatively high repetition rates, evenly and in near-real-time. They are therefore well suited to quantify and detect the changes of our environment and the physical earth’s surface. In recent years, with the support of the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN the satellite gravimetry and magnetometry was successfully established as a means of Earth system research. Building on this the subject “kinematics and dynamics of the earth’s surface” and “characteristics, use and development of land surfaces,” the study of the boundary layer of the earth are proposed. Several satellite missions with large German financial participation will be available in the years ahead for the exploration of these two issues. And there are important links to the following topics “geohazards” (Chapter 7), “Future area Underground” (Chapter 5), “Climate Change” (Chapter 1), “Soil – the skin of the earth “(Chapter 4) and “The virtual Earth” (Chapter 8) of this programme.

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From the mission encompassing processing of the available satellite sensor systems, the necessary long, consistent and accurate parameter time series, can be derived on the one hand. On the other, the separation of superimposed individual contributions in the measurement data and increase the sampling in space and time can be carried out as well as reaching a mutual control between the measurement systems. The combination of space segment, ground segment, information extraction and modeling makes a systematic, scientifically quality-controlled knowledge gain possible. In addition, a thorough analysis should be undertaken of the evolving technology and the possibilities of future technology resulting from it for the exploration of the Earth system. This concerns the future availability of several modern satellite navigation systems, from clocks of the next generation, of constellation and formation flights of several satellites, of micro and mini satellites, new high-resolution imaging techniques and possibly the development of new wavelengths. The objective of the topic “Earth observation from space” is the exploration of the system Earth-man, our environment, as well as the physical Earth surface and its alteration processes using modern space technology. The findings will provide a foundation for the development of prediction and early warning systems.

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9. Global Monitoring – exploring Earth from space

Introduction “The continued growth of the world’s population, the resulting increasingly intensive use of our planet and its resources and its change under an unprecedented civil technical development necessitate a sustainable and internationally coordinated action to preserve the habitat of the earth and protect the environment. In the implementation of this central task of general-interest services, the earth sciences play a very special role as the “science of the earth” with its Earth system research because it “can offer far reaching concepts and approaches due to its comprehensive understanding of sustainable systems”. These first sentences from the programme script GEOTECHNOLOGIEN of 1999 are still valid. The questions of how to deal with the population explosion, the scarcity of natural resources and with the anthropogenic influence on the overall system and thus on climate change are more relevant than ever; the public debate has intensified significantly. In the IPCC report of 2007 the influence of man in climate change was proven for the first time, still scientists complained in advance that data base was often insufficient.

Satellites are indispensable “tools” for studying the various processes in and on the earth. Only through the eye from space, is it possible to observe the earth globally and at the same time, using repeated measurements, and build up a time series from which changes in this very complex system can be determined. The measurements are evenly spread and detected in near-real-time. The latter is essential for operating reliable early warning systems against natural hazards. These proven strengths are opposite to the fact climatic changes in the earth in particular are slow and generally not directly measurable. They are derived from a combination of measurements and models. In addition a certain damping of the signal variables is caused due to the satellite orbit height. The vast number of measurements uses the propagation of electromagnetic radiation or the interaction of radiation with the components of the earth system. The radiation source of the passive sensors is the sun or the thermal radiation from the earth, with the active system it is the signal emitted by the satellite in different spectral ranges. The primary sizes measured are: angle, intensity, polarization or phase of

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the received waves. From this material properties, geometry and location of objects and surfaces and their motion can be derived. A speciality is the detection of the magnetic field of the earth and its interaction with the outer field of the gravitational field. The gravitational field measurement is based on tracking and speed measurement, the magnetic field measurement of scalar and vector magnetometry.

Germany participates with large contributions to scientific Earth exploration of the European Space Agency (ESA), the “Living Planet Programme” and the development of the EU and ESA jointly initiated Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) complements the European activities in addition to national and bilateral missions. To this the multiple uses of global navigation satellite systems must be added. At least three complete modern configurations are to be used for the Earth sciences in the coming years, such as the European contribution with the Galileo system. In Tab. 9-1 are ongoing missions or those about to begin together in the field of earth observation and earth science.

Germany is involved in all these missions (with the exception of GPS) with large commitments. Besides the industrial returns, possible disproportionate use of science is desirable.

Funding Status Space-observation methods have developed rapidly in recent years and maintain a prominent position in the geo-scientific research today. A seminal element in the development and operation of small satellites, are the international missions; CHAMP (Challenging Mini-satellite Payload), the German U.S. sister project GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) and by the European Space Agency ESA coordinated mission GOCE (Gravity Field and steady state Ocean Circulation Explorer). The three missions measure the gravity and magnetic fields of the earth with an unprecedented detail and provide important reference data for oceanography, climatology, geophysics and glaciology. The participation of German scientists in these missions is ensured by the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. It offers the ideal setting for interdisciplinary research projects of such dimensions. Since 2001 the BMBF promoted

Table 9-1: Approved and/or current satellite missions of direct relevance for the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN.

ESA Living Planet Programme snd ENVISAT ENVISAT GOCE SMOS CRYOSAT SWARM

beginning

ten o’clock Earth observation instruments gravity field and global ocean circulation soil moisture and ocean salinity ice and ocean altimetry magnetic field (fixed and variable over time)

since 2002 17.03.2009 November 2, 2009 Feb. 2010 2010

Sentinel missions (GMES) 1 2 3

SAR-imaging and (differential) interferometry optical interferometry, superspektrale image ocean Monitoring

2012 2013 2013

SAR image in X-Band and (differential) interferometry optical imaging SAR interferometry in X-Band imaging spectroscopy (hyperspectral)

2007 2008 2010 –11 2013

National missions

TerraSAR-X Rapid-Eye TanDEM-X EnMAP

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) GPS GALILEO and others

American system (including upgrades) European System under construction

a total of 17 research groups with a budget of approximately € 20 million. In addition, the DFG supported ten projects under the standard programme and, since mid 2006, it promotes the priority programme “mass transport and mass distribution” in the Earth system. Germany was able to take on a recognized worldwide leadership position in several key fields of this innovative research field. The GEOTECHNOLOGIEN priority programme “exploration earth from space” is thus an example of the integrated support framework of BMBF and DFG in GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. Eight years of research on these topics have helped to revolutionize the scientific application of small satellites and to bring Germany to the forefront of

since 1980

a new branch of science. Even in the technological field and in the construction of low-cost small satellites, Germany has become an internationally respected partner. Small satellites such as CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE are based on the new advanced satellite concept “Flexbus”, developed by the company EADS Astrium GmbH in Friedrichshafen, which allows a very cost effective and rapid production of satellites. The CHAMP mission shows that the cost compared to conventional construction can be reduced with this platform, by more than half – and without loss of quality. The technological and scientific know-how of “Flexbus” is now being taken advantage of by space powers like the U.S.. Thus, the U.S. space

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agency NASA did not award the contract for the construction of the GRACE satellites twins within their own country, but to Germany.

Research status, development and application If one were to mirror earth observation from space in the developments of the past decades in weather und climate prediction, it can be expected that satellite will gain a growing importance in the study of all components of the Earth system. The strategic development, preparation and selection of national space missions is carried out by the space agency of the German Aerospace Center (DLR). DLR plans and coordinates the German participation in European and bilateral missions.

Significant advances in the scientific use of space based data can be achieved through a concerted approach and prioritization, in a joint program of research centers and universities. As part of the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN such a framework could be reached. The starting point is the containment of the overall theme of Earth observation from space for the relevant sections of the earth system science R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. For the first time, the small satellite missions CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE succeeded in establishing research on the magnetic field, and the mass distribution and mass transfer in and on our planet as a new segment of the earth system science.

Through the main topic “coverage of the Earth system from space” a large number of German scientists R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN were involved in the missions. Germany is now an internationally recognized leader in this field. Additionally, using the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN it has been possible to secure a global geodetic observing system internationally and thus the metric basis for the study of mass changes and variations which make up the earth system. Based on this, we can explore the alteration processes of the earth’s surface as a boundary layer between the atmosphere and solid earth, ice and oceans.

Precisely this boundary layer is our habitat and is therefore our focus of interest. The earth’s surface is subjected to the permanent effects of human ex-

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posure, to the exterior influences driven by the sun and the Earth system dominated and shaped by the processes inside the earth. The state parameters and their changes can be measured from space in many ways. From the aspect of satellitebased measurement two issues can be distinguish: (1) kinematics and dynamics of the Earth’s surface: the measurement and modelling of shapes and movement patterns of the land, ice and ocean surface and their interaction with the processes of the inner and outer earth system. (2) characteristics, use and development of the land surface: the collection and study of nature, use and change of the land surface, including the entire hydrosphere, which means the skin of the earth under the influence of global change.

Necessary R&D tasks From the two aforementioned issues in the main topic “Earth observation from space” of the R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN a new national strategy is developing. Both integrate seamlessly with existing core competences in Germany.

Within GEOTECHNOLOGIEN there are natural synergies with the following topics: Geohazards, Future area Underground, Climate Change, Soil – the skin of the earth, The virtual Earth. The planned R&D projects represent a logical continuation and extension of the recent priority programme “coverage of the earth system from space,” and should build on its results. (i) Kinematics and dynamics of Earth’s surface Novel differential SAR interferometry in combination with future much denser GNSS ground networks, and interferometric GNSS reflectrometry ice and ocean altimetry open up every time scales of evolution and kinematics of land ice and ocean surfaces. Tectonics, mountain building, isostatic rebound, seismicity, landslides, anthropogenic land subsidence, dynamics of large ice sheets and glaciers systems, sea level rise, El Nino/Southern Oscillation and tsunami events are seen in their context and in their dependence on atmospheric, anthropogenic and geodynamic driving mechanisms.

With the new generation of satellites TerraSAR-X, TanDEM-X (Fig. 9-1), Sentinel1, CRYOSAT, SMOS, and the much denser GNSS networks an extremely dense satellite measurement system is available. In

the areas of SAR, radar and laser altimetry, GNSS application, agriculture, ice and ocean modeling, infrastructure und excellent research cores for this topic are available in Germany.

Many of the satellite technologies developed in Germany are world leaders. Thus, the German SAR TerraSAR-X system is the first worldwide, with which objects for geodetic issues can be located precisely. With this, new opportunities will be developed to capture the dynamics of the earth’s surface. This characteristic together with the very high spatial and temporal resolution allows TerraSAR-X data, for example, to capture glacial movements or anthropogenic land subsidence reliably and more accuratly than with previous SAR systems. The TanDEM-X mission realized the world’s first SAR satellite formations flight – also a

German technology – with the aim of creating a homogenous global digital surface model. This means that Germany will own one of the key records with which land and ice shelves can be balanced through differential SAR interferometry, or their dynamics precisely captured. Only this model makes the separation of surface topography and movement reliably possible. (ii) Characteristics, use and development of the land surface Water and soil are among the most precious resources of our planet. The rapid expansion of urban areas (megacities), the urban sprawl into rural areas, the change of land use and the effects of climate change – all this makes it necessary to assess comprehensively and globally how changing settlement, vegetation, drylands, snow und

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Fig. 9-1: The German satellite TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X to discover the shape and the changing processes at the earth’s surface

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water are affected by natural and anthropogenic influences.

Existing operational systems (SPOT-HRG, LandsatTM) will therefore be replaced by the future, superspectral Sentinel2 series and LDCM. With newly defined, additional channels, corrections for the influence of water vapour, aerosols and cirrus clouds will then be possible. This will increase the usability of both the scientific use and in the practical operation significantly. For tasks that require high spatial and temporal resolution, data from the German system Rapid-Eye is available. The satellites of the system have a daily repetition.

The aim of the projects on topics mentioned above is not the preparation of individual missions, which is the task of the space agency DLR. In the context of GEOTECHNOLOGIEN, it is rather the establishment of mission overlapping research methods, through which the data for the research and monitoring of our earth system can be optimized. Furthermore, bridges are to be built to other topics of R&D programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN. Focusing on:

For the first time with multispectral – and in the future the hyperspectral EnMAP sensor systems with a sophisticated global coverage, diagnostic classification and analysis of the temporal variability are available. EnMAP (Fig. 9-2), the ongoing missions Rapid-Eye, TerraSAR-X and ENVISAT, as well as complementary sensor systems such as SMOS, or terrestrial and aircraft-based instruments, all create

(iii) Synergies of satellite based sensor systems The sharing of test series of different, similar or of complementary satellite missions is urgently called for in international programs such as GEOSS, but is still only in its beginnings. For several reasons this is of great importance – the current and past re-processing of time series for the latest research to build the longest possible, consistent and accurate

Fig. 9-2: EnMAP and its application in research and praxis

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the necessary conditions for the research area detection of characteristics, land use and development making Germany another excellence centre.

time series of parameters for Global Change Research, – The separation of unique phenomenon, as the separation of single contributions to sea level rise, through the use of complementary measurement systems, – Achieving a denser sampling in time and space or by multi-dimensionality, – The merging of complementary metrics for an overall picture of some physical (from SAR) and biogeochemical (from the hyper spectral remote sensing) variables of the oceans or vegetation (e.g. biomass), – The substantial reduction of errors in the variables derived, by combining data accuracy of complementary characteristics (e.g. high relative measuring accuracy high-resolution SAR systems vs. The high absolute accuracy of GNSS data) and so the collection of –as of yet– insufficiently measurable sizes and – The normalization of similar systems.

Through the combination of satellite measurement systems complete monitoring systems can be developed. One example is early warning systems for: tsunamis, earthquakes, avalanches and landslides, as well as about vegetation damage, desertification due to water deficit and/or consequences of climate change. Other examples include monitoring systems in the Antarctic and Greenland (mass balance, geological movement rates, roughness, compaction, texture, glacial balancing movements, net radiation) or monitoring systems in disaster areas. In addition to this “horizontal” synergy of satellite measurement systems the “vertical” linkages are prerequisite for an optimal interpretation and use of satellite data. (iv) Linkage of the spacial segment, ground segment, information extraction and modelling Aircraft-based and terrestrial measurement systems – or rather their data – join the space segment with the modelling and the application of science and practice. They are used for the calibration and scaling of the satellite systems of classification, mounting and adjustment and regional compression. No satellite sensor system can measure an Earth parameter directly. Only after – depending on the instrument – a applying a complex

series of algorithms and models is the desired result for use in geoscience available. This is the process of information extraction. In-situ measurements, supplement terrestrial observations, aircraft and balloon data play an important role in data assimilation of satellite measurements into models.

They are used for: – metric measurement methods of anchoring in earth, – use of representative test areas of scaling and linearization, – the spectral or regional supplement and refinement, – the separation of superimposed influence in the measured signal and – the independent control.

For complex process modelling of characteristics, use and development of land surfaces increasingly more quantifiable ecosystem parameters are needed. This demand cannot be overcome without a permanent, scale-overlapping monitoring – from regional to global to local. Only new and innovative sensors that are highly variable in their spectral coverage and provide high geometric and temporally highly resolved data can do this.

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To use these new systems innovative algorithms and analysis concepts need to be developed.

Basic approaches include: – Complex, knowledge-based evaluation methods, – Data assimilation for the optimization of evaluation strategies, – Quantitative up-scaling methods – Linear and nonlinear analysis methods, – 2-D and 3-D multi-and hypertemporal “change detection” methods – Synergies of different sensor systems, – Integration and verification of models at different temporal and spatial scales.

In the technology fields of hyperspectral data collection, and differential interferometric SAR applications, spatial data SAR procedures, and satellite gravimetry satellite magnetometry take German aerospace company and a leading international scientist positions. It is therefore strategically important to work on the concepts of the next generation.

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(v) technologies of the next generation It is visible from various technological trends: – the simultaneous availability of several cuttingedge satellite navigation systems (ionosphere modelling, atmosphere probing, “slow” earthquake, time synchronization, early warning systems, reflectometry) – new generation clocks in space (optical clocks) and on the ground (earth’s rotation, orbit determination, gravity, basic physics), – Micro-or mini-satellites (close coverage of the globe in satellite altitude) – Satellite constellations and formation (real time monitoring, spatial separation of temporal changes), – even higher (spatially/spectrally) resolved sensors – in SAR systems, the increasing of the resolution while also increasing the swath width, systematic polarimetric and interferometric imaging systems and scenarios with extremely high spatial and temporal coverage and the use of wavelength ranges optimized for the differential SAR interferometry and the detection of biomass.

The development of an earth observation strategy must be relevant in the context of geoscientific research from the fields of basic and applied research. Thus also the successful participation of German scientists in EU programmes and the ESA is required.

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10. Our Blue Planet – the importance of the Earth in the solar system

To understand the characteristics of our planet, we must compare it to the other planets and large moons in the solar system. Why could a habitable environment develop here? Such conditions might exist on other planets? The space missions in recent decades have led to many surprising discoveries that show the similarities and differences between the earth and its planetary siblings. It seems that liquid water the basis of life– may have been formerly also on Mars. On Jupiter's moon Europa there are also still deep oceans under an icy crust. The Huygens probe has shown a bizarre world, the icy landscape was formed by flow of hydrocarbons. Exoplanets orbiting around other stars are being discovered in increasing numbers and are driving the question what processes lead to the formation of different planetary systems.

Comets and asteroids are remnants of the formation of our solar system 4.5 billion years ago. Comets have fascinated mankind since time immemorial by their imposing appearance. Today the fascination is that the contain the original material of the solar system, while, surprisingly, from both the inner areas and the outer regions.

The various objects of research in the solar system show a huge variety in size, mass and in the range of their temperatures and densities. The masses vary between 1030 kg for the sun and 10 –15 kg for a dust particle. The temperature scale reaches from 15 million degrees Celsius at the center of the sun to 20 degrees Celsius above the absolute zero on the newly discovered small planets, located in about a hundredfold of the earth-sun distance from the sun. It is therefore not surprising that a very wide range of physical and chemical processes take effect in the solar system.

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Although ground-based observations still have their place in solar system research, the great discoveries of the past decades are based mainly on the use of unmanned space probes. German scientists have made significant contribution to this progress.

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10. Our Blue Planet – the importance of the Earth in the solar system Introduction Even if the planets and planetary bodies in our solar system are members of a family of objects of the same origin, they all show a marked differences (Fig. 10-1). Close to the sun apart from earth are the rocky planets Mercury, Venus and Mars our immediate cosmic neighbours. The moon also belongs here, while the two small Martian moons Phobos and Deimos are more likely captured asteroidal bodies. Beyond Mars, follows the asteroid belt with its hundreds of thousands of asteroids, some of whose orbits reach the inner part to the solar system. The giant planets of the outer solar system, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, the dwarf planet Pluto, and with them the current 146 moons of these worlds of gases and ice have only a small proportion of rock. A variety of ice-bodies move at the edge of the solar system. As comets from their origin in reservoirs the Kuiper belt and the Oort Cloud they occasionally penetrate the inner solar system.

Of all the planets, the earth is best explored (Fig. 10-2). This is not surprising, since the study of the earth can be done in-situ. Planetary research has only just begun in-situ exploration of other planets with land missions. The earth is therefore considered reference planet, at least for indispensable earth-similar planets and the major moons.

Since the beginning of the experimental space research, the methods of earth sciences have been used to study other planets. Until then, the exploration of the planets was largely the subject of astronomy. At the same time, the earth sciences have taken advantage of methods in space exploration.

For example, the measurement of the planetary fields by satellite belongs, in the spectroscopy of the surfaces from orbit photo-geological evaluation of stereo images. With some justification the comparative planetology can be viewed as a science of the earth, ranging from the formation of the earth, which cannot be studied independently of the development of the entire solar system (ob-

NASA/JPL

Fig. 10-1: The Solar System.

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viously Jupiter playing the crucial role for the formation of the Earth at the given location), through to the further development of our planet. The comparison of the earth with the planets and major moons allows new approaches to better understand the Earth. It becomes clear how plate tectonics is unusual and which important role water and carbon dioxide occupy in the geology of the earth.

The importance of the inner core for the generation of the magnetic field of the earth, for example, becomes clearer when one considers the magnetic properties of Venus, Mercury and Mars. The atmospheric research finds examples on Mars and Venus of: atmospheric erosion, for extreme greenhouse effect and for significantly different compositions and pressures.

The special challenges of planetary research on observation instruments have, in the past, fertilized

the methodology and technology of geosciences repeatedly. Examples from cosmic-chemistry are the age determination methods and micro-analysis; from planetary physics the satellite magnetometer. Occasionally planetary research overtakes the degree of exploration of the earth. Thus, the topography of Mars – using laser altimetry and highly resolved photogrammetry in the context of the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express missions – is more precise than that of the earth.

Since, the tools of earth sciences cannot be exported with reasonable costs fully into space in the foreseeable future, probe retrieval is of considerable importance. This allows the complex microanalytical methods of geoscience of solar system research be made accessible.

The question of the origin of life and its distribution in the universe is one of the great unsolved, fundamental questions in science. In the recent past it has been discovered that life on earth possi-

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Fig. 10-2: The earth as a complex system

Our Blue Planet – the importance of the Earth in the solar system

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ble even under environmental conditions which were previously considered uninhabitable. This opens up the perspective that life has existed on other planets in our solar system or perhaps still exists. The presence of liquid water is seen as an essential condition of life. We now have strong evidence that there has been liquid water on other planets, or even today it still exists below the surface.

The search for extraterrestrial life begins with an attempt to understand what the physical and chemical conditions of life are, what makes a planet habitable, how these conditions develop and where they could exist outside the earth. The study of life beyond Earth combines many disciplines and utilizes alongside the methods of planetary research, biology, biochemistry, geology, astronomy, physics and chemistry.

Our technical systems, our environment, even the lives on the Earth depend on external influences.

Amongst these it is primarily solar radiation which allows life on earth at all. Variations in solar brightness, but also variations of UV radiation and the modulation of galactic cosmic rays by the solar magnetic field and the solar wind could provoke climate change. The fluctuating magnetic activity of the sun affects the near-earth space, the magnetosphere and the atmosphere of the earth: eruptions, flares and coronal mass eruptions lead to short term dramatic increases in ultraviolet radiation and energetic particles. These influence – so far researched only initially – the earth’s atmosphere, the short-term stratospheric ozone and in the long-term the Earth’s climate. Research in recent years has highlighted, the significant influence short-term changes in the solar activity have on the technical side of humanity, known as “space weather”.

In addition to solar radiation, there are also massive objects, which act continuously or in cycles of the Earth, meteors, meteorites, cosmic small bodies.

As with life on earth space missions, manned flight to the moon and the planets depend on influence that come from different parts of the solar system.

It is important to predict these influences and to consider them in strategic decisions.

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Funding status Since the beginning of the exploration of our solar system with space probes, landing vessels and probe retrieval the appropriate technologies have been promoted by the DFG and the National Space Agency (DARA / DLR) in a variety of ways: in the standard procedure, in priority programs and collaborative research and, in particular through the direct project financing. Several of the herein possible technological and scientific development, found application and benefits in the terrestrial geological research and technological developments.

As a contribution to this priority research area, the DFG promoted from 2000 –2006 with a total of 38 research projects the priority programme “Geomagnetic variations: space-time structure, processes and effects on the earth system.”

Objectives of the program were: – to develop a comprehensive understanding of the structure of space-time geomagnetic variations in particular during the reversal of the geomagnetic field, – to identify geomagnetic variations giving rise geodynamic processes, – to model geodynamic processes numerically in order to interpret the observations of spatial and temporal structures and – to investigate possible effects on the system earth.

State of research, development and application The planets in our solar system are divided into two groups: the inner, small, terrestrial planets built of rock Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars and the outer large gas planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

The ice planet Pluto as the ninth of this family takes a special position. Although the planets and their moons make up only about one percent of the mass of the solar system, whereby about half of this belongs to Jupiter, they carry almost the entire angular momentum of the system. The chemical constituents of planetary bodies largely reflect a solar composition. However, they differ significantly in the proportion of their volatile elements.

As the temperature decreases with the distance from the sun, ever lighter elements condense, which is reflected accordingly in the density. The

inner solar system is therefore dominated by silicate and metallic compositions, in the outer, on the other hand, ice and gases.

After their accretion from the solar nebula about 4.5 billion years ago most of the planetary bodies have experienced melting and geochemical fractionation. In the resulting differentiation in core, mantle and crust, the heavy elements are concentrated near the centre, while the lighter and more volatile are found near the surface. What size is necessary for differentiation, is not known, since most proto-bodies have contributed to the growth of the early solar system planets, and therefore investigation are no longer possible. Of the remaining small objects such as the large asteroid Vesta with 520 km in diameter are differentiated, while Ceres appears to be thermally unchanged with about 950 km diameter. The original material of small asteroidal and cometary bodies in the solar system reflects the initial state of planet formation, the differentiated bodies, however show the temporal evolution of the system and their bodies.

The energy required for a differentiation results from accretion heat, radioactive decay and tidal friction. It is assumed that the original matter of the planets separated within a few tens of millions of years into core, mantle and crust. The condensed crust forms providing a thermal boundary layer between the hot interior and the cold surrounding space, for which short-life radionuclides deliver the required heat. The way the heat, which is now produced by long-life radionuclides, is transported through this lithosphere produces the different geological effects that determine the outcome of the large number of known structures on planetary surfaces. Mercury, the Earth’s Moon, Mars and many of the icy moons lose their heat mainly by heat conduction without much material movement. In this process the lithosphere grows into a mighty framework of global crust. The high density of impact craters on these surfaces shows that the lithospheres are old and stabilized relatively quickly after their formation.

Planetary bodies, whose heat loss is characterized mainly by convection have, however a large proportion of volcanic deposits and thus a high sur-

face renewal rate, an indicator for a young surface age. Example of surfaces dominated by a volcanic geology are: the Venus surface, the Jupiter moon Io, probably some icy moons – and the earth, in addition their special form of plate tectonics created long trench and fold mountains. The energy balance of planetary development, and thus the thermal evolution of planets is elementary for understanding fundamental geological processes, but as yet still too little understood. Understood in only basic measures are the planetary magnetic fields. The earth has had its global magnetic field for at least 3.8 billion years, which has been subject to strong secular variation through switching of its poles and can be understood as a consequence of a dynamo process in the electrically conductive and liquid core of our planet. The history of the earth’s magnetic field reflects the development of thermal convection on earth and let us conclude convective processes in the earth’s interior. The dynamo process itself is however little understood. Numerical simulations deliver an increasing understanding of the important physical conditions of the dynamo process on earth, but do not, for example explain the relatively weak planetary magnetic field of the planet Mercury. Generally it can be stated that knowledge on the global magnetic fields of other orbs is completely inadequate to make generalizations.

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Necessary R&D tasks The exploration of the solar system with sophisticated experimental methods requires the use of modern technologies. Since the start of exploration with space probes a well-functioning network of research institutes and industry has developed. The developed technological expertise in areas such as precision engineering, optical systems, semiconductor technology or information technology is transferred increasingly into other applications.

The methodological emphasis in solar system research is put firmly on remote sensing and in situ observations by space probes. These missions are carried out in most cases in the form of large international programs, often under the ESA. The German solar system research is closely involved in these programs and plays a formative role. Labora-

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tory studies, theoretical and numerical modelling, and ground-based observations complement the methodological spectrum, the latter are often carried out also in internationally funded large facilities.

The analysis of planetary remote sensing data in the sense of a coherent geoscientific and planetological interpretation requires a collective view of all the scientific, methodological, technical data and instrument-specific issues. Therefore, not only geological evaluation methods are to be developed and applied. The development of methods for data processing, the specification of instruments and the development and implementation of procedures for the execution of space experiments are important aspects of solar system research.

There are particular technical expertise in Germany, especially in the development and construction of space-suitable instruments: – Stereoscopic and multispectral camera systems – Laser altimeter – Optical Spectrometer – Tools for chemical and mineralogical in situ analysis (mass spectrometer, gas chromatographs, radiometric instruments LIBS) – Magnetometer – Radar and Microwave Instruments – Distance and Distance alteration measurement systems for high-precision positioning of probes and gravity field determination – In-situ technology for landing probes and rovers.

Furthermore, German institutes are involved at the forefront in the development of novel technologies, such as the laser altimetry and spectroscopy in the thermal infrared.

The working groups in the German laboratories are experimentally concerned with the fundamental physical processes of the formation and evolution of primitive bodies in the solar system and with the properties of planetary matter. The chemical and mineralogical analysis made tremendous technical and methodological progress in the last 30 years.

With the study of meteorites and lunar rocks, inter-

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planetary dust, comet particles and gases, and (insitu) of Mars’ surface significant contribution to understand the origin and development of such diverse planetary bodies – and in doing so that of the earth itself– have been and will be undertaken in the future. In the area of theory and modelling, German groups are dealing with a number of the solar system related issues. These work areas range from modelling of the solar wind through the dynamics of the interplanetary dust, asteroids and comets to the description of planetary phenomena such as rings, atmospheres and planet formations.

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Our Blue Planet – the importance of the Earth in the solar system 101

Annex – Picture Credits /Imprint

Picture Credits: Fig. 1-1: NASA; svs.gsfc.nasa.gov Fig 1-2: MARUM, Bremen Tab. 1-1: From IPCC,Report 2007

Fig. 5-2 (Left): Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, KIT (Right): Geothermie Neubrandenburg GmbH Fig. 5-3: Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule Aachen, RWTH

Fig. 2-1: From Buggisch und Walliser 2001: Huch et. al. (Eds.): Klimazeugnisse der Erdgeschichte.

Springer Verlag.

Fig. 5-4: (Left): Miklos F. Laubert (Right): Damian Dovarganes

Fig. 2-2: MARUM, Bremen

Fig. 5-5: Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, KIT

Fig. 2-3 (Left): IFM-GEOMAR, Kiel (Right): MARUM, Bremen

Fig. 6-1: Bayerisches Geoinstitut

Fig. 2-4: MARUM, Bremen

Fig. 6-2: Mineralogisch-Petrologisches Institut, University Hamburg

Fig. 3-1: University Bremen

Fig. 6-3: Bayerisches Geoinstitut

Fig. 3-2: MARUM, Bremen

Fig. 6-4: Bayerisches Geoinstitut

Fig. 3-3: MARUM, Bremen

Fig. 7-1: Allmann, Münchener Rück

Fig. 4-1: From Wilding and Lin (2006): Advancing the frontiers of soil science toward a geoscience.

Geoderma 131, 257-274.

Fig. 7-2: Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ Fig. 7-3: Malsch, Stefan

Fig. 4-2: After »US-Critical Zone Exploration Network« http://www.czen.org/

Fig. 7-4: Baltschieder, Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU), Switzerland

Fig. 4-3: (Left) F. von Blanckenburg, (Middle) after Anderson, SP., von Blanckenburg, F., White, AF. (2007): Physical and chemical controls in the critical zones. Elements 3:315-319., (Right) aus White, AF., Schulz, MS., Vivit, DV., Blum, AE., Stonestrom, DA., Anderson, SP. (2008): Chemical weathering of a marine terrace chronosequence, Santa Cruz, California I: Interpreting rates and controls based on soil concentration-depth profiles. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72:36-68.

Fig. 8-1: Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, RWTH Fig. 8-2: Institut für Kartographie und Geoinformatik, University Hannover Fig. 8-3: Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, RWTH Fig. 9-1: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V., DLR

Fig. 4-4: NCALM http://www.ncalm.org Fig. 5-1 (Left): (AfterASPO International) (Right): aus IEA (Internationale Energie Agentur)Projektion des zukünftigen Energiebedarfs 2008.

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Fig. 9-2: EnMAP und seine Anwendungen in Forschung und Praxis Fig. 10-1: NASA/JPL

Fig. 10-2: After Van Thienen, P., K. Benzerara, D. Breuer, C. Gillmann, S. Labrosse, P. Lognonné and T. Spohn 2007: Water, Life, and Planetary Geodynamical Evolution. – Space Science Reviews 129 (1-3): 167 – 203

Imprint: Editor: Prof. Dr. Gerold Wefer Chairman of the Steering Committee GEOTECHNOLOGIEN MARUM Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences University Bremen E-Mail: gwefer@marum.de

Reference Address: Coordination office GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Telegrafenberg 14473 Potsdam Internet: www.geotechnologien.de E-Mail: geotech@geotechnologien.de Layout: Dipl.-Des. Grit Schwalbe Print: Druckerei Arnold, Großbeeren Impression: 1. Impression, 250 Exemplars Potsdam, August 2010

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Annex – List of Authors

A Azzam, Rafig, Aix-La-Chapelle B Bamler, Richard, Oberpfaffenhofen-Wessling Bens, Oliver, Potsdam Berndt, Christian, Kiel Bernard, Lars, Dresden Bill, Ralf, Rostock Bismayer, Ulrich, Hamburg Blanckenburg, Friedhelm von, Potsdam Boetius, Antje, Bremerhaven Bohrmann, Gerhard, Bremen Borm, Günter, Potsdam C Christensen, Ulrich, Katlenburg-Lindau Cramer, Bernhard, Hannover D Dransch, Doris, Potsdam E Emmermann, Rolf, Potsdam F Flechtner, Frank, Oberpfaffenhofen G Gläßer, Cornelia, Halle Glassmeier, Karl-Heinz, Braunschweig Gleixner, Gerd, Jena Grevemeyer, Ingo, Kiel Guggenberger, Georg, Hannover H Harjes, Hans-Peter, Bochum Hiesinger, Harald, Munster Horsfield, Brian, Potsdam Hübers, H.W., Berlin Huenges, Ernst, Potsdam Hüttl, Reinhard, Potsdam J Jaumann, Ralf, Berlin Jessberger, Elmar K., Munster K Kaufmann, Hermann, Potsdam

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Kaul, Norbert, Bremen Kempf, Sascha, Heidelberg Keppler, Hans, Bayreuth Krawczyk, Charlotte, Hannover Kühn, Michael, Potsdam Kümpel, Hans-Joachim, Hannover L Langenhorst, Falko, Bayreuth Lempp, Christoph, Halle Littke, Ralf, Aix-La-Chapelle M Meyer, Michael, Aix-La-Chapelle Michaelis, Harald, Berlin Mosbrugger, Volker, Frankfurt Mutschler, Thomas, Karlsruhe N Neukum, Gerhard, Berlin R Reinhardt, Wolfgang, Munich Rummel, Reiner, Munich S Scheuermann, Alexander, Karlsruhe Schilling, Frank, Karlsruhe Schilcher, Matthäus, Munich Schulz, Michael, Bremen Schwalb, Antje, Braunschweig Sester, Monika, Hannover Shapiro, Serge, Berlin Sommer, Michael, Müncheberg Spohn, Tilmann, Berlin Stroink, Ludwig, Potsdam T Tiedemann, Ralf, Bremen Triantafyllidis, Theodor, Karlsruhe W Wagner, Stefan, Heidelberg Weber, Michael, Potsdam Wefer, Gerold, Bremen Wenzel, Friedemann, Karlsruhe Werner, Klaus, Tuebingen Wimmer-Schweingruber, Robert, Kiel Würdemann, Hilke, Potsdam

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Annex – Abbreviations

AUV AWI BMBF BMU BMWi CCS CEN CHAMP CIGS CRYOSAT CSLF DARA DAS DEKLIM DEPAS DFG DGM DIN DLR DNA EADS EDIM EnMAP ELER ESA EU EWS FuE FuE-Programm GEM GEOSS GDI GDI1.0 GIS GFZ GITEWS GMES GNSS GOCE GRACE GuTech HAZUS HTM ICSU IEA IPCC IODP ISO KI

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Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung Bremerhaven Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung Bundesumweltministerium Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie Carbon Capture & Storage European Committee for Standardization Challenging Minisatellite Payload Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 Solarzelle Satellit zur Vermessung der Kryospäre Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Deutschen Agentur für Raumfahrtangelegenheiten Deutsche Anpassungsstrategie an den Klimawandel Deutsches Klimaforschungsprogramm Deutscher Gerätepool für amphibische Seismologie Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Digitales Geländemodell Deutsche Industrienorm Deutsches Luft- und Raumfahrtzentrum Desoxyribonukleinsäure European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company Earthquake Disaster Information System for the Marmara-Region Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program Europäischen Landwirtschaftsfonds für die Entwicklung des ländlichen Raums Europäische Raumfahrt Agentur Europäische Union Early Warning Systems Forschung- und Entwicklung Forschungs- und Entwicklungsprogramm Global Earthquake Model Global Earth Observation System of System Geodateninfrastrukturen Geodateninfrastrukturen der ersten Generation Geoinformationssysteme GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam Deutsch-Indonesisches Tsunami Frühwarnsystem Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Global Navigation Satellite System Gravity Field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment German University of Technology HAZards United States Hochtechnologiemetalle Science Plan for Integrated Research and Disaster Risk Internationale Energie Agentur Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Integrated Osean Drilling Program Internationale Organisation für Normung Künstliche Intelligenz

KMU KW LED ICDP ICSU IUCN LIBS LIDAR MeBo MOR NASA NCALM OBH OBS OCL OGC OWL RDF RIMAX ROV RWTH SA SAR SLEWS SMOS SPOT-HRG SUGAR SWE TanDEM-X-Missionen TerraSAR-X TEEB TLS TM UNISDR US WBGU WPS

Klein- und Mittelständische Unternehmen Kohlenwasserstoff Leuchtdiode International Continental Deep Drilling Programme Science Plan for Integrated Research on Disaster Risk International Union of Conservation of Nature Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Light Detection and Ranging Meeresbodenbohrgerät Mittelozeanischer Rücken National Aeronautics and Space Administration US National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping Ozeanboden-Hydrophone Ozeanboden-Seismometer Object Constraint Language Open Geospatial Consortium Web Ontology Language Resource Description Framework Risikomanagement extremer Hochwasserereignisse Remotely Operated Vehicle Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule Strahlungsantrieb Synthetik-Apertur-Radarsystem EWS-Projekt im FuE-Programm GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Soil Moistrure and Ocean Salinity Images for Vegetation Submarine Gashydrat-Lagerstätten Sensor Web Enablement TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurements Radarsatellit The Economy of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Transport Layer Security Thematic Mapper Hyoger Framework for Action United States Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränderungen Web-Processing Services

Annex – Abbreviations 107

Annex – GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Science Reports

No. 1 Gas Hydrates in the Geosystem – Status Seminar, GEOMAR Kiel, 6–7 May 2002, Programme & Abstracts, 151 pages.

No. 9 1. French-German Symposium on Geological Storage of CO2, June 21. / 22. 2007, GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Abstracts, 202 pages.

No. 2 Information Systems in Earth Management – KickOff-Meeting, University Hannover, 19 Februar 2003, Projekte, 65 Seiten.

No. 10 Early Warning Systems in Earth Management – Kick-Off-Meeting, Technische Universität Karlsruhe, 10 October 2007, Programme & Abstracts, 136 pages.

No. 3 Observation of the System Earth from Space – Status Seminar, BLVA Munich, 12–13 June 2003, Programm & Abstracts, 199 pages.

No. 4 Information Systems in Earth Management – Status Seminar, RWTH Aachen University, 23–24 March 2004, Programme & Abstracts, 100 pages.

No. 5 Continental Margins – Earth’s Focal Points of Usage and Hazard Potential – Status Seminar, GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam, 9–10 June 2005, Programme & Abstracts, 112 pages.

No. 6 Investigation, Utilization and Protection of the Underground – CO2-Storage in Geological Formations, Technologies for an Underground Survey Areas – Kick-Off-Meeting, Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR) Hannover, 22–23 September 2005, Programme & Abstracts, 144 pages.

No. 7 Gas Hydrates in the Geosystem – The German National Research Programm on Gas Hydrates, Results from the First Funding Period (2001–2004), 219 pages.

No. 8 Information Systems in Earth Management – From Science to Application, Results from the First Funding Period (2002–2005), 103 pages.

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No. 11 Observation of the System Earth from Space – Status Seminar, 22–23 November 2007, Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Munich, Programme & Abstracts, 194 pages.

No. 12 Mineral Surfaces – From Atomic Processes to Industrial Application – Kick-Off-Meeting, 13–14 October 2008, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universtity, Munich, Programme & Abstracts, 133 pages.

No. 13 Early Warning Systems in Earth Management– Status Seminar, 12–13 October 2009, Technical University Munich, Programme & Abstracts, 165 pages.

No.14 Die geologische Speicherung von CO2 – Aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse und Perspektiven, Koordinierungsbüro GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Potsdam, 2009, 140 pages.

No. 15 Early Warning Systems for Transportation Infrastructures, Workshop 9-10 February 2009 Fraunhofer IITB Karlsruhe und Karlsruhe Institut für Technologie, KIT. Programme und Abstracts, 160 pages.

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