Dissertation Report

REPRESENTING & RE-PRESENTING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE 1

REPRESENTING & RE-PRESENTING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE APPLICATION OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT. A DISSERTATION REPORT Submitted by

HARSH M SHAH

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE (B. ARCH)

MEASI ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTURE, CHENNAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2016

2

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “……….REPRESENTING & RE-PRESENTING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE……………..”is the bonafide work of “…………..HARSH M SHAH.…………”who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SAMIRA RATHOD SUPERVISOR (Chief Architect) OFFICE SEAL SAMIRA RATHOD DESIGN ASSOCIATES ADDRESS

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………..........7 LIST OF FIGURES…...…………………………………………..........8 1.

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………9

2.

DEFINING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE…………………...13

3.

UNDERSTANDING THE VERNACULAR…………………............18

4.

THE INDIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE………………...22 4.1

General………………………………………………………...22

4.2

History………………………………………………………....22

4.3

Socio-cultural aspects………………………………………….24

4.4

Ecological aspects……………………………………………...27

4.5

Understanding vernacular dwellings of India………………….28 4.5.1

Climate Zone 1: Hot & Dry……………………………28

4.5.2

Climate Zone 2: Warm & Humid……………………...30

4.5.3 Climate Zone 3: Cold………………..…………...……31 4.5.4 Observations………………..…………………………...32 5.

6.

7.

8.

LEARNING FROM VERNACULAR SPACES…………………….33 5.1

General…………………………………………………………..33

5.2

Movement………………………………………………………..34

5.3

Courtness…………………………………………………………39

5.4

Light………………………………………………………………49

5.5

Structure………………………………………………………….53

5.6

Pavilions………………………………………………………….56

5.7

The In-between Realm……………………………………………64

UNDERSTANDING OTHER ELEMENTS…………………………..69 CONTEMPORARY INDIAN ARCHITECTURE………………......80 SUSTAINABILITY & VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE………..81 8.1

General…………….………………………………………………81

8.2

Ecological Sustainability…………………………………………83

8.3

Physical Sustainability…………………………………………….85

8.4

Socio Economic Sustainability……………………………………86

8.5

Vernacular as a sustainable built environment……………………87 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

9.

VERNACULAR & MODERNISM –HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.89

10.

THE CONTEMPORARY VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE……….95

11.

PAGE NO.

10.1

Relevance of the Vernacular………………………………………...95

10.2

The need of a sustainable built environment…………………………97

10.3

Contemporary Vernacular…………………………………………...98

10.4

The Future of the Past: The Role of Vernacular in the 21st century…99

10.5

Open Air Museums………………………………………………….101

10.6

Developmental Vernacular…………………………………………102

CASE STUDIES………………………………………………….………106 11.1

IIM Ahmedabad, Louis Kahn………………………………………106

11.2

New IIM Ahmedabad, HCP Architects……………………………108

11.3

IIM Bangalore, B V Doshi…………………………………………111

11.4

IIM Bangalore Extension, Sanjay Mohe……………………………113

REFERENCES………………………………………………………...….115

5

REPRESENTING & RE-PRESENTING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE – APPLICATION OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT.

6

ABSTRACT

Vernacular architecture may be defined as culmination of a creative process of interpretation of building traditions, skills, and experience, which is strongly influenced by factors such as environmental conditions, material resources, social structures, belief systems, behavioral patterns, cultural practices and economic conditions of the area. This dissertation focuses on how vernacular built heritage is now being seen as an economic, social, and environmental asset and can form the loci for sustainable urban development. Cities and towns are dynamic and continue to adapt themselves to the changing needs and aspirations of the society they house.

It is to understand how vernacular buildings make good models for sustainable design lessons and often serve as laboratories for architects as these are comprehensive due to their often simple forms and resourceful use of materials and technology. The dynamic nature of the vernacular traditions allows it to constantly evolve and adapt to the changing socio-cultural environment.

It will further discuss

about shifting definitions of the ‘contemporary’ and the ‘vernacular’, especially in the Indian context in order to shape an architecture that is responsive to contemporary condition, people and context which is a mélange, collage or an assemblage of the contemporary and the vernacular.

Does progress signal the end of tradition? Is it possible to create an environment that satisfies contemporary needs and yet is integrated with tradition? Is it possible to

7

bridge the gap between the past and the future? The dissertation seeks to answer these questions and understand that good architecture is always in sync with the environment in which it is placed and takes care of the anthropological, social, and psychological needs of man.

It is therefore important to not only study and document vernacular architecture but to also intervene to ensure its survival into the future. The three approaches enlisted below are that of conservation, rehabilitation, and reuse and reconstruction or development using traditional methodologies. Often in the complex situations, it is not one particular approach that will be recommended but a combination of all three for creating a sustainable built environment. ‘the future of the past – role of vernacular in the 21st century’

8

1. INTRODUCTION - THE DISCOVERY OF VERNACULAR-ISM IN THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ‘NATIVE’, ‘MONUMENTAL’, ‘PRESTIGIOUS’, ‘PRIMITIVE’, ‘INDIGENOUS’, ‘TRADITIONAL’, ‘LOCAL’, ‘ARCHITECTURE WITHOUT ARCHITECTS’, ‘FOLK’, ‘RURAL’, ‘ETHNIC’, ‘INFORMAL’, ,…..

There are some common areas of interest, which are common to all these terms or vocabularies. These common areas are making difficulties for the clear distinctions between the terms. Among those, the term which has gained the widest acceptance is ‘vernacular architecture’ with its linguistic comparison to the common people.

Architecture is a unique component of a country's culture just as much as its language, music, art, literature or food. Architecture is also the most visual of those cultural components; the pyramids in Egypt, skyscrapers in New York, a temple in India, all convey a unique image. This is called “genius loci,” the “spirit of a place”.

Every country has its own genius loci, its own uniqueness. Vernacular architecture is composed of local materials and derived from local customs, techniques that have been passed on from generation to generation.

Architecture is the physical manifestation of the needs and aspirations of a society and is determined by the environmental, socio-cultural, and political climate of a place or a region. Each period in history can be associated with a genre of architecture, which is reflective of beliefs and achievements of the society it represents. It includes the inter relationships of the built and open spaces within the larger landscape.

Each period in history can be associated with a genre of architecture, which is reflective of beliefs and achievements of the society it represents. Distinctive images representative of each period in history are etched in the collective memory.

9

For example, taking the case of India, the relics of the indus valley civilisation, the Buddhist stupa and cave temples, the intricately carved Hindu Temples, the Mughal monuments, buildings built by the colonial settlers, as well as the products of the industrial civilisation all form a collage in the urban built environment. They are all architectural masterpieces and provide a distinctive identity to the place.

Every region has therefore evolved an architecture that is a unique combination of the response to the climate, imaginative use of the local materials, resources, technology, traditional knowledge and skills, religious and social customs, and represents the way of life through collective experience of generations.

Hence, this architecture is the architecture of a particular place, a particular people, a particular community. It has two generative forces – culture and context.

Vernacular architecture originated when mankind was forced to make use of the natural resources around him, and provide himself shelter and comfort which is responsive to the climate, a shield from the elements.

It is an architecture where the cultural constraints and attitudes pushed architecture inwards whereas climatic factors brought people in the open leading to various spatial options. Although dwellings constitute the majority of the world’s buildings,diverse environments, economies, technologies, inherited skills, social and family structures, belief systems and symbolism, together with many other factors, contribute to the wide variety of built forms of different cultures.

Greater senses of belonging and place have generated elements of social and symbolic values with a definite background a purpose. It is a spiritual entity representation of the cosmic or the divine mode. The ultimate aim is to understand in what relate it to the epoch that has seen its construction, what relate it to its surrounding environment, what relate it to the people who have built it and live in it. It is object-oriented, socially oriented, culturally-oriented and symbolically oriented.

10

‘Ever since the beginning of the Enlightenment, civilization has been primarily concerned with instrumental reason, while culture has addressed itself to the specifics of expression – to the realisation of the being and the evolution of its collective social reality. The dialectical interplay between civilisation and culture afforded the possibility of maintaining some general control over the shape and significance of the urban fabric’ – Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six points for an Architecture of Resistance, Kenneth Frampton.

‘Architecture touches all, partly because of its scale and public nature and partly because it holds up a very revealing mirror to the kind of society we live in. the built environment reflects our civic priorities, government policies, our attitudes about work and leisure as well as our social relationships. The word architecture implies permanent buildings suitable for a variety of human activities; it also suggests the communication

of

ideas,

emotions

and

experiences

through

form’

–

ThaparMantoBhalla.

‘The most important movement in architecture today is the revival of the vernacular and classical traditions and their reintegeration into the mainstream of modern architecture in its fundamental aspect: the structure of communities, the building of towns’ – Jan 1991, NY Times, Vincent Scully.

Tradition may be defined as a process of interpretation, adaptation and negotiation with the given conditions and is transmitted over generations to meets the needs and challenges of time. But as we are moving towards globalisation, as global becomes local, the international style of architecture dominates every skyline irrespective of the climate and culture of the place. This new genre of architecture is completely cut off from tradition and dismisses the traditional knowledge base developed over generations.

11

This rapid transformation of the urban environment is intrinsically linked with the drastic change in the lifestyles, values and beliefs. It can be argued here that as we leave behind our regionalism and become global citizens or follow our desire to embrace tradition and be grounded to our roots at one end or become a developed progressive nation at the other. Does progress signal the end of tradition? Is it possible to create an environment that satisfies contemporary needs and yet is integrated with tradition? Is it possible to bridge the gap between the past and the future?

The aim is to seek answers to these questions and understand that good architecture is always in synchronisation with the environment it is placed and takes care of the anthropological, social and psychological needs of man. It is to understand the lessons learnt from the past and showcase how technology can be used to produce good architecture which is sensitive as well as sustainable. It is essential to critically evaluate the past keeping the culture and traditions in mind and assess the significance and relevance of what is important to the future. It is to pass on to the future generations these cultural traditions of indigenous cultural communities including festivals, rituals, building traditions, values and lifestyle.

This dissertation focuses on how vernacular built heritage is now being seen as an economic, social, and environmental asset and can form the loci for sustainable urban development. Cities and towns are dynamic and continue to adapt themselves to the changing needs and aspirations of the society they house. It is to understand how vernacular buildings make good models for sustainable design lessons and often serve as laboratories for architects as these are comprehensive due to their often simple forms and resourceful use of materials and technology. The dynamic nature of the vernacular traditions allows it to constantly evolve and adapt to the changing sociocultural environment. It will further discuss about shifting definitions of the ‘contemporary’ and the ‘vernacular’, especially in the Indian context in order to shape an architecture that is responsive to contemporary condition, people and context which is a mélange, collage or an assemblage of the contemporary and the vernacular.

12

2. DEFINING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE The phrase ‘vernacular architecture’ is seen here as referring to the buildings of and by the people.

The Latin word ‘vernaculus’ means native, domestic, indigenous. Architecture is vernacular when it exhibits all of its criteria related to the ‘native context’ in the sense that it can only be acceptable and recognisable within any particular society by applying some particular technology, materials, social rules and systems.

Figure 1

‘Vernacular architecture comprises the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources, they are customarily owner or community-built, utilising traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating values, economies and ways of living of the cultures that produces them’ (Oliver, 1997).

It is the architecture of a place and people. It is contextual and unconscious kind of architecture. It ismore a process than a product. It involves adaptation criteria in vernacular architecture. It involves adaptationto lifestyle changes along with cultural concepts.Vernaculararchitecture is

a

category

of architecture based

on

local

needs, construction materials and reflecting local traditions. It tends to evolve over time

to

reflect

the

environmental,

and historical context in which it exists.

13

cultural,

technological,

economic,

The most commonly understood meaning of vernacular architecture, is that which has been built by the owners and the occupiers, or by the community itself based on local wisdom and traditional knowledge of the generations, using locally available building materials. It is generally inexpensive and is designed in response to the climate and the socio-cultural communities it houses. This

kind of architecture includes

dwellings, public spaces, and settlements as a whole.

‘Vernacular architecture is often referred to as “Architecture without architects” to include structures made by empirical builders without the intervention of professional architects and without the use of industrial components’, Rudofsky 1987.

Vernacular architecture is severely utilitarian in its use of materials and technology; functional in its adaptation to the climate; accommodation of activities; and utilization of site and its sculptural expressions of mass and volume. Vernacular architecture is a broad, grassroots concept which encompasses fields of architectural study including aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, and ethnic architecture.

Vernacular architecture may be defined as culmination of a creative process of interpretation of building traditions, skills, and experience, which is strongly influenced by factors such as environmental conditions, material resources, social structures, belief systems, behavioral patterns, cultural practices and economic conditions of the area.

14

Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling".

According to Brunskill (2000), vernacular architecture has been seen as one of the ways in which the regional and the national character survived the various political amalgamations which make up the present nation. Since 1960s, efforts have largely been concentrated on identification and documentation of this genre of heritage.

These varieties of architectural expression, in the forms and structure of the entire settlements, have been a source of inspiration of architects such as Renzo Piano, Frank Lloyd Wright, Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier. Even, Hasan Fathy was a pioneer in understanding the importance of vernacular building skills and traditions and was among the first to innovate building technology using the experience of the past.

Other architects such as Louis Kahn, Laurie Baker, B V Doshi, Charles Correa, and Raj Rewal also demonstrate the re-interpretation of principles of vernacular traditions in their designs for contemporary buildings.

The next generation of architects such as Anupama Kundoo, Sanjay Prakash, Shirish Beri, Anil Laul, and Revathi and Vasant Kamath have demonstrated how ecologically sensitive and cost-effective buildings can be designed using local materials and technology.

According to Le Corbusier, his experiences made him realise the role of history in the architectural expression of a culture. History, he recognised was the palette of the architect – the wealth of materials, colours, textures, forms and other choices from which works of lasting beauty are created.

15

Vernacular

architecture

is

an

indigenous

building style method using local materials and traditional methods of construction and ornamentation, usually "architecture without architects". Vernacular architecture is a very open and comprehensive area of architecture.

It

includes

primitive,

traditional,

indigenous, ancestral, folk architecture, etc, the so called ‘Architecture without Architects’. It is the simplest form of addressing human needs. It embraces Figure 2

regionalism and cultural building traditions and the

structures have been proven to be energy efficient as well as sustainable. These low tech methods are perfectly adapted to its locale.It is a pure reaction to an individual person’s or society’s building needs, and has allowed man, even before the architect, to construct shelter according to his circumstance. If anything is to be taken from vernacular architecture, it provides a vital connection between humans and the environment. It re-establishes us in our particular part of the world and forces us to think in terms of pure survival – architecture before the architect. These structures present a climate-responsive approach to dwelling and are natural and resource conscious solutions to a regional housing need. The benefits of vernacular architecture have been realized throughout the large part of history, diminished during the modern era, and are now making a return among green architecture and architects. In order to progress in the future of architecture and sustainable building, we must first gain knowledge of the past and employ these strategies as a well-balanced, methodical whole to achieve optimum energy efficiency.

“To be modern is not a fashion. It is a state. It is necessary to understand history, and he who understands history knows how to find continuity between that which was, that which is, and that which will be” – Le Corbusier, on the definition of ‘modern’.

16

The humanistic desire to be culturally connected to ones surroundings is reflected in a harmonious architecture, a typology which can be identified with a specific region. This sociologic facet of architecture is present in a material, a colour scheme, an architectural genre, a spatial language or form that carries through the urban framework. The way human settlements are structured in modernity has been vastly unsystematic; current architecture exists on a singular basis, unfocused on the connectivity of a community as a whole.

Vernacular architecture adheres to basic green architectural principles of energy efficiency and utilizing materials and resources in close proximity to the site. These structures capitalize on the native knowledge of how buildings can be effectively designed as well as how to take advantage of local materials and resources.

A vernacular design has a language that can be, like any language, broken into parts and reassembled to create new meanings. When architects design in a vernacular style, they break that local design language into its components and reassemble them to write a new design story.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8 17

3. UNDERSTANDING THE VERNACULAR In a world faced with environmental crisis, climate change, globalisation, mass migration, provision of urban housing and technological developments, what will be the future of the vernacular? By virtue of its definition, vernacular may be termed as something native and unique to a specific place, created without the help of some imported components and processes, and possibly built by the individuals who occupied the particular place (Al Sayyad 2006). In the twenty first century, as the world slowly becomes a global village, and tradition and culture lose their local distinctiveness, many questions arise over the existence of vernacular architecture: will it simply disappear or will it adapt itself to the changing ecological and cultural environment? Will it be eradicated and replaced with more modern buildings or will we be able to catch a glimpse of such architecture only in museums?

The need of the hour is to ascertain whether the vernacular can be used as a model for sustainable development, combining valuable lessons from the past with equally valuable modern technology to solve the problems of the twenty first century.

Vernacular architecture continues to be associated to the past and is often stigmatized as an image of poverty and backwardness; it is conveniently replaced with the want of more progressive modern buildings.

Today, more importantly than static preservation of vernacular architecture is understanding the building traditions, knowledge systems and skills that have continuously evolved to the changing environment and yet have remained distinctive to a specific place.(Oliver 2003) The dynamic nature of vernacular architecture of the vernacular traditions allows it to constantly evolve and adapt to its changing socio-cultural environment. These traditions are inherently sustainable in nature and hold valuable lessons that may be applied into contemporary architectural practice. The study of architecture over the 18

last twenty years has been concentrated on the static built forms and further research is necessary to understand how relevant aspects from the past can be transmitted into the future.

Vernacular buildings across the globe provide instructive examples of sustainable solutions to building problems. Yet, these solutions are assumed to be inapplicable to modern buildings. Despite some views to the contrary, there continues to be a tendency to consider innovative building technology as the hallmark of modern architecture because tradition is commonly viewed as the antonym of modernity. The problem is addressed by practical exercises and fieldwork studies in the application of vernacular traditions to current problems.

Vernacularism demands a relationship and adaptability of the built forms to the social,economic, ecological, and climatic environment. In a very broad classification, we observe two approaches to vernacularism: first is the conservative attitude and second is the interpretative attitude. While both the kinds of vernacularism have the ideals of bringing a new and contemporary existence to vernacular forms and spatial arrangements, they differ in the way they treat technology and community.

A more unadventurous approach to vernacularism, conservative vernacularism, inherits traditional construction technology and the use of local materials, linking both to the natural environment just like Hasan Fathy had done. It focuses on reviving building traditions based on a specific culture and society. Conservative vernacularism, however, is limited in building types, mainly focusing on residential development. It is a result of apathy found in the community concerning these forms.

Interpretative vernacularism, or neo-vernacularism, similar to the conservative approach, has emerged as an approach to bring new life to vernacular heritage for new and contemporary functions. However, neo-vernacularism's innovative approach utilizes different levels of technology as well as new types ofinfrastructures, such as 19

heating, cooling, and other technical services. This architectural approach is often used for commercial and tourist buildings and resorts because it incorporates easily recognizable symbols. This also helped to develop a new vocabulary of contemporary architecture which has its roots in the building tradition of a particular culture.

These two attitudes toward vernacularism, conservative and interpretative, which are based on building and cultural traditions, share clear objectives. First, the revival of the vernacular allows a more reasonable building environment, one that is more socially and culturally bounded. Second, by considering that traditions and cultural aspects can be involved in architectural forms and building techniques, it becomes possible for architecture to be honest to, and consistent with the immediate society.

Finally, taking into account the possible and real effects of this emphasis, the architectural vocabulary of a specific regional culture can be reoriented and developed.

A culture steadily culminates these frameworks over time. Traditions then arise allowing vernacular designers to reuse forms and methods for common tasks.

Contemporary designers typically look for a new or wholely unique solution to a given problem, which is counter-productive to creating traditions. The concepts of constraint, durability, and thrift provide the foundation for the vernacular’s evolutionary model. The same principles applied to modern-day design practice offer new and concrete ways for design to move forward.

Indigenous builders use local climate, culture and materials to guide their processes instead of years of formal schooling. The constraint of locality may limit formal elements, materials, and size to vernacular builders, but making choices inside the presented constraints allows for innovation to take place outside of initial expectations. Before the industrial revolution, around 200 materials were used in the building trades worldwide. Most of those materials were the same nearly everywhere: wood, straw, brick, stone and earth. Even with such a limited array of materials, 20

widely different uses and forms evolved in different locations. Specifying boundaries does not have to limit options. As a practicing designer, accepting constraints can make choices easier. When you don’t have 10,000 options, you can act quickly and confidently. Constraints play a large part in sustainability. However, sustainability itself should be the most important constraint on the design decisions we make. We can simply limit ourselves to only the materials that meet our definitions of sustainable. Indigenous buildings aim to get the most building for the least material, money, and time. Practicality is the focus. A building starts with something small and necessary and is only added to as money, time, and need allow. We have lost sight of this in contemporary design. We often seek the cheapest solutions monetarily, but we don’t always seek the all-around least wasteful solutions.

21

4. THE INDIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

4.1

GENERAL India is a country of great cultural and geographic diversity. Encompassing

distinct zones such as the Great Thar Desert of Rajasthan, the Himalayan mountains, the Indo – Gangetic Plains, the Ganga Delta, the Ganga delta, the tropical coastal region along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, the Deccan Plateau and the Rann of Kutch, each region in India has its own cultural identity and its own distinctive architectural forms and construction techniques that has evolved over the centuries as a response to its environmental and cultural setting.

A simple unit of the dwelling has many distinct forms which depend on the climate, the material available and social and cultural needs of the society. This architecture that has evolved over the centuries may be defined as “architecture without architects”. It is an evolutionary form of architecture which grows and alters itself with the changing needs of the society. The builders of these structures are unschooled in formal architectural design and their works reflect the rich diversity of India’s climate, locally available building materials, and the intricate variations in local social customs and craftsmanship. It has been estimated that worldwide close to 90% of all building is vernacular, meaning that is for daily use for ordinary, local people and built by local craftsmen.

4.2

HISTORY ‘When we look at the architectural heritage of India, we find an incredibly rich

reservoir of mythic images and beliefs – each like a transparent overlay – starting from the models of the cosmos, right down to this century. And it is their continuing presence in our lives that creates the pluralistic society of India today’ – Correa.

22

India’s history is unique. Despite numerous invasions, conquests and colonisations it has managed to maintain a sense of continuity in its culture while absorbing aspects of other cultures and allowing them to be superimposed onto its own. Indian village life remains much the same today as it was years ago. Even in the fast paced modern cities such as Bombay and Delhi, what appears to be complete change of attitude and lifestyle is really only a surface veneer. Underneath, the age old verities, loyalties and obligations, largely stemming from religion, still rule people’s lives.

The roots of the Indian culture start with the birthplace of Hinduism and the concept of the VastuPurusha Mandala. It is a mathematical model that states the founding principles of the early Vedic priests: the mandala being a perfect square subdivided into identical squares. In simple terms, these geometric configurations were used to determine the layout of a house, temple or an entire city.

Moving on the 7th century, came the stepwells

- an establishment of an

elaborate architectural structure, the daily chore of fetching water is turned into a spiritual experience – true to the concept of mandala. These underwent metamorphosis with the arrival of the Muslims in the twelfth century and the introduction of the charbaghs or paradise garden.

Spirituality and symmetry, the key ingredients of Hindu culture, proved also to be the basis of the invaders’ culture, and so the conquering Muslims found not only a reinforcement of their own architectural order but also the possibility of adding another layer of meaning to their own established forms. Islamic culture brought with it elements that have enriched India’s architectural vocabulary for centuries, such as the arch, the jali and the dome, and the ancient Hindu traditions of craft and a sophisticated grasp of mathematics, fueled by powerful mythology, pushed Islamic architecture in India to previously unscaled heights.

23

The arrival of the European colonial powers started a new and difficult period in the history of India. The values and aspirations of the Europeans were very different to those of the indigenous population. New styles of architecture such as, the melding of the Neo Gothic with the oriental motifs to form the Bombay Gothic, the Madras Indo Saracenic and the Classical Calcutta. This further lead to Edwin Lutyens Indianised Delhi.

Post-independence, Jawaharlal Nehru believed that India needs to industrialize and modernize. This encouraged the selection of modernist Le Corbusier as architect for the new city of Chandigarh. Le Corbusier’s powerful vision of the future would act as a catalyst for the eventual emergence of contemporary Indian architecture. His own definition of what is modern focuses on using elements of a culture’s history to create contemporary forms of expression that reinforce rather than destroy links with the past.

4.3

SOCIO – CULTURAL ASPECTS Vernacular architecture is a concrete manifestation of society and its

culture. The study of its anthropology highlights the nuances of human behavior and their beliefs in architecture. Traditions transcend themselves in the planning of traditional towns and architectural expression of the vernacular built form.

Religious rituals and community behavior also underline the study of traditional environments. For example, in the temple towns of South India rituals and festivals have played an important role in shaping the social and spatial disposition and form an underlying principle of the urban morphology of historic temple towns. The most eloquent example is the temple town of Madurai – the city is designed in such a way that the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple is at the centre of the city with five concentric squares defined by important streets. The spaces are designed in such a way that the religious processions can be accommodated easily. The streets were developed 24

as ceremonial axes with water bodies for annual rituals. The grid iron planning in the city of Jaipur is also based on the ancient Hindu texts which prescribe the strict geometric planning based on the concept of mandala.

The design of dwellings is dependent on the eco-cultural response it has on the environment and is often built on the ancient knowledge systems of planning as well as construction materials and techniques. The basis of the traditional design in India is the vaastupurush mandala or a symbolic grid of ritualistic and functional activities. It is widely used for the design of traditional architecture across India.

The courtyard house is the most common prototype of a vernacular dwelling commonly found in India. With regional varieties in design and craft techniques, a courtyard house is known by different names across India like the haveli in the Indo Gangetic Plains, rajbari in Bengal, the wada in Maharashtra, naalukettu in Kerala, and the Chettinad mansions in Tamil Nadu. The central courtyard is not only a good example of climate responsive architecture controlling the microclimate but is also a crucial multi-functional space used for preparing food, for playing by the children and for sleeping in the hot summer. It is the nucleus of all the activities of the house on an everyday basis as well as during important social and religious functions. The courtyard, the focus of cosmic energy, is therefore the most important zone of all traditional Indian homes, in functional, spiritual and symbolic terms. “The house is built around a central open space ruled by Brahma, as per the vaastupurush mandala. Each side of the square holds one range of the house. Although various texts of the on VastuVidya are similar, the adaptation of dictates varies according to the region it is applied to. The materials, shapes and dimensions of the sub parts and the construction techniques must conform to the prescriptions.�

Social and religious patterns also play an important role in the design of neighbourhoods or mohallas, and in the individual dwelling units. For example, the 25

Muslim tradition of Purdah, did not allow women to be in public eye, and translated itself in separate zenana quarters within the havelis – balconies with jaalis – through which women could observe the outside world while remaining out of sight.

Social hierarchy in a community may also be noticed through embellishments.

For example, in Ahmedabad, symbols carved in wood indicated if the household belonged to a Hindu or a Muslim family. The way a place is perceived and used by a community has a direct bearing on the planning of a settlement. In a vernacular environment, streets and chowks are the main spaces for social interaction and therefore acquire meaning not purely for their physical characteristics but for the meanings they hold for the users.

Vernacular traditions therefore offer themselves as an effective design tool for developing plans for sustainable habitats especially in the field of mass housing and slum re-developments. A common feature observed in most slum re-development schemes in urban India is that the squatter settlements are replaced with multi-storied blocks of flats. The design of these re-developed blocks largely ignorant of the way of life, social interaction, and community patterns of the intended users, encourages the dwellers to sell it to others and re-establish a new squatter settlement elsewhere. A few exceptions are Aranya Housing by B V Doshi and LIC Housing by Charles Correa.

These have been built keeping in mind the dwellers’ preferred way of life and display sensitivity to the cultural context. The design for the SOS Village at Faridabad, Haryana, by Anil Laul is a striking example of this kind of architecture as it understands the way of life and the usage of space by the residents, and hence creates a habitat that is in sync with the dwellers’ needs and aspirations. By virtue if using design as a tool for ensuring the use of public open space and checking on encroachment, this scheme has been successful in understanding the cultural and the social nuances of a society.

26

4.4

ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS The relationship between man and nature is reflective of a number of

geographic factors like topography, climate, soil, water and vegetation. These factors determine the availability of local material, orientation of buildings, among various other aspects and also at times serve to be design determinants for the development of settlements. For example, the availability or scarcity of water developed a new typology of architecture such as baolis and stepwells. The imaginative use of locally available materials in a way to provide shelter from the climate transcends itself into the vernacular architecture of the region.

According to Vitruvius, the Roman architect, “Architecture is an imitation of nature, as birds and the bees build their nests so humans constructed housing from natural materials that gave them shelter against the elements�.

A hot dry season encourages massive walls on the ground floor. Incorporating elements such as verandas and balconies which provide shade during the hot dry period and also provide protection against rain in the monsoon denote architecture suitable for a given climate condition of the area. The barsaatis found in houses are an example of a sleeping quarter on the terrace use in the monsoon while the terrace was used for sleeping in the rest of the dry season. In most Indian traditional towns, a typical house was timber framed with brick infill and lime stucco on both the sides.

Densely packed with a central courtyard along a narrow street, it projected a narrow frontage to the street. Often the street facades and the courtyards were richly decorated with intricate wooden carvings, reducing solar gain and providing options for thermal comfort.

As per the principle of convection, hot air rises from the courtyard and cool air entering the courtyard from a shaded street creates an environment of thermal comfort.

This principle is used in the hot arid zones of Rajasthan, Gujarat as well as the Indo 27

Gangetic Plains and works best in the summer months. In the winter, the upper storeys and roofs which comparatively remain warm are used in the daytime. These patterns of comfort performance are reinforced by daily and seasonal living and household management.

4.5

UNDERSTANDING VERNACULAR DWELLINGS OF INDIA Vernacular dwellings are inherently sustainable in design and are responsive to

the climate, culture, and the socio-economic conditions of the area. As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, the country has been divided into five major climatic zones – hot and dry, warm and humid, temperate, cold, and composite. The typical vernacular dwellings of three climatic zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, and cold were compared to understand the sustainability of each prototype.

4.5.1 CLIMATE ZONE 1: HOT & DRY Situated in the north western part of the country, the Thar Desert covers the states of Rajasthan & partly Gujarat. The climate of the desert is hot and arid with scarce rainfall. The vernacular architecture of the desert is an artistic expression of the climate and the culture of the region. The people of the region have evolved a lifestyle with the judicious use of the available natural resources. There is a distinct divide between the kuccha and the pukka vernacular architecture of Rajasthan. The kuccha is defined by the dhani in Rajasthan and the boonga in the Kutch region, while the pukka architecture is dominated by the haveli kind of architecture.

28

Table 1

29

4.5.2 CLIMATE ZONE 2: WARM AND HUMID

The state of Kerala has a very distinct topography. Located on the south western part of the Indian subcontinent, it has its own cultural and linguistic identity. Bound by the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Western Ghats in the east, Kerala has a warm and humid climate and a heavy monsoon for three months in a year. Its extensive rainforests are a considerable source for high quality timber and have dominated the vernacular architecture of the region. Contrasting to the rural settlements in the rest of India, in Kerala the unit of the rural settlement is the house itself; usually isolated from others it is self-sufficient with its own source of water, temple, bathing place and agricultural land.

Table 2 30

4.5.3 CLIMATE ZONE 3: COLD The district of Kullu forms a transitional zone between the Lesser and the Greater Himalayas and presents a typically rugged mountainous terrain with moderate to high relief. The climate in this area is pleasant in the summers with heavy rainfall and moderate to heavy snowfall during winters with the mercury dropping below zero for a short period. The economy of Kullu is mainly agricultural and people spend a lot of time on the fields and looking after their livestock.

Table 3

31

4.5.4 OBSERVATIONS The comparative study of the typical dwellings of the three climatic zones indicates some common features which is the reason for its inherent sustainability.

These principles can effectively be applied in contemporary architectural practices to produce sustainable built environments.

The site planning should ensure that the orientation of the building is such that it restricts the harsh sun, yet allows for daylight access and cross ventilation. It should ideally be designed in response to the sun paths, wind directions, and allows for passive cooling by means of shading devices such as balconies, verandahs, jharonkhas or jaalis. Window openings should be generally along the southern or northern facades with adequate provisions for shading. The site should be planned in accordance with the existing flora and fauna to create an environment which respects the ecology of the site. Locally available materials should be used in conjunction with the modern materials so as to get what is valuable from both the vernacular as well as the modern technology. For example, innovations in bamboo composite construction in the north east or the use of bricks and filler concrete by Laurie Baker in Kerala are some methods.

The designs of the habitats should be in sync with the way of life, religious beliefs, and customs of its inhabitants and optimal use of space should be propagated.

The use of locally available craftsmen and masons is advocated for creating cost effective sustainable buildings.

32

5. LEARNING FROM VERNACULAR SPACES

5.1 GENERAL Indian architecture, generally speaking, conjures up images of huge temple spires and gateways, large fortified palace complexes, mosques and tombs. These are often embellished with exquisite carvings and intricate stone inlay work. The monumental is enriched by the delicate details. This is achieved with the help of a sophisticated geometric organisation of built forms and spaces. On the other hand, there is the mundane domestic architecture with its occasional flair for refinement. Yet there are spatial features that retain continuity and scale, playing an instrumental role in the characterisation of Indian architecture.

But there is more to the spatial order that runs right across this enormous range of building types. A large part of this order emanates from its own meaning as built space rather than from the specific function it caters to. There is a range of spaces, irrespective of the material and the construction methods that are built, as if for their own sake. This is essentially to create a ‘spatial opportunity’ for things to happen and they do. The meaning is in the space itself and the range of activities it can accommodate and not in the specificity of the function.

The following topics are means to understand from the elements, spaces and principles of vernacular Indian architecture, namely, movement, courtyards, facades, minimising, light, structure, pavilions, transition spaces, floors, columns, walls, doors, staircases and roofs.

33

5.2

MOVEMENT

Besides paving a way for connecting one place to another, movement provides an opportunity for experiencing spaces and forms that are articulated around it. In a way, it narrates the script inscribed in the spatiality of the place. Planning for movement in order to satisfy basic functional requirements is one thing, conceptualising spaces around the movement is another. There are numerous examples where movement plays a deterministic role in spatial organisation and the central concept revolves around this theme as well as manifests through the design.

Structuring movement in design addresses the joy inherent in the act of designing as well as in an engagement with functionality along the way.

Historically, there are several examples where the conception of movement stands out very strongly and is the key determining factor in the plan. It not only helps visualise the use of spaces inside or outside the buildings, but also governs the way people are connected to and across spaces. Such conceptions predetermined, in a readable sense, the way forms evolved around the central idea of movement.

While movement is integral to all architecture, the intention is to look at buildings, complexes or precincts where the basic conceptualisation is inspired by the idea of movement. It is seen as a generator of a design concept with all other aspects finding their respective positions in relation to this focal idea. Each situation involving movement brings forth an expectation which can be addressed through richness in conception or through a mundane utilitarian answer. Vernacular architecture, in this context, then, can be seen as a dominant expression of movement, both as a connecting force and a generator of spatial experience.

34

The significance of a place and its function, expressed through movement, does not diminish in value with changes in scale or context, or if it moves from the inside to the outside. It is useful to understand, how, in several multi-building complexes one moves from one space to another along no clearly defined paths. At times, it is even difficult to orient oneself. Yet movement happens within a rich spatial experience.

Look at the core complex at FatehpurSikri or at Amber, or Mehrangarh Fort where movement takes place from one courtyard to another or from one space to another along no defined paths. However, at all these palace complexes there are paths leading upto the gates or the main entrances, but once inside, an altogether different pattern of movement emerges. These palaces demonstrate highest level of spatial connectivity.

While few buildings are accessed from outside by paths, all internal movement within the complex is through the spaces.

Figure 10 Fatehpur Sikri complex is one of the finest medieval palace complexes which demonstrate highest level of spatial connectivity. While few buildings are accessed from outside by paths, all internal movement within the complex is through the spaces.

35

Over centuries, ceremonial events, including rituals, religious, military or royal, have contributed to the special attention paid to the formal structuring of spaces dealing with movement within the overall scheme of things. A parikrama, normally situated around the core of Hindu religious places, when connecting many sacred places of religious significance however, can run into several kilometres. Or a pradikshana, which is normally to be found around a central place of worship, like a temple or a stupa, can even be located within a building – a space that circumambulates a formal walk around a shrine, an idol or a temple. For example, the Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi is distinctly elaborate in its manifestation of the same.

Be it for a temple or a stupa, there are aspects of cultural meaning that are significant for each religious group, the plan organisation must take into account these expectations of special movement; either by simply connecting the places or by providing a circumambulatory path or both. An enriched design opportunity can be created by paying special attention to the design of elements that can help manifest such activities.

Speaking of Sanchi Stupa, Kostof explains “This upper circumambulatory path also has a high balustrade modelled, as are the toranas, on wooden prototypes. Here, on this narrow and paved path, the pilgrims went around the axis of the universe in its domed cosmic shield, touching the source of their faith that would make benign the real world on their way back home.�

Figure 11 Figure 12

36

Sanchi Stupa

Figure 13

Movement also provides an occasion for as well as a manifestation of celebration. It creates an imagery of spatial experiences as one moves along and invokes actual or perceptional pauses. It is the design of this element of movement that either provides for these pauses or avoids them in a conscious manner. Be it in the ceremonial, ritualistic, recreational or simply functional aspects, movement has a rather carefully articulated spatial presence or occasionally it is allowed to just happen.

There are several examples where one can see that movement is central to and forms the basis of the entire conceptualisation of a building or a group of buildings and it is so expressed, both in the formal as well as informal organisations of spaces.

Vijayanagara at Hampi, is set in the midst of an extraordinary backdrop. It is a very interesting example of multiple factors governing spatial organisation growing around several religious as well as secular functions. The orientation of the temples and the paths is negotiated keeping in mind the unique landscape. There are patterns of movement, in Hampi, that are constant and there are patterns that reflect change. The orientation of the main temples is aligned along the cardinal directions, the axiality of the paths given their dominant presence within the hilly terrain adjust and respond to these cardinally oriented structures. Beautifully articulated, the two aspects come together without any conflict. Articulating movement within the overall plan is one thing, adding meaning through design is another. At Hampi, through the movement axiality provided by the dominant presence of the paths, a contextual adjustment of intent and a circumstantial manifestation of the same, successfully bring together all the aspects.

The point of interest here is the conception of a path of movement that simultaneously addressed the issues of connectivity, formality of spatial organisation and the possibility of religious rituals being linked with movement. Above all the negotiation with topography demonstrates the values of the design attitude. Today, in many contemporary designs, one finds willful manifestation of geometry, here it is contextually relevant and defines its logical meaning.

37

Plan of the street connecting Virupaksha Temple and Nandi at Vijayanagara, Hampi

Figure 14

Virupaksha Temple set to the cardinal direction. The path is aligned with gap between the two hills.

Figure 15

View from top showing Virupaksha temple & the path

Figure 16

Figure 17

Figure 18

38

5.3

COURTNESS ‘Courtness’ an intrinsic quality, to be found in several built manifestations of

enormous diversity, has remained a timeless quality of architecture across the world.

Integral to courtyards of various functions and scales, this attribute is what informs the sense of life in courtyards. There are courtyards which are deeply evocative of life and then there are ones that do not suggest much activity. It is in this distinction that ‘courtness’ comes into play. The prime determinants and the key to the success of courtness revolves around the conditions governing the edges of a courtyard, porosity, ease of spatial flow and inside-outside connectivity.

Courtness is really a term devised a s a noun to highlight the intrinsic qualities of interior open spaces, which are often called courtyards. The purpose is to arrive at those aspects of courts which make them meaningful in their conception and application. The idea here is to recognise the hierarchical flow from enclosed to semiopen to open spaces that allow activities to flow into the open. The directness and the ease with which this may happen and the manner in which the court might receive these activities would determine the value of courtness. It revolves around the idea of how an open space operates within a building. It is an idea that expresses the spirit of the courtyard in an active manner. It represents the intrinsic value of a courtyard as a manifest form that inspires activity. Internal open spaces, in the form of courtyards, are a thematic element in all spaces of vernacular architecture. From small urban houses to large mansions and palaces, courtyards became the key organisational elements responding to climatic conditions as well as the cultural needs of communities. It is an internal space within a building or one created by a number of buildings that surround a space and are thus instrumental in the evolution of the resultant courtyard(s).

39

Climate influences on spatial organisation are apparent in the centuries since 2000BC during which the basic principle of a central court with rooms all around it, has continued in the Indian subcontinent. Looking back in time, searching for the origins of the courtyards leads to the houses of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The built forms then had central open-to-the-sky spaces. They had no windows facing the street, but concentrated on the courtyard. Considering the climate of the region, it can be deduced that these internalised houses would have depended on the courtyard for light and ventilation.

The essence of this space has remained unchanged over thousands of years.

Variations of the theme were created depending upon different socio-cultural patterns and unique site conditions. Some of the cave architecture also shows the use of courtyards. The courtyards contribute to its spatial quality beautifully by bringing in a subdued light, creating a peaceful environment.

1. Plan of house in Harappa 2.

Courtyards in cave architecture.

3. Part plan of Mohenjodaro

Figure 19-23

40

This reveals the punctures in the built forms that could be central courtyards.

Houses were fashioned in a manner very similar to those found today in the northwestern regions of India as seen in the detailed plan of the houses. Courtyards were present in individual houses as well as in public institutions

A courtyard with a strong central position provides easy access to several parts of a house. This encourages the spill over of various activities like in a traditional house for cooking activities, for families to sit together and eat and later for other household activities. Courtyards address life, or the absence of it, and they draw up a meaningful framework for the understanding of this space, which may be seen as the timeless core of architecture. The meaning that can be derived from this aspect can be found embedded in its spatial quality, in the matter of connectivity, in the scale and nature of transitions, in the level of transparency between the inside and the outside in providing visual access, and so on. It is also important from the point of view of the level of comfort it provides in various climatic conditions.

Most domestic architecture in India is organised around central courtyards. A courtyard’s position becomes that of a principal space organising element. This room without a roof is often bounded by verandahs along its periphery. Other rooms open into these verandahs creating a spatial organisation based on a hierarchical sequence of spaces ranging from open to enclosed. The rooms get their light and ventilation from this courtyard and have very few opening’s onto the exterior. This spatial sequence encourages the intermittent flow of activities responding to various private needs. Also, the tropical climate of India demands air movement as well as shaded spaces for comfort. The open, yet protected spaces, become the heart of Indian living.

An open to the sky area within the living premises offers an ideal space in terms of light, ventilation, connection and privacy from the outside world. The passage of time can now be directly experienced from inside: changing of the seasons, movement of the sun from dawn to dusk. Chance encounters or deliberate interactions bring the family together here. The courtyard with its surrounding verandah becomes the living room of the house, both literally and figuratively.

41

Figure 24-29 42

The courtyard also becomes the primary source of natural light and ventilation.

What began as primarily a functional space with its genesis in climatic requirements has now become the soul of the house in the desert, especially in towns and villages that have denser fabrics. The courtyards of Rajasthan which are now world famous have intimate scales, articulation with carved stone and a subdued quality of light.

With house built back-to-back to protect them against the sandstorms and harshness of the sun and very few openings possible in the exterior walls, the courtyard becomes vital to provide for light, ventilation as well as an outdoor activity space. The pols of Ahmedabad, a distinct urban fabric, show this characteristic. The houses are long and narrow, with central courtyards. Narrow streets, with houses often back-to-back, limit the amount of natural light that can be brought into the houses. Courtyards hence serve the purpose.

In certain climates, particularly warm, it is normal for household activities to spillover to the outdoors. This makes the edge between inside and outside a very important element. In small houses with one or two rooms, it is normal to see this extension of the house onto the street – a transition on the edge. However, in larger and wealthier houses, there are courts offering a similar edge between the court and the inside, a similar transition, except that there is more privacy. A small study of the village of Kutch shows this very clearly. This village is not an exception, most house; rural or urban demonstrate this quality of spill-over on to the street.

Figure 31

Figure 30

43

Houses in the towns of Kutch show an extension of household activities into the courtyard. It remains the central activity space in any house irrespective of size, as there is a great flexibility in the manner in which spaces are used.

1. A courtyard in a pol house is separated more by the quality of light than the enclosing elements like walls. It is a continuation of the surrounding spaces.

2. Moti Haman ni Pol, Ahmedabad. The plan shows the central courtyards in the long, narrow houses creating a honeycomb pattern in the urban fabric.

Figure 32-34

Variations in the generic form of the courtyard come from changes in materials, articulation of the enclosing elements, scale, proportion and complexity of plan. The Mardana Mahal, Udaipur, is an arrangement of courtyards and terraces of different scales and articulations. Each of them was made for a specific purpose and reflects this in its making. However, the essence of an open-to-the-sky space that brings in a natural gradation of light quality while generating a comfortable microclimatic condition enclosed by a semi open verandah remains the same. They are enclosed worlds within themselves with little visual connection with the rest of the palace and give the sense of being art of smaller individual residences rather than a larger one.

The Baadi Mahal was for relaxation while the Rajya Aangan is the court in front of the temple. The Manek Chowk and Mayur Chowk were domestic in nature. Courtyards also occur at several levels apart from the ground floor. In the Mardana Mahal, there are many courts at various levels considering that the place is built on top of the hillock. Each courtyard defines a particular function of royalty and has a resultant articulation. Colonnaded verandahs, elaborate zharonkhas or blank walls enclose courtyards depending upon its position in its overall schema.

44

There are examples of buildings which originally were not open to the public, like several palaces and royal homes. But, with changing times they have come under the public realm in the guise of museums, hotels and heritage properties. Thus, offering changed spatial and functional meanings. Palace complexes like the Mehrangarh are the finest examples of courtyards once meant for private use being successfully adapted to public use now. And then there are some very beautiful courts which have played a crucial role in the makings of architecture, sometimes purely for aesthetic reasons like the Diwan e Khas in Amber, Jaipur; Srinagar and Holi Chowk at Mehrangarh, Jodhpur and the Peacock Court at the Udaipur Palace.

Mardana Mahal, Udaipur is an arrangement of courtyards and terraces of different scales and articulation. Each of them was made for a specific purpose and reflects in its making. However, the essence of an open-tosky space that brings in a natural gradation of light quality while generating a comfortable micro climatic condition enclosed by a semiopen verandah, remains the same. They are enclosed worlds within themselves with little visual connection with the rest of the palace and give the sense of being part of smaller individual residences rather than a larger one.

Figure 35-37

45

Jain states: “The city of Jodhpur was a fortified town ringed on all sides by massive sturdy walls and bastions with seven impressive gateways. Rising in the middle is the daunting citadel of Mehrangarh, an invincible fortress within which are juxtaposed exquisitely carved stone palaces. It boasts of a traditional urban fabric which reflects the culture, climate and geography of the region. The fort was surrounded by a settlement demonstrating intense urbanity with court houses. The palaces, with lavish interiors, are built around courtyards with exquisitely carved zharookhas on their facades.�

These courtyards, despite royal intent, are very intimate in scale and connect beautifully to various other spaces. The organisation of the covered spaces within the courtyards is more like pavilions connected directly to the outside spaces. In these arid regions, there was a porous relationship between the inside and the outside which made a lot of sense for climatic reasons. It was normal for activities to spill over into the courtyards. Celebrations and events were regular features of such spaces. The interior-exterior relationship of the palace courtyards worked beautifully for royal activities; they work extremely well now too, as public spaces-feudal spaces democratised. A large number of people move through these spaces, experiencing the inside as well as the outside.

Ajit Vilas Chowk, Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur is a terrace with the palace rooms on three sides and a verandah overlooking the city on the fourth side to give it a sense of complete enclosure.

Figure 46 38 & 39

Srinagar Chowk of Jodhpur fort was the site of royal coronation.

This made it the most important space and is therefore elaborately carved and monumental in scale.

Figure 40

Figure 41

Figure 42

47

A courtyard is an integral part not only of northern India but also of the house in Kerala down south or a wada of Pune in central India. The material changes from stone in the north to wood in the south. The spatial organisation remains similar with the courtyard being surrounded by a verandah and rooms. In Kerala, the rooms are more porous to the outside since the houses are not back-to-back. Also, the requirement of cross ventilation is much higher considering the high level of humidity.

The courtyard provides for this much needed cross ventilation. It allows for an increased depth in the house. The courtyard is thus developed as an element to generate a microclimate within the house that is comfortable.

Figure 43

48

5.4

LIGHT Religious structures for thousands of years have demonstrated, beyond doubt,

that light has a special meaning in engaging with such spirit-the divine experience. At times, secular buildings have also addresses the subject of light as a central idea for public spaces. New institutions have sought new meanings by capturing light as the central theme. While the demands on light would have their roots in functionality, the extension of such a role can create memorable experiences of beautifully lit spaces.

Man’s engagement with light –architecture connect has been intrinsic to the building process. Incorporating the structure into the process has added greater meaning to design. Irrespective of the building, the builder’s preoccupation has been to draw light from the top-a sense of divine light. This also served well to light up deeper and darker interior spaces.

The design of the Sun temples incorporates a special consideration for light.

They have a different perspective since their organisation has a special cosmic relationship vis-à-vis their spatial configurattions. And, of course, they follow a very sophisticated astronomical system of positioning in order to capture the morning rays of the sun in a presetermined manner. These temples were so designed as to cause the morning rays of the sun to fall upon the images of the Sun God, a meaning of greater religious significance than the quality of divine light. Although there are quite a few sun temples in India, the three well-known ones are Martand in Kashmir, Konarak in Orissa and Modhera in Gujarat.

Figure 44

49

One of the finest examples of religious architecture which captures the essence of divine light is the Jain temple at Ranakpur. This Jain temple built in 1439 AD is structurally engineered by means of using multiple systems of spanning. The entire spatial organisation is a layered complexity of volumetric diversity and uses an extremely large number of columns in the support system. Traditional stone construction with columns, brackets and lintels form the primary system upon which is superimposed a domical construction executed in a corbelled manner with extra brackets. Externally these domes are extended vertically to give a shikara form. The dull white marble in the interior adds to the ambient light.

The key mode of drawing light into the main spaces is clerestory, which made use of the trabeated system and various corbelled dome roofs. A number of small courtyards also contribute to the quality of light within the precinct. The complexity of spatial configuration as layered by four hundred and twenty columns and interposed by light is a manifestation of the finest order. The courtyards add to the drama of light and shade. The essence of design for light is captured through the clerestory, both through the column-beam and column-dome articulation.

“The view from the entrance through the succession of open halls with sunlight entering their clerestories and penetrating the suffused atmosphere as a strong beam illuminating a success of individual elements on the shafts of the great, many faceted piers is unsurpassed in all of India.” – Christopher Tadgel.

Figure 45 & 46

50

Exquisitely carved elements make up the Ranakpur temple. However, as far as the spatial organisation is concerned, it is a combination of simple pavilions and courtyards. The complexity is achieved by the manner of putting together the basic unit.

Figure 47 & 48 Stone carving details on the Rankpur column at Ranijikichatrian, give character, association meaning to the simple pavilion.

The step-wells in the north western parts of India, particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan, are unique, both in conception as well as manifestation. Besides several other engaging aspects of design, light emerges as a very important part of this form of subterranean architecture. Structural articulation, determines a rhythmic movement as one reaches for water several floors below the ground level. The modulation so determined also generated voids in the roof to allow light to reach the bottom of the well. Though based on the idea of capturing top light, the structures here are not looking for divine light. The step-well at Adalaj near Ahmedabad is taken up for discussion here in order to demonstrate the virtues and values enshrined in the making of such places. The step-well, vav in the local language, is a deep and narrow space providing access to the water some twenty metres below, with three entrances at one end and three at the other, beyond the sunken tank a draw well, though connected with the main structure, is not accessible from the main stairway.

Broad flights of steps go down to reach the well, this descending space is interspersed with a series of platforms providing partial cover to the stairway. Besides their structural role, these platforms in the days gone by were also utilised by travellers as resting places, cool and ventilated subterranean spaces. These spaces, along with the beautifully articulated and exquisitely carved columns, beams and brackets, are dramatically illuminated by shafts of light that pour in through the openings at the 51

floor level. This dramatic experience of light and space is heightened as one looks at the linear spatial configuration through the structural elements and the alternating light and shadow sequences. Even while walking down, one is constantly made aware of the play of light on the horizontal and the vertical elements created by the galleries and the platforms. The most outstanding aspect is the variation in the mood and quality of light one experiences as morning changes to evening and summer turns to winter. This dramatic occurrence is further enhanced by the exquisitely carved elements. “The idea of transition can be explained best through the architecture of stepwells. The sequence of change from outside to inside, from land to water, from the brilliance of tropical light to the muted ambience of the interior, and from the extreme heat of the outside to the pleasant coolness of the inside can all be experiences here.

These changing realms show what transition is all about.� – Jain.

Figure 49 & 50 Adalaj Step-well, near Ahmedabad, showing quality of light in relation to space and architectural elements.

52

5.5

STRUCTURE Whether it is conceptual or manifest, in nature or architecture, structure is the

base for all form, sometimes manifesting in its purest form, but often concealed behind other considerations. Implicitly so or explicitly, it is intrinsic and integral to the act of building. Even an abstract idea has a sense of structure inherently woven into it, though a completely faithful expression of it may not always be present. However, the essence of structure manifests itself in all architecture. It is the structure which holds the building together.

Irrespective of scale, although more so for larger spans and enclosures, the philosophy and science of structure has played a very important role in generating both space and form. It is useful to look at the various attitudes that finally manifest themselves in built forms. However, history clearly shows how structure has played a key role in generating spaces and forms that display significantly consequential aspects of architecture.

In Indian architecture a system of construction uses a minimum number of elements to resolve spatial expectations. Here through the creation of a phrase that is uses in repetition, multiple variations in the scale and size of spaces is achieved. This can be seen in several mandapas and pavilions. This principle has been emerging and manifesting itself right across India, with regional variations, for more than two thousand years.

The construction systems could be trabeated or arcuated depending upon the constraints of the space-time context. Large spaces, as well as small spaces, could be built using the same modular unit; a single unit defined the smallest space and the multiplication of units created larger spaces. To achieve large unobstructed spaces, domes could be built on an otherwise beam-and-column configuration by leaving out a single column from each of the grids. This could create a space four times the size of 53

one modular space, and eliminate four columns at the same time, resulting in nine times of the size of a single unit. The elaboration of columns, beams and brackets or arches fluctuated between absolutely minimal ones on the one hand and extremely ornate ones on the other. The construction system so evolved responded to the needs of different religious structures like temples, mandapas and mosques. It served well in the construction of secular buildings too, like royal pavilions, palaces and houses.

Figure 51-53

One interesting example of structural resolution in a very specific earthretention context can be seen in parts of western India. Architecture generated to serve specific needs such as accessing and storing of water goes back to the Harappa perios, or even earlier. Systems of step-wells (vavs) and tanks (kunds) started evolving around the fifth to the sixth centuries AD. These systems came to be much refined and saw maturity between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries. The step-well at Adalaj, near Ahmedabad was built towards the end of the fifteenth century AD. “Since vavs are subterranean and have deep vertical surfaces on their long sides, the problem of earth retention is even more critical that in the kunds. Vertical earth 54

surfaces could not be retained either by stone pitching, as in the case with kunds, or by a retaining wall. Shoring and shuttering were the most scientific ways of holding the earth in its place. This generated a complex system of shores and struts in stones.

These elements primarily serve this function, although they carry the galleries and platforms also. Obviously, the beams work as shores coming under compression due to the horizontal thrust of the earth. The manner in which this problem has been technologically resolved is most ingenious. Since the structural system required for this purpose could be suitably spaced, courts open to the sky were created between the covered galleries. This brought in a beautiful cadence of diffused light, right from the bottom of the vav. The quality of this cascading flow of light is unsurpassed beauty.

Deep within the ground, the cool spaces, lit as it were with fairy tale lighting, are evocative of nothing but dreams.�

- Kulbhushan Jain.

Further: “The trabeated system of construction is elaborate, carved and decorated with geometric as well as figurative motifs. Square pillars with rebated corners have a broader base and capitals with brackets to support the beams. These structural elements perform the dual function of retaining the side earth and supporting the galleries at various levels. However, at places they function purely as struts and shores and do not carry any platforms or galleries. The entire construction is in buffcoloured sandstone adding harmony and unity to this well-proportioned structure. The carved relief work on the structural elements, wall surfaces and parapets adds to the richness, though the merit of this architecture does not depend on its decoration.�

Adalaj Stepwell, Ahmedabad

aaa

Figure 54 & 55 55

Figure 56

5.6

PAVILIONS Pavilions, with their various names and forms, have an undeniable presence in

Indian architecture. They came into being by multiplying very simple spatial units in modules. Consisting of four columns and a roof, they may be trabeated or arcuated depending upon where and when they were built. Irrespective of the style and construction method, their essence is the same. Mandapas and baradaris are some outstanding examples of spaces created to provide well-articulated shelters for gatherings or for pleasure. Mandapas find a wider expression and are often used as arrival or gathering spaces in temples, like a sabhamandapa. Pleasure pavilions known as baradaris have an extremely sophisticated form in Rajput and Mughal complexes.

In their spatial essences, a mandapa and a baradari is one configuration serving different purposes. The most important aspect of this kind of space is that it offers a simultaneous experience of the inside and the outside. Several regional variations of this form can be found across the country.

56

A pavilion in its most rudimentary form comprising four poles and a roof is perhaps the oldest surviving form of constructed architecture. The genesis of this shelter goes back several thousand years when raw wood and thatch were used in the first human efforts to build. Since then, this element has remained an important feature of architecture, particularly in India. The essence of this form remained unaltered even when the construction materials changed. Stone as raw slabs, twigs, bamboo, banana plants, clay pots, large leaves and cloth have all been used to create this basic form.

The essence of this spatial unit lies in its modular character and therefor in its potential for multiplication – in contiguity or as independent units organised in certain proximity. However, there is no fixed pattern to it. Several permutations and combinations are observed in its application. It is a built space, yet open. It defines and yet extends boundaries and can exist itself or be part of a group. Despite regional and temporal variations, the power of its manifestation has remained unaffected. It conveys the idea of shelter, but does not enclose; it is built and has a presence, yet it is transparent and ethereal.

Figure 57

57

Figure 58

A unique feature of this space is it versatility, both in terms of function as well as adaptability to regional construction techniques. Its greatest virtue is, of course, its ability to grow to make larger spaces by a simple add-on process. While on the one hand its strength lies in its universal character, it adds to its meaning through thematic manifestations. The shelter-related themes include functions celebrating life, religious rituals, pleasure and death. Not only is these but, its essence independent of caste, creed and class. Marble pavilions in the royal complexes and the peasant shelters in the countryside reflect the same spirit of architecture. The difference lies in the details.

However, the underlying commonality of form emerges from the response to the quality of comfort in particular climatic conditions. It is clear that such open shelters served best during summer evenings in arid regions, or even in the warm humid regions, allowing a free flow of fresh air. As a matter of fact, in many parts of India,

58

during some seasons, people could carry out their activities in such spaces almost for the entire day.

Figure 59-63

59

With the passage of time, specific designs were developed for certain purposes and the pavilion form evolved in a few distinct categories. The mandapa, being associated with temples, has very definite connotations. It constitutes the front space of a temple. Open on all its sides and with a very distinctive roof, mandapas demonstrate a very evolved form of the pavilion. It is intended to be used for gatherings. A three-storey mandapa at the Ranakpur temple is one of the best examples. However, mandapas can exist independently and yet serve some templerelated activity. Most of the South Indian temples are dotted with mandaps, at times with a 1000 pillars.

The medieval city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) demonstrates an amazing array of pavilion structures built in local granite. Set amidst granite boulders, these structures blend well and at the same time stand out clearly on account of their form. Built with single-piece granite pillars, capitals, beams and roof slabs, these units demonstrate perfect geometric articulation and how modular units can be multiplied. From a single module to a large cluster of these units, the spaces so formed serve religious as well as secular functions. The architecture of these pavilions evokes a feeling of lightness, as well as connectedness. It identifies and defines a focus. It gives the opportunity to divide space in landscapes, and becomes a reference point with a position in water or on a hilltop.

The long processional avenue in front of the great Virupaksha temple at Hampi is lined with several mandapas. The avenue terminates at the foot of a hill where a great Nandi is seatedin a mandapa.

Figure 64-67

60

Another version of pavilion structures called the baradari is fairly common in the north-western parts of India. It is a beautiful example of how the basic form has responded to the various construction methods and styles of building. Every royal complex has to have a baradari, often more than one. The use of the baradaris as pleasure pavilions is clearly understandable since they are invariably located in gardens, or on high points or along water tanks and lakes. These structures are so articulated with the landscape and the spatial order of a building complex as to provide the most strategic location for a good view, fresh air and general comfort.

These semi-open structures heightened the human experience of the architectural richness while enhancing the ambience of pleasure and luxury.

Ahhichtrangarh, the fort at Nagaur, boasts of many such pavilions which have become focal points in the total landscape of gardens, ponds, walkways and palaces. They are intrinsically linked with the making of the recreation spaces. The rectangular baradari, the square baradari, the savanchattris and the Jal Mahal pavilions contribute in constructing links in the total complex, visual as well as physical.

Beautiful chhatris create a spatial connection in the landscape and provide points of reference even as they function as pleasure pavilions, like the SawanChattri and the square baradari, in the central space at the Nagaaur Fort in north western Rajasthan.

Figure 68 & 69

61

Figure 70 - 72

Amongst all the forms of pavilion structures, the baradaris have demonstrated the broadest range of stylistic expression. These structures were easily adopted by the various ruling classes who modified them to suit their personal aesthetic sensibilities while retaining their essential form. While the pillared halls, open on the sides, continued to be the basis of all design, it is the spanning systems which changed to suit the preferences of the builders. Stone brackets and beams were common with the Rajput builders while many Islamic rulers adopted pointed arches. Pavilions, particularly the baradari, started emerging as one of the key spaces influenced by this cross-cultural interaction.

Another variation in the themes which define a pavilion is the large cupola-like structure called a chattri in the north-western parts of India. The structure is polygonal or circular in plan and has a domical roof. Amongst all pavilion forms, the chattri is the most versatile one. Its use is related not only to one kind of activity, but several.

From pleasure pavilion to roadside shelter, from decorative cupola on a roof corner to a cenotaph, a chattri can easily serve several purposes, depending on its scale. This extremely adaptable element is space, but equally it is a complete form. One of the finest examples is the 32 pillared chattri at Ranthambor in eastern Rajasthan.

62

Chattris are often grouped in clusters, particularly when used as cenotaphs or as memorials. However, since they are a complete form by themselves, unlike the other pavilion forms, they cannot be interconnected form by themselves, unlike the other pavilion forms. Also, chattris generally have only peripheral supports allowing columnless space. This naturally brings about dimensional limitations. There are a few exceptions where larger chattris have been constructed using inner columns to achieve the required size. With the adoption of the Bengal hut roof, rectangular chattris have also been constructed. Chattris are not only part of the landscape; they are often seen atop mosques and cenotaphs, palaces, havelis and even houses. They are the culmination of a building, its silhouette made transparent. On terraces once again they become places for enjoying the view and the breeze.

Rani Rupmati pavilion at Mandu

Figure 73 - 77

Apart from being individual buildings, chattris become design elements in a larger form, combinations of which give the character of a building as in the tomb of Sikandar.

Small and large pavilions dot the terraces of the Udaipur City Palace. Removed from the bustle of the palace, they afford intimacy as well as the spectacular views of the city, the lake and surrounding environs.

63

5.7

THE IN-BETWEEN REALM In architecture, the in-between refers to the realm of actual physical change that

finds expression linking two areas with distinct environmental qualities. The most significant if these is the connection between ‘outside’ and ‘inside’ through spatial inbetween zones. This transition deals with the movement from one situation to another; from one set of ‘space-light’ values to another. An extended area of transition carries through it the feeling of both, the external and the internal, gradually changing from one to another. There are examples where the entire experience revolves around the idea of transition, like in the step-wells where ‘land-water’ transition is often expressed through architectural drama.

Besides its life-sustaining function, water has great symbolic and ritualistic significance in Indian culture. The simple act of reaching water is important and is never abrupt. An extended area of transition provides a gradual changing experience.

Its elaborateness and emphatic expression can be seen in the making of traditional ghats, kunds, pavilions, step-wells (vavs) and other structures connected to water.

While ghats create special places along the banks of rivers, lakes or the sea, kunds demonstrate a keen consideration for architecture; they are not just pits or ponds filled with water. Vavs are rich, elaborate and eventful, creating an architectural narrative around water elements.

64

Figure 78 & 79

The most important transitional relationship between two distinct realms is expressed through entrances. Whether it is the entrance to a city through a fort wall with defence, or a hierarchical sequence of spatial layers with a series of in-between realms, incorporating symbolic as well as functional values, transition remains the most significant aspect. The complexity of transition as an architectural element varies from community to community. In many cultures, entrances are intentionally indirect in order to achieve greater privacy. On the other hand, there are examples where a single door can be the total and only link between the inside and the outside. Apart from the symbolism and rituals associated with entrances are thresholds, these inbetween realms have a special meaning in Indian architecture, both religious and secular. The threshold, expressive of transition, has always received special attention from the past. Even today, ceremonies on all important occasions include a special event connected with the threshold, which in many cases is decorated and even worshipped every day. Sometimes, these transition realms or gateways become larger than the space within, just as the Buland Darwaza is much larger than any structure in the mosque complex. The gopurams of South India are often larger than the main temple itself.

65 Figure 80 - 85

Connecting a house to a street has been an intriguing aspect of architecture from time immemorial. Transitional areas not only include the threshold, but also the steps and platforms beyond it, all of which are carefully articulated into one entity. These areas are not only places for arrival or departure but also prove the spill-over of the activities of the house. Their dimensions and elaborateness depend on local cultural factors which differ from place to place. Typically, in Gujarat, a small verandah-like space with steps and, at times, pillars supporting the upper floor, are common. This element is called the ‘otla’. It allows for both privacy as well as participation. In Rajasthan, stone steps often at right angles of the house, lead to a small platform.The connection of the built form with the land on which it rests became another area for the expression of transition. Plinths became the mode of this transition. They also became large platforms encouraging social interaction. This expression was particularly enhanced in religious structures as well as buildings of public importance.

The plinth reinforced the importance of that particular institution. A gradual building up of steps leading to the main space was then articulated in an elaborate manner.

Figure 86 - 88

66

While providing a link with the entrance, the connection of the entire periphery of a building with the outside is also an important aspect of transition. This vital link is established through windows, galleries, balconies and verandahs. Here also, climate has a definite role of play. In hot dry areas, building peripheries are closed to the outside almost completely. Often, in such situations, a window is not just a fenestration, but a place offering a visual transition between inside and outside. It is made elaborately and is related to the daily activities of the inhabitants. A zharookha is such a place and elements like these play a vital role in articulating facades. It is not a thin demarcation of the inside and outside but a three dimensional space.

While entrances deal with one kind of relationship and control movement from outside to inside, cloisters and verandahs around the courtyards or along the periphery of the building are functional areas serving the cultural and climatic needs of a place.

Such semi-enclosed areas cater to diverse family activities. These transitional zones have a special role in modulating scale. Moving inward from external brightness and vastness, these elements and places help to control the change to darker and smaller internal spaces. These controlled, yet open spaces help avoid abrupt change.

Section through the entrance of the City Palace, Udaipur. The various levels of transition through plinths, zharookhas, verandahs and even pavilions negotiating the skyline are seen here.

Figure 89 - 92

67

Figure 93 - 98

68

6. UNDERSTANDING OTHER ELEMENTS

FATEHPUR SIKRI Mughal emperor Akbar conceived and built this royal complex between 1571 and 1585. It was built upon a hill but the top was flattened out to create this horizontality spread out citadel. Spaces are demarcated through level differences and plane punctured walls. The labyrinthine structure is woven together only through the contiguity of the floor plane.

The floor plane and the structures are symbolic and each accentuates the other mutually. The roofs created by the built masses generate floors for a different level. The Panch Mahal structure with its open colonnaded frame structure collects the space vertically, unifying individual parts making it a pivotal reference point upon which the emperor would sit. Other modulations such as depressions and plinths help in creating sub-identities within the spaces.

Figure 99 69

HOUSES AT JAISALMER Climatically, Jaisalmer is a hot and dry region. The houses here are, thus, articulated to suit such a climate. The dwelling units themselves occupy a small footprint and are mostly used as storage and for spending the afternoon hours. The raised floor plinth plays a vital role in defining the extent of a cluster or a house in different ways. The threshold here is defined by a raised level and decoration of the entrance by rangoli (ritualistic patterns created by coloured powder pigments).

The courtyard and its modulations within the dwellings generate a hierarchy within the same cluster.

Figure 100 70

DIWAN-E-KHAS, FATEHPUR SIKRI The Diwan-e-Khas, a special audience hall located in the royal precincts of Fatehpur Sikri, epitomises the symbolic qualities of the column. At the centre of a square hall of modest proportions, a single freestanding column mushrooms outward through brackets and supports the seat of the emperor at the upper level, which is linked by bridges to the four corners where the emperor’s advisors used to sit. The column as a free-standing element, a point ordering space around it, radiating aura. Intricate decoration and fine plastic treatment of the column capital as brackets accentuates its focal value and visual impact. Due to its freestanding nature, form and visual quality, the column becomes the principal architectural feature of the space, imparting uniqueness to the structure – the “image maker”. The visually unstable column defies the sense of repose vitalising the space with a dynamic sculptural quantity.

71

Figure 101

POL HOUSE, AHMEDABAD Pols, typical of medival urban centres in Gujarat, are the residential precincts. The residences in the pols confirm to long linear continuous plots, internal courts with wooden structure and masonry walls. Columns, here, play a vital role in defining the central space in addition to becoming the visible structural element. Its role varies from being a supported element to that of space definer, facade rhythm modulator and also as defining the volume within.

Figure 102

72

UDAIPUR PALACE, RAJASTHAN The wall here, possessing great height, dwarfs the human scale and functions as a protective barrier and makes up the imposing facade of the built form when seen over the expanse of the lake. The smaller bastions and articulations help in proportioning and scaling the mass. The overall form is further enhanced engulfing the volume within. With its sheer verticality, it becomes the most potent communication element capable of encoding messages while guiding movement along it to the entry.

Internally, the walls delineate territories creating varied zones and different ambiences.

73 Figure 103

BHUNGA HOUSE, KUTCH Bhungas – the typical traditional dwellings of Kutch, a hot and dry desert region, are characterised by thick circular adobe wall enclosures with small openings and conical thatched roof.

Decorations and ornamentation on the wall with clay and mirror murals give a distinct identity to each unit within the homogenous clusters.

With minimum openings it encloses a volume in itself and functions as a protective barrier against the climatic forces. The walls are also creatively used to accommodate built-in niches and extended plinths for storage.

Figure 104 74

BULAND DARWAZA, FATEHPUR SIKRI

Fatehpur Sikri was built between 1571 and 1585 to commemorate the birth of Akbar’s son and heir Jehangir. The Buland Darwaza marks the entry point of the complex. The gigantic size approximately reciprocates to the space it engulfs within, the scale of the complex who built it. It is strongly supported by the high plinth and succeeds in creating an awe-inspiring impression. From within, the scale is reduced to the human reference and is defined by three entry nodes. The spiked gateways were used for defense purposes with details reinforcing the strength and solidity.

Figure 105

75

GOPURAM, MADURAI The Meenakshi-Sundereshwara temple complex at Madurai was built in the 17th century by the Chola dynasty. It has 11 gopurams, literally meaning the gateways, surrounding the campus along concentric entry points which lead into an inextricable labyrinth of courtyards, galleries and hypostyle halls. Embellished with numerous images of the deities they tower above the town, as if heralding the onset of the religious realm even as one enters the city.

Figure 106 76

BOHRA HOUSE, SIDDHPUR Houses of Bohra Muslims are grouped together so as to form their own domain, with gates at entrances. The sense of privacy is extremely high and, therefore, windows as connectors to the exterior are more sensitively modulated. Scale and arrangements were laid very much with the human concern of shapes and proportions. Shapes of openings vary from floor to floor, changing from square headed at lower levels, to segmental, semi-circular and pointed at upper floors. This probably was the result of engineering skill establishing harmony between load and support since safety of an arch increases the closer its thrust approaches the vertical and decreases conversely.

Within the voids, openings were often further divided into tripartite shutters. The lower one from floor to parapet is louvered shutters which allow breeze at floor level. The middle ones are in opaque surfaces which are opened and closed as per the climate and user’s choice of communication with outdoors. The top one is a stained glass ventilator allowing for light even if the rest of the window is shut for privacy purposes. The permutation and combination of these give users tremendous control to mitigate diverse conditions of climate and privacy.

Figure 107

77

SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA The sun temple at Modhera in Gujarat, is a classic example of a typical architectural composition being transformed by the element of steps, stairs and staircases, adding another dimension to the ensemble. This is unique due to the presence of the stepped kund or ablution tank. The kund is the best example of subterranean architecture of steps with linear and cross-linked platforms, levels and shrines that continuously weaves the movement through the volume within.

Figure 108

78

RUDABAI STEPWELL, ADALAJ

The five-storeyed structure is braced with crossbeams all along its length to retain earth. Steps descending to a square platform provide pause in-between involving a shift in the visual axis. A linear, symmetrical organisation of elements along the horizontal axis at each of the intermediate levels due to the stone crossbeams, the visual references continuously and radically change due to inclined downward movement at every step. Each step reveals only the next while the subsequent flights of steps and water are concealed from the cone of vision by platforms.

Figure 109 79

7. CONTEMPORARY INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ‘FORM FOLLOWS CULTURE’ – Indian architecture is beginning to finds its own way; for the contemporary Indian architect the central challenge lies in striking a balance between change – the driving force for any culture – and continuity, the link with the past which provides architecture with a cultural resonance. Current architecture in India presents a vast and confusing proliferation of styles, scales and ideologies, and this being further added to by architects who merely imitate the latest trends from the industrial world. However, while does not appear to be a common visual approach to the new architecture being built in India today, it is possible to discern and emerging commonality of approach; not a style as we would know it but more a matter of shared inspiration.

This rather vague movement is highly appropriate in a culture that has historically been uninterested in rigid definitions. Whereas western values such as technology and reason have forced a certain rationalisation of form and expression, the values prevalent in India, of spiritualism, tradition and the cyclical nature of life, have predisposed the nation’s architects towards a more abstract approach to their work.

Drawing on India’s spiritualism, architectural design is beginning to utilise ‘invented authenticity’ – a strong if not immediately obvious link connecting with the soul, not the eyes. A distinctly Indian approach, it relies on the spirit of the building to evoke a sense of continuity or belonging. This notion of ‘invented authenticity’ is not as concerned with appearances as it is with sources of inspiration. If these are appropriate and authentic, then the building, in whatever form it takes and whatever material, will be Indian in the truest, spiritual sense. This is an architecture that reflects a shared sense of mind as opposed to a shared visual style.

80

– Romi Khosla.

8. SUSTAINABILITY & VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

8.1 GENERAL In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the “Earth Summit” took place in Rio De Janeiro, organized to showcase the global concern towards climate change. Sustainable development was defined as “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological developments and institutional changes are made consistent with the future as well as present needs.”

An action plan that emerged from the conference which was a creative approach to, and detailed proposals for communities throughout the world to adopt and implement specific measures centred on key objectives aiming at improving the social, economic and the environmental quality of human settlements and the living and the working conditions of all the people.

Agenda 21 states that “Environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interest and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.”

Although the concept of sustainability was defined in the Earth Summit in 1992, it has been the underlying concept for development in the history of mankind. Man has created and environment which is in direct response to: climate, available materials 81

and resources and the needs and functions of the society. The same is noticed in the design of every habitat from the cave dwellings to a traditional house form.

The combined manifestations of the works of man and nature are defined as cultural landscapes, which are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successful social, economic and cultural forces, both internal and external (UNESCO 2005). These cultural landscapes are depicted in many World Heritage Sites.

These practical and pragmatic choices based on the availability of raw materials and as per the climate pattern of a place was first publicly displayed in the exhibition ‘Architecture without Architects’ by Rudofsky in 1964 in New York. The concept of economy in form, design clarity and simplicity has been an inspiration for many modernist architects such as Renzo Piano, Frank Lloyd Wright, Meis Van De Rohe, and Walter Gropius.

“Sustainability implies the potential to continue dwelling indefinitely maintaining the connections of land and place. Sustainable architecture then is seen as a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. Good architecture is a building that is suitable for its environmental context, one that would adequately protect the inhabitants from the climate. It is a building that is sensitive to the environment that will adequately protect the environment from potential pollution and degradation caused by human habitation.”

Williamson et al (2004)

Historic towns and traditional settlements are eloquent of the traditional wisdom in sustainable development. The traditional towns in India have all developed as a sensitive response to the climate, topography, culture, and natural resources and are therefore sustainable in social, economic, ecological and cultural sense. For example, 82

in the city of Ahmedabad, the dense fabric of the city is divided into pols, dense neighbourhoods developed on the basis of community and its cohesion. Traditionally the pols are characterised by intricately carved timber framed buildings built around courtyards with narrow winding streets to ensure comfortable environment within the hot arid climate of Ahmedabad. The design of the settlement also incorporated underground rainwater storage systems as well as a series of stepwells and ponds and is a great lesson in ecological sustainability. A similar approach is evident in Chettinad also where water collection, irrigation systems, rainwater harvesting, and drainage have been incorporated in the traditional settlement planning. In the hot arid climate of Jodhpur in Rajasthan, an ancient and advanced system of water management of rainwater collection has been used, with Ranisar as the main collection tank and other underground wells and step wells linking to it. These serve as best examples of not just architecture and engineering but also of community sharing of scarce resources.

The concept of sustainability can be further defined as having three different spheres of influence namely ecological, physical and socio-economic.

8.2

ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY: The focus of ecological sustainability is to create a balance between man and

his environment including both natural and man-made. Buildings therefore are designed keeping in mind the forces of nature such as sun paths, wind directions, precipitation levels, etc.

This genre of architecture finds itself driven by nature and ecology. The aim is to work with nature and not against it. Vernacular architecture across the world has evolved over this principle where structures have been built using locally available materials and taking care of the environmental factors. Examples of architecture which are climate responsive may be noticed in the settlement planning in Spituk Valley, Ladakh where the southern slope has been developed to make optimum use of the sun 83

path. While in Jaisalmer, the havelis have been constructed in a dense manner with courtyards and narrow streets which are used for cross ventilation and provide respite from the extreme temperatures.

The approach to design is through the study of natural systems, emphasizing sensitivity and humility in relation to nature and at the building level. It is developed by recognizing sun paths, breezes, shade trees, etc. This concept has been very popular in India as well and the works of the contemporary architects like Revathi and Vasanth Kamath, Anil Laul, Sanjay Prakash, and Shirish Beri have been developed on these very principles.

It is also important to identify the need for human comfort while talking of sustainably built architecture. The climate is changing rapidly and the human habitat has to be modified and adapted to suit the changing needs and lifestyles. Technology is often the chosen tool to grope with the problems of the environment. Climate control within buildings is now predominantly controlled by mechanical means such as the buildings by Foster & Partners and others like Commerzbank building – world’s first ecological high rise office block with many unique features like double skin walls, dual natural and artificial ventilation, four storey high winter gardens to create natural atriums.

The key is the rationality and efficiency in planning, material use and systems.

The concept of bioclimatic skyscrapers came up in 1990s. They are tall buildings whose built form, configured by designs, uses passive low energy techniques to relate to the climate in the area. Architects like Hamzay and Ken Yeang have adopted such ecological design features like wind walls, solar panels, recycling, solar panels, rainwater collection, vegetation and vertical landscaping, etc in their designs. The Spice IT Park at Manesar, Gurgaon designed by the same architects is a 21-storey building with vertical landscape along the facades such as green walls and sky

84

terraces. It is too designed as a climate responsive building with sun shading devices, roof gardens, eco cells, rainwater harvesting and recycling.

In the urban environment, given the current lifestyle, it is not possible to disregard mechanical climate control systems. The needs to be accommodated in the design of the habitat, it can be ensured that the building is designed in a manner that the heat loss is minimized and the air conditioning is the most effective. It is not advocated to regress to a time period 50 years ago, at the same time it is not advised to shun the tradition completely. Continuity with the past is essential for the sustainability of the community on the whole. It is thus important to ensure the wellbeing and health and safety of the occupants in the design of the habitat.

8.3

PHYSICAL SUSTAINABILITY: Physical sustainability is one of the most tangible forms of sustainability

displayed in the built environment. As the needs and values of society change, the buildings either adapt themselves to suit the new demands or fall prey to dereliction and neglect, or get replaced by modern buildings. Physical sustainability is that quality of a building which allows it to adapt itself to the changing needs.

The world is witnessing the repercussions of globalization. Consequently, the vernacular form of architecture is rapidly being replaced with new industrial materials such as steel and concrete. It has been observed that when buildings fail to meet the basic requirements of contemporary standards, conflicts arise and often lead to redundancy, vacancy and overcrowding. For example, in an area of high economic activity, such as a walled city of any historic town of India, the physical fabric survives as part of the thriving market place albeit in a deteriorating condition.

Historic buildings are a reservoir of embodied energy in the form of stone, timber, glass and steel which have been used in the construction and thus their 85

preservation and reuse is advocated as part of sustainable development in the heart of the historic city centres. Several studies have been conducted to improve the energy efficiency of the historic buildings. The point is not only to restore the buildings, but to increase sustainability, community partnerships and training as well as adaptive reuse and rehabilitation of the physical built environment. Restorations, modifications, alterations and reuse of the building or its components therefore are a critical element of physical sustainability.

8.4

SOCIO ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY A key parameter of sustainability is the social and cultural relevance. The

diversity of the local cultures is eloquent in the way they treat and manage their environment. The built environment is shaped by the values and cultural beliefs of the community and as these values rapidly change due to globalisation, changes in lifestyle, patterns of living and working, several elements of the built environment lose their relevance. These patterns of evolution, adapting to the change in tradition, is critical for the continuity of cultures and is inextricably linked to the sustainability of the living environment.

In the past fifty years, the traditional Indian cities have been subjected to degradation and decline, owing to the aspiration of the people for the want of ‘modern’ houses and easily discarding the past in want of a better future. This has been detrimental to the built environment causing overpopulation, slum-like developments and lack of proper living conditions in most historic cores while cities and suburbs have developed outside in almost similar fashion pan-India.

The social structure of the historic towns serves as an inspiration for the design of sustainable human settlements. Regeneration of the historic built environment is used as a primary tool to achieve sustainability. Measures need to be taken to repopulate the city centres and bring people back into living in the centre, creating 86

pedestrian exclusive areas in the market places and bringing the area back to life with activities that would sustain the community therein. “Satisfying the spiritual economic and material needs of the people in determining condition for sustainable architecture and every decision concerning areas, the design of the building must be sensitive to the culture, the resources, and the character of the place. The risk is global standards global modes of building and global processes will overwhelm the local context� Williamson et al (2003) To achieve sustainability in the living environment, a balance needs to be achieved between the available resources and the needs of a contemporary society.

The survival of the past will depend completely on its ability to adapt to the needs of the future. It can therefore be concluded that sustainable development can only be achieved by learning, understanding, and appreciation of a city’s resources and integration of these with contemporary knowledge and technology.

8.5

VERNACULAR AS SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT: Traditionally, builders used knowledge/technique passed on from generation to

generation to ensure that the buildings constructed could withstand the impact of a hostile outdoor environment. These principles include physical functionality, beauty, low energy use, comfort, durability and affordability. Such buildings use local construction materials, passive cooling and heating and renewable energies.

Vernacular resources, technologies, and forms are generally seen to be well adapted to local climatic conditions and are often considered an appropriate base for environmental design. However, in spite of its effectiveness and sustainability, traditional architecture and its methods and strategies are often undervalued and not preferred in new constructions.

87

It must be recognised that although many vernacular technologies, resources or forms are suitable and sustainable, there are a couple of techniques/methods that are no longer properly functioning because of the changed cultural and ecological situations. It is not practical to go back to the traditional buildings, for they were designed for a different culture and climate.

In this regard, the key challenge in the 21st century is to learn the fundamental lessonsand principles of vernacular architecture, and to find ways of integrating those principles into development programmes to upgrade existing settlements and to plan new ones. The challenge is to find out how the achieved knowledge, skills, and experience be fruitfully applied in a modern context. What is required is a method that enables us to scientifically test the actual performance of the vernacular traditions and generate an understanding of how these may be upgraded to provide truly sustainable buildings for the future.

Vernacular buildings make good models for sustainable design lessons and often serve as ‘laboratories’ for architects as these are comprehensive due to their often simple forms and resourceful use of materials and technology, meaning that lessons can be easily demonstrated and then adopted by architects in their design work. Vernacular knowledge has a lot to contribute to the design of appropriate and sustainable housing and hold important social and anthropological design cues for creating better environments.

88

9. VERNACULAR & MODERNISM – HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Currently building technology and sustainable design are considered as fundamental to the growing field of contemporary architecture. Practicing architects have a challenging responsibility to design buildings that are environmentally sustainable with the change in the global concern regarding the use of energy and resources. This new responsibility has prompted a sensible shift in trend from a biased preference of eye-catching, institutionalized building forms to more organic, humble, yet energy-efficient vernacular forms. Additionally, the local forms of construction capitalize on the users' knowledge of how buildings can be effectively designed to promote cultural conservation and traditional wisdom. A number of practitioners are also inspired by building traditions, given that the local vernacular forms have proven to be energy efficient and “green,” honed by local resources, geography, and climate.

However, given the diversity of vernacular architecture in the global context, the techniques or technology-based research on vernacular architecture remains surprisingly limited beyond performance-based examples.

In the discussion of vernacular architecture, ambiguities arise from the meanings of certain terms and concepts. The words “modern” and “traditional” are often considered as being in fundamental opposition to each other. One tends to suppose that vernacular architecture is a kind of traditional architecture, distinct from modern architecture. However, a fragmented volume of works suggests that sly details, materiality, as well as adaptive and smart-space solutions and techniques are deployed ingeniously as much by the local unknown builders in a traditional setting as by modern illustrious architects. These findings are shunned by the limited development in research that explicitly addresses the application and use of vernacular knowledge and skills in contemporary architectural examples.

The concept of modernism in architecture is difficult to define despite being clearly conceived in opposition to late 19th century historicism, and rejecting historical 89

precedents and traditional methods of building. Despite showing strong preferences for industrial building materials and production, the buildings of modern style have simple forms, visually expressive structures, abstract ornamentation, and functionality, in that there is a strong rational basis to the building volumes. Modernism redefined the aesthetic appreciation of buildings to value clarity and to highlight the philosophy “less is more” in appearance and detail. Paradoxically, however, the early 20th century pioneers of the movement so exhibited strong preferences for nature, environmental factors, structural precision, and material integrity – many of the features inherent in vernacular architecture.

Wright talked about organic architecture in1908, long before the term “ecology” became fashionable. He pioneered the ideas that buildings should be extensions of the environment and that their three-dimensional forms should depend upon the properties of materials. Modern masters, such as Corbusier and Aalto, aimed to build spiritually reviving environments in which man could live in harmony with nature. Aalto believed that the natural energy of light and air should filter into the designed spaces and thus developed a variety of techniques to let natural light into interior spaces. Le Corbusier was well known for his deep concern for “sun, space, and greenery” in his designs. …what is needed at the beginning of the new millennium is an architectural perspective in which valuable vernacular knowledge is integrated with equally valuable modern knowledge… (VellingaandAsquith,2006, 18) The vision, though noted, is yet to be sculpted in the right direction. We propose that ideas and issues be opened up for the exploration and identification of new directions in green/ sustainable and innovative techniques, which might be channelled and filtered through local knowledge, practice, and wisdom as much as by new industrial innovations and emerging technology. Vernacular dwelling studies show a remarkable shift from the previous “image” and “notion” ideas of static old forms. By 90

contrast, a section of current works is opting to highlight critical, creative, and procedural aspects of vernacular examples. This shift certainly lifts vernacular to a prominent position in architectural research, education and practice.

Any boundary between tradition and modernity is fluid and complex. The bypassed vernacular built solutions, such as material and structural sensibility, minimalism, modularity, adaptability, as well as tactile and temporality or fluidity, are essentially modern. Drawing upon the similarities in principles rather than in images, one can see the possibilities of transmission of ideas and techniques from traditional (as in vernacular) to modern (as in contemporary examples) or from modern to vernacular in a two way directional process.

Needless to say, local vernacular examples offer a rich repertoire of architectural knowledge not only in the field of design, innovations, and sustainable techniques but also in other theoretical fields. Local solutions are obviously honed by culture and social logic, thereby adding a deeper meaning to the given examples.

Indeed, many of the defining criteria for modernist design (such as Le Corbusier's “five points of architecture�) that are often considered as radical innovations, are inspired by traditional or vernacular forms in which social, cultural, spatial, physical, technological, and aesthetic factors combined into one complex definition.

Modernism demands a respect for inherent qualities of building materials, expressiveness of structure, and functional justifications for forms that constitute buildings. Regionalism focuses on local culture and traditions, elements that modernism rejects. Some scholars argue that the failure of the Modern Movement was in not considering cultural aspects of architectural programs, pretending that modern buildings could be built in any environment regardless of their regional characteristics.

Furthermore, internationalism, as a minimalist tendency, demands reduction of building into basic components (structure and envelope).On the other hand, regionalism seeks meaning and content to build structuresunder specific local 91

conditions based on the cultural and environmental features of a particular geographical location. Regionalism is by no means an attempt at a stylistic movement; rather it should be considered an attitude against internationalist and globalized architectural premises.

Modern regionalism recognizes the vernacular modes of building at one extreme, and the rediscovery of Edwin Lutyens and Frank Lloyd Wright at the other.

Lutyens was a British architect established in India who "showed how a modern classical style (neo-classicism) could be adorned with Indian flourishes. Lutyen's early architectural work accomplished urban development and the Indo-Deco style, an amalgam of Art Deco and Indian decorative patterns. Contemporaneously, Frank Lloyd Wright inspired by Viollet Le-Duc, Ruskin's art and craft, and Louis Sullivan's functionalism, developed his "organic architecture.

Additionally, modern regionalism manifests a respect for the local culture, for climate and sometimes technology. Nevertheless, there are some elements that limit the scope of modern regionalism. One of these elements is the standardization and industrialization of materials and structures supported emphatically by the building industry. There is a tendency in the market to optimize time and construction which often results in the use of standardized products and the reduction of labour and handcraft. The building industry, international and local, has been trying for decades to industrialize architecture, and in terms of localization, architecture has resisted.

Moreover, the rising costs of local materials and skilled labour have also established a limit for regionalism.

Even though regionalism recognizes the vernacular modes of building, there are distinctions between vernacularism and modern regionalism that are important to notice. According to SuhaOzkan, a concrete and an abstract modern regionalism are being developed. Both approaches use contemporary materials and construction techniques, and most importantly, both convey cultural and regional issues.

92

Furthermore, both approaches differ in a particular characteristic. Concrete regionalism produces architecture based on the "replication" of regional features, portions, or often entire buildings. Abstract regionalism, as its terminology implies, consists of abstracting elements from the regional architecture of the past so that new forms can be revived, revitalized, and reinterpreted. According to Ozkan, abstract regionalism "incorporates the abstract qualities of a building [massing, solids and voids, proportions, sense of space, lighting, and structural principles of the architecture of the past] in a reinterpreted form.

Critical regionalism considers every architectural aspect through which the consciousness of a given regional society and culture can be expressed and can flourish. The architectural and cultural differences between universalism and localism were discussed in an attempt to provide a critical action for the future development of architecture. An architecture that keeps people close to their environment and culture; an architecture that responds effectively to societal needs; anon-representational architecture that enhances regional symbolism through perception rather than only visual means and the function for architecture remains an expression of local culture.

Among various critics and theorists, Kenneth Frampton is one of the most loyal defenders of the ideology of critical regionalism, which he sees as the most feasible paradigm in the future development of architecture today. He not only approves of the idea but expands h by discussing other sensitive aspects of architecture. Kenneth Frampton, in his book "Modern Architecture: A Critical History, "considers critical regionalism as both a "strategy of resistance" against universalization and a historical trend, because of the profound and convenient relationship of architecture with nature in contrast to the progressive idea of society. This seems to describe the Modern Movement, the architecture that was intentionally not in tune with local culture, perhaps the reason scholars argue it was a mistake to apply globally. Moreover, within Frampton's examples, meaningful architecture occurs through critical regionalism, not

93

at a superfluous level but by in-depth analyses that combine social, cultural, physical, and environmental properties of a specific region into an architectural reaction.

Once critical regionalism, vernacularism, and modern regionalism were clarified, a correlation was conducted to identify similarities between the characteristics and properties of the architectural discourses. These characteristics will set a conceptual guideline that can serve for revaluing, recuperating, searching, or developing the architectural identity of any region. Thus, it is essential to search for an appropriate architecture that: 1) Recognizes that buildings rest in the natural environment and that it is necessary to establish a harmonious relationship between building and nature.

2) Pursues architectural honesty by decreasing the influence of fashion and increasing the influence of real social purposes as design conditions. The intention is to emphasize an attitude over a style.

3) Develops quality habitable architecture that integrates and expresses local sociocultural customs and traditions by using minimum resources.

4) Participates in a continuous evaluation taking into account that the built environment is not static but dynamic. Current architecture serves current needs but also reveals its principal intention in regard of space and time.

5) Combines the most advanced spatial, formal, and constructive solutionsavailable (e.g., new materials, construction methods, and design methods) with the most traditional solutions developed by local culture (e.g., traditional materials, intermediate technologies, and intuitive design).

6) Instigates local archetypes by means of repetition that will enhance and aid in developing the identification of common patterns and eventually an architectural identity.

7) Searches for "glocal" architecture that suggests the global application of regional principles, the rescue of practical examples at a local level, and the adaptation to the global market (rescue-adaptation ideology).

94

10.

THE CONTEMPORARY VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

10.1 RELEVENCE OF THE VERNACULAR The study of the vernacular has been of interest to architects since the last 50 years. The pioneering attempt at recognizing the vernacular architecture was by Bernard Rudofsky in 1964, when he held an exhibition titled ‘Architecture without Architects’ in New York. More studies and research projects were carried out further in traditional architecture in both the developed and developing world. The publication of the Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World in 1977 and the ICOMOS Charter on Built Vernacular Heritage in 1999 have been instrumental in bringing vernacular architecture to the forefront.

The image of any city is defined by its architecture, both in terms of its monumental and iconic buildings as well as the small dwellings and its conglomerations. Vernacular architecture is essentially that everyday architecture which has evolved over the centuries. Essentially civilian, domestic and pre-industrial construction, it is built with local materials and knowledge systems and is a fundamental expression of the aspiration and culture of the communities and their relationship with their environment. Having evolved to suit the changing needs of the climate and culture, the vernacular architecture includes not just the buildings and their construction materials but also configuration of urban forms and settlement patterns such as the streets and chowks. These settlements that today form the nucleus of the contemporary city are constantly threatened by the pressures of population, neglect and degradation.

With every passing day globalization and high degree of development are changing the face of our environment. The breakdown of the traditional world and the tendency of cultural homogenization as a result of globalization have brought disregard for much of the traditional environment, often considered to be a symbol of 95

poverty with values and qualities that are far removed from the mediatized concept of modernity. The introduction of new materials and technology has revolutionalised the process of construction and has also redefined the role of the architect, designer and the craftsman. Pressure on the traditional habitat began with the process of industrialization, accentuated by the modern movement and urbanism in the 20 th century, seeking new models of dwelling and building cities that could overcome the deficiencies of traditional settlements. The aspirations of the society and the need to ‘modernise’ are leading to a catastrophic evolution – a mass destruction of our traditional built environment. It is now an accepted fact that the traditional built environment was designed to meet the challenges of the climate and culture using local materials and hence was a sustainable pattern of development. As architects and designers turn to these traditional environments for inspiration, the traditional environment on the other hand, is shunning its knowledge systems and embracing contemporary materials and technologies for the want of the ‘progressive and modern’ milieu. And, herein lies the dichotomy which holds the key to the future of our environment.

With an accelerated degree of development coupled with sky reaching land values and a social disconnect with the past, the future of the built environment remains bleak. The economic boom is ensuring that a large section of everyday historic buildings is demolished rapidly to pave way for modern development. The survival of this tradition is threatened worldwide by the forces of economic, cultural and architectural homogenization. How these forces can be met is a fundamental problem that must not only be addressed by communities, but also by governments, planners, architects, conservationists and by a multidisciplinary group of specialists.

96

10.2 THE NEED FOR SUSTAINBLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT The urban environment in our cities is degrading at an alarming rate.

Congestion, traffic, pollution, crime, increasing demand for housing and influx of rural migrants are only adding pressure on the already overburdened infrastructure of cities.

The cities in the developing world are constantly mitigating issues of poverty, overpopulation, lack of health care and infrastructure while cities in the developed world are faced with problems of decline of industrial centres, depopulation, economic and social degeneration. In both cases, schemes for urban renewal and re-development are constantly developed to create a better living environment.

Historic city centres across the world, often developed around a royal or religious core, present themselves as good examples of sustainable cities. Most cities have developed habitats of cohesive communities which lived and worked together.

The cities were planned considering the environmental concerns of the nature, topography, climate, and culture and advocated an optimum use of the natural resources. With the industrial revolution and the invention of the urban transport, cities began to expand and it created a distinct living and working environment which were segregated from each other. The decline of industry in the developed world and the development of the suburban environments had a detrimental effect on the historic cores resulting in degradation, depopulation, poverty and crime. Achieving sustainable development is dependent on many factors such as efficient ways of urban planning, pollution control, energy efficient management of natural resources, and providing health and comfort conditions in a given context.

Considerable research has been conducted in recent times to ensure maximum energy efficiency in historical buildings by the imaginative use of technology and encouraging the use of renewable sources of energy. Vernacular built heritage is now being seen as an economic, social and environmental asset and can form the loci for sustainable urban development. Cities and towns are dynamic and continue to adapt 97

themselves to the changing needs and aspirations of the society they house. The skill of the architect and the urban planner lies in resolving this conflict between the available resources and the changing culture.

Therefore, there is an urgent need for sustainable cities to create a balance between the economy, natural resources and the changing needs and aspirations of the society. Initiatives need to be made to include environmental and cultural resource based planning in the developmental plans.

10.3 CONTEMPORARY VERNACULAR The architecture by the people, for the people today is radically different from the image of the vernacular associated with the community. The change in the economy and social patterns has allowed the availability of manufactured materials throughout the country and has caused a profound change in the vernacular architecture of many regions. The widespread use of cement concrete, corrugated iron sheets, stone and bricks have lent a new meaning to vernacular architecture.

In Himalayas, for example, the rural vernacular has been transformed from slate tiled roofs to corrugated iron roofs across the entire landscape. Flat concrete roofs or pitched roofs in cement concrete are preferred to timber roofing owing to the scarcity and expensive nature of the resource. In Ladakh, the form of traditional buildings has been transformed increasingly by the use of sheet glass to provide sun rooms for winter warmth and plastic pipes have been incorporated into the water supply and drainage systems of the vernacular buildings.

The dichotomy of the situation is in understanding what is locally available? For example, conservationists often prescribe the use of lime as a building material instead of cement. But in reality, lime is not readily available and has to be prepared by a tedious process while cement is available off the counter in the remotest of villages.

98

The question therefore again is – what is locally available, cost-effective and sustainable? A similar situation comes to the forefront with the use of stone. For environmental reasons, the quarrying of stone has been banned in several regions and thus with no locally available stone, the common man resorts to the use of brick or imports stone from another place, the economics of which eventually driving the decision of what does the common man therefore use as his primary building material.

In the changing social, economic, political, and natural environment what may be called vernacular of today?

10.4 THE FUTURE OF THE PAST: THE ROLE OF VERNACULAR IN THE 21st CENTURY Rapid development and economic and political globalization have made culture and tradition less ‘place-routed’ and more ‘knowledge-based’. In a situation where the world becomes a global village what is the relevance of the local? Will the vernacular survive in the twenty-first century or will it be eradicated and replaced by modern buildings?

Conservation may be defined as the action which is undertaken to prevent decay and therefore includes not only preservation but also restoration, rehabilitation, adaptation, alteration as well as reconstruction of the built fabric. Conservation means all the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its cultural significance.

The physical conservation of the vernacular architecture provides for an increased understanding of the original choices of materials and methods of construction – the primary reason for the destruction and dilapidation of vernacular architecture is the lack of recognition and valorization of the traditional built environment as ‘heritage’. Current economic situations where the land prices are skyrocketing, the survival of the historic built fabric remains bleak. These historic cities are also plagued with issues of lack of urban infrastructure, increasing urban poverty 99

as well as a weak institutional and financial framework. Hence, there is a need for intervention, stressing the need for long term action in the form of education and sensitization measures and promoting traditional architecture.

It is therefore important to not only study and document vernacular architecture but to also intervene and ensure its survival into the future. The three approaches enlisted below are that of conservation, rehabilitation, and reuse and reconstruction or development using traditional methodologies.

The approach to deteriorating vernacular has recently shifted from preservation towards rehabilitation using modern materials and technology. For the survival of the vernacular, it has to be relevant to the needs of the contemporary society.

Globalization and standardization of cultures has considerably altered the way of life, the domestic routine and images of modernity. Economic and development models from the West have been readily accepted as models for urban development without fully testing its relevance in the Indian context. Hence, it is necessary to successfully catalogue each typology of vernacular architecture in every region and adopt tools of renovation and rehabilitation to improve the living conditions of the community as well as preserve the historical identity.

Rehabilitation is the action taken to create a balance between heritage, economics, and social needs and is an approach that underlines sustainable urban development. The main objective of rehabilitation is to improve the living conditions of the community as well as the quality of the built environment, maintaining and promoting its cultural and heritage values and at the same time guaranteeing its coherent adaptations to the needs of contemporary life.

100

10.5 OPEN AIR MUSEUMS A preservationist attitude has been adopted predominantly in the European countries where the vernacular architecture has been allowed to be eradicated from the urban environment and has been preserved in the form of open-air museums. A typical example of vernacular houses from each region is demonstrated in a park like atmosphere, where visitors can come and enjoy the ambience of the village. The Museum of Folk Architecture & Rural Life, Ukraine; Lviv Museum of Folk Architecture, Estonia Open Air Museum, and Taman Mini in Jakarta are some of the popular open-air museums for vernacular architecture.

In India, too this concept of open-air museums is being explored with the haveli in Punjab and the Chok di dani in Jaipur which provides the visitors a village experience. The question, however, still arises as to whether this is a viable solution?

The ethos of vernacular is its continued use and relevance in contemporary community life. It is not possible to freeze time or capture the essence of the rural habitat in the form of open air museums.

The solution therefore lies in recognizing the values attached to the traditional built environment and evaluating its relevance in the contemporary context. It will be interesting therefore to explain if an association between the traditional and contemporary is possible. Is it possible to develop a language of design which is contemporary but based on traditional practices which are sustainable? Hence, it is necessary to first understand what is vernacular architecture, secondly understand why the same in important as regards heritage and sustainability value, and finally to understand how it can guide contemporary architecture to achieve a sustainable built environment.

101

10.6 DEVELOPMENTAL VERNACULAR A developmental vernacular is one that uses the characteristics of vernacular architecture to achieve better shelter and settlement. It uses and develops local cultural and material resources. It is small scale, technologically and organizationally simple and inexpensive. It’s planning and construction can be controlled by local communities. It expresses value, needs of the local community, and demonstrates continuity with change remaining rooted in the past and the local while incorporating new and the external to meet contemporary needs.

Developmental vernacular is cost effective and economical. Being labour intensive it is job creating as well. It is one of the best forms of architecture as using local resources it plays an important role in generating local income and remains ecologically balanced using renewable resources through community participation.

“The work of three contemporaries – Laurie Baker in India, Hasan Fathy in Egypt, and John Turner in Latin America – is eloquent of the fact that each one sought the development of a contemporary vernacular, a commonly observed, felt and accepted language of building which could be transformed to suit the new requirements. In this typology of architecture, the prevalence of an overriding craft tradition and the need to evolve buildings out of severe economic constraints shifted the emphasis away from technology towards earthy humanism sharp comprehension of dual phenomenon of tradition and change and of the need to re-establish the use of traditional construction style without actual imitation of the traditional style,” -Bhatia (1985)

The work of the famous Sri Lankan architect, Geoffrey Bawa is a mix of modern and traditional. The relationship Geoffrey Bawa establishes with the geography of the terrain and the garden has a great ability to fuse man-made with nature.

102

A similar approach made by Luis Barragan in Mexico, where he fused modern architecture with the local architecture of Mexico. The dominant concerns remain the same – the culture of the place, people, loci and the cultural sustainability. The architecture is highly contextual and uses forms, materials, and construction methods echoing the local vernacular. The design approach engages the study of local culture, buildings and emphasizes the use of local involvement and expertise. Local vernacular mode of building is seen as having authentically emerged as a response to local culture and the genius loci; it serves as a model for new building. The local vernacular inspires the contemporary in the choice of materials, colours and building forms. The work of Laurie Baker is part of this philosophy of building.

The architects of the post-independence architecture in India have been known to be inspired by the vernacular architecture of the country. Raj Rewal for example, used the principles learnt in the urban pattern of Jaisalmer in the Asian Games Village and the National Institute of Immunology, Delhi. The Design Group, by architects RanjitSabikhi and Ajoy Chowdhury used the prototype of the north Indian mohallas for the Yamuna housing in Delhi. The architecture of B V Doshi also exemplifies the learning from the vernacular in the designs for the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore and the LIC Housing at Biman Nagar. Some of the works of Charles Correa such as the Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur is based on the design of vaastupurush mandala.

The other architects whose works include from learning from the vernacular are Kulbhushan and Meenakshi Jain, Vasanth and Revathi Kamath, and Anupama Kundoo to name a few. These are a few contemporary architects who have attempted to incorporate vernacular traditions in creating sustainable contemporary architecture.

The works of architects like Shirish Beri, Revathi and Vasanth Kamath, Anil Laul, Sunil Patil, Jose Mathew are hinged on the concept of ecological sustainability.

103

The focus of their projects is to design habitats which are in sync with nature and not against it, and in accordance to the sun paths, water channels, existing trees on site, etc. The emphasis has also been on integrating the landscape into the building. The nature of the spaces is such that they have multiple meanings. The materials for construction have been utilized from the site itself. Their buildings are ecologically sustainable as they demonstrate the optimum use of the naturally available resources in a cost-effective, creative and imaginative way.

The works of Anil Laul, Chitra Vishwanath, Anupama Kundoo and Satprem Maini also demonstrate the innovation in technology by using locally available material in combination with the modern technology to create a new typology such as the use of locally available terracotta urns in formwork for the concrete in Anupama Kundoo’s work. This concept is also demonstrated in the development of brick funicular shells by Anil Laul and stabilized mud brick blocks by Chitra Vishwanath as well as the Auroville Earth Institute. The buildings are designed in response to the surrounding ecology.

The works of Vinod Gupta, DeependraPrashad and Sanjay Prakash have been developed on the concept of solar passive architecture, where technology and a combination of architectural elements such as courtyard planning, sun shading devices, jaalisare used effectively to create buildings which are both contemporary in their use and have incorporated the learning from the vernacular. The works of Benny Kuriakose shows how the vernacular can be used in its pure form in the design of the habitats by using local materials and technology and aesthetically following the traditional idiom. While in contrast, the works of Anagram Architects and Rajiv and Tallulah D’Silva use traditional materials such as stone and brick imaginatively ensuring that the architectural expression of the building is contemporary.

104

The most interesting among them is the work of Studio Matharoo, which questions the concept of sustainability and the use of natural materials. Gurjit Singh Matharoo highlights an interesting debate as to what is natural and sustainable, when quarrying of stone is banned, is stone genuinely sustainable when it has to be transported from elsewhere? His work is exemplary in using readily available industrial materials such as concrete and steel to create an aesthetically pleasing and comfortable built environment.

105

11.

CASE STUDIES

11.1

IIM AHMEDABAD, LOUIS KAHN Louis Kahn’s Institute in Ahmedabad was based on an orthogonal system

characteristic of his rational approach to planning. The heavy brick envelope of each of the units in the framework, pierced with huge circular and square openings, is placed in front of a second inner envelope as a means of layering that Kahn called ‘wrapping ruins around the building’. He relied upon geometric arrangement of units to bring order to a large and varied programme that almost looks like it contains all the components of a small self sustaining village.

Kahn studies the Indian Way of Life, the cultural traditions, the city and its institutions. He convinces his clients that the sole concept of management cannot create the institution to which they aspire. It is not just a functional fact of give and take, but something more. His stress is placed on the integration of culture and spiritual wellbeing. His efforts as designer are aimed at process of integration of man, the space around him and the elements making up this space. Only in this sense does architecture become an "Institution of man". The Indian Institute of Management represents an exemplary effort in this sense.

He implemented the same techniques in the Indian Institute of Management such that he incorporated local materials (brick and concrete) and large geometrical façade extractions as homage to Indian vernacular architecture. It was Kahn’s method of blending modern architecture and Indian tradition into an architecture that could only be applied for the Indian Institute of Management. The large facade omissions are abstracted patterns found within the Indian culture that were positioned to act as light wells and a natural cooling system protecting the interior from India’s harsh desert climate. Even though the porous, geometric façade acts as filters for sunlight

106

and ventilation, the porosity allowed for the creation of new spaces of gathering for the students and faculty to come together.

Vastly monumental, yet heart-warmingly human in scale the IIM is a feast of light and shade, vistas and views, connections and transitions.

"Architecture is the wise play of volumes in the light". The light in India, a tropical and subtropical country, is always accompanied by glare, and is most difficult to handle! And under the beating rays of the sun, arranging spaces cannot be reduced to arranging volumes under the sun. In India the light is the real arranging element in architecture: before entering an inner room, this has to be diverted, damped and rendered harmless. The infinite gradations of light, from darkness (but total darkness is an abstraction) to the greatest brilliance guide the visitor and become elements ordering the hierarchy of spaces. He had the ability to invent new meanings, uses and situations for volumes and spaces from everyday life and from Indian tradition.

Figure 110 & 111

107

11.2 IIM AHMEDABAD NEW, HCP DESIGNS

The new campus for IIMA is located adjacent to the original building designed by HCP Designs. Though both campuses function independently, they are connected by a pedestrian underpass creating easy access between them. The extension is built to cater to the growing need for academic, research, outreach and residential facilities.

This extension can arguably be considered one of the most important architectural projects in recent times in India. This could be an opportunity to reposition architectural practice in an era of massive change, a commentary on the history of institutional architecture of India, and especially a response to Louis Kahn’s profound magnum opus.

The use of smoothly shuttered exposed concrete as primary building material with fenestration in a combination of mild steel and wood, gives the new facilities a distinct vocabulary while in formal terms, the new buildings allude to the architecture of the original campus. A deliberate attempt seems to have been made by the architect to refer to, and provide continuities with the existing structures through the use of diagonal geometries, semicircular stairs and turrets, and materials and composition using abstract forms and large surfaces. Hence, in a way it has also created a distinct identity for the new one.

Figure 112 & 113 108

COMPARISON OF THE TWO

The impressive sequence of entry ends in a forecourt from which you enter the classroom block. The entrance hall immediately offers a view of the space beyond, through the wide and high southern face. At right angles, stretching into the distance is the corridor connecting the classrooms arranged in a linear sequence. The silvery grey concrete wall and kota stone floor surfaces with regularly spaced, large openings create an even wash of light, revealing the crisp regularity of geometry that organizes the parts.

One cannot but help compare this sequence to the entrance sequence in the old campus. A short entrance drive, a forecourt dominated by the high and massive body of brick of the library building, a wide flight of steps ascending to an incongruously small aperture in the wall. Having risen up the stately stair, you enter a low dark space, engulfed into the building mass. Re-emerging into an open space, you walk onto the terrace at one end of the somber and grave Louis Kahn Plaza.

The new campus respectfully continues some of the concepts articulated in the architecture of the old campus. Firstly, the site planning shows clearly the structure and hierarchy of relationships by disposition and geometry of plan. In fact, the plan shows a near symmetry of disposition of the two parts. Further, the choice of a single dominant material (concrete in the new campus) and a geometric and constructive coherence marks both the works.

Considering other factors, such as figure and ground – buildings occupy spaces and form spaces. The space between the buildings can be as important as the buildings themselves. Kahn ensures that almost any group of functions forms an incomplete configuration. Observe the classroom block, library, office blocks or the dormitory. By implying incompleteness in their forms and juxtaposing them in almost cramping 109

proximity, a complex spatiality and a sense of wholeness is achieved. The gaps are read as positive forms and resolve the composition. The complexity is further achieved by level changes.

The new campus clearly distinguishes buildings as complete entities through the planned organization. The dormitories complete a square around a courtyard. The space between them allows us to read them as individual blocks. The classroom block sets up a clear serial order, entered at one point, but separate from the other buildings.

The power of negative space or ground to engage our imagination is not evolved.

Here, the changes in levels happen unobtrusively and smoothly.

Figure 114

110

IIM BANGALORE, B V DOSHI

The IIM Bangalore campus was designed by celebrated architect B V Doshi, and is a conversation piece amongst laypersons and professionals alike.

Completed in 1983, the original stone architecture is now complemented by the greenery, just as B V Doshi had intended. Here is B V Doshi in his own words, explaining the architectural concept of the buildings: Emperor Akbar established his well-known capital, FatehpurSikri, in the 16th century. Though, barring a few years it remained unoccupied, it is universally appreciated for its scale, clarity, architectural style and most significantly, for its spatial organization. Here one discovers solutions to the now familiar problem of how to extend or add buildings and yet, related them, and on how to ensure that all the individual constituent parts of the complex evoke the sense of belonging to a larger fabric. And, it is not surprising that the tools employed at FatehpurSikri to simultaneously divide functions and unite the various buildings in a complex are the same as those used in planning temples in South India.

The response is achieved by adopting a system of major corridors for movement, along which activity areas are disposed. And within the network of corridors, the spaces between the activity areas become courts for extended activities.

These courts regenerate the primordial sense of continuity, growth, and the tenuous linkages of the living environment.

In Fatehpur Sikri, the presence of the buildings is strongly felt in spite of their being relatively small, a factor of special interest to me. This has been made possible by the modest relation of the building to the ground, the sky, and the backdrop of the linking corridor, very much like the umbilical cord and the extended family. One is separate, and yet connected, even though tenuously.

111

Designing the IIMB's academic programme, which would stretch and change over the years, demanded such an approach. Bangalore's climate is very comfortable and the city is full of lush green lawns and trees. Therefore, in this project, the 'building' includes external spaces, and the links between the buildings in the Bangalore climate permit academic exchange beyond the classrooms. The functional and physical attributes of its design are related to the local traditions of pavilion-like spaces, courtyards, and ample provision for plantations.Owing to the varying rhythm of the solids and voids, that is, the wall and the opening, coupled with direct or indirect natural light, these links change in character during different times of the day as well as the seasons, and offer the students and the faculty, the occasion to feel the presence of nature even while they are inside. By creating such an environment, the activities pursued within the building become enriched because they become one with the larger total world.

"Apart from the organizational principles such as interlocking courts, pavilions, terraced gardens and connections, the IIM-B also employs more subtle lessons about materials and consistency of details from FatehpurSikri. The construction of the entire complex is made simple and standardized using exposed concrete, lattices, frames, and wall system using rough blocks of local gray granite."

Figure 115 & 116 112

IIM BANGALORE, SANJAY MOHE The IIM Bangalore campus, originally designed by B V Doshi, gets a new centre. Designed by Sanjay Mohe of Chandavarkar& Thacker, it has an identity of its own, yet harmonizes with the distinctive Doshi vision.

When we were asked to take on this project, we were honoured to be asked to do something in an area with such a prestigious, strong architectural heritage,’ says Architect Sanjay Mohe, who headed the team responsible for designing the Nadathur S Raghavan Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning for IIM Bangalore. The team was enthused by the fact that they had been called upon to expand on the work of none other than guru and mentor, Balakrishna V Doshi, known for his ‘deft sketching and translation of even the most abstruse and abstract spaces, and giving them a concrete form with fluent mastery’. Doshi’s buildings emerge as a simple statement of natural contours which Sanjay Mohe’s team wished to emulate.

Over twenty years in the making, each phase has helped to add new dimensions to the flexibility of the 5,400 square metre campus. In continuation of its undulating form, the GIV Incubation Centre rises from the ground as a set of adjacent ‘objects’ in silent acknowledgement of Doshi’s work.

The connections along the spine are alive with the changing quality of light streaming in, illuminating the corridors, which, like internal streets, make their way through covered and semi-covered pergolas, prompting visitors to pause and ponder.

Large double and triple height spaces, built of stone and exposed concrete, the basic material used throughout, make a powerful impact. ‘Since a strong architectural language had already been established, we wanted to do something that was sympathetic to the development of the area,’ said Sanjay.

113

Interestingly, though the stone walls are not physically related, Sanjay had wanted an earth-born magnetism between the existing building and the new structure, which he did by using an over-lapping design with an unusual isoclinal formation. For people using the spaces, this energizing link provides an ambience conducive to creative thinking, which is just what budding entrepreneur required to structure a new venture.

From wherever one stands, one can see open courtyards at different levels with seating around the periphery, which makes for ideal sit-outs and a break from office spaces. Some of the trees, which had been preserved, now find themselves within the walls of the building, expressing the environmental concerns of the architect. A wide, exposed concrete stairway leading to the upper floors seems to hang suspended over the space, the effect enhanced by voids on either side. Natural light streaks in from skylights, which run the length of the ceiling on the east and west sides, adding to the floating effect of the stairway.

Figure 117 & 118 114

REFERENCES

1.

Built to Meet Needs – Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture, Paul Oliver.

2.

Thematic Spaces in Indian Architecture, Kulbhushan Jain.

3.

Architecture – Conceptual to the manifest, Kulbhushan Jain.

4.

Concept of Spaces in Indian Architecture, Yatin Pandya.

5.

Elements of Space Making, Yatin Pandya.

6.

Architecture without Architects, Rudofsky Bernard.

7.

Vernacular Traditions – Contemporary Architecture, Aishwarya Tipnis.

8.

Vistara – Architecture of India.

9.

Architectural Regionalism – Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity & Tradition, Vincent Canizaro.

10.

Architecture in India since 1990, Rahul Mehrotra.

11.

SPADE Research Magazine, SIRCLE, Samira Rathod.

12.

Made in India, Wiley.

13.

Architecture and Contemporary Indian Identity, Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra and Prasad Shetty.

14.

Underlying Ethos in Indian Architecture Critical Regionalism in the age of Globalisation, Shaji Panicker and Michael Ostwald.

115

116