Vol 26 | Issue 2 | November 2023
23
www.asa-inc.org.au
Editorial Australian Steel Mill Services Provide New Slag-Based Test Pads to the Illawarra 4. High Slag Volume Based Concrete 5. Report Suggests Construction Industry Should Embrace Green Concrete for Climate Goals 6. Australian Materials Company Incorporates Slag in Record Breaking International Tunnel Project 7. How Steel Plays a Valuable Role in a Circular Economy 8. European Organisations Combine to Research Low Carbon Products 9. Vanadium Recovery Project Fed by Slag 10. Standards Australia Hope to Increase Uptake in Slag Produced 11. Astec Develops Retreatment Screening Solution for Nickel Slag 12. Concrete Institute Of Australia Roadshow 13. Write for Connections
Connections Editorial Team | October 2023 Edition
CONTENTS
THIS ISSUE
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Connections is published by the ASA The Australasian (Iron & Steel) Slag Association Phone: 02 4258 0160 Web: www.asa-inc.org.au
Fax: 02 4258 0169 Email: info@asa-inc.org.au
Executive Director: Craig Heidrich Editor: Ben Grant Contributors: Sam Patane, Ben Grant, Benjamin Muscat, Chanie Tennakoon & Craig Heidrich Connections is a biannual publication with an online circulation of 1500 copies
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EDITORIAL Welcome back to the second and final i sue of ASA Connections for 2023! Since our previous Connections edition, the Australian Slag Association has been busy keeping up with the latest innovations in slag-based products & services. We begin this issue of Connections with one of key members, Illawarra based company Australian Steel Mill Services providing new slagbased test pads to local organisations. These sustainable products offer quality substitutes to natural materials and help to support a circular economy. Dr. Chani Tennakoon, Technical Manager at Independent Cement & Lime, has composed an article based on two case studies which utilised concrete with 65% slag blended cement. We thank Chani for her valuable contribution to this edition of Connections and appreciate her for allowing us to share her findings with our membe s. Moving to the East Coast of Australia, Brisbane-based engineering & project management consultancy Hatch, reports that the construction industry should embrace cleaner alternatives to traditional concrete in order to reach climate goals. Shifting our focus to the UK, a London Power Tunnel Project has achieved a record-breaking continuous pour of cement-free concrete in which blast furnace slag and an Australian materials company were predominant figures. The cement-free solution used in the pour was developed by Australian construction material company Wagners. As we head towards 2050 and the target of Net Zero, we look at the vital role that steel and slag play in creating a circular economy and lowering the rate of CO2 emissions. A Dublin-based user of ground granulated blast furnace slab, Ecocem, has partnered with Cemex France to begin trials of reduced-carbon products at 10 of Cemex’s ready-mix plants. The goal of this partnership is to offer ‘low-carbon’ mixes throughout France and other European markets. A vanadium recovery project will begin in 2026, with Perth located Neometals announcing the signing of a binding offtake agreement, which will see Novana Oy exclusively sell and deliver high-purity vanadium-bearing products to Glencore International. A publication from Standards Australia has outlined new requirements and guidance for the design & construction for the design and construction of geopolymer concrete (GPC). The document includes the advantages of GPC, and why it is a suitable alternative to traditional Portland Cement. Finally, we look at a nickel mine in New Caledonia, which has crafted a unique technique for recycling nickel slag. The Australasian (iron and steel) Slag Association would like to say a massive thank you to our members for their support and contributions to this edition of Connections. Connections would not be possible without our members, and we look forward to reporting on your stories in 2024!
Sam Patane Sam Patane Editor
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ASMS PROVIDE NEW SLAG-BASED TEST PADS TO THE ILLAWARRA Australian Steel Mill Services (ASMS) supplies sustainable, slag-based pavements and civil materials in the Illawarra. ASMS is investing in further research and development of sustainable pavements to support a circular economy and provide a high-quality alternative to quarried natural materials. In line with this, ASMS in collaboration with the University of Wollongong (UOW) recently undertook initial field trials for two prospective road base materials as a proving exercise before seeking application to public roads. ASMS excavated and replaced an existing car park between the administration and laboratory buildings at ASMS grounds in Port Kembla, under a field trial project. Placement and testing were devised to follow Transport for NSW (TfNSW) 3051 and R73 specifications. In addition to this, settlement pegs and pressure sensors were placed in the field trial pads to capture any volumetric instability and stress-strain behaviour. To begin with, a common 200mm deep layer of ASMS’s slag based ABF222 20mm subbase product was placed over the existing subgrade. From there, a 200mm deep base course of RBX800 was placed as the western pad. The eastern pad was constructed as a 200mm deep base course of a 70% Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag (BOFS) and 30% Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) blend as proposed by UOW. The RBX800 is the standard grade of ASMS’s prospective nextgeneration road base material intended to replace ASMS’s widely used 80:20 road base material, the RBM800. The RBX utilises a small amount of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) fine sand to supply free lime to the cementing reactions, removing the need for lime in the binder without decreasing the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) performance,
Compared to ASMS’s current RBM800 product. With the removal of lime from the binder, this would make ASMS’s road base material 100% free of quarried material, further reducing any environmental footprint of the material. The UOW proposed 70:30 blend was developed by UOW in collaboration with ASMS. The blend has a high BOFS content, with GBFS added to stabilise the volumetric instabilities of BOFS – making it suitable for the development as a sustainable pavement. Preliminary work indicates that the expansion reactions that cause the BOFS to be unstable in bound applications can be redirected into cementing reactions between the free lime present in BOFS with silica and alumina in GBFS particles. These reactions not only reduce the swelling in BOFS, but also provide strength to the pavement. Following three months of monitoring, volumetric instability is well within the AustRoads guidelines, with apparent expansion in base course layers at about 0.5% for the UOW and ASMS combined 70:30 base, and approximately 0.01% for the RBX800 pad. Monitoring will continue with data used to support consideration for trialling the pavements in public roads.
IMAGES: Figure 3 Optical microscopic images of the specimen, a) before conducting the swell test and b) after conducting the swell test.
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HIGH SLAG VOLUME BASED CONCRETE The current trend in construction involves an increasing use of high slag volume-based concrete. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) has proven to be a highly effective material in producing concrete with an extended service life. This is primarily due to the substantial benefits it offers in enhancing concrete durability. •
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Reduced Permeability: GGBFS plays a crucial role in reducing the permeability of concrete, The additional cementitious compounds formed through GGBFS react with calcium hydroxide. making it less susceptible to the penetration of water, aggressive chemicals, and harmful substances Since GGBFS consumes the calcium hydroxide and there is not enough calcium hydroxide in concrete pore solution to react with Sulphate ions/ reactive silica as a result expansive reaction in concrete is reduced. Lower Heat of Hydration: Compared to general-purpose cement, GGBFS exhibits a lower heat of hydration. Incorporating GGBFS in concrete aids in minimizing the heat generated during the curing process, leading to improved durability and reduced risks of thermal-related issues. Enhanced Protection against Reinforcement Corrosion: GGBFS creates an environment with reduced oxygen around the reinforcement, providing protection against corrosion (references)
To achieve durable cementitious blends, a common practice is to use 65% GGBFS in concrete projects. Many successful projects have implemented this proportion of GGBFS, showcasing its effectiveness. The two projects listed below utilized concrete with 65% slag blended cement.
SILO D, MELBOURNE CEMENT FACILITY, PORT MELBOURNE The joint venture between ICL and Cement Australia, known as MCF, is set to install the largest cement silo ever constructed in Melbourne. This remarkable silo consists of multiple compartments, providing a storage capacity of 45,000 tonnes for cement and cementitious products. Notably, the construction of Silo D has incorporated various sustainable construction methods. In particular, a significant portion of the structure was developed using a higher proportion of supplementary cementitious materials. The concrete mix designs utilized for the pile caps incorporated 65% Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) to effectively reduce the heat of hydration during the curing process. This specific design choice aimed to achieve resistance in the challenging marine environment, ensuring the long-term performance and durability of the silo. The use of higher GGBFS and the careful selection of concrete mix designs contributed to reducing the environmental impact while maintaining the structural integrity of Silo D. VRM FOUNDATION, STEELCEMENT, VICTORIA Steelcement, a division of Independent Cement and Lime, is a leading producer of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) for the Victorian concrete market. Their plant is equipped with a state-of-the art Vertical Roller Mill (VRM) and has an annual production capacity of approximately 400,000 tonnes of slag. Ground granulated blast furnace slag plays a significant role in enhancing the sustainability of concrete construction. ABOVE: Silo D project Port Melbourne Victoria In the construction of the foundation for the VRM, a concrete blend consisting of 65% slag and 35% General Purpose (GP) blended cement was utilized. This specific blend successfully achieved the target of lower heat of hydration during the initial stages of concrete curing. BELOW LEFT: VRM Foundation BELOW RIGHT: Completed VRM Project.
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REPORT SUGGESTS CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SHOULD EMBRACE GREEN CONCRETE FOR CLIMATE GOALS Hatch: A global engineering and project management consultancy that specialises in big mining and minerals, infrastructure and energy projects which use huge amounts of concrete, and the consultancy is keen to investigate ways they could make their work more sustainable. Hatch, a Brisbane-based global engineering and project management consultancy has found that using greater amounts of green concrete could soon spearhead Australia’s action on climate change, but that is only if conservative construction industry attitudes shift.
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The construction industry emits 40% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, with 8% of these emissions coming from concrete production and installation. The Hatch report found that green concrete would save about 17 million tonnes of Australia’s annual 500 million tonnes of carbon emissions if we substituted it for half the traditional concrete the country uses, which Dr. Ezgi Kaya states is “Equal to removing four million cars from our roads”.
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Dr. Kaya says that Australia has a high potential for using green concrete, due to an abundance of fly ash and slag as recycled aggregates – which can be used as opposed to traditional aggregates and cement, making the production of green concrete increasingly environmentally friendly. Major suppliers of concrete in Australia such as Hanson and Holcim each offer a form of low-carbon concrete with a lower level of Portland cement, which is supplemented with other ingredients. Companies such as Wagner’s and Zeobond manufacture geopolymer concrete without any cement, achieving a carbon dioxide reduction of up to 80%. Additional benefits for green concrete, as noted in the report, include:
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Greater durability and less maintenance: green concrete has a longer life because of its resistance to shrinking and cracking. Greater fir resistance: green concrete often needs fewer coatings required by some conventional concretes to improve durability and fir resistance. Better insulating properties: Less energy is needed for heating and cooling a building made with green concrete. Less waste: green concrete uses recycled materials that could otherwise go to landfill
Dr. Kaya and Farquhar believe that the priority is to incorporate new standards for green concrete into the general AS3600 concrete standard. “I’m aware that Standards Australia intends to extend the current concrete standard to adopt green concrete options, and I’m hoping this is just a matter of time that we’ll soon have standards incorporating green concrete options soon including geopolymer concrete,” Farquhar said. “To me this is just the beginning if we want to stay on this planet. Engineers are being conservative, although the tech has been around for about two decades.” Green concrete’s cost to make has fallen and is set to fall even further. Projects in airports such as Toowoomba, Amsterdam and Dubai have used green concrete. Along with this, Wagner’s reported that their use saved close to 100 tonnes of embodied carbon, equivalent to carbon dioxide absorption by 95 acres of forest per year. “As Australia pushes towards a sustainable future, adoption of green concrete is a crucial step in achieving decarbonisation goals. By embracing this innovative and environmentally friendly construction material, Australia can not only reduce its carbon footprint – but also create a more sustainable and resilient built environment,” Dr. Kaya says. Dr. Kaya’s report is available on request from Hatch Australia.
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AUSTRALIAN MATERIALS COMPANY ACHIEVES RECORD-BREAKING MILESTONE WHILST INCORPORATING SLAG IN INTERNATIONAL TUNNEL PROJECT Wagners, a company specialising in construction materials and services for both Australian and international markets, was founded in 1989 in Toowoomba, Queensland and offer a wide range of construction materials and services, including cement, concrete, aggregates, bulk haulage services, precast concrete, and reinforcing steel. Wagners' New Generation Building Materials division is dedicated to creating environmentally friendly and high-performance materials, such as eco-friendly concrete, aimed at minimising the ecological impact of construction. This Project achieved a record-breaking continuous pour of cement-free concrete in which blast furnace slag and an Australian materials company (Wagners) where prevalent fig res as National Grid is currently undertaking a major 1-billion-pound initiative to rewire London with the replacement of ageing high voltage cables typically laid close to street level, with the new cables buried deep underground. The project made history by successfully pouring 736 cubic meters of eco-friendly cement into the base of a 55-meter-deep tunnel drive shaft at National Grid's Hurst substation in South London. This cement-free solution developed by Wagners, utilises a binder composed of ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash geopolymer concrete, activated with industrial waste products instead of traditional cement. Incorporating slag-cement as a supplement in concrete offers higher strength, reduced permeability and improved resistance to chemical attack. Additionally, as a recycled material, its production requires far less energy and natural resources than the conventional cement it partially replaces. This revolutionary concrete significantly reduces carbon emissions, cutting them by approximately 64%, which equates to saving an estimated 111kg of carbon dioxide per cubic meter poured, compared to conventional concrete. As a result, this pour alone helped save an estimated 82 tonnes of carbon dioxide. Onur Aydemir, Director of the National Grid Project expressed his commitment to innovation and stated that the company would be exploring the potential for deploying this technology in future projects across the UK.
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HOW STEEL AND SLAG PLAY A VALUABLE ROLE IN A CIRCULAR ECONOMY Via Infrabuild: Infrabuild is known for their extensive network of recycling centres, which contribute about 1.4 million tonnes of recycled metals a year into their steel making operations. Infrabuild reuses and repurposes their slag co-products, and produces approximately 130,000 tonnes of slag every year, doing everything possible to use their slag in sustainable way's so none is wasted. The Infrabuild slag is produced by steel making operations before being crushed, screened, tested and approved for use in various construction applications – such as being used as a resurfacing material for Albert Park’s Formula 1 circuit. Steel is everywhere in our society, used in our transport system, hospitals, schools, buildings, and much more. It will continue to play a role as we move forward into the future, and is predicted to increase even further by 2050 as we utilise steel’s greatest quality – its recyclability. Steel can not only be recycled to make new steel, but can also be upcycled to produce a higher quality of steel. The main way this is done is through an electric arc furnace-based steelmaking process, a process in which steel manufacturers all over the world are transitioning towards as the industry globally pursues a decarbonised future. Operations in these processes include recycling, manufacturing, and distribution & processing. As this process continues to be adopted on a wide scale, demand for recyclable scrap metals are continuing to grow. Infrabuild’s recycling sites for example have scrap metals sourced by local
recycling solutions from households, local government, mining, along with a range of other areas. These facilities in 2022 recovered 1.4 million tonnes of recycled materials across Australia, and these pieces of scrap metal are used to produce steel billets which are used to manufacture steel products for a wide variety of applications. This circularity of operations embraces the concept of a circular economy, and lead to several sustainability and environmental benefits Recycling and reusing steel and slag in operations diverts these different materials from landfills whilst producing essential products for construction, as well as reducing the need for mining and quarrying natural rock. Reducing landfill and utilising all of the materials we have in an economy is sure to benefit sustainability and enhance progress towards net zero in 2050.
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EUROPEAN ORGANISATIONS COMBINE TO RESEARCH LOW CARBON PRODUCTS Ecocem, a Dublin-based user of ground granulated blast furnace slag as a partial substitute for traditional cement, has agreed to a deal and partnership to carry out research into lower carbon construction products. Ecocem has linked up with Cemex France to begin trials of reducedcarbon products at 10 of Cemex’s ready-mix plants. The aim of the trial is to be able to offer ‘low carbon’ mixes throughout France and other European markets.
The company uses ground granulated blast furnace slag as a substitute for traditional cement. In doing this, it reduces the need to burn limestone to make clinker, Portland cement’s basic ingredient.
The President of Cemex France stated “We know that if we are to achieve our global ambition of operating as a Net Zero business by 2050, we must prioritise exploring innovation and new technologies with like-minded companies who share our dedication to leading the industry’s transition to a lower carbon and circular economy.”
Founder of Ecocem, Donal O’Riain said “Cemex has been a key partner for Ecocem since the inception of our business in France. Combining our strengths has huge potential to make considerable progress in suppling lower carbon cementitious material for use in lower carbon concrete. It is only through working together we will make the progress needed to achieve decarbonisation targets.”
Cemex, one of the world’s largest producers of traditional cement products, says it wants to get below 430kg of carbon dioxide per tonne of cementitious products by 2030, reducing the carbon dioxide levels by 47% and reducing the carbon content of its concrete mixes by 35%.
This partnership is sure to increase the prevalence of carbonreduced cement through practices such as using ground granulated blast furnace slag in the mix.
Ecocem has developed and delivered 20 million tonnes of low carbon cement in a range of formats, preventing 16 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions from ever being produced.
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VANADIUM RECOVERY PROJECT FED BY SLAG Perth-based Neometals says that indirectly-owned subsidiary Novana Oy and Glencore International have penned an offtake agreement to lock in the exclusive sale of battery metal vanadium – an agreement where Glencore will buy all the vanadium product which has been sourced from Finnish steel slag. Glencore will buy the all high-purity product as vanadium pentoxide, sourced from Novana’s vanadium recovery project (VRP) – which refines y-products from Finnish steelmaking. The VRP will be fed by vanadium-bearing steelmaking slag obtained from Swedish steel producer SSAB, who are operating in the town of Pori on Finland’s west coast. The slag-fed vanadium product will provide many different opportunities for different products to be brought to life. It is now used as a component in rechargeable fl w batteries tasked with storing large amounts of power, typically from renewable energy sources – and is widely viewed as an up and coming industrial solution for renewable providers looking to scale up operations. The safe, non-flammable and stable chemistry of the vanadium electrolyte creates a far lower risk profile than ther battery storage technologies, making the batteries self-contained and transportable.
Energy is stored within the electrolyte – which never degrades, even under continuous maximum power and depth of discharge cycling. These batteries have no limit on charge capacity and can remain discharged indefini ely without damage. Vanadium can also be used in treatments for medical conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, and high cholesterol – as well as being used in the cathodes of batteries for implantable defibrilla ors. As Neometals enter the battery-metal recycling space, the market will no doubt watch this space. This project also showcases the versatility that slag can provide, and how it contributes to solutions even further than concrete mixes in construction.
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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA HOPE TO INCREASE UPTAKE IN SLAG PRODUCED Standards Australia has responded to industry calls to provide requirements and guidance for the design and construction of geopolymer concrete (GPC) building structures and members that contain reinforcing steel, tendons, or both – with the publication of the Technical Specification Document SA TS 199:2023, Design of geopolymer and alkali-activated binder concrete structures. The document intends to outline new requirements for the design and construction of GPC, highlighting the advantages of its properties which may make the concrete a suitable alternative to traditional ordinary Portland Cement – especially considering its cost-effectiveness and sustainability benefits
Through the introduction of this new document, Standards Australia hopes to increase the uptake of GPC in construction by increasing awareness of its use within the engineering community as well as developing and maintaining standards to support use of this material.
GPC differs from traditional Portland Cement mainly through the binder that is used for both. GPC is produced by reacting aluminosilicate materials like blast furnace slag with an alkali activator – resulting in the formation of an alkali aluminosilicate gel for low calcium binders, or a combination of this gel and calcium silicate hydrate when there is enough calcium in the binder.
This GPC, which utilises blast furnace slag, has been used for two pedestrian bridges in Cowies Creek, Victoria to support a project brief that stipulated using materials with a low carbon footprint. This bridge has seen a greater resistance to different chemicals and can withstand the impacts of acidic soils and has a design life of 100 years, with minimal maintenance required.
Traditional Portland cement on the other hand is made by hydrating the calcium silicate to form calcium silicate hydrate gel. This difference between the two contributes to the unique properties and benefits of GPC ver traditional cement.
Projects like these showcase the ability and potential of slagutilised GPC in transforming the construction industry and building a greater and more sustainable future.
The main advantages of GPC over traditional cement include sustainability, utilising steel-making by-products to reduce landfill, and increasing the versatility of the materials with durability that extends to extremities of both hot and cold climates.
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ASTEC DEVELOPS RETREATMENT SCREENING SOLUTION FOR NICKEL SLAG A nickel mine in New Caledonia is becoming more creative in how they commercialise their material. SLN, which operates a nickel smelter and several mines in New Caledonia – has established a unique method for recycling nickel slag, with the assistance of mining contractor Salmon NC and mining equipment supplier Astec. Salmon NC’s CEO Chris Salmon turned to Astec when it came to finding the speciality equipment needed to re-process the nickel slag. Salmon was in touch with Astec and before too long, Astec’s high frequency screening equipment had arrived in New Caledonia. The Astec high frequency screen has 10 vibrators that directly induce vibration into the bed of material at between 36004200 revolutions per minute to ensure increased probability of stratification and ma erial separation.
The screen was delivered to New Caledonia last November and has been processing large volumes of material ever since. The process involves feeding stockpiled nickel slag through a static grid to remove larger agglomerates before it reached the highfrequency screen, which then refines the product into a usable material. As the demand for minerals increases amid growing decarbonisation, Astec is continuing to develop innovative technologies to continue to help customers find new markets for their products.
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CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA
ROADSHOW LOWER CARBON ALTERNATIVE BINDER CONCRETE
With the current focus on sustainable concrete construction solutions, the use of alternative binders in concrete has been an area of research, development, testing and discussion for some time. However, with the recent release of the Australian Standard document TS199 “Design of geopolymer and alkali-activated binder concrete” there is now a specific guideline for the industry to design and specify Lower Carbon Alternative Binder Concrete in a practical way to respond to some of the challenges posed by traditional cement and concrete, and to help reduce the carbon footprint of the construction industry. The Concrete Institute of Australia has stated that they are thrilled to announce the National Roadshow on Lower Carbon Alternative Binder Concrete. Two highly regarded industry experts in Professor Stephen Foster and Dr James Aldred will be presenting on this highly topical subject, with specific reference to the new Standards Australia TS 199 document, and to discuss further developments that are taking place in this sector. Join the CIA from the 27th November to the 7th of December in 5 different states to gain valuable insights and learn how to implement this exciting technology:
SYDNEY: Monday 27th, November BRISBANE: Tuesday 28th, November MELBOURNE: Monday 4th, December ADELAIDE: Tuesday 5th, December PERTH: Thursday 7th, December
The invited speakers - Professor Stephen Foster (UNSW) and Dr James Aldred (Future Concrete) will present on the following topics: Design procedures and structural considerations when using geopolymer or alkali activated binder concrete in accordance with AS TS 199 - Presented by Professor Stephen Foster Synopsis: The recently released SA TS 199:2023 “Design of geopolymer and alkali activated binder concrete (GPC and AABC) structures” provides requirements and guidance for the design and construction of alternative binder concrete building structures and members that contain reinforcing steel or tendons, or both. This presentation looks at how GPC and AABC structures can be designed for ultimate strength and serviceability limit states as set out in AS/NZS 1170.0 and AS 3600. The models developed AS TS 199 for predicting deformation due to shrinkage and creep of GPC and AABC will also be discussed. Material properties of geopolymer or alkali activated binder concrete. Presented by Dr James Aldred Synopsis: There are many different geopolymer and alkali activated binder concrete (GPC and AABC) systems available with a wide range of material properties. AS TS 199:2023 provides guidance on both systems that achieve their hardened properties at ambient temperature and systems that are heat cured. GPC and AABC have been the subject of much research and offer alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) based concrete in a variety of applications. Potential benefits of concrete may include improved chemical resistance and reduced CO2 impact. This presentation discusses the mechanical and durability properties of GPC and AABC and the recommended performance requirements for their use in building structures and members designed to AS/NZS 1170.0 and AS 3600. Some practical considerations when using these alternative binders are presented as well as examples of structures and members constructed with GPC and AABC. We hope that you can join us for this valuable seminar that will assist all designers, specifi rs, constructors, researchers, and suppliers in working towards a consistent pathway towards carbon neutral concrete.
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WE NEED YOUR CONTENT
Connections is produced twice a year for the benefit of ASA members and before each publication is drafted, an email is sent to all members urging them to contribute their stories. The types of content we are looking for include:
NEW DEVELOPMENTS AND TECHNOLOGIES NEW PROJECTS
NEW EMPLOYEES We also have a Member Profile section, which is open to all member companies for contributions on behalf of the business in general, or a specific employee. So if you have an idea or content that you think might make an interesting article, get in contact with the Association today:
publications@asa-inc.org.au
SUBSCRIBE TO www.asa-inc.org.au Views expressed in Connections newsletter do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Australasian Slag Association. All contributions are welcomed, though the publisher reserves the right to decline or edit for style grammar, length and legal reasons.
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