Forum: The United Nations Historical General Assembly Issue: Apartheid, 1989 Student Officer (Chair): Brian Wong “Never, never, and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression of one by another.” - Nelson Mandela (Tata), 1918-2013 "It is our responsibility to break down barriers of division and create a country where there will be neither Whites nor Blacks, just South Africans, free and united in diversity." - Oliver Tambo, 1917-1993 Description of Committee The Historical General Assembly’s mission is to examine a variety of historical events that have previously affected the United Nations during their peak points or crises. The topic of Apartheid examined here falls largely in the year of 1989 (when the 6 th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly was called on the matter), but can date back to the beginnings of the Apartheid after World War II. The point of the committee is not about emulating or replicating historical decisions made by the UN (though in this particular issue, the UN was certainly worth referencing), but to identify more effective and potentially reconciliatory solutions than the ones provided by history. Though employing and analysing historical conditions are both crucial processes, the committee ultimately aims to resolve unjustified ethnic suppression through a balance of historical awareness and prudent reflection. Historical understanding is essential up to the UN meeting in December 2004, but delegates need not concern themselves over modeling events thereafter. Given the dynamic and versatile nature of South African politics, this committee aims to provide delegates a deeper understanding of the history that has preceded this nation. Nelson Mandela’s death in December 2013 no doubt makes this topic all the more relevant.
Context The Apartheid was a mechanism of racial segregation in South Africa entrenched through laws passed by the National Party government, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants were suppressed by the Afrikaner minority rule. Initiated under Dutch colonial rule, Apartheid was formally consolidated after the general election of 1948, with legislation classifying the nation’s inhabitants into four racial groups: white, coloured, Indian, and black. Coloured and Indian individuals were further divided into several sub-classes. Residential areas were segregated: between 1960 and 1983, over 3.5 million non-White South Africans were mass-removed. Citizenships of
black people were revoked in 1940, as they became citizens of tribally based homelands named bantustans. Education, medical care, beaches, and various other public services were offered at a separate and inferior manner to those of white people. As internal resistance pervaded and became increasingly militarised, the state responded with rising violence and reinforced repression. By 1978, the gap of inequality between the Caucasian and black populations was thus wide that a black infant was 20 times as likely to die prematurely, the average black African earned less than 10% than a Caucasian: the social problems were pressingly conspicuous.
Background History In 1652, the first South African slave owner Jan van Riebeeck set up a refreshment station in what would later become Cape Town, and requested for the exploitative labour. The first slave, named van Batavia, arrived in 1653, thus unravelling the two hundred years of slavery history in the nation’s history. By 1657 there were ten slaves in the settlement, out of a total population of 144. 500 slaves arrived within the next five months, consolidating the enslavement of impoverished nationals of countries such as Mauritania and Southwest Africa. In 1797, the Dutch colonial governing authority extended pass laws that mandated that all slaves were to carry passes - a legal change affirmed by the British Colonial government via the Hottentot Proclamation, which created an active link between the slave and his master. The black Khoikhoi population was to be granted passes for the sole purpose of seeking work. As a pivotal moment in its abolition movement, the UK’s Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 put an end to and admonished the suppressive exploitation of labour. However, to circumvent the laws the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835, which superficially altered the status of slaves to indentured labourers; the indenture system had little distinctions from slavery. Numerous South African colonies passed legislation to limit the freedom of unskilled workers, as well as increasing the restrictions on workers and regulating interracial relations. During World War II, the United Party government began moving away from the rigorous enforcement of segregationist laws. However, the Sauer Commission was established to investigate the effects of the party’s policies, amidst fears that integration would lead to racial assimilation. The commission concluded that integration would result in a “loss of personality” for all racial groups. In the run-up to the 1948 elections, the primary Afrikaner nationalist party (Reunited National Party) campaigned on the policy of apartheid under the Protestant Daniel Francis Malan. A coalition government was formed with another Afrikaner nationalist party; Malan became the first apartheid prime minister, leading the two parties that later merged into the National Party.
Reasoning that the distinct racial groups in South Africa were to be maintained in order to maintain the cultural and demographic equilibrium of the nation, the state established laws that paved the path for “Grand Apartheid” - which was focused on the separation of races on a macro-scale through forced relocation. “Petty Apartheid” laws were passed as a subsidiary, monitoring the day-to-day interactions between the races. The first grand apartheid law consisted of the Population Registration Act in 1950, which institutionalised racial stratification and called for racial labels for all individuals over the age of 18. Families were separated as members were allocated different races by official teams of “professionals”. This was closely followed by the second principle of Grand Apartheid, as exemplified by the Group Areas Act in 1950, which terminated diverse neighbourhoods and allocated living space and area according to race. Compelled removal took place through this, and was further legitimised by the 1951 Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, which enabled the government to demolish black shanty town slums. Under the 1953 Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, social grounds and venues were separated based on racial grounds. Public areas such as park benches were limited to only white access. Blacks were offered services significantly more inferior in comparison to what whites, Indians, and even coloured people were provided. Social segregation was further entrenched by the 1953 Bantu Education Act, which was programmed to train black people for lives in the working class. Separate universities were created in the late 1950s in compliance with the ban on existing universities from enrolling new black students. The successor of Malan - J.G. Strijdom - moved onto stripping voting rights from the black residents of the Cape Province. Four voters challenged the legitimacy of the Separate Representation of Voters Bill into Parliament; the act was upheld by the Cape Supreme Court, though it was rendered invalid by an Appeal Court ruling that found the act unconstitutional. The government then introduced the High Court of Parliament Bill 1952, which was nonetheless declared invalid. The Black Homeland Citizenship Act in 1970 marked a new phase in the government’s strategy. By altering the status of blacks to citizens of one of the ten autonomous territories, the act aimed to ensure a demographic majority of white people in South Africa by granting independence to all ten territories - the Bantustans. In 1974, the resistance to apartheid developed under Portugal’s withdrawal from Angola and Mozambique. The failure of South African troops in Angola in early 1976 was a subject of celebration amongst the black students in the nation. The tide began turning upon the signing of the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith of 1974, which advocated the principles of the peaceful transition of power and equality for all. The act’s purpose was to provide the blueprint for South Africa to achieve racial peace in a diverse society, emphasising equal opportunities via a Bill of Rights. It also led to a split in the United Party that eventually realigned opposition politics in South Africa. The 1978 Botha regime was concerned about the USSR’s involvement in the region, and was
thus attempting to re-stimulate the stagnant economy. The labour of blacks remained vital to the economy; illegal black labour unions were flourishing as many blacks were too impoverished to contribute much to the consumption in the economy. Botha was adamant that a fix was introduced to prevent Communism from spreading within the nation. In the 1980s, the anti-Apartheid movements in the US and Europe gained significant traction. US firms were pressurised to withdraw from South Africa; Mandela’s release was demanded. South Africa was becoming an outlawed subject of shame in the community of nations: the active policy of disinvestment brought Apartheid to the front stage of global politics.
Definitions of Key Terms and Acronyms African National Congress (ANC) - Founded in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress, the ANC was banned in 1960 by the Apartheid government for its work on eliminating racial oppression. Its underground activities had been based on a premise of armed resistance since 1961, pursuing the Spear of the Nation movement. Africanisation - The transferal of menial labour in domestic and industrial areas to blacks triggered by working class whites, who petitioned for greater job security under economic fluctuations. Bantu Education - An educational system designed for Africans to fit their narrowly determined role as the bottom class of the Apartheid society. Designed by H.F. Verwoerd, the system was created alongside the Bantu Education Act of 1953, which placed the apartheid government in charge of African education; funding was removed from the general government budget and instead directly linked to the taxes paid by the impoverished Africans. Bantustan - Ethically defined regions for African established on the basis of the principle of “Native Reserves”. The regions constituted 13% of the nation’s territory, but were to given self-government and independence in order to deny Africans their rights to citizenship in “white South Africa”. 3.5 million Africans were removed to the Batustans through violent force. Civil Disobedience - Non-violent actions that refused to obey unjust laws in order to change government legislation without resorting to violence Grand Apartheid - The government policy of the 1960s and 1970s that aimed to segregate the nation in white “South Africa” and African “homelands”. Africans were deprived of their citizenship rights and relegated to rural reserves.
National Party (NP) - The Afrikaner nationalist party that won the 1948 elections and ushered in apartheid. Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) - An organisation founded in 1959 in a split from the ANC, the PAC rejected the ANC’s non-racial policies and endeavoured to promote African Nationalism with more mass action. Its militant wing, Pogo, worked in exile and underground within South Africa. Total Strategy - A policy of the apartheid regime developed in the late 1970s under the Botha leadership, it aimed to respond to the alleged “total onslaught� by Commmunists and the international opposition to the Apartheid. Military campaigns and armed force were used to repress dissent in the region and nation.
Important Individuals and Groups Attributing guilt and praise to individuals, in what was certainly one of the worst civil rights abuses of the 20th century, requires an understanding of the key actors that shaped the proceedings of the Apartheid and the movement against it. Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary who had been imprisoned for over twenty years by the regime, and was still in captivity in the Victor Verster Prison at the time of this historical conference. As an African nationalist and democratic socialist, Mandela was involved in anti-colonial politics through his participation in the ANC - he rose to prominence through the Youth League and Defiance Campaign, and was later chosen to preside over the 1955 Congress of the People. As a Marxist lawyer, he was repeatedly prosecuted, prompting him to co-found the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961. Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Desmond Tutu (1931-) was the Bishop of Lesotho from 1976 until 1978, when he was appointed as the Secretary-General of the South African Council Of Churches. Through his writings and lecturers against Apartheid, Tutu advocated reconciliation between all parties involved in the oppression. Often comparing Apartheid to Nazism, Tutu pushed, through his international reputation and advocacy of non-violence, for the protection of the civil rights of Africans. Tutu denounced both communism and terrorism. Pieter Willem Botha (1916-2006) was the leader of South Africa from 1978 to 1989, serving as an outspoken opponent of black majority rule and communism. In 1985, Botha expressed a firm refusal to give in to demands by the black population - e.g. the release of Mandela. This further isolated South Africa, leading to economic sanctions. However, his regime did concede to certain political reforms. This was in spite of the widespread abuses of human rights resulting from internal unrest. Botha resigned party leadership in February 1989.
Frederik Willem de Klerk (1936-) was the seventh and last President of Apartheid South Africa, serving from September 1989 to May 1994. As the leader of the National Party, de Klerk was named acting state president upon Botha’s abrupt resignation in August. In September, he was elected to a full five-year term as state president. De Klerk’s first speech after taking on leadership called for a non-racist South Africa and negotiations about the country’s future. The President removed the ban on the African National Congress and released Mandela. Bringing Apartheid to an end, de Klerk opened South Africa to the drafting of a new constitution. Umkhonto we Sizwe (also known as “Spear of the Nation”) was the armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC), co-founded by Mandela after the Sharpeville Massacre. The organisation stood for the belief that the ANC could no longer limit itself to nonviolent protest; it launched its first guerrilla attacks against the government in 1961, and was subsequently classified as a terrorist organisation by the South African government. The Organisation of African Unity was established in 1963, with the primary objectives being the eradication of colonialism and the improvements of sociopolitical and economic situations in Africa. The Organisation opposed Apartheid and demanded sanctions against South Africa. In 1969, the Lusaka Manifesto was formulated by fourteen African nations; it was later signed by all of the countries in attendance apart from Malawi.
Timeline of Events 1910 - The Union of South Africa was formed by the former British colonies of the Cape and Natal, and the Boer Republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State. 1914 - The National Party was founded. 1918 - The Secret Broederbond was established to advance the Afrikaner cause. 1939-1945 - World War II 1948 - The Policy of Apartheid was adopted as the National Party took power. 1950 - The population was classified by race. The Group Areas Act was passed to separate blacks and whites. The banning of the Communist Party sparked retaliation from the ANC in the form of civil disobedience - led by Nelson Mandela. 1960 - 70 black demonstrators were killed at the Sharpeville Massacre, sparking international outrage.
1961 - South Africa declared its departure from the Commonwealth as Mandela led ANC’s new military wing in its sabotage campaign. 1964 - The ANC leader Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment. 1966 September - Prime Mnister Verwoerd was assassinated. 1970s - Over 3 million people were forcibly removed to black “homelands�. 1976 - The Soweto uprising resulted in more than 600 killed in the clashes. 1984-89 - A state of emergency was declared in face of township revolts. 1989 - de Klerk replaced Botha as the President. His meeting with Mandela was concurrent with the desegregation of public facilities and the freeing of many ANC activists. Delegates, you are required to debate this issue in synchronisation with historical events only up to the month of December, 1989. Beyond this point, it is up to you to redirect the flow of history through careful deliberations and discourse.
Positions of Member Nations and Other Bodies The United Nations In 1962, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 1761 in condemning the South African Apartheid. In August 1963, the UN Security Council passed the binding Resolution 181 demanding a voluntary arms embargo against South Africa (this later became mandatory with the passing of Resolution 418 in 1977); a Special Committee Against Apartheid was also established to promote plans of action against the regime. The UN held the first of its many discussions on the matter in 1966, building up to the 1971 denouncement of the homeland institution, as well as the injustice of the system itself. South Africa was only saved from being ejected from the UN due to the vested self-interests by France, the UK, and the US in the region. The UN nonetheless recognised sanctions as an effective and peaceful means of pressure. The United States All US administrations during the 1970s and 1980s disapproved of Apartheid, but equally opposed broad economic sanctions, on the basis that the sanctions would most negatively impact the African sector of the population. However, the Carter administration took on a tougher line towards Pretoria, identifying African nationalism as a primary force in the region that was aligned with US interests. The nation imposed an arms embargo on Pretoria in 1964, as a part of the international concesus in refusing
to recognise the legitimacy of four of the “independent” black homelands between 1976 and 1984. The 1983 Gramm Amendment rejected the IMF’s crediting of any Apartheid countries. Despite all this, the US was still South Africa’s second largest trading partner throughout the entire Apartheid era. The Constructive Engagement programme by the US insisted that the South African regime operated with unilateral negotiations between only the government and its opposition. (It might be worthwhile to recognise the fact that Nelson Mandela was only removed from the US’ list of terrorists in as late as… the 2000s. Food for thought.) The United Kingdom Upon South Africa’s pulling-out from the Commonwealth in 1961, the UK notably resisted the suggestion of sanctioning South Africa. This was largely due to the fact that Pretoria was one of the UK’s key trade links - especially in the gold trade. As a strategically and military important partner to the West during the times of Cold War, South Africa was never truly sanctioned or practically reprimanded by the UK. Even despite the increasing opposition and call for sanctions, the UK remained unwilling to cut its ties with the Apartheid administration. However, it was worth noticing that some of the largest anti-Apartheid organisations - e.g. the Anti-Apartheid Movement - were all heavily based in the British Isles. Canada Notwithstanding its later attempts at putting forth self-serving revisionism, Canada was in fact a large supporter of the Apartheid in South Africa. The nation provided the Pretoria regime with a model: Canada’s policy towards First Nations. South African officials regularly visited Canada to examine reserves designated to First Nations, reciprocated by the maintenance of economic trade with this former British colony. The 1961 Diefenbaker government’s lack of action was best exemplified by his refusal to cancel the 1932 Canada-South Africa trade agreement. Multi-national Companies (MNCs) The corporate disinvestment movement in South Africa saw a decline in the currency by 35% in value, resulting in an immediate financial crisis in the nation. South Africa’s key card of economic self-sufficiency was no longer in order, as the country was left economically vulnerable and dependent on the world by the late 1980s. MNCs played an important role in exerting political pressure on the government; however, certain historians might argue that the damage was more regressive to the blacks, than beneficial to the anti-Apartheid movement. Former British Colonies
Former British colonies - such as the ones in South Asia and Africa - threatened to leave the Commonwealth if South Africa remained in the nation. As members of the developing Third World and Non-Alignment Movement, these nations rejected the immoral Apartheid as an example of post-colonial racism.
Potential Issues The Issue of Closure for Victims (Compensation) The large number of victims of the Apartheid was testimony to the depravity of humanity in what was potentially the most shameful movement in the 20 th century. Another form of possible assistance from the UN by the 1980s was based on the ability of states to assist the victims of Apartheid. In fact, in 1963, this was already legitimised by a resolution calling on all states to do so. The Security Council made a similar call in 1972, as well as recognising the legitimacy of the struggle against the Apartheid. As the Apartheid began winding down in the late 1980s, the most predominant concerns were certainly the issue of resettling and compensating the victims. To what extent could justice be achieved? This is a question that all delegates must be willing and bold to take on, through resolutions that will hopefully provide economic compensation to the victims. Delegates are strongly encouraged to explore alternative methods of achieving justice, by possibly referring to the Restorative Justice mechanism that was implemented in the real world. The Issue of Social Inequality South Africa’s history was a bitter one dominated by colonial racism, Apartheid, and repressive social policies. Poverty and degradation were proliferate during the Apartheid, with a significant distortion of income. Systematically enforced racial divisions in both education and the greater economy contributed to furthering the wealth inequality. Segregation in public services destroyed the chance of any safety nets offering the minimum security in a society with appalling living standards at places. Delegates must also consider the possible solutions to the underlying waves of violence in the nation, as thousands of people were killed and removed from their homes in the dying years of the Apartheid. Moving forward - in restoring the balance; in achieving equality; in aiding the blacks whilst not depriving the whites - is something that delegates should be considering when drafting their resolutions and amendments. The Issue of Racism and Reintegration The reintegration of the victims of the Apartheid into the society no doubt had to be founded upon the basis that racism was no longer tolerated. The renouncement of racism must become a large part of any resolution concerning the Apartheid. Delegates are encouraged to consider the philosophy of various anti-Apartheid leaders - such as
Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo etc. - when making their choices on the ideological backing of their resolutions.
Questions for Debate Delegates, you might have wittily acknowledged the fact that this issue was not set in earlier time periods or eras in which the Apartheid was much more an “imminent” and “pressing” matter. This was largely because the Chair would like to see constructive solutions to the rebuilding of an extremely fragile state as the focus of the discussions in the conference. “Where can segregated Africans go?” is a question that requires delegates to consider the issue of resettlement in the light of the strife in Apartheid South Africa. What sorts of criteria must be used in determining whether the migrants were relocated within the country? Would the homelands therefore be abolished, or were they necessary in achieving social progress? How would education and rehabilitation take place? Delegates must take into account the immediate needs and demands of the displaced persons. Was Affirmative Action necessarily the right way to go in terms of addressing the pressing concerns of the Africans? Was it possible to find a solution that compromised neither party’s interests, such that the entrenched racial antagonism could actually be removed? Could the UN work more closely with Nelson Mandela in constructing a postApartheid South Africa that preserved international interests whilst championing democracy? African women in South Africa, being black, African, and female, faced triple oppression. The deterioration of their rights came with the fact that they were employed as cheap labour in the absence of able-bodied men. How could the country possibly achieve gender equality in face of such great economic gulfs? Would it be legitimate for the country to implement policies that favoured women - or would it be problematic? How was the country to deal with the booming population? How could the UN uphold its duties in a politically unstable region with a fresh scar of racial oppression? This is the ultimate question that delegates must work around in the conference. Good luck!
Further Reading and Bibliography • •
"Apartheid." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 02 Apr. 2014. Web. 04 Feb. 2014. "International Isolation and Pressure for Change in South Africa." Conciliation Resources. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Feb. 2014.
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"Reports." Effects of Apartheid on the Status of Women in South Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Feb. 2014. "South Africa Profile." BBC News. BBC, 12 Oct. 2013. Web. 05 Feb. 2014. "The History of Apartheid in South Africa." The History of Apartheid in South Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Feb. 2014. Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. Boston: Little, Brown, 1994. Print. "Excelsoft - Learnpremium - History." Excelsoft - Learnpremium - History. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Feb. 2014. "What Were the Effects of Apartheid in South Africa?" Yahoo! Answers. Yahoo!, n.d. Web. 05 Feb. 2014.