Research Brief 2013: Sustainable Peatland Management

RESEARCH BRIEF 2013

SUSTAINABLE PEATLAND MANAGEMENT

Sustainable Peatland Management

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RESEARCH BRIEF 2013

SUSTAINABLE PEATLAND MANAGEMENT

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Research Brief 2013

Sustainable Peatland Management

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Introduction

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Study Site

Background

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Research Brief: Peatland Mapping Exercise in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts

Findings

Background Methodology

This publication is part of researchs by Peatland and Peatland Mapping Cluster of ICCC. Through Peatland and Peatland Mapping Cluster, ICCC supports the effort to enhance the accuracy of peatland mapping as one of supporting activities for Indonesia’s GHG reduction target from peatland.

Future Works

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Future Works

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Methodology Findings Future Works

Research Brief 2013

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Research Brief: Use of SatelliteBased Ground Water Table Data for Estimating Net CO2 Emissions from Peatland Background Methodology

Research Brief: Historical Peatland Management and Implications for Land-Use Land-Cover Changes Background

Research Brief: Climate Change and Its Potential Impacts on Peatland Methodology

Findings

All images ŠEli Nur Nirmala Sari/ICCC and Indonesia Climate Change Center.

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Findings Future Works

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ICCC Future Works Towards Sustainable Peatland Management References

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INTRODUCTION An objective of Peatland and Peatland Mapping Cluster (PPMC) of the Indonesia Climate Change Center (ICCC) is to disseminate information on scientific analyses supporting policy and actions dealing with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from peatland. Accordingly, ICCC needs to present reliable scientific information to policy makers to facilitate renewed policy on peatland management in support of Government of Indonesia’s GHG emission reduction target. To accommodate robust science-based peatland policy development, PPMC has developed a Peatland Definition and Peatland Mapping Methodology to assist in improving existing peatland maps.

The next step, which is critical to the PPMC objective, is to conduct analyses based on field data collected from identified sites to evaluate the PPMC Peatland Definition and Peatland Mapping Methodology based on the existing Wetlands International and Ministry of Agriculture maps in selected sample areas. Recognizing the need for an ecosystem-based sustainable approach, PPMC aims to: 1) Assess the applicability of the PPMC Peatland Definition; 2) Demonstrate and assess the PPMC Peatland Mapping Methodology; and 3) Collect time series data and information related to socio-economic activity, demographics,

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disasters (fires, droughts, and floods), water management, agriculture in peatland, and information related to community-based peatland interactions in the project areas.

Supported by reliable data, these activities will enhance ICCC efforts to support science based policy towards sustainable peatland management in Indonesia.

In order to achieve the program objectives, ICCC carry out a science-based assessment of peatland methodologies with the following objectives: ·

To assess peatland methodologies;

mapping

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To develop new accurate peatland maps for the target sites;

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To recommend a sustainable peatland management model by considering the balance between GHG emission reductions and socio-economic needs; and

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To build collaborative with national and universities, NGOs, and to exchange knowledge capacity building.

partnerships international communities and facilitate

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STUDY SITE The peatland mapping assessment was conducted for Pelalawan District, Riau Province, and Katingan District, Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Study site in Pelalawan District, Riau Province and Katingan District, Central Kalimantan Province

Pelalawan District encompasses an area of 1,392,494 hectare (ha) or 14.73% of the total size of Riau Province. It is bordering with Siak District in the north, Indragiri Hulu and Indragiri Hilir Districts in the south, Kampar and Indragiri Hulu Districts in the west, and Karimun, Kepri and Bengkalis Districts in the east. Approximately 536,000 ha or 40% of the district covers peatland. Among 12 sub-districts in Pelalawan District, Kerumutan, Teluk Meranti, Pelalawan and Kuala Kampar sub-districts are situated on peatland.

Pelalawan District falls within a tropical climate, with average annual precipitation of 219.65 millimeters (mm) and the average air temperature of 27.22 degrees Celsius (째C) in 2012. The total population on peatland areas in 2011 was 44,469.

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Katingan District encompasses an area of 1,750,000 ha, or 11.4% of the total size of Central Kalimantan Province, within which there are 13 districts, one municipality, 131 sub-districts, and 1,339 villages. It is bordering with East and West Kalimantan Districts in the north, Java Sea in the south, West Kalimantan District in the west, and East and South Kalimantan Districts in the east.

Approximately 643,800 ha or 38% of the district covers peatland. Among 13 sub-districts in Katingan District, Tasik Payawan, Kamipang, Mendawai and Katingan Kuala sub-districts are, in part, situated on and/or around peatland. The district falls within a tropical climate, with average annual precipitation of 329 mm and the average air temperature of 26.9 째C in 2012. The total population on peatland areas in 2011 was 69,330.

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Research Brief

PEATLAND MAPPING EXERCISE IN PELALAWAN AND KATINGAN DISTRICTS

BACKGROUND Peatland maps developed by each source have indicated different and inconsistent results.

This is because different data, definitions, methods and precision levels were adopted in the process of analyzing peatland distribution and depths. Such inconsistencies have hindered the effective implementation of policies, regulations, and spatial planning and zoning at the district, provincial and national levels. Creating one accurate, integrated and consistent peatland map based on a well-developed methodology throughout Indonesia is essential for sustainable peatland management. To accommodate the accuracy improvement of existing peatland map, Indonesia Climate Change Center (ICCC) has conducted a peatland mapping exercise in

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Pelalawan District, Riau Province and Katingan District, Central Kalimantan Province. The aims of the exercise are as follows, • A quick review of existing peatland maps (i.e., MoA 2012 and WI 2004) and identification of gaps for target study sites; • Tests of the proposed methodology in the field; • Calibration of peat depths and peatland boundary based on field data and spatial modeling (i.e., the Shimada Model) integrated with satellite data such as Landsat and Palsar; and • Peatland mapping with more accurate estimation of peat distribution and depths.

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METHODOLOGY The existing methodology applies the interpolation technique, known as Ordinary Kriging. In tropical peat swamp forests, the type of forest stand and its phenology correspond to peat depths and seasonal groundwater level fluctuations, from which spatial trends in seasonal vegetation activity can be obtained (Shimada et al., 2004). Therefore, to map the peatland, it is possible to extrapolate the distribution of peatland and peat depths by analyzing the relationship between forest types and peat layer thickness. In this exercise, the Shimada model is applied to improve the existing methodology in peatland mapping. However, because this methodology is based on vegetation activities in response to hydro-periods, the Shimada Model is limited to swamp vegetation covers, and currently is not valid for non-forest areas such as bare ground or grasslands. In order to examine this relationship between phenology types and peat depths, various phenology types of peat swamp forest were classified by using multi-temporal remote sensing data (Shimada, et al., 2004).

With this methodology, peat depth classification accuracy is strongly dependent on the quantity and quality of the field survey dataset. Although there exists a relatively large activity database for Riau and Central Kalimantan, the density of peat drilling locations is still low. Sampling locations were proposed beforehand based on existing WI and MoA peatland maps, satellite images, digital elevation model (DEM) data, estimated topography and streamlines, and the availability of existing peat depth data. Total 50 sampling points were surveyed in Pelalawan District, and 51 plots in Katingan District.

The Shimada Model classifies peat depths based on the vegetation activity index, the training data must be extracted from forested areas. Therefore, only sampling

points that intersect with peat swamp forest areas were extracted as training data, and other points that occurred outside forested areas were omitted in this analysis. In order to have a sufficient sample size for classification, we used existing data sets from various sources as well as the new survey data collected during this study.

Landsat images were used for visual interpretation to determine whether these sampling points were located within forested areas.

The deepest peat classified by WI and MoA maps were limited up to 8 meters in Pelalawan, meanwhile based on the field survey by ICCC, the areas of peat depths deeper than 8 m represented a large fraction of the data for the region. These areas were widely distributed around the northern part of Pelalawan.

The study also estimated a larger extent of peatland distribution to the east of Kampar River compared with the existing maps.

The Ordinary Kriging interpolation technique was adopted in this process. This method allows the prediction of values for unmeasured locations based on the spatial analysis of the distance between measured points and their relationships to the distance. Thus, by combining two techniques, the Shimada Model and Kriging, this study ultimately classified peat depths into 7 categories for both Pelalawan and Katingan districts.

• The new peatland map in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts identified considerably large differences in peatland area compared to the existing WI and MoA maps.

FINDINGS ¡ The results suggested different peat depths from WI peatland maps The peat depths or peatland areas identified during the survey showed different results from Wetlands International (WI) peatland maps (Figure 2a).

Several sampling points in Pelalawan District, which were classified as non-peatland or not-counted areas by the WI maps, were found to be peatland.

Similarly, in Katingan, some areas categorized as peatland with the thickness between 0.5 to 2 meters fell outside of peatland (Figure 2b). Such sampling data, especially those that occur around boundaries of peatland and non-peatland areas, are very important for more accurate delineation of peatland.

For Pelalawan, WI map indicates a total peatland area larger than that of the MoA map by 2,693 ha. These differences are insignificant, and such discrepancies were probably caused in the process of data processing. On the other hand, for Katingan, the MoA map indicates a total peatland area larger than that of the WI map by as much as 24,696 ha. This is a significant difference, and further investigation is considered necessary. The new maps developed under this study identified considerably large differences in both peatland distribution and peat depths compared to the existing maps. Table 1 presents gaps between WI map and the new peatland map based on the Shimada Model.

Ministry of Key differences found in the ShiWetlands InterColor indiAgriculture mada Model based map the new peatlandnational peatland Tablepeatland 1: Gaps between map compared with WI and MoA maps cation peatland compared with‌ map (ha) map (ha) Pelalawan District 1. Area with deeper peat deposits

313,489

351,998

2. Area with no noticeable difference

300,574

267,203

3. Area with shallower peat deposits

18,975

15,121

4. Area identified as non-peatland in this study but as peatland by WI and/or MoA

46,571

42,859

5. Area identified as peatland in this study but as non-peatland by WI and/or MoA

99,713

97,226

1. Area with deeper peat deposits

205,526

224,921

2. Area with no noticeable difference

138,958

141,884

3. Area with shallower peat deposits

141,336

140,340

4. Area identified as non-peatland in this study but as peatland by WI and/or MoA

25,213

28,886

5. Area identified as peatland in this study but as non-peatland by WI and/or MoA

98,455

79,580

Katingan District

Figure 2a: Peat depth data from the field survey overlaid with WI peatland map in Pelalawan

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Figure 2b: Peat depth data from the field survey overlaid with WI peatland map in Katingan

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路 The new maps developed under this study identified considerably large differences in peatland distribution compared to the existing WI and MoA maps.

Figure 3 present gaps identified for Pelalawan District, and Figure 4 for Katingan District.

Indicated in blue are areas in which the existing WI and MoA maps showed as non-peatland or no-data area but this study identified as peatland.

For Pelalawan District, such areas are estimated to be as large as 99,713 ha (compared with the WI map) and 97,226 ha (compared with the MoA map).

For Katingan District, these areas are estimated to be approximately 98,455 ha (compared with the WI map) and 79,580 ha (compared with the MoA map). This implies that the extent of peatland distribution indicated by WI and MoA maps may be underestimated, and that both Pelalawan and Katingan districts are likely to cover larger areas of peatland as suggested by this study.

Areas shown in pink indicate areas where the WI and MoA maps identified as peatland, but were assumed otherwise by this study. Some of these areas previously considered as peatland were reclassified as non-peatland based on the findings from the field sampling data. Other areas which lack field data need to be surveyed in order to verify the results.

Brown and light green colored areas are classified as peatland by all maps, but with different peat depths.

Brown areas show areas where peat depths were considered to be deeper by this study than the same peat areas estimated by WI and MoA. Light green areas, on the other hand, show areas in which this study estimated shallower peat deposits than those of WI and MoA. Areas indicated in gray showed no noticeable differences among WI, MoA and this study, and were considered as peatland with a similar peat depth distribution.

Figure 3b: Differences between the new Pelalawan peatland map with MoA peatland map

Figure 4a: Differences between the new Katingan peatland map with WI peatland map

FUTURE WORKS This study examined the applicability of a new peatland mapping methodology for Pelalawan and Katingan districts based on the Shimada Model method combined with manual delineation by using remote sensing images, field sampling data, and Kriging extrapolation method. It also improved the accuracy of existing peatland maps which have been developed by Wetlands International (WI) and Ministry of Agriculture Indonesia (MoA). The new peatland maps were overlaid

Figure 3a: Differences between the new Pelalawan peatland map with WI peatland map

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Figure 4b: Differences between the new Katingan peatland map with MoA peatland map

with BIG topographic map of Pelalawan and Katingan Districts, and were adjusted to the 1:50,000 scale. This methodology can be applied to other peatland areas at minimum technical complexity and costs. However, to result the methodology which can be applied by national level, combining the Shimada Model and existing methodology is necessary. Improving the Shimada Model (or combined use of different models) by including peat depth estimation for non-forest areas is important.

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HISTORICAL PEATLAND MANAGEMENT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR LAND-USE LAND-COVER CHANGES

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BACKGROUND

METHODOLOGY

Land-use and land-cover changes (LULCC) in tropical regions are largely linked to shifting economic opportunities as well as socio-political and infrastructural needs (Hecht, 1985). In fact, increasing global demand for agricultural crops, palm oil and timber, combined with population growth and economic development, is the key driving factor for LULCC in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts.

In this study, land-use and land-cover changes (LULCC) on peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts were analyzed based on remote sensing analysis, data gathered through focus group discussions (FGDs) and social baseline surveys, as well as information from secondary sources. This study defines land-use and land-cover classification as shown in the Table 2.

While Indonesia’s LULCC information is available for certain locations, little is known about the extent to which peatland is converted into different land-uses.

This is partly because of the inadequate knowledge and research about tropical peatland itself and the lack of underlying data.

A good understanding of the complexity and dynamics of LULCC is a key to proper planning and utilization of natural resources, and also to strategizing Indonesia’s land-use and climate change policies in the future. In this study, a detailed spatial analysis of land-use and land-cover on peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts was conducted based on satellite imagery, field sampling data, and information from secondary sources.

LULCCs within the study sites were analyzed primarily based on Landsat (TM 4, 5, 7 and 8) and Alos Palsar imageries, and quantified by post-classification comparison. A time-series analysis was conducted at a five-year interval from 1990 to 2013. The distribution of peatland areas within the study sites was determined by overlaying the new peatland maps based on the Shimada Model. The total area of each land-cover classification between year x and year x+5 was estimated to detect changes within a class. This remote sensing based LULCC analysis was further verified with empirical data collected through field observations and FGDs. Besides the remote sensing analysis, a total of four FGDs were conducted in two villages situated on/ around peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts.

Table B1 displays the participants and facilitators of the FGDs. Each FGD accommodated 25 to 35 men and women from local communities and lasted for two

hours on average. The majority of local people who participated in the FGDs were farmers and fishermen.

Key discussion points used during the FGDs included: 1) Introduction and quick overview of the village; 2) Livelihood activities, LULUC, and common agricultural practices on peatland; and 3) Climate change and its potential impacts on livelihoods.

FINDINGS · Agricultural frontiers in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts have been progressively moving toward deep peatland due to the limitation in land availability Since the late 1980s, local farmers have changed agricultural practices from shifting cultivation to land-based farming methods. In general, farmers prefer to develop agricultural fields on mineral soil or shallow peat. This is because they are more fertile, easier to maintain, and therefore, less costly than deep peatland, in which heavy irrigation and maintenance are required. Despite this, agricultural frontiers in the study area have been progressively moving toward deep peatland due to limitations in land availability.

· Land use changes in peatland drive peat degradation and subsidence Because of the need for community lands, a considerably large area of peat swamp forests was converted into smallholder rubber and oil palm plantation. As a result, new canals and ditches were built, causing peat degradation. Peat subsidence and the lowering of the water table have been observed in many community lands, and the incidence of peat fires and haze has been mounting during the dry season. · The remote sensing based LULCC analysis for Pelalawan and Katingan Districts has witnessed large scale forest degradation and conversion over the past 20 years In 1990, a large part of peatland in Pelalawan District was covered by dense swamp forest. Approximately 390,397 ha or 47% of the peatland was still intact, and 325,052 ha or 40% was secondary forest. The remaining primary peat swamp forest covers about 135,562 ha – 65% of intact forest has already disappeared since 1990; only 180,215 ha of secondary peat swamp forest remain today. Figure 5 shows the summary of key LULCC on peatland in Pelalawan District, which were observed from 1990 to 2013.

Table 2: Land-use and land-cover classification

Figure 5: Summary of key LULCC (in hectare) on peatland in Pelalawan District from 1990 to 2013

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In 1990, 598,281 ha or more than 98% of peatland in Katingan District was still covered with swamp forest in which approximately 46% consisted of primary peat swamp forest and 52% consisted of secondary forest. Between 1973 and 2002, the timber industry was the primary economic driver in the area, and massive logging concessions (HPH) occupied the landscape. Illegal logging was also rampant during this period, and accelerated the rate of deforestation and degradation on peatland. Between 1990 and 1995, approximately 7% of primary peat swamp forest and 12% of secondary forest were converted into shrub and grassland areas. As a result, shrub and grassland areas increased by 599%, encompassing 66,956 ha of peatland during this period. Such land cover changes are more evident on the eastern side of the Katingan River. Figure 6 shows the summary of key LULCC on peatland in Katingan District, which were observed from 1990 to 2013.

FUTURE WORKS In addition to the prevention of peatland conversion, drainage and fires, it is important to restore already degraded peatland in order to reverse trends of deforestation and a rapid loss of peatland ecosystems.

Restoration activities are likely to pose socio-economic impacts on people living in surrounding areas, and thus should be planned and implemented through participatory approaches.

For both Pelalawan and Katingan Districts, to support the Sustainable Peatland Management, the awareness and capacity development on the importance of peatland through continuous research and knowledge building, and the development of silviculture techniques and assisted natural regeneration of native species on peatland is need to be addressed.

In Pelalawan, the development of buffer zones around industrial plantations to be collaboratively managed with local communities is necessary, and the effective zoning, conservation and monitoring of high conservation value (HCV) forest and species in plantations is important.

Meanwhile, in Katingan, some recommendations for achieving Sustainable Peatland Management are as follows, 1) Peat rewetting and implementation of effective water management; 2) Reforestation in nonforest areas and enrichment planting in degraded areas with native species; 3) Development of buffer zones to be managed as community forest; and 4) Protection and assisted regeneration of high conservation value (HCV) species.

Figure 6: Summary of key LULCC (in hectare) on peatland in Katingan District from 1990 to 2013

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND IT’S POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON PEATLAND

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BACKGROUND

FINDINGS

Climate change is often associated with increasing extreme weather events. IPCC defines that “[a] changing climate leads to changes in the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration, and timing of extreme weather and climate events, and can result in unprecedented extreme weather and climate events” (IPCC, 2000). Information on climate extremes is essential to understand implications of climate change and assess social and environmental risks. Peatland ecosystems are of most vulnerable and exposed to climate stress.

Furthermore, natural hazards pose considerable impacts on people living on and around peatland in Indonesia. When peat is dry, especially during the dry season, it can easily spread fires which can continue to burn down to the water table for an extended period of time. Peat degradation also deteriorates the water retention ability of soil and often causes unseasonal floods. Unpredictable weather patterns also pose adverse impacts on economic activities such as farming and fishing, and crop productivity.

· An average air temperature has shown an uprising trend of 1.33 °C in the period of 1950-2011 in Pelalawan District The historical observation of temperature and precipitation trends for Pelalawan District has shown large variability in local climate patterns since 1950. Average air temperature has shown an uprising trend of 1.33 °C and rainfall patterns have indicated an increasing trend of anomalies (i.e., more frequent extremes such as drought and flood events) over the period of 1950-2011. The occurrence of extreme weather in the study area has been more frequent with increasing intensity.

Figure 7 shows the historical trend of temperatures and precipitations in Pelalawan.

A science-based understanding of climate change, climate projection and its potential impacts has important implications for society and sustainable development. It will allow policy makers to determine climate change mitigation strategies, while also supporting appropriate interventions to disaster and disaster risk management.

It is also key to developing sustainable peatland management approaches, in which GHG emission reduction objectives and socioeconomic needs are balanced. Therefore, ICCC initiated study in Pelalawan and Katingan District which aiming to provide the historical climate variations and provide climate change projections up to 2050 based on seven Global Circulation Models. In this study, it will be discussed about the occurrence and projection of climate extremes by conducting statistical probably analysis.

Niño years, and have lost considerable harvests for the season. · High frequency of changes in surface water levels in rivers and tributaries in Pelalawan District Local communities are also aware of a high frequency of changes in surface water levels in rivers and tributaries. Salt water intrusion has been observed by several community members in the area as a result of lower water levels and potential changes in rainfall regimes. This potentially poses a significant threat to the area’s peatland ecosystems.

It could damage trees and aquatic organisms, and agricultural productivity and crop yields could also decrease drastically due to the salination of peatland. · An average air temperature has shown an uprising trend of 0.58 °C in the period of 1950-2011 in Katingan District In Katingan, on the other hand, an increasing trend of average temperatures was recorded at 0.58 °C during the overall period from 1950 to 2011, but a decreasing trend in recent years during the period between 1997 and 2012. The pattern of temperature variations in Katingan is different from that of the Pelalawan region, which indicated a discernible ascending trend over the past two decades. Figure 8 shows the historical trend of temperatures and precipitations in Katingan.

METHODOLOGY This study examined historical patterns of climate change, occurrence of climate extremes and projections for Pelalawan and Katingan regions. Climatological information of Pelalawan and Katingan regions was analyzed using globally gridded data and surface observation data. For the global gridded data, we used gridded time-series (TS) datasets version 3.20 from Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at University of East Anglia1. The surface observation data for Pelalawan and Katingan peatland areas were obtained from the regional Indonesian Agency for Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG) located in Pekanbaru and Sampit2 respectively.

In this study, we only used daily mean temperature and precipitation (actual values, not anomalies) for the analysis of climate change in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts. The past occurrence of climate extremes was analyzed by using the CRU TS datasets. We computed probability density functions (PDF) and cumulative density functions (CDF) to analyze the probability of the occurrence of extreme events in the study area.

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Figure 7: Historical trend of temperatures (above) and precipitations (below) from 1950 to 2012 in Pelalawan

Datasets are available online at: http://badc. nerc.ac.uk/view/badc.nerc.ac.uk__ATOM__ ACTIVITY_3ec0d1c6-4616-11e2-89a300163e251233.

2.

For the analysis of local climate patterns, BMKG data from Sampit, the capital of Kotawaringin Timur District, was used instead of BMKG Palangka Raya, the capital of Central Kalimantan Province, because of its proximity to study area’s peatland.

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Research Brief 2013

Pelalawan District is particularly prone to climate related natural hazards such as floods, droughts and forest/peat fires. An increasing trend of temperatures was found to be more evident and drastic since the 1990s. The recent trend of hotter temperatures was also mentioned and validated during focus group discussions in sample villages. Some years also indicated extreme rainfalls and floods, showing obvious anomalies in rainfall patterns. Furthermore, there have been mounting cases of forest and peat fires intensified by prolonged dry seasons every few years, and severe floods and storms during rainy seasons. Many farmers have experienced peat fires in their plantations and gardens especially during El Sustainable Peatland Management

Figure 8: Historical trend of temperatures (above) and precipitations (below) from 1950 to 2012 in Katingan

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Similar to Pelalawan, Katingan District is particularly prone to climate related natural hazards such as floods, droughts and forest/peat fires. There have been mounting cases of forest and peat fires intensified by prolonged dry seasons every few years, and severe floods and storms during rainy seasons. Hotter air temperatures and changing surface water levels in rivers and tributaries are also evident in the area. · Temperature trends over a 40 year period demonstrated a continuous increase at the degree of 1.37 °C for Pelalawan and 1.28 °C for Katingan The projection of climate extremes was analyzed by using monthly GCM outputs. Temperature trends over a 40 year period demonstrated a continuous increase at the degree of 1.37 °C for Pelalawan and 1.28 °C for Katingan. The projection of precipitation from 2011 to 2050, on the other hand, showed no significant uprising trend for Pelalawan, and a gentle decreasing trend for Katingan. Nevertheless, the analysis of PDF and CDF patterns indicated that the frequency of the highest precipitation events and the intensity of rainfalls are likely to increase in the future for both regions. This is likely to cause more frequent flood events in the future.

FUTURE WORKS Peatland is prone to climate related natural hazards such as floods, droughts and forest/peat fires. In Pelalawan District, there have been mounting cases of forest and peat fires intensified by prolonged dry seasons, heat waves, and severe floods and storms during rainy seasons. Similarly, Katingan District is expected to experience raising temperatures but lower precipitation rates over the next few decades. Reduced rainfall and higher temperatures may also increase the risk of peat fires and other climate hazards.

Climate change is likely to cause serious environmental, economic and social impacts on communities living on or around peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts.

Unpredictable seasonality and extreme weather events put heavy burdens on local farmers. Floods and storms can also damage their agricultural crops and cause economic losses. Peat fires also pose direct economic and health risks to local communities as well as neighboring regions and countries. Furthermore, haze pollution has been witnessed in several peat fire cases, including the ones that occurred across multiple provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan islands in 19971998, and more recently in Riau Province in June 2013.

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USE OF SATELLITE-BASED GROUND WATER TABLE DATA FOR ESTIMATING NET CO2 EMISSIONS FROM PEATLAND

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Background

Tropical peatland is one of the largest terrestrial carbon stores, and plays a major role in global hydrological cycles and atmospheric circulation. Although the decomposition of organic matters occurs naturally over time, in Indonesia, it has been extensively and rapidly caused by the degradation of peat compounds due to anthropogenic activities. Peatland degradation in Indonesia is often associated with forest conversion, deforestation and peat fires. Peat drainage due to the construction of canals and ditches for irrigation and transportation purposes lowers ground water table (GWT) depths, resulting in the loss of hydrological integrity, peat oxidation and subsidence. This results in greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere in mass quantities, and consequently leads to climate change.

Where:

While there are a number of researches which have studied the effect of drainage on CO2 emissions based on subsidence data and chamber methods, the magnitude of ecosystem-scale carbon balance on tropical peatland is still unknown (Hirano, et. al., 2012). GWT is one of the key parameters to understand carbon cycling on peatland, and the monitoring and recording of GWT fluctuations is crucial to quantify their net CO2 emissions. Thus, this section of the report presents key steps and preliminary results from the assessment of a satellite-based net CO2 estimation methodology based on the eddy covariance technique and empirical GWT measurements on peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts.

NEE = RE – GPP RE = ecosystem respiration

GPP = gross primary production (ecosystem photosynthesis) This relationship was examined on a half-hour interval (Hirano, et. al., 2009). During the nighttime, NEE corresponded to RE because there was no photosynthesis activities. The positive value for NEE represents the release of net CO2 flux into the atmosphere, while the negative value implies a net CO2 uptake by the ecosystem. RE was found to increase with soil temperature, and decrease when GWT rose.

Net CO2 emissions from each peatland ecosystem types were estimated based on the daily mean NEE values (gC/m2) of September 1, 2013. The total sample size of UF, DF and DB pixels for Pelalawan District were 90, 101 and 16, and 80, 277 and 43 for Katingan District, respectively. Figure 9 shows the result of the estimation of net CO2 emissions from the study sites: a) Pelalawan District; and b) Katingan District. A linear relationship between estimated average net CO2 emissions (expressed in NEE values) and GWT fluctuations from peatland at different disturbance levels are clearly shown. In all sample sites, net CO2 emissions increased as GWL lowered.

Three automatic water loggers1, two rain gauges and accessories were installed to measure GWL, rainfalls and air temperatures at three distinct types of peatland ecosystems each in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts.

Specific locations of water logger installment were selected based on accessibility and mobile signal availability, because SESAME 01-II transmits data by the GSM/GPRS/Q-CDMA mobile network. Installed on June 6 and 7, 2013 in Pelalawan and on June 19 and 20, 2013 in Katingan, these instruments have been watched and maintained by local people engaged under this this project until today.

Moreover, this study aimed to assess the methodology for the estimation of the volume of water released from peatland into canals at maximum and minimum scenarios. Although the preliminary results from the hydrological drainage model could not be integrated into the overall estimation of CO2 emissions from peatland during this assignment (due to time and resource constraints), this model is instrumental to analyze the potential effect of canal and irrigation trench development on peatland in future research.

The estimation of GWT across the study regions was developed and calibrated based on precipitation data, land surface temperatures and the field measurement of GWL in UF, DF and DB peatland (Takeuchi, et. al., 2010). Figure D5 shows an example of the GWT map in Indonesia obtained on September 10, 2013. Black color indicates inundated areas for the specific time of observation. This map provides a visually effective and real-time indication of GWL on peatland, and serves as a powerful tool for the monitoring of potential peat fires. Results of the GWT map are only applicable to peatland areas, and color indications for other nonpeatland areas should be disregarded.

METHODOLOGY

FINDINGS

The estimation of net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) values is key to defining the role of peatland ecosystems within global carbon cycle. The annual NEE in particular peatland ecosystems can be estimated by the satellite-based GWT data, because there seems to be a linear relationship between NEE in the atmosphere and ground water level (GWL) (Hirano, et. al., 2012). NEE can be expressed as follows:

This study found that ground water table (GWT) is one of the key parameters to understand carbon cycling on peatland, and the monitoring and recording of GWT fluctuations is crucial to quantify their net CO2 emissions. Based on the eddy covariance technique and empirical GWT measurements, we examined

1.

relationships between net ecosystem exchange (NEE) in the atmosphere and GTW levels to estimate net CO2 emissions from three distinctive sample sites – Undraind peat swamp forest (UF), Drained peat swamp forest (DF), and Drained and burned peatland (DB). At all sites, net CO2 emissions increased as GWT lowered.

On the UF sample sites, net CO2 emissions (positive NEE) occurred when the GWT lowered by 6 cm from the surface. On the DF sample sites, net CO2 emissions occurred when the GWT lowered by 31 cm. On the DB sample sites, we found consistent net CO2 emissions at all GWT levels, even the surface was inundated.

Figure 9a: Relationships between estimated daily mean net CO2 emissions (NEE gC/m2) and GWL (cm) from peatland at different disturbance levels in Pelalawan District

Figure 9b: Relationships between estimated daily mean net CO2 emissions (NEE gC/m2) and GWL (cm) from peatland at different disturbance levels in Katingan District

SESAME 01-II: http://www.midori-eng.com/english/image/sesame-01-2_pamph.pdf

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ICCC FUTURE WORKS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE PEATLAND MANAGEMENT This study provided science-based methodological, empirical and conceptual approaches to climate change mitigation potentials and needs for peatland in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts. While the degree of climate change impacts varies across regions, it is important to incorporate scientifically rigorous methodologies and practical mitigation strategies into climate policies at national, provincial and district levels. Both general and region specific recommendations are provided below to conclude this report.

Based on the study results by ICCC, the components should be considered to achieve the Sustainable Peatland Management are as follows, FUTURE WORKS The study by ICCC in Pelalawan and Katingan Districts suggested some future works as follows, · The development of fire hot spot mapping methodology based on satellite-based GWT data and a satellite sensor such as Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), overlaid with an accurate peatland map, for early warning and reporting systems; · Monitoring of water table levels in fire prone areas especially during the dry season; · A study on effective alternative land clearing methods for agriculture;

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· Awareness and capacity building on the prevention, control and impacts of peat fires among smallholder farmers; · For Pelalawan District: 1) Improve law enforcement to regulate the use of fire in plantation development; and 2) Develop collaboration with industrial plantation concessionaires to control drainage at an optimal level; · For Katingan District, the small-scale canal blocking to prevent drainage and maintain GWT levels high in the Sebangau National park and the proposed ecosystem restoration concession site is important.

Research Brief 2013

1. One accurate peatland map and spatial planning Creating one integrated, transparent, consistent and collaboratively developed peatland map throughout Indonesia is essential for effectively implementing policies, regulations, and sustainable peatland management strategies. The map should be developed upon a standardized and scientifically rigorous methodology, and serve as the basis for low emission land-use planning and zoning at the district, provincial and national levels.

2. Protection of the remaining peatland The foremost threat to the area’s peatland ecosystems is the conversion of peatland and peat swamp forest into other land uses such as oil palm plantations, pulpwood plantations (e.g., acacia), non-food crop plantations (e.g., rubber), and/or agricultural lands. In order to reduce ecological pressures and GHG emissions from peatland conversion, the government must protect the remaining peatland through effective policies and multi-stakeholder engagement.

Sustainable Peatland Management

3. Peatland best management practices In addition to the protection of remaining peatland through various legal measures as presented above, peatland best management practices must be developed and communicated among stakeholders in order to reduce GHG emissions and other socio-ecological pressures. Best practices should be science-based, socio-culturally acceptable, environmentally appropriate and financially feasible, and draw on the experience of experts and local communities.

4. Prevention of peatland fires Peatland fires usually occur because of unsustainable land-use practices, and are one of the main causes of massive deforestation and peatland degradation, and pose negative environmental and social impacts. Fires almost always occur on nonforest and degraded peatland during the dry season, often caused by land clearing for farming and by accident (e.g., cigarettes and cooking fires) on drained peatland. The prevention of peatland fires is critical for sustainable peatland management and mitigation of GHG emissions.

5. Peatland ecosystem restoration In addition to the prevention of peatland conversion, drainage and fires, it is important to restore already degraded peatland in order to reverse trends of deforestation and a rapid loss of peatland ecosystems. Restoration activities are likely to pose socio-economic impacts on people living in surrounding areas, and thus should be planned and implemented through participatory approaches.

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REFERENCES Hecht, S.B. (1985). Environment, development, and politics: capital accumulation and the livestock sector in Amazonia. World Development 13 (6), 663–684.

DNPI (Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim), the National Council on Climate Change, established in July 2008, is a government organization mandated by the President to formulate national policies, strategies, programs and activities on climate change; coordinate activities in the implementation of climate change tasks; formulate national policies, mechanism and procedure on carbon trade; monitor and evaluate policy implementation on climate change management and control; and to support the negotiations on UNFCCC and compile Indonesia’s position for each international negotiation meetings.

Hirano, T., Segah, H., Kusin, K., Limin, S., Takahashi, H., and Osaki, M. (2012). Effects of disturbances on the carbon balance of tropical peat swamp forests.

Global Change Biology , 18, 3410-3422.

Shepherd, P. A, Rieley, J. O., and Page, S. E. (1997). The relationship between forest vegetation and peat characteristics in the upper catchment of Sungai Sebangau, Central Kalimantan. In: Rieley, J. O. & Page, S.E. (Eds) Biodiversity and Sustainability of Tropical Peatland (pp 191-210). Samara Publishing Limited Shimada, S., Takahashi, H., Kaneko, M. and Toyoda, H. (2004). Predicting Peat Layer Mass Using Remote Sensing Data in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.

In: Participatory Strategy for Soil and Water Conservation. Edited by M. Mihara & E.Yamaji, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Soubun Co., Ltd., pp. 193-196.

Takeuchi, W., Hirano, T., Anggraini, N., and Roswintiarti, O. (2010). Estimation of ground water table at forested peatland in Kalimantan using drought index toward wildfire control. JICA-JST.

ICCC is a platform of channels and networks between scientific community, international organizations, the government of Indonesia and academics to support scientific based policy. It was created in 2011 under United States-Indonesia Comprehensive Partnership; ICCC supports the Government of the Republic of Indonesia through policy recommendations related to climate change based on scientific findings focusing on climate resilience, low emission development strategies, peatland and peatland mapping, and measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of climate change in Indonesia.

Wahyunto, I Nyoman N. Suryadiputra. (2008).

Atlas Sebaran Lahan Gambut di Sumatera dan Kalimantan: Penjelasan terhadap sumber data, tingkat ketelitian, faktor pembatas dan celah kelemahan dalam penyusunannya. Wetlands International, Bogor.

UNEP. (2012). The Emissions Gap Report. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi.

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Indonesia Climate Change Center Gd. Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT) I, 16th Fl. Jl. M.H.Thamrin 8, Jakarta 10340, Indonesia.

Tel. +6221-31904635. www.iccc-network.net

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Research Brief 2013