Dissertation - Lara Coleman

Death Redesigned: The Non-Linear Evolution of the Crematorium in Western Europe, from Utilitarian Space to Human-Centred Design Lara Coleman Z5060796

Bachelor of Interior Architecture (Hons.)

Final Year Dissertation - INTA2411 UNSW Built Environment University of New South Wales, Australia 2019

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Built Environment

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Coleman

Lara Reta

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Abstract This dissertation investigates the non-linear evolution of the crematorium typology in western Europe, from a utilitarian space, embedded in modernist ideals to the prominent twenty-first-century approach, embodying human-centred design. A discussion of this evolution will bring to light that the original design of crematoria was a reflection of societal values at the time of inception. However, as a whole the evolution of the crematorium as an architectural typology is one that has not heavily been linked to shifts in the sociocultural, political or economic spirit of society in western Europe. A move towards human-centred crematorium design will be highlighted in this evolution; expressing the ability of this typology to somewhat aid in the processing of grief.

A history and overview of cremation will first be explored from its earliest uses in ancient civilisations to its renewal in the late nineteenth century in western Europe; with the modern cremationist movement. This will provide a contextual framework to discuss the rise of the crematorium. Key critiques of the typology will be presented to further understand its architectural evolution. Theories of architectural phenomenology and human-centred design will be discussed in order to construct a theoretical framework for the analysis of contemporary case studies. With a selection of architectural case studies that align with the twenty-firstcentury human-centric crematorium design approach, analysis will be undertaken to further discuss the evolution of crematoria.

Through this established framework insight into the ability for architects and designers to traverse the contradiction between machine and emotion will be expressed, in order to highlight the capacity for space, specifically the crematorium, to support mourners from an array of backgrounds.

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr Sing D’Arcy for his mentorship, wisdom and encouragement throughout the entire process.

To Steph Severin for her constant reassurance and companionship.

And to Isaac and my Mum for their unwavering support and for always believing in me.

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List of Illustrations Figure 1.01: The entrance and front façade of the Crematorium Temple of Milan, 1876, Carlo Maciachini, Milan, Italy, Source: Manzo, M 2017, The Crematorium Temple of Milan, from <http://himetop.wikidot.com/the-crematorium-temple-of-milan>, accessed 17 March 2019

Figure 1.02: Church-like crematorium in Woking, 1878, Paolo Gorini and Turner Engineers, Woking,

England,

Source:

Fritz,

F

1901,

Woking

Crematorium,

from

<https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/places/surrey/woking/crematoriu >, accessed 17 March 2019 Figure 1.03: Church-like crematorium at the Pere Lachaise Cemetery, 1894, Jean-Camille, Paris, France, Source: Dubois, N 2009, Crematroiúm du Pere Lachaise, from < https://www.crematorium-perelachaise.fr>, accessed 17 March 2019 Figure 1.04: Harsh fluorescent lighting and cold materiality reflect the utilitarian nature of many crematoria in western Europe during the twentieth century, South Essex Crematorium, 1957, architect unknown, South Essex, England, Source: Fletcher, A 2008, South Essex Crematorium, from < https://southessexcrematorium.co.uk/gallery/>, accessed 4 May 2019 Figure 1.05: Diagram showing the layout of the South Essex Crematorium, 1957, architect unknown, South Essex, England, < https://southessexcrematorium.co.uk/gallery/>, accessed 4 May 2019, image edited by author Figure 2.01: Exposed chimneys and furnaces at the Toulouse Crematorium, 1971, architect unknown, Toulouse, France, Source: Hale, G 2008, Crémation: c'est toujours l'attente, from <https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2018/07/02/2828662>, accessed 1 April 2019 Figure 2.02: Coychurch crematorium nestled within the landscape uses stone from onsite to further strengthen its relationship to site, 1970, Maxwell Fry, Wales, United

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Kingdom, Source: Hamilton, I 2006, Exceptional Crematorium Praised, from <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/5053602.stm>, accessed 1 April 2019 Figure 2.03: Exterior of one of three chapels utilised for ceremonies nestled between lush planting to create pockets of privacy and reflection at the Woodland Cemetery, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Source: Atkinson, H 2003, Campaigning for twentieth-century architecture, from < https://c20society.org.uk/botm/woodland-cemetery-stockholm/>, accessed 1 April 2019 Figure 2.04: Circular interior of a chapel at the Woodland Cemetery, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Source Cooles, L 1994, Woodland Chapel, from <http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Woodland_Chapel.html,>, accessed 1 April 2019 Figure 2.05: Antechamber at the Woodland Cemetery with curved Birchwood seating, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Source: Mindel, L 2014, Woodland Cemetery, from < https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/woodlandcemetery-stockholm-slideshow>, accessed 1 April 2019 Figure 3.01: Plan of Rennes Métropole Crematorium indicating spatial relationships, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, Paris, from < http://www.contemporist.com/rennes metropole-crematorium-by-plan01-architects/>, accessed 9 April 2019, image edited by author Figure 3.02: The central circulatory space of Rennes Crematorium with an outlook onto one of the many courtyards, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Source: Boegly, L 2009, Rennes Métropole Crematorium/ PLAN01, from < https://www.archdaily.com/36001/rennes-metropole-crematorium-plan-01>, accessed 9 April 2019 Figure 3.03: The foreground depicts the exterior of one of the ceremonial rooms with solid timber walls and a small outlook through glass walls onto an attached courtyard, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Source: Boegly, L 2009, Rennes Métropole

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Crematorium/ PLAN01, from < https://www.archdaily.com/36001/rennes-metropole crematorium-plan-01>, accessed 9 April 2010, image edited by author Figure 3.04: The waiting room with transparent curtains allowing for the control of openness and intimacy, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Source: Boegly, L 2009, Rennes Métropole Crematorium/ PLAN01, from < https://www.archdaily.com/36001/rennes metropole-crematorium-plan-01>, accessed 9 April 2019 Figure 3.05: Large granite blocks surround the building to create a liminal boundary, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Source: Boegly, L 2009, Rennes Métropole Crematorium/ PLAN01, from < https://www.archdaily.com/36001/rennes-metropole-crematorium plan-01>, accessed 9 April 2019 Figure 3.06: The exterior pond in the foreground which is intended to be used as a place of rest and point of reflection, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Source: Boegly, L 2009, Rennes Métropole Crematorium/ PLAN01, from < https://www.archdaily.com/36001/rennes-metropole-crematorium-plan-01>, accessed 9 April 2019 Figure 3.07: Plan of Crematorium Siesegem indicating spatial relationships, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from,< https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019, image edited by author Figure 3.08: Aerial view of the existing landscape before works to the site began, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from,< https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019 Figure 3.09: The undulating mounds for scattering ashes and eschewing the monumentality of the building, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, <https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019

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Figure 3.10: An outlook from the transitional hallway onto the exterior mounds, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, <https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019 Figure 3.11: Outlook from one of the ceremonial assembly halls onto the greenery and landscape, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, < https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019 Figure 3.12: Individual reflection spaces for solemnity highlighted in orange, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, < https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019, image edited by author Figure 3.13: Spaces for gathering highlighted in orange in one of the transitional hallways, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, < https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019, image edited by author Figure 3.14: The largest ceremonial hall seating 600 people with upholstered bench seating to match the sandy colour of the furnaces, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, < https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019 Figure 3.15: The furnaces and back of house exposed for public viewing, , 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, from, < https://www.archdaily.com/905757/crematorium-siesegem-kaan architecten?ad_medium=gallery>, accessed 4 May 2019

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Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………….1 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….…2 List of Illustrations………………………………………………………………………..…...3 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..……….….8 Chapter One: Understanding the Rise of Cremation and the Inception of the Crematorium in Western Europe……………………………………………………………………………....11 Chapter Two: The Crematorium through a Theoretical Framework of Architectural Phenomenology and Human-Centred Design………………………………………………..19 Chapter Three: Contemporary Crematorium Case Studies in Western Europe……………...28 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………42 References…………………………………………………………………………………....45

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Introduction Despite the rich history of cremation, spanning from antiquity, the modern cremationist movement in western Europe only started to emerge at the end of the nineteenth century (Saracen 2017: 48). This period of technological advancement, radical secularisation and the fear of disease and pollution saw a new building type emerge, the crematorium (Saracen 2017: 48). At its core, the crematorium is a building where a deceased personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body is burnt to ashes, however, many critics argue that the crematorium goes beyond this pragmatic description and should be considered as a highly significant public space (Davies & Mates 2005: 18). This dissertation will discuss the non-linear evolution of the crematorium typology in western Europe, from a utilitarian space, embedded in modernist ideals to the prominent twenty-firstcentury approach, embodying human-centred design.

The first chapter will establish the contextual framework of this dissertation in relation to cremation and the crematorium as an architectural typology. The chapter will begin with a brief overview of the history of cremation in order to highlight that combining the body with fire was no new concept (Cooney et al. 2014: 16). Rather, cremation in the Christian west during the nineteenth century was a renewal in response to the sociocultural and political outlook of the time, after the act was banned by the Church for a number of centuries (Davies & Mates: 2005: 26). The influences of the renewal of cremation and the creation of the crematorium typology will then be considered, highlighting that its renewal was highly influenced by freethinkers, anti-clerical tendencies, the industrial revolution and modernist ideals (Saracen 2017:48). The chapter will also explore the morphology of the crematorium in western Europe from its inception in the late nineteenth century to its development throughout the twentieth century. This discussion will bring to light that the evolution of the crematorium as an architectural typology is one that has not heavily been linked to shifts in the sociocultural, political or economic spirit of society in western Europe (Klaassens 2011: 115). This will be further substantiated by a number of critics who conclude that the original utilitarian design model of the crematorium aligned with the industrial revolution and modernist ideals at the time of inception (Davies 1996: 20). However, these critics believe that crematorium design over the twentieth century failed to satisfy the changing attitudes towards death that evolved, with a fairly stagnant design approach over the course of this period (Grainger 2005: 44). Many commentators believe that the crematorium, through effective design decisions, can be a

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vehicle to aid in supporting grief, which will be elaborated on in the following chapters (Wilkinson 2016:51).

Chapter two will delineate a theoretical framework in order to support the analysis of contemporary case studies in the final chapter. Firstly, the primary reasons for the crematorium retaining its original pragmatic morphology throughout the twentieth century will be considered in order to further understand the evolution of this typology. The effect of the utilitarian design model on users will then be highlighted, specifically, through a personal account by British architect Maxwell Fry (1899-1987), of his experience utilising a traditional crematorium (Fry 1969: 247). This will begin to introduce the psychology of space, which will be further supported through a number of theories. The first theory that will be explored is phenomenology. In architecture, phenomenology is a tool for finding depth of meaning in interactions between users and the offerings of space (Seamon 2017: 3). This will strengthen the discussion of the crematorium as a space with a deeper essence of spatial experience. The writings of prominent theorists in this field, such as Juhani Pallasmaa (1936-) and Steven Holl (1947-), will further support the discussion (Moran 2011: 55). Similarly, the concept of humancentred design will be explored, looking at this as a framework for the case studies and their ability to provide architecture which aids in supporting grief (Sørensen 2009: 27). Throughout the twentieth century despite the widespread of utilitarian crematoriums there were a number of efforts in creating a more human-centred space. This will be exemplified through two examples of the time, the first being Erik Asplund (1885-1940) and Sigurd Lewerentz’s (18851975) Woodland cemetery in Stockholm completed in 1940 and also Maxwell Fry’s Coychurch crematorium completed in 1970 in Wales. Both highlight a human-centric design approach informed by the aforementioned theories.

The forthcoming analysis in this dissertation in the final chapter will focus on two twenty-firstcentury case studies to highlight the outcome of the evolution of the crematorium, from its utilitarian past to the human-centric approach of today. The previously mentioned theories will inform the analysis of these two contemporary spaces. The first case study will focus on Rennes Métropole Crematorium by PLAN01 (Warmann 2011). This crematorium completed in 2009 is located in north-western France. The second case study concerns Crematorium Siesegem in Belgium completed in 2018 by KAAN Architecten (Levy 2018). Both examples focus on a human-centric design approach; aligning with the current social attitudes towards death of their respective cultures. Through a spatial analysis of these two examples, informed 9

by the aforementioned theories the human-centric nature of these crematoria will be highlighted. More specifically the spatial analysis will investigate form and volume, materiality, landscaping decisions and exterior interior connections. The analysis of these two contemporary western European examples, supported by a theoretical framework bring to light the ability of the crematorium space to go beyond its functional constraints, evidencing a space which can provide, to some extent, support in the process of grief.

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Chapter One: Understanding the Rise of Cremation and the Inception of the Crematorium in Western Europe To provide precedence for the analysis of this dissertation and understand the crematorium typology, a contextual framework will be presented. This chapter will discuss the history of cremation in western Europe from its inception pre-dating the crematorium to its renewal beginning in the late-nineteenth century (Cooney et al. 2014: 3). The influences of this renewal will be considered in order to reveal that the modern cremationist movement had strong links to free-thinkers, anti-clericalism, industrialisation and Modernism (Saracen 2007:48). These influences will bring to light that the initial crematoria were symptomatic and aligned with the zeitgeist of society at the end of the nineteenth century (Davies & Mates 2005: 36). The development of crematoria morphology will be explored throughout the twentieth century. This discussion, supported by a number of critics, will highlight that the evolution of crematoria as an architectural typology was considered heavily stagnant, failing to retain links to shifts is social values, political changes or the economic spirit of society in western Europe over the century (Klaassens 2011: 100). This typology has received widespread criticism, with many critics believing that the stagnant design model for the crematorium was unsuccessful in satisfying the changing attitudes towards death, away from a utilitarian response towards a human-centred design solution (Davies & Mates 2005: 988).

Although the industrial image of cremation may prevail in western culture, the use of fire in the disposal of bodies is no new concept (Cooney et al. 2014: 4). Douglas Davies, a theologian specialising in death and academic Lewis Mates, in their publication The Encyclopedia of Cremation do not provide an explicit definition of cremation. Instead, they frame the notion as: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;in cremation fire combines with death not simply as some mechanical technique of corpse combustion but as a value-laden socially grounded means of coping with deathâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Davies & Mates 2005: 17). Echoing this, it is believed that the complexities of cremation, as not only physical remains but a practice laden with cultural traditions and sacred values of global magnitudes, prevents a limiting definition of the act. However, a simple premise can be deduced, cremation is the combination of the body and fire (Davies & Mates 2005: 17-18).

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Cremation has not always had a specific architectural typology to house the act. It predates the crematorium, with an extensive history, having been utilised in a number of geographic and cultural contexts (Klaassens 2011: 118). Discoveries suggest that one of the first cremations took place in Lake Mungo, NSW, Australia, approximately 42 000 years ago (Cooney et al.

2014: 6). Although in many non-western societies such as India, cremation has had a continuous and sacred role in society, this is not the case in many western societies, specifically western Europe (Wilkinson 2016: 56). Due to the establishment of Christianity in western Europe from the fifth century, the practice of cremation was predominately halted. In 789 CE Charles the Great (742-814 CE), the Holy Roman Emperor, criminalised cremation in the Christian west, deeming it entirely incompatible with religious beliefs (Davies & Mates 2005: 26). It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that a renewed interest in cremation developed. This turn of the century was met with a rapid energy from the Industrial Revolution, which saw expansion in engineering and science (Sørensen 2009: 7).

Crematoria began to be associated with free-thinkers and intellectuals striving for progression, with its nineteenth-century revival. The Cremation Society of England was established in 1874 and spearheaded by Sir Henry Thompson (1820-1904), Queen Victoria’s personal surgeon (Rugg 2006: 215). Many members of this group were considered renowned free-thinkers and highly influential, which gave credibility and generated public interest. Surgeons, sanitary engineers, philanthropists, town planners, royals and the editor of the British Medical Journal were amongst those who joined and advocated for cremation and the crematorium (Kazmier 2009: 559). The first modern crematorium in the west was built in Milan, Italy in 1876 as seen in Figure 1.01 (Wilkinson 2016: 58). Traction began to be created with the second crematorium in western Europe opening in 1878 in Tübingen, Germany. Britain saw its first crematorium open in Woking, south of London in 1879 illustrated through Figure 1.02 (Sørensen 2009: p.9).

A number of influences led to the reintroduction of cremation into western death rites and the creation of the new building type, the crematorium, which will be discussed further throughout this chapter.

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Figure 1.01: The entrance and front faรงade of the Crematorium Temple of Milan, 1876, Carlo Maciachini, Milan, Italy, Marina Manzo, 2017

A key influence of this reintroduction was the idea of sanitation and modern medicine. Interest in this new form of disposal was gradual in forming. However, the Cremation Society continued considerable investment in widespread publicity especially focusing on modern hygiene (Rugg 2006: 215). In 1912 Thompson published a piece in the British Medical Journal suggesting that medical practitioners pass on the information of the sanitary benefits of cremation and the crematorium. Thompson stated: The overcrowding of cemeteries in various places is a great danger to public health. By the instillation of the hygienic advantages of cremation as the opportunity arises, this private and informal propaganda can usefully be carried on by individual medical practitioners. Although the profession is virtually agreed that cremation is from a sanitary point of view the best method, we need to further convince the public (1912: 971).

It is evident that public interest and approval of cremation was growing. In 1918 there were fourteen crematoria in Britain with cremation accounting for only 0.3 % of body disposals in the country. By 1939 there were a total fifty-four crematoria accounting for 3.5 % of body disposals (Rugg 2006: 216). Over an approximate twenty-year period, a 1166% increase in the

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use of crematoria can be observed. Along with this push for hygiene, an increase in urbanisation prompted a need for cremation and the crematorium.

The rapid urbanisation which took place in much of Europe during the end of the nineteenth century, created an issue of overcrowding in many facets of civic life, especially burial. The aftermath of the Industrial Revolution which ended in approximately 1840 was mass urbanisation, with large numbers of people deserting a rural way of life migrating to populated centres in industrial towns (Rugg 2006:220). Not only were more people dying in a concentrated area, accidents at work using heavy machinery paired with illness and epidemics such as cholera led to the dangerous overfilling of cemeteries (Davies & Mates 2005: 32). It must also be noted that the Industrial Revolution had further influences on the creation of the crematorium. The overwhelmingly mechanised nature of the time started to permeate into the way in which people handled death, a utilitarian model influenced by discoveries in technology (Saracen 2017: 48).

The notion of a lack of space was further cemented by the First World War (1914-1918), which aided in the popularity of the modern cremationist movement. An acceptance and support of the crematorium was widely held amongst front line soldiers who had experienced mass burial at war (Davies & Mates 2005: 30). Veterans were responsive to the movement as they not only witnessed the sheer amount of land utilised for burial but also had to leave their comrades in unmarked communal graves; where cremation would have allowed for the mobility of their ashes (Kazmier 2009: 567). By 1920 the Cremation Society’s Council Report referred to cremation as a now ‘widely adopted practice’ (Kazmier 2009: 566). The convergence of these aforementioned influences as well as a desire to challenge established authorities influenced the rise of the crematorium.

Crematoria were originally seen as an extremely left-wing architectural typology, a method of challenging those in power. Many nineteenth-century cremationists desired to dispute the established authorities, especially those whose power was grounded on religion, most notably, the Catholic Church (Davies & Mates 2005: 818). This challenging of the Church was in line with the onset of Modernism beginning in the late nineteenth century. Modernism challenged traditional forms of social order, religion, art and architecture. The onset of these modernist ideals influenced society’s thoughts about death leading to this comparatively radical way of body disposal; combining fire and body in the crematorium (Cooney et al. 2014: 23).

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Therefore, this suggests that upon inception the utilitarian nature of the crematorium was in line with modernist ideals of the time. These key principles being rejecting religion and also creating highly functional spaces as modernist architect Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier) (1887-1965) said ‘a house is a machine for living in’ (Pursell 2003: 258). It can be seen that Modernism, the fears about sanitation, the increased industrialisation and urbanisation and the onset of war were all contributing factors aligning with the original utilitarian fuelled design approach to the crematorium, which Davies suggested was ‘fitting for the time’ (Davies & Mates 2005: 819).

Moving into the twentieth century, criticisms increased in regard to the design approach of crematoria. The first line of criticisms which will be discussed is the contradictory aesthetic nature of these buildings. Despite the radical sentiments of the cremationist movement in western Europe the physical typology and morphology of the crematorium has been criticised for being quite the opposite; banal, void and confused (Curl 1993:301). Many of the first crematoria were seen to be paradoxical, the cremationist movement had a strong focus on opposing the Church as an institution however, many crematoria were constructed as churchlike (Curl 1993: 302). The culmination of arcades, chapels, aisles and towers were seen by many critics as ‘contradictory, poorly designed and uncomfortably unresolved’ (Saracen 2017: 48). Figures 1.02 and 1.03 demonstrate the church-like design elements of some of these original crematoria. According to Hilary Grainger, architectural historian this mirroring of church-like elements for an unknown reason started to ‘confuse the development of this typology’ (2005:106).

Figure 1.02: Church-like crematorium in Woking, 1878, Paolo Gorini and Turner Engineers, Woking, England, Frances Fritz, 1901

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Figure 1.03: Church-like crematorium at the Pere Lachaise Cemetery, 1894, Jean-Camille, Paris, France, Nadia Dubois, 2009

Due to this supposedly confused design ethos of these twentieth-century crematoria there has been criticism not only on aesthetics but also functionality. According to Dutch academic, Mirijam Klaassens, much of the twentieth-century crematoria were â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;impersonal and meaningless non-places.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; (2011:117). Figure 1.04 exemplifies one of these impersonal spaces which have been described as banal and void, illustrating the South Essex Crematorium in England. The basic elements of a crematorium can be described as a public, accessible area and backstage that can only be accessed by some (Wilkinson 2016:58). Functionally speaking this typology is generally comprised of a chapel, lobby, a collection of mourning rooms, waiting spaces, offices, preparty rooms, cold storage and the controversial yet integral furnace (see Figure 1.05) (Wilkinson 2016:58). A target criticism was their utilitarian nature rather than a space which supported the process of grief. This is evidenced through the address by Modernist architect Maxwell Fry (1899-1987) to the British Cremation Societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conference in 1967. He presented arguments about steering crematoria design away from a pragmatic basis, symptomatic of nineteenth-century utilitarian ideals, towards a thoughtful consideration of the psychological impact of the interior space which was more in line with evolving attitudes towards death (Davies & Mates 2005: 515). Fry believed crematoria lacked a conceptual basis which presented untold problems for architects (Davies & Mates 2005: 516).

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Figure 1.04: Harsh fluorescent lighting and cold materiality reflect the utilitarian nature of many crematoria in western Europe during the twentieth century, South Essex Crematorium, 1957, architect unknown, South Essex, England Andrew Fletcher, 2008

1 3 8

4 2

5 5

6 7

1 Furnace 2 Preparation room 3 Chapel 4 Mourning room 5 Waiting rooms 6 Lobby 7 Offices 8 Community room

Figure 1.05: Diagram showing the layout of the South Essex Crematorium, 1957, architect unknown, South Essex, England, image edited by author Additionally, an outcome of the utilitarian nature of pragmatic crematoria was the visitors perceived sense of being processed (Klaassens 2011:118). This was exacerbated by the prominent efficient circulation through the space, designed to speed up the flow of

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congregations (Davies 1996: 91). Due to the ‘one door in and one door out’ circulation route, mourners had to exit the building through a different door in order to avoid any interactions with incoming groups, creating a ‘mechanical and forced’ experience of the building and failing to fulfil basic human requirements in aiding those mourning (Grainger 2005: 44). A personal experience of a utilitarian crematorium user which will be discussed in the following chapter, will further support these assertions.

In conclusion, this chapter revealed that cremation had roots in ancient societies and civilisations and the modern cremationist society of the late nineteenth century was rather a renewal of the practice, bringing the combination of fire and body back to civic life (Cooney et al. 2014: 16). Its revival was a culmination of modernist ideals, the impacts of the Industrial Revolution, a concern with sanitation and the lack of available space (Saracen 2017:48).

Through outlining the morphological traits of original crematoria and comparatively assessing these against critiques of the evolution of twentieth-century crematorium by Grainger and Fry it can be seen that for the most part they retained their utilitarian nature (Grainger 2005:106 & Fry in Davies & Mates 2005:515). Critics suggested that their evolution did not align with changing attitudes towards death, remaining fairly stagnant over the most part of the century (Grainger 2005: 44). The complexities of space, functions and their interrelations in crematoria proved a challenge for designers in most cases across the twentieth century. The dualist nature, which will be discussed further in chapter two, of machine versus emotion was seen as a major challenge. (Davies 1996: 85). Overall, this chapter provided necessary context to aid in the discussion of the non-linear evolution of the crematorium typology in western Europe, from a utilitarian space to an approach embodying human-centred design.

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Chapter Two: The Crematorium through a Theoretical Framework of Architectural Phenomenology and HumanCentred Design Throughout the twentieth century the designs of crematoria largely retained a utilitarian and mechanised design approach (Grainger 2006: 3). It was not until the end of this century that there became a serious reconsideration of the design of this typology (Davies & Mates 2005: 72). This chapter will explore the reasons why crematoria retained their modernist utilitarian nature in western Europe for the majority of the last century. In short it was due to their dualist nature of being both utilitarian and symbolic; religious and secular, providing a difficult resolution (Klaassens 2011:118). Also, some critics state that many people were still coming to terms with cremation being a viable funerary rite thus, the normalisation was at the forefront of the cremationist movement rather than the designs of crematoria (Klaassens 2011:120). Concurrent with these modernist responses to the crematorium typology, was a design paradigm which focused on a human-centric design approach to the crematorium, with a number of architects believing this was the appropriate approach (Davies & Mates 2005: 306). The framework of phenomenology and human-centred design will be discussed, relating the importance of these theories to the design of crematoria. These theories will aid in informing the analysis of contemporary case studies in chapter three.

Throughout the twentieth century crematoria design remained largely identical to the original nineteenth-century models, with an underlying utilitarian character embedded in its modernist roots (Davies & Mates 2005: 72). Criticisms from architectural commentators throughout the twentieth century exemplifies the unfulfilled and stagnant design development of the crematorium typology. In 1968 modernist architect Maxwell Fry concluded that the typology gives the impression ‘of a ritual becoming truncated, or work done to a formula, down to a cost, as though crematoria could be as much as run of the mill design as any other building valued beneath townhalls’ (Grainger 2006: 2) In 19080, architectural historian James Curl contended that most crematoria were ‘distressingly banal and poorly designed, composed of disparate elements that are uncomfortably unresolved’ (Sørensen 2009: 21). More recently in 1999 architect and design critic Edwin Heathcote concluded that the design of crematoria was ‘a field of wasted opportunity, which falls short of fulfilling human requirements’ (Grainger 2006: 2).

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Both Davies (2005: 515) and Klaassens (2011:117) concur that a primary reason for a lack of development in crematoria design is due to its dualist nature - it is simultaneously utilitarian and symbolic; religious and secular. Thus, a modernist utilitarian model which respects â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;form follows functionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; often provided the most inclusive crematoria model even if it did fail to fulfil a number of criteria (Davies & Mates 2005:515 & Klaassens 20011:118). Klaassens also adds that throughout the twentieth century many western nations were still coming to terms with the notion of cremation, and many cremationist societies were still fighting for the normalisation of this funerary rite. For many, the act or normalising cremation was the primary concern, making the design decisions of the crematorium secondary (2011:120). For example, in France the Toulouse crematorium opened in 1971, this was the first new crematorium in France for over half a decade (see Figure 2.01). By 1980 the rate of cremation in the country had only just reached over 1% (Cooney et al. 2014, 87).

Figure 2.01: Exposed chimneys and furnaces at the Toulouse Crematorium, 1971, architect unknown, Toulouse, France, Gunner Hale, 2008

This primary criticism which keeps arising is that the crematorium presents itself as a utilitarian typology rather than a space which aids the process of mourning. The effect of this design is exemplified through the personal experience of modernist architect, Maxwell Fry (1899-1987):

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Years ago now I took my deceased mother to an outer London crematorium, and what struck me in this so different sort of ceremony was the attenuation of personal feeling due to the reliance upon machinery and mechanistic effects in the conduct of our lives, traducing and falsifying what should be simple and personal, and leaving me on my homeward journey frustrated and uncomforted (1969: 257).

Many critics believe it is not necessary or viable for the design of a crematorium to carry the heavy weight of alleviating emotional pain, however some architects believe that there is possibility for the space to support the process of grief, through the application of a phenomenological framework in regard to design (Grainger 2006: 13). This theoretical framework will be further discussed throughout this chapter.

The following section will begin to explore the application of phenomenology as a possible framework for the design of crematoria. Beginning in Europe at the start of the twentieth century, phenomenology was coined by the German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) (Seamon 2017:1). In short, phenomenology is a way of understanding and processing that emphasises the interpretation of human experience, awareness and meaning especially their unnoticed, ‘taken-for-granted dimensions’ (Moran 2011: 55).Translating this philosophical thought into architecture, this field focuses on how qualities of the designable world such as materiality, spatiality and aesthetics can contribute to human well-being and emotion (van Manen 2014: 39). Norwegian architect, Christian Norberg-Schulz (1926-2000) has said to have typified architectural phenomenology through the concept of genius loci. Genius loci is a Latin term which translates to the ‘spirit of the place’. Norberg-Schulz further disseminated this term down to the concept of atmosphere - the prevailing atmosphere of a place or space. He further described this atmosphere of place as an environmental character; something which could not be reduced to a list of spatial characteristics (Norberg Schulz 1980:8). It must be noted that the potentiality for the application of phenomenology outside the realm of philosophy has been scrutinised. American philosopher, Herbert Spielberg (1904-1990) believed that the varieties in philosophical phenomenological thought far outweigh the commonalities of the theory and thus its ambiguity makes it hard to translate to other disciplines (Spielberg 1982: 207). This above introduction to phenomenology does not consider architectural phenomenology as a whole, thus the following discussion will focus on interiority and architectural phenomenology.

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In order to understand phenomenology and its application into the design of crematoria, an investigation of ‘phenomenology from within’ is required (Shirazi 2013: 65). Juhani Pallasmaa (1936-), architect and theorist, explored through his writings, an approach to interiority through architectural phenomenology. His position on phenomenology is represented through the study of architecture of the senses (Shirazi 2013: 67). Pallasmaa suggested that ‘lifeenhancing’ architecture must be multi-sensory as an ocular centric model of space is not a successful design (1996: 12). He advocated this multi-sensory experience of interior spaces as he believed that the ‘cancerous spread of architectural imagery’ from media ‘decanters and isolates the body from a full experience’ (Pallasmaa 1996:6). He believed that vision as a singular sense makes users observers of space, whereas ‘peripheral perception’ activated through a multitude of senses allows for a ‘bodily experience encouraging participation’ (Pallasmaa 1996:194). This participation in space that he alludes to in the context of the crematorium allows for a haptic approach to the architectural scape of crematoria, one where a user actively participates in the experience of interiority (Shirazi 2013:68). Grainger, in line with Pallasmaa’s thinking, believes that a haptic experience of crematoria may enhance a user’s overall experience within the typology, especially where concerning grief (Grainger 2005: 200). This contemporary understanding of phenomenology in relation to interiority allows for a further understanding of the contemporary direction of architectural phenomenology.

Adding to the thinking of Pallasmaa, is key contemporary commentator on architectural phenomenology, American architect Steven Holl (1947-). Holl suggested that a building speaks through and is experienced through our senses, holding intentions which users may decipher through a perceptual understanding. He believed that if these intentions are successfully presented a heightened phenomenological experience of the space is attained, which may be altered by perception (Holl, Pallasmaa & Gomez 1994: 40-42). Reflecting on these notions may provide insight into the role of built space in moulding unique conditions for users, or in the case of the crematorium, mourners to experience (Shirazi 2013:101). With this brief insight into contemporary architectural phenomenology provided through the thinking of Pallasmaa and Holl a strengthened basis for spatial analysis of haptic and human-centred experience in provided, which will further support analysis in chapter three.

Similar to phenomenology, is the notion of human-centred or human-centric design. This is a design approach which places emphasis on user needs and the variance in these needs due to morals, culture and previous experiences (Zhang & Dong 2008 p.2). Human-centred design

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pertaining to architecture uses processing such as observation and data gathering to deduce what users of the space need and desire in order to obtain a favoured spatial experience (Jokela et al. 2003: 14). This spatial experience is usually the preferred outcome of the space as decided by the architects (Zhang & Dong 2008 p.6). However, it is understood that an array of variables may affect a user’s experience of a building’s interiority and exteriority (Jokela et al. 2003:14).

Specifically, the main goal of human-centred design in terms of crematorium design is to implement spatial techniques and elements which may aid to some extent in the processing of grief and the mourning process (Grainger 2005: 201). Some of these techniques include creating a relationship to the landscape, a purposeful sense of scale or choice in materiality.

These will be discussed in the spatial analysis of a number of crematorium case studies later in this chapter and more comprehensively in chapter 3.

According to scholar Tim Sørensen there is a necessity for the crematorium to move beyond simply the furnace and waiting room (2009:26). Growing secularisation on a global scale presents the crematorium in contemporary society as a highly significant public building, possibly replacing the church in western Europe, as the primary space to farewell the deceased (Sørensen 2009: 27). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century when the typology was initially arising, the building was a place for cremation and brief ceremony. Now, function, ceremony, ritual and remembrance are centred within the crematorium and its setting (Grainger 2006:13). This significant change in social patterns surrounding death and architectural thinking should be acknowledged in the quality and integrity of the interiority of the crematorium moving forward in the design of this typology (Curl 1993:178).

Throughout the twentieth-century development of the typology there have certainly been efforts in designing a more human-centric space in western Europe, however as mentioned it was not the common design approach of the time. Coychurch Crematorium located in southern Wales designed by Maxwell Fry in 1970 is one of these efforts (see Figure 2.02) (Saracen 2017: 55). Due to the feelings of depersonalisation he felt when utilising a generic crematorium after his mother’s passing, he wanted to focus on notions of personalisation. The most commended feature of the design is that mourners are not subject to the remote-controlled curtain closing around the coffin, which has often been criticised as a trivial and clichéd design element (see Figure 1.04). Rather, the coffin remains in view until the catafalque on which it rests descends through a slate floor (Maddrell & Sidaway 2012:114). Scholar Hilary Grainger, who has examined all 251 crematoria in the United Kingdom, commended Fry on the catafalque design

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element amongst other design decisions due to its ability to ‘reinstate a feeling of ritual into the process’ (Grainger 2006:15).Furthermore, the interiority of the space has a strong connection to the purposefully designed remembrance gardens (see Figure 2.02). According to psychologist Ulrika Stigsdotter a connection to nature can aid in ‘imbuing meaning, grounding a visitor’s sense of place and supporting in feelings of bereavement and mourning’ (Stigsdotter et al. 2012: 337). Through this strong connection to the surrounding landscape, Fry has created a more personalised crematorium than what he experienced during his mother’s passing (Grainger 2006:16).

Figure 2.02: Coychurch crematorium nestled within the landscape uses stone from onsite to further strengthen its relationship to site, 1970, Maxwell Fry, Wales, United Kingdom, Ian Hamilton, 2006

In addition, another example which highlights an attempt to alleviate a mechanised character of the crematorium design is the Asplund and Lewerentz’s Woodland Cemetery in Stockholm, completed in 1940 (Wilkinson 2016:55). The crematorium chapels are detached from the furnaces situated amongst lush planting, which provides pockets of reflection and privacy for mourners, as seen in Figure 2.03 (Wilkinson 2016:56). The chapels were designed in circular formations as the architects wanted to promote a sense of gathering in order to aid in the process

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of grief (see Figure 2.04). Each chapel has an antechamber in which mourners can sit on curved birch-root wood benches providing moments of solace, this is illustrated in Figure 2.05 (Wilkinson 2016: 56). The furnishings of the chapels were designed to be simple but of high comfort. This cemetery and crematorium are recognised amongst architectural critics as a successful example of human-centred design (Wilkinson 2006 57). Chapter three will further explore examples in order to understand the evolution of crematoria towards a more humancentred approach. Two twenty-first-century western European examples will be analysed; these case studies will be Rennes MĂŠtropole Crematorium by PLAN01 and Crematorium Siesegem by KAAN Architecture.

Figure 2.03: Exterior of one of three chapels utilised for ceremonies nestled between lush planting to create pockets of privacy and reflection at the Woodland Cemetery, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd

Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Harriet Atkinson, 2003

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Figure 2.04: Circular interior of a chapel at the Woodland Cemetery, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Lee Cooles, 1994

Figure 2.05: Antechamber at the Woodland Cemetery with curved Birchwood seating, 1940, Erik Asplund & Sigurd Lewerentz, Stockholm, Sweden, Lee Mindel, 2014

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In conclusion, there is undoubtedly a potential for architects to further explore the domain of the crematorium typology. The opportunities given by the changing attitudes towards death in society from the twentieth century were to the large extent missed, with many designs still retaining this mechanised atmosphere (Grainger 2006: 13). The primary reasons for this are the dualist nature of the crematorium and also the continuing struggle to normalise cremation in western Europe, leaving the design of the crematorium as a secondary concern (Davies & Mates 2005:515 & Klaassens 2011:120). Through a discussion of Edmund Husserlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s framework of phenomenology and also human-centred design the ability for space to aid in human wellbeing, through a sensorial design was expressed (Seamon 2017: 2 & Saracen 2017: 28). These theories highlight the ability for a space to support in the human processing of grief, even if only slightly (Jokela et al. 2003: 14). Lastly, the brief analysis of Fryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Coychurch Crematorium and Asplund and Lewerentzâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Woodland Cemetery highlighted that there was in fact some attempt during the course of the twentieth century to design a crematorium space which had the user at the forefront of the architectural vision. These two examples provided a brief introduction to support the analysis of two contemporary case studies in chapter three; Crematorium Amiens by PLAN01 and Crematorium Siesegem by KAAN Architecture. The discussion of these case studies will be further supported through the theoretical framework established in this chapter. The theoretical framework and further discussion into the evolution of crematoria design over the twentieth century evidenced shifts between a utilitarian and human-centric design approach.

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Chapter Three: Contemporary Crematorium Case Studies in Western Europe In recent years a focus on human-centred design in new crematoria has emerged, especially in western Europe (Grainger 2006: 100). A number of architects and critics claim that as religious rates continue to decline, that the ceremonies and aesthetics of traditional funerary rites do not suit today’s needs. Thus, there is a new wave of design work focused on reconceiving how society can deal with death (Nicholls 2017). The following chapter will outline and describe the design elements and spatial qualities of two twenty-first-century crematoria which contribute to an overall human-centric design. This will be done through analysing imagery, gathering recounts from the architects, analysing secondary sources from critics and also utilising the theoretical framework discussed in chapter two. The first case study will look at Rennes Métropole Crematorium in France highlighting its ability as a built form to aid in the process of grief through its spatial layout, the connection to the landscape and openness yet intimacy of its interior spaces (Warmann 2011). This example was chosen as the architects, PLAN01 are highly recognised in this new crematorium movement having designed a number of other crematoria around Europe. The second and final case study will focus on Belgian crematorium, Crematorium Siesegem by KAAN Architecten in its ability to somewhat counterweight the heaviness of death through landscaping decisions, form and volume and the choice of materiality (Levy 2018). This specific example was chosen as it is recognised amongst critics as an interesting example of human-centred crematorium design.

Rennes Métropole Crematorium in north-western France, is the result of a collective approach

by PLAN01 architects, a group of ten associates collaborating in a Parisian studio from the following architectural agencies; Atelier du Pont, Ignacio Prego Architects, Jean Bocabeille, Koz and Philéas (Warmann 2011). The Rennes Crematorium was completed in 2009, the architects’ overall approach to the design was to create ‘a strictly secular space that does not exclude anyone, without denying the needs of emotion, solemnity and spirituality shared by everyone’ (Bocabeille 2010). The building includes a large central hall, two ceremony rooms, a number of waiting rooms, courtyards, a small reflective pool and the back of house technical machinery, as seen in Figure 3.01.

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1

2 5

2

3 5 6 4

1 Back of House 2 Ceremony Rooms 3 Transition Zone 4 Reflective Pool 5 Waiting Rooms 6 Cafe Figure 3.01: Plan of Rennes Métropole Crematorium indicating spatial relationships, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, Paris, image edited by author

A prominent feature of the design is the circular form of the building, which assists in promoting human-centred design through aiding in feelings of safety and wellbeing (Vartanian 2018:11). The circle is repeated both in the building and also in the immediate landscape, which is illustrated in Figure 3.01. According to the architects the strong image of the circle is representative of ‘the central position of the deceased person, the circle as a universal and timeless symbol of cycles and secular spirituality’ (PLAN01 2009). According to 29

neuroscientist Oshin Vartanian, through a number of studies it was deduced that participants enjoyed interior spaces with curves over linear space. Vartanian furthered that ‘one prefers curves because they signal a lack of threat and increased safety’. It is critical to note that it is recognised that curves are not the superior form; however, in the case of human-centric design Oshin notes that they may provide an increased sense of safety and wellbeing (Vartanian 2018: 11). The configuration of circular spaces eliminates corridors in the design, which was an aforementioned criticism of many twentieth-century crematorium designs having an effect on users of feeling ‘processed’ (Klaassens 2011:118). Instead, PLAN01 has created transitional ‘flowing’ spaces (see Figure 3.01 and label three) between ceremony rooms and waiting rooms, with the main circulatory system being the large central hall. This large open space was conceived to reduce the feeling of being ‘shut in’, illuminated with natural light from floor to ceiling windows framing one of the courtyards (see Figure 3.02) (PLAN01 2009). It is not intended to dictate constant movement but is rather intended for ‘families to get together, where they can decide to speak or not, where people can pause and be overwhelmed with emotion’ (PLAN01 2009). Similarly, the architects wanted to avoid a single pathway of entrance and a single imposing entry point, rather creating a number of possible approaches, encouraging a gradual meandering, a less monumental progress from the external environment into the building in order to avoid dictating circulation (Bocabeille 2010).

Figure 3.02: The central circulatory space of Rennes Crematorium with an outlook onto one of the many courtyards, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Luc Boegly, 2009

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Inherent links can be drawn between the design elements in the two primary public areas and human-centred design. The two ceremonial rooms are large circular spaces with private interior courtyards. This layout resolves the contradictory desire for both openness and intimacy (Warmann 2011). The room with its timber walls, allows for overall privacy while the courtyard allows outlook and a connection to the outdoors (see Figure 3.03). This incorporation of nature into the interior is expressed within the central circulatory space as well as these ceremony rooms. According to psychologists Rachel and Steven Kaplan, ‘nature like life, moves in cycles. Many find hope and solace in the outdoors, with therapists world-wide utilising nature-based therapy in the process of supporting grief, with techniques as simples as a window view of natural elements’ (1989: 39). Similarly, academic Ulrika Stigsdotter expresses that ‘nature can be beneficial to those experiencing grief, through the stress relieving effect of cognitive restoration’ (Stigsdotter et al. 2012: 337).

Figure 3.03: The foreground depicts the exterior of one of the ceremonial rooms with solid timber walls and a small outlook through glass walls onto an attached internal courtyard highlighted in orange, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Luc Boegly, 2009, image edited by author

Similarly, a correlation between architectural phenomenology and the design of the waiting areas of Rennes Crematorium is evident. The waiting areas also provide this duality between openness and intimacy. Their walls are made entirely of floor to ceiling glass panels which provide expansive views onto the landscape, again providing this biophilic healing connection.

The activity of this space can be completely hidden from the public through translucent curtains which allow visitors to control the levels of openness (see Figure 3.04) (Warmann 2011). This 31

can be further explained through the phenomenological concept of spectacle. Spectacle is a phenomenological measure of perceiving and observing users in a space from the point of view of a spectator while also being spectated by other occupants (Richards 1990:5). It can be said to aid in actualising a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sense of place with in an interior (Richards 1990:5). Thus, taking this phenomenological framework, the notion of spectacle through the controlled levels of intimacy and openness in waiting rooms may have a positive effect on users, allowing for both prospect and refuge during a time of mourning (Richards 1990:7).

Figure 3.04: The waiting room with transparent curtains allowing for the control of openness and intimacy, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France Luc Boegly, 2009

Lastly, the landscaping decisions in relation to the crematorium play an integral role in creating a space which aims to support the process of grief. The carpark is located in the wooded area adjacent to the site. Visitors are thus made to walk a substantial distance from the carpark to one of the many entrances, allowing them to gradually make the transition from the everyday to this ceremonial space, which for some may be considered confronting (Keane-Cowell 2011).

According to the architects, the external granite blocks which circulate the building represent a liminal boundary; subtle indication that visitors are entering from one realm to another whilst also providing exterior rest spots for visitors to take in the enormity of the happenings within the crematorium (see Figure 3.05) (PLAN01 2009). The small reflective pond also is intended for this function; a place of external reflection; â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;somewhere to take a breathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (see Figure 3.06) (PLAN01 2009). In human centred-design rest spots are considered essential in order to reflect

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on the space itself, the surroundings and the happenings of these two realms (Jokela et al. 2003: 14). The previously mentioned granite blocks also allow for a haptic experience of the space.

It has been said that within a haptic realm materials ‘demand to be stroked, inspiring a sense of connection to place’ (Jokela et al. 2003: 14). The architects wanted the monolithic granite pillars to inspire touch and interaction; ‘people can climb on them, hide behind them, rest against them in order to process the emotions of their experience’ (PLAN01 2009). Through this phenomenological concept of haptic experience, the architects have desired to aid in supporting the process of grief through design.

Figure 3.05: Large granite blocks surround the building to create a liminal boundary, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Luc Boegly, 2009

Figure 3.06: The exterior pond in the foreground which is intended to be used as a place of rest and point of reflection, 2009, PLAN01, Rennes, France, Luc Boegly, 2009

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Another approach of human-centred crematorium design can be observed in Crematorium Siesegem by KAAN Architecten. Located in northern Belgium, this crematorium was completed in 2018. The site consists of a meditative pool which is also used as a reservoir to collect rainwater, an urn garden and a number of landscaped mounds for scattering ashes (Levy 2018). Upon entering the visitor is greeted with a large reception hall, there are two ceremonial assembly halls, a large cafeteria as well as a number of transitional zones and waiting rooms (see Figure 3.07) (Levy 2018). In this particular example the machinery and furnaces are exposed, the reasoning for this will be discussed later in the chapter (Neira 2018). An austere material palette of concrete and grey marble has been utilised for this rectilinear two-storey volume, this deliberately pared back material palette was intended to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;emanate genuine serenityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; whilst creating a series of contemplative and calming spaces within (KAAN Architecten 2018).

3 4 5

5

2

5 1

3

1 Back of House 2 Reception Hall 3 Ceremony Halls 4 Cafeteria 5 Waiting/Mourning Rooms

Figure 3.07: Plan of Crematorium Siesegem indicating spatial relationships, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, image edited by author

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More specifically, the landscaping will be considered through the phenomenological notion of the previously discussed genius loci. According to the architects, the undulating green mounds of the landscape, seen in Figure 3.08 were already apparent and have been exaggerated (KAAN Architecten 20818). Through maintaining this mounded landscape and enhancing the exisiting, it could be said that the architects have preserved the genius loci of the site (Menin 2003:68).

According to philosopher Isis Brook, although ambiguous, genius loci has practical value as a rhetorical device which can help argue for a sensitive design approach, through maintaining this spirit of place (Menin 2003:68). In terms of human-centred design, it is agreed on by many scholars that a sensitive design approach often concerns itself with human-wellbeing, human dignity, justice, welfare and human rights (Friedman 1999:163). These values in the context of crematorium design align with providing a space that can aid in the processing of grief. The undulating mounds have been designed as places to scatter ashes and also to sensitively guide visitors to meander through the landscape before approaching the building, in order for the arrival to the crematorium to be more anticipated and lessen the confronting nature of the arrival (KAAN Architecten 2018). Also, the mounds set the building within the landscape as evident in Figure 3.09, allowing the architects to avoid â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;pompous monumentalityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and create a less intimidating arrival (Neira 2018).

Figure 3.08: Aerial view of the existing landscape before works to the site began, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2017

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Figure 3.09: The undulating mounds for scattering ashes and eschewing the monumentality of the building, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018

Similar to the design of Rennes Crematorium, Crematorium Siesegem has a strong connection between interior and exterior and the importance of this is further supported through the lens of phenomenology. Connections between the landscape and interior are formed through full height windows standing at 6.4 metres tall that overlook greenery-filled light wells or the surrounding terrain. This has been integrated into a number of spaces to provide a ‘counterweight to the intensity experienced by the bereaved’ (see Figure 3.10) (KAAN Architecten 2018). Both assembly spaces have large glazed walls looking out onto the landscape, which can be seen in Figure 3.11, again connecting interior to exterior as a way of supporting grief (Neira 2018). A key critique of architectural phenomenology titled Water and Architecture (1958) by American architect and theorist Charles Moore (1925-1993) explored the idea that a user’s experience and reality of space is reliant on their vision and perception of their surroundings. He believed that by implementing strong and sustained visual connections to nature, a subject would be further immersed and receptive to a space (Petit 2010:161).

Following Moore’s assertions, it can be said that through the sustained connection to the outdoors in Crematorium Siesegem a user is more likely to be receptive to the space and its inherent offerings.

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Figure 3.10: An outlook from the transitional hallway onto the exterior mounds, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018

Figure 3.11: Outlook from one of the ceremonial assembly halls onto the greenery and landscape 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018

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KAAN Architecten have utilised scale in order to provide a variety in spatiality, in line with principles of human-centred design. Human-centred design focuses on user needs and understanding the variance in these needs depending on morals, past experience and cultural beliefs (Zhang & Dong 2008 p.2). The architects have provided spaces for both solemnities, apparent in Figure 3.12, and gathering, seen in Figure 3.13, in order to suit the array of needs for those experiencing grief (Levy 2018). Furthermore, the large open ceremonial rooms are coupled with smaller family rooms and a place for condolences, here scale aids in suggesting function and catering for the many needs of those mourning (Neira 2018). The choice in materiality was also essential in correlating function to atmosphere. The interior walls are raw concrete with a textured matte render. The ceiling has a rough sprayed finish to ensure extremely muted acoustics, which is fundamental to the atmosphere of the space. A sense of warmth has been imbued in gathering spaces such as the family rooms and cafeteria which both have oak parquet flooring (KAAN Architecten 2018).

Figure 3.12: A space for solemnity and quiet reflection highlighted in orange,2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018, image edited by author

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Figure 3.13: A space for gathering highlighted in orange in one of the transitional hallways, 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018, image edited by author

Lastly, the technical aspects of the building are a fundamental part of not only the functional aspect but also the human-centred focus of this crematorium. The technical rooms are positioned next to the ceremony rooms, creating an effective spatial relationship between the two (see Figure 3.07) (Levy 2018). The overall intention in the design of the chimneys and furnaces was to disclose rather than hide the cremation process creating a polarity between mechanics and serenity (KAAN Architecten 2018). The sandy yellow colour of the bench seating of the ceremonial halls (see Figure 3.14) is reflected in the colour of the technical aspects, to soften their aesthetics (see Figure 3.15) (Neira 2018). The architects wanted to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;create a sense of dignity and intimacy in the process of cremation, allowing mourners to view the process if they so wishâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (KAAN Architecten 2018). An integral aspect of human-centred design is the belief that a space should be designed for the user and also allow the user to utilise the space as they so wish, thus disclosing the controversial furnace provides opportunity for someone to view the entire cremation process yet does not force users to do so (Jokela et al.

2003:14.)

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Figure 3.14: The largest ceremonial hall seating 600 people with upholstered bench seating to match the sandy colour of the furnaces 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018

Figure 3.15: The furnaces and back of house exposed for public viewing 2018, KAAN Architecten, Aalst, Belgium, Simone Bossi, 2018

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In conclusion, in previous chapters it has been noted that there was potential for architects to further explore the domain of the crematorium typology. Many critics believe that opportunities given by the changes in society relating to death, from the twentieth century were to a large extent missed, with many crematoria designs still retaining a modernist utilitarian approach (Grainger 2006:13). Two architects, PLAN01 and KAAN Architecten with their crematoria designs have strayed from this traditional model with the common intention of creating a human-centric space that can aid to some extent in supporting the process of grief, mourning and bereavement. Through a theoretical framework of architectural phenomenology and human-centred design these two crematoria were discussed. Rennes Crematorium in northwestern France, utilises the circular form, the duality between openness and intimacy and a strong connection of interior exterior connections to create a space ‘which does not exclude anyone, without denying the needs of emotion, solemnity and spirituality in the process of grief’ (PLAN01 2009). Crematorium Siesegem in Belgium calls on poignant landscaping decisions, interior and exterior connections, scale and materiality to create a space fuelled by the Architects intention of ‘emanating a genuine serenity without succumbing to monumentalism, to create a space which is a peaceful oasis for reminiscence’ (KAAN Architecten 2018). This chapter provided insight into the shift away from a utilitarian design approach towards the more current approach of human-centred design; showcasing that this later mentioned approach is more in line with the societal attitudes towards death of today.

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Conclusion Through all its criticism and critique, the crematorium is acknowledged by scholars as a highly significant public space. This dissertation associated a contextual framework of the crematorium and a theoretical framework which informed the analysis of two contemporary crematoria case studies, uniting to reveal the development of crematoria design from its utilitarian roots to its contemporary human-centric approach.

Investigation into the history of cremation was required in this dissertation to outline a relevant scope, specifically the history of cremation in western societies. This was important in understanding that the modern cremationist movement, which arose in the late nineteenth century in Europe, was only a renewal, with cremation having roots in ancient and classical societies and civilisations (Cooney et al. 2014: 16). Chapter one uncovered that the primary reasons for this revival were industrialisation, secularisation and the fear of disease and pollution (Saracen 2017:48). At its core it was considered a radical movement in direct opposition to the Church (Saracen 2017:49). The primary influences and principles were important in understanding that the original crematorium design approach was a reaction to the values of society at the time of conception (Klaassens 2011: 115). Through outlining the typological and morphological traits of original crematoria design, comparatively assessing these against the evolution of crematoria design over the twentieth century an important understanding was gained. Specifically, this discussion brought to light that the evolution of the crematorium as an architectural typology is one that was not heavily linked to shifts in the sociocultural, political or economic spirit of society in western Europe, retaining its original utilitarian nature (Klaassens 2011: 115). This was further validated by a number of critics who concluded that the original utilitarian design model of the crematorium aligned with the industrial revolution and modernist ideals of the time of inception (Davies 1996: 20).

Concurrently, these critics believed that crematorium design over the twentieth century failed to satisfy the changing attitudes towards death that evolved, with a fairly stagnant design approach over the course of this century (Grainger 2005: 44). This chapter concluded with the query of the ability of architectural space, specifically the crematorium in aiding with some level of emotional support in the face of death (Davies 1996: 85). This was further established through the theoretical framework of the following chapter.

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Chapter two discussed various theories in relation to crematorium design, in order to support the analysis in chapter three. With the historical context affirmed, the evolution of the typology was further understood through providing explanation to why crematoria design remained largely stagnant across the twentieth century. The effect that this primary design model had on users was then highlighted through a personal account by architect Maxwell Fry, to strengthen the understanding and reasoning for highlighting the chosen theoretical framework in this chapter (Fry 1969: 247). The first theory of phenomenology was then outlined, explaining its relevance to architectural studies and the analysis of crematoria design. With this translation into the field of crematoria design affirmed, the key notions were further explained through the notable ideas of contemporary theorists Pallasmaa and Holl and their relevant approaches to architectural phenomenology (Seamon 2017: 3). Additionally, human-centred design, was outlined to inform on the ability of space, through specific spatial decisions, to aid in emotional support (Sørensen 2009: 27). Two case studies were briefly analysed at the end of this chapter, these being Asplund and Lewerentz’s Woodland cemetery and Fry’s Coychurch Crematorium.

These examples were presented to highlight that throughout the twentieth century there were efforts by architects made utilising a human-centred design approach to crematoria (Curl 1993:178). The analysis of these case studies pre-empted a number of spatial techniques and core principles of the contemporary case studies of the final chapter.

Chapter three drew on the theoretical framework mentioned in chapters one and two in order to analyse two twenty-first-century examples of crematoria design in western Europe. This aided in revealing the evolution of crematoria from its utilitarian past to the human-centric approach of today. The sites chosen were Rennes Métropole crematorium by PLAN01 in northwestern France (Warmann 2011) and Crematorium Siesegem by KAAN Architecten in Belgium (Levy 2018). Through a spatial analysis informed by the major theories detailed in chapter two the benefits of a human-centric approach and its effect on users was brought to light. The spatial analysis focused on form and volume, materiality, landscaping decisions and exterior interior connections. The analyses of these two contemporary western European examples, supported by a theoretical framework emphasised the ability of the crematorium to go beyond its functional constraints, showcasing spaces which provided, to some extent, support in the process of grief. The chapters worked concurrently to display this non-linear evolution of the crematorium from its highly functional approach at the time of conception to today with its focus on a human-centred design approach.

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Reflecting on this dissertation, the potentiality for future research is immense and considerable regarding this relatively recent avenue of crematoria design focusing on the user. Future research focused on the relationship between user-experience and behaviour and the spatial relationships of crematoria could provide more insight into the most effective architectural gestures and language in creating an interiority that to some extent supports grief. Given the contextual time period in writing, there is increased relevance in how society deals with death as it becomes increasingly less of a taboo. As cultures becomes more homogenised through globalisation there is also a need to consider crematoria as public spaces which hold a responsibility in providing a space for an array of cultures to respectfully perform their funerary traditions. Due to the constraints regarding time and word count these above strains of thought were not explored but could be done through further research regarding crematoria design. In summary, this dissertation highlighted the non-linear evolution of the crematorium typology in western Europe, from a utilitarian space, embedded in modernist ideals to the prominent twenty-first- century approach, embodying human-centred design. Showcasing the ability for the crematorium space to support mourners, to some extent, in the process of grief.

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