Dissertation - Delwyn Ke

The human experience of the Japanese aesthetic of ‘mono no aware’ within Japanese interiors and its exploration within 21st Century contemporary architecture.

Delwyn Ke

4th Year Dissertation of UNSW Interior Architecture

UNSW Built Environment UNSW Sydney 2019

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Built Environment

Individual Plagiarism Declaration Z5117811

Ke

Delwyn

Student Number

Family Name

Other Names

INTA2411

Dissertation

Course ID

Course Name

T1 2019

The human experience of the Japanese aesthetic of ‘mono no aware’ within Japanese interiors and its exploration within 21st Century contemporary architecture.

Session & Year

Title of the Assessment Task to which this Declaration applies

Sing D’arcy Lecturer

NB. if, by prior agreement, this work is being submitted for assessment in more than one course, you must list all those other course IDs in the above boxes …

I declare that: •

this assessment item is my own work, except where acknowledged, and has not been submitted for academic credit elsewhere;

all reasonable care has been taken to ensure that no other person has been able to copy this work either in paper or electronic form.

I acknowledge that the assessor of this item may, for the purpose of assessing this item: •

•

reproduce this assessment item and provide a copy to another member of the University; and/or,

communicate a copy of this assessment item to a plagiarism checking service (which may then retain a copy of the assessment item on its database for the purpose of future plagiarism checking).

I certify that I have read and understood the University rules in respect of Student Academic Misconduct.

•

Delwyn Ke

10.05.2019

Signature

Date

Plagiarism is the use another's work pretending that it is your own. More specifically, in an educational context, plagiarism is endeavouring to obtain academic credit in a course of study for work that is either not individually prepared by you or prepared by you, but for some other purpose, whether paid or unpaid.

The following web sites expand more fully on the nature and consequences of plagiarism and must be read prior to submitting this declaration. https://student.unsw.edu.au/plagiarism https://intranet.be.unsw.edu.au/student-intranet/assignments-and-plagiarism

1

Abstract The expression of the Japanese aesthetic of ‘Mono no aware’ and its significance within the interior of Japanese architecture.

This dissertation will discuss how the expression of the Japanese aesthetic of ‘Mono no aware’ is explored within Japan’s history and its significance through the interior of Japanese architecture with regards to the human experience. This will be explored through the analysis of academic journals and articles focusing on case studies examining Japanese history and the aesthetics, and its role within interior architecture, and presented in the methodology of case studies and survey of research found. These include secondary sources, translated from Japanese to English. Furthermore, due to a limited scope for this dissertation, primary sources will not be included as time does permit this. These sources will be accessed from the University of New South Wales, University of Sydney and University of Technology Sydney and their respective databases, as well as the State Library to ensure reputable academic sources. Writings by architects, architectural critics, professors and philosophers will be examined and selected to use as secondary sources to inform this dissertation.

‘Mono no aware’ refers to the human experience of impermanence and the understanding of the transitory nature of things with a sense of beauty and finiteness. Although it has been a concept that has been experienced by humans since existence, the aesthetic and concept of ‘Mono no aware’ was refined during the Heian era of 794-1192 as part of the aristocratic lifestyle within the imperial court.

Through literature, art and architecture the aesthetic became ingrained within Japanese culture, tradition and society.

Since the Heian era, the aesthetic of ‘Mono no aware’ has continually been explored through architecture and remains as one of the most prominent key aesthetics in contemporary society. This dissertation will explore the significance of ‘Mono no aware’ and its expression within society through Japanese interiors and the human experience.

2

Acknowledgments I would like acknowledge, with much appreciation, my dissertation tutor,Dr. Sing D’arcy for his guidance and assistance in writing this dissertation.

3

Table of Contents

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Chapter 1............................................................................................................................................. 7 Shintō Beginnings............................................................................................................................ 7 Nara Period (710-794)..................................................................................................................... 8 Heian Era (794-1192) ...................................................................................................................... 9 Tokugawa Period (1603-1867) ...................................................................................................... 11 WWII Re-emergence ..................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2........................................................................................................................................... 13 Modernism & Post War Japan ...................................................................................................... 13 Coexistence of Tradition and Modern .......................................................................................... 14 Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................... 22 Kengo Kuma – Ginzan Fujiya Ryokan (2006) ................................................................................. 23 Shigeru Ban – Paper Church in Kobe (1995 – 2005) ..................................................................... 25 Ryue Nishizawa – Teshima Art Museum (2010) ........................................................................... 27 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 30 References ........................................................................................................................................ 32

4

Introduction Traditional Japanese aesthetics are inherent within Japanese culture, through literature, art and architecture. The values within Japanese society are often based upon the traditional aesthetics, often influencing Japanese culture since the Heian Era. Upon a personal visit to Japan, the aesthetic of mono no aware became an interest of mine that I wanted to explore further. The primary aim of this dissertation will be to explore the notions of mono no aware and its existence within the built environment, with particular focus on interiors. This dissertation will explore the origins of the aesthetic and its expression through the built environment. Mono no aware will further be explored in its adaptation through key periods, and how the traditional notions have changed in expression within architecture. Finally, this dissertation will explore the aesthetic and its relevance to contemporary 21st century architecture today through the case studies of Kengo Kuma, Shigeru Ban and Ryue Nishizawa. The use of secondary sources will be primarily used due to the limitation of the scope to complete this dissertation within 10 weeks. Minimal primary sources will be used due to my lack of knowledge in Japanese, and thus most sources will also be in English. Due to a lack of time and the limitations of this dissertation, no further case studies could be explored.

The first chapter will explore the origins of mono no aware and its adaptation through the Shinto and Buddhist religions. The influences and development of these aesthetics will also be outlined, and explored through its relevance within society, culture and the built environment. Mono no aware will be discussed as an aesthetic that closely relates to the traditions and culture of Japan. Through international and national influences and events, Japanese aesthetics were developed as a unique sense of identity within Japanese society. Throughout history, these aesthetics have been shaped and reshaped according to human and natural events. These aesthetics have thus become ingrained within Japanese culture, and this will be explored through the expression and significance of architecture and the interior.

The second chapter will explore the transition of mono no aware from the Heian period to the Metabolist movement. The Metabolist movement is a key period in the re-expression of mono no 5

aware due to the cultural and societal impact World War II left on Japan. This chapter will outline the importance of the resurgence of mono no aware within society and discuss its relevance within the built environment. Mono no aware will be explored as a traditional Japanese aesthetic that has been shaped over time, and this chapter will discuss the traditional expressions with the new Metabolist expression through architecture.

Finally, the third chapter will explore mono no aware as an aesthetic that remains relevant within 21st century contemporary Japanese architecture. This will be explored through the case studies of Kengo Kuma, Shigeru Ban and Ryue Nishizawa. Notions found within these architect’s use of materiality and the natural environment will be discussed in reference to mono no aware and its experiential qualities within the interior. These case studies will include Kengo Kuma’s Ginzan Fujiya Onsen, Shigeru Ban’s Paper Church in Kobe and Ryue Nishizawa’s Teshima Art Museum.

6

Chapter 1 Chapter one will define the concept of mono no aware and explore its origins, development and significance in the built environment through Japan’s history. Firstly, this chapter will explore the basis in which Japanese aesthetics were formed, and its development. Mono no aware is defined as ‘the poignant beauty of things’, an aesthetic describing one’s sensitivity and realisation of the fleeting nature and transience of the world. Throughout history, Japan has been influenced by the traditions and cultures of China, Korea and India (Prusinski 2013: 25). Japanese aesthetics were most notably formed and conceptualised during Japan’s Heian era (794-1185), the last division of classical Japanese history (Prusinski 2013: 26). The period was named after the capital city of this time; Heian-kyō or modern Kyōto. During this period, Chinese culture and religion; Taoism and Buddhism had an immense influence on Japanese society and thus the aesthetics, however this was also the period in which Japan began to develop its own national identity (Seal, 2010). The new-found sense of Japanese nationalism allowed for the development of aesthetic notions that would become historically ingrained within Japanese culture, tradition and society (Seal 2010).

Shintō Beginnings Japan’s history prior to the start of the Heian era had developed from the ancient religion of Shintō to a newly adopted Chinese Buddhism (Macmillan 2008: 194). Shintō is the indigenous faith of Japan and was constructed from an existing primitive form of devotion to the worship of nature (Macmillan 2008: 502). The religion is animistic in nature, where it is believed that every object in nature possesses a spirit and soul (Larsen, 2018). Shintō provided a basis for ancient aesthetics to build upon, focussing on the celebration of nature (Prusinski 2013: 25). The notion of mono no aware originates from the ideals of Shintō, through heightened sensitivity towards the natural world and is related to the Shintō notions of mono no ke ‘the vitality of things’ and mono no kokoro ‘the mood of things’ (Larsen 2018). Mono no ke encapsulates the vital energy exuded by objects in the real world, for example, the gateways of shrines possess a vital energy and thus serves as a sacred place (Larsen 2018). Mono no kokoro is practiced through one’s attempt to capture the tangible

7

world through a relationship of profound sympathetic resonance and the surrounding environment (Prusinski 2013). Thus, mono no ke and mono no kokoro provide the basis of the emerging aesthetic

Figure 1.01: Ise Jingu newly rebuilt structure adjacent to old structure : Ise Jingu, Mie, Japan, 2013, online image, available at http://www.hharchitecture.com/2013/10/on-shikinen-sengu/, <Accessed on 3rd of May 2019>

notion of mono no aware, in which it represents a ‘refined sensibility of resonating with the vital energy of things in a constantly changing world’ (Park, 2005). The Shinto religion possessed an inherent notion of ‘impermanence’ as exemplified within the construction of a Shinto shrine; the Ise Jingu (4 BCE) as an inherent aesthetic quality (Richards 2018: 802). The Ise Jingu (as seen in figure 1.01) is consistently rebuilt every 20 years as a Shintō ritual of seasonal renewal and purification and is characterised for its transcendental quality within architecture (Richards 2018: 802). The Shrine is constructed using timber and interlocking joints, in which the materials are recyclable and open to the natural elements, further emphasising a sense of impermanence within the structure (Soares, Magalhaes 2014). The old shrines are dismantled and their materials are recycled, leaving an empty plot for the next cycle; reflecting the cycle of life and its impermanence (Richards 2018: 803).

Nara Period (710-794) The Chinese introduction of Buddhism, during the Nara period of 710-794, influenced Japanese society and culture. Japanese society had mostly been patterned after the Chinese, where the upper class adopted the Chinese written system, fashion and the religion of Buddhism. Buddhism would 8

fundamentally change the traditional way of Japanese life, and society became a reflection of Chinese influences (Schumacher, 2013). The introduction of Buddhism brought a new, defined awareness of the natural world as a process of ‘impermanence’ (Schumacher 2013). This was particularly evident within the interior of a sukiya, where the traditional materials of rotten timber, or freshly cut logs were used in construction (Kinoshita 1964: 25). The tea room caters to the temporal tea ceremony, and the function of the space itself is one of impermanence (Eccheli 2016:

Figure 1.02:Interior view of the Shokin-tei: Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 2012, online image, available at https://en.japantravel.com/kyoto/katsura-imperialvilla/1347 <Accessed on 5th of May 2019>

10) Within the space of the Shokin-tei (as seen in figure 1.02), traditional openings to the natural landscape allowed a sense of transience within the space, where the movement of the sun, the wind through the trees and seasonal changes were all natural elements that ensured a unique temporal experience within the sukiya (Eccheli 2016: 12). The use of fresh or rotten timber suggests a notion of impermanence and the transience of nature in its most raw form (Kinoshita 1964: 26).

Buddhism and Shintō were similar religions, in which they focussed on life and the life processes and passages and this allowed them to coexist with the intellectual structure of Confucianism. This basic premise of ‘impermanence’ became aestheticized by the Japanese, and the aesthetic notions of Shintō and Buddhism synthesised (Schumacher, 2013).

Heian Era (794-1192) Japan’s history of Chinese influence transformed amid the Heian era (794 – 1192), when a rebellion occurred in China. This led to the conclusion of Japanese missions to Tang China as well as the 9

suspension of the influx of Chinese scholars and cultural influences (Lockard, 2000). Japan became secluded from international influences, and this allowed a sense of nationalism to develop.

Furthermore, this allowed a history and tradition, unique to Japan to develop, forming the foundations of the Japanese aesthetics still relevant to contemporary society today (Lockard 2000).

The Heian Period experienced the culmination of Shintō and Buddhism, resulting in a revitalised focus on the natural world. Initially, the two religions created conflict, due to the change in traditions and culture within society. Two centuries after the introduction of Buddhism, Shintō deities were appointed anthropomorphic characteristics, adopted from the Buddhist divinities, revitalising the cultural focus on the natural world, life and the life processes and passages (Greve, 2015). Due to a revitalised focus on the natural world, the aesthetic and concept of ‘Mono no aware’ was refined in the Heian era of Japan. During this time, there was a developing attitude towards the embracement of a sensitivity and appreciation for nature. With the influence of Buddhism, the awareness of the world was perceived as ‘impermanent’, in which traditions based upon Buddhist understandings of the problem of ‘angst’ or ‘suffering’ in the face of the impermanence of things became aestheticized (Varley 1984). This idea of impermanence was most notably expressed by 13th century Zen master and philosopher, Dōgen, one of Japan’s most significant classical philosophers.

Dōgen expressed the idea of impermanence; mujō as the reality of constant change. Buddhism was supplemental to the development of mono no aware as an aesthetic in Japanese culture and became a structural basis for Heian society (Larson 2018). Mono no aware was an aesthetic developed as not only the awakening experience of impermanence, but also an aesthetic ideal towards the deep beauty inherent in the transitory nature of existence (Park, 2005).

Aesthetic ideals emerged during Japan’s extended periods of solitude, expressed in situational categories. Mono no aware, wabi sabi and ma were all interrelated aesthetics established from the experience of understated beauty. Mono no aware became a prominent aesthetic, in which Heian sensibility strengthened the understanding and appreciation of the intangible quality of objects possessing spiritual and emotional essence. This was a quintessential component that allowed one ‘the ability to identify oneself with the object being contemplated to emphasize with its mysterious beauty.’ (Prusinski, 2013). Each of these aesthetics evolved as concepts of beauty in nature, relying on the Heian sensibility to observe the natural surroundings and it experience.

The experience of mono no aware became more closely associated with the emotional and mental state of ‘melancholy moods. The emotions bound to the aesthetic ideal were often fleeting, leaving nothing but a memory behind. Although a transient, fragile experience, mono no aware becomes a powerful, emotional experience that can only be felt in the brevity of it. The beauty of the 10

experience lies not in the object itself, but in the fleeting, impermanent nature of the whole experience. Mono no aware cannot be captured in a single moment but must be experienced as a transformation in the span of time, in which the object is present and changing (Prusinski, 2013).

Tokugawa Period (1603-1867) It was later conceptualised and further developed significance during the Tokugawa period (16031867), where the emerging bourgeoisie were restricted in seeking political fulfillment under the protocols and regulations in respects to the Samurai, under Tokugawa rule. The Tokugawa clan ruled for over two centuries, in which society had become a state of melancholic gaiety (Prusinski 2013: 25). The merchant class evolved and began to develop a cultural movement that appealed to the common people (Sadler, 1937). Society had accepted a sense of fate in the inability to find one’s place within the restrictions of a strictly enforced order of living (Prusinski 2013: 26). This was expressed by mid-Tokugawa-period scholar, Motoori Norinaga as mono no aware as an aesthetic of the weak and sensitive through literature. Through his literary criticisms and lectures of Japan’s first collection of poems; the Manyoshu, Norinaga derived the term mono no aware as a concept that would greatly define Japanese culture in later centuries (Hooker, 1999). The aesthetic of mono no aware was adapted with a layer of historical context to remain significant in common culture during the Tokugawa period. Norinaga expressed the aesthetic as ‘a deep feeling about all things’, where the emotions are not necessarily sad, but where one is aware of their situation. In translation, these emotions have been expressed as a sense of beauty in grief, as grief is the one of the most universal and intense emotions. Mono no aware became a central aspect of Japanese identity during the Tokugawa period, associated with the emotions of oppression; sorrow, disappointment, lament and regret (Inouye, 2008). In connecting the context of oppression with the historical understanding of mono no aware as an aesthetic of impermanence, Norinaga emphasises a sense of hope, as an extension of the floating world mentality; to endeavour through one’s hardships. His writings display a sense of beauty in the midst of sorrow where we are inclined to accept our misfortunes and pursue temporary relief, thus exhibiting the significance of mono no aware during the Tokugawa period, where ‘oppressive life is beautiful’ (Inouye, 2008) Mono no aware remains an aesthetic that connects humans with their natural surroundings (Prusinski, 2013). The ideal has become an essential understanding of the Japanese identity, often expressed through the changing of the seasons, and the evanescence of cherry blossoms (Macmillan 2008: 86). The cherry blossoms are a symbol of transience, where they will bloom and begin to perish subsequently within a week (Macmillan 2008: 218). They are valued in Japanese society for their impermanence and fleeting beauty, evoking a wistful feeling of mono no aware (Parkes, 2018).

11

WWII Re-emergence This ideal was adapted during WWII, where the young kamikaze pilots were symbols of the aesthetic of falling cherry blossoms, in their role to defend the threatened space of Japan. The feeling of devastation revived the aesthetic of mono no aware as a fatalistic response to the profound sorrow of human nature. The disasters of war prompted a new adaptation and understanding of evanescence and form, where only through living with a sense of death and loss, we can now appreciate the delicate beauty of life (Inouye 2008: 220). Inouye defines the modern definition of mono no aware as the gaiety and sorrow of evanescence, where ‘because of evanescence, the first time (in life) is also the last time – knowing this, there is a joy, and knowing joy is to appreciate sorrow’ (Inouye, 2008: 221).

Mono no aware foregrounds finite existence within the flow of experience and change. Throughout history, each period has produced a new adaptation of ancient Japanese aesthetics that fuse together to form a coexistence of meanings and layers. This has allowed the aesthetics to remain relevant through history, expressed through literature, film and architecture. This chapter has explored the origins of mono no aware and its development through the built environment. This chapter remains significant as the basis in which mono no aware was first expressed through Japanese architecture and the interior. This will lead to Chapter 2 to explore the significance of mono no aware and its expression through Japanese interior architecture through the post WWII era.

12

Chapter 2 Chapter 2 will discuss how contemporary architecture has been influenced by the Japanese aesthetic of mono no aware and the unbroken continuity of Japanese philosophy and the aesthetics in its relevance to modern architecture during the post war era through the 20th century. Firstly, the introduction of modernism, and the resulting societal and cultural changes at the end of WWII will be explored through its representation within the built environment. Following the discussion of societal changes and the resulting transformation of Japanese aesthetics, this chapter will explore the coexistence of traditional and new aesthetics of architectural concepts as a unique layering of Japanese identity. This will be discussed through the analysis of modern post war architecture and the relationship between traditional and modern architectural expressions of mono no aware.

Modernism & Post War Japan Following the Tokugawa period, the Meiji era of 1868-1912 introduced foreign influences into the state of Japan as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;radical breakâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; from the conventions of the Tokugawa structure (Bush 2016). This new paradigm of modernity led to an influx of Western technological, philosophical, political and aesthetic ideals (Young & Young 2004). These developments through the late Meiji period reflected a sense of nationalist sentiment and international influence which became a transition period of stylistic change in the course of industrialisation through the introduction of glass and concrete as construction materials (Wendelkein 1996). Foreign influences included the introduction of the architectural movement of Modernism in which many Japanese and Western architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Antonin Raymond, had designed avant-garde structures during this period (James-Chakraborty 2014). The Modernist movement began in the early 20th century, pioneered by European architects; Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier (Brown 2016). Several notable Japanese architects including Junzo Sakakura and Kunio Maekawa spent time working with Le Corbusier in Paris. Upon returning, they unified the Western ideals of Modernism with the Japanese aesthetics anchored in Buddhist and Shinto values and traditions, creating a unique modernist architectural style exclusive to Japan that would continue to be developed throughout the 20th century (James-Chakraborty 2014).

World War II was a critical point in history and left many cities in ruins, the Modernist movement began to transform in several ways (Miles 2013). In Europe, the movement underwent a phase of optimism, captured by the deliberations of the International Congress for Modern Architects (CIAM) who rose to the international platform in an attempt to renew a sense of humanism in the face of 13

wartime devastation (Craven 2017). In parallel, the aftermath of World War II saw the destruction of Japan’s cities and the nation’s unconditional surrender became the catalyst to a change in Japanese society. The existing aesthetic of mono no aware were shaped by the post war experience, influencing the Modernist architectural development during this period (Inouye 2008 p.219). The defeat and devastation of the war resulted in the abandonment of a fascist movement devoted to transcendental ideals, and in place, welcomed the possibility of peace with a renewed appreciation for evanescence and its expression in the present form (Inouye 2008: 219). In society, there was a departure from the wartime rhetoric of personal sacrifice to maintain traditional Japanese culture from external influences, where an alternative ‘modern’ notion of democracy; civil rights and unionisation was embraced (Slater 2011). The post-war architectural style responded to the aftermath of war; envisioning a ‘utopia of resilience’ while embodying traditional architectural characteristics (Schalk 2014).

Coexistence of Tradition and Modern A group of Western-trained Japanese architects; Junzo Sakakura, Kunio Maekawa and Kenzo Tange influenced and trained by Le Corbusier introduced the Metabolism movement in which the built environment would integrate traditional Japanese architecture as well as Modern aesthetic values (Jencks 1979). Thus, the beginning of the Metabolism movement; an architectural style unique to Japan in which the built environment would be adaptable, organised and resilient in response to both human and natural disasters (James-Chakraborty 2014).

In reference to Chapter one, where the ideals of mono no aware were explored, Jencks describes similar characteristics evident within the Metabolic movement which are reinforced through Dr. Inouye’s examination of post war Japanese ideals. Dr Inouye examines the post-war societal ideals as being based upon a sense of melancholy and unease as a result of the natural disasters and human destruction during this period, ‘the post-war experience was more than a simple loss of ideological certainty, “all things changing all the time” shaped the postmodern response to modernity’s failures by making it nothing less than a near-constant rehearsal of the end of the world itself…’ (Inouye 2008). Japanese sociologist, Masachi Ohsawa also reflected on the aesthetics during this period, in which he distinguishes the post-war Metabolist era as ‘The Era of Ideals’; associated with the values of modernism, construction and nostalgia for the traditional aesthetics (Murakami-

14

Wood & Abe 2011). The movement is characterised by the juxtaposition and coexistence of tradition and modernity, evident within the structures of this period (Jencks 1979).

The Metabolist movement initially introduced massive, exaggerated forms that only appeared less characteristically brutalist by the careful detailing and precision of Japanese architecture as seen in figure 2.01, displaying Kenzo Tangeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Olympic Stadium (1964) built. Although massive in size, the

Figure 2.01: Interior of Yoyogi Gymnasium ], 1964, Tokyo, Kenzo Tange, online image, available on http://www.anc-d.u-fukui.ac.jp/~ishikawa/years/1960-1970/Structural%20SystemsCountries/Tensil%20Force/Asia/1964-hanging-JAP06/1st%20Gymnasium%20of%20Yoyogi%20National%20Stadium.html <Accessed on 5th May 2019>

ceiling structure is composed of ridges and slots that allow for natural and artificial lighting to create a bright dappled lighting band effect throughout the stadium (Saval 2018). Natural lighting was diffused and filtered through the ceiling, replicating the sense of natural light being filtered through tree canopies (Saval 2018). The form of the ceiling was reminiscent of the traditional architectural bamboo slits and screens that allowed light to be filtered through, creating shadows across the space (Bognar 2009: 70). Within this sense of diffused natural lighting, mono no aware is expressed through the sense of temporal change as natural light changes within the interior space as the sun moves across the sky.

These structures neither fully represented typical Western built aesthetics nor traditional Japanese architectural ideals, however the Japanese sensibility accepted the contradiction in their Buddhist 15

beliefs of interweaving opposites (Jencks 1979). The Olympic stadium was significant in this era, representing the total admission of Japan to the United States’ post war dominance of imperial order as well as the re-integration of the international community (James-Chakraborty 2014).

Although traditional Japanese aesthetics are not explicitly stated in reference to Metabolist architecture, Doctor of Philosophy, Charles Jencks analyses the Olympic Stadium as a structure that embodies the ideals of transience and impermanence in a post-war melancholic period (Jencks 1979).

The Metabolist movement was interpreted by the Metabolists in different design approaches, however remained central in representing the rebuilding of a Japanese society (Oshima 2012: 29). In response, Metabolist architecture became unique in its new modernist designs, however embraced the traditional Japanese aesthetics as well as traditional architectural elements. It was essential for architects to acknowledge the lingering sense of death and loss within a post-disaster era to create a space that would respond with a sense of beauty and hope within the evanescent quality of life (Inouye 2008 :221). This led to a united approach in the concept of the permanent and impermanent that would be later developed from Le Corbusier’s concepts of the house as a ‘machine for living’ (Holt 2014).

Kiyonori Kikutake’s approach to Metabolist architecture is inherently in re-developing Japanese society and catering to the needs of the people, ‘contrary to the architecture of the past, contemporary architecture must be capable of responding to the changing needs of the

Figure 2.02: interior of sky house, Tokyo, 2016, Kikutake , image online, available on http://archeyes.com/sky-house-kiyonori-kikutake/, <Accessed on 3rd May 2019>

16

contemporary era’ (ArchEyes 2016). This is evident in the design of Sky House (as seen in figure 2.02) (1958), in which Kikutake explores changeable, permanent and temporary spaces (Holt 2014). The open, flexible floor plan references traditional Japanese interiors, in which the internal spatial configuration is organic and moveable where Oshima has analysed the structure as one that ‘embraces biology and the whole organic system we live in as a model’ (Ireland 2012). Kikutake references the aesthetic of impermanence within the structure, through the ‘plant-like changeability’ of the Sky House. The structure also responds to the external surrounding environment, as a disaster proof ‘fortress’, however also one that would change the experience in a transitory period of time. Kikutake also uses timber slats to reference the use of bamboo slits in moveable screen and doors, in which natural light can pass through the space, changing one’s experience within (Holt 2014). Mono no aware is embraced by Kikutake through his interior moveable spaces and construction details that reference traditional notions of impermanence and fleeting transience (Ireland 2012).

In 1960, Kisho Kurokawa, Fumihiko Maki and Kiyonori Kikutake developed the original concepts, introduced by Sakakura, Maekawa and Tange and further integrated Buddhist concepts of regeneration, changeability and renewal (Russell 2008:247) The movement began to represent biological parts, similar to that of a living cell that could live and die integrated with machine-like mechanical structures (Russell 2008 : 247). The Metabolist movement embodied traditional Japanese aesthetics within its modular structures, ‘the essence of the Japanese influence in the 60’s was that the aesthetics worked perfectly with the ideals of the industrialised building’ (Kochuu 2003) The new focus on a living organism became entwined with the traditional aesthetic of mono no aware, in which structures would have a ‘life cycle’, heavily influence by the Ise Shrine; where permanence existed as a part of nature, while the transient, temporary dwellings of deities would be re-erected every twenty years as a Shintoist ritual (Senk 2018: 62). Throughout the Metabolist’s architectural structures, there is a re-introduction of nature and the significance of traditional aesthetics as a sense of hope and reconnection within a post-war period.

17

Kurokawa responded to this melancholic time period of destruction and loss through capsule architecture as a vital human survival tactic (Senk 2018: 75), as expressed through his classification of the capsule as ‘cyborg architecture’, in which ‘man, machine and space build a new organic body’ (Kurokawa, Jencks 1977 : 76). The concept of the capsule was Kurokawa’s approach in reinstating traditional Japanese aesthetics of beauty within the abstract space of the transient and its

Figure 2.03: Nakagin Capsule Tower façade: Ginza, Tokyo, 2009, Kurokawa, online image, available on https://popupcity.net/metabolist-masterpiece-nakagin-capsuletower/, <Accessed on 6th May 2019>

relationship with nature; mono no aware (Senk 2018: 75-76). In capturing these renewed aesthetics of evanescence and the impermanent, Kisho Kurokawa designed the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972)in Tokyo (as seen in figure 2.03) (Craven 2017).

The design of the tower evolved from the idea of impermanence and movement, originating from the Metabolist concept of organic life cycles within architecture (Lin 2011: 517). Kurokawa divided the structure into the permanent and the impermanent, where the central ferro concrete shafts were the permanent structure, and the moveable capsules were the impermanent (Tokyo Art Beat Video 2007). The capsules were intended to be replaced every twenty to thirty years, with reference to the traditional architecture of the Ise Jingu (4 BCE) (Soares, Magalhaes 2014). The Ise Shrine has been rebuilt every twenty years, and has become a process of mono no aware in which Kurokawa encapsulates as the process of life; the fleeting nature of time (Senk 2018 : 82). The ‘life cycle’ of the structure would be at least sixty years, and thus suggested an on-going life process in which the shaft could grow while more capsules could be added and changed (Lin 2011 : 518). While the supporting ‘permanent’ structure was proposed to last sixty years, it was destined to ‘die’ as a life

18

cycle would come to an end (Jackson 2013 : 57). The functions of the capsules were used in a partly traditional manner; as flexible temporary homes for the traveller; emphasising the concept of the ‘life cycle’ of architecture (Kurokawa 1977). Kurokawa embraces a sense of death to the capsules, symbolically representing the post destruction era, however in being able to renew and create new capsules, he also suggests a sense of hope and renewal (Kochuu 2003). Referring to the definition of mono no aware in chapter one, it can be suggested that Kurokawa has embodied the aesthetic of mono no aware in which he alludes to the impermanence of life and its quality of transience and change in a post destruction era within the design of the Nakagin Capsule Tower.

The round-hole capsules resemble the traditional round-hole openings of a traditional sukiya; tea ceremony rooms, as well as the traditional spatial configurations of the sukiya, where a singular capsule corresponds to the tatami proportions of the sukiya (Kurokawa, Jencks 1977: 17). In analysing a traditional sukiya, these proportions would create a space to cater to the unique function of a traditional tea ceremony; first introduced by Master of Tea, Sen no Rikyū (1522- 1591) (Eccheli 2016: 10). According to Kurokawa, the minimal space within a sukiya allows for the coexistence of the world of nature within the confines of the interior of a sukiya (Senk 2018 : 76), further emphasised by Jesper Wachtmeister’s documentary, Kochuu in which Kurokawa suggests that one can contemplate the entire universe in a small tea room (Naval 2014 : 89).The constrained proportions would allow for one’s self to be able to completely ‘immerse in absolute space…the place of the non-mind’, creating a moment of time and space unique to its dwellers during the

Figure 2.04: Window of Enlightenment, Kyoto, 2016, online image, available on http://www.japan-4seasons.com/en/kyoto/1543.html, <Accessed on 6th May 2019>

19

Figure 2.05: Window within Nakagin Capsule, Tokyo, 2012, online image, available on https://slate.com/culture/2015/10/noritakaminamis-1972-a-look-inside-tokyos-nakagin-capsule-towerphotos.html, <Accessed on 6th May 2019>

length of the ceremony (Eccheli 2016: 10). The spatial configuration creates a temporary, fleeting experience that fosters both philosophical and religious aesthetics within the Nakagin Capsule Tower, similar to that of a traditional sukiya (Eccheli 2016 :16). With respect to the exterior through the circular windows, the shape and proportion was interpreted from the round window satori no mado, the ‘Enlightenment Window’ (as seen in figure 2.04 ), (Soares, Magalhaes 2014) is a symbol of the beauty of symbiosis between human condition and the transience of nature and the seasons within Kyoto’s Genko-an Temple (Chartres and Ryoan-ji : 39). The large proportions of the window within the capsule similarly suggest a relationship with the exterior, creating a relationship with the dweller in the interior space and the city (evident in figure 2.05) (Soares, Magalhaes 2014). This allows for a space of contemplation and connection to nature, where Kurokawa alludes to the experience of t hese windows as a ‘bird cage’ as a sense of hope within a temporary space (Kurokawa, Jencks 1977: 16). In referencing the concept of a bird cage combined with the impermanence of the capsule structure itself, the function of the temporary home and the spatial configuration of a tea room, Kurokawa creates an interior atmosphere of impermanence and beauty within the fleeting nature of existence in each capsule (Jackson 2013: 9-35). Kurokawa described society’s views as having ‘an uncertainty about existence, a lack of faith in the visible (and) a suspicion of the eternal’ and the Nakagin Capsule Tower has embodied these beliefs (Stott 2019) Chapter 2 has explored the notions of mono no aware and its re-integration within society and architecture through the post war era. The devastation of the war, and following natural disasters became the catalyst to the revival of the aesthetic of mono no aware in which architects closely 20

referenced traditional Japanese structures. Although similar elements were incorporated, the Metabolist approach to the melancholy period was one of an attitude of distrust within the human capability, and rather they began to explore technology and megastructures as a futuristic potential for the Japanese society. Chapter 2 has explored the importance of mono no aware and the reinterpretation of the aesthetic through society and architecture, however due to the limited scope of this dissertation, post-modernist architecture could not be covered. Although an important part of Japanese identity, the post-modernist movement may be questioned by the individual in a further explorative thesis. Chapter 2 has provided a significant exploration on the development of mono no aware within a destructive period, and will prompt Chapter 3 to explore mono no aware through 21st century architecture. Chapter 3 will focus on 3 case studies relevant to contemporary notions of mono no aware and explore the embodiment of this aesthetic through the interior.

21

Chapter 3 Chapter 3 will explore the continuation of the Japanese aesthetic of mono no aware and its representation in 21st century architecture. With reference to Chapter 1, in discussing the concept of mono no aware and its representation through architecture and its re-interpretation within the postworld war II era as explored in Chapter 2, Chapter 3 will explore the significance of mono no aware as a traditional aesthetic that continues to be expressed through 21st century architecture. The aesthetic of mono no aware and its notions of impermanence and fleeting beauty within Japanese architecture has been ingrained within Japanese culture as a result of human and natural turmoil throughout history (Morris 2017). The Metabolist movement developed a re-interpretation of the aesthetic of mono no aware that would continuously be revisited by architects, particularly after melancholic periods as a reminder of the beauty of transience (Kim 2010:51-46). This new interpretation of mono no aware led to an architectural style unique to Japan, that integrated both western and traditional Japanese architectural characteristics during the post war era (Jencks 1979: 219). The mono no aware notions of impermanence and transience continues to be reconfigured within society and is significantly expressed through 21st century architecture today (Ciorra 2016: 9).

This will be explored through the selected architectural works of Kengo Kuma (1954- ), Shigeru Ban (1957- ) and Ryue Nishizawa (1966- ), with a focus within the interior.

Within contemporary 21st century society, Kengo Kuma, Ryue Nishizawa and Shigeru Ban all embody the aesthetics of mono no aware and the proceeding elements of loss, transience, fleeting beauty and melancholy hope towards the future within their architecture (Ciorra 2016: 1). Kengo Kuma, Shigeru Ban and Ryue Nishizawa emerged as part of a generation of architects in Japan’s postBubble era of the 1990’s financial crisis, a period of loss and social turmoil (Ciorra 2016: 1). Unlike the attitude of the Metabolist architects in their pursuit of designing a ‘living’ city for the future ‘tinged by romanticism’ and the evolutionary change of society, the new generation of Japanese architects sought to create a sanctuary (Tamari 2014 :216) from the hostility and unpredictable social and environmental climate experienced throughout history (Morris 2017). While Japan continues to struggle to recover from the melancholic post-Bubble era, architects; Kengo Kuma, Shigeru Ban and Ryue Nishizawa explore the traditional notions of mono no aware through the use of materiality, traditional Japanese structural construction, sensory and spatial experiences. This will be further discussed in relation to the individual case studies of Kengo Kuma’s Ginzan Fujiya Ryokan (2006), Shigeru Ban’s Paper Tea House (2008) and Ryue Nishizawa’s Teshima Art Museum (2010).

22

Kengo Kuma – Ginzan Fujiya Ryokan (2006) Many critics and architects regard Kengo Kuma as a notable contemporary Japanese architect known for his use of materials and the integration of Japanese aesthetics within his architecture to create a rich sensory space (Bognar 2009: 40). Kuma was initially inspired by Kenzo Tange’s Yoyogi National Gymnasium (1964) of the Metabolist movement, particularly Tange’s use of light in which he recalls, ‘Tange treated light like a magician…from that day, I wanted to be an architect’ (Saval 2018).

Although inspired by Tange, Kuma’s work greatly differs from Tange’s megastructures and synthetic materials, while Kuma is known for his use of traditional, natural materials and seemingly light structures (Bognar 2009:40).

Within Kengo Kuma’s work, he integrates traditional Japanese architecture and the mono no aware element of ephemeral beauty and impermanence through his manipulation and invention of materials (Saval 2018). This is evident within Kuma’s re-construction of the Ginzan Fujiya Ryokan, where he had removed the previous additions of concrete structures to restore the traditional elements of delicacy and ephemerality (Kuma 2006). He achieved this by disassembling most of the existing structure and replaced it with both old and new wooden elements, in which he kept the original silhouette of the traditional Japanese post-and-beam structure while introducing new large wooden framed windows along the front façade (as seen in figure 3.01) (Schittich 2008:42). Within the interior, Kuma introduced a new atrium as the entry space, where delicate screens surround the

Figure 3.01 Caption: Kuma’s design for the Fujiya ryokan — his take on the traditional Japanese inn — at Ginzan Onsen, a secluded hot spring town in Yamagata Prefecture, north of Tokyo, Japan, 2018, online image, accessed on https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/t-magazine/kengo-kuma-architect.html <Accessed on 8th May 2019>

23

space, constructed from 4mm wide bamboo slits sumushiko (as seen in figure 3.02) (Kuma 2006).

Kuma describes these bamboo screens as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;neither transparent or opaqueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; thus creating a sensory

Figure 3.02 Ginzan Onsen Fujiya atrium, Daichi Ano, 2006, online image, accessed at https://kkaa.co.jp/works/architecture/ginzan-onsen-fujiya/, <Accessed on 8th May 2019>

experience of lightness through the soft illumination and shading of the interior space (Kuma 2006).

He also uses dalle de verre, a lightly stained translucent glass first used in the middle ages that allows

Figure3.03 Ginzan Onsen Fujiya interior, Daichi Ano, 2006, online image, accessed at https://kkaa.co.jp/works/architecture/ginzan-onsen-fujiya/, <Accessed on 9th May 2019>

24

light to diffuse through the space (Pearson 2007). The interior space features bamboo slits placed rhythmically according to the vertical nodal segments and handmade Echizen-tesuki paper screens, reminiscent of the jagged lines of raw silk (Buntrock 2013: 81). The lightness and rawness of these materials create a sense of impermanence, enhanced by time, where these materials are weathered by the natural elements and human use. Within the communal baths (as seen in figure 3.03), Kuma continues with his use of bamboo slits, however, also features a ceiling opening that allows for natural light to illuminate the space (Pearson 2007). The filtered natural lighting changes the space throughout the day according to the course of the sun, and thus creating a subtly unique, temporal experience (Pearson 2007).

Kuma’s use of traditional materials to create modern interiors create a space of hope for the future of architecture in reminiscing a past before a time of unrest; and as a result, suggests an element of mono no aware is explored throughout the space (Bognar 2009: 70). Kuma expresses this notion through his interview with the New York Times, ‘Architecture should go back to fabrication, to using real materials, to using the hand. Before industrialisation, most of the world had that system’ (Saval 2018). The aesthetic elements of mono no aware are further highlighted by fellow architect and professor of architecture, Pallasmaa, who observed Kuma’s structure as a ‘building that gives rise to an alert and sensuous feeling that enables us to become actively aware of the subtleties of the seasons, weather, light and human activities…he creates atmospheres that conditions perceptions and feelings’ (Bognar 2009: 40-42). Kuma’s work continues to explore the essence of mono no aware through his architectural approach in reminding Japanese society of its tumultuous past in history, and subsequently expresses this through architecture.

Shigeru Ban – Paper Church in Kobe (1995 – 2005) Shigeru Ban is an architect who has been recognised for his significant contributions to architectural innovation, winning the 2014 Pritzker Prize (Doroteo 2018). He is acknowledged for his temporary post-disaster shelters by the architectural community, particularly through his use of carboard and paper structures (Corkill 2013). Traditional Japanese aesthetics and architectural styles have influenced Shigeru Ban’s architecture, through his temporary structures and his use of paper (Naskova 2015: 1). Shigeru Ban’s approach towards architecture is one of impermanence, as he once expressed this notion, ‘Transition or permanent? A permanent building of reinforced concrete, if its design is not reasonable, it will be demolished…but a transitional building, it is in the life cycle. It has fulfilled its mission…’ (Shen & Wei: 633). Thus, notions of mono no aware are evident within Ban’s structures, through their impermanent qualities of material and intention (Naskova 2015: 5). This is exhibited within his work of the Paper Church in Kobe (1995-2005).

25

The Kobe earthquake of 1995 destroyed the original community centre, prompting Shigeru Ban to design a temporary structure for the community; the Paper Church (Ban 1995). As a disaster relief project, Ban had attempted to create a temporary place for the community to gather and heal. He believed in designing a space of beauty, especially in a humanitarian scenario as a sense of dignity for the victims (Quito 2015) thus embodying a sense of mono no aware and the notion of transient beauty within the structure. The beauty of the church is within the characteristics of Ban’s modest choice of materials (Silloway & Teramoto 2004). The church was constructed on a rectangular foundation, lined with polycarbonate panels, and within its centre, and an elliptical ceiling constructed from a light canvas material (Radlak 2001: 23,24). Within the interior, natural light is softly filtered through the interior laminated cardboard columns and fabric ceiling (as seen in figure 3.04) (Naskova 2015: 3) and remains as a reminder of the natural process of nature, where Shigeru

Ban has emphasised the notion of a life cycle and hope for the future (Shen & Wei: 633). Shigeru Ban’s use of canvas cloth, cardboard and polycarbonate were intended to be able to be recycled for Figure 3.04: Paper Church, interior hall with ellipse-shaped space constructed of paper tubes, corrugated poly carbonate panels, and P.V.C. membrane ceiling, 1995. Nagata, Kobe, Japan, online image, accessed at https://www.archdaily.com/489255/the-humanitarian-works-of-shigeru-ban, <Accessed on 9th May 2019>

future relief projects, and thus the materials embody an aesthetic of mono no aware in their use to create a beautiful structure for the community, while possessing an impermanent quality. Ban’s intention for the church was as a temporary shelter, ‘The paper church I designed in Kobe was meant to be a temporary church’ (Campbell 2005: 12), however it remained for 10 years before it was re-erected in Taiwan in 2008 (Kimmelman 2007). This further emphasises the structure as one 26

of ephemeral beauty and impermanence, one that is part of a transient life cycle. The aesthetic of mono no aware can be acknowledged as a comforting aesthetic that provides hope and acceptance within a post-disaster period through the works of Shigeru Ban (Naskova 2015: 5).

Ryue Nishizawa – Teshima Art Museum (2010) Ryue Nishizawa (1966- ) and Kazuyo Sejima (1956- ) founded the architecture firm SANAA, however also work from their independent firms under their names, respectively. The architectural community recognise their work through their light, white structures, constructed from their Japanese cultural origins (Zilliacus 2018). The Pritzker jury commented on SANAA as a firm that represents ‘phenomenal properties of space, lightness, transparency and materiality to create a

Figure 3.05 Teshima Art Museum amongst landscape, 2010, Ryue Nishizawa, online image, accessed at https://www.designboom.com/architecture/ryuenishizawa-teshima-art-museum/, <accessed on 9th May 2019>

subtle synthesis’ (Zilijacus 2018) in which their works are often characterised by their ephemeral quality (Nishizawa & Sejima 2007). This is particularly evident through Nishizawa’s architectural structure of the Teshima Art Museum (2010) in collaboration with artist Re Naito. The massive curved concrete structure is built into the headland of Teshima Island, and is reminiscent of a water droplet that appears to rise and glide across the landscape (as shown in figure 3.05) (Kim 2010), evoking a sense of gentle transience through the landscape (Ryan 2010). The structure was intended to blur the boundary between architecture and nature, with two circular openings and entry ways that would allow the elements to accumulate through the space (Kim 2010). The openings are also reminiscent of traditional sukiya circular openings that framed the natural landscape , 27

acknowledging the traditional aesthetics of mono no aware of the sukiya in which the museum becomes a temporal and impermanent experience, shifting according to the exterior elements of

Figure 3.06: interior of Teshima Art Museum, 2010, Noboru Morikawa Photos, online image, accessed at https://www.designboom.com/architecture/ryue-nishizawa-teshima-art-museum/, <Accessed on May 9th 2019>

nature (as seen in figure 3.06) (Little 2019). In conjunction with Naitoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s artwork Matrix, in which she uses the element of water as droplets to glide freely across the floor (evident in figure 3.07), the space evokes an evanescent sensory experience (Michler 2014). She achieves this through miniscule openings installed on the concrete floor that form water droplets and along with Nishizawaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s subtly sloped floor, the breeze is able to gently shift the droplets to glide, form together or remain separate (Phillips & Yamashita 2012: 13). The sensory experience of the interior is one of transience and beauty, notions of mono no aware, in which the exhibition requires the visitor to roam freely,

Figure 3.07: Interior of Teshima Art Museum: droplets gliding across the floor, 2010, Norboru Morikawa, online image, accessed at https://www.designboom.com/architecture/ryue-nishizawa-teshima-artmuseum/, <Accessed on 9th May 2019>

28

barefoot and silent, to wholly experience the essence of the space (Chow 2016). The space is filled with the sounds of the sea and wind through the foliage reverberating through the open interior, while the lighting subtly changes according to the movement of the sun (Ryan 2010). Nishikawa and Naito’s collaboration create a sensory experience of mono no aware through the massive concrete structure, where one is encouraged by space to contemplate life through the relationship of nature and transience (Chow 2016). Naito, who rarely comments on her artworks had released a film along with director Yuko Nakamura to explore the dynamic space of the ‘Matrix’ and Teshima Art Museum as a structure that fosters the deep connections with the intangible elements of human experience, through five women’s interactions with the space. All five women are shown to question their permanence in life and ephemeral existence, where Naito questions them, ‘is it a blessing to just exist on this Earth?’ (Nakamura 2016). Nishikawa also comments on the museum, ‘Our idea was that the curved drop-like form would create a powerful architectural space in harmony with the undulating landforms around it.’ Ryue Nishizawa (Arcspace 2012) highlighting the importance of the connection between space, nature and the movement and impermanence of the landscape. This further emphasises Nishikawa’s structure as one that embodies mono no aware, reinforced through Naito’s installation artwork; where the space serves as a reminder of the significance of the aesthetic within Japanese culture, continuing to be experienced by the individual, society and expressed through contemporary architecture today.

It is evident that the Japanese aesthetic of mono no aware continues to expressed through Japanese architecture today. Ingrained within society and culture, Japanese aesthetics are significant in influencing the built environment. Chapter 3 has explored how mono no aware has been translated through architecture, and although expressed in different ways through the built form, architects have used materiality, spatial configuration, the natural landscape and its elements to create sensory experiences. Chapter 3 has discussed the ways contemporary architects, Kengo Kuma, Shigeru Ban and Ryue Nishizawa have evidently expressed notions of mono no aware through the construction of the Ginzan Fujiya Onsen, Paper Church in Kobe and Teshima Art Museum. Due to the limited scope of this dissertation, more contemporary Japanese architectural works were not able to be discussed in relation to the significance and exploration of the traditional aesthetic of mono no aware in the built environment.

29

Conclusion The aim of this dissertation has been to explore the origins of the traditional Japanese aesthetic of mono no aware and its relevance within architecture through history. The aesthetic of mono no aware has been ingrained within Japanese culture as a result of Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tumultuous societal and natural history, and this has been reflected through architecture. Through each period of melancholy and loss, mono no aware has been expressed as a reminder of the impermanent as both beauty in transience and a sense of hope for the future. This has been explored through the origins of Japanese aesthetics, prior to the Heian era through to the case studies of 21st century contemporary architecture within Japan.

This dissertation has explored the relevant influences on the definition of mono no aware and its origin as a Japanese aesthetic. The aesthetic has been discussed in reference to few architectural elements within chapter 1, particularly within the traditional structures of temples, gates and tea pavilions. However, the relevance to the other many Japanese aesthetics have not been discussed due to the limited scope, in which they are significant in the forming of the mono no aware aesthetic. This has resulted in a limited exploration of mono no aware and its expression through the built environment as many aesthetics are integrated within traditional Japanese structures.

Furthermore, the exploration of the aesthetic of mono no aware has been limited in regards to its full development throughout history and its representation through architecture and the interior due to the limited scope of this dissertation.

The discussion between tradition and Metabolist interpretations of mono no aware have revealed the significance of the Buddhist beliefs in which this aesthetic is partially ingrained within. The comparison between traditional and Metabolsit expressions of mono no aware reveal different elements within the built environment that vary due to societal and cultural context. However, due to a limited scope and time, this dissertation has not explored in depth the expression of mono no aware throughout the entire history of Japan and its representation through each architectural period. The Metabolist movement was chosen to be discussed as it is one of the key movements in which mono no aware becomes re-integrated within Japanese culture and society, according to philosopher Charles Jencks.

Finally, this dissertation concludes with the expression of mono no aware and its relevance within 21st century contemporary architecture. While it seemingly remains relevant, the limited scope of this dissertation has resulted in the exploration of 3 case studies within Japanese architecture. Thus, whilst this dissertation has not been able to determine the true relevance of the Japanese aesthetic of mono no aware, one is prompted to further explore this aesthetic as a significant part of Japanese 30

culture and history that remains evident today. Furthermore, one is prompted to question the true notions of mono no aware and its relationship with similar aesthetics such as wabi sabi and ma within the Japanese built environment. One may also question the relevance of this aesthetic as a Japanese element within architecture and its significance within global architecture throughout history.

31

References Karskens, G 1997, The Rocks: life in early Sydney, Melbourne University Press, Carlton.

Nakamura, Y 2015, A Room of Her Own: Rei Naito and Light, Japan.

Amit, R 2012, On the Structure of Contemporary Japanese Aesthetics. Philosophy East and West, vol. 62, no. 2, pp.174-185.

Angelidou, I and Yatsuka, H 2012, Metabolism and After: A Correspondence With Hajime Yatsuka. Log, vol 24, no. 1, pp.33-41.

Architecture & Design 2019, Japanese Architecture - Buildings & Houses from Japan | Architecture & Design, accessed 9 May 2019, < https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/features/list/japanese-architecture-andbuildings> arcspace.com, 2012 Teshima Art Museum, accessed 8 May 2019, <https://arcspace.com/feature/teshima-artmuseum/> Ban, S 2004, An Interview with Shigeru Ban Bergman, N 2012, Architecture of Destruction and Renewal, Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati , pp.1-34.

Bergman, N 2012, Architecture of Destruction and Renewal. Master of Architecture in the School of Architecture and Interior Design of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, University of Cincinnati.

Bognรกr, B and Kuma, K 2009, Material Immaterial : The New Work of Kengo Kuma, Princeton Architectural Press, New York , pp.41-45,68-77.

Brown, P 2016 The Relationship Between Japanese and Modernist Architecture, access on 8 May 2019, <https://medium.com/design-culture-history/the-relationship-between-japanese-and-modernist-architecture7faef7e3b1ab> Brownell, B 2011, Matter in the Floating World: Conversations with Leading Japanese Architects and Designers, Princeton Architectural Press, New York , pp.11-17, 40-45, 69-81.

Buntrock, D 2012, Metabolism: The City of the Future. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 71, no. 3, pp.408-409.

Buntrock, D 2013, Materials and Meaning in Contemporary Japanese Architecture, 1st ed, Routledge, London.

Bush, C 2016, Modernism in East Asia. Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism, accessed 3 May 2019, <https://www.rem.routledge.com/articles/overview/contexts-for-modernism>

32

Carlson, A 2007, Aesthetics and the environment, Routledge, London.

Ciorra, P 2016, THE JAPANESE HOUSE Architecture & Life after 1945, Barbican Centre, Rome.

Ciorra, P 2018, Architecture & Life after 1945, The Japanese House, FONDAZIONE MAXXI, Italy Cohen, E 2007, Interior Design, Vol. 78, no. 4, p.281.

Collins, P and Frampton, K 2014, Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture, 1750-1950, McGill-Queens University Press, Montreal.

Corkill, E 2013, Shigeru Ban: 'People's architect' combines permanence and paper, The Japan Times, Japan.

Craven, J 2017, The Metabolist Movement in Architecture, ThoughtCo. Accessed on 9 May 2019 <https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-metabolism-in-architecture-177292> D., J 2019, The aesthetics of Shinto | Green Shinto, accessed 8 May 2019, <http://www.greenshinto.com/wp/2012/03/25/the-aesthetics-of-shinto/> Daniell, T 2009, After the crash, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, NY, pp.37-44.

Doroteo, J 2018, Spotlight: Shigeru Ban, accessed 8 May 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/792108/spotlightshigeru-ban> Eusden, J 1985, Chartres and RyĹ?an-ji: Aesthetic Connections between Gothic Cathedral and Zen Garden. The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 18, no. 2, pp.9-18.

Eusden, J 1993, Where the Aesthetic and the Religious Converge: Seven Essays on Craft, Imagination, and Sacred, CrossCurrents, vol. 43, no. 1 Fries, K 2017, TOUCHING IMPERMANENCE experiential embodied engagements with materiality in contemporary art practice, Ph.D. University of Sydney.

Galinsky, Paper Church Kobe-shi Japan by Shingeru Ban, accessed on 7 May 2019, <ttp://www.galinsky.com/buildings/paperchurch/> Greve, G 2015, Introducing the Heian period (794 - 1185) and Japanese History until Heian Harris, D 2014 Kiyonori Kikutake: Capsule Living Within The Metabolist Movement, Transnational Mega Projects, Deakin University, Geelong.

Hays, J 2016, HEIAN PERIOD BUDDHISM | Facts and Details Hooker, R 1999, Motoori Norinaga, accessed 6 May 2019, <http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Phil%20281b/Philosophy%20of%20Magic/Dante.%20etc/P hilosophers/Idea/www.wsu.edu_8080/~dee/TOKJAPAN/NORINAGA.HTM>

33

ICON 2011 Teshima Art Museum by Ryue Nishizawa & Rei Naito, New York.

Inouye, C 2008, EVANESCENCE AND FORM, Palgrave MacMillan, New York.

James-Chakraborty, K 2014, Architecture since 1400, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

Jackson, P 2013, Symbols for Subjectivity: Buddhism in the Nakagin Capsule Tower, London Metropolitan University, London.

James-Chakraborty, K 2014, Postwar Japan, University of Minnesota Press, Minnesota.

Jencks, C 1979, THE EVOLUTION FROM MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, vol. 127, no. 5280, pp.742-783.

Kim, E 2010, ryue nishizawa: teshima art museum, designboom, accessed 8 May 2019, <https://www.designboom.com/architecture/ryue-nishizawa-teshima-art-museum/ > Kim, Y 2013, Recovering Sensory Pleasure Through Spatial Experience, Master of Architecture, University of Cincinnati.

Kinoshita, M 1965, Japanese architecture, sukiya, Shokokusha, Tokyo.

KĂźng, M, Niedermayr, W, Sejima, K and Nishizawa, R 2007, Walter Niedermayr / Kazuyo Sejima + Ryue Nishizawa / Sanaa, Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern-Ruit.

Kurokawa, K 1977, Metabolism in architecture. 1st ed. London: Studio Vista.

Larsen, B 2018, A Brief History of Shinto and Buddhism in Japan, accessed 4 May 2019, <https://theculturetrip.com/asia/japan/articles/a-brief-history-of-shinto-and-buddhism-in-japan/ > Lockard, C 2000, Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries, Encarta Historical Essays.

Lyon-Bestor, V., Bestor, T. and Yamagata, A. (2013). Routledge handbook of Japanese culture and society: Social class and social identity in postwar Japan. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, pp.103-115.

Marra, M 2010, Essays on Japan: Between Aesthetics and Literature, vol. 35.

MCNEIL, P 1992, Myths of Modernism: Japanese Architecture, Interior Design and the West, c.1920 1940, Journal of Design History, vol. 5, no. 4, pp.281-294.

Michler, A and Michler, A 2014, Smoothly Sculpted Teshima Art Museum Flows Like a Bead of Water, accessed 8 May 2019 <Inhabitat.com. Available at: https://inhabitat.com/provocative-teshima-art-museum-in-japanemulates-a-bead-of-water/> Miles, M 2013, Metabolism: A Japanese Modernism, Cultural Politics an International Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, pp.70-85.

34

Montagnana, F 2016, The Space for the Tea Ceremony, Firenze Architettura, vol. 2, pp.10-21.

Morris, T 2017, Understanding Japan's unique 'scrap and build' design culture, Chicago.

Naskova, J 2015, Shigeru Ban’s Japanese Traditions Inspired Humanitarian Architecture: And Its Sustainable Practices In: Asian Design Engineering Workshop, Hong Kong Polytechnic University of Design, Hong Kong.

Naval, D 2014, Silence of the Tea Room Kochuu Film Review, Shelter, vol. 2, pp.88-89.

2011, Australian Concrete Construction, Teshima Art Museum.

Ooijen, D 2009, Mono no Aware - A Sensitivety to Things, Sashimisen.

Oshima, K 2012, Metabolist Trajectories, vol. 24, no. 1, pp.28-32.

Park, B 2019, BUDDHISM AND JAPANESE AESTHETICS, University of Colombia, US. Parkes, G and Loughnane, A 2018, Japanese Aesthetics, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Pearson, C 2007, GINZAN ONSEN FUJIYA. Architectural Record, vol. 195, no. 9, pp.122-127.

Phillips, D and Yamashita, M 2012, Detail in contemporary concrete architecture, Laurence King Publishing, London.

Pletcher, K 2018, Occupation of Japan, Japanese history [1945–1952],Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed 1 May 2019, <https://www.britannica.com/event/occupation-of-Japan> Prusinski, L 2013, Studies on Asia, Valparaiso University, Indiana.

Quito, A 2015, Shigeru Ban, architect of sublime cardboard buildings, creates a permanent legacy, New York.

Radlak, T 2001, A paper architect who really builds, Japanese architecture exhibit, Design Exchange, Canadian Interiors, vol. 38, no. 3, pp.23-24.

Ryan, R 2010, Teshima Art Museum, Domus, accessed 9 May 2019, <https://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/2010/12/09/teshima-art-museum.html> Sadler, A and Turnbull, S 2009, Shogun: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tuttle Publishing, North Clarendon, Vermont.

Saval, N 2018, Kengo Kuma’s Architecture of the Future, The New York Times Style Magazine, New York.

Schalk, M 2014, The Architecture of Metabolism, Inventing a Culture of Resilience.

Schittich, C 2008, Interior Surfaces and Materials: Aesthetics, Technology, Implementation, Redaktion, Munich, Germany pp.42-47.

35

Schumacher, M 2013, Early Japanese Buddhism - Brief History of Asuka, Nara & Heian Periods, United Kingdom.

Senk, P 2018, Capsules: Typology of Other Architecture, Routledge, New York.

Shen, X and Wei, C 2019, 2018 International Workshop on Education Reform and Social Sciences (ERSS 2018). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, China.

Shigerubanarchitects.com, SBA_Paper Church, accessed 9 May 2019, <http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/works/1995_paper-church/index.html> Soares, A, MagalhĂŁes, F, Minkjan, M, Iersel, M and Guan, X 2014, A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 Failed Architecture, Failed Architecture, accessed 3 May 2019,< https://failedarchitecture.com/a-year-in-themetabolist-future-of-1972/> Stott, R 2019, Spotlight: Kisho Kurokawa, ArchDaily, accessed 8 May 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/616907/spotlight-kisho-kurokawa> Suzuki, H 2004, Housing in Postwar Japan: A Social History, Social Science Japan Journal, 7(2), pp.300-302.

Tamari, T 2014, Metabolism: Utopian Urbanism and the Japanese Modern Architecture Movement, Theory, Culture & Society, vol. 31, no. 7-8, pp.201-225.

Varley, H 2019, Asian Topics on Asia for Educators || Classical Japan, Columbia.edu, accessed 7 May 2019, <http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at/cl_japan/cj08.html> Wardle, H 2008, The Built Revelation of Change: Innovative facade design in Japan.

Wendelken, C 1996, The Tectonics of Japanese Style: Architect and Carpenter in the Late Meiji Period. Art Journal, vol. 55, no. 3.

Wilkinson, T 2019, Sceptred isles: the possibility of the archipelago, Architectural Review, accessed 8 May 2019, <https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/sceptred-isles-the-possibility-of-thearchipelago/10042019.article> Wood, D and Abe, K 2011, The Aesthetics of Control: Mega Events and Transformations in Japanese Urban Order, Urban Studies, vol. 48, no. 15, pp.3241-3257.

Young, M, Young, D and Yew, T 2012, Introduction to Japanese Architecture, Tuttle Pub, Singapore.

Zilliacus, A 2018, Spotlight: SANAA, ArchDaily, accessed 10 May 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/798275/spotlight-sanaa>

36