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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 11 (November 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 11 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer reviewed open access journal committed to publishing high quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website Whttp://www.ijlter.org.earegratefultothe

The

Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan, Md. Abu Bakar Siddique and Mohammad Nazmul Haque Shikder

Mary Motolani Olowoyo, Sam Ramaila and Lydia Mavuru

Custom Practices of English Education at the Rural Primary Schools in Bangladesh 71

Shiblu Advancing the Design of Self Explanation Prompts for Complex Problem Solving .................................................. 88 Hyun Joo, Jinju Lee and Dongsik Kim Comparison of Students in Teacher Education from China and the USA: An Assessment of Dispositions 109 Judy R. Wilkerson, Lasonya L. Moore, W. Steve Lang and Jingshun Zhang The Use of Local Literary Texts as Reading Materials in English Language Classrooms: An Analysis of Teachers’ Perspectives ......................................................................................................................................................................... 127 Muhammad Shahril Haja Mohaideen, Hanita Hanim Ismail and Radzuwan Ab Rashid Use of Technology Based Tools in Ensuring Quality of Publishable Journal Articles 145 Gilbert C. Magulod, Leonilo B. Capulso, Cinder Dianne L. Tabiolo, Merlyn N. Luza and Mary Grace C. Ramada Investigating the Relationship of Working Memory and Inhibitory Control: Bilingual Education and Pedagogical Implications in Elementary School ................................................................................................................................... 163 Maria Sofologi, Makrina Zafiri and Vassiliki Pliogou

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 11 November 2020 Table of Contents Cultivating Problem Solving Scholar Practitioners: Impact of One CPED Program on Leader Self Efficacy 1 Nancy Akhavan, Nichole Walsh and Janeen Goree Influence of the Principal’s Digital Leadership on the Reflective Practices of Vocational Teachers Mediated by Trust, Self Efficacy, and Work Engagement 24 Rini Agustina, Waras Kamdi, Syamsul Hadi, Muladi and Didik Nurhadi A Review of Theories and Practices of Multiliteracies in Classroom: Issues and Trends 41 Ang Leng Hong and Tan Kim Hua Levels of Readiness and Preparedness of Selected South African TVET Colleges in Meeting the Requirements of the Hospitality Industry 53

The Impact of Text Messaging as an Instructional Tool to Enhance Learner Autonomy and Perception 184 Behnam Behforouz and Anca Daniela Frumuselu Learning EFL Online During a Pandemic: Insights into The Quality of Emergency Online Education 203 Hussein Assalahi Shadow Education in Indonesia: Is It Relevant to Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Chemistry Learning? 223 Maria C. S. Kawedhar, Sri Mulyani, Sulistyo Saputro and Sri Yamtinah Saudi EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Professional Development 242 Maha Alzahrani Exploring Vertical Coherence of Content Topics in Philippine Spiral Kto10 Mathematics Curriculum 259 Ryan V. Dio English Language Teachers in Diaspora: A Heideggerian Phenomenology 283 Gino G. Sumalinog

1 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 1 23, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.1 Cultivating Problem-Solving ScholarPractitioners: Impact of One CPED Program on Leader Self Efficacy Nancy Akhavan and Nichole Walsh* California State University, Fresno, California, USA https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7679 9793 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1426 0551 Janeen Goree Fresno Pacific University, Fresno, California, USA https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8407 352X Abstract. Thissinglecasestudyisaqualitativeinquiryintothecultivation of doctoral candidates and graduates on their efficacy as leaders in using inquiry as to approach problems of practice in daily work. The study examined a doctoral program in educational leadership at one large public university in California, USA. The case study methods included artifact analysis, an examination of field notes, and semi structured one on one phone interviews. The data analysis of all sources revealed three themes related to participants’ leader self efficacy in using scholarly inquiry on problems of practice in the field. Findings indicate that the participantsgrewintheir leader self efficacy, transformed, and confident in their sense of self as an educational scholar practitioner to enact change. As a result of their experience in a Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED) program, graduate participants also highlight the focus on inquiry processes to solve problems of practice as vital to educational leadership. Conclusions highlight considerations for educationalprogramseducationsimilarprogramswhenevaluatinghowtheypreparegraduatestoimpactbeyondcoursework.Furtherresearchshouldemphasizehowareaddressingproblemsofpracticeforsocialjusticetoimpactleadersinthefielduponprogramcompletion. Keywords: education doctorate; leader self efficacy; scholar practitioner; problems of practice; educational leadership 1. Introduction In the past, researchers critiqued the education doctorate (EdD) by examining characteristics of various programs and candidates uncovering challenges in * Corresponding author: Nichole Walsh; Email: nwalsh@mail.fresnostate.edu

1.1 Research Questions Using a single post ex facto case study framed by the CIPP evaluation model for quality education (Aziz, Mahmood, & Rehman, 2018), researchers explore to understand the following questions:

● To what extent do CPED program graduates, as scholar practitioners, continue to solve problems of practice in the field?

● How does a CPED doctoral program support candidates in cultivating their leader self efficacy as problem solving scholar practitioners?

developing leaders for local impact on issues within the communities they serve (e.g., Levine, 2005; Murphy & Vriesenga, 2005). Later, researchers found that there is hope within the scope of graduating doctoral candidates, when programs aim to develop new leaders as scholar practitioners who challenge the status quo (e.g., Zambo, 2013; Zambo, Buss & Zambo, 2015). Through the reframing of the EdD in this way, programs can focus on a rigorous curriculum that cultivates graduates who can take with them the critical skills of scholarly inquiry, coupled with problem solving of systemic issues in the communities they serve (Buss, 2018).

A body of research has focused on the reconfiguration of the EdDin this way (Hovannesian, 2013; Peterson, 2017; Welch, 2013); however, more consideration is needed on how candidates transfer learning problems of practice in an academic settingtothereal worldwork environmentsasfuture educationalleaders(Zambo et al., 2015; Vasudeva, 2017). As Zambo et al. (2015) indicate, understanding the candidate to leader identity is one of the most relevant topics to consider for redesigning doctoral programs for graduates. Not only because of the broader societal issues, but also because of the management challenges new school leaders encounter daily in the field (Arrieta & Ancho, 2020). This paper explores how one redesigned model, the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED), positively impacts program graduates and the organizations for which they serve. Inquiry as Practice is a guiding principle of CPED programs where candidates are guided in: “The process of posing significant questions that focus on complex problems of practice and the ability to gather, organize, judge, aggregate, and analyze situations, literature, and data with a critical lens.” (CPED, 2019b, Design Concepts Upon Which to Build Programs, para. 5).

A second guiding principle relevant to this study is Scholarly Practitioner where candidates are supported in: Blend[ing] practical wisdom with professional skills and knowledge to name, frame, and solve problems of practice. They use practical research and applied theories as tools for change because they understand the importance of equity and social justice. (CPED, 2019b, Design Concepts Upon Which to Build Programs, para. 3). When working to transform EdD programs, it is pertinent to understand how intentionally threaded experiences of scholarly inquiry alongside classroom learning can impact graduates’ educational leader self efficacy (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans & Harms, 2008; Hannah, Woolfolk & Lord, 2009) in “the new and emerging developmental conditions that prevail in early twenty first century cities and regions” (Gibney, 2011, p. 614).

The CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) evaluation model was designed to help organizational leaders make data based decisions for program improvement.

2. Guiding Frameworks Two frameworks guided the research evaluation design and qualitative analyses for this case study: The CIPP model for quality evaluation in educational settings and Leader Self Efficacy

Further, the CIPP model also considers how findings can be communicated and applied across various stakeholder levels (Stufflebeam & Zhang, 2017). Context evaluation is based on various data collection methods such as reviewing supporting literature, program documents, archived artifacts, and stakeholder interviews and surveys. The aim is to understand the program’s general nature, purpose, and goals (Stufflebeam & Zhang, 2017). Input narrows the evaluation to specific or unique aspects of the program being studied, and Process evaluation considers how well those aspects are meeting intended goals and objectives for the learners These evaluation components require data from stakeholders with intimate knowledge of the program and implementation of aspects under evaluation (Fitzpatrick et al., 2004). Product, the last evaluation component, uses findings and analyses across multiple data sources to conclude program effectiveness to inform decision makers on the most appropriate next steps to improve teaching and learning (Sancer, Baturay & Fadde, 2013; Aziz et al., 2018).

This model’s strengths, specifically in the context of the post ex facto design (Creswell & Poth, 2018), allow for a nonlinear and non time bound approach (Stufflebeam & Zhang, 2017). Instead, the analyses are based on the findings from multiple sources of data to provide a rich understanding of the program, intended outcomes, and impact on the adult learners to draw conclusions and make recommendations for improvement and sustainability (Fitzpatrick et al., 2004; Stufflebeam& Zhang,2017; Wang, 2010). Furthermore, this evaluation framework can provide considerations for practitioners with similar programs and inform future research (Aziz et al., 2018). Additionally, unlike others, the CIPP evaluation model is aimed at understanding the role teaching and learning play in the program context (Stufflebeam & Zhang, 2017), making it a strong fit for a case study in education.

Aziz et al. (2018) implemented the CIPP evaluation model for a school level case study, validating through triangulation of mixed methods, a conceptual framework specific to education. Figure 1 outlines the model used to frame the post ex facto case study analyses in this evaluation.

2.1 Conceptual Framework: The CIPP Model for Quality Evaluation

Figure 1: CIPP Model for Quality Evaluation (Aziz et al., 2018, p. 195)

2.2 Theoretical Framework: Leader Self-Efficacy Leader Self Efficacy (LSE; Hannah et al., 2008; 2009; 2012; 2013), the theoretical framework for this study, stems from Bandura’s theory of self efficacy which explains behavioral changes. Bandura’s (1977a) construct of self efficacy defined perceived self efficacy as the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute a course of action required to produce an outcome. Bandura (1977b) describes that psychological features, like thoughts and reactions, will affect a person’s self efficacy belief’s. Bandura’s theory suggests that a person’s belief in their ability to have mastery over an outcome will increase their willingness even to try and persist (Bandura, 1977a). When specifically looking at self efficacy in a leaders context, the more a leader accesses a wide array of self efficacy constructs, the more they will perceive their ability to resiliently handle various challenges that inevitably lie ahead (Hannah et al., 2009; 2012). These foundational theories correspond to the construct mentioned above as a problem of practice where a strong belief in one’s ability to apply critical inquiry to solve challenging issues is Hannah,vital.

Hannah et al. (2008; 2009) first formalized LSE as a layered construct built on the interactions of leader efficacy in: 1. thought, the perception of ability to find solutions to complex issues; 2. self motivation, the perception of the amount of effort to be given towards a challenging situation; 3. means, the perception of access to resources and how this may affect the leader’s ability to address a challenge; and

Avolio, Walumbwa and Chan (2012; 2013) established and validated a multifaceted Leader Efficacy theory and measurement with two factors: leader self and means efficacy. The complex constructs from Hannah et al. (2012; 2013) can be generalized as follows: Leader Self Efficacy regards the internal shifts on what the leader believes they can do, while Leader Means Efficacy regards the external actions and transactions within the context of the organization and others being led. For this case study to evaluate program impact on candidate learning, the theoretical framework was delimited the single factor of Leader Self Efficacy (LSE) because it is within direct program influence.

3. Methods and Procedure

A single post ex facto case study method (Cresswell & Poth, 2018) framed by the CIPP Model for Quality Evaluation (Aziz etal., 2018) was most suitable to conduct an inquiry into graduate’s perspectives from one CPED program at a large public university in California. The case study approach integrates information sources and allows analysis from different viewpoints (Cresswell & Poth, 2018) after program completion. The evaluation model for the case study method used stakeholder perspectives and experiences through interviews and reflexive journalingalongsidedocuments, archived data, and associatedprogram literature to understand the unique program aspects within the broader CPED context and conclude their impact on graduates’ LSE. This model is supported by Denzin’s (2017) focus on qualitative inquiry methods to shape information that is not collected in a number focused study, which the CIPP model does not require for evaluation (Aziz et al., 2018). Although this method’s findings are difficult to generalize, the understanding of one case can develop a perspective of what is happening in the field, which can shape practitioner considerations for similar contexts and inform further research (Cresswell & Poth, 2018).

The study design for the CIPP evaluation used a representative random sample (Cresswell & Poth, 2018) of 12 volunteer participant graduates from one CPED inspired program. The doctoral leadership program adopted a cohort model, with half focused on PreK 12 and the other half on higher education. This study was conducted, with human subject research approval, using the program’s archived database. The database included studentnames, contact information, job position while the student was in the program, their current job status as provided, and the year they graduated. There were approximately 150 graduates across program cohorts; thus, a goal of 10% for the participant sample was set, and 15 graduates would be contacted. All names were entered into an Excel sheet to choose the 15 graduates as a representative sample (Cresswell & Poth, 2018). After the sheet was printed, the names with identifying information were cut into strips and placed into an envelope where 15 strips were randomly selected and five additional were drawn as alternates. The principal investigator contacted possible participants via phone and moved to the next name on the list after three attempts, which garnished 12 total interviews. The participants’ demographics reflected that of the overall program graduate populationwith the followingbreakdown reported: Gender (7 female, 58.3%; 5 male, 41.7%; 0 other); Race/Ethnicity (5 Hispanic, 41.7%; 1 African American, 8.3%; 2 Asian American, 16.7%; 4 white, 33.3%); Program

3.1 Participant Sample

4. action, the leader’s performance based on the subsequent construct in a given leadership contex,t which becomes increasingly more automatic over time and experience. These constructs provided the lens through which this case study could examine the perspectives of CPED program graduates to explore and evaluate how the program develops LSE to assist new leaders in solving problems of practice in a diverse local setting after graduation.

The approved case study used three post ex facto data sources for the evaluation model: (1) interviews with volunteer graduates, (2) volunteer graduates’ dissertations as samples of problems of practice inquiry, and (3) observational notes of teaching and learning from one aligned DPELFS leadership course. Additionally, one researcher kept a reflexive journal during the interview process and had access to archived program syllabi, student work samples from one program course, and participants’ dissertations. Member checking was used throughout the analyses to enhance credibility (Cresswell & Poth, 2018). For increased dependability, case study protocols were defined and followed with adherence to transcription standards using a professional, confidential service (Chowdhury, 2015).

writtenfourresearchersettingswhsustainingtheirFor2018).understandingModelqualitativecasestudyfindings(Denzin,2017;Creswell&Poth,2018).FortheCIPPforQualityEvaluation,thesecollecteddatashouldbespecifictothecasestudyprogramandparticipantoutcomes(Azizetal.,thisevaluationcasestudy,asprogramgraduates,participantshadcompleteddissertationsinpracticeandtookaleadershipcourseonimplementingandchangeinorganizations.Thecourseincludedfieldbasedpracticum,erecandidatesinvestigatedaproblemofpracticeinauthenticfield-basedinPreK12organizationsorinstitutionsofhighereducation.Thetaughtthisclassandhadstudyapprovedaccesstoarchivedsyllabi,yearsofstudentworkandteachingnotes,andthefinalexaminationpapersbystudyparticipantsandothercandidates.Thesepapersspecifically

Focus (5 higher ed, 41.7%; 7 p 12, 58.3%); Currently in Formal Leadership Role (12 yes, 100%; 0 no).

3.2 Data Collection

The use of literature, artifacts, and documents is essential to triangulating

3.2.1 Semi-Structured Interviews

Semi structured interviews were chosen because of the flexibility the researcher has in asking questions beyond the protocol to delve deeper into issues and points the interviewee discusses (Cresswell & Poth, 2018) necessary for the CIPP model (Aziz et al., 2018). All interviews were conducted over the phone for the participants convenience and confidentiality due to the study’s evaluative nature. Any identifiers were removed at transcription, and individual participant letters were assigned to their responses to enhance confidentiality further.

3.2.2 Program Literature, Artifact, and Document Review

The interview protocol included 12 questions organized into three sets. The first two questions oriented the participant and the interviewer for rapport (Denzin, 2017; Cresswell & Poth, 2018). The next three questions concentrated on using problems of practice while in the program. While the following three questions considered their current leadership role and how they integrate problems of practice to enact change. The next four were evaluative to capture the CIPP elements in developing LSE. The final question invited participants to provide additional information concerning how the program supported their growth. The interview protocol is located in appendix 1.

One researcher, with instructional experience in the program, kept a reflexive journal (Rettke, Pretto, Spichiger, Frei & Spirig, 2018) to record notes throughout the data collection process. The aims were three fold. First, to continue mitigating potential biases using reflective self monitoring during evaluation. Second, to capture metacognitive connections made by the researcher between the findings and the researcher’s professional experiences, only a principal investigator close to the program’s work could deeply understand. Third, to increase rigor by allowinga second and third researcher tolater review for mitigation ofbiaswithin the post ex facto CIPP evaluation (Rettke et al, 2018).

3.3 Data Analysis

outlined solutions to the complex problems identified based on action research in the field throughout the semester. Dissertations were publicly available on ProQuest with full access to university faculty. Other program documents and literature were also publicly available via the case study program’s university website, the CPED website, and through EdD and CPED aligned peer reviewed journal articles.

Once the interview transcripts were checked through member checking by the participants (Creswell & Poth, 2018) and the interview transcripts were stored for a later review. The researchers used a collaborative hybrid qualitative thematic analysis (Denzin, 2017) to support the CIPP model evaluation components.

Framed by the theory of Leader Self Efficacy (Hannah et al., 2008; Hannah et al., 2009), themes from response convergence on perceptions of program impact emerged (Denzin, 2017) and were used within the evaluation model alongside the other data. After the interviews, the principal investigator launched upon organizing and examining documents and files that she had from her work as an instructor of a core course in the program. She embarked upon this examination of documents to fully understand the participant, their background, their learning processes, and their current leadership position responsibilities to prepare for the CIPP evaluation with the supporting researchers (Chowdhury, 2015).

3.2.3 Reflexive Journal

The principal investigator continued to keep notes in the reflexive journal to note her feelings when reading the transcriptions and match the transcriptions to assessment notes, papers written by each individual, and field notes when teaching each participant in the class. Thoughts and feelings were noted for later review to mitigate potential coding biases (Creswell & Poth, 2018). These notes were referenced during the CIPP evaluation for supporting researchers to member check potential areas of bias and as a piece of stakeholder data within the Input and Process evaluations (Anzin, et al, 2018).

3.4 Limitations

The primary limitation is researcher bias as the principal investigator (PI) of this study is highly involved in all aspects of the case study CPED program and the candidates’ experiences. At the time of the study, the PI had taught one core course for five years working with seven face to face and five online cohorts.

Candidates examined an authentic PreK 12 or higher education field based

4. Findings and Discussion

● To what extent do these CPED program graduates, as scholar practitioners, continue to solve problems of practice in the field?

Findings and emergent themes are presented in conjunction with the analyses appropriate to each component of the CIPP evaluation and the literature review: Context, Input, Process, Product.

4.1 Context Evaluation

Pertinent to the Context evaluation is to understand the educational goals and objectives of the program and the larger mission for social impact (Aziz et al., 2018). Through document and aligned literature review, findings highlighted that graduates from CPED aligned programs, as is the one under evaluation, are provided progressive leadership goals for practice and application in the field at the PreK 12 and higher education levels.

The program under review is part of the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED), a consortium of over 100 colleges and schools of education in the United States and Canada focused on reconfiguring EdD programs through a critical focus on rigor and change in curriculum development (CPED, 2019a). The CPED framework (CPED, 2019b) guides the redesign of programs around progressive questions of equity, ethics, and social justice to bring about solutions to complex problems of practice and prepare leaders who can make a positive difference in the communities they serve. Students in CPED programs are expected to develop collaboration and communication skills for working with diverse communities with embedded field based opportunities to apply to learn to find solutions for real world problems. With these frames, CPED programs should link theory and systematic inquiry to emphasize the generation and transformation of professional knowledge and practice to enact social justice change in local settings (CPED, 2019a).

problem of practice in this course. Furthermore, the PI has chaired numerous dissertations, guiding candidates through inquiry into the problem of practice they have identified for their research agenda. This bias was essential in developing rapport with the graduate candidates as they had great comfort in sharing personal narratives in the field with the researcher. The researcher also understood the program nuances and concepts presented in the interview narratives that one from the outside would require further exploration before analysis. On the other hand, intentional mitigation of bias that could affect validitywas addressed by including two researchcolleagues.At the time, one was not involved as faculty in the CPED, and the other was a non CPED instructor at a different university. These additional researchers worked to member check each step of the findings and analytic processes ensuring higher objectivity (Chowdhury, 2015; Denzin, 2017).

Using the CIPP model for quality evaluation framework, this single post ex facto case study aimed to explore the following:

● How does a CPED doctoral program support candidates in cultivating their leader self efficacy as problem solving scholar practitioners?

As such, CPED candidates should begin to integrate the take aways from case study analyses in the classroom into authentic action research in the field, increasing the likelihood that effective leadership practices will become part of their repertoire, thereby increasing collective organization success (e.g., Hamann & Trainin, 2018; Peurach, 2016; CPED, 2019a). The larger goal is that graduates apply these experiential leadership lessons in inquiry to their job contexts, no matter where they are positioned within an organization. When a steady focus on improving educational contexts is implemented, there is a greater impetus for improving student learning outcomes, an emphasis on scalable actions, and also a movement away from the diffusion of innovations toward sustained, coordinated efforts that result in widespread change (Peurach, 2016) that the redesigned CPED program, like the one under evaluation, is aiming to achieve (CPED,2019a).Additionally, CPED programsutilizingacohort model tocultivate scholar practitioners to solve complex problems of practice have made the most impact on developing efficacious and effective change leaders in local contexts (e.g., Hamann & Trainin, 2018; Kennedy, Bondy, Dana, Vescio & Ma, 2020; Cunningham, VanGronigen, Tucker & Young, 2019). Evidence of these CPED affiliate expectations and research based best practice developing cohorts of educational leaders in PreK 12 and Higher Education as problem solving scholar practitioners for social justice and organizational change were found within the program website and handbook, course syllabi as signature assignments and field experiences as well as the principal investigator’s reflexive journals and teaching notes.

Three CPED framework (2019b) guiding principles one, four, and five were highlighted across the documents and artifacts collected for this program evaluation as insight into these progressive notions of school leadership. Principle one frames the purpose of the education doctorate to address questions on equity, ethics, and social justice for solutions to complex problems of practice. Principle four indicates that programs use field based opportunities with candidates to analyze problems of practice and use multiple frames to develop meaningful solutions. Principle five states the program should be grounded in and develops a professional leadership base that integrates practical and research knowledge, linking theory with critical inquiry. Students within CPED programs are expected to also learn through inquiry (CPED, 2019a). The program under evaluation for this case study, as designated a CPED affiliate, is to intentionally thread inquiry based learning through to the capstone experience (CPED, 2019b).

Reviews of student assignments, instructor discussion notes, dissertation topics,

To appreciate this CPED program’s goal developing educational leaders for social justice and change understanding the region for which graduates practice as educational leaders were essential to explore within the Context evaluation. The university is situated in an area of California that is considered to be high in poverty and low in educational attainment, ranked 15th in the nation for people living in poverty (28.1%), and nearly 80 percent of those living in the Fresno area have not earned a bachelor's degree (Ramsey, 2019). Along with high poverty rates, the region has large numbers of immigrants and non citizens with a variety of cultures and languages (Sierra Health Foundation, 2016). The diverse backdrop is the community in which the doctoral graduates from this CPED program serve.

Based on document review, this program recognized a problem of practice to frame leader inquiry as action research into a situation currently puzzling an organization without a static or straightforward answer (Pollack & Ryan, 2013).

The website highlighted several candidate quotes appreciating the “real world experience of [program] faculty” because they understood the challenges and needs of the community they will lead. For triangulation, evaluation findings showed many of the core graduate faculty, as noted on the program’s website links to Curriculum Vitas during document analysis, had current connections to local PreK 16 institutions, also noted as a vital CPED program practice (Auerbach, 2011; Peterson et al., 2016). Thus, as a CPED affiliate, the Context evaluation findings illustrated how the program focused on scholarly inquiry to support finding solutions to problems of practice in the regional demographic contexts with community engaged faculty with some reference to issues of social justice.

Further analyses of field notes and documents also revealed this inquiry into problems of practice as a significant point of the program. Nine core courses listed some type of problem solving through a scholarly inquiry approach as a student outcome. The terms seeing problems, problem solving, or seeing problems of practice were used 22 times across participant responses and was the most repeated point made. Likewise, a review of assignments revealed prompts that pushed candidates to framework based situations as problems of practice and consider how they might approach complex real world issues to develop LSE beyond program completion expectations (Hamann & Trainin, 2018). It was also discovered that most program instructors identified the cycle for continuous improvement as the method for problem analysis and solution planning. One core course syllabus, for example, noted a candidate learning outcome as, “Graduates will be able to lead collaborative team building and create solutions to problems that demonstrate ethical and sound instructional leadership through the cycle of continuous improvement.” Through circumlocution, 19 participant

4.2 Input Evaluation For Input evaluation, the conceptual framework outlines the focus on resources, infrastructure, curriculum, and content to address the program’s needs within the established context (Azizet al., 2018). For this casestudy, and based on the Context evaluation findings, the Input evaluation was delimited to curriculum and content. In alignment with these CPED program graduates’ contexts, the syllabi and signature assignment content illuminated the program’s understanding that these educational leaders will face complex issues. Further congruence of document, artifact, and reflexive journal review findings highlighted this specific CPED program focused curriculum and content on scholarly inquiry to find solutions to new problems of practice in the field to support LSE in a changing landscape.

and interview responses highlighted the challenges presented across this geographical region with systemic societal oppression that PreK 12 and higher education institutions are working to ameliorate by educating the populace. For example, various submitted assignments over the four years noted ways candidates were grappling with challenges related to the level of poverty and education of most residents within their districts and institutions of employment.

4.3 Process Evaluation

The Process evaluation focuses on understanding the program’s teaching and learning strategies and co curricular activities that support the program’s goals and expected student outcomes (Aziz et al., 2018). While the review of syllabi,

Another participant explained more on learning the concept of systems analysis for organizations, such as the cycle of improvement, was a focus in one core course, and this understanding appeared to be one that participants understood and carried with them into field based practice. For example: “The program offered...the practitioners’ a framework, so to speak, across the board. We were charged with doing something in what you’re doing right now, learning from other people what they have applied currently, or found successful. So, I guess the program is designed specifically to work from the problem solving model in the field for improvement.”

Gibney’s (2011) description for reframing and Cunningham, VanGronigen, Tucker & Young’s (2019) focus of using powerful learning experiences in leadership development also aligns with concepts around organizational responsibility and sustainability this CPED program infused into course learning outcomes as referenced across syllabi and signature assignments. With the overarching CPED Principle One illustrated social justice topics within each core and elective syllabi and central to the change leadership course instructed by the principal investigator, the program values education’s social responsibility for equity and access across contexts. Participant’s responses triangulated the teaching of social justice concepts through referenced terms such as leading for equity, advocating for change, and amplifying voices. For example, one participant who identified as “a minority who feels marginalized, especially in leadership roles,” eloquently described this in terms of becoming an advocate for candidates and others she serves: “The program has given me the knowledge, as well as the wisdom and...the courage to really be the voice for the candidates and maybe even amplify voices of people we mentor when they may not have one.”

Another participant who recognized his “privilege as a white male in leadership positions” explained considerations he learned in the program: “[The courses] challenged me to consider my biases and identities coming to problems of practice as a leader. The way I come to the problem is not how others have experienced it, so understanding the cycle of improvement from an equity perspective means I must ensure all voices are at the table and part of the collaborative processes for finding solutions. Otherwise, what have we really changed?”

responses also referenced learning the continuous improvement model to approach problems in the field. Making a statement about the course content regarding the continuous improvement model, for example, one participant explained: “[The program] gave me different lenses to look at the issues. We looked at different learning experiences, perspectives, problem solving, and their impact. The content in the classroom shaped our practice solving problems in the field.”

signature assignments, student assignments, teaching notes, and reflexive journaling revealed many approaches to teaching and learning across instructional experiences, there was convergence across data regarding the use of case studies and literature reviews for scholarly inquiry into real world problems of practice from the frame of the respective course content all with the intent of shaping student leadership skills as a general construct. Many courses also incorporated field based experiences as an applied application of learning to practice new leadership skills in context. These types of contextual experiences, within the LSE framework, can shape perceptions of ability and access to resources for solving complex issues, which impact the effort given and automaticity to act in challenging situations (e.g., Hannah et al., 2013).

Focusing on a problem of practice requires decision making processes to examine a real time case to effectively move forward with a leadership action across organizational contexts for various purposes, even outside of teaching and learning (Chitpin, 2014). Hamann and Trainin (2018) note that establishing a system of inquiry into a problem of practice is essential to developing scholar practitioners; also, factors found to impact LSE (Hannah et al., 2008; Hannah et al., 2009). Without the skills needed to first engage in deep inquiry for continuous improvement, leaders will fall back on status quo approaches to making decisions rather than draw on the visionary and collaborative processes needed for real change in schools (Morrison, 2018). Field notes revealed that the principal investigator, as the change leader instructor, regularly incorporated peer reviewed case studies to teach inquiry into problems of practice using the cycle of continuous improvement model with small groups of candidates. Furthermore, critical discourse and inquiry, becoming increasingly popular ways to frame teaching and learning in higher education (Rogers et al., 2016) with a focus on collaborative discussion and problem solving across leadership preparation instruction (Jenkins, 2020), were also emphasized strategies for the CPED instructors as noted across seven syllabi course overviews. Students from this CPED program are also expected to become skilled in a type of critical discourse the two way change process of leadership (Fairholm, 2014) within the principal investigator's change leadership course. The two way change process of leadership (Fairholm, 2014) requires candidates to take the individual and personal notions of leadership and adapt them to organizations’ issues within which they work, essential to field based assignments. Participant interview responses illustrated that, as PreK 12 and higher education leaders who work in professional educational communities, they were involved in the two way leadership change process by examining problems of practice regularly throughout the program. Triangulation of data found convergence on the use of real world case studies to teach scholarly inquiry into problems of practice to discover how leaders who have gone before them have approached difficult problems. Furthermore, the intent was to use the new understandings to shape leadership skills vicariously, somewhat like an apprenticeship model, as noted in the reflexive journal and the student assignment responses, to impact overall LSE (Hannah et al., 2013) in the field based experiences.

4.4 Product Evaluation

The Product evaluationallowsfordatareviewthroughthelensofactualoutcomes, positive or negative, as aligned to the established program goals (Aziz et al.,2018).

As a CPED aligned program working to develop educational leaders, this case evaluation presented the unique ways the CPED principles were being presented in the curriculum and taught in and out of the classroom. The evaluation up to this point illuminated that the program desires new leaders understand their social responsibility to the field of education and hone the skills to think through complex situations, engage groups in organizational change and focus on sustainability with high emotional intelligence for social change (Cunningham et al., 2019; Sudirman & Gemilang, 2020). The program considered how leadership has to be reframed and aligned for organizational change needs (Gibney, 2011; Morrison, 2018) and transitioned to the real world (Zambo, Ross & Zambo, 2015; Vasudeva, 2017), which is an overarching tenet of CPED aligned programs (2019) and threaded throughout this case study evidence. The first three evaluations illustrated that this CPED program’s goal is to develop change leaders for the future, explicitly drawing upon and cultivating student inquiry into problems of practice in the field during the program and continuing after graduation. Leader Self Efficacy (Hannah et al., 2013) provided a framework for exploring how these program graduates have developed as leaders and how they face leadership situations in the field to evaluate the program’s effectiveness in meeting the intended goals and learning objectives.

The program also highlights the use of Gibbs’ (1988) model of reflection in many of the core course syllabi to assist candidates in this two way leadership exchange. Much like Thanaraj (2016) delineates with her autoethnography on using reflection to impact leadership skills, Gibb’s (1988) reflective structure has candidates consider learning experiences, including the interactions with stakeholders, to understand what they would do differently for more robust outcomes. The model also adds an introspection, drawing on emotional intelligence through awareness of feelings and internal thought patterns (University of Cumbria, 2020).

Furthermore, while the term inquiry was not always explicitly used, case studies informed what and how strategies were applied in the improvement cycle noted across 10 course syllabi. Course outcomes also aimed to cultivate leadership skills to think and deal with field based complexities through engagement in dynamic, collaborative organizational processes with high levels of emotional intelligence and cultural awareness (Cunningham et al., 2019; Sudirman & Gemilang, 2020). These skills can be taught effectively through powerful learning experiences using collective inquiry at the intersection of theory, research, and practice for the critical examination of authentic problems of practice (Cunningham et al., 2019) and in work based settings (Sudirman & Gemilang, 2020). These skills, as a component ofLSE (Hannah etal.,2013), are also developed with theincorporation of field based action research as a model of scholarly inquiry (Lenihan et al., 2015), for which the triangulation of findings revealed was central to this CPED program instructors pedagogy.

4.4.1 Theme one: Personal transformation in LSE of thought, self motivation, and action As outlined from the previous evaluation components, an overarching goal of this CPED program is that candidates become leaders who can lead organizations to address complex problems of practice. As foundational to Leader Self Efficacy (Hannah et al., 2013), the leader must believe they have the thought, self motivation, and means to act, in this case, to find solutions for challenging situations in the field. Across responses, program graduates emphasized how their leadership ability was strengthened by cultivating personal characteristics, skills, and ideas that motivated them to act as leaders with more efficacy and confidence. This finding aligned with aspects of effective change leader development noted throughout the previous evaluation findings (e.g., Cunningham et al., 2019; Gibney, 2011; Morrison, 2018; Sudirman & Gemilang, 2020; Vasudeva, 2017; Zambo, Ross & Zambo, 2015).

The participant interview responses on applying program learning objectives and experiences were analyzed for emergent themes and evaluated for growth in LSE (Hannah et al., 2013) as the ultimate program outcome goal. Next, the themes guided the researchers' understanding of the evaluation questions (1) How does a CPED doctoral program support candidates’ in cultivating their leader self efficacy as problem solving scholar practitioners? (2) To what extent do CPED program graduates, as scholar practitioners, continue to solve problems of practice in the field?

The term change related to personal transformation as a leader was mentioned 17 times in the interview transcripts. Participants described being transformed from their learning and interactions in this doctoral program, and that they perceived themselves differently as leaders because of the program. For example, two participants mentioned a change in self as “stepping out of the comfort zone.” Another participant described their experience as follows: “I am much more understanding, more patient,… I am a much more holistic leader now…miles and miles more patient,… it was literally transformational.” A further participant shared, “…on the good side, it has completely transformed me in a way that I see things differently.”

Trends from interview participant response emergent thematic analysis (Denzin, 2017) triangulated with the archived document review through the previous evaluation findings illuminated the program impacted LSE and inquiry is a learned skill developed through the program’s focus on problems of practice. The most emphasized points, aligned with the framework of LSE in thought, self motivation, means, and action, were as follows: 1. personal transformation as a leader; 2. increased confidence as a leader to enact change; and, 3. seeing inquiry as a program learned skill to solve problems of practice as leaders in the field.

The participants discussed growth in approachingproblems of practice as leaders in their work contexts because of the program. They also perceived that learning to inquire into a problem of practice based on research was a program developed skill important in strengthening their ability to lead in the field after the program.

4.4.2 Theme two: Increased confidence as LSE in thought and means impacts self motivation and action to lead Increased LSE in thought and means was the core of the second theme that emerged. The artifact and field note analyses revealed the phrase confidence to lead over 35 times, and the same phrase, along with the ability to lead, was stated 15 times across interview transcripts. When candidates start the doctoral program, some are already in leadership positions, some transitions to leadership positions while in the program, and others either move into positions after graduation. The changes that candidates went through to become leaders during the program were reflected in comments from other faculty members. In particular, faculty observed candidates develop LSE by applying scholarly inquiry through authentic problems of practice as noted in leadership actions and reflective dialogue. Similar to what Thompson et al. (2015) discuss, the faculty serve as mentors while candidates practice inquiry in their coursework. In the change leadership course, candidates examine cases of leadership addressing problems of practice with instructor guidance. Candidates reflected on their learning as leaders (Thanaraj, 2016) and confidence in collaboratively analyzing systems within organizations (Jenkins, 2020; Sudirman & Gemilang, 2020), which, in turn, increased their perceptions of seeing themselves as capable leaders through challenging situations as the LSE framework (Hannah et al., 2013) theorizes.

Another participant was straight forward in how they changed as a leader through the program, stating, “I’ve changed as a leader because I look at problems and I know that I can do something to address them. The skills that I have learned in analysis and in using data to make generalizations about an issue have been invaluable and I see myself as a problem solver.”

Six other participants elaborated on developing a voice, also indicating LSE Similarly,transformation.another participant highlighted how the CPED program aided their leadership transformation and observed peers’ transformation through finding and using voice. They described how communicating needs became the motivation to make leadership moves that might have otherwise been avoided, which is an increase in LSE, specifically in means for action: “[The program] has given us leaders the courage to say, ‘you know, if you want something, voice it.’ If you want something you need to seek it. It gave us that push, you know, the push to actually do something as a leader rather than hope or wish for it.”

Similarly, a different participant described their transformation after sharing a moment that happened in a meeting early on in the program, when the comments of another person made them cry: “I’m a very different person now because of [the program], regardless of what people thought of me at the beginning. I think it’s made me a better employee. It makes me a servant leader. It’s made me the type of person that I never was before, someone stronger, which gave me the ability to view myself as someone who had something to offer.”

The participants described this LSE asbecomingmore self confidentandknowing what to do in a leadership situation; thus, increasing both thought and means for enacting leadership moves. For example, one participant stated, “I feel like now

I’ve learned new ways of thinking as a leader, and I’ve learned this through the doctorate program. I feel like after I graduated I now feel more confident in my ability to lead.” After explaininghow they gleanednewresources andways of thinkingabout situations encountered as a leader,another participant added, “I’m more than ever, confident.”

After reflecting on the newly learned skills, another participant shared that their confidence (LSE in thought and means) grew incrementally throughout the phases of the CPED program, which in turn, highlights an impact on LSE in self motivation and action to lead: “There’s a tremendous level of confidence about leading that I heard talked about before I started the program and then began to actually experience it towards the latter end of the program especially once it was ending. That was really unexpected. I used to consider myself in the lowest way confident. Now, after learning new skills and ways of tackling issues over the program and the network we established...and the resources, I am confident to lead and I know I have what I need to make things happen. Now I am a change leader doing the work, not watching others and hoping to be one.”

After reflectingon theirlearning from programfaculty, a different participant also noted that “I am much more confident in my ability to lead change and manage change, and much more confident in assessing problems of practice and looking for collaborative solutions. It’s just been fabulous hard of course, but fabulous.”

A different participant reflected on how their newfound confidence in leading increased their ability to lead. This alluded to the growth of LSE in thought, means, and action: “[I developed] a broader perspective of education…and in doing that it gave me confidence to know that things I’ve done in the past or have not done or heard about I can now do…it’s just that the process of educational leadership itself is a system and is one that is as critical as I thought, and it is as urgent as I believed it was. And now I have what it takes to be a leader with the tools and processes I have learned through the program.”

Some participants did not directly use the term confidence but described it through a reflection on new awareness, which highlighted, once again, the impact of the program on LSE in thought and means. For example, one participant shared: “[The program] made me more aware of myself. I have become more aware of my weaknesses and my strengths and I tried to figure out how to use them in my everyday role as a leader in my organization. I believe I am a better leader overall because of being able to do this.”

Another participant highlighted: I think my ability to lead has grown. It’s fascinating. It isn’t tangible. You have to think about how to do the leading before you actually do it... and you have to know you have all the resources you need the people, the ideas, the plan, the theory of action before you say, ‘Ok, let’s make change.”

These applied analysis skills are a goal of the CPED framework (2019b), noted in one guiding principle of CPED influenced programs: To provide field based opportunities to analyze problems of practice and use multiple frames to develop meaningful solutions. If candidates are working on analyzing authentic problems of practice through course content, they become more likely to understand how to address difficult problems that occur within the diverse organizations they serve. In this way, the terms analysis or analyzing were mentioned six times in

Further, participants discussed viewing problems of practice indicated another way these participants had embodied working on complex situations beyond the program (e.g., Hamann & Trainin, 2018). For example, one of these participants described their way of viewing problems using a metaphor: “I feel that it’s more of a definition or refining of who I am as a leader. I had some qualities coming in. It’s given me an opportunity to view things and expand on the skills I had. To view things slightly differently, to expand on who I am. If you think of a person with two eyes that puts on a pair of glasses, there are four ways to vision, theoretically. I think of that kind of development within myself. A lot of clarity, a lot of paying attention to the smaller details, versus just the bigger picture of leadership. The details help lead you to the right research for the specific need and then, in turn, that gives you lenses for a plan in the bigger picture. Zooming in and zooming out all at once with the research and planning process helping to focus the view…”

Well, the very nature of our work is a problem of practice because of course, what we’re doing is taking a look at the statistics that are gathered on the problem that we’re involved in so that we can then make plans to improve the program…well, really, first to find aligned scholarly research to apply to the issue or the plan and then we jump in and...keep progress notes… so we can track the progress of each plan and then from that make modifications for the overall program that we have.

4.4.3 Theme three: Inquiry is a learned skill developed through a focus on problems of practice asfromworkinginOverall,participantsexplainedhow,asleaders,theyfocusonproblemsofpracticethefield.Theparticipantsallnoted,invariousways,thatthinkingaboutandonproblemsofpracticecontinuedbeyondtheprogram.Oneparticipant,thecontextoftheircurrentleadershipposition,sharedtheirviewsofthejobrevolvingaroundfacilitatingteamstofindsolutionsforproblemsofpractice:

A different participant named problems of practice and the cycle of improvement using different terms, but highlighted similar overtones of scholarly inquiry to address issues as a leader because of the CPED program: “Because of the doctoral program I am now more adept at leading teams and addressing various situations, or problems of practice. Whether or not I call them that is kind of inconsequential. I do just see things differently, and I do handle them differently and process them differently, with research and systems for thinking to back up what we are doing. Not just trying something new just because it is new, but developing a plan for improvement based on what has already been reported to actually work in a given context. That is all different for me as a leader now.”

Another detailed how they led a team of colleagues through data analysis to begin problem solving after developing and conducting an organizational climate survey: “We got together to analyze why we thought that we got the negative responses, what exactly our practices were, and how we could improve them...The skills that I learned in analysis and in using data to make generalizations about an issue have been invaluable to me and I see myself as a problem solver. But a scholarly one now. I mean I would have never thought to develop or had the skills to develop and execute, a reliable survey to help make leadership decisions. Not before this program.”

Likewise, a separate participant discussed skills in analysis as part of their work as a problem solving type of educational leader: “You realize the critical nature of analyzing and involving all the stakeholders in your initial assessment of what the root causes actually are and whether or not your plan will ultimately have an impact on the perceived problem of practice.”

Furthermore, participant responses regarding their work with problems alluded they were inquiring deeply into contexts, applying research based methods, well and drawing upon literature to support both problem analysis and next steps for addressing the problem in the short and long terms all components of the cycle of continuous improvement taught and used across the nine core courses of this CPED program. For example, a participant directly described the continuous improvement cycle: “Our team that I work on, my current role, is made up of essentially five people: one team leader and four team members so to speak. Our process in designing this team and our charge to support school districts and maintaining...the systems leadership through the continuous improvement model.”

conjunction with problem solving. For example, one participant specifically noted, “The problem of practice really exists within the analysis and strategic problem solving.”

5. Evaluation Summary by Research Question

How does a CPED doctoral program support candidates in cultivating their leader self efficacy as problem solving scholar practitioners? In terms of cultivating LSE, the case study evaluation findings demonstrate that the CPED program supports candidates in specific ways. Response trends highlighted the ways the program, with an emphasis on scholarly inquiry (e.g., Cunningham et al., 2019; Rogers et al., 2016) of field based problems of practice (e.g., Hamann & Trainin, 2018; Lenihan et al , 2015) as was transformational for graduates as educational leaders.

As viewed through LSE (Hannah et al., 2013), the findings illuminated how leaders are self motivated to take action when they perceive they have critical thinking processes. As shown through Theme One, the participants noted they had changed, in thought by having new ways to consider how to address problems of practice, and in motivation by finding a previously untapped voice that shifted

So in terms of helping me with the problem of practice I would say that the continuous process really helped me in that area...it really is something I rely on in my current job.”

Graduates from this CPED program believe they can adapt as leaders, a critical program outcome because of their increased LSE in thought, means, self motivation, and practice in action. Constant change is a real factor within the increasingly complex PreK 12 and higher education settings. The skill sets required within redesigned CPED doctoral programs support critical inquiry processes that help graduates recognize and adapt to leadership challenges in the field. By incorporating scholarly practices of collaborative critical inquiry into the problem landscape and self reflection on the processes, practitioners can more efficaciously enact meaningful change.. While the program Context and Input evaluations highlighted aspects of social justice, limited to no evidence was found in the Process and Product evaluations, illuminating an area of growth for this doctoral program to meet CPED goals and truly prepare leaders for the diverse context of the region they will serve. Thus, based on the evaluation findings, to cultivate LSE and support the continued use of problem solving after graduation, programs should consider: ● The use of critical collaborative scholarly inquiry into authentic problems of practice.

the perception of being able to lead so they could enact change. Theme Two emphasized how graduate LSE was positively impacted by the program, noting an increase in confidence and self awareness. Participants described this impact in ways that illustrated how the program aided in strengthening their self perceptions as leaders because they were afforded opportunities to develop critical thinking strategies and resources in which to draw on as leaders in the field. It is clear that graduates of a CPED program, with a focus on cultivating problem solving scholar practitioners, do benefit from an increase in overall LSE by tapping into the sub constructs through field based coursework on authentic problems of practice (Cunningham et al., 2019; Lenihan et al., 2015) by committed faculty mentors (Thompson et. al, 2015). To what extent do these CPED program graduates, as scholar practitioners, continue to solve problems of practice in the field? These CPED graduates seemed to focus on problems of practice to a great extent in their current work environments. As educational leaders in the field, participants perceived their work to revolve around solving problems of practice noting how this way of thinking was central to being a leader. This aligns with Morison (2018) findings of where leaders will continue to access the status quo unless they are empowered to use deep collaborative inquiry to solve problems for continuous improvement, which participants alluded to in their responses. Also, by fostering specific leadership practices for critical thinking throughout the CPED program, the new practices became part of their leadership repertoire after graduation, which aligns with the findings of Cunningham et al. (2019) and Jenkins (2020). Emphasizing the work of Chiptin (2014) and Hamann & Trainin (2018), these CPED graduates also highlighted how they addressed problems of practice in the organization beyond teaching and learning to enact change. The CPED (2019) goals for a redesigned program for true widespread impactful change in the field were demonstrated with this set of graduate participants.

6. Conclusion

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12.

Additional

23 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1 Interview Questions Rapport Building 1. How are you feeling after finally graduating from the program? 2. Tell me about your current role in education? Problems of Practice in the Program 3. Tell me about the problem of practice you focused on in your dissertation? 4. Did the program help you think about your problems of practice as you moved towards and through the dissertation phase? 5. In what ways did the program help you, or not helped you, define and address your problem of practice?

Problems of Practice Beyond the Program in Current Leadership Role What leadership work are you involved in now? How do you address issues to enact change in your current context as problems of practice? Program Evaluation What did the program offer that has helped you define your current work through the lense of a problem of practice? What can be strengthened in the program to help you continue? How do you feel you grew your abilities to lead because of the program? How do you feel about your ability in approaching problems of practice in your current role through scholarly inquiry rather than merely solving problems or putting out fires? Information Do you have anything else to share about your growth as a leader because of the program that I have not yet asked you about?

10.

11.

24 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 24 40, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.2

Abstract. This study aims to determine the effect of the principal's digital leadership on vocational teachers' reflection practice, mediated by the variables of trust, self efficacy, and work involvement. This study uses path analysis with modeling using SEM (AMOS). The sample of this research is 637 (N=340 females and N=297 males) vocational high school teachers in Malang Raya, East Java, Indonesia.

https://orcid.org/0000

The researchers have used a purposive random sampling technique to meet the objectives of this research. The investigators have used a 86 item questionnaire to collect data on the studied variables. Based on the fit model's estimation, there is a direct and indirect relationship between the five variables used. The variables of trust, self efficacy, and job involvement contributed significantly to intervening variables. It can be concluded that the moderating variable strengthens the framework for the relationship between digital leadership and teacher reflective practices. The new relationship formed is a direct contribution of digital leadership to work engagement with a magnitude of 0.120 and a direct relationship made between digital leadership and the reflective practice of teachers of 0.168. This relationship has a positive impact on teacher actions. These results indicate that the teacher appreciates the Principal's leadership, who both supports facilitates the learning process in using technology in the learning process. Moreover, teachers feel motivated and excited to reflect on their learning because of the leaders who have digital characters. The teacher considered leaders with digital personalities more open and tended to free them to manage the class.

https://orcid.org/0000

Rini Agustina1 and Waras Kamdi State University of Malang, Malang, East Java, Indonesia 1 0003 1650 4994 Syamsul Hadi, Muladi and Didik Nurhadi State University of Malang, Malang, East Java, Indonesia 0003 1220 2729 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2904 5398 0002 6365 535X

Keywords: digital leadership; trust; self efficacy; work engagement; teacher eflective practice

Influence of the Principal’s Digital Leadership on the Reflective Practices of Vocational Teachers Mediated by Trust, Self Efficacy, and Work Engagement

https://orcid.org/0000

Although there is a lot of research on leadership and its influence on teachers and the learning process, its basic principles are still needed so that schools can be called successful. researchers still try to reveal the other side of leadership regarding their understanding of digital technology since the latter offers new opportunities and challenges for organizations and society (Niekerk, 2015; Niekerk & Wyk, 2014). More than that, digital leaders must keep up with the global revolution that is taking place (Richardson, Bathon, Flora, & Lewis, 2012) since it takes a dynamic combination of mindset, behaviour, and skills to change and/or enhance the school culture. Always, changing times and people's dependence on technology demands an evolution of leadership practices to create schools that can adapt to technological developments(Mok & Moore, 2019).

Therefore, leadership is an important factor in the success of the educational process and goals. As highlighted in the above paragraph, leadership is a combination of skills and character to influence and encourage others to work

1. Introduction

Professional teachers always reflect on their work practices by thinking slowly about the problems they face in their professional life (Beetham & Sharpe, 2013) In other words, experienced teachers must be reflective practitioners (Zhong, 2017). The reflective practitioner is a very complex ability that includes the potential to reflect on actions as part of the learning process on an ongoing basis ( Zhong, 2016). Having reflective abilities is not easy because teachers are always required to pay attention to their students, starting from learning, methods used, effective teaching methods, and how to assess their students. Taking into consideration students’ living environment and their parents are another fundamental resources instructors need to call for. Such a notion reflects how worthiness reflective teaching is and the unseen realities it covers.

In this respect, teachers’ reflective practices is successful when administrators of prospective teacher education programs work as a reflective practitioner to focus on education performance (Nie, 2015; Zhong, 2017). The need for self development skills as reflective practitioners will be more significant for vocational teachers who are tasked with developing student potential related to companies and industry (Minghui, Lei, Xiaomeng & Potmešilc, 2018; Nie, Lau & Liau, 2012) With regard to the above mentioned, teachers cannot fend for themselves but need the principal's support, which is one of the driving forces in shaping teacher character and is an essential factor determining school effectiveness (Minghui et al., 2018) In other terms, leaders act as role models for the school community they lead and are a factor in strategies for increasing learning effectiveness(Reza & Sarab, 2016). Factors that are thought to influence teachers in the knowledge reflection process are teacher self efficacy (Want et al., 2019), trust (Osifo, 2016), and work engagement (Drewniak & Karaszewski, 2016; Engelbrecht, Heine & Mahembe, 2017; Men, 2015). Leadership factors and internal teachers’ factors are the focus of this study because they are closely related in fostering and forming teacher reflection practices in their learning.

1. Are there any relationships between Digital Leadership, teacher trust, efficacy, work engagement, and reflective teacher practice?

effectively and below expectations (Kalkan, Aksal, Gazi, Atasoy & Dağlı, 2020; Ünal, Uzun & Karataş, 2015) Kamdi (2014) states that to become a vocational school teacher today is not easy because of the high workload compared to non vocational teachers. The competence of vocational teachers must keep abreast of the job market dynamics because they are related to industrial developments.

2. Do trust, self efficacy, and work engagement become moderators of variables between digital leadership and teacher reflective practice?

Increasing the competence of vocational teachers has a faster expiry rate than non vocational teachers' skills. Accordingly, vocational teachers are always required to learn and, at the same time, keep up with technology transfer.

For this reason, vocational teachers must have the ability to continue to reflect on their learning for the success of education and renew their professional competencies. A strong commitment to the teacher formed from the work engagement variable is expected to increase teacher motivation to continue to reflect on their learning. Students will later catch the teacher's commitment to dynamic change in the learning system, technological changes, and the changing times that are increasingly fast. Another hope is that teachers will be able to foster the same reflective practice for their students so that they are ready to enter into the wider community.

2. literature Review

The lack of studies on the topic of technology integration in schools and more significantly the lack of research on the role of digital leadership in creating digital cultures came to the attention of Richardson, Bathon, Flora, and Lewis, who published a NETS A review of all literature published between 1997 and 2012 on the topic of school digital leadership. In the same context, Richardson (2012) came out with the conclusion that nearly 68% of digital leadership articles are descriptive only. That is,more scientific studies are needed on issues related to technological standards for school leaders, as well as the skills of leaders who will become change leaders. Based on Richardson’s suggestion and some other references and the lack of in depth research on this topic, this study is a review of a new type of leadership, namely digital leadership, that has never correlated with other variables related to teacher reflective practices. The gap taken in this study is the development of a research model related to digital leadership with the variables of trust, self efficacy, and work engagement. The use of these variables is thought to foster the practice of teacher reflection. Therefore, this study aims to answer the following research questions:

2.1. Teacher's Reflective Practice Schön (Schön, 1983) is said to be the first who introduced the idea of a reflective practitioner, in which he claimed that reflective practice is at the core of professional knowledge and learning, in response to the limitations inherent in technical rationality models. Reflective is defined as a spontaneous and automatic response, which adopts a new thought process (Bassot, 2016) Reflective is at the core of the experiential learning model, which offers a holistic

2.2. Work Engagement

Job engagement is by definition a high level of energy and reliable identification with one's work in a positive, satisfying, and work related state of mind characterized by enthusiasm, dedication, and absorption (Men, 2015). According to Salicru (2015), work engagement is a form of positive job fulfilment from the mind's character centre. Put differently, work engagement is a centre of motivation and positive thinking related to work, enthusiasm, dedication, and absorption. A teacher with a high work engagement to his/her job will show that s/he cares about the job. Work engagement is determined by persons who are physically and psychologically devoted to their work. Minghui et al. (2018) concluded that work engagement is a suggestion to work without coercion, both physically and psychologically, with enthusiasm and inner satisfaction during work. Vigor (Spirit); dedication; and absorption are claimed to be the indicators of work engagement, Men (2015).

2.3. Teacher Self-Efficacy

Teacher self efficacy is the extent to which teachers believe that they can influence student engagement and learning outcomes. This relationship becomes more robust when the teacher feels no external pressure and feels determined to teach. Teachers' self efficacy affects their persistence, the effort they invest in education, and the goals they set (Barni, Danioni & Benevene, 2019). Self efficacy is relevant to professional identity and teacher student relationships (Bellingham, 2013; Farris Berg & Dirkswager, 2012). This research's self efficacy is related to three teaching components: classroom management, student involvement, and teaching strategies (Miovska Spaseva, 2016) That is to say, self efficacy in classroom management refers to teachers' belief in developing and maintaining classroom order. Successful student engagement refers to the teacher's belief in motivating students and engaging them in their learning process. Teaching strategies' effectiveness relates to teachers' beliefs in using various pedagogical didactic techniques in the classroom (Zee & Koomen, 2016).

Reflective teaching is the development of teacher professionalism with a cyclic process. According to Bassot (2016) and McCarty (2013), reflective teaching is the opportunity for teacher to explore, question, and reframe their teaching practice holistically to be interpreted based on conditions in the field.

In doing so, teachers will be informed in determining the appropriate process to improve performance. Reflective teaching will give birth to an attitude of openness (open mindedness), full involvement (wholeheartedness), and responsibility (Bassot, 2016; Slade, Burnham, Catalana, & Waters, 2019).

Reflective teaching should not be seen as a teaching method or teaching model ,but a method that has a broader and holistic perspective. According to Reza and Sarab (2016), reflective learning include: practical; cognitive; participants; and metacognitive indicators.

and integrated learning perspective combining experience, perception, cognition, and behaviour. Teachers' engagement in reflective practice is mainly influenced by the expectations obtained from previous experience, knowledge, education, age, gender, economic background, and culture(Bolton, 2015)

2.5. Digital Leadership Digitalization is essential for any organization and society. The way organizations communicate with clients, do marketing, deliver products, and run business processes is heavily influenced by digital technology. New developments in digital technology offer new opportunities and challenges for organizations and society (Loebbecke & Schepers, 2020). When an organization fails to keep up with its competitors’ use of digital technology or its clients' expectations, it may be forced to close (McKeown, 2015). If society fails to absorb new communication opportunities, information sharing, and cooperation, the community is vulnerable to chaos and dysfunctional social structures. Leaders must point the way forward, but if they don’t understand how to use digital technology and the instrumentation that comes with it, and if they don’t understand the strengths it has in their relationships with their stakeholders, they will fall behind(Domeny, 2017). In this concern, Toomey (2016) states that digital transformation is a long term, sustainable process of rapid and sometimes disruptive evolution in society, markets, businesses, and governments. Digital transformation provides new nuances for innovative, creative, and change loving digital technology users. Hence, digital transformation, though the inexpected challenges it brings, remains significant but needs a certain frame to its success mainly when used for educational purposes. Accordingly, digital leadership is defined as leadership that can determine the direction, influence others, initiate sustainable change through access to information, and build relationships to anticipate changes that are important for schools' success in the future. These fundamental elements will never change but changing times and people's dependence on technology

2.4.Teacher Trust Trust is the glue that binds leaders to followers and provides organizational success and leadership (Mineo, 2014). It is not a momentary event but a series of investments over time that will make success possible. Prince (2018) approaches trust as a complex, dynamic, and multidimensional phenomenon related to several essential variables regarding school organizations effectiveness, human relations, and behaviour. School leaders must take deliberate actions to ensure that relationships are built through open and active communication. In hope to achieve the aforesaid, there must be transparency in decision making so that everything is seen as fair and in the common interest. As a result, teachers who feel trusted will try to meet the needs of their students. Despite the fact that they are sometimes subject to feel uncomfortable in communicating with the principal, trust in teachers exists to create good interpersonal relationships in the school system. Research conducted by Osifo (2016) states that trust is a strong personal relationship between the principal and the teacher to become a school principal. Research shows that influential school leaders support their teaching staff and trust their professional judgment (Jachowicz, 2016). Developing trust is not an easy task since some challenges must be overcome, and there are always differences in opinion about the school system in terms of curriculum, teaching practice, and/or school policy (Drewniak & Karaszewski, 2016).

3. Theoretical Framework

require the evolution of practices to create decent and good schools (Prince, 2018; Sheninger, 2014).Digital leadership indicators, according to Doğan (2018), Zhong (2017), Zhong and Zhong (2016) consist of visionary leadership; digital age learning culture; professional development; systemic improvement, and digital citizenship).

Figure 1.The Conceptual Framework

Based on some of these studies, the researchers then tried to develop a new type of leadership that is different from the previous type of leadership, namely digital leadership. The investigators add several supporting variables which will later build a more comprehensive framework for teacher reflective practice. Therefore, the research framework used for the purpose of the present research is reflected in Figure 1.

This research used path analysis with modeling using SEM (AMOS) interpretation. The variables used in this study are: digital leadership, teacher

This research framework is adopted from Engelbrecht and Mahembe’s research in 2015, which links integrity and ethical leadership with trust. The trust relationship emerged as an important concept in improving employees’ welfare and organizational effectiveness. Engelbrecht et al. (2017) developed how the integrity of leaders and ethical leadership can affect trust in leaders and their job members' involvement. Meanwhile, Juracka’s research in 2018 tries to test instructional leadership/learning leadership designed to increase teacher work engagement in the curriculum development process (Farris Berg & Dirkswager, 2012). Job involvement also shows the need for a more significant leadership role for teachers in increasing their ability to support more substantial learning in the Gallanteclassroom.(2015)

4. Methodology

provides other factors regarding the relationship between instructional leadership and self efficacy and findings demonstrate a significant relationship between instructional leadership and teacher work engagement Consequently, educational leadership becomes attractive after being associated with work engagement and being modified by self efficacy as done by Noormohammadi (2014) who tries to examine the relationship between self efficacy and teacher reflection, which is thought to improve student learning.

30 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. trust, efficacy, work engagement, and teacher's practical reflection. The researchers have used a purposive random sampling technique to meet the objectives of this study. 637 (N=340 females and N=297 males) vocational teachers from a total number of 3727 from Malang Raya (City and District) are selected to participate in this research. Respondents’ age ranges from 36 to 45 years with 11 15 years teaching experience. In hope to meet the research objectives, the investigators have used a questionnaire which covers 86 items significantly distributed in response to each variable. The following table displays the studied variables in respect to the endicators used with their corresponding items. Table 1. Sources of Research Instruments No Variable Indicator No. Question 1 Teacher's ReflectionPractical Practical 1 6 Cognitive 7 12 Learner 13 15 Metacognitive 16 22 Critical 23 29 2 Digital Leadership Visionary Leadership 1 2 Digital Age Learning Culture 3 5 Professional Development 6 7 Systemic Improvement 8 10 Digital Citizenship 11 3 Work Engagement Vigor 1 6 Dedication 7 11 Absorption 12 14 4 Self Efficacy Teacher Bandura's Instrument Teacher Self Efficacy Scale EMS = efficacy for motivational strategies 1 4 ECM = efficacy for classroom management 5 8 EIS = efficacy for instructional strategies 9 12 5 Teacher'sVariableTrust ReflectionPractical Benevolence 1 5 Integrity 6 10 Predictability 11 15 Competence 16 20 The instrument validity test is carried out with 154 respondents with 86 item problems using Pearson Analysis. The results show that the r count for all the designed items are valid with r=0.133 . The reliability test of the questionnaire is also carried out with the Cronbach Alpha technique. Based on the results of the reliability testing, it shows that the Cronbach alpha number is 0.975 which indicates that the research instruments used to measure the study variables are to a great extent reliable. After testing the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the prerequisite test or data assumption test is conducted, namely the normality test. The latter is carried out using AMOS, and the Normalization test assessment produces the output as shown in Table 2.

31 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 2 Testing Data Normality with AMOS Variable min max skew c.r. kurtosis c.r. TR_K .200 15.000 1.305 13.448 11.792 60.749 TR_P .600 6.200 .177 1.829 .484 2.493 TR_I .000 6.000 .392 4.038 .384 1.978 TR_B .600 6.000 .240 2.475 .501 2.582 SE_EIS 1.000 6.000 .468 4.818 .507 2.611 SE_ECM .000 6.000 .687 7.078 .125 .642 SE_EMS .000 6.000 .551 5.675 .064 .329 WE_AB .000 6.000 .251 2.583 .591 3.046 WE_DE .000 6.000 .602 6.206 .070 .363 WP_VI .670 8.000 .422 4.349 .310 1.599 TRP_M .640 6.000 .045 .466 .740 3.810 TRP_L .670 6.000 .140 1.448 .623 3.210 TRP_C .670 6.000 .284 2.925 .462 2.380 TRP_P 1.170 6.000 .058 .601 .725 3.736 DL_VL .000 6.000 .398 4.096 .260 1.341 DL_DAL .000 6.000 .441 4.545 .046 .238 DL_PD .000 7.000 .381 3.924 .115 .594 DL_SI .000 6.000 .427 4.402 .209 1.076 DL_DC .000 6.000 .523 5.388 .160 .825 Multivariate 175.667 78.474 In table 2, it is known that the value of univariate skewness is not higher than three, and univariate kurtosis does not exceed ten, as suggested by Waluyo (2016). This condition is supported by the value of the critical ratio (C.R) for skewness and kurtosis of each variable which is no higher than ± 2.58 Therefore, it is safe to conclude that the data is normally distributed at the univariate level (Haryono, 2016). 5. Results After collecting the intended data, its modeling is processed by SEM (AMOS). The modeling results are reflected in Figure 2 While the effects of calculations are displayed in Table 3.

32 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Figure 2. Modelling Using SEM (AMOS) Table 3. Estimated Regression Weight Estimate SE. CR. P Label TR_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.753 0.038 19.629 *** par_19 SE_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.27 0.05 5.355 *** par_20 SE_TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.334 0.05 6.619 *** par_22 WE_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.112 0.038 2.916 0.004 par_15 WE_TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.157 0.04 3.966 *** par_16 WE_TOTAL < SE_TOTAL 0.719 0.039 18.58 *** par_23 TRP_TOTAL < WE_TOTAL 0.288 0.073 3.954 *** par_17 TRP_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.103 0.039 2.669 0.008 par_18 TRP_TOTAL < SE_TOTAL 0.17 0.065 2.613 0.009 par_21 TRP_TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.025 0.04 0.626 0.531 par_24 DL_SI < DL_TOTAL 1.087 0.038 28.664 *** par_1 *TR = Trust *SE = Self Efficacy *WE = Work Engagement *DL = Digital Leadership *TRP = Teacher Reflective Practice From the results of the above output (Table 3), it can be concluded that there is one item variable that doesn’t fit, namely TR to TRP with a significance value of 0.531 or> 0.05 This finding indicates that the variable does not directly affect the model used. The model will become fit by removing the factors that do not fit as shown in Figure 3.

33 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Figure 3. Model Fit In order to clearly understand the above findings, the researchers find it significant to reflect the same data as follows: Table 4. Standard Regression Weights Estimate SE. CR. P Label TR_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.754 0.038 19.634 *** Par_19 SE_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.27 0.05 5.342 *** Par_20 SE _TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.334 0.05 6.632 *** Par_22 WE_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.111 0.038 2.888 0.004 Par_15 WE_TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.159 0.04 4.021 *** Par_16 WE_TOTAL < SE _TOTAL 0.719 0.039 18.575 *** Par_23 TRP_TOTAL < WE_TOTAL 0.299 0.071 4.222 *** Par_17 TRP_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.117 0.032 3.684 *** Par_18 TRP_TOTAL < SE _TOTAL 0.167 0.065 2.569 0.01 Par_21 DL_SI < DL_TOTAL 1.087 0.038 28.66 *** Par_1 From the output in Table 4, it can be read that all values are significant <0.05 and hence the model is fit.

Based on the above results, a path diagram is obtained as shown in Figure 4.

In Table 5, square multiple correlations show the effective contribution of independent variables to the dependent variable. If we look at the output in SPSS, this value is indicated by R Square's value.

34 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 5. Estimated Fit Model Calculations Standardized Regression Weights: (Group Number 1 Default Model) Estimate TR_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.759 SE _TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.301 SE _TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.371 WE_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.12 WE_TOTAL < TR_TOTAL 0.17 WE_TOTAL < SE _TOTAL 0.694 TRP_TOTAL < WE_TOTAL 0.397 TRP_TOTAL < DL_TOTAL 0.168 TRP_TOTAL < SE _TOTAL 0.214 DL_SI < DL_TOTAL 0.942

The Role of Digital Leadership to Work Engagement is 0.120; The Role of Digital Leadership to Teacher Reflective Practice is 0.168;

The Role from Work Engagement to Teacher Reflective Practice is 0.397.

Figure 4. Model Fit Results in the Form of a Path Diagram

The Role of the Trust to Self Efficacy is 0.371; The Role of Trust to Work Engagement is 0.170; The Role of Teacher Efficacy to Work Engagement is 0.694; The Role of Self Efficacy to Teacher Reflective Practice is 0.214; and

The regression weight output results can be seen in Table 5 as the role of the standardized coefficient relationship of one variable to another. That is to say, this standardized coefficient has an expected value from 0 1, in which is now possible to compare which one has a more significant role. From table 5, it is possible to say that: The Role of Digital Leadership to Trust is 0.759; The Role of Digital Leadership to Self Efficacy is 0.301;

35 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 6. Squared Multiple Correlation Model Fit 2 Estimate TR_TOTAL .576 SE _TOTAL .398 WE_TOTAL .794 TRP_TOTAL .508 As shown, the effective contribution of DL to TR is 0.576 (57.6%) while the effective contribution of DL and TR to SE is 0.398 (39.8%). The effective participation from DL, TR and SE to WE is 0.794 (79.4%), whereas the effective contribution from DL, TR, SE, and WE to TRP is 0.508 (50.8%).

The present study results contribut in strengthening the role of the principal in technology integration and teachers’ reflective actions . This study also confirms that digital leadership is an essential factor both directly and indirectly influencing and encouraging teachers to work effectively as expected by Drewniak & Karaszewski (2016) In parallel, Chou, Shen, Hsiao and Shen (2019) claim that school systems and culture become attractive when technology is present. Digital leadership today is needed and has become the fashion that current school principals must have in the future. Principals are responsible for instructional leadership in schools by facilitating the integration of teacher technology in the classroom. More importantly, the Principal administrator's active involvement as the principal administrator is another factor in the successful application of technology in the teaching and learning process (Doğan, 2018; Prince, 2018) This study also looks at the Principal's digital leadership role that is felt directly by the teacher. The obtained results show that digital leadership goal in fostering teacher confidence give the highest direct contribution with 0.759. This means that teacher trust in leaders provides positive encouragement to teachers in the self development process. This result aligns with Ünal and the followers research (2015), which states that technology continues to dominate culture in all

6. Discussion

The Principal's digital leadership role in vocational education provides fresh air and new nuances in the school educational system. As one of the educations that pays close attention to technological change, vocational strives to prepare its graduates to have competencies that are always adaptive to technological changes. The role of vocational teachers as educators is also required to quickly adjust to technological changes, both in learning media and as special skills/competencies. In this regard, Mok & Moore (2019) emphasis that the teacher's role is crucial in changing the learning situation by making students more involved in the learning process. The results showed that the factors that influence teachers' positive reflective actions begin specifically with the principal's digital leadership role. This finding is in line with D. Van Niekerk research (2015),in which technology integration will not succeed without the principal who encourages the change process. Consequently, the role of the Principal as a leader greatly influences the teacher reflection process.

areas of life. School leaders' ability to adapt to technological developments is crucial, so school leaders need to consider themselves as digital leaders to lead teachers and students towards the technological era. Based on the study results, it is significant to mention that the trust variable strengthens the practice of teacher reflection indirectly through the efficiency and work involvement variables. There is a contribution of 0.249 which means that teacher trust in leaders is needed in teacher self development to reflect on the learning outcomes (Engelbrecht et al., 2017) It can also analogize from the current study that teacher trust will grow when digital leaders and teachers interact in an intensive and quality relationship. Moreover, prompt treatment, motivation, and support facilities from digital leaders show that teachers tend to be motivated and reciprocate with equal attention. Another variable that mediates and makes a positive contribution to teacher reflective practice is self efficacy. In this respect, the results suggest that there is a reasonably healthy relationship between digital leadership and self efficacy. Besides, the motivation given by the Principal has a positive impact on increasing the effectiveness of teachers in reflecting on learning in class. The direct contribution of digital leadership to teacher efficacy is 0.301, and the indirect effect on teacher reflection practice is 0.281 which gives 0.582 as the total impact of this factor. This influence is quite considerable because digital leadership has a professional development factor where leaders must provide facilities and permit teachers to use technology. Teachers need to get teaching materials, modify them, and present them to be fun learning for students. Leadership and self efficacy are undoubtedly indispensable in building effective teachers (Doğan, 2018). Teachers with high self efficacy always involve all students, both smart and weak (Harris, Caldwell & Longmuir, 2013). Teachers who have high efficacy can create a pleasant atmosphere and understand all students' needs, thus making them ready and systematically easy to adapt to the environment and find their learning needs (Doğan, 2018). Digital leadership and trust in self efficacy contributed with 39.8%. To this end, self efficacy is influenced by leadership style and trust. Trust and decision making are other factors related to leadership abilities. If the teacher feels that the principal cannot make the right decision, the teacher will not trust them (Harris et al., 2013). Yet, when teachers finds a sense of belonging to the class, they will be more involved and committed to being more engaged in improving classroom learning (Farris Berg & Dirkswager, The2012)relationship between teacher trust and work engagement in this study reasonably provides a good contribution value of 0.12 for direct connections and 0.533 for indirect links. It is proved that there is an influence between digital leadership and direct work engagement. This result is supported by Bellingham (2013) who states that leaders can give teachers the freedom to provide support and initiative through responsibility and authority to foster work engagement in their work (Juracka, 2018) Brown, Czerniewicz, Huang & Mayisela (2016) also find a positive correlation between digital leadership and job dedication, which is a significant work engagement element (Men, 2015; Minghui et al., 2018).

Through regression analysis, it has been confirmed that leadership has a positive relationship with work engagement. Research has found that teachers tend to have higher job engagement when they think their leader can provide full support. Hence, this study concluded that the useful contribution of leadership factors, trust, and teacher efficacy to teacher work engagement is 79.4%.

Through the work engagement factor, leaders can manage good relationships with teachers because emotional concepts are among the core indicators that reflect the quality of teacher work life. This indicator considers significant variations in job predictions and their organizational outcomes, such as teaching performance, problem solving, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction (Brown et al., 2016; Den Hartog & Belschak, 2012; Tripney et al., 2013).

Furthermore, other researchers also show that work engagement has a significant and a positive correlation with self efficacy (Hoigaard, Giske & Sundsli, 2012). work engagement can mediate between social support and self efficacy. Previous studies have also shown that work engagement changes are closely related to self efficacy (Minghui et al., 2018; Zee & Koomen, 2016). In this study, through the trust variable, the relationship between digital leadership and self efficacy is met with 39.8%. Meanwhile, through trust and self efficacy variables, the relationship between digital leadership and work engagement is 79.4%. It also shows a close relationship between trust, self efficacy, and work engagement.

7. Conclusion This study aims to examine the relationship between principal digital leadership and its effect on teachers' reflective practice skills. The mediator variables that have an influence or contribution are trust, self efficacy, and work involvement. This study suggests a new relationship model between the principal's digital leadership and mediator variables on teachers' reflective ability to develop learning. Put differently, this study emphasizes the principal's digital leadership role in vocational teachers' perceptions of their ability to reflect on their learning practices. As far as the first research question is concerned, findings show that there is a relationship between digital leadership, teacher trust, efficacy, work engagement, and reflective teacher practice. Concerning the second research question, findings reveal that the variables of trust, self efficacy, and teacher work engagement are moderating variables between digital leadership and teacher's reflective practices. The practical contribution of the digital leadership variable to teacher trust is 57.6%, while the effective participation of digital leadership and teacher trust in teacher effectiveness is 39.8%. The significant contribution of digital leadership, trust, and self efficacy to work engagement is Throughout79.4%.

this study, interesting results are gathered on the fact that the new relationship is a direct contribution of digital leadership to work engagement with a magnitude of 0.120, and a direct relationship between digital leadership and teacher reflective practice is of 0.168. Although the value is not that large, this relationship positively impacts teachers' reflective actions. Teachers feel motivated and excited to reflect on their learning by leaders who have digital

Beetham, H., & Sharpe, R. (2013). Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age: Designing for 21st centurylearning (2nd ed ). New York: Routledge. Bellingham, R. (2013). Ethical Leadership Rebuilding Trust in Corporations. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 53 https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

The investigators wish to thank LPDP as the Indonesian Scholarship and Research Funding Service help in collecting the intended data, and without their assistance, this research won’t be possible References Barni, D., Danioni, F., & Benevene, P. (2019). Teachers’ self efficacy: The role of personal values and motivations for teaching. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01645

https://doi.org/10.17275/per.18.9.5.2

38 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. characters. Assimilating others research results with the findings gathered from the present attempt would generate another move towards better outcomes. Acknowledgment

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1. Introduction Over the past two decades, a revolutionary evolution in digital and interactive technology has taken place at an unprecedented pace from emails, podcasts to iPhones and iPads. The avalanches of information generated by this development have radically turned the whole environment of human communication into a modern digital world of communication refined by technology (Whyte & Schmid, 2019). The effect of this influx of new knowledge on our lives is real and too great

Abstract. This paper aims to review the concepts of literacy, multiliteracies, and multimodality in educational settings and their relevance in classroom practice Literacy has emerged in recent years as an essential concept in the classroom teaching and learning process. With literacy views beyond the conventional print medium, it is important for teachers, educators, and learners to be given a new understanding of multiliteracies pedagogies. This paper also reflects on the development of multiliteracies paradigms. Specifically, it discusses the relevance and potentials of multimodal teaching and learning in dealing with the multiliteracies school learners bring into the classrooms including digital literacies and online literacies. This paper adopted a systematic literature review approach exploring issues and trends related to multiliteracies in the classroom context. The findings indicate that past studies often consider both the multimodality of meaning making and meaning recreating as well as different multiliteracies skills learners bring to the classroom. The review presented here addresses multiliteraciespedagogy in classroom teaching that benefits teachers, educators, and learners.

Recommendations are made for future multiliteracies studies to strengthen the pedagogical practices in the emerging digital classroom.

41 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 41 52, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.3 A Review of Theories and Practices of Multiliteracies in Classroom: Issues and Trends Ang Leng Hong Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0001 5688 7753 Tan Kim Hua Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3787 5006

Keywords: multiliteracies; classroom pedagogy; multimodal; meaning making; meaning creating

to be ignored. Following an era of modern information technology, where new technologies pervade every aspect of communication and literacy, written language can no longer claim communicative sovereignty but is only as one of many ways of communicating (Zhang et al., 2019). The abundant multimodal ways to create meaning, where the written word is increasingly part of the auditory, visual, gestural, and spatial context of meaning patterns, make us understand the multiliteracy and multimodality values that are mobilised and circulated across the educational and communicational landscapes (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015). In the age of digitisation, this pattern is much more prevalent where the dominance of monomodality has begun to reverse (Cloonan, 2015; Lim, 2021), making space for multimodality in representing meaning. As such, learning can no longer be regarded as a mechanism that merely depends on written words. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the concepts of literacy, multiliteracies, and multimodality in educational settings and their relevance in classroom practice. Also, it intends to address the pedagogical considerations and innovations adopted by teachers and learners in the current contexts.

The digital and online literacies often involve the representation of socially and culturally constructed self. This inherent desire to perform self among learners can be capitalised on by teachers to help them shape and design their social

2. Literature Review

The New London Group (NLG) (1996) called for a greater vision for literacy training to respond to the mass migration and proliferation of modern communications technology. The group argued that educational literacy pedagogy should embody the growing linguistic and cultural diversities of today's globalised world and reflect the new ways of textual interaction that have emerged due to new information and multimedia technologies. NLG has suggested the term multiliteracies to adequately capture the diversities of media, discourses, and languages. The revolutionary strategy of multiliteracies aims to reshape young people’s social futures through diversity boundaries. Specifically, multiliteracies is a new fundamental way of literacy learning in a world characterised by social diversity and multimodal communication (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015; Lim, 2021). The gist of the multiliteracies approach promotes the increasingly multimodal ways of making meaning and comprehending the fast changing world, particularly the so called digital world. Thus, the term multimodality has appeared in response to the changing social environment with regard to the increasingly popular digital world. The basic idea about multimodality is that the interpretation of meaning is rendered through configurations of image, motion, gaze, body position, sound, language, music, voice, etc. (Cloonan, 2015). From a multimodal point of view, the gesture, image, and other elements are referred to as modes, as organised sets of semiotic tools for meaning making (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015; Lim, 2021). The semiotic resources are the students’ understandings and interpretations of sets of signs or symbols in order to make a text meaning. Specifically, there are five types of semiotic resources: linguistic, auditory, visual, spatial, and gestural (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015;Neville, 2015).

Employing the multiliteracies framework may develop a more critical construction of self. Cope and Kalantzis (2015) proposed four elements in the multiliteracies pedagogy: situated practice, overt instruction, critical framing, and transformed practice. Adolescents come with some fairly basic digital and online literacies, such as constructing and sending emails, text messages, and online chats (Situated Practice). An introduction to explicit metalanguages can linguisticcasualimages,bedonebytheteachers,explainingtostudentsabouttheproperchoicesofwords,soundclips,fonttype/size/colourforonlineacademicdiscussionandonlinechat(OvertInstruction).Therefore,studentscanselecttheproperandmetalanguagesfortheirpresentationof self to other virtual community members in school (Critical Framing). At the final stage, students synchronise the available knowledge and tools and transmit the transformed meaning manifested in the constructed virtual self into cyberspace (Transformed Previously,Practice).

linguistic semiotic resources dominated literacy pedagogy when texts were either spoken or written. Nevertheless, as digital literacies rapidly impinge on our present working, public, and personal lives, all tect forms are increasingly multimodal. In educational settings, multimodal teaching and learning has gained more attention in the past two decades following the seminal publication of the NLG. Multimodality and multiliteracies initiatives are seen fostering classroom teaching practices that address student expectations for existing teaching and learning trends that contribute to their social interaction. Seemingly, the aim of multiliteracies pedagogic is to address the multimodal texts and various literary practices in which young people are engaged. In short, the concept of multiliteracies attempts to address both the definition of literacy and the implications of the practices needed for the many and diverse contexts of 21st century life.

Broadly, multiliteracies involve various forms of learning. Multiliteracies pedagogy extends the teaching and learning process by incorporating what is new in the existing environment. Thus, it is essential for educators to have multimodal learning experiencesfor students. Multimodallearningfacilitates the use of modern media and modes developed to take advantage of different multimedia and device technology (Abrams, 2015; Nabhan, 2019; Serafini & Gee, 2017; Butler, 2019). These media and technology may be applied alongside conventional lectures and classes, tutorials, and textbooks to include alternative learning opportunities with different learning goals. Multimodal classroom learning allows educators to include various approaches for diverse learners in different learning environments (Whyte & Schmid, 2019). The multimodal literacies principle promotes the use of independent learning materials to make

futures (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015). The metalanguage tool kit available in multiliteracies provides these young learners with a range of functional grammars as representational resources to create different selves they wish to portray online socially and academically. The critical framing allows students to gain personal and analytical distance (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015) to interpret the social context and purpose of meanings in multimodal texts.

Young people are facing an era in which literacy practices are profoundly altered. Their lives are being permeated by electronic and emerging technology. With access to computers and other digital devices, online communication has played an important role alongside conventional written and verbal communication in the younger generations' learning and socialising repertoire. They make a significant contribution to the prolific development of online technologies, especially social networking websites like Facebook and Twitter. Online interaction has become part of their regular communication repertoire with the world. This transition is both drastic and real in how young people read and write with words and pictures or images nowadays (Serafini & Gee, 2017; Zhang et al., 2019). These online literacies motivate young people, such as school learners, to create and share content with others. Their mastery of these literacies is evident in the prolific production of digital texts through multiple modes of representation, including print, visual, and audio. Digital technologies enable the construction of self by adolescents using words, images (photos, Avatar, emoticons), sounds (music or sound clips), and other modes of expression. The tendency of this literacy to be manifested in the adolescents’ classroom literacy practices warrants the teachers’ considerations and attention. The strong identification of young people with the new media, genres, and literacies generated are shaping their future, regardless of the possible resistance from the current older generation of print oriented educators. This illuminates a pressing need to address and develop the literacies of adolescents to prepare them for the new dimensions of learning and communication in the online and digital world. Besides, younger learners are recreating, modifying, and sharing the multimodal content by using new digital tools available online and offline. Thus, they define and make meaning from the multiple forms of texts to speak up their social

learningflexible tocater to theneeds and objectives of individuallearner. Various resources such as computer based and printed teaching and learning materials should be available to enable teachers as well as students to teach and learn efficiently (Nadzrah, 2007; Tan & Guo, 2010; Kaur, Malini & Sidhu, 2011; Christiansen, Li & Bailey, 2017; Fariza & Isma, 2018; Nabhan, 2019; Santori & Smith, 2019). In short, multimodal teaching and learning strives to incorporate information and multimedia technologies to provide an interactive learning environment and enable students to comprehend different forms of texts. Therefore, they can negotiate the way they make meaning concerning their identities and beliefs about the present and future world.

digitalwrittencompositions,creativeinstance,allowingonlineidentitiesandbeliefsabouttheworld.Themultipleeditableformsoftextavailableoftenprovidevarioustextentrypointsandpathwaysforyoungpeople,themtoremaketextsandrecreatemeaning(Zhangetal.,2019).Forwithvariousonlinesemioticresourcesandinformationseekingskills,andinnovativeadolescentscanperformmultimodalconfigurations,andcombinationsofmusic,voices,photographs,videoclips,andtextstoproduceanewformofonlineresources,suchasthedigitalnovel,comicbookoranyothergenre.Besides,moderninteractivetechnologies

In order to obtain an overview of the implementation of multiliteracies in the classroom, we undertook a systematic literature review in this research. Systematic review contributes to the body of knowledge and provides a solid basis for the advancement of knowledge in the field. It addresses questions that are difficult to address using quantitative methods or isolated qualitative research results (Finfgeld Connett, 2014; Hainey et al., 2016). In addition to the systematic literature review, this paper adopted the principle of qualitative content analysis that is more flexible compared to the purely qualitative analysis method. The results were reported in the form of descriptive analyses. In this paper, the current

used to work with diverse forms of communication are changing how young people construct meaningful texts for themselves and those in their fields of affinity. For example, young learners with internet access are using various editing tools and other different design components (various semiotic resources) to produce digital games in a range of complexities (Butler, 2015, 2019).

One cannot deny that the multimodal literacies brought into the classrooms by adolescents are mostly digital and online literacies, with some fundamental print literacies. The mode of communication has vastly changed. The days of pencil and paper are fast being replaced by keyboard and touch screen. New technologies have provided a place to create new modes of communication, new ways to perceive, talk,and think about the world.Besides that, young people have also turned the sequential reading of the written word into non linear and discontinuous digital text browsers (Mills, 2015). The familiarity with instantaneous access to and dissemination of digital texts in the cyberspace and digital world also shapes their literacy practices which are naturally brought into the classroom environment. All these bear a significant impact on the students' literacy expectations and the teachers’ pedagogical innovations. The adolescents’ multiliteracies outlined above could be acquired or learned through regular online practices and interactions. These interactions play a significant role in shaping themindset of youngpeopleand,to amore considerableextent, influence their interaction with and production of multiple forms of texts, including pace and mode; and their identity construction and representation.

3. Methodology

In addition, videogamesor computer games, apredilectionamongyoung learners are seen as the ideal vehicle to reach them, to see what and how they perceive the world. Game playing is becoming anew literate practice among young adolescents. Young people tend to spend time playing complicated games outside of classes. It is worth pointing out that from the educational perspective, the desire to use motivational power to inspire young learners to learn is the key driver of interest in digital learning games (Williams, 2017; Butler, 2019). Besides inspiring motivation, games are often considered highly useful to learn functional skills, increase perceptions, encourage and develop skills in problem solving, strategic evaluation, media, and resources (Boyle et al., 2016; Butler, 2019; Tan & Tan,2020). Of all the games available, simulators are seen as the game mode that carries enormous educational potential.

Also, challenges remain in incorporating multiliteracies practice into classroom teaching as the theoretical concept of multiliteracies is complex, and there seems to have a fuzzy area with regard to it being a pedagogical approach or a set of communication abilities (Palso & Ruokano, 2015; Alagu & Thanuskodi, 2019; Zhang et al., 2019). It, therefore, challenges the educators, especially teachers, in understanding the employment of the multiliteracies approach in classroom teaching. The legitimisation of young people’s digital and online literacies in mainstream education is not as easy as thought. While the potentials and capacity of adolescents’ online literacies are honoured in the social space, their relevance for classroom practice is yet to be affirmed. Scholars observe students’ expertise in

Multimodalliteracywasrecognised as a keyword as it is often used with multiliteracies synonymously. The search for articles targeted publications from 2015 to 2020 and yielded 105 articles. These articles were carefully read and reviewed to understand the current trends and critical aspects in multiliteracies classroom.

The review shows that the digital explosion and the penetration of multimedia into the realm of school and education compel changes changing literacies, changing mindsets, and changing pedagogies. Every change comes with initial resistance and challenges. This is more apparent when it comes to incorporating technology into the long established tradition of education, especially when the proliferation of technologies dramatically outpaces the development in education (Hainey et al., 2016; Fariza & Isma, 2018; Warner & Depuy, 2018).

trends and critical aspects in multiliteracies classrooms were reported and Thediscussed.data in this research included previous studies concentrating on multiliteracies and multimodal learning in the classroom. The data were retrieved using Academic Search Complete and ERIC search engines as they are important education research databases. The string used included multiliterac* OR multimodalliterac*ORmultimodallearning.

4. Results

The implementation of the multiliteracies approach has not always been without a glitch. While some teachers enthusiastically move towards digitising teaching and learning, some are still nostalgic about the traditional print based literacy. Researchers (e.g., Pishol & Kaur, 2015; Chandler, 2017; Santori & Smith, 2018; Zhang et al., 2019; Liang& Lim, 2020) commented that this is the most challenging time for literacy pedagogy where teachers struggle against the transitional contradictions between the advance of modern digital literacy and the retrograde influence of traditional literacy. The perpetuation of the singular and monomodal notion of literacy by teachers will constantly be at odds with the multimodal literacies embraced by adolescents today. Accustomed to the multiple forms and modes of communication literacy practices on the screen, they can no longer be motivated solely by reading and writing on the page. This will have serious implications for literacy education in the classroom.

5. Discussion

The review presented demonstrates the reality that trends and changes in the development of multiliteracies pedagogy proposed by New London Group (2000) are a continuum that integrates with the latest technologies available to both the educators and learners. However, beyond integrating with the technologies and multimodality, multiliteracies pedagogy needs to encompass various range of learners’ social, linguistic, cultural, racial, and gendered identities in the classroom (Farashaiyan & Tan, 2012; Boyd & Brock, 2014; Zhang et al. 2019). To achieve this, teachers are required to engage with the literate practices that young people bring with them to classrooms (Philip et al., 2019). This involves understanding and appreciating young learners as meaning creators, the texts they create as meaning designs, and the process of making meanings with which young people are connected (Mirra et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). These will offer insights into the kinds of resources young learners are able to use. Thus, teachers need to consider how to design pedagogic activities that can engage adolescents in higher levels of thinking about the nature of multimodal texts. To achieve this pedagogic goal, teachers will have to become more insightful about multimodal learning by looking at literacy in a new light. The idea of engaging in isolated text no longer applies to today’s learners as they are exposed to more fluid forms of

creating online content and constructing social identities, while positively regarded by teachers, only receives “scant attention” in daily classroom practices (Mirra et al., 2018). This shows that some teachers need to change their pedagogical approaches to consider the advancement in technologies that fascinate the adolescents (Yunus, 2018; Mohd et al., 2020).

Confronted by the changing literacy needs in the multimedia environment, the changing lifeworlds of the learners, and the changing dimensions of school literacies when technologies are becoming part of classroom teaching and learning (Scherer, Siddiq & Tondeur, 2019), teachers are facing greater challenges than never before in selecting and designing a pedagogy that can engage students in meaningful literacy practices in the sphere of technological learning. Researchers have urged teachers to adopt gamified learning that could interest both the teachers and learners. For instance, Mohd et al. (2020) suggested that language teachers incorporate gamified learning to help learners achieve better learning experiences. The concept of gamification was introduced byPelling (2011) which was followed by many interactive applications such as Kahoot!, Quizzes, Plickers, Quizlet, and Socrative have been beneficial for school learners as learning through a fun environment enhances the retention of the lessons taught in the classroom. Researchers (Bullard & Anderson, 2014; Poondej & Lerdpornkulrat, 2016; Wichadee & Pattanapichet, 2018; Mullins & Sabherwal, 2018; Saienko & Shevchenko, 2020) agreed that online language games are effective in improving learners’ language skills. In this regard, Kahoot!, for instance, has the potential to elevate the enthusiasm of learners to learn the language in the classroom. Undoubtedly, game based learning is emerging as a new multimodal resource that can facilitate teachers in motivating their students to learn actively. Nowadays, this game based learning also recognises the game based literacy skills possessed by most adolescents.

The critical distribution sees the need for the learners to use, produce and share the appropriate multimedia content across different platforms such as Facebook, blogs, Tik Tok, and other social media sites (Mirra et al., 2018; Santori & Smith, 2018). The fourth element in the critical theory of multiliteracies is the ability to invent new digital content, for instance, creating new software or mobile applications (Mirra et al., 2018). This is relatively challenging for many teachers and learners as it requires knowledge in computer programming. Therefore, the school should introduce programming lessons to learners in preparing them to be literate in this regard. The skill to invent new digital applications is critical to ensuringthat new ideas are created to solve the most pressingchallengein today’s context: the competition faced by learners in both local and global contexts.

To cope with the fast changing trends in implementing multiliteracies pedagogy in the classroom, Mirra et al. (2018) proposed that educators and learners accept the critical multiliteracies theory that incorporates four ways of digital interaction. This includes critical digital consumption, critical digital production, critical distribution, and critical digital invention. Mirra et al. (2018) argued that the classroom pedagogy needs a radical revamping that requires an understanding of the notion of criticality by both teachers and learners. Specifically, the criticality in media literacies is the extension of the long existing multiliteracies pedagogy proposed by the New London Group (2000). The critical digital consumption element suggested that learners do not only enjoy the multimodal learning resources available, but they also need to learn and produce digital multimedia contents to be globally competitive. To achieve this, learners need to understand, use, and deconstruct the tropes of the existing multimodal resources presented to them. This is achievable if both teachers and learners are exposed to the existing critical traditions and theories in the relevant education field. The exposure is essential to allow them to analyse the multimodal content critically.

Another critical multiliteracies pedagogy involves the practice of critical digital production (Mirra et al., 2018). To do so, learners require access to new technologies and resources to create multimedia materials, including textual, visual, and audio content such as short videos. Such trend is emerging as adolescents are using mobile applications such as Tik Tok to make short videos that can be shared online with other netizens (Lim, 2021). As such, teachers who advocate print literacy need to change their existing monomodal classroom practice by addressing the new and critical multiliteracies skills mastered by their students in order to achieve better learning outcomes (Unsworth & Mills, 2020).

information and knowledge transfer (Lim & Tan, 2018; Mirra et al., 2018; Liang & Lim, 2020). Thus, teachers must realise that they need to engage with multimodal literacies as young adolescents do. In other words, teachers will have to improve their multimodal literacies concerning digital literacy knowledge before educating students about the subject matter.

Besides, teachers who actively move towards digitising teaching and learning need tomotivate andencourage theirstudents tothink criticallyandlearn actively in the classroom by learning to produce multimedia content relevant to the learning contents with their teacher’s guidance.

6. Conclusion To sum up, the review indicates that past studies often consider both the multimodality of meaning making and meaning recreating and the different multiliteracies skills learners bring to the classroom. This is in line with what the New London Group (2000) proposed, that educators and learners need to use the multimodal learning resources in classroom teaching and learning to address the multiliteracies skills possessed by learners. Research on classroom multiliteracies has received considerable attention, and it continues to be expanded in conjunction with the transformation in the 21st century. The critical theory of multiliteracies proposed by Mirra et al. (2018) indicates the directions that future learners should move towards to communicate and compete with one another locally and globally.

While the systematic review conducted attempted to provide substantial recapitulation of current issues and trends in multiliteracies classroom teaching and learning, some limitations need to be highlighted. First, it is possible that the specific search terms in the title of the publications did not fully cover all possible contributing research studies, since there are several peer reviewed publications in which the title does not include these keywords, but they still appear in the text. Nevertheless, due to the tremendous work by researchers worldwide in the field of multiliteracies research, the analysis could not be comprehensive but could only cover representative academic literature. Second, this review focused on qualitative descriptive analysis with no particular attention given to the quantitative presentation of the related review. It is believed that future research may add a quantitative description to expand the line of reviewstudies in the field of multiliteracies research.

Besides, the review of the related literature indicates that teachers ought to negotiate multiliteracies across a wide variety of multimodal pedagogical experiences in the classroom settings as these elements promote positive learning outcomes. Recognising the effect of multimedia technology on young learners' everyday lives, there has been a growing interest in how multimodal digital texts can be used in the educational context. As educators, we need to acknowledge the proliferation of multimodal ways of teaching and learning in pedagogic contexts in this 21st century. Thus, teachers and policymakers have to make significant strides in integrating multimodal digital technologies into the curriculum, and the most important endeavour is to effectively implement the planned curriculum in all schools. Besides, teachers must think creatively in fulfilling students’ learning needs by addressing the multimodal literacies students are engaged with and consequently aligning their pedagogies with the virtual world and other contexts. This will enable learners to develop their abilities to make meaning with multiple forms of texts surrounding them, thus helping them construct the values, identities, and beliefs about the world.

Finfgeld Connett, D. (2014). Use of content analysis to conduct knowledge building and theory

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Mary Motolani Olowoyo , Sam Ramaila and Lydia Mavuru University of Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0332 8979 0002 7351 477X https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9099 0746

53 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 53 70, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.4 Levels of Readiness and Preparedness of Selected South African TVET Colleges in Meeting the Requirements of the Hospitality Industry

Abstract. Skill shortages within the hospitality sector is a major problem. The evaluation was undertaken to establish if the TVET colleges are well equipped to have a meaningful impact on the provision of appropriate skills required by the hospitality industry The study adopted a mixed method approach as part of the survey design. The inherent structure of the curriculum was benchmarked against the expectations of employers of TVET college graduates. Data was collected through the administration of a survey questionnaire and semi structured interviews. The survey questionnaire specifically examined available infrastructure at the TVET colleges utilised for hospitality studies, training provided by the academic personnel, curriculum content and employers’ expected curriculum outcomes Seven principals, 14 lecturers and 22 employers were interviewed using a semi structured interview schedule. The key findings of the study revealed that the curriculum on offer placed considerable emphasis on Catering and Hotel Management. Entrepreneurship and Business Management courses are only offered at N5 level and Communication and Human Relations are offered at N6 level, notwithstanding the fact that they are largely regarded as core skills within the hospitality and tourism industry Students are afforded work integrated learning opportunities on completion of their studies. Employers observed that a large proportion lacked skills. There appears to be sustained reluctance on the part of academic personnel and institutional management to harness funding. There is a critical need for coherent alignment between curriculum content and the needs of the hospitality industry through periodic reviews.

https://orcid.org/0000

Keywords: TVET; hospitality industry; curriculum; skills’ acquisition Corresponding author: Mary Motolani Olowoyo; Email: shyteeme@yahoo.co.uk

The purpose for the establishment of TVET colleges according to the DHET (2016) is to assist in producing graduates that are employable and work against the idea of just achieving improved levels of education without necessary skills TVET colleges have been closely linked to the process of industrialisation and economic development and this imperative serves to position TVET colleges as institutions whose policies have often been dominated by economic and equity perspectives (UNESCO, 2012). South Africa has about 50 public Further

The hospitality sector as reported by Baum (2002) faces challenges in matching its skills requirements to the changing labour market. Skills shortages within the hospitality industry in South Africa is largely manifested in the form of workers’ lower qualification levels (Global Human Capital Report, 2014). This pressing problem is not only peculiar to South Africa but appears to be a general trend across the globe. Baum (2002) further reported that the tourism and hospitality industry worldwide has been confronted with the problem of attracting and retaining quality employees resulting in a shortage of skilled personnel. As reported in literature, within the hospitality industry, having a skilled, enthusiastic and committed workforce is seen as vital to the success of the industry (Kusluvan & Kusluvan, 2000). This is important because most of the interactions between customers and clients are in the form of face to face exchanges, with the service being purchased and consumed at the same time. Hence, the standard of service provided is of paramount concern. Employee attitudes, performance and behaviour are key determinants of quality service as they have a direct linkage to customer satisfaction and loyalty. Reports have suggested low skills rates among employees of the hospitality industry (Green & Masan, 2015). This has been compounded by the engagement of student trainees who are largely deployed to alleviate the problem of skills shortages afflicting the hospitality industry. However, student trainees were not particularly reliable and often took the work casually without understanding its full gravity (Wickham et al., 2008). At times, student employees tended to leave the organisation without notice (Alonso & O’Neill’s, 2009).

1. Introduction and Background

The hospitality industry is reported to be the fastest growing sector in South Africa and across the world (Hospitality Outlook, 2015). The number of both local and foreign visitors patronising the industry has increased and it is estimated that the industry may get busier in the near future (Hospitality Outlook, 2015). South Africa is one of the top tourist destinations on the African continent, perhaps due to its long history of apartheid, rapid economic growth and development. The reports compiled by Modor Intelligence (2019) and the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2019) showed that there were about 10.5 and 10.4 million foreign visitors in 2018 and 2017 respectively, while local travel recorded around 6 million visitors in 2018. The travel and tourism sector in the country accounts for 9.9% of total employment and is expected to increase to 11.5% by 2025 (WTTC, 2015). In order to accommodate the rising number of travellers and to satisfy their needs upon arrival in the country, the hospitality industry is expanding rapidly while still needing to score on dynamic key performance indicators, therefore requiring skilled personnel (Adukaite et al., 2016)

Educational policy should empower the TVET colleges in assisting the graduates to acquire the necessary skills that will make them employable (McGrath, 2012).

Education and Training (FET) colleges (now referred to as TVET Colleges) which were created in 2002 in terms of the FET Act 98 of 1998. These colleges were established as a result of the merger of formal technical colleges, colleges of education and training centres.

The hospitality industry is a labour intensive industry and is heavily reliant on availability of skilled labour to function effectively. It is only logical for both the government and the industry to seek ways to ensure a continuous supply of suitably skilled people for work. The Department of Education (2008) recommended that skills development programmes such as those in the hospitality sector be designed in a manner that addresses the needs of the sector, thus bridging the gap between the education system and the workplace. The department of education further recommended that within the hospitality sector, curriculum and skills development programmes be designed in a manner that addresses the needs of the sector, thus preparing graduates for immediate employment and make them attractive for the marketplace. Employers and role players within the hospitality industry are encouraged to play their role in attracting and retaining skills within the sector. A concerted effort among the stakeholders is called for where the employers may identify areas that need improvement and therefore determine the competencies required on the part of graduates before being employed (Kraak, 2004). It is envisaged that this undertaking will enable TVET college graduates to acquire qualifications based on required knowledge and skills. This assumption is based on the premise that TVET colleges play a pivotal role not only in providing education to the privileged few, but also assisting in strengthening the transition from school to the world of work through provision of additional opportunities in combating marginalisation that was experienced during the apartheid era (UNESCO, 2010).

In essence, there is a need to increase not only the numbers of TVET college graduates but also graduates with appropriate skills that meet the constantly changing demands of society and the economy. On completion of their studies, TVET college graduates are required to provide the necessary professional expertise needed to foster the development of the country. However, research has demonstrated that educational institutions are not keeping up with the provision of general skills needed by the 21st century workforce (Mourshed et al., 2013). South African economy is characterised by high levels of unemployment and extreme job insecurity for many workers (Allais, 2012) There is a dearth in research that examines the provision of necessary skills required to meet the needs of the hospitality industry by TVET colleges in South Africa. The key issue being explored in the current study is whether TVET colleges are changing or adapting to new strategies in order to attract and train students as skilled personnel within the hospitality sector. This mission can be accomplished by investigating the extent to which TVET colleges are measuring up to their intended Curriculumgoals.assessment

may be used as an effective tool in measuring the effectiveness and relevance of a course in society and this will assist in further evaluating student learning and preparedness (Kelly, 2004). The hospitality

education is expected to place more emphasis on industry expectations and opinions. In essence, it has to provide a foundation that aids students in developing generic and transferable skills, work integrated learning to assist the students to acquire practical knowledge involved in operating a restaurant, and opportunities for students to learn in real life (Whitelaw et al., 2009). There is a need for relevant hospitality curriculum studies to focus not only on the theoretical aspects of the curriculum that involve the students but also on the employers’ perspectives and expectations. Educators and students are therefore expected to assess the hospitality programmes rationally on how well they respond and contribute to students’ readiness for their anticipated future hospitality careers and the methods used by the educators in developing the students and in curriculum development Most TVET colleges are not responsive to the needs of society as educators are not well equipped to offer necessary information and assistance to the students. The colleges employ obsolete teaching methods underpinned by low quality infrastructure. This predicament stifles provision of appropriate training required to meet the needs of the hospitality sector in particular. The study therefore set out to investigate the curriculum content, skills acquisition, readiness, and preparedness of some selected TVET colleges in Pretoria and Johannesburg in relation to the needs of the labour market

The study is underpinned by a conceptual framework for leading curriculum change proposed by Terblanche (2017) as the underlying framework. The conceptual framework is predicated on three key pillars: contextualising TVET college curriculum, leading TVET curriculum change, and theoretical perspectives. The conceptual framework for leading curriculum change is illustrated in Figure 1 below Figure 1: A conceptual framework for leading curriculum change (Terblanche, 2017)

2. Theoretical Framework

• What alignment exists, if any, between the hospitality training provided by TVET colleges and the needs of the hospitality sector?

2.1. Purpose of the study

The qualitative aspect of the research was dominant in the sense that more emphasis was placed on the understanding of the contextual factors influencing the implementation of the curriculum by TVET colleges with regards to skills acquisition by students (Creswell & Plano, 2009). The qualitative aspect of the research provided a critical understanding of specific contextual factors

The study investigated some of the challenges associated with the implementation of hospitality curriculum in selected TVET Colleges in South Africa. The empirical investigation was guided by the following research Whaquestion:tare the levels of readiness and preparedness of selected South African TVET colleges in meeting the requirements of the hospitality industry?

• To what extent does the hospitality curriculum offered by TVET colleges in South Africa foster skills acquisition?

• What is the level of readiness and preparedness of selected TVET colleges for provision of appropriate skills and competencies required by the hospitality sector within the South African context?

To answer the main research question, the following sub questions were formulated.

3. Research Design and Methodology

Both qualitative and quantitative methods was used in this study but the qualitative aspect was dominant in order to get a deeper and more genuine expression of beliefs and values that emerged during the conversations. The quantitative aspect was used for the TVET college principals in form of semi structured questionnaires because of the nature of their work.

A mixed method approach was used for the study as part of a survey design. According to Brannen (2007), mixed method research may be a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods, a mix of quantitative methods, or a mix of qualitative methods. This study adopted a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods and combined or integrated quantitative and qualitative research methods as components of a research (Creswell, 2013). This was deemed important in order to add value to the research by increasing the validity of the findings and assisting with knowledge creation (McKim, 2017). The other noteworthy aspect of mixed method research is the integration of various components which gives readers more confidence in the results and the conclusion thereof which can lead to a future research (O’Cathain et al., 2010).

The framework clearly portrays the factors that can be considered in improving the TVET college curriculum in response to not only the needs of the industry, but also benchmarking the standards against the international markets. This is pertinent as the hospitality sector is a very competitive industry and is an important source of wealth generation for the nation.

The study involved purposively selected seven TVET colleges located in Pretoria (three) and Johannesburg (four) as the two major cities in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Purposive sampling was used in order to identify and select individuals that could provide adequate useful information (Patton, 2002). The selection involved careful identification of participants (principals, teachers and hospitality managers) that were knowledgeable about the hospitality industry (Creswell & Plano, 2011). The participants were selected on the basis of their availability, willingness to participate, and their ability to communicate their experiences and opinions.

3.3. Data collection

3.1. Sampling

influencing skills development by TVET colleges, the impact of curriculum content, and labour market expectations

3.2. Research context

The selected TVET colleges are located in Pretoria and Johannesburg as the two major cities in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Pretoria is South Africa’s administrative capital. The city of Pretoria is also the traditional centre of government and commerce. Many banks, businesses, large corporations, shops, shopping centres, and other businesses are situated in the city centre boasting several large skyscrapers. Johannesburg, on the other hand, is a transit point for connecting flights to Cape Town, Durban, and the Kruger National Park As the economic hub of South Africa, Johannesburg provides shopping opportunities for tourists and offers a range of venues and experiences, from numerous upmarket shopping malls such as Sandton City and Nelson Mandela Square, to various markets and flea markets, such as the Oriental Plaza and the Rosebank Flea Market.

Before data collection the structure and content of the TVET college curriculum was benchmarked against the expectations of employers of TVET college graduates using literature from previous studies The information was used in designing a survey questionnaire which sought to establish how well prepared TVET colleges were in providing appropriate skills required by the hospitality industry The questionnaire was designed to obtain information both from TVET colleges and employers. The information sought included admission criteria, pass rate, enrolment rate for the course, availability of educators and educators’ qualifications, available infrastructure, laboratory space, course content (N2, N3 and N4), training opportunities such as conferences and workshops for lecturers, training opportunities provided by employers, and assessment practices adopted to evaluate the competence and skills acquired by the trainees. The questionnaire was then piloted to a few TVET hospitality lecturers who did not form part of the participants for the study to check its readability and for issues that could be improved. The revised survey questionnaire was then administered to the participants (lecturers and employers) to explore: 1) The effectiveness of the hospitality education studies curriculum; 2) level of readiness and preparedness of selected TVET colleges for provision of appropriate skills and competencies; and 3) the alignment between the technical training provided by TVET colleges and the needs of the hospitality industry.

The survey questionnaire was designed to obtain information on the key issues

Qualitative data obtained provided elaboration on trends emerging from quantitative data According to Creswell (2003), a qualitative interview occurs when a researcher asks one question or more from a participant at a time. The interviews conducted provided a clear understanding of the situation in the colleges and a basis for interpretation. Participants expressed themselves freely as they were interviewed in their natural settings The questionnaire was piloted to a few TVET hospitality lecturers who did not form part of the participants for the study to check its readability and issues that could be improved. The revised survey questionnaire was then administered to the participants (lecturers and employers) to explore: 1) the effectiveness of the hospitality education studies curriculum; 2) level of readiness and preparedness of selected TVET colleges for provision of appropriate skills and competencies; and 3) the alignment between the technical training provided by TVET colleges and the needs of the hospitality industry.

3.4. Data analysis

3.5. Validity and reliability

Validity was achieved through representativeness of the sample and by ensuring that questions asked served the intended purpose. Reliability was achieved by ensuring that questions elicited the same type of information each time they were used under the same conditions. The questionnaire was piloted and information obtained was used to revise the items. In respect of qualitative data, the following validity and reliability checks proposed by Merriam (1998) were adhered to:

under investigation in the study and was sent to the principals of each school and employers from different hospitality industries (hotel, tourist companies and restaurants). Quantitative data was collected to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data that could be transformed into usable Afterstatistics.analysis

The qualitative data was presented in the form of report writing. Data analysis is the systematic organisation and synthesis of research data, and the testing of a research hypothesis using that data (Polit & Hungler, 1999). SPSS Version 23.0 was used to analyse quantitative data and descriptive and inferential statistics were obtained. Descriptive statistics enabled the researchers to reduce, summarise, and describe quantitative data obtained from empirical evidence (Polit & Beck, 2004). Qualitative data was analysed using the descriptive method in terms of the narrative information gathered during the interview to interpret the results (Creswell, 2003). Before data collection, the structure and content of the TVET college curriculum was benchmarked against the expectations of employers of TVET college graduates using literature from previous studies. The information was used in designing a survey questionnaire which sought to establish how well prepared TVET colleges were in providing appropriate skills required by the hospitality industry. The questionnaire was designed to obtain information both from TVET colleges and employers.

of data from questionnaires, seven principals, 14 lecturers and 22 employers were interviewed using a semi structured interview schedule.

The lecturers indicated that just a matric pass is required to gain admission and that preference is usually given to students with Grade 12 Home Economics /Hospitality studies or other relevant subjects. Other relevant subjects include English Language and any subjects passed at matric level. The lecturers strongly argued in favour of a review of the admission policy. The introduction of a well designed and modest mode of admission will not only reduce the unsuccessful degree completion rate but bring about effective output on the part of graduates (Declercq & Verboven, 2018). The key determinants of a students’ admission to colleges and universities remain controversial as in some instances, high school performance may not necessarily represent students’ true academic potential (Hoare & Johnson, 2010) A study conducted by Cyrenne and Chan (2012) showed that high school scores and pass rates are a strong predictor of good

• Reflexivity: The researchers engaged in critical self reflection regarding anything that may have biased the interpretation of data e.g. hidden assumptions, own worldview, theoretical orientation, and interrelationships. Biases and assumptions were made explicit.

A reflection on the key areas investigated under this category is provided below.

• Triangulation: Claims and tentative interpretations were triangulated through multiple meetings that were held with the participants during the research process and the use of multiple and different data collection methods.

4. Results and Discussion

SCOPE, CURRICULUM, AND GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF TVET COLLEGES OFFERING HOSPITALITY STUDIES

• Member checks: Data collected and tentative interpretations were discussed during reflection sessions and were confirmed by the participants.

The admission policy of students into TVET colleges did not specify a particular symbol or grade in any subject for admission into the hospitality programme

• Peer review: There was ongoing dialogue and critical reflection with other researchers on the research process and tentative interpretations.

The quantitative aspect was nested in the qualitative and intended to determine the TVET college responses to the study under investigation. Hence, the data was presented in a report form because the study relied most heavily on qualitative data but supplemented it with quantitative survey results.

The key findings emanating from the study are clustered according to two broad categories, namely: (a) scope, curriculum, and general assessment of TVET colleges offering hospitality studies, (b) employers’ experiences of TVET hospitality graduates.

• Audit trails: A detailed account of methods, procedures, and reasons for decisions taken was compiled.

Related findings from questionnaires and interviews are presented together.

Admission Policy

• Rich description: A detailed description of events characterising the research process was provided to contextualise the study and to judge the extent to which the findings applied to the research situation.

university performance although other factors such as finance and family background also play a significant role The lecturers further mentioned that a pass symbol in English Language at matric level is perceived to be sufficient because students require basic communication skills. The lecturers were particularly concerned about the high dropout rate due to students’ inability to cope with the cognitive demands of their studies caused by their weak educational background as reflected in their National Senior Certificate results. This sentiment is captured in the following response of one of the lecturers

The curriculum adopts a vocational approach which may not necessarily equip the students with the requisite skills to perform managerial duties and this is similar to the initial approach adopted in the United Kingdom which was later changed as a result of its perceived inherent restrictive limitations placed upon the graduates (Alexander et al., 2009). Hospitality curriculum should move away from the exclusive traditional focus on practical skills to a comprehensive approach providing a good balance in terms of practical skills in leadership, commerce, and other transferable skills (Alexander et al , 2009; Farbrother & Dutton, 2005). This fundamental paradigm shift would serve to strengthen the hospitality curriculum on offer thereby addressing the mismatch between the hospitality training provided by TVET colleges and needs of the hospitality industry. Smith and Cooper (2000) suggested that hospitality curricula should involve industry operation knowledge related courses and general managerial competencies related courses.

The course structure placed considerable emphasis on Catering and Applied Management. Courses such as Entrepreneurship and Business Management which allow students to use their entrepreneurial skills and advance as fast as possible by utilising innovative ideas despite having very few resources, are only introduced at N5 level Communication and Human Relations are only introduced at N6 level Unfortunately, work integrated learning opportunities are only provided after the completion of N6. This practice is viewed as a structural weakness as work integrated learning ought to form an integral part of hospitality training before graduation. By its very nature, work integrated learning should provide the necessary practical training required to navigate the complex work related demands associated with the hospitality industry. The lecturers also indicated that students were given logbooks to monitor their daily activities during the course of the training

The hospitality industry does not centre on cooking only where you are expected to stay in the kitchen, but you may be asked to work at the front desk, so you need good communication skills, hence good symbols from the high school especially in English will be ok.

Lecturers’ Qualifications

Most of the lecturers held a Diploma, Bachelor of Education degree or Bachelor of Education Honours degree. A smaller proportion of the staff complement held a master’s degree. Three of the lecturers indicated that they were pursuing master’ s degree studies. On a positive note, the lecturers held a teaching qualification which appeared to be a reasonable reflection of their pedagogical

Course Structure

I bring most of the things I use for practical from home, but you have to know it is just a little quantity, just for the student to see and understand how it is done. It is just for them to see but when they get to their workplace or during internship they will see everything.

The response shows that the participant finds the whole process of acquiring resources tiring and taxing, which means at times they may prefer to forego the application for funding process and resort to using the limited resources. In order to circumvent the lack of essential resources, lecturers are compelled to deploy improvised resources. The following excerpt underscores the need for improvisation.

competence as instructors. TVET college lecturers in South Africa have numerous skills development challenges (Coetzee et al., 2011). Verster (2011) identified professional inadequacies among the TVET lecturers ranging from inexperience, lack of vocational competency, lack of qualifications, and lack of professionalism. Similarly, the lecturers in the current study showed limited knowledge and skills, and had a lack of quality infrastructure to fully equip their students with the necessary skills. These professional inadequacies render the curriculum review process a daunting task. The Government Gazette Policy on Professional Qualifications (2013) for TVET Lecturers puts particular emphasis on three key areas: pedagogy, didactics, and workplace experience. The emphasis on envisaged key areas is viewed as a viable means through which curriculum outcomes can be realised. Laboratory Equipment

The lecturers bemoaned the lack of modern equipment required for the provision of hospitality training. Optimal utilisation of the capital budget is largely hampered by bureaucratic practices within TVET colleges. This is an operational inefficiency which ought to be addressed to ensure optimal utilisation of the allocated capital budget. This sentiment is reflected in the following excerpt from one of the participants. Yes, the government is providing adequate funding for the TVET colleges but you will need to fill and fill so many forms until you can get the money out. Remember you still have classes to teach, test and exams to mark, so it is better if you can see what to do and manage what you have.

This means that the quality of the laboratory equipment utilised for training is not commensurate with the envisaged curriculum outcomes. A comprehensive audit of available infrastructure at TVET colleges ought to be undertaken with a view to adequately addressing infrastructural deficiencies. The following excerpt attests to these fundamental concerns. Our equipment is there to mimic the situation within the main industry, this will just provide basic information on how to do it. We cannot be expected to have most of the equipment used in the industry here at the school. This is not for a business purpose and we are not competing for customers, our main objective is to provide learners with the opportunity to learn the method and see how it works. During the

industrial training at the end of their course, they will see and will be taught on how to use other equipment.

Fundamental concerns expressed in this regard do not auger well for the provision of quality hospitality training. The participants emphasised the need to do justice to hospitality training as a meaningful response to the needs of the hospitality sector as reflected in the following excerpt. The participants, mainly the employers, were dissatisfied with the level of training that students receive from the TVET colleges as attested by one participant who said, “Hospitality training is not just about cooking or hotel work it goes beyond that, it may involve working at the front desk, welcoming guest among others”

Other lecturers were not keen to be involved in curriculum review as it was viewed as an arduous undertaking which requires specialist expertise. To show that lecturers are conflicted when it comes to going the extra mile in developing the students more fully, they indicated that monitoring the quality of work and integrating that into learning is an extremely difficult and complex undertaking. As such, students are afforded such opportunities on completion of their studies. The following excerpt captures this sentiment. It will be difficult to do a follow up because some of the students go back to their provinces looking for placements for internships, who will pay

Curriculum review and evaluation

Lack of adequate infrastructure can lead to widespread dissatisfaction with the TVET college graduates (Pitan & Adedeji, 2012; McCowan, 2017). There is a need to align the training provided with the strategic mandate of TVET colleges. In terms of the strategic mandate, TVET colleges have been established to serve as an integral part of general education, a means for preparing students for occupational fields and effective participation in the world of work, an aspect of lifelong learning and preparation for responsible citizenship, an instrument for promoting environmentally sound, sustainable development, and a method of alleviating poverty.

When asked whether the curriculum aligns to the needs of the industry, the participants indicated that the curriculum is structured in such a way that it provides basic and background information on hospitality studies. The structural deficiency of the curriculum is encapsulated in the following excerpt. The hospitality study is not about the theoretical aspect of the work as detailed in the curriculum, but also practical oriented and aligned towards the needs of the industries

The review of the curriculum is the key prerogative of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). The DHET is supposed to provide guidelines on what is necessary for inclusion in the curriculum. The lecturers expressed discontent about lack of consultation on curriculum review as captured in the following excerpt. The government through the DHET usually conduct research into the quality and relevance of the curriculum; this should be carried out every five years

The managers interviewed indicated that most of the TVET graduates are usually employed as entry level employees due to their limited practical experience and lack of adequate work exposure This sentiment is encapsulated in the following excerpt. Even those that want to work as chefs find it difficult to cope at the very first few months because they’ve never been exposed to such working condition and you just have to train them again and again.

There is a need to adopt an authentic turnaround strategy that can be implemented to carry out a complete overhaul of the TVET sector. TVET colleges have an overarching strategic mandate which is geared towards the fulfilment of economic and societal needs through meaningful enhancement of human capital development. The reconfiguration of the TVET sector should address structural deficiencies that serve to hinder provision of appropriate hospitality training in general. More specifically, work integrated learning is largely viewed as a pathway to enhancing employability of students after the completion of their courses (Chen et al., 2018; Binder et al., 2015; Yiu & Law, 2012; Zopiatis & Constanti, 2012). The significance of the provision of appropriate training through utilisation of state of the art infrastructure cannot be over emphasised.

us for a follow up and where is the time? We only check their logbooks at the completion of their training.

EMPLOYERS’ EXPERIENCES OF TVET HOSPITALITY GRADUATES

A reflection on the key areas investigated under this category is provided below General view of employers

Employers have expressed reservations about TVET college graduates’ lack of generic and specialist skills. Breytenbach (2010) posits that the hospitality curriculum should make provision for the development of skills, key professional attributes and competencies required by different components of the hospitality industry as it offers graduates a broad range of employment opportunities. Communication skills

Managers bemoaned the quality of communication skills demonstrated by newly qualified TVET college graduates. This is unfortunate because communication skills are crucially significant and required for the navigation of work related challenges associated with the hospitality industry. Additional important skills identified by employers include interpersonal skills, problem solving skills, and self management skills (Lee & Lee, 2012). Lolli (2013) asserted that a curriculum that does not focus mainly on written skills and formal presentation, but also interpersonal skills that will assist in improving communication skills of TVET college graduates. The following excerpt attests to these sentiments. This is an important aspect of our business, but it is always difficult to put fresh TVET graduates in this section, they find it difficult to speak fluently with the customer, maybe because they were new in the

The hospitality industry is a rapidly growing and competitive industry. Hence the need for managers and employees to have adequate problem solving skills and analytical skills required for sustainable administration of the hospitality industry (Adeyinka Ojo & Khoo Lattimore, 2013; Adeyinka Ojo, 2018).

The study is underpinned by a conceptual framework for leading curriculum change proposed by Terblanche (2017) The conceptual framework is predicated on three key pillars: contextualising TVET college curriculum, leading TVET curriculum change, and theoretical perspectives. There is a crucial need to contextualise the hospitality curriculum offered by TVET colleges in South Africa to ensure alignment between the nature of the training provided and the needs of the hospitality sector. Comprehensive reconfiguration of the hospitality curriculum to address inherent structural weaknesses ought to be informed by international perspectives in order to fully embrace international best practices.

Just imagine you understand Chinese language, so many of the employers will be willing to have you because this will go a long way in welcoming the visitors. If you know other languages outside South African languages, you are just going to get a job like that within the hospitality industry, say for example you can speak French or Chinese, you will be needed at the airport.

business or they were timid, I don’t know. Yeah, it is very important that you speak good English, though some clients prefer other languages, if you cannot speak fluently, how then will you be able to convey the message clearly?

TVET college graduates operate in multilingual environments. This reality underscores the need for the hospitality curriculum to provide opportunities to embrace language diversity as the following excerpt demonstrates.

Interpretation of key findings in terms of the adopted conceptual framework

Use of industrial equipment by TVET college graduates Industrial machines are used in order to facilitate quick, efficient, and effective services. However, TVET college graduates’ skill set usually reflect knowledge gaps particularly when it comes to effective utilisation of relevant equipment. This deficiency points to the need to strengthen the hospitality curriculum with a view to ensure provision of holistic training. In this regard, Kamau and Waduo (2012) contend that low quality skills acquired by TVET college graduates reflect the quality of the training provided by the academic personnel. These sentiments are reflected in the following excerpt. When they come here, they only know the basic things; you have to teach them right from the onset, the skills are not there. However, if you train, them they tend to do more because they are placed on salaries per month not on the hourly basis like the waiters Time allocated for practical training

The majority of managers recommended that more time should be dedicated to practical training. The practical training should involve practical scenarios capturing operational challenges associated with the hospitality sector.

6. Conclusion

As a member of the global community of nations, South Africa faces the imperative to provide a globally competitive hospitality curriculum in order to develop capacity to harness global opportunities. Fundamental challenges associated with the implementation of the hospitality curriculum are not confined to South Africa. For instance, the United Kingdom is grappling with similar challenges.

• There is a critical need to establish alignment between the hospitality curriculum offered by TVET colleges and the needs of the hospitality sector with a view to ensure gainful employment of graduates on completion of their training.

5. Recommendations arising from the study

• The hospitality curriculum should be reviewed on an ongoing basis to keep pace with rapid development associated with the advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

The hospitality curriculum offered by TVET colleges produces graduates with pervasive knowledge gaps. There is a critical need for a comprehensive overhaul of the hospitality curriculum to ensure that it contributes to meaningful enhancement of human capital development. The academic personnel ought to be afforded opportunities to improve their qualifications through accelerated professional development programmes to safeguard the quality of the training provided by TVET colleges.

The process of leading TVET curriculum change is an extremely difficult and complex undertaking. This undertaking requires the provision of strategic and visionary leadership. Building leadership capacity at TVET colleges remains a key strategic imperative. Meaningful skills development can only be realised through provision of quality education. Provision of quality education requires the deployment of appropriately qualified academic personnel, yet the qualification levels of the academic personnel providing training at TVET colleges in South Africa are not satisfactory. This has been identified as one of the key contextual factors stifling the provision of appropriate hospitality training. Comprehensive reconfiguration of the hospitality curriculum should bring about transformative change that is geared towards meaningful enhancement of human capital development in its broadest sense The hospitality sector contributes substantially to South Africa’s gross domestic product. The provision of skills required for sustainable development of the hospitality sector must be carefully reconsidered to ensure optimal economic growth that is needed to accelerate socioeconomic development within the broader South African context.

The following contextually appropriate recommendations are proposed for strengthening the implementation of the hospitality curriculum.

• The hospitality curriculum ought to put considerable emphasis on the provision of holistic training of graduates.

• Work integrated learning should be a compulsory characteristic feature of the hospitality curriculum.

Limitation of the study

No research is absolute, therefore, the current study had some limitations. The study centred on a particular province, therefore the findings of the study should be considered along with its limitations as this may not be the case with other provinces in South Africa. Another limitation is the fact that not much work has been done on curriculum review for hospitality studies at TVET colleges, hence, the researchers could only use the available journals.

Suggestion for further Research Like any other service, the quality of hospitality studies is reliant on the quality of the curriculum. Further studies should seek to investigate the extent to which the qualifications of TVET lecturers prepare the students for future sustainable work 7. References Adukaite, A., Van Zyl, I., & Cantoni, L. (2016). The role of digital technology in tourism education: A case study of South African secondary school. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure and & Tourism Education, 19, 54 65. Adeyinkahttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2016.08.003Ojo,S.F.(2018).Astrategicframework

Allais, S. (2012). Will skills save us? Rethinking the relationships between vocational education, skills development policies, and social policy in South Africa. International Journal for Educational Development, 32(5), 632 642. Alexander,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.01.001M,Lynch,P.,&Murray.,R.(2009).Reassessing the core of hospitality management education and the continuing importance of training restaurant. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 8, 55 69.

Alonso, A., D., & O ‘Neil., M. (2009) Exploring consumers’ images of open restaurant kitchen design. Journal of Retail and Leisure Property, 9, 247 259.

https://doi.org/10.3794/johlste.81.203

The findings show that the selected TVET colleges tend to fall short when it comes to their readiness and preparedness in providing students with the appropriate skills and competencies required by the hospitality sector within the South African context. The structure and some of the content seems limiting and is mainly focused on technical skills. Therefore, there may be a need to review the curriculum every five years.

for analysing employability skills deficits in rural hospitality and tourism destinations. Tourism Management Perspectives, 27, 47 54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.04.005 Adeyinka Ojo, S. F., & Khoo Lattimore, C. (2013). Slow food events as a high yield strategy for rural tourism destinations: The case of Bario, Sarawak Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 5(4). https://doi org/10.1108/whatt 03 2013 0012

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Department of Basic Education (1998) Employment of Educators Act Number 76 of 1998 Government Printers. Department of Higher Education and Training (2016) Report from National Council of ProvincesasreportedbytheDepartmentofHigherEducationand Training DHET. Declercq, K., & Verboven, F. (2018). Enrollment and degree completion in higher education without admission standards. Economics of Education Review, 66, 223 244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.008

Coetzee, D., Green, W., McBride, T., Singh, A , & Verster, J. (2011). Presentation on the current FET lecturer profile. Workshop on continuing professional development for FET lecturers. SACPO. Retrieved from Creswell,_27421.pdfhttps://www.ecsecc.org/documentrepository/informationcentre/fetskillsauditJ.W.(2003).

Research design qualitative, quantitative. and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.) Sage Publication. Retrieved from http://fe.unj.ac.id/wp content/uploads/2019/08/Research

Global Human Capital Report (2014). Skills gap in South Africa’s hospitality industry Green, F., & Mason, G. (2015). Skills and training for a more innovation intensive economy. In D. Bailey, K. Cowling & P. Tomlinson (Eds.), New perspectives on industrialpolicyforamodern Britain Oxford University Press. Hoare, A., & Johnston, R. (2010). Widening participation through admissions policy a British case study of school and university performance. Studies in Higher Education, 36(1), 21 41. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070903414297 Hospitality Outlook. (2015). The African traveler. Retrieved from https://www.pwc.co.za/en/assets/pdf/hospitality outlook2015.pdf Kamau, S. W., & Waudo, J. (2012). Hospitality industry employers expectation of employees’ competencies in Nairobi Hospitals Journal of Hospitality Management andTourism, 3(4), 55 63. https://doi.org/10.5897/jhmt.11.022 Kelly, A. V. (2004). Thecurriculumtheoryandpractices (5th ed.). Sage Publications

Farbrother, C., & Dutton, C. (2005). Responding to change in higher education hospitality provision: Two universities’ approaches Retrieved from http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/12597/1/link12.pdf

Design_Qualitative Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches.pdf Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark., V. L. (2009) Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Designing Conducting Mixed Methods Research/dp/1412975174 Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark., V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Cyrenne, P., & Chan, A. (2012). High school grades and university performance: A case study. Economics of Education Review, 31(5), 524 542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.03.005

Breytenbach, A. (2010). An evaluation of tourism industry perceptions of tourism programmes of selected further and higher education institutions in the Western Cape. Thesis and dissertations, CPUT. Paper 149. Retrieved from http://dk.cput.ac.za/td_cput/149 Chen, T. L., Shen, C , & Gosling, M. (2018) Does employability increase with internship satisfaction? Enhanced employability and internship satisfaction in a hospitality programme. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 22, 88 99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2018.04.001

Pitan, O. S., & Adedeji, S. O. (2012). Skills mismatch among university graduates in the Nigeria labor market UnitedStatesEducationReview, 1, 90 98. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2004) Nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice (7th ed ). Wolters Klower/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Polit, D. F., & Hungler, B. P. (1999) Nursing research: Principles and methods (6th ed.) JB Lippincott. Smith, G., & Cooper, C. (2000). Competitive approaches to tourism and hospitality curriculum design. Journal of Travel Research, 39(1), 90 95. Retrieved from Terblanchehttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/004728750003900112,T.E.(2017). Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Colleges in South Africa: A framework for leading curriculum change (Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). 2010. The need to conduct research at TVET colleges. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.

Kusluvan, S., & Kusluvan, Z. (2000). Perceptions and attitudes of undergraduate tourism students towards working in the tourism industry in Turkey. Tourism Management, 21(3), 251 270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261 5177(99)00057 6 Kraak, A. (2004). Rethinking the high skills thesis in South Africa. In S. McGrath, A. Badroodien, A Kraak & L. Unwin (Eds ), Shifting understandings of skills in South Africa: Overcoming the imprint of a low skills regime (pp. 212 238). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11910/8071 Lee, C., & Lee, J. W. (2012). Analysis of the relationships between the hospitality workforce and job satisfaction factors according to age, gender, native language and racial ethnicity Journal of Tourism Hospitality, 1, 104. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167 0269.1000104 Lolli, J. C. (2013). Interpersonal communication skills and the young hospitality leader: Are they prepared? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 32, 295 298. McCowan,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.02.010T.(2017)Highereducation,unbundling, and the end of the university as we know it. Oxford Review of Education, 43(6), 733 748. McGrathHttps://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2017.13437122017,S.(2012).Vocationaleducationandtrainingfordevelopment: A policy in need of a theory? International Journal of Educational Development, 32(5), 623 631. McKim,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.12.001C.A.(2017).Thevalueofmixedmethodsresearch.

11(2), 202 222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689815607096 Modor Intelligence (2019) Hospitality industry in South Africa growth, trends, and forecasts. Retrieved from https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry reports/hospitality industry in south africa Mourshed, M., Farrell, D., & Barton, D. (2013). Education to employment: Designing a system that works McKinsey & Company McKinsey Centre for Government Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public and social sector/our

Journal of Mixed Methods Research, insights/education to employment designing a system that works Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education Jossey O'Cathain,Bass.A., Murphy, E., & Nicholl, J. (2010). Three techniques for integrating data in mixedmethodsstudies. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c4587. PMID: 20851841 Patton, M. Q. (2002). Two decades of developments in qualitative inquiry. A personal, experiential perspective. Qualitative Social Work, 1(3), 261 283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325002001003636

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Training Needs

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November

Custom Practices of English Education at the Rural Primary Schools in Bangladesh

Mohammad Nazmul Haque Shikder Shiblu Department of English, Manarat International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5485 9185

Abstract. This comprehensive study dealt with the existing traditional practices of English education at rural primary schools in Bangladesh. The researchers collected data from twenty five assistant teachers of thirteen primary schools located in the rural areas of four different districts of Dhaka and Mymensingh divisions. These English teaching participants also represent the key informants for related queries. The study used a semi structured questionnaire with ten comprehensive and open ended questions related to the existing teaching patterns with face to face interviews on the collected responses of the participants. All the data were interpreted in a qualitative approach. The study revealed the educational constrictions of the current ‘English as a Foreign Language (EFL)’ situation emphasizing the implementation of practical activities as a solution for the kids and suggested some development aspects from teachers’ perspectives. The research explored the flaws of current teaching strategies and materials used in primary EFL education and recommended some practical tactics to include in the curriculum for the development of primary EFL education in Bangladesh.

Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan Department of English, Manarat International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8996 3353 Md. Abu Bakar Siddique Department of Education, Royal University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8431 7691

Vol.

1. Introduction EFL education significantly matters to a great extent in a developing country like Bangladesh. At all levels of education, English learning has become a ‘must’ for different purposes. But it is found that even after twelve years of academic study, the students cannot speak English properly as Hossain (2019) depicts that

Keywords: custom practices; English education; rural primary schools; children learners; methods of teaching; post method

11,

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research 19, No. pp. 71 87, https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.52020

regardless of the high passing rate in the public examinations at the secondary and intermediate levels, the students are still found considerably weak in English. However, it happens so, owing to the lack of deploying practical approaches in different levels of EFL education, and the primary school children are the worst sufferers for it. They do not even know the imperative aspects of English in the present competitive world and lack the knowledge of its importance in future professional life. Again, the teachers of primary education also need practical development to ensure the learning outcomes and develop the learning capabilities. However, English language teaching (ELT) at the primary level in Bangladesh is a challenging phenomenon. ELT materials and methods also vary from context to context. Having an EFL context in Bangladesh, many teachers and learners face frequent difficulties to deal with the procedures of teaching and learning English. The use of digital technologies is also rare in primary EFL education. Some schools have only one projector each and some schools do not have one even. Hossain, Nessa and Kafi (2015) depicted that insufficient teaching aids and lack of subject based training thwart to ensure effective English education. Therefore, innovative policies are required to develop primary EFL education in Bangladesh. Therefore, the study inquires the answers to three major research questions that include “what are the existing practices of EFL education at the primary level in Bangladesh?”; “how far are these practices effective for primary level education?” and “what should be the solutions to improve English education at the primary level in Bangladesh?”

Effective ELT

DevelopmentIssues

Proper SystemNeedsmethodsforChange

TeachingIssues

Figure 1. Interrelated issues for the development of rural primary education

Lack of LackAnxietiesFacilitiesDigitalofLearningAids

English Education at the Rural Primary Schools in Bangladesh (Backdrop; Failure; Incompetence; Needs for appropriate methods; System)

Therefore, the principal objective of this study was to reveal the constrictions of the existing practices in EFL teaching and learning at the primary level in Bangladesh with few propositions for the authority to consider the proposals feasibly for teaching English with new approaches. The study also dealt with the application of stimulating tactics to facilitate the learning with the consideration of the following interrelated key issues:

LearningIssues

LackMethodologicalConflictsofTeachingAidsLackofSystem

Communicative English emphasizes four basic skills of the English language, the students of primary schools are not usually taught these skills. They are not even familiar with the communicative aspects of the English language. The students only study as per their syllabus to get marks in the exam. The purpose of learning remains in darkness in most cases. Consequently, they also fail to cut a good figure in their secondary level education and cannot progress as per the expectations of their parents which affects their higher education as well.

However, communicative language teaching (CLT) was disseminated in Bangladesh in the late 1990s, as a modern approach that focuses on spontaneous English language teaching (Monir, 2009, p.7). This approach encourages its students to practice four necessary language skills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Moreover, CLT is the existing approach for EFL education, but it has not reached a point of success. Besides, the implementation of CLT is “limited to the syllabus and curriculum only” (Abedin et al., 2009, p.69).

However, many researchers admitted that the current EFL teaching tactics and methodologies with CLT have not been adequately appropriate (Huda, 2013; Shurovi, 2014; Khan, 2019). Particularly in the EFL classrooms of primary children, it has no specific application. Again, Huda (2013) recommends the renovation of CLT, which has dropped to harvest predictable results. In another study, Abedin (2012) considered the practice of CLT as a disguised ‘grammar translation method’ (GTM). The core concept in CLT is ‘communicative competence’, a term Hymes (1971) used to refer to one’s ability to use language in a social context. But the scenario is that the primary students have little scopes to use the English language in their EFL classrooms. Sultana (2010) also considered that there are not sufficient numbers of qualified English teachers who are up to the mark for the primary level in Bangladesh. Many schools do not have English teachers, even (Islam, 2018). Success and failure of any educational implementation depend on the teachers as they are the key players in the classroom (Weddell, 2003). Most of the students are facing difficulties to communicate in English (Sultana, 2010). Ineffective teaching and learning processes are responsible for these situations (Hossain et al., 2015). World Bank (2000) mentioned that majority of the children are growing up without any basic literacy and life skills. So, it is time to take steps to develop primary education. As English is one of the necessities of the current world, there is no way to ignore it. The children need proper treatment for learning English for the upcoming competitive world. Strakova (2015) opines that if procedures of teaching are adequate with the prior knowledge of the principles of students’ early language learning needs, both teachers and learners can get the reward from it. In a study, Hossain et al. (2015) found that most of the teachers complained about taking a minimum of eight classes on average in a day. So, they cannot have scopes for making lesson plans which are also considerably imperative for kid learners because a systematic approach can hasten the teaching and learning

2. Literature Review

The participants for the study were twenty five ‘Assistant Teachers’ teaching English at the rural primary schools in Bangladesh, and they also acted as the key informants for the related queries. It is mentionable that still, only graduation from any background is the minimum eligibility to be a primary teacher. No participants had any certification for English language proficiency and their experience ranged from at least one year to 13 years. Table 1 shows the demographic data of the participants and the terms BA stands for ‘Bachelor of Arts’, MA for ‘Master of Arts’, MSS for ‘Master of Social Science’, MSc for ‘Master of Science’. C in Ed for ‘Certificate in Education’ , B. Ed stands for ‘Bachelor of Education’, M. Ed for Master of Education, and D. P. Ed for ‘Diploma in Primary Education’. Degree (Pass) is a general 3 year ‘Bachelor of Arts’ degree which is the minimum eligibility to apply for teaching positions in the primary schools. It has various academic focuses and elective subjects. Previously, it was a 2 year degree a few years ago

The teacher participants are coded as T1 to T25. Table 1 shows that among the participants, 15 are female (60%) and others are male (40%) teachers whose experiences range from one to 13 years. Only 3 participants (12%) completed the D. P. Ed course which is a recommended but not required course for the primary teachers. T24 was on study for that course. Four participants had a one year C in Ed professional degree and T3, T5, and T25 had B. Ed. Nine participants had only a Degree (pass) course.

processes. Proper utilization of a sound methodology needs an appropriate environment. So, teaching English in the country is not an easy job for the teachers because only “a handful of children are fortunate to find such a learning environment” (Mahbub ul Alam, Damunupola & Khan, 2015). Again, students’ uninterest to learn English may have different causes. Hossian et al. (2015) mentioned that kids are perhaps not getting any interest in the wrong phonetics and grammar that they learn in the class. So, there is no alternatives to good teachers, although the concept of a good teacher is not defined or clear in Bangladesh due to many limitations. Therefore, the primary school teachers require a full fledged training on pedagogically defendable approach to teach the kids. Earlier studies also did not have any suggestions to implement post method, which is not any specific method but a combination of approaches to facilitate teaching and learning processes. There were several research papers accomplished on different issues to develop EFL teaching at the primary level in Bangladesh. The present study broadly depicted the teachers’ perspectives of custom practices of EFL education with its needs and possible solutions, as Ellis (1997) considered that the teachers might be the critical factors in classroom situations. The study presents a complete package for primary level English teaching tactics and hacks for the betterment of the children learners.

The study followed a qualitative approach with phenomenological analyses of the interview opinions of the participants. Later, the researchers described the responses to the questions with numerical data and percentages.

3.1. Participants

3. Methodology

75 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 1: Demographic information of the teacher-participants Participants Age HighestQualificationEducational B. Ed / M. Ed / C-in-Ed/ D. P. Ed Experience(inyears) Gender T1 27 MSc in Physics 2 Female T2 26 Degree (Pass) 3 Female T3 28 Degree (Pass) B. Ed 4 Male T4 30 MA in English D. P. Ed 5 Male T5 28 MA in Islamic Studies B. Ed 6 Male T6 26 BA in English 1 Female T7 25 Degree (Pass) 2 Male T8 26 Degree (Pass) 2 Female T9 27 M.Sc. in Chemistry 3 Female T10 34 MA in Economics C in Ed 9 Male T11 31 BA (Honors) in English C in Ed 5 Female T12 32 MA in English D. P. Ed 5 Female T13 30 Degree (Pass) 3 Female T14 29 MSS in Sociology C in Ed 2 Male T15 25 BA (Honors) in English 2 Female T16 32 BA (Honors) in English 7 Female T17 29 Degree (Pass) D. P. Ed 5 Male T18 27 Degree (Pass) 2 Male T19 28 MA in English 3 Female T20 38 Degree (Pass) C in Ed 13 Female T21 26 BA (Honors) in English 1 Male T22 33 MSS in Political Science 8 Male T23 28 BA (Honors) 2 Female T24 27 MA in English D. P. Ed (in progress) 3 Female T25 30 Degree (Pass) B. Ed 2 Female

3.4. Integrity and transferability

3.3. Data analysis

Before conducting the questionnaire survey and interview sessions, the researchers informed the participants about the objectives and probable outcomes of the study and the professional qualification of the researchers to keep integrity. The researchers were impartial in transmuting the statements given by the participants asking for clarification as required. Each study phase was outlined effusively in the explanation to corroborate transferability.

The researchers randomly selected thirteen rural primary schools from the districts of Dhaka and Mymensingh divisions of Bangladesh to collect data from the respondents. The tools of the study were a semi structured questionnaire survey of ten open ended questions and face to face interviews. The questionnaire was served to the selected English teaching participants who were available during the time of the study. Later, the researchers interviewed the participants directly on their chosen answers to have their justification.

The data were analyzed in a qualitative approach to bring out the custom practices of EFL education suggesting some post method tactics to facilitate the teaching and learning procedures in comparison to previous significant studies. The researchers preferred descriptive analysis to interpret the information.

3.2. Data collection

The present scenario in Bangladesh shows that for teaching English in primary schools, ‘communicative language teaching (CLT)’ has been adopted. But in this study, the participants showed different views. Figure 2 shows that 16% of participants ticked ‘other’ However, none of them could define the activities of the ‘other’ method during the face to face interview session and 64% of participants marked the CLT method that focuses on the four skills of the English language.

SLTPostCLTOthermethod Findings and discussion

4.1. Methods for teaching English

The opinions of eleven participants were almost similar that in Bangladesh, CLT is not successful what Poddar (2016) also mentioned earlier that CLT is not implementing in Bangladesh according to its actual concept. They were also found in similar opinion with Mahbub ul Alam et al. (2014) that CLT needs modification. The current view is that the classrooms are still teacher centred. Learners’ involvement is also not enough, and their fluency is still out of concern, and classroom works are uncommunicative. Probably, this CLT method has not been successful because there is little knowledge about CLT among the teachers and the school authorities are not concerned about these matters. The grammar translation method (GTM) method is being focused broadly ignoring CLT and post method tactics. For these reasons, the CLT might not have been successful in increasing communicative competence in English. However, post method is both teacher and learner cantered pedagogy (Kumaravadivelu, 2001) that can foster English education for the primary children. Notably, 20% of teachers are also using post method (8%) and situational language teaching (12%) besides using CLT in the classroom. It implies the need for an easy going method, probably the “post method” which is “beyond all methods” for teaching a language that facilitates the teaching and learning process with more flexibility (Kumaravadivelu, 1994).

Figure 2. Methods used by the participants to teach English

20% Methods used for teaching English

T17 directly confessed stating “ we have no idea about post method.” T18 told, “we are doing our job as per the situational needs”. T8 opined “we are not familiar with the post method ” T9 also expressed that “we have not heard of post method even”. While post method arose to confirm the need for a most appeasing way of teaching English free from the method based limitations with three pedagogic parameters: particularity, practicality, and possibility, most of the participants were found indifferent in this regard.

T4 added that “such materials also improve the quality of education and stimulate learners’ interest to learn”. In this regard, T5 opined that “we use different pictures, though not always, in the language classrooms beyond textbooks” and T6 added that “we cannot have scopes to show video materials all the time”. T20 opined that “we use different supportive materials. Still, the communicative situation is still poor in their classes.” T13 and T14 showed similar assessments. T25 stated that “we use video materials especially when we need to prepare the kids for any competition”. T7 considers that “audio visual aids in the classroom can improve the learning situation credibly”

Educational virtue cannot be found in teacher education if it is limited to educational theory only. Like other countries, Bangladesh also needs to improve the status of primary education. Training in English for primary teachers is one of the prime concerns. Teachers usually attend training about the implementation of materials in English classrooms, but all the schools are not providing sufficient materials to the teachers. However, conducting classes following the lessons learned from the training session in classrooms is another exigent challenge for the teachers.

Figure 3. Teaching aids used by the teachers beyond textbooks

4.2. Teaching aids beyond textbooks

OthersPicturesAudioVideo

4.3. Ways out for the weak learners Johnstone (1994) says that the motivation of children to learn a second language is significantly conditional on their societal background. Though English is not our mother language, it can be a challenging task for our learners to getting information in a language that is unfamiliar to them. Most of the time, the English language can be hard to perceive. Studying the lessons in a native language is relatively easy. In that case, a similar statement by 64% of participants opined about telling stories. However, T18 mentioned that “we tell stories to the students sometimes. But students do not understand always.” 12% 56% 24% Teaching aids beyond textbooks

Figure 3 shows that 76% of participants chose audio (12%), video (8%), or visual materials (56%). The teachers hardly use audio visual materials T3 opined that “though we extensively use the textbook to reach instructional objectives, various instructional materials are also important for better learning outcomes”.

T25 confessed the same that “the teachers have also weaknesses to tell a complete story in English without taking support from the books.” T1, T5, T9, T16, T18, T23 had similar views also. However, 8% of the participants skipped the problematic text, and nobody answered for the ‘writing’ option. Yet, 28% give different types of memorization tasks when the students do not understand the lesson in any way. T9 further opined that “sometimes telling short stories in the relevant topic works in a great way for understanding the context for primary learners.” Participants’ responses also hint to have a “flexible” approach like Canadian elementary education system (World Data on Education, 2006) in the post method. In that case, teachers must exercise a few predominant stimuli to motivate the students (Dornyei, 2001), whether it is storytelling or some other tactics of learners' involvement.

4.4. Efficacy of situational language teaching (SLT) SLT is an oral approach based on a structural view of language with appropriate grammar use (Rhalmi, 2009) that emphasizes on speech, structures, and focus on a set of elementary vocabulary items which are the basis of language teaching. However, the distinction between the situational language teaching approaches from others is its stress on the portrayal of structures in situations.

Figure 4. Efficacy of SLT in the primary EFL classroom

Figure 4 exposes that about 48% of participants agreed on the dependence on SLT’s implementation in the classroom; about 28% said that the SLT approach is strongly effective on primary EFL learners. As we know the ultimate goal of this method can answer fast and accurately in every speech situation, with a motile control of basic structures and sentence patterns. The objectives of situational language teaching include the proper use of vocabulary items and grammar rules to attain an applied mastery over the four basic skills. T9 stated that “modified SLT can increase learner’s capability to produce proper pronunciation and use of grammar. In that case, both audio and printed texts should be provided by the institution for practice before implementing SLT in the classroom”. T18 opined that “the syllabus does not contain any practical tasks for numbering. Most of the students usually study for marks. They are getting good marks but they are gradually lagging from the competitive world because of not being engaged in practical tasks.” T19 also agreed with this view. All these imply the needs for post method tactics in the primary syllabus significantly. 16% 28% 8% 48% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Less effective Stronglyeffective Ineffective Depends implementationon Efficacy of SLT

4.5. Ways to increase the attentiveness of the children-learners

4.6. Treating an inattentive student

In case of implementing teaching methods effectively and successfully in an EFL primary classroom, it is very imperative to have a basic knowledge of child development and learning certainty to be insightfully related to English as a foreign language (EFL) education. The possible solution comes from 60% of the participants that they tell exciting stories and 32% show colourful study materials for grabbing their attention in their EFL classroom. 8% talked about English rhymes, and none chose non verbal commands. During face to face conversations, teachers speak about audio visual aids that the respective authority should increase the technological facilities for each class. However, the government is digitalizing the schools for technology enhanced classroom. T24 opined that “only the few model schools of government are fully equipped; whereas in general, most of the general schools are not getting the need based facilities for teaching with audio visual aids.” T11 also agreed on a similar view. Therefore, the teachers emphasize technological support for clutching the attention of the children.

The involvement of students in the EFL classroom is inevitable and a serious concern for the primary level in Bangladesh because it is a primary obstacle in achieving sustainable educational goal. So, the study also emphasizes to ensure impartial quality education and development of lifelong learning opportunities for the children. T20 mentioned that “it is noticeable in primary level educational institutions that most of the students are inattentive in the classroom.” T13 thinks that “the driving causes behind student’s inattentiveness are multifaceted including students’ deplorable socioeconomic conditions and poor understanding of parents towards education and their future expectations.” T10 believes that “in government schools and colleges, the majority of students come from poor backgrounds. Their parents are not conscious about their children’s education.” T11 added that “for this reason, students do not come to school regularly; also, they are not attentive in the classroom.” However, in this question, the participants were asked about the ploy they consider effective when the students are inattentive to the class. This study showed that 36% of the participants opined about involving parents to help and 36% said that they take administrative help. In comparison, 16% shockingly talked about ignoring the kids’ inattentive behaviour which is unexpected. 12% said that they make the students practice preference organizations with easy sentences in pairs. However, T4 opined that “the teachers take necessary steps to grab the attention of students, but sometimes techniques are useful, and sometimes techniques remain ineffective.” T16 informed that “class size is also a factor”. T16 further suggested that “interesting video materials may be supportive for grabbing the kids’ attention”.

4.7. Children learners’ relief from anxieties with academic lessons

As T10 agreed with T9’s statements that, “in the primary level EFL classroom, most of the students are not comfortable with the communicative English language system due to nervousness and fear. The teachers are also dependent on the grammar translation method to teach the target language sentences.

Many of us still have the problems of understanding the application of the CLT approach in the class.” So, the study finds the mismatch that hampers their learning and acquisition ability in the English classroom. For this reason, students are facing problems and become uneasy in the English classroom Still, feasible discoveries came out from the study to relieve their anxiety in English language class to solve the communicative English problems. From the participants, 44% opined that educative games and sports can relieve children’s anxieties in the classroom. The other 32% ticked on interesting tasks related to the lesson helps them a lot. 20% visit natural places though not frequently. One participant talked about audio visual aids. “It is tough to control more than 20 students for a teacher outside the class whereas we have more than 50 students in a class”, said T9. However, to make the students feel relax, the classroom set up can also be a bar as Hossain (2019) found 66.67% of his participants opined that the ‘unfriendly sitting furniture’ is an obstacle for teaching effectively in the classroom. 4.8. Improving reading and writing skills of the kids Communicative English is a modern approach to spontaneous learning (Rahman, 2008). Through this method, students are inspired to practice four necessary skills of the language: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading and writing are central skills for learning the communicative English language. At present, English education at the primary level has not been up to the standard in Bangladesh. Most of the students are facing difficulties to read and write in English. T12 talked about “classroom drills, particularly repetition that can emphasize on the rote learning of the lessons”; though T1 considers this “less understandable” and T3 exposes that “repetition lacks the use of communicative English in real life situations”.

Figure 5 shows that among the participants, 44% of them opined that they prefer to give students ‘essay competition or quiz’ and 36% alleged that “read aloud in the classroom” is an effective way to improve reading and writing skills for the kid learners.

4.9. Developing listening and speaking skills In Bangladesh, most of the students can speak and express themselves in Bengali, but they lack adequate skills in listening and speaking in the English

Read aloud in the class competition/QuizEssay Telling them to read at home Dictating Teachers' tactics to improve students' reading and writing skills

Figure 5. Tactics used by the teachers to improve reading and writing skills

Video clips of spoken English Showing English cartoons

36% 0%4% 60%

T22 confirmed that “I teach the frequently used expressions in the class”. T21 also stated that “I use everyday dialogues for listening and speaking skills”. T22 added that “most of the students still do not get the meaning of those sentences and dialogues. Sometimes, they understand but cannot speak”. But such dialogues are crucially beneficial to the students in the classroom and, Vrikki et al. (2019) mentioned that the teachers usually play to enable such conversations in the classroom. For that, they need proper training and professional (T5, T6, T14, and T17) opined a similar statement in the interviews that their training outcomes are not effective always and there is no monitoring system after receiving the training whether the teachers utilize their learning from the training in the classrooms appropriately or not. T17 further added that “for this, many of us become idle and do not deploy our training outcomes upon the learners. It is indeed our failure.”

4.10. Constrictions of effective EFL education at the primary level

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Butdevelopment.someparticipants

Situational conversation practice Ways for developing listening and speaking skills language. The reasons behind these common problems are unfamiliar vocabulary, colloquial expression, and different ranges of accent, speech rate, and other learning obstacles, contextual or personal, and so on. To rectify this situation, 36% of participants suggested drills, and nobody shows English cartoons whereas 60% of participants said that they make situational conversation practice to develop the listening and speaking skills of the learners as depicted in figure 6

In the current view, the primary education system in Bangladesh is facing various types of limitations, which is multifarious due to economic, socio cultural, political, regional, and religious factors. In the teacher student ratio, the number of qualified and trained teachers also poses a significant challenge towards achieving the destination of universal primary education. Figure 7 exposes this scenario that 40% of the participants noticed that “the lack of teachers’ training” and 24% said “inadequate teaching aids” are the fundamental limitations of teaching effectively at the primary level. Teacher training is a crucial issue in the present situation in prior learning. So, it is imperative to keep attention on the teacher training system in Bangladesh and to identify the capacity and implementation gaps of the training module.

Drills

Figure 6. Ways for developing listening and speaking skills

Figure 7. Constrictions of effective EFL education

However, during the interview, a participant (T13) mentioned that “the teacher appointment system still remains general. It is not mandatory to be a graduate in English background to teach English at the primary level in Bangladesh.” A teacher (T14) from the same institution also emphasize the issue that “the English and Mathematics should be taught by the teachers having respective study backgrounds.”

5. Conclusion

20% 40% 24% 16%50%40%30%20%10%0% qualificationTeachers' Teachers'training

Rural context Constrictions of

The present study concludes with the fact that the primary students are getting fewer opportunities to use English properly in their social and classroom environments. In this situation, it is quite challenging for them to achieve necessary English skills. Consequently, the primary EFL education level in Bangladesh has received a very shallow standard. Students are facing problems in communicating in English. The application of teaching methods is not appropriate also. Besides, the classroom facilities are deplorable to ensure a comfortable learning environment. All four skills require equal importance in the assessment procedure, and students should be allowed to develop these four skills as an inseparable part of their learning process through the academic syllabus. However, the study cannot be generalized for all schools as there are thousands of primary schools in Bangladesh, and there are many city schools whose primary education standard is very high. The researcher found several loopholes to study further with primary level education in Bangladesh. Some of the participants talked about the psychological factors of the children that are subjected to resolve. Another fact is that the low educational, or economic background of many children’s parents put a negative impact on the children’s minds, so very often children do not get motivation at home. Therefore, the study for motivational orientations, neuro linguistic issues, and off site impacts of their families can stimulate future researchers to investigate further. Finally, the study urges that the government should take initiatives for making year round lesson plans for English teachers and include different practical activities in the primary level syllabus from the propositions of this paper to improve primary English education further. Otherwise, it is indeed challenging to ensure proper education in a densely inhabited country like Bangladesh. In this regard, the government can involve the teacher educators of national and international exposures for a systematic series of supportive lesson plans for both the teachers and the learners as well. teachingInadequateaids effective EFL education

c. Storytelling: Telling stories can be logically useful to enhance students’ enthusiasm to learn English (Wajnryb, 2003; Wright, 1995). It can also increase their active involvement in the verbal learning procedure and can be a bridge for student teacher interactions.

a. Talk: Talk can be an excellent solution for teaching English to primary school children (Johnston, 2015). So, the teachers must interactive with different types of talks in the classroom for letting the children be courageous to speak in English to be motivated credibly. Alexander (2006, p.5) considers such an idea that only oral interaction can help “teachers teach and children learn”, (also cited in Johnston, 2015). However, the teachers should ensure a dynamic comfort zone for shy students to talk. It is a very crucial task for a teacher, but there are no other options except creating a student friendly environment where shy or nervous students feel at home to speak English. Bosacki, Rose Krasnor and Coplan (2014, p.258) also emphasize this ‘emotional comfort level within the classroom’.

In Canada, “the elementary school curriculum emphasizes the basic subjects of language” (World Data of Education, 2006). The best way for the children to learn English is in a natural setting, but this is not always easy in Bangladesh

Teachers can also encourage the students to learn freely, as Woodhouse (2011) considers that stirring the students is an essential aspect of teachers to teach.

However, this study presents the following propositions to foster primary EFL education with particular focuses on rural primary schools:

b. Use of autonomous learning activities: Playing games and watching English movies are independent learning options (Mehdiyev, 2020) to learn vocabulary. Students can play different games with cards, such as ‘memory’ with pictures and words, or even flashcards. Children also learn through songs as they become sensitive while listening to music. So, kids’ English songs can be useful for teachers. Moreover, the texts of children's literature can develop their listening power. Gulec and Durmus (2015) found that the events performed with using the literary works for children to improve students’ listening skills generated positive results.

e. Peer ecology: Peer ecology is a term used for student’s better learning environment in the classroom. However, Mindful teaching approaches unswervingly intend to affect peer relations in a class (Gest and Rodkin,

d. Practical Training: Proper training of primary teachers should be implemented and confirmed. Only certificates will not function in the long run; instead, learning ‘teaching’ will matter. Strakova (2015) mentions that any ‘fast track’ training of primary teachers who need to learn ‘teaching’ makes a questionable result. So called certification may create scopes for the low quality teachers to work at the primary level. Therefore, the authority should be concerned strictly in this regard.

StamfordJournalofEnglish, 7, 01 15. doi:10.3329/sje.v7i0.14459

EnglishLanguageTeaching, 7(5), 17 25 doi:10.5539/elt.v7n5p17 Dornyei, Z. (2001). TeachingandResearchingMotivation. New York: Longman.

Besides,recruitments.thestudy recommends removing the quota system in different categories to develop the primary education system credibly because the quota deprives many talents of teaching opportunity and employment.

h. Teacher recruitment: Teacher employment should require the background of respective subjects and an unbiased recruitment system. Currently, the primary teachers are being selected only with a bachelor's degree from any background. The English teaching personnel should have at least a BA (honors) in English, whereas there are no compulsory rules for it now. B. Ed, D. P. Ed., or MA in English degree should get precedence in

f. Public speaking and impromptu practice: Involvement in public speaking and impromptu practice should be ensured and regularly nurtured. The researcher found no other way than engaging the children in interactive sessions; of course, the sessions must have fun and full of the symbolic use of languages. Rubin and Morreale (1996) believed that the curriculum of elementary schools needs to include public speaking, and the student’s presentation skills should contribute to the final assessment in all subjects (also cited in Herbein et al., 2018).

2011). So, for the primary level, it is crucial to managing the students both individually and in groups for a better learning environment (Hendrickx et al., 2016).

Abedin, M., Mojlis, K., & Akter, S. (2009). Listening skill at tertiary level: a reflection. The DhakaUniversityJournalofLinguistics, 2(3), 69 90. Alexander, R. (2006). Towards Dialogic Teaching: Rethinking classroom talk (3rd ed). Yorkshire: Dialogos. Bosacki, S., Rose Krasnor, L. & Coplan, R. J. (2014). Children’s Talking and Listening Within the Classroom: Teachers’ Insights. Early Child Development and Care, 184(2), 247 265. doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.781165 Chen, M. (2014). Post method Pedagogy and Its Influence on EFL Teaching Strategies.

Acknowledgement

g. Using textbooks effectively: Textbooks should be used in a post method way to teach reading and writing to primary students. Hossain (2019) mentioned in his study that 83.33% of his participants admitted that the textbooks have enough scopes to teach reading and writing skills.

The researchers are thankful to ‘Hello Teen Society’ (S 13170), a Govt. registered organization for education, research, and welfare in Bangladesh for the overall support in terms of doing the study

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5) How can you make your learners attentive in the class?

9) How can you develop the listening and speaking skills of your learners?

4) How far Situational Language Teaching (SLT) can be effective for your primary EFL learners? (a) Less effective (b) Strongly effective (c) Ineffective (d) Depends on implementation

6) Which one do you prefer to control a student when he/she is inattentive?

(a) Memorization (b) Skipping the text (c) Writing (d) Telling Stories

(a) Drilling (b) Showing video clips of spoken English (c) Showing English cartoons (d) Situational conversation practices

7) Which one do you utilize most to entertain the children learners to provide them relief from anxieties with academic lessons?

2) What types of teaching aids do you use in the language classrooms beyond (a)textbooks?Video (b) Audio (c) Pictures (d) Others

3) What is the commonest way out for your learners when they do not understand any lesson in any way?

(a) Telling stories (b) English Rhymes together (c) Showing colourful study materials (d) Non verbal commands

1) Which method are you adopting to teach EFL at the primary level at your (a)school?CLT (b) SLT (c) Post method (d) Other

10) Which one do you believe is the key limitation of teaching ELT effectively at the primary level? (a) Teachers’ Qualification (b) Teachers’ training (c) Inadequate teaching aids (d) Rural context

8) What step would you like most to improve the reading and writing skills of your kid learners? (a) Read aloud in the class (b) Essay competition/ Quiz (c) Telling them to read at home (d) Dictating

(a) Audio visual aids (b) Games and sports

(a) Ignoring the kids’ behaviour (b) Concerning parents to help (c) Preference organizations in pairs (d) Asking for administrative help

88 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 88 108, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.6 Advancing the Design of Self-Explanation Prompts for Complex Problem-Solving Hyun Joo Korea Institute of Human Resources Development in Science and Technology, Chungcheongbukdo, Republic of Korea https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5460 2988 Jinju Lee Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2958 659X Dongsik Kim Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5112 7392 Abstract. This research investigated the effects of focus (inference vs. inference followed by integration) and level (low vs. middle vs. high) in self explanation prompts on both cognitive load and learning outcomes. To achieve this goal, a 2*3 experiment design was employed. A total of 199SouthKoreanhighschoolstudentswere randomly assigned toone of six conditions. The two wayMANOVA wasused toanalyse the effectsof the self explanation prompts on learning outcomes. Results showed that therewasaninteractioneffectbetweenfocusandlevelofself explanation prompts on delayed conceptual knowledge, suggesting that the focus of self explanation prompts could be varied depending on their level. Second, learners who were given a high level of prompts scored higher on the immediate conceptual knowledge test than those who received a low level of prompts. A two way ANOVA was conducted to analyse the effects of the self explanation prompts on cognitive load and showed no skills.bothdesignloweofsignificantinteractioneffect.However,therewasamaineffectinthelevelthepromptthatahighlevelofselfexplanationpromptsimposedarcognitiveloadcomparedtoalowlevelofprompts.Insum,theanddevelopmentofselfexplanationpromptsshouldconsiderfocusandlevel,especiallytoimprovecomplexproblemsolving Keywords: cognitive load; complex problem solving; conceptual knowledge; procedural knowledge; self explanation prompts

1. Introduction Self explanation and its effect on learning outcomes has been explored extensively; learners can generate fruitful outcomes when they devise their own explanations to understand the principles of they are learning (Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher, 1994; Miller Cotto & Auxter, 2019). In fact, many empirical studies have demonstrated an improvement in transfer performance among students who were frequently prompted to self explain learning materials, as compared to those who were not (Renkl & Eitel, 2019). However, according to self explanation meta analysis results (Bisra, Liu, Nesbit, Salimi & Winne, 2018), outcomes of self explanation were critically associated with the formats, types, and timing of eliciting events. Numerous studies have confirmed that certain types of prompts could be more effective than others in different contexts for a variety of domains and tasks, suggesting the types of prompts needed for specific areas of learning (Nokes, Hausmann, VanLehn & Gershman, 2011). In this regard, the present paper attempted to investigate how types of self explanation prompt differently affect learning with respect to two main issues, focus and level of prompts, and provide insight in designing self explanation prompts.

Conceptual knowledge refers to the factual knowledge and basic principles that are applied to a certain domain while “Procedural knowledge (problem solving performance) refers to actions or manipulations that are valid within a domain” (de Jong & Ferguson Hessler, 1996, p. 107). The acquisition of conceptual knowledge enables the effective use of procedural knowledge in problem solving (McCormick, 1997). These two types of knowledge greatly influence the problem solving mechanism. Becoming equipped with a highly systemized set of knowledge (e.g. economics, mathematics) enables learners to systematically solve problems in different situations. Learners can only gain this ability when the core concepts of a problem and solutions to it are completely understood as both conceptual and procedural knowledge required to solve a problem (RittleJohnson & Schneider, 2015).

Inducing learners to engage in self explanation through prompts enhances both conceptual and procedural knowledge (Berthold, Eysink & Renkl, 2009; Durkin & Rittle Johnson, 2012). In the case of conceptual knowledge, students can repair and enrich their existing knowledge to create a better structure by focusing on relevant concepts that explain what was learned (Fonseca & Chi, 2010; Renkl,

2. Literature review

2.1. Effects of self explanation prompts in learning Hefter and Berthold (2020) examined the productivity of self explanation activities in learning and extended their scope to instructional supports that foster participation in an activity and make it more powerful.Providing self explanation prompts that support the generation of self explanation has been explored in several studies (e.g., Atkinson, Renkl & Merrill, 2003; Lin & Atkinson, 2013). Prompts that refer to questions or elicitations that provide instructional hints to induce meaningful learning in self explanation have also been explored (Johnson & Mayer, 2010).

2.1.1. Self explanation prompts and acquisition of conceptual and procedural knowledge

The instructional fit hypothesis states that the effect of self explanation prompts is more powerful when the objective of the prompt matches both the structure of the learning domain and the learner’s state of cognitive processing (Nokes et al., 2011). Thus, prompts must be designed to facilitate development of both procedural and conceptual knowledge for solving complex problems. The current study explored ways to design the focus and level of self explanation prompts in economics lessons to enhance procedural and conceptual learning outcomes.

2.1.2. Self explanation prompts for managing cognitive load Cognitive load theory (CLT) states that the capacity and duration of working memory are limited (Sweller, Ayres & Kalyga, 2011), and this hypothesis has been regarded as a keystone in instructional design. To avoid learning impairment, working memory should not be overloaded by cognitive processes such as comprehension, schema construction, and problem solving (Ginns & Leppink, 2019). Cognitive load is the sum of three load types: intrinsic, germane, and extraneous(Sweller et al.,2011). Intrinsic load is generated by task complexity and the learner’s prior knowledge (knowledge state) of the subject; it must be managed through an instructional design that carefully balances learning tasks and prior knowledge (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler & Sweller, 2003). Extraneous load is the additional effort that learners must put into completing poorly designed tasks or receiving poorly designed instruction (Sweller et al., 2011). Germane load piles up when cognitive processes are stimulated by instructions assumed to be beneficial for learning (Sweller et al., 2011). Given these cognitive mechanisms, self explanation prompts can be a double edged sword. Providing additional self explanation, especially for novice learners, is extraneous and increases cognitive load (Hoogerheide, Deijkers, Loyens, Heijltjes & van Gog, 2016). Yet, such extra cognitive activity “directly contributes to [the] schema construction” (Renkl & Atkinson, 2003, p. 17) involved in self explanation, such as generating inferences, integrating new information with prior knowledge, and rectifying faulty knowledge (Roy & Chi, 2005). These processes inversely decrease intrinsic cognitive load because the elements of information to be learned become a chunked schema (Paas & Ayres, 2014).

Moreover, the combination of self explanation prompts and adequate instruction can compensate for induced extraneous overload (Wang & Adesope, 2017). In short, learners may benefit from the germane cognitive processes of self explanation prompts, as the activity itself boosts the process, and the other cognitive load sub categories allow extra space for the germane process (Leppink, Broers, Imbos, van der Vleuten & Berger, 2012). Yet, studying and solving complex problems requires increased working memory resources, leaving fewer

2014). The act of self explaining spontaneously facilitates the understanding of rules and principles to make problem solving easier and promotes procedural knowledge acquisition (Atkinson et al., 2003; Lombrozo, 2006). Especially, under complex learning circumstances, prompts that attract learners’ attention to certain aspects impede deeper processing of other important aspects (Berthold, Röder, Knorzer, Kessler & Renkl, 2011).

for self explanation. Therefore, the design of self explanation prompts should not increase cognitive load beyond the working memory capacity of learners.

Based on previous findings, supporting self explanation activities for complex problems by designing and providing prompts could foster better learning outcomes and optimize cognitive load (i.e., reduce extraneous load while stimulating germane load) (Hefter & Berthold, 2020; Lin, Atkinson, Savenye & Nelson, 2016). Inference-based prompts are expected to assist the acquisition of initial problem solving schemas in the early learning phases. By linking general concepts and skills to the specific elements of the problem at hand through inferences, learners increase their understanding (Rau et al., 2015). As learning progresses and learners understand new information, they go through an

Exploratory studies of self explanation prompts have investigated two main areas:

2.2. Design considerations for self-explanation prompts

(1) focus of prompts effect of prompt type on self explanation (e.g., Nokes et al., 2011; Renkl, 2014; Yeh, Chen, Hung, & Hwang, 2010) and (2) level of prompts how much prompting is necessary to elicit self explanation (e.g., Berthold et al., 2009; Fabic, Mitrovic & Neshatian, 2019; Rau, Aleven & Rummel, 2015; Wylie & Chi, 2014). These two research streams share similarities with research on prompts in the form of questions or hints (instructional assistance) that are designed to induce the learner’s engagement in productive learning processes and avoid shallow information processing (e.g., King, 1990). The ideal design of prompts that induce self explanation considers both the content and number of prompts a learner needs.

2.2.1. The focus of self explanation prompts

It is necessary to understand how self explanation improves learning outcomes to intelligently design self explanation prompts (Neubrand & Harms, 2017; Yeh et al., 2010). There are two primary ways in which self explanation promotes learning (Chi, 2000; Rittle Johnson, Loehr & Durkin, 2017). First, self explanation encourages learners to generate inferences about what they have learned but do not yet fully understand, allowing them to identify and fill in gaps in their knowledge (Gadgil, Nokes Malach & Chi, 2012). Second, recent studies have found that self explanation can be utilized for the correlation of existing mental models with new information, supporting the establishment of a new mental model for problem solving (Lombrozo, 2006). For instance, explanations often integrate different pieces of new information or prior knowledge with new information. Studies of these approaches highlight that explanation prompts focussing on one aspect of the to be learned materials have an impact on the explanation content.

Studies on the effects of self explanation prompts on conceptual and procedural knowledge acquisition have mixed findings. DeCaro and Rittle Johnson (2012) showed that prompts had a negative effect on procedural knowledge, yet fostered conceptual understanding. McEldoon, Durkin and Rittle Johnson (2013) reported that prompts improved both knowledge types. Self explanation itself is a conceptual oriented activity, and the effects of prompts on learning outcomes vary by learning domain and the problem’s complexity (Berthold & Renkl, 2009).

2.2.2. The assisting level of self explanation prompts

Not all self explanation enhances learning outcomes, however, as learners are often ignorant about the ways to engage in productive self explanation (Chi, 2000). Indeed, self explanation can place a heavy burden on working memory, particularly that of learners with less relevant knowledge (Barbieri, Miller Cotto & Booth, 2019). For this reason, to participate in effective self explanation, learners may need scaffolding for prompts (O’Neil, Chung, Kerr, Vendlinski, Buschang & Mayer, 2014; Rau et al., 2015).

A scaffolded self explanation approach is structured prompting that improves the quality of self explanations (Chen, Mitrovic & Matthews, 2019; Rittle Johnson, Loehr & Durkin, 2017). Unlike open prompts, structured prompts include additional information such as cues for selection of appropriate explanations among various choices or fill in the blanks. However, withholding cues may be appropriate for constructive learning activities such as inference creation as it helps learners understand problem solutions through self generated explanations (De Koning, Tabbers, Rikers & Paas, 2011;). These explanations take advantage of the fact that structured prompts do not limit or influence learners with preconceived ideas (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan & Willingham, 2013; Fiorella & Mayer, 2015). Chiu and Chi (2014) similarly found that learners provided with the support of varying levels of self explanation prompts generate optimal self Acexplanations.cordingto

integrated process that links, distinguishes, organizes, and structures all the information they have learned (Morrison, Bol, Ross & Watson, 2015). This process is essential for problem solving (Jonassen, 2000): by coordinating external information and existing knowledge, integration leads to better understanding (Wittrock, 1989). The integration based prompt, an inference generating prompt designed to stimulate learners to compare and revise knowledge they acquired in the preceding learning phase with the current learning phase, can help learners solve complex problems.

Rittle Johnson, Loehr and Durkin’s (2017) meta review on self explanation prompts, the effect size for scaffolded and structured self explanation prompts studies was larger compared to non scaffolded prompts studies for conceptual knowledge, indicating that structured scaffolding improved the effectiveness of self explanation in acquiring conceptual knowledge(β = 0.67, p = 0.004). However, providing scaffolding in prompts did not influence procedural knowledge acquisition. In complex problem solving, the working memory resources needed for processing conceptual aspects may exceed the maximum limit of cognitive capacity, leaving no capacity for processing procedural aspects (Sweller et al., 2011). Thus, it can be inferred that if cognitive load is well managed, learners may have enough capacity in the working memory for procedural aspects. Based on this inference, Berthold et al. (2009) suggest the integration of structured and open ended self explanation responses. In their study, participants were provided with open prompts, assisted prompts that required learners to fill in

This study managed the level of prompting provided to learners by drawing on previous studies (Berthold et al., 2009; Wylie & Chi, 2014). Thus, it was expected that high levels of self explanation prompts would be more beneficial for constructing knowledge than low levels of self explanation prompts due to the characteristics of economics, a complex field of conceptual and procedural knowledge, which was the knowledge domain used in this study. Working on complex tasks without any assistance from self explanation prompts is much more difficult for learners when outlining semantic knowledge (Berthold et al., 2009). Previous studies provided learners with specific assistance for generating self explanations by requiring them to complete fill in the blank exercises; however, this study aimed to provide learners with more generic prompts that provided lower levels of assistance by giving keywords with an open ended question followed by open ended question prompts.

Sweller et al. (2011) imply that there is a fading effect in cognitive load theory, which means that there should be a gradual decrease in the level of instructional guidance that accompanies the gradual increase in learner expertise. As learners increase their self explanation skills or they enter later learning phases, high level prompting needs to be reduced as minimal guidance could be more effective than explicit guidance that induces extraneous load.

Studies have examined how the focus or level of assistance provided by self explanation prompts can affect learning outcomes, but there have been relatively few studies on the combination of these two factors. Therefore, the objective of this research was to design and implement self explanation prompts with different combinations of focus and level of assistance to determine how they affect cognitive load, conceptual knowledge acquisition, and procedural knowledge acquisition. The study sought to answer the following research questions:

• To what extent do the focus (inference vs. inference followed by integration) and the level (low vs. middle vs. high) of self explanation prompts affect procedural knowledge (immediate and delayed test)?

• To what extent do the focus (inference vs. inference followed by integration) and the level (low vs. middle vs. high) of self explanation prompts affect cognitive load?

• To what extent do the focus (inference vs. inference followed by integration) and the level (low vs. middle vs. high) of self explanation prompts affect conceptual knowledge (immediate and delayed test)?

blanks followed by open prompts, or no prompts at all. Though both prompt types equally affected the acquisition of procedural knowledge, assisted prompts led to better conceptual knowledge acquisition than open prompts. Thus, when students have difficulty answering open ended questions, scaffolding and assistance in self explanation produces deeper understanding.

2.3. Research questions

3. Methodology

This study was conducted in a high school in Suwon, South Korea. The participants were 233 K 10 students (female=52%, male=48%; average age=15.8) whohadlearned aboutexchange ratesfrom theircurriculum.Theexperimentwas divided into two sessions. The first session comprised pretest, learning phase, and immediate test. A week later, there was a second session comprising a delayed test. There were 19 participants who were not able to finish the learning task, and selfAwere15participantswereabsentforthedelayedtest.Asaresult,datafrom199studentsusedfortheanalyses.2x3experimentaldesignwasusedwithtwofactors.Thefirstwasthefocusofexplanationprompts

3.2. Learning materials

3.1. Participants and research design

inference (‘IF’) and inference generating followed by integration (‘IT’). The second was the level of self explanation prompts low level of self explanation prompts that only had open ended questions (‘L’), middle level of self explanation prompts that included an open ended question with keywords followed by open ended questions (‘M’), and high level of self explanation prompts with fill in the blank questions followed by an open ended question (‘H’). Participants were randomly assigned to one of six conditions: IF L (n=32), IT L (n=38), IF M (n = 36), IT M (n = 38), IF H (n = 29), and IT H (n = 26). The number of participants for each condition varied due to missing data. This variance does not hinder statistical validity, as the group number is regarded as approximately equal if the ratio of largest group to smallest group is less than 1.5 (Hahs Vaughn, 2017).

The first and second author and two economic teachers with 3 to 5 years of experience developed experimental materials based on previous research (e.g., van Gog, Paas & Van Merriënboer, 2004). The lesson included in the material was the effects of exchange rate fluctuations on the economy in social science disciplines. All learning materials were on paper. Process oriented worked examples were employed as the learning strategy, as they use relatively little working memory (van Gog et al., 2004). The study used three example problems in order of incremental complexity. The problems were intended to show how to examine the economic impact of exchange rate fluctuations, and the problem statement of the research was: ‘Analyse the profit and loss of export and import companies due to exchange rate fluctuations’. To solve the problems, a learner first needs to understand that the domestic economic environment and foreign exchange market status affect exchange rate fluctuations; export management conditions; and dynamics of exporting/importing companies. This means that a learner must coordinate multiple informational elements. Moreover, this study examined a specific domain of macroeconomics, the impact of exchange fluctuations, which required the use of both conceptual and procedural knowledge in the application of economic principles to solve domestic economic and/or foreign exchange market analysis.

3.2.1. Development of compounds in learning materials

The prompts were given in place of the solution step, and the students were asked to answer prompts for each example. In this study, all prompts were revised and adapted from previous research. The ‘IF’ prompt corresponds to the one in Conati and VanLehn (2000), and focused on generating inferences to fill the gaps (e.g., ‘The answer is correct because...’ or ‘What is the justification for this process? Why do you think it is correct?’). The ‘IT’ prompt was adapted from Chi et al. (1994) and was designed to facilitate an integration between prior knowledge and new information (e.g., ‘How does it relate to what you have already seen?’ or ‘What kind of new information does each step provide for you?’). Specifically, IT prompts provide an extra opportunity to first engage in self explanation activities through comparison with information from previous steps, and second, to revise learners’ initial ideas by presenting correct answers. The ‘L’ prompt was an open ended question for all learning tasks, and the ‘M’ prompt was again an open ended question but withkeywords for learning tasks 1 and 2, and with a few more open ended questions for 3. The ‘H’ prompt was the same as the one used by Berthold et al.(2009) andconsisted of afill in the blankquestion forlearning tasks 1 and 2, and an open ended question for 3. More specifically, prompts in this study can be specifically tailored to the learning context (Figure 2).

Two sessions were conducted. In the first session, participants were given 10 minutes to complete a pretest followed by the learning phase and an immediate posttest. During the learning phase, participants were asked to study three problems and provided with process oriented worked examples. They then completed their respective self explanation activities by using sets of assigned

3.3. Procedures and instrument 3.3.1. Procedures

Figure 1: Description of learning materials 3.2.2. Self explanation prompts embedded in learning materials

The three learning tasks with incremental complexity levels were as follows. Learning task 1 (simple): ‘Predict changes in international currency exchanges from an analysis of the domestic economy’. Learning task 2 (medium): ‘Analyse the impact of exchange rate fluctuations on an export company’. Learning task 3 (complex): ‘Analyse and evaluate an import company’s financial losses from exchange rate fluctuations’. The answers to all three learning tasks including detailed explanations (procedural and conceptual knowledge) provided to the students for each of the logical processes (Figure 1). When continuously presented with worked examples, these become redundant information and interfere with leaners’ constructive activities, inducing extraneous load (redundancy effect in CLT; Sweller et al., 2011). Thus, the solution step was omitted from the examples to execute the fading strategy (e.g., Atkinson et al., 2003).

Figure learning tasks in the IF-H condition

Pretest (10 min) 12 items measuring prior knowledge

Table

prompts. They were given 20 minutes to solve and self explain each problem. At the end of the learning phase, they were asked to rate the mental effort they had invested via a self reported questionnaire and were given 15 minutes to complete the immediate posttest. The second session was held a week later in which all groups were given 15 minutes to take a delayed posttest (see Table 1 for details).

1: Experiment procedures

Learning phase (60 min) Problem with worked examples + self explanation activity (20 min * 3 problem sets)

Details

2: Example of

Session Activity

First session (1st week)

Immediate posttest (15 min) Mental effort rating

Second session (2nd week) Delayed posttest (15 min) Conceptual and procedural knowledge

Participants demonstrated procedural knowledge by solving calculation problems. The immediate test consisted of 8 items including 3 short answer questions (e.g., ‘Calculate the change in export value of $30,000 when the exchange rate rises from 1,000 KRW to 1,200 KRW.’), 3 true or false questions (e.g., ‘If the exchange rate, which was 1,000 KRW per USD, changes to 800 KRW per USD, the value of the won fell to…’), and 2 multiple choice questions. The internal consistency, using Cronbach’s alpha was reliable with σ=.71. The delayed test included 3 short answer questions (e.g., ‘Analyse the graph to predict the changes in the foreign exchange rate and its impact on the fruit import business.’).

The learners’ perceived cognitive loads were measured via a self reported questionnaire developed by Paas and van Merriënboer (1994). The questionnaire consisted of a nine point Likert scale, ranging from ‘extremely easy’ (1) to ‘extremely difficult’ (9) (Figure 3). The questionnaire was handed out immediately after the task class session. The internal consistency coefficient of the scale (Cronbach’s σ) was .90.

3.3.2. Pretest

3.3.4. Procedural knowledge

The posttests aimed to assess both procedural and conceptual knowledge and were administered immediately after the learning session and one week later.

3.3.5. Conceptual knowledge

In this research, the focus was on whether the learner understood each step of the logical process to obtain the answer. The study measured the conceptual understanding of the rationale behind the solution process. The immediate test contained 3 open ended questions that required written explanations of the principles presented in the learning phase (e.g., ‘Look at the trends in exchange rates and write down reasons why certain trends would be favourable to exporters and/or importers.’) (Cohen’s K=.82). The delayed test included 5 open ended questions similar to the immediate test (e.g., ‘Interpret the changes in graphs and exchange rates and state your expectations of their impact on the economy with reasons.’) (Cohen’s K=.81).

3.3.3. Post test

A pretest was conducted to confirm the homogeneity among the six groups by measuring their prior knowledge of the subject. The pretest contained 12 items measuring knowledge of the basic concepts of exchange rates such as, ‘The KRW/USD exchange rate is the amount of US dollars that can be exchanged for 1,000 won in Korea’. The pretest was comprised of right or wrong quizzes and scored by the researcher. One point was assigned for each correct answer, hence the maximum score of the pre test was 12 points.

3.3.6. Cognitive load

4.1.2. Learning outcomes We expected that integration based prompts with middle or high level of prompts would beneﬁt learners most when studying a complex problem. This hypothesis was partially conﬁrmed for conceptual understanding but not for procedural knowledge. Means and standard deviations of learning outcomes are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Means and standard deviations of learning outcomes by groups Aspect IF L (n=32) IT L (n=38) IF M (n=36) IT M (n=38) IF H (n=29) IT H (n=26) M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD I_pro 5.59 1.98 5.05 2.55 4.50 2.15 5.11 2.39 5.31 2.48 5.46 1.77 D_pro 4.31 1.85 4.18 2.15 3.08 2.43 4.11 2.02 4.14 2.03 4.38 2.11 I_con 4.63 3.79 4.00 3.40 4.64 3.21 6.61 2.99 5.24 3.42 6.42 3.24 D_con 7.22 3.41 8.76 3.92 7.53 4.16 9.05 3.30 9.76 3.33 7.23 2.93 Note. I_pro: immediate procedural knowledge; D_pro: delayed procedural knowledge; I_con: immediate conceptual knowledge, D_con: delayed conceptual knowledge A 2×3 MANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of self explanation prompts’ focus and level, as well as the interactive effect of self explanation prompts’ focus and level on learning outcomes. Box’s M Test for homogeneity of covariance matrices was met (Box’s M=55.52, F=1.05, p=.377). Levene’s Test, the

Figure 3: Self reported cognitive load questionnaire Results and Discussion 4.1. Results 4.1.1. Prior knowledge A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate whether participants’ prior knowledge significantly differed across the six experimental conditions. The homogeneity in prior knowledge among groups was confirmed since there was no significant difference in pretest scores (F(5, 193)=1.66, p=.147).

²=.022). Table 3: Two way MANOVA and follow ANOVA summary on learning outcomes Pillai'sTrace Sources Aspects Type III sum squaresof df squareMean F p ηₚ ² .022 Focus I_pro .25 1 .25 .049 .83 .00 D_pro 7.04 1 7.04 1.57 .21 .01 I_con 34.48 1 34.48 3.09 .08 .02 D_con 1.59 1 1.59 .12 .73 .00 .102* Level I_pro 14.06 2 7.03 1.38 .26 .02 D_pro 20.19 2 10.09 2.25 .11 .02 I_con 89.73 2 44.87 4.02 .02* .04 D_con 8.05 2 4.03 .32 .73 .00 .137** LFocus*evel I_pro 11.87 2 5.94 1.16 .32 .01 D_pro 12.32 2 6.16 1.38 .26 .01 I_con 62.34 2 31.17 2.79 .07 .03 D_con 163.66 2 81.83 6.40 .00* .06 Error I_pro 986.86 193 5.11 D_pro 864.517 193 4.479 I_con 2156.541 193 11.174 D_con 2469.130 193 12.793 Note. *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001. I_pro: Immediate procedural knowledge; D_pro: Delayed procedural knowledge; I_con: immediate conceptual knowledge, D_con: delayed conceptual knowledge Effects on procedural knowledge For immediate procedural knowledge, subsequent univariate ANOVAs yielded that the main effect of the level of self explanation was not signiﬁcant (F(2, 193) =1.38, p=.255, ηₚ²=.014), and was non significant on delayed procedural knowledge (F(2, 193)=2.25, p=.108, ηₚ²=.02). There was also no interaction between focus and level of self explanation on immediate and delayed procedural knowledge (F(2, 193)=1.16, p=.315, ηₚ²=.012, F(2, 193)=1.36, p=.255, ηₚ²=.014, respectively).

assumption of equal variance, was met at the .05 alpha level (p ranged from .355 to .915), except for immediate procedural knowledge (p=.031). Utilizing Pillai's Trace, as shown in Table 3, the interaction effect was significant (Pillai's Trace=.137, F(8, 382)=3.51, p=.001, ηₚ²=.068);the main effect of the self explanation prompts’ level was also significant (Pillai's Trace=.102, F(8, 382)=2.557, p=.010 η =.051). However, as shown in Table 3, the main effect of focus of self explanation prompts was not significant (Pillai's Trace=.02, F(4, 190)=1.09, p=.361, ηₚ

ₚ ²

100

Effects on conceptual knowledge For immediate conceptual knowledge, subsequent univariate ANOVAs revealed that the main effect of the level of self explanation prompts was significant (F(2, 193)=4.015, p=.020, ηₚ²=.040). The results of post hoc test are presented in Table 4. However, there was no interaction effect on immediate conceptual knowledge (F(2, 193)=2.79, p=.064, ηₚ²=.028). For delayed conceptual knowledge, there was no main effect of the level of self explanation prompts (F(2, 193)=.315, p=.730, ηₚ²=.003). However, there was an interaction between focus and level of self explanation prompts (F(2, 193)=6.40, p=.002, ηₚ²=.062), as shown in Figure 4.

To further understand the interaction effect of focus and level of self explanation prompts for the aspect of delayed conceptual knowledge, the simple main effects were analysed (Table 5). Results revealed that focus of self explanation prompts had a significant effect on delayed conceptual knowledge among the high level (H) prompts group (F(1, 193)=6.848, p=.03), implying that the IF prompts group had significantly higher scores than the IT prompts group (mean difference=2.53, ES(d)=1.18). On the other hand, the level of self explanation prompts had a

Figure 4: Interaction between focus and level of self-explanation prompts on delayed conceptual knowledge

Table 4: Multiple comparison using Scheffe’s post hoc test DependentVariable (I) Level promptsof (J) Level promptsof Mean difference(I-J) p knowledgeconceptualImmediate High(H) Low(L) 1.51 045 Middle(M) 15 968 Low(L) Middle(M) 1.36 .053

101 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. significant effect on delayed conceptual knowledge among learners in the IF prompts group (F(2, 193)=4.550, p=.02), implying that the high level (H) prompts group had significantly higher scores than the low level (L) prompts group (mean difference=2.54, ES(d)=1.21). Table 5: Summary of simple main effect on delayed conceptual knowledge Group Sources Sum squaresof Degree freedomof squareMean F p Focus Low 41.43 1 41.43 3.23 .21 Middle 42.98 1 42.98 3.36 .21 High 87.60 1 87.60 6.85 .03* Level Inference 116.41 2 58.21 4.55 .02* Integration 56.08 2 28.04 2.20 .22 Error 2469.13 193 12.79 Note. *p<.05 4.1.5. Cognitive load invested for learning Our expectation regarding cognitive load was that integration with the assisting condition (high and middle level prompts) would lead to less cognitive load during studying. Means and standard deviations of the cognitive load when studying are presented in Table 6. A 2×3 ANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of focus and level of self explanation prompts on cognitive load. The homogeneity assumption was sustained (F(2, 193)=2.17, p=0.059). Results revealed a non signiﬁcant two way interaction (F(2, 193)=.68, p=.511, ηₚ²=.007). The main effect of self explanation prompts’ focus on cognitive load was also not significant (F(1, 193)=2.452, p=.119, ηₚ²=.013), while the main effect of level of prompts for cognitive load was significant (F(2, 193)=13.71, p<.01, ηₚ²=.124) (Table 7). The results of post hoc test are presented in Table 8. Table 6: Mean (SD) of cognitive load rating (range 1 9) Aspect IF-L (n=32) IT-L (n=38) IF-M (n=36) IT-M (n=38) IF-H (n=29) IT-H (n=26) M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD loadCognitive 7.31 1.36 7.34 1.67 6.24 2.17 6.69 1.57 5.42 1.92 6.13 1.86

Effects on conceptual knowledge. There are three findings from the results. First, there was an interaction effect between focus and the level of self explanation prompts, which improved the delayed conceptual knowledge test scores. Contrary to our expectations, the inference based prompts condition (only generate inferencing) outscored the integration based prompts condition (generating inferences followed by integration of knowledge) in the case of high level of prompts (fill in the blank followed by open ended question). With middle or low level of prompts conditions (keyword followed by open ended questions and only open ended questions), integration based prompts were more efficient than inference based prompts, confirming that inference based prompts were better under the high level of prompts condition than integration based Thisprompts.can be elaborated as follows: In the initial learning phase, learners have insufficient knowledge to solve problems. They integrate new knowledge with what they already know to acquire a coherent and complete problem solving schema.Providingsufficientinstructionalaidshere,suchashighlevelofprompts,

Prior to the study, the research hypothesis was that the most effective instructional strategy was to assist students with prompts so they could generate inferences and integrate accumulated knowledge from previous learning stages. The researchers assumed that it would suit most learners’ knowledge states and learning phases, and the results partially supported this. The self explanation prompts influenced conceptual knowledge but not procedural knowledge. In other words, the focus and level of self explanation prompts affect learning outcomes depending on the target knowledge.

102 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 7: Two way ANOVA summary of cognitive load Sources Sum squaresof Degree freedomof squareMean F p ηₚ ² Focus 7.74 1 7.74 2.45 .12 .01 Level 86.56 2 43.28 13.71 .00*** .12 Focus*Level 4.25 2 2.13 .67 .51 .01 Error 609.37 193 3.16 Note. ***p<.001 Table 8: Multiple comparison using Scheffe’s post hoc test DependentVariable (I) Level promptsof (J) Level promptsof Mean difference(I-J) p Cognitive load High(H) Low(L) 0.87 026 Middle(M) 67 108 Low(L) Middle(M) 1.54 .000 4.2. Discussion 4.2.1. Effects on learning outcomes

Within the realm of cognitive load framework, self explaining prompts matched to the learning phases were expected to contributeto an efficient use of extraneous load by selecting the focus of self explaining. Further, high levels of self explanation prompts were anticipated to reduce extraneous load. The restraints of the intrinsic and extraneous loads were hypothesized to lead to an increase in the germane process capacity for schema construction.

Second, learners who were given assistance through prompts scored higher on the immediate conceptual knowledge test than those who received no assistance, partially validating the hypothesis. Scaffolding explanations may reinforce the effectiveness of self explanation prompts, especially in conceptual knowledge acquisition (Berthold et al., 2011; Rittle Johnson, Loehr & Durkin, 2017). However, the experiment shows that only the high level prompts condition outperformed the low level condition, while middle level prompts showed no significant difference. To better understand the level of prompts, the conditions manipulated in this study did not demonstrate notable changes and lack the evidence to draw conclusions regarding the level of prompts. This could be due to small differences in the levels of assistance between the two prompts groups, which the learners were unaware of. Effects on procedural knowledge. Third, contrary to the hypothesis, the prompts level showed no significant difference on procedural knowledge. This was consistent with Berthold et al. (2009), who found no difference between the effect of open ended and assisting self explanation prompts on procedural knowledge acquisition. One potential reason is that the differences among the prompts were too small for learner perception. Moreover, no significant difference existed between the types of focus on procedural knowledge acquisition. This may be because learners could only focus on the knowledge type intentionally elicited by the self explanation prompts. Since learners in this study were required to explain why and how exchange rate fluctuations impact the economy, they may have focused on relevant knowledge to the detriment of the procedural aspects of the knowledge. 4.2.2. Effects on cognitive load

could facilitate schema acquisition (Nokes et al., 2011; Renkl & Eitel, 2019).

Students construct high quality mental models in the initial learning phase. Thus, as learning phases progress, comparing information and revising initial ideas according to integration based prompts could cause cognitive overload rather than a positive learning effect. Our results found that integration based prompts induced more cognitive load than the inference based prompts under high level prompt conditions (see Table 5). With integration based prompts, learners do not need to compare or revise their knowledge; they have already constructed an eligible problem schema. Learners may also consider a gap filling activity more useful for learning tasks with high complexity. However, when provided with low level assistance, learners would have benefited from integration based prompts that can help them to revise their knowledge and mental model.

5. Conclusion

The findings of this study have both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, this study sheds a new light on the past findings with regards to self explanation prompts. This study suggests that the designing of self explanation prompts should consider both components, that is the focus and level of self explanation prompts, keeping in mind that the self explaining prompts with different focus and level have varying effectson learning outcome, especially for enhancing delayed conceptual knowledge in complex problem solving.

The integration based prompts could have increased the undesired extraneous load which offsets the effect of germane load. In sum, integration based prompts showed no significant difference with the inference based prompts in terms of measuring cognitive load.

In a more practical sense, Rittle Johnson, Loehr and Durkin (2017) also have suggested that more research on self explanation is needed in classroom contexts. This research conducted in real classroom. This research advises taking a great caution in determining which type of prompts to use and emphasizes that the effectiveness of a prompt would vary in different occasions depending on the purpose of instruction, and the nature of the task. Three limitations of the study should be addressed in future research. First, measurements for each cognitive load type were not included; only aggregated cognitive load was measured using Paas and vanMerriënboer(1994). Thus, future studies should examine the extent to which the format of the self explaining prompt affects intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads

The results partially support the hypothesis and indicate that the high and middle level of self explanation prompts imposed lower cognitive load compared to the low level prompts. The prompts’ design purpose was to reduce cognitive load in solving problems and avoid being overwhelmed by the demands of problem solving (Sweller et al., 2011). Yet, the results imply that the prompts should be designed for learners’ expertise level, since the effects of instructional guidance vary by the knowledge progression of learners. Thus, at the early phase of learning, prompts shouldbe provided with an external support for the acquisition of problem solving schema, as learners lack prior knowledge. As learning phases progress, a learner who has already constructed problem solving schemata may no longerneedfurtherinstructional guidance;theexternal support(increasingthe level of prompts) for a sophisticated elicitation of self explanation can gradually fade Nonetheless,away.

unlike the assumption outlined above, the focus of self explanation prompts did not involve cognitive load. This contrasts with Yeh et al.’s (2010) finding that detecting and amending misconceptions works better for higher knowledge learners than simply providing inference activity. One possible explanation for this is that integration based prompts put an extra burden on learners as these ask them to complete more work in comparing and integrating the various information they have, and consequently does not help them to learn.

6. Acknowledgements

This work was presented at the 13th International Conference of the Learning Sciences. We thank the publications committee of the International Society of the Learning Sciences for granting the permission to publish the conference paper. This work is supported by NRF (National Research Foundation of Korea) Grant under Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program funded by the Korean Government (NRF 2019H1A2A1074367).

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©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 109 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 109 126, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.7 Comparison of Students in Teacher Education from China and the USA: An Assessment of Dispositions Judy R. Wilkerson Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers, Florida https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5484 6747 Lasonya L. Moore University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5476 3511 W. Steve Lang University of South Florida, Florida https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2208 6223 Jingshun Zhang Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers, Florida https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1002 2743 Abstract. This study explored whether differences in teacher candidate dispositions exist between Chinese and American students, while continuing validation of the updated BeliefsAboutTeachingScale (BATS2) BATS2 incorporated the Rasch model of item response theory on Thurstone dichotomous items to measure commitment to the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium Standards (InTASC) along the levels of the Bloom/Krathwohl affective taxonomy This research is a unique combination of theories and practice standards based items, affectivetaxonomy,andmodernmeasurementtheory. Differentialgroup function (DGF), applied in a mixed methods design, confirmed national differences, indicating differential commitment to standards and items For standards and items that showed a difference in the two groups, institutionsimpactfultraiprogramscompelledstandardizedweretoliteratureandculturalcontextsupportingthosedifferenceswasidentifiedframethequalitativeportionofthisstudy.Forexample,USteachersmoreaversetoassessment,clearlytheresultofthefocusontestingthatissoresentedintheUS;theChinesewerelesstomastercontent,whichislessimperativeinearlychildhood(thesampleinthisstudy).ResultscanbeusedinconsideringningneedsandmakinginstructionaldesignmorelikelytobeforUSinstitutionstrainingChinesenativesandforChineseupdatingprogramsbasedoninternationalinput.

In the early 21st century, attention to the assessment of teacher dispositions was evolving. A number of assessments designed to measure preservice dispositions were developed (Edgington & Cox, 2015), typically using single instrument item types (Bair, 2017; Eberly, Rand & O'Connor, 2007; Wilkerson & Lang, 2007).

110 Keywords: accreditation; affective assessment; teacher education standards; dispositions; Rasch model 1. Introduction When adults are asked who was their favorite teacher in school, most make that selection based on the teacher’s dispositions (LaPaglia, 2020; Wasicsko, 2007) empathy, enthusiasm, motivation, self efficacy to name a few. The importance of teacher dispositions has been recognized for decades; Wasicsko (2007) suggested that when an administrator hires a teacher with the correct dispositions, students learn and develop, parents are pleased, and district administrators are able to focus on the business of education (LaPaglia, 2020).

Assessments such as the Teacher Disposition Index (TDI) developed by Schulte, Edick, Edwards and Mackiel (2004) and the Eastern Teacher Dispositions Index (ESTDI), developed by Singh and Stoloff (2008), are typical of these self report Langsurveys.and Wilkerson (2006) argued that single instruments and more systematic adherence to principles of sound measurement as well as national teaching standards were needed. Using the US national teaching standards (InTASC or Interstate Teaching and Assessment Support Consortium) Standards, developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO, 2013), they built a battery of five assessments of teacher dispositions, based on a five step, standards based assessment design process. Both the battery (Lang & Wilkerson, 2006) and the process (Wilkerson & Lang, 2007) bear the name, Dispositions Assessments Aligned with Teacher Standards, or DAATS. Over the years, Wilkerson and Lang were joined by various researchers and universities in validating and using the instruments in the battery, most notably the Beliefs About Teaching Scale, or BATS, now in its second edition (see for example, Englehart et al , 20011; Lang & Wilkerson, 2006, 2008; Parfitt, et al, 2019; Wilkerson & Lang, 2006; Wilkerson, 2012). These studies examined the individual use of BATS as well as scaling using Rasch measurement to combine scores from multiple instruments in the battery.

The research teams also examined predictable differences across populations, including evidence that teacher dispositions were more consistent with the InTASC Standards in programs that specifically taught dispositions as opposed to programs that did not (Parfitt et al, 2019), regardless of degree level In this latter study, the highest scoring respondents were masters’ level students who were taught national educational leadership standards and not InTASC standards. These masters’ level students “outperformed both undergraduate and doctoral level students. Authors concluded that teaching standards based

The purpose of this study is to examine the response patterns of U.S. and Chinese nationals on a previously validated measure of teacher dispositions, designed for U.S. nationals but now tested with Chinese nationals This study adds to the validation of the instrument; however, the primary purpose of this research is to determine if the quantitative patterns are explainable through a qualitative analysis of the standards themselves within national cultural context. Two universities, one in each country, serve as the sampling locations in this mixed methods study

Both the US and China have national standards that incorporate dispositions, presenting an appropriate comparison group for the study presented herein. Therefore, this study continues research on measuring teacher dispositions (Lang et al., 2018; Lang & Wilkerson, 2006; Wilkerson, 2012; Wilkerson & Lang, 2007), adding an international cultural dimension.

No studies have been conducted, however, to examine whether differences in populations of different national backgrounds could be explained by national standards and culture

111 dispositions (as opposed to not focussing on them) was what was important and not the specific set of standards applied.

The findings are of new interest in exploring howthe two cultures view their roles as teachers based on their respective national standards, which have marked similarities but also marked differences. It also continues to underscore the viability of measuring (not just assessing) teacher dispositions, providing additional evidence of the validity of the scores obtained from the BATS instrument

3. Teacher Training and National Standards in the United States

Teacher education programs are also held accountable for the application of national standards. To achieve national accreditation in the USA, Educator Preparation Programs (EPPs) must demonstrate graduates’ competency in the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) Standards developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO, 2013). These Standards establish expected knowledge, skills, and critical dispositions for

2. Purpose and Significance

For nearly 60 years, the public education policy in the United States has been driven by federal legislation driving testing. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), enacted in 1965 and reauthorized periodically, has provided substantial funding for schools and focused on evaluating the progress of underserved students. Transitioning to the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act in 2002, this legislation was the genesis of formal educational evaluation with its focusonthepromotionofhighstandardsandincreasedaccountability. TheEvery Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) followed in 2015, sharing NCLB goals butwith more flexibility. Student learning has been centered on the Common Core Standards, developed by consortia of states, and used in the development of high stakes, standardized tests that determine promotion or failure of students in the public school system (Popham, 2020).

2: knowledgeEducationaland skills 2.1: Demonstrating knowledge and skills about understanding students 2.2: Demonstrating knowledge and skills for instruction students. 2.3: Demonstrating knowledge and skills for professional development.

Table 1: Dimensions and subcategories of Chinese NCSTE (Ministry of Education) Dimensions of Curriculum Goals Subcategories of Each Dimension

4. Teacher Training and National Standards in China

112 beginning in service teachers. Accreditation by the Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP, 2016), applied nationally and internationally, requires use of these Standards and dispositions for approved teacher education programs.

1: Educational beliefs and responsibilities 1.1: Demonstrating scientific beliefs in children development and corresponding behaviors. 1.2: Demonstrating scientific beliefs in the profession of teachers and corresponding behaviors. 1.3: Demonstrating scientific beliefs in education and corresponding behaviors

The last 40 years of Chinese national curriculum reforms have targeted improved student academic performance throughnew classroom teaching models replacing or supplementing the didactic, teacher centered approach with its strong focus on compliance (Han, 2012; Hu & Verdugo, 2015; Tian Ping, 2012; 2011; Zhu & Han, 2006). Among the changes is the 2011 Ministry of Education of national teacher standards. These are remarkably similar to the InTASC Standards, providing for knowledge, skills, and dispositions Han (2012) presented the Chinese dimensions and sub categories, re created in Table 1, followed by Table 2, listing the InTASC categories and standards.

CCSSO defines dispositions as the “habits of professional action and moral commitments that underlie the performances and play a key role in how teachers do, in fact, act in practice” (CCSSO, 2013, p. 6). As a result, an essential responsibility of CAEP accredited teacher education programs has become the assessment of preservice teacher dispositions throughout the program (Almerico, Johnston, Henriott & Shapiro, 2011; Behrmann & Souvignier, 2013; Boonen, Van Damme & Onghena, 2014; Cox, Cheser, & Detwiler, 2015; Vaughn, 2012; Wilkerson & Lang, 2011). There are multiple teacher training models in theUS. This research is mostclosely aligned with the four year university programs that are accredited. Some four year programs are not accredited. There are also alternative means to teacher certification including course sequences offered at the universities and on site training offered by the districts.

The Chinese dimensions correspond to dispositions (defined as beliefs), knowledge and skills, and practice and experiences. Each of the InTASC Standards is comprised of a one page long set of attributes for performances, essential knowledge, and critical dispositions. While both countries focus on performance, knowledge and skill and dispositions, the order is noticeably different. Dispositions are first for the Chinese and last in the USA.

There are four teacher education models in China (Yu, 2013). The 2+2 model includes specialization courses in the first two years and pedagogy in the third and fourth years. The 2.5+1.5 model emphasizes subject theory for the first 2.5 years and pedagogy after. The 3+1 model has subject area learning for the first 3

©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 113 3: experiencespracticeEducationaland 3.1: Developing experiences of observations in clinical fields. 3.2: Developing experiences of participating in educational practice. 3.3: Developing experiences of studying educational practice. Table 2: InTASC Categories and Standards InTASC Categories InTASC Standards 1: The Learner and Learning 1. Learner Development 2. Learning Differences 3. Learning Environments 2: PracticeInstructional 4. Assessment 5. Planning for Instruction 6. Instructional Strategies 3: Content Knowledge 7. Content Knowledge 8. Application of Content 4: ResponsibilityProfessional 9. Professional Learning and Ethical Practice 10. Leadership and Collaboration

The first two Chinese dimensions are aligned well with three of the InTASC standards, although there is less focus on the second InTASC category related to content. The last Chinese category is well aligned with the American focus on clinical practice, CAEP Standard 2, although that is not specifically a part of the InTASC Standards. There is a strong focus on what is identified as professionalismand professional developmentin theAmerican standards,similar to the third Chinese dimension. This reconceptualization of pedagogical thinking requires education programs that focus on educator dispositions through individual levels of cultural persistence (Gavin & Wang, 2016) In China, there are multiple routes to teaching (Yu, 2013). Normal universities offer teacher education programs. Students studying in other multidisciplinary universities may also become teachers through the academic departments. Typically, the departments of education prepare teachers for early childhood education and primary school education, with the other departments responsible for higher grades. Different subject area teachers are used in all schools except at the primary level, where there is a single teacher for all subjects.

114 years and pedagogy in the remaining time. There is also a fourth model, 4+2, at Beijing Normal University, with four years in subject and two in pedagogy, leading to a bachelors in a subject area and a master’s in education. Most teacher preparation programs in the USA follow a 2+2 model, providing for general education during the first two years and teacher preparation in the last two years.

c. What is the difference in commitment for any of the 50 specific items?

5. Methodology

This study used a mixed method design to determine if nationality made a difference in teacher education students’ response patterns to a Thurstone (1928) survey. The quantitative portion used both the Rasch model of item response theory; the qualitative portion used a logical analysis that sought to explain or justifydifferences basedon cultureandnationalstandards. Thestudywasguided by the following questions:

a. What is the difference in commitment across all standards?

1. What is the difference in the commitment of Chinese and American teacher education students to critical teacher dispositions, as defined by the InTASC Standards? (quantitative component)

2. In instances where there are statistically significant differences, what logical explanations can be posited based on the national culture or standards? (qualitative component) For research question #1, Rasch item response theory was applied to calculate scores, using Winsteps software (Linacre, 2018). The analysis included both Welch’s t test and differential group functioning (DGF) to determine group differences and statistical significance. With the focus in Rasch theory on both people and items (Rasch, 1960), the mathematical structure provided for calculation of the difficulty of the items and the ability (or commitment) of the people concurrently. This allowed for an analysis of responses at the item and standard level so that Chinese and US candidates could be compared on each question and each standard to determine if there was a statistically significant difference (contrast) in responses. For research question #2, a logical analysis was used to identify possible explanations for differences.

b. What is the difference in commitment for any of the ten standards?

5.1 Instrument The Beliefs About Teaching Scale (BATS) is a Thurstone agreement scale of 50 items, developed using the Dispositions Assessments Aligned with Teacher Standards, or DAATS model (Wilkerson & Lang, 2007) It is one of a series of five instruments, comprising the DAATS Battery (Wilkerson & Lang, 2006), assessing InTASC critical dispositions (2013). Instruments comprising the DAATS battery are being revised and re validated using the revised versions of the InTASC Standards from 2013. BATSv2 uses the new version of the Standards, but the structure theory for the five item types is the same as in the original DAATS. That application was described previously, along with discussions of analyses of different item types, evidence of validity,

BATS version 2 (Forms A and B) was more systematic in its construction of items, retaining all that performed well statistically and adding new ones to fill coverage gaps Evidence of validity and reliability has been presented previously for both versions of the scale. (See, for example, Wilkerson, 2012; Lang et al., 2014 and 2018).

5.2 Sample

The Chinese students were enrolled in a provincial university similar in size to the two American universities. China has four levels of universities, and it is at the third level. It has one specialty with distinctive features at the national level, and a variety of other specialties with various levels of recognition, including a college of education that trains teachers for early childhood education. Other students planning to teach were enrolled in the subject area departments. The university has a strong research focus, with 60 research projects granted at the provincial level. Adhering to the policy of opening up to the outside world, the Chinese university has currently established international cooperation programs with 18 universities and research institutions from many other countries. This Chinese university uses the 3+1 model for teacher training, with the fourth year only dedicated to teacher preparation. The Chinese students completed BATS2 in May at the conclusion of their fourth academic year. The US students all completed BATS2 in September.

The sample included 649 American and 84 Chinese teacher education students at varying levels of internship experience in teacher training programs. The Americans included attended two Florida universities, which are public universities in a state university system, and have multiple colleges including Education, and offer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees

The DAATS model calls for careful construction of items along a continuum of commitment based on the affective taxonomy (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1973).

5.3 Data Analysis

BATS is the easiest instrument to administer and score with dichotomous items.

115 and estimates of reliability (Lang & Wilkerson, 2008; Wilkerson, 2012). Another study (Englehart et al , 2012) provides sample items, descriptions of the five instruments, quantitative analysis, and qualitative discussions.

Technically, items are scored as right/wrong but are interpreted more legitimately as consistent/inconsistent with the InTASC critical dispositions. The remaining four instruments include a reflection on teaching experiences (Experiential Teaching Questionnaire, ETQ), a projective (Situational Reflection Assessment, SRA), an observation (Candidate Belief Checklist, CBC), and a focus group with children (K 12 Impact Dispositions Scale, KIDS). While BATS is easy to administer and score, it is also subject to faking, since students can provide the answer that they think is right, whether they believe it or not. The other instruments in the battery are increasingly difficult to fake and score

The research utilizes a conjoint, IRT (item response theory) called the Rasch model (1960) that calibrates both person ability and item difficulty on an interval scale or “ruler”. The Rasch model estimates separation reliability, and can be used to

6. Findings across All Standards Research Question 1a asked if there was a statistically significant difference in commitment to the entire set of InTASC Standards, each Standard individually, and each item individually Table 3 presents the output from Winsteps software, retyped and re formatted. It includes the number of respondents, the mean Rasch measures (scores), standard deviation, median, model separation, model reliability for Chinese and US teacher candidates separately and combined.

Table 3: Rasch Analysis of Chinese and American Students PersonCount MeasureMean DeviationStandard Median SeparationModel ReliabilityModel Group 733 67.62 7.63 69 1.53 .70 All 649 68.39* 7.53 69 1.47 .68 American 84 61.73* 5.62 62 1.12 .56 Chinese Note. American Chinese Mean Measure difference = 6.66, df=125, t=9.77. *p<.000 The overall reliability is .70 (with reliabilities for US and China .68 and .56 respectively because of the sample characteristics where sample ability variance affects model statistics and wider ability range usually result in higher person reliability (Linacre, 2018). Chinese teacher candidates scored lower than American teacher candidates. A Welch’s t test, useful in situations with unequal variances in the groups, was used to test the hypothesis of equal means. The mean measure difference was 6.66 (df=125, t=9.77, p<0000), indicating that the difference between the two nationalities is statistically significant for the overall measure, including all ten Standards.

116 establish validity with standards based assessments used with individual examinees. With Rasch modeling, the normality of the distribution is not assumed. While Rasch modeling most often is used to provide diagnostic information on how well test items measure affective values, and it is useful to analyze dichotomous, partial credit, and rating scale items together or separately.

The Rasch model can also provide estimates ofjudge error in ratings (Eckes, 2015), which is of interest with the DAATS battery since four of the five instruments involve a rating.

The data were analysed using Winsteps, providing item calibrations, student measures, and difference by the independent variable of nationality. The first segment used differential group function (DGF) for the 10 item subgroups (InTASC Standards) and the individual items. DGF is a powerful technique for identifying latent classes among the persons (Linacre, 2018) and has been successfully used to detect country differences in large scale testing (Vanes, 2012).

The Real Item Separation Reliability of the analysis (N=733) =.99 while the Real Person Separation Reliability =.68. The result supports that the items created a defined variable and the scale discriminates adequately between the persons (Smith & Wind, 2018). Item Infit (.99) and Item Outfit (.93) was slightly less than the expected value of 1.0. Person Infit (.98) and Person Outfit (.93) were also slightly less than the expected value of 1.0. This may mean a less variability in the fit than expected by the model, and individual item fit is examined below.

Table 4: Rasch Analysis by InTASC Standards Nation DGFSize Nation DGFSize ContrastDGF WelchRascht DF Probability StandardInTASC US .43 China 1.84 2.27 1.19 913 .2330 1 US .00 China .76 .76 .46 675 .6433 2 US .51 China 3.11 3.63 3.13 979 .0018 3 US 2.13 China 9.76 11.89 6.23 364 .0000* 4 US .32 China 2.12 2.44 2.09 INF .0370 5 US .72 China 4.99 5.71 4.66 925 .0000* 6 US 1.15 China 6.89 8.04 5.33 490 .0000* 7 US .27 China 1.83 2.10 1.70 945 .0902 8 US .20 China 1.37 1.57 1.35 949 .1761 9 US .32 China 2.53 2.85 1.79 609 .0736 10 Note: DGF is Differential Group Functioning measures interactions between groups of persons and groups of items (Linacre, 2018). The DGF Contrast is the difference in difficulty of the item between the two groups. This should be at least 0.5 logits for DGF to be

117 More persons, including some with no interest in teacher education, would provide for greater variability and higher person reliability In fact, the entire sample is a relatively homogeneous group, so the scores of these teacher candidates are relatively close, with self selected students generally interested in teaching. The item reliability is high at .98, indicating excellent variability (separation) between the items, with some items much more difficult than others In response to Research Question 2 for the overall set of standards, these results were as expected because of the shorter program in China, which targets predominantly early childhood teachers. Furthermore, US candidates are expected to demonstrate the InTASC Standards, while Chinese students use other similar but different teacher standards. Means were slightly more than one standard deviation apart, an understandable difference, given this context.

6.1 Findings for Individual Standards Research Question #1b asked if there was a difference in commitment to each of the ten InTASC Standards. Differential group functioning analysis was performed using Winsteps. This procedure is used to check if items are working differently for two groups and, if so, where the most conspicuous differences are. The DFG contrast is the statistic of interest. It presents the number of logits of difference between the two groups. A logit (log odds unit) is the unit of measurement in Rasch, so from Table 1, the mean measure is 68.39 logits, and the total group standard deviation is 7.63 logits. Any contrast less than one half of a standard deviation (less than 3.82 logits) was defined to be of minimal interest and not considered for further analysis. Omitted also are contrasts that are not statistically significant. In Table 4, the DGF results are presented. Positive and negative DGF contrasts are assigned based on the order of entry into the software, indicating only the group for which the item was more difficult. For the population on the left (US), the value will be positive if the item(s) were more difficult for them. For the population on the right (Chinese), the value will be negative if the item(s) were more difficult for them. The positive or negativevalue hasno numerical meaning. Again, a Welch t test was conducted to check for statistical significance.

• Standard 6 (more difficult for the US): The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision making.

These data indicate that Standards 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10 were more difficult for Americans (positive values), while Standards 1, 3, 4, and 7 were more difficult (negative values) for the Chinese. Of these, only Standards 3, 4, and 7 (Chinese) and 6 (US) were near or above the threshold set of one half standard deviation (3.82 logits) Standards 4 (Content Knowledge) and 7 (Planning for Instruction) showing the most difficulty for Chinese compared to US candidates. Standard 6 (Assessment) indicated more difficulty for US candidates. The global language of these three standards follows:

• Standard 4 (more difficult for Chinese): The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make these aspects of the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

• Standard 7 (more difficult for Chinese): The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community Regardingcontext.Research Question 2, these differences are explainable. Standard 4, the mix of students (all earlychildhood for the Chinese but elementary and secondary for Americans) may explain the difference in commitment to content, which is less important in early childhood (the Chinese cohort). The focus on access and diversity, too, (the commitment that all students can learn) may have been more of a challenge for the Chinese students than the Americans, since access to education has traditionally been more competitive in China (Liu & Wu, 2006) Finally, the Chinese have less of a tendency to use different approaches to learning. They have maintained the traditional focus on rote learning and memorization, having found drill and practice useful in passing exams (Chan, 2004) and needing to focus attention on training students on testing practices and strategies in order to increase their test scores (Brady, 2008). Standard 6 is predictable given the high stakes testing that is well documented in American schools (Pope & Miller, 2002). Regarding Standard 7, lesson planning has become a compulsion in American schools. The focus on structure and goals, accompanied by more focus on standards based connections (Meier & Knoester, 2017), might have impressed this standard for Americans.

6.2 Findings for Individual Standards Table 5 presents the analysis by item. Six items were extracted for explanation based on the literature, with three each showing higher commitment for one population or the other in Table 5 The six items are indicated by a double asterisk (**) under the column “BATS Item”.

118 noticeable. Probability indicates the probability of observing this amount of contrast by chance, when there is no systematic item bias effect. DGF is powerful when looking for latent classes among the persons. In the table above, the Nation in Italics found the Standard harder. * p<.0000

©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 119 Table 5: Rasch Analysis by Item Nation DGF SIZE Nation DGF SIZE DGF CONTRAST Rasch Welch t Item Degrees Freedom Probability BATS Item US 2.39 China 15.33 17.72 6.33 151 .0000* 01** US 1.24 China 8.03 9.27 3.67 156 .0003* 02 US 1.44 China 5.05 6.49 1.75 202 .0811 03 US .00 China .21 .21 .05 173 .9595 04 US .63 China 3.39 4.02 .63 158 .5283 05 US 1.24 China 9.68 10.91 4.52 151 .0000* 06 US 1.37 China 10.02 11.40 1.09 134 .2780 07 US .33 China 2.10 2.43 1.00 158 .3189 08 US .67 China 2.54 3.21 .61 191 .5456 09 US 2.42 China 8.98 11.40 4.21 199 .0000* 10 US 1.31 China 9.70 11.02 4.14 146 .0001* 11 US .96 China 11.39 12.35 3.50 126 .0006* 12 US 3.95 China 23.80 27.75 10.96 174 .0000* 13** US .00 China .00 .00 .00 175 1.000 14 US .57 China 8.19 8.76 2.14 123 .0344 15 US .40 China 3.64 4.04 1.55 148 .1228 16 US 1.08 China 6.68 7.76 1.24 146 .2158 17 US 1.42 China 10.79 12.21 4.70 146 .0000* 18 US .27 China 1.28 1.55 .54 172 .5870 19 US .00 China .51 .51 .16 173 .8768 20 US 1.72 China 5.69 7.41 1.91 209 .0580 21 US .00 China .50 .50 .10 172 .9219 22 US 2.02 China 18.26 20.27 5.95 131 .0000* 23** US .00 China .71 .71 .22 168 .8293 24 US .89 China 6.02 6.91 2.61 151 .0100* 25 US 1.53 China 12.01 13.54 1.30 129 .1952 26 US .70 China 3.52 4.22 1.64 172 .1029 27 US .82 China 3.45 4.27 1.39 184 .1660 28 US 1.26 China 8.35 9.60 1.55 141 .1235 29 US .63 China 3.39 4.02 .63 158 .5283 30 US 1.40 China 9.51 10.91 4.20 152 .0000* 31 US 1.67 China 13.01 14.68 5.12 142 .0000* 32 US .93 China 4.05 4.98 1.76 182 .0794 33 US 2.78 China 8.55 11.33 3.50 221 .0006* 34 US 2.63 China 10.21 12.84 4.92 194 .0000* 35 US .48 China 2.02 2.51 .73 181 .4682 36 US 1.71 China 14.15 15.86 2.61 127 .0102* 37 US 3.05 China 11.01 14.06 5.29 202 .0000* 38 US .81 China 4.62 5.43 1.27 154 .2059 39 US .00 China 1.02 1.02 .39 166 .6961 40 US .45 China 2.43 2.88 .81 162 .4195 41 US .64 China 3.66 4.30 1.30 157 .1952 42 US 1.60 China 12.21 13.81 4.02 137 .0001* 43 US 1.22 China 6.28 7.50 3.02 171 .0029 44 US .25 China 1.24 1.49 .29 168 .7696 45 US 3.40 China 34.30 37.70 8.64 117 .0000* 46** US 3.80 China 23.08 26.88 8.27 146 .0000* 47** US 1.51 China 11.26 12.77 4.08 141 .0001* 48 US 3.35 China 25.89 29.24 10.21 143 .0000* 49** US .68 China 4.25 4.93 1.78 155 .0775 50 Note: DGF is Differential Group Functioning measures interactions between groups of persons and groups of items (Linacre, 2018). The DGF Contrast is the difference in difficulty of the item between the two groups. This should be at least 0.5 logits for DGF to be noticeable. Probability indicates the probability of observing this amount of contrast by chance, when there is no systematic item bias effect. DGF is powerful when looking for latent classes among the persons. *p<.01 In response to Research Question 2, possible explanations for the differences follow for a representative sample of items. Items selected that were more difficult for the Chinese are 1, 23, and 47.

• 47: Some teachers go overboard by attending workshop, courses, meetings, and conferences to constantly learn new knowledge. (Disagree; DGF contrast of 26.88) Professional development is a routine matter in US schools, but, as Tian Ping (2011) noted, continued training is inefficient and viewed as not pertinent in Chinese schools. Han (2012) discussed notingthegenerallackofcollegeleveltrainingheldbyteachercandidates,thatonly23.7%ofelementaryteachershaveanearned bachelor’s degree. The lack of commitment to professional development after hire may be the result of a lack of earlier high level coursework. Tian Ping (2011) recommended a greater focus on professional development, separation and respect for pedagogical skills vs. academic knowledge, and increased cultivation of practical skills through both pre service, in service, and post graduation training. The lack of exposure to college level coursework, combined with level of quality and experience in the trainings delivered, may explain this finding.

120 • 01: We should drill on the 3Rs (reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic) because that is the most important thing for children to learn. (Disagree; DGF contrast of 17.32) Guo (2005) discussed the ‘Chinese Virtuoso Model’ of teaching in which a teacher resembles a musician performing for the whole class. The goal is to produce an outstanding and virtuoso performance, achieved through extensive drilling and practice without interaction, questions, or expectations about individual difference. Guo recommended a shift away from traditional memorization and lecture to more student centered and constructivist approaches, which could explain why drilling was seen as so important Mullen (2018) suggested that for teachers working in an environment where testing is paramount, challenging the imagination and providing conditions for inventiveness is difficult. Subject matter dominates and accounts for around 7% of the curriculum for teacher training (Hu & Verdugo, 2015), so this result is understandable.

Items more difficult for US students include items 13, 46, and 49.

• 23: Creativity is best taught in art and music. (Disagree; DGF contrast of 20.27) Mullen (2018) concluded that Chinese students’ reduced focus on creativity is likely a reflection of the system and not innate capacity. She found that significant interferences with creative learning in childhood socialize adults to think they are creatively destitute, noting that this self belief is a problem for both preservice and in service teachers. This could explain why Chinese teacher candidates do not see their role as teaching creativity outside of the arts. The Chinese testing system is focused more on mathematics, physics, and chemistry, neglecting art and music.

121 • 13: Sometimes students may not understand why a lesson is meaningful, but that is okay as long as they learn the content. (Disagree; DFG contrast of 27.75) Han (2012) suggested that the national curriculum standards taking root in China, have reduced focus on teacher centered teaching in the classroom. The movement provides for students learning and developing through independent thinking, inquiry and cooperation, with a transition away from memorization of ‘bookish’ knowledge for purely ranking or selection purposes toward a more all round development of good character and personal attributes. The new focus on pedagogical knowledge supports this transition (Yang, 2011). The reform movement, therefore, may help to explain why Chinese teachers are more committed to helping students understand the importance of content rather than just memorizing the content. In contrast, the USA teachers have long held to constructivist approaches but have been required in recent years to focus more on answering correctly for state tests, which may explain why content has become more important than meaning for them.

• 46: In today’s world teachers are multilingual. Plan to learn another language so that I can deliver content more effectively. (Agree; DFG contrast of 37.7) Hou, Loerts and Verspoor (2018) studied the attitude and test driven motivation towards English at Chinese universities and the belief that English is required to get better jobs. English as a foreign language (EFO) is studied from kindergarten to university with different tests administered at different levels of study, often seen as a means to an end. Thus, it is not surprising that Chinese teachers would be more committed to second language learning than Americans. The second language is the basic tool to learn from other countries and to promotion.

The differential group functioning (DGF) Rasch procedure revealed specific differences between Chinese and American teacher education students at the

• 49: In today’s classroom every single lesson should have an assessment. Every assessment should be recorded and analysed. (Agree; DFG contrast of 29.24) Zhu and Han (2006) discussed the high emphasis on student test scores, with assessment a tradition dating back to Confucius. The education system in PRC places great emphasis on regular high stakes publicexaminations(Brown andWang, 2016). Although the government of China, since at least the 1990s, has introduced assessment reforms that attempt to move evaluation away from purely ranking or selection purposes towards more formative, authentic, and humanistic approaches, the degree of change in the assessment system is limited. Demand for space in higher education institutions exceeds supply, with only half of examined candidates awarded a place, standing in sharp contrast to the USA system of open access. The centuries old culture of assessment in China can explain this result.

7. Conclusions and Limitations

1. Examine the training on dispositions received in both countries and how it is related to the InTASC standards coincidentally or intentionally.

8. Implications and Future Research

Regarding limitations, convenience sampling limits generalizability. The Chinese cohort responded to the survey written in English, so there may be language loading. There has been no crosswalk between InTASC and the Chinese NCSTE, so there may be differences in what was taught by design.

122 InTASC standards level and at the individual items level. Three standards (4, 6, and 7) and six items (3 per group) were targeted for analysis based on their DGF contrast. A judgmental analysis was provided for each, treating the items as ‘ cases. ’ The differences were consistent with the literature.

At a more specific level, Chinese teacher preparation programs could explore whether the weaker commitment to content and planning is a result of the area of concentration of the students sampled or a more generalizable issue. US programs should focus on improving the commitment of teacher candidates to assessment, helping them to understand the important of formative assessment in particular. The decreased focus on creativity and professional development among Chinese could be an area of focus for their teachers. Similarly, US teacher preparation programs could focus on the need for students to understand the importance of what they are learning, the importance of being multilingual, and the need for continuous assessment.

Rasch standards for reliability continue to be met, and construct validity is supported by the logical and literature based analysis of the results, particularly at the item level, as hoped. This provides promise for continued and expanded use of the instrument. The study provides evidence that American teacher educators are teaching what is expected, which can be celebrated. There are possible explanations yet to be explored in future research. For example, exploration in dispositional behaviors that support student learning and development are important ways of interacting that undergird program development and professional interactions with students, colleagues, parents, and communities (Moore et al., 2019, a & b). The interactive differences in culture may be the best explanation for the comparative differences of admitted teacher candidates, but it may also be that training in the USA is improving teaching dispositions (LaPaglia, 2020) Recommendations for future research include:

2. Identify a population of Chinese teacher candidates planning to teach at the elementary and secondary levels to add to the dataset.

With the Chinese standards for teaching being similar to the US InTASC Standards (with the exception of the emphasis on content knowledge and instruction), the training should be similar enough to make these two groups comparable. The results, however, indicated otherwise, lending support to the conclusion that culture and nationality are possible explanations for the differences in levels of commitment to the critical dispositions of teaching.

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4. Translate BATS2 into Mandarin and replicate the study. At a policy level, particularly in the US, standards authors might look at how the standardscompare and,most specificallywhy one culture places dispositionsfirst (China) and the other places it last (US), remembering where this article began the memory most US adults have of their best teacher is dispositions based.

123 3. Use additional measures from the DAATS battery to explore more deeply the commitments of both populations.

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Assessingteacherdispositions:Fivestandards

Zhejiang

127 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 127 144, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.8 The Use of Local Literary Texts as Reading Materials in English Language Classrooms: An Analysis of Teachers’ Perspectives

Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia 0003 4811 8297 Hanita Hanim Ismail Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3121 8822 Radzuwan Ab Rashid Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1334 6268

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. It is common for Malaysian primary school pupils to have difficulties in reading English texts. One of its factors concerns text selection. Hence, a careful selection of the text is needed to ease their reading experience in ESL (English as Second Language) classrooms. This study explored teachers’ perceptions on literary text selection for Malaysian primary schools. An online questionnaire was distributed to gauge teachers’ perceptions on the current materials in terms of its impact on the students and lesson effectiveness. Respondents were 34 teachers of Years 4 to 6 in primary schools in Terengganu, theeastcoast Malaysia Dataanalysisrevealed that the teachers perceive local materials as more relatable to pupils in comparison to the foreign texts. The local texts are also perceived to have greater impacts on the students and lessons despite doubts remaining within the autonomy of this selection. This study is hoped to be helpful to the Ministry of Education and the teaching community in improving text selection in the future.

Muhammad Shahril Haja Mohaideen

Keywords: ESL; KSSR; literature; Malaysian primary school pupils; text selection 1. Introduction Malaysian national primary schools have employed the English Language Syllabus for Primary Schools (KBSR) since 1983. However, due to arguable

weaknesses within the previous syllabus, the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MoE) reinforced the implementation of Standard Curriculum for Primary Schools (KSSR) syllabus starting 2011 with the aim to overcome shortcomings in the older system and introduced literature into the assessment equation (Peekabook, 2013; Rashid, Abdul Rahman & Yunus, 2017). This is in line with the 2nd Shift in the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013 2025 (MEB) where one of its emphases focuses on proficiency for both Bahasa Malaysia and English language.

Pupils are further exposed to the English language with the introduction of literature components in both Primary and Secondary levels, with hope that they are proficient in English by the end of their six year primary schooling (MoE, Research2013).

has shown an association between improved communication skills among students and the use of exercises which are based on literary reading materials (e.g. Akyel & Yalcin, 1990; Rashid, 2011). As such, one cannot deny a plausible reason for incorporating literature as part of the Malaysian KSSR syllabus, particularly those focusing on Malaysian primary pupils between Year 4 and Year 6. The introduction of literature in KSSR was observed to have paved new ways for learning English as a Second Language (ESL) (Sulaiman, Mohd Ayub & Sulaiman 2015). However, Kaur and Mahmoor (2014) suggest the reconceptualization of the English syllabus, particularly in the role of Literature. They argue that it should serve not only as a tool for proficiency but also as an agent for globalized change that enriches the knowledge of heritage and culture. Ironically, it was reported by The National Union of Teaching Profession (NUTP) that the level of English proficiency among primary school pupils has since declined even after the incorporation of literature as part of the syllabus (Ain, 2019). In fact, the standard of language learning was seen deteriorating, with Malaysian English language proficiency plummeting from 13th place to the 22nd place in the EF English Proficiency Index for non native speakers (Aziz, 2018; Aziz, Rashid & Zainudin, 2018). This was highlighted by Azman (2016) who observed a general dilemma with achieving the minimum level of competency with English. Unless this aspect is further scrutinized, the problems will prolong, causing dire dilemmas in the local learning scenario.

Table 1. Literary reading items used in Malaysian Primary Schools Year Short Stories Graphic Novels Poems 4 “The King of Kites” by Judith Heneghan “The Jungle Book” by Rudyard Kipling “Anthology of Poems for Year 4,5 and 6” Compiled by John Foster 5 “And Something Weird Happened…” by Pamela Rushby “Gulliver’s Travels” by Johnathan Swift 6 “Akbar’s Dream” by Jane Langford “The Wizard of Oz” by Frank Baum Since 2016, primary schools incorporate a selection of literary readings, which includes a book on poems, a graphic novel and a short story for students of Years 4, 5 and 6, as listed in Table 1. The pupils are required to read folktale themed stories and classic novels that are abridged in version while the poems are a

1.1 Research gap and Objectives

compilation, which include various themes ranging from appreciating nature to honouring family. What is observed is an incorporation of the three genres (i.e. poetry, prose and drama) at appreciating literature as a whole. Since literature is a powerful agent at shaping minds into habits (Ismail, 2019), one can imagine the impact from choosing appropriately suitable literary materials on different aspects of social training.

Malaysian primary school pupils are noted to be generally struggling with ESL readings with a common traceable factor which is an issue of text selection (e.g. Puteh, Mohd Zin & Ismail, 2012; Abdul Hamid & Mohd Shah, 2017; Mihat,Azman & Or, 2018; Mustaffar et al., 2019; Muhammad, Latiff Azmi & Hassan, 2020; Thirunavukarasu & Raja Harun, 2021). Malaysian students continue to face difficulty when dealing with foreign cultural elements, particularly in its comprehension. In fact, Nambiar et al. (2020) indicate that local culture based reading materials help the forging of confidence in English of which helps generate sustainable means for encouraging the development of local instructional materials (Lasekan & Godoy, 2020).While there are other papers focusing on perceptions regarding text selection in the literature component (e.g. Rashid, Vethamani, & Rahman, 2010; Mohd Naser & Abd Aziz, 2017; Rashid, Abd Rahman, & Ismail, 2020) and responses on the re introduction of English Literature as part of the school syllabus (Suliman & Yunus, 2014a; Suliman & Yunus, 2014b), none has yet looked into perceptions on its effectiveness, particularly those used for primary school students. As such, this factor appropriated the rationale of this research in order to evaluate the perceived effectiveness of the current selection of literary texts used in the teaching of literature in Malaysian primary school classrooms, specifically taking into consideration teachers' perception on the choices of literary materials, as provided by the Ministry. While the more urban primary schools have lesser problems at using English literary texts as classrooms teaching materials, rural areas are challenged in terms of pupils’ reading exposure and interest. This study sought the perspectives of teachers in Kuala Nerus which is the youngest district in Terengganu, a state in the eastern part of Malaysia. Despite experiencing urbanization and development, Terengganu is made up of rural areas which are least exposed to development compared to the urban areas (Zulaily et al., 2017) with 16% of its schools performing below 85% of the English literacy rate (Azman, 2016). In such a case, these primary school students are not only exposed to foreign culture but also remain anxious towards the use of foreign language, which is a universal phenomenon (e.g. Saito, Horwitz & Garza, 1999). To date, Kuala Nerus is generally not as developed as its urban counterparts. Most schools in the area are located in nearby villages and are not as well equipped with facilities as schools in urban areas in Terengganu. The majority of pupils in this area are not as exposed to the English language as those in the urban areas and are more accustomed to the Malay language instead.

2. How do teachers perceive the use of foreign as opposed to local literary texts for the teaching of literature?

2. Related Works A review of the literature was conducted to provide a background understanding of the research context and issues related to the Malaysian education system as well as its concerns. Using literary texts as part of English classroom activities plays an important role in learning English language, especially in enhancing communication competence, raising cultural awareness and generating motivation among students (Khan & Alasmari, 2018). In fact, Bousbai (2014) emphasizes that the choice of text is the most crucial element in literature courses, echoed by Lima (2010) who suggested a need of five criteria to be considered before a text is selected. This is detailed by Prowse (2002) as: (1) students’ choice, (2) students’ ease, (3) student engagement, (4) students’ comprehension and (5) teacher’s participation. Bousbai (2014) also highlighted some pedagogical criteria in selecting materials which are learner’s linguistic proficiency, learner’s cultural background and learner’s literary background.

While text selection is an important stage during the pre lesson, the evaluation stage is equally needed for two reasons not only it hinders repetition in faulty selection, it also reinforces positive lessons from the materials to be employed in the following lessons. Yet, most teachers are not even aware of the need to continuously engage in text evaluation (Mukundan, 2007). Bousbai (2014) urged for an evaluation and classification of these materials as according to types of students, and its relevance, depending on the general needs and objectives of the course. In the Malaysian context, text evaluation is important in order to provide feedback to the central authority (i.e. MoE) for revision processes to be considered (Mukundan, 2007) and in this case with the consistent changes of literary textbooks provided by the Ministry for the use of teachers and students, the Ministry has the opportunity to rectify and instil elements that can help the materials work more effectively. While the issue of appropriate text selection has long been discussed at local level (e.g. Ghazali, Setia, Muthusamy & Jusoff, 2009; Lim, 2018), it is so crucial to provide insights into the improvement made in order

This study was carried out to answer the following research questions:

Answering these questions provides the significance of this study in line with Bousbai’s (2014) emphasis for considering text selection at ensuring lesson success. Not only text selection helps effective teaching experience in order to increase English proficiency among primary school students but also serves the interest of public stake holders such as the MoE, parents, students and the public in general. Reassessing the effectiveness of local as opposed to foreign literary texts provides the basis for the implementation of a more concrete and effective literature module. This in turn will raise the level of English language proficiency among Malaysian primary school pupils, enhancing their use of English at a higher level as compared to their predecessors which in turn will help to raise their marketability and thus increase the quality of the Malaysian workforce.

1. How do teachers perceive the effectiveness of the prescribed literary texts for the teaching of literature in Malaysian primary schools?

3. Methods This quantitative research is based on data collected using a set of questionnaire which was distributed among ESL primary school teachers who teach literature from Year 4 until Year 6 in Kuala Nerus. Respondents were selected using snowball sampling, consisting of 33 female teachers and one male teacher. Snowball sampling allows the use of “initial data sources as the basis for finding additional data” (Given, 2008, p.800). These respondents were made up of 26 teachers with experience in teaching English for over 10 years where three teachers each with teaching experience between three to five years and six to nine years, and two teachers who had been teaching English for less than three years. However only 10 teachers have been teaching English literature for more than 10 years with 24 of them teaching English literature for less than 10 years. Majority of the teachers (n=11) have only been teaching English for less than three years. It is a common practice within the Malaysian school system to have overlapping scope of teaching between the three years (Year 4 6) due to limited number of manpower and issues of teaching specialization, especially in the east coast. Despite the small sample size which would not allow generalizability, its data allows transferability to other similar contexts. The background information of the respondents is summarised in Table 2 below.

Possible criteria for text selection as classroom and extensive reading include giving freedom to the pupils to choose the text they want to read (Prowse, 2002; Waring, 2008) and recommending reading materials that are available as well as those that are culturally and linguistically appropriate. Researchers argue that materials selected for the ESL/EFL reading class ought to satisfy students' interests. Lotherington Woloszyn (1988), for example, highlighted that learners find texts as uninteresting for failing to engage with them and turning things relatable, despite the level of text readability. It is not about ease in reading; learners look forward to things that they can connect with. Other research studies suggest text selection to be based on students’ interest (e.g. Papalia, 1987; Sewell, 2003). Brumfit’s (1985) criteria for text selection are also useful that the selection should consider suitable linguistic level, cultural and social expectations of different groups of learners, and the length of the text.

In Malaysia, material selection is shouldered by MoE. As such, the weight of such responsibility should enable text engagement with readers (cognitively and effectively). However, teachers also play a crucial role in selecting texts, particularly in considering students’ perceptions and interests.

to facilitate progress to suit students’ needs. There are studies that specifically look into students’ perceptions with regards to text selections for the literature component, which interestingly pointed at a tendency of rote learning (e.g. Mohd Naser & Abd Aziz, 2017).

132 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 2. Study Sample Teaching > 10 year 3 10 years < 3 years Teaching experience (years) 26 6 2 Teaching responsibilities Year 4 13 3 1 Year 5 15 1 Year 6 11 1

Questions appear in a 5 point Likert scale, ranging from one (for Strongly Disagree) to five (Strongly Agree), which enables adjacent options to be less radically different (or more gradually different) from each other. Respondents are more independent at picking the most precise option (which he/she prefers most), instead of picking some ‘nearby’ or ‘close’ option (Dawes, 2018). The questionnaire is divided into three sections Section A (demographics), Section B (the perceived effectiveness of the literary texts used) and Section C (teachers’ perceptions on the use of local/foreign literary texts). There are nine questions each in Section B and C with each section focusing on three aspects based on the research objectives. Precision was the ultimate aim when designing the questionnaire in order to avoid burdening the respondents and to ensure well thought responses. It is commonly agreed by quantitative researchers that fewer items result in lower burden and higher data quality (e.g. Heberlein & Baumgartner, 1978). In order to ensure face and content validity, three experts in ESL fields were appointed to review the questionnaire. Expert evaluation includes reviewing the coverage of the questions in relation to the research questions and commenting on the relevance of the questions. Upon receiving comments from the experts, the items were then revised, and reworded. After drafting the questionnaire, it was then converted into a Google form as an alternative to the more traditional means of questionnaire as it is paperless, cost efficient and can be distributed across a large geographical area. As put by Wright (2017), online questionnaires aid tremendously in access to unique populations and saving time and cost, which in this case was relevant as the schools in the district were in remote locations and would require a lot of effort to be reached physically. The researchers contacted school headmasters who later distributed the link to potential respondents in order to maximise reachability. Along with the questionnaire, a consent form was also attached for the respondents to fill in in order to ensure ethics at implementing anonymity and minimizing prejudice or external pressure. Informed consent ensures that potential respondents are aware of the nature of the research they are participating in (Fischman, 2000). In order to ensure efficiency in handling the data, responses were directed to the researchers’ emails. The data were then analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 25 focusing on the frequencies, percentage and mean score in relevance to explore teachers’ perception on the selected literary texts. The use of descriptive statistics provided simple summaries about the sample and

4.1 Perceived Effectiveness of the Current Literary Texts

Table 3. Perceived effectiveness of materials for students Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Meanscore

B1 Students actively participate in the process of understanding the meaning of materials 0%(0) 0%(0) 44%(15) 47%(16) 9%(3) 3.65

In order to assess the perceived effectiveness of text selection, the researchers considered both perspectives – teachers’ perspectives of text effectiveness – on pupils as well as their own teaching profession. The first three questions focused on the teacher's observation of text effectiveness through classroom involvement while understanding the texts. Based on the 34 responses, this section reveals a notable pattern in responses where the most frequent answers are either Neutral or Agree with the majority edging towards agreeing that the materials are effective for the students. Table 3, for example, shows that while the teachers were divided in their observation of their pupils’ level of understanding, a majority of them believe that their pupils participate in the classroom in their effort of understanding the meaning. Teachers’ choice to posit neutrality in stance can be understood based on the researchers’ observation on the local’s perspective on matters. A neutral stance is most favourable in order to avoid conflict by projecting a non partisan position on any matter, which otherwise, would appear to be offensive and/or non conformist in nature. Similarly, it was also noted that regarding the students’ participation in understanding the materials, 47% of the respondents agreed while 44% were neutral on their opinion with a score mean of 3.65. In fact, efforts are also seen in expressing themselves where pupils were observed to communicate with their peers when deciphering the texts. Majority teachers noted active collaborative effort was engaged since literary texts are known to demand another level of reading ability. An almost similar share of responses is mainly divided between Agree (53%) and Neutral (41%) in stance with a mean score of 3.65.

B2 Students are stimulated to work with classmates in deciphering the literary item 0%(0) 0%(0) 41%(14) 53%(18) 6%(2) 3.65

enabled comparisons across people or other units (Trochim, 2020). The mean score was calculated by multiplying the total number of responses for each Likert scale category and averaging the resulting total to the range of the Likert scale which in this case, the value was 5 (e.g. Decker, 2018). This ensured that the final mean score resembles the score in the Likert scale result form. Findings and Discussions

B3 The materials are able to enhance more than one language skills in the students 0%(0) 0%(0) 27%(9) 68%(23) 6%(2) 3.79

It can also be seen that most respondents could not agree that planning a lesson is easy with the provided materials based on B8 and B4 despite 61.8% of the respondents mostly agreeing that the materials support the objectives set by them as stated in C6. This conflicting finding shows that while the intent of the material is in the right direction, the materials itself do not make life easy for the teachers in constructing the lessons hence action is required by the MoE, as suggested by Mukundan (2007) where there is a clear need to reconsider the materials for revision. The failure to do so can be connected to results in lesser immersive lessons, where rote learning is already prevalent among local schools as highlighted by Mohd Naser and Abd Aziz (2017) whose studies specifically view students’ perceptions with regards to text selections for the literature. Without

While 68% agreed that the prescribed literature texts aid in enhancing students’ language, only 27% were neutral when asked about the contribution of the selected texts at enhancing pupils’ level of language skills, while none disagreed. At large, most appreciated the role that the selected literary texts had in enhancing the pupils’ quality of language skills. This is crucial in showing that the selection was not a waste in terms of cost effectiveness and that it was a functional text material. This national concern over students' language proficiency has been repeatedly (re)expressed in studies, such as Ain (2019) and Aziz (2018), who cite the Malaysian score on the English language proficiency, which plummeted from 13th place to the 22nd place, dropping nine spots in the EF English Proficiency Index for non native speakers. On the aspect of teachers’ perception on text effectiveness, findings from items B4 B6 (Table 4) reveals 53% of the respondents agreed while 26% remained neutral on the ease of the materials in preparing for lessons. Regarding the role of the material at stimulating the use of target language, 65% agreed that the materials provided assistance while 26% remained neutral. An almost similar pattern of response is also observed in item B7 on the effectiveness of the selected texts in supporting teaching objectives where 62% were in agreement while only 18% remained passive in their judgement. Table 4 shows the distribution of responses.

B6 Materials used support the teaching objectives of the teacher (0)0% (0)0% (18%6) (62%21) (21%7) 4.03

Table 4. Perceived Effectiveness of materials for teacher Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Scoremean B4 Teachers can plan a lesson easily with the provided materials (0)0% (6%2) (26%9) (53%18) (15%5) 3.76 B5 Literary materials help teachers to stimulate use of target language (0)0% (0)0% (26%9) (65%22) 9% (3) 3.82

B9 The content of the literary texts provided by the Ministry are culturally acceptable and appropriate (0)0% 3%(1) 47%(16) 47%(16) 3%(1) 3.5 Interestingly, it is found that most items are at an average level of perception regarding the content of the prescribed texts, probably hinting on tolerance towards the texts. In order to tab further into teachers’ perception on types of texts, Section C of the questionnaire, which contains nine questions, is divided into three aspects which are (1) the teachers’ views on the use of foreign and local literary text when teaching literature in Malaysian Primary Schools, (2) the perceived impact of the

Table 5. Perceived Effectiveness of materials in content portrayal Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Scoremean

B7 The content of the literary text provided by Ministry can instil further interest towards literature (0)0% 3%(1) 29%(10) 62%(21) 6%(2) 3.71

B9 measured the perceived effectiveness of the materials in portraying the content (Table 5). Among the 34 respondents, the responses received from all three questions were of mixed opinions. On whether the content of the materials aid in instilling interest in literature, 62% agreed on the matter while 29% were neutral. The mean score is 3.71. Regarding the content’s comprehensibility in the absence of supplementary materials, only 29% agreed while the majority, 47% were neutral on this subject with a score mean of 3.12. The comprehensibility of the material may be linked to the fact that most Malaysian students have poor ability in integrating and interpreting the information that they read in the text (Puteh et al., 2016). Lastly regarding the cultural acceptability of the content, despite the consensus being that the majority agrees, there was no majority with those in agreement and neutral at 47% each however it should be noted that 3% strongly agreed and only3% disagreed wholly. This shows that the material meets one of the pedagogical criteria as set by Bousbai (2014) in selecting materials which is meeting the learner’s cultural background which is a criterion alongside meeting the learner’s linguistic proficiency and learner’s literary background.

effective text selection, students are at risk of formulating least meaningful text engagement, leaving them frustrated and opting for an easier route, i.e. rote Itemslearning.B7

B8 The content of the literary text provided by the Ministry can be understood on its own without help of supplementary materials 3%(1) 18%(6) 47%(16) 29%(10) 3%(1) 3.12

Results indicate that local texts are more effective, supporting Brumfit (1985) criteria for text selection since the selection of prescribed reading texts ought to fit the readers’ linguistic level, cultural and social expectations within the groups of learners. This selection will allow an effective process of meaning making to occur since it is relative to students and their background. This is because the cultural context and origins of a text are important aspects that needed to be considered

Results for item C1 in the survey provides a denotation of teachers’ preference for the use of local literature texts as compared to foreign texts. Most of the respondents were divided in their responses; this can be seen in their neutral feedback on whether the prescribed materials are sufficiently good for classroom use. In fact, understanding the respondents’ feedback on their preference of literature text is better understood if both items C1 and C2 are analysed together.

C3 The cultural context or origin of a literary item does not affect the students' understanding of the item (0)0% (15%5) (50%17) (32%11) 3%(1) 3.24

C1 Teaching and learning process can be made more effective withthe use of local literary items (0)0% (0)0% (9%3) (68%23) (24%8) 4.15

C2 Teaching and learning process can be made more effective withthe use of foreign literary items (1)3% (21%7) (44%15) (27%9) (6%2) 3.12

literary texts on the students and (3) the perceived impact of literary texts on the lesson itself. Table 6. Teachers’ perceptions on the use of foreign and local literary text Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Scoremean

Items C1 C3 aimed to measure the teachers’ perceptions on whether to use local or foreign literary texts when teaching literature in Malaysian Primary Schools. From the total number of 34 respondents who answered the survey, it can be seen that the majority of them prefer the use of local literary texts over foreign literary texts (Table 6 shows the responses for local texts). This supports the recommendation forwarded by Nambiar et al. (2020) for the use of local culture based texts in creating familiarity, which helps tremendously in their learning and is suitable to them in terms of language level and demographics. It was noted that regarding whether or not the literary texts and materials are helpful in lessons, 68% of the respondents agreed while 9% were neutral in their opinion. On the subject of the relationship between cultural context or origins of a literary item and its effect on understanding of an item, 32% of the respondents believed that it did not affect the students’ understanding of the literary text while 50% were neutral on this matter (Table 6). They suggest texts that are culturally attuned to the readers for an intrinsic effect. Sampled teachers observed the effectiveness of the current materials used in schools thus slightly contradicting the finding that local texts are preferred over foreign texts as the current set of materials used are foreign materials.

136

The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education provides room for more creativitytobeexpressedinlessons 0%(0) (0)0% 35%(12) 59%(20) (2)5.% 3.71

Items C4 C5 measured the teachers’ perceived impact of the literary texts and materials prescribed by the Ministry of Education literary text on the students’ learning experience. Findings revealed that most respondents agreed that the literary texts used have positive impacts (Table 7). It is noted that the majority concurred on this 38% remained neutral. Students are less likely able to reflect and evaluate the text critically when they are not able to achieve or form a broad understanding of the text (Puteh et al., 2016; Deswila et al., 2021). On the matter of whether the literary texts and materials create an enjoyable lesson, the majority of the respondents agreed that it creates an enjoyable lesson. On the relationship between the selected texts and its provision for creativity to be expressed in lessons, 59% of the respondents agreed on this while 35% were neutral in their opinion with a mean score of 3.71. The material used currently in teaching literature are Artistic texts which comprise poems, prose, etc. hence showing that the materials used support the expression of creativity that is in line with the characteristics of the current materials used.

The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education creates are enjoyable by students 0%(0) (0)0% 35%(12) 59%(20) (2)6% 3.71

as put by Lotherington Woloszyn (1988), who highlighted that learners find texts as uninteresting for failing to engage with them and turning things relatable despite the level of text readability. As such, when discussing the effectiveness of text usage for classroom purposes, one cannot afford to overlook the importance of cultural aspects when selecting texts. With that in mind, the current materials which are not of local origin may pose a problem to some and could be considered alongside the finding that most respondents do not agree that the cultural context or origin of a material does not affect the students’ understanding of it based on C3.

6 C6

Table 7. Perceived impact of the literary texts on the students’ learning Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Scoremean

4 C4 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education are meaningful to students (0)0% (0)0% 38%(13) 56%(19) (2)6% 3.68

5 C5

Table 8. Perceived impact of literary texts on the lesson Item StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree Scoremean

5. Conclusion

Items C7 C9 aimed to measure the perceived impact of the literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education on the students. From the total number of 34 respondents who answered the survey, it can be seen that a majority of them agree that the literary texts used have positive impacts on the students (Table 8). On the matter of text selection and its role as providing a wider range of knowledge that is not available from other subjects, the majority agreed on this while 35% chose to remain neutral. This does imply that the students have familiarized themselves with the material and its content hence their ability to accept the new range of knowledge attained. Lastly, Item C9 indicates that the majority agreed that the selection of literary texts is effective at providing students of mixed proficiencies while 38% were neutral on this.

C8 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education provide students a wider range of knowledge that is not available from other subjects (0)0% (0)0% (35.3%12) (20)58.8% (5.9%2) 3.71

C9 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education are effective in catering to students of mixed proficiencies (0)0% (1)2.9% (38.2%13) (55.9%19) (1)2.9% 3.59

C7 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education help instil moral values in the student (0%0) (2.9%1) (29.4%10) (58.8%20) (8.8%3) 3.74

Previous studies on text selection and assessment specifying for the teaching of literature in Malaysian schools either look into the aspect of effectiveness in general (e.g. Rashid, Vethamani & Rahman, 2010) or students’ perception and attitude on the text selection (e.g. Ghazali et al., 2009; Mohd Naser & Abd Aziz, 2017), which brought about popular proposals for the use of local texts (e.g. Lim, 2018; Nambiar et al., 2020). What is missing from these research is the inside story on the effectiveness of the selected texts. Considering the teachers’ perception on the effectiveness of the selected literary texts provides a research opportunity for further exploration. This research measured the perception of effectiveness of the prescribed texts and explored teachers’ perceptions on the texts as part of their teaching syllabus in Malaysian Primary Schools.

This study has led to several implications to the MoE and the ESL primary school teachers who are teaching English literature in Malaysian Primary Schools, which are discussed as follows. At the ministry level, this paper recommends two: one, for a provision of literary texts and materials that are culturally appropriate, which allow students to understand their reading materials without using supplementary aids. This suggestion reiterates a study conducted by Nambiar et al. (2020) which focuses on speaking confidence. If the use of local texts can encourage speaking confidence, which is another level compared to reading skills, one can imagine the impact from using local texts as part of a reading programme would do for reading skills. As such, re selecting a set of literary texts that are mostly made up of locally culture based would enable better reading engagement between students and texts, allowing the potential for classroom engagement. Secondly, the MoE should also provide literary texts and materials that can arouse the student’s interest towards literature, instilling moral values and catering to the ranges of proficiencies. Similarly, encouraging students’ involvement in classroom participation ought to take into consideration their interest and level of potential for participation, leading towards a tendency for them to shy away, which contributes to greater readability. By endorsing a more suitable set of text selection that fits students’ readability, this might lead to improved classroom activities and learning. This is because using a text with a foreign setting would reduce a probability for classroom engagement. At the teachers’ level, this study encourages teachers to use literary texts and materials which are provided by MoE

Since literary texts reflect the realities of human lives, cultures and civilisations, deliberate choices between using local or foreign literary texts is crucial because it involves students’ ability to read, understand, examine, analyse and interpret these literary texts. When students are able to engage in these readings, it will enable them to engage with important questions about life (Yusoff, 2017). The findings provided a continuous evaluation of the current selection of textbook reading used in the teaching of literature in Malaysia which sadly suggests a reconsideration of changes in its selection. As such, this research proposes that teaching English literature using local literary texts is bound to be more effective than using foreign literary texts.

Future research might consider the use of group experimental design in order to prove such a claim. Not only selecting appropriate texts that fit young Malaysian school students have a longer effect on their proficiency, its selection may have direct impacts on nurturing a healthy reading culture, which is devastatingly poor in statistics. Instead of harnessing emotionally sensitive young minds, poorly selected texts are bound to shape parrots since young school students will have the tendency to opt out learning via rote learning. Future research should also consider approaching aspects within perceived effectiveness at prescribing the texts i.e. by exploring types of local teaching materials that are suitable with Malaysian primary school students, besides further exploring reasons for choosing local teaching materials. Finally, future research might also consider approaching these two aspects using qualitative analysis would also provide a rich understanding of using locally developed teaching materials, as suggested by Losekan and Godoy (2020) and Nambiar et al. (2020).

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143 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. SECTIONAPPENDIXA: DEMOGRAPHICS 1. Please select your gender. ● Male ● Female 2. How long have you been teaching at your current school? ● Less than 3 years ● 3 5 years ● 6 10 years ● More than 10 years 3. How long have you been teaching English at schools? ● Less than 3 years ● 3 5 years ● 6 10 years ● More than 10 years 4. How long have you been teaching English literature in school? ● Less than 3 years ● 3 5 years ● 6 10 years ● More than 10 years 5. What type of schools have you taught English in? ● SK ● SJK (C) ● SJK (T) ● Both National and National Type School 6. Which year(s) do you teach? SECTION B: EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING MATERIALS USED IN TEACHING OF LITERATURE Based on a scale of 1 to 5 (where 1 is Strongly Disagree and 5 Strongly Agree), choose the best to reflect your opinions. 1. Students actively participate in the process of understanding the meaning of materials.1 2 3 4 5 2. Students are stimulated to work with classmates in deciphering the literary item 1 2 3 4 5 3. The materials are able to enhance more than one language skills in the students.1 2 3 4 5 4. Teachers can plan a lesson easily with the provided materials. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Literary materials help teachers to stimulate use of target language.

1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education provide students a wider range of knowledge that is not available from other subjects 1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education are effective in catering to students of mixed proficiencies. 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

144

1. Teaching and learning process can be made more effective with the use of local literary items. 1 2 3 4 5 Teaching and learning process can be made more effective with the use of foreign literary items.

1 2 3 4 5 Materials used support the teaching objectives of the teacher. 2 3 4 5 The content of the literary text provided by the Ministry can instil further interest towards literature. 1 2 3 4 5 The content of the literary text provided by the Ministry can be understood on its own without any help of supplementary materials.

1 2 3 4 5

9. The content of the literary texts provided by the Ministry are culturally acceptable and appropriate.

1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education are meaningful to students. 1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education are enjoyable by students.

1 2 3 4 5

3. The cultural context or origin of a literary item does not affect the students' understanding of the item.

1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education help instil moral values in the students.

1 2 3 4 5 The literary texts and materials provided by the Ministry of Education provides room for more creativity to be expressed in lessons.

SECTION C: TEACHERS PERCEPTIONS ON THE LITERARY TEXTS USED IN TEACHING OF LITERATURE

145 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 145 162, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.9 Use of Technology-Based Tools in Ensuring Quality of Publishable Journal Articles Gilbert C. Magulod, Jr.* University Director, Knowledge and Technology Management Office, Cagayan State University, Tuguegarao, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8385 683X Leonilo B. Capulso City College of San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines San Matias National High School, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2984 6590 Cinder Dianne L. Tabiolo Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4565 0491 Merlyn N. Luza Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3261 4632 Mary Grace C. Ramada Bohol Island State University Main Campus, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4657 1867 Abstract. Scientific publication is a pillar that gauges the human intellectual capital of countries in the global innovation index. This paper presents the effectiveness of using technology based tools in ensuring the quality of articles for journal publication. It employed a pre and post test research design to determine the effectiveness of online technology based tools before and after the intervention. It employed a descriptive presentation of the different online technology tools used in the 21 specimens of faculty research written in publishable article formats. It examined the quality of references, level of readability, writing quality, originality, and grammar of the papers before and after the review process and interventions. The study highlighted that using the online tools improved the quality of the documents on grammar and lexical rate, similarity index, readability index, number of references, number of correct bibliographic entries for submission in high impact journals. A higher level of a cleansing process using online technology * Corresponding author: Gilbert C. Magulod, Email: gilbertmagulod_rdecsulasam28@yahoo.com

1. Introduction Progress in the 21st century is impossible without research. Research is responsible for new products, new knowledge, and new ways of undertaking projects. The values of research to humanity are immeasurable. Research has proved to be an essential and powerful tool leading to human progress. The advent of the 21st century reoriented research towards good life with others to attain sustainable growth. This reorientation befitted universities around the world to be the first propellers of development in their respective countries. According to the European Commission Report (2003), there is a secure link between a scientific publication and national wealth. Within the tertiary education system, research universities play a critical role in training the professionals, high level specialists, scientists, and researchers needed by the economy and in generating new knowledge in support of national innovation systems (Ardito et al., 2019; Dzimińska, Fijałkowska & Sułkowski, 2020). In this setting, it is the priority of countries worldwide to ensure that their primer universities are trailblazers of intellectual and scientific development (Salmi, 2009). The competitiveness for states' intellectual capital depends on the scientific publication, patents, and knowledge generated (Arhibugi et al., 2009; Bucheli, 2012; Larsen et al., 2010). Scientific publications in reputable journals are considered for the global University ranking, times university ranking, and Shanghai World University ranking (Campos Varela, Villaverde Castañeda & Ruano Raviña, 2020; Morrison, 2017; Rauhvargers, 2011; van Nunen, Li, Reniers & Ponnet, 2018). Scientific journals are essential media for the dissemination of scientific findings. Research journals are coined as the "lifeblood of living and evolving science" (Gevers et al., 2006). Writing and publishing scientific articles are the way of life in scientists' careers (Adams, Rogers, Smart & Szomszor, 2020; Ajami & Movehedi, 2013; Dangal, Hamal & Giri, 2017; Masters, 2013; McDowell & Liardét, 2019; Mohammadi et al., 2018). The publication forms the basis for new research and practical application of findings and results. It can affect the scientific community and the society at large (Wager & Kleinert, 2010), but what is lamenting is that many studies are never published and termed as the file drawer problem (Dalton et al., 2012; Franco et al., 2014; Iwachiw, Button & Atlas, 2019; Lane et al., 2016; Simonsohn et al., 2014; Song et al., 2010).

tools ensures the quality of publishable articles. Implications of this study will facilitate the academic community's journal article writing skill to effectively disseminate research studies results with higher chances of being accepted in respected global databases to contribute to knowledge generation and development of the country.

Academic researchers in many disciplines face difficulties in disseminating their research outputs beyond academia (Alwzinani, 2017; Dogra, 2011; Stout et al., 2006). Many academic disciplines have reported various barriers that sustain the

Keywords: journal publication; research dissemination; online technology tools

Writing research articles for publication requires a recursive and step-by-step process coupled with useful feedback and evaluation. Outlining the structure of the material helps research writers to prepare manuscripts appropriately. The key to successful scientific writing is to start with the paper's form (IJQHC, 2004). A typical research article's basic structure follows the IMRAD sequence (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion), where each of the significant components of the report addresses different aims. Figure 1 presents the

gaps between academic researchers and practitioners (Drury et al., 2013; Haddow, 2011; Lanamaki et al., 2011; Tincani & Travers, 2019). The literature shows that scholarly research outputs are buried deeply in reports and not transmitted into real practice (Waddel, 2002). Regrettably, many relevant research findings cannot reach their target audience with this kind of culture existing in the academic community (Singh & Mayer, 2014; Jeyaraj & Dwivedi, 2020). Many researchers are not aware of freely available online tools and guides. This paper expects to address the deplorable condition of low scientific publications among universities.

The dissemination and impact of research outputs cannot happen without those outputs being communicated to target audiences/stakeholders. Many reasons are identified why journal articles are rejected. They arise from different flaws in the research design, manuscript organization, results and discussion, conclusion (Ahlstrom, 2012; Akhtar, 2008; Fischer et al., 2017; Holschuh, 1998; Johnson, Putnam Davis, & Bandy, 2020; Pimm, 2013; Stivers & Cramer, 2017; Sullivan, 2015). Ezeala Nweke & Ezeala (2013) studied the common errors in the manuscript submitted to medical science journals in Asia and Africa showed that out of 42 papers analyzed, they found crucial flaws in every section of the document. 68 % have problems in the introduction and results section, 86 % have deficiencies in the material and methods section while the 71 % is in the discussion section. Consequently, Kapp & Albertyn (2008) confirm that the rate of acceptance and rejection in journals are attributed to the common errors made by authors such as insufficient contextualization of the research, language style, referencing styles, date of references, originality of work, lack of focus, length of the manuscript, data analysis, plagiarism, and readability. The errors are manifold and various. Many researchers struggle to have their papers be published in high impact journals. Uzuner (2008) also identifies problems commonly encountered in publication; among these are associated with language problems, divergence on the journal standards, parochialism, and relevance. Lamentably, despite the publication of manuscript guidelines in many high reputable journals, many manuscripts cannot meet the journal standards set and are ultimately being rejected and sent back to the author because of quality issues (Baron, 2006; ICMJE, 2010). A plethora of studies (Ezeale et al., 2013; Byrne, 2000; Bordage 2001; Person, 2004; Azer et al., 2014; Gasparyan et al., 2015; Baig et al., 2016; Hetermanet et al., 2018; Tunlid, Kristoffersson & Åström, 2020; Radianti, Majchrzak, Fromm & Wohlgenannt, 2020) has explored and analyzed the flaws of manuscripts why being rejected for publication in reputable high impact journals around the world.

148

structural element of a publishable research article adapted from Zaiger (2000) and Swales (1990) as a guide in the structure of the selected research articles.

Figure 1: Structural Component of a publishable Research Article (Swales, 1990; Zaiger; 2000)

This research study's novelty fundamentally lies in the utilization and effectiveness of online technology tools in improving the quality of 21 original research studies conducted and written in the Philippines. The purpose of this study was to present the effectiveness of online technology tools in ensuring the quality of papers using the grammar checker, plagiarism scanner, online readability scanner, citation generator, and Google scholar reference manager in improving the quality of selected articles. The 21 research papers were the research outputs of faculty members who attended the university wide training write shop. The documents were packaged into IMRAD format (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion). According to Nair and Nair (2014), most scientific papers should be prepared in an IMRAD format. The Introduction explains the scope and objective of the study in the light of current knowledge on the subject; the Materials and Methods describe how the research was conducted; the Results section reports what was found in the study, and the Discussion section explains meaning and significance of the results and provides suggestions for future directions of research. The manuscript must be prepared according to the Journal's instructions to authors.

The study fundamentally employed pre and post test design to determine the effectiveness of online technology based tools before and after using technology tools. The quality indicators of the articles were measured before and after the usage of the technology tools. Salkind (2010) noted that the critical premise behind the use of pre test post test design involves obtaining the pre test measure of the outcome before administering the intervention, followed by a post test of a similar effort after the intervention or treatment is implemented. To ensure the quality of the quality of the research articles, selection criteria were set, the papers: (1) must have been completed papers that were institutionally/ externally funded for the past three years (2016 2019); (2) must not have been submitted for paper publication or under consideration to journals. Manuscript authors' names were removed and replaced with codes to ensure confidentiality. The sample size of 21 was only based on availability during the study's time. The study protocol was reviewed and approved. The study's conduct lasted for three days during the publication training write shop conducted by the Knowledge andTechnology Management Office of the Research, Development, and Extension Unit of one public higher education

Research Purpose

This paper addresses problem among researchers by providing them information on the availability of free online tools to help establish quality journal articles. This study filled the gap to increase the acceptance rate of papers that will be submitted to respected journals. This research study's novelty fundamentally lies in the utilization and effectiveness of online technology tools in improving the quality of 21 original research studies conducted and written in the Philippines.

2. Methodology Research Design

institution in the Philippines. The three phase implementation process was employed.

To analyze the gathered data from the research papers, descriptive statistics such as frequency count, mean, and percentage were used. Inferential statistics using the paired sample t test was utilized to identify the difference between the pre scores and post scores of the 21 selected papers. Frequency count was used to analyzing the results of the grammar checker along with the contextual spelling, grammar punctuation, and sentence structure. The total number of

After implementing the different technology tools and necessary revisions of papers done by the participants, their writings were locally peer reviewed by experts and researchers in the university with publications in reputable journals the provided feedback for the improvement of the papers. After the peer review was documented, the author requested the articles to be scanned using the different technology tools. The researcher, as post calculated data, recorded the post result of the documents.

Phase 1. Before the Intervention

During the implementation phase, the researcher introduced different technology tools for publication. The participants were oriented to using grammar checkers, a plagiarism scanner, a readability test, several references, and correct bibliographic entries. They were provided a hands on demonstration and walk through sessions. The intervention period lasted for two days. The participants were provided with online links to different technology tools. The soft wares were installed on their personal computers. During the implementation period, the researcher instructed the participants to let their papers be processed using different online technology tools. The participants were requested to come up with the documents' necessary revisions based on the scores and percentages shown by the different technology tools. They were given one day to make the revisions.

Sample and Data Collection

Phase 3. After the Intervention

Phase 2. During the Intervention

Measurement and Analysis of Variables

Before starting the intervention, a university wide publication training write shop was conducted for the faculty members who have completed research papers for three years. The publication write shop aims to package faculty researchers' reports in the University for higher chances of publication in Scopus and Thomson Reuters ISI. The participating faculty members were required to submit research articles in IMRAD format before the training. The participants were informed of the purpose of the activity. They were also told of the expected output for the publication training write shop. The 21 papers were scanned by the researcher using different technology tools such as a grammar checker, a plagiarism scanner, a readability test, several references, and correct bibliographic entries. Scores and percentages were recorded as the pre calculated data.

2. Grammarly https://www.grammarly.com

alerts were recorded. Meanwhile, a plagiarism scanner was utilized to get the percentage of similarity index. The rate of plagiarism is from 0% to 100%. The readability index of the paper was measured using an automatic readability checker having the following score of 0 100% with the following interpretation: 90 100 very easy; 80 89 % easy, 70 79 fairly easy; 60 69 standard; 50 59 moderate difficulty; 30 49 Difficult; 0 29 very confusing. As to the number of references and the number of bibliographic entries, the researcher manually counted errors

3. Results and Discussion

The adoption of online technology tools provided a better quality of the papers. Having adequate knowledge and skill in using the different online technology tools will eventually increase publication likelihood in reputable journals. Submitting articles for journal publication is a competitive race since many papers are being introduced to other journals. Therefore, only the best manuscripts being submitted get the editors' attention. This portion of the article presents the various online technology tools utilized in the study to ensure the manuscripts' quality standards. Table 1 shows the online links of the different technology tools, namely Google Scholar, Grammarly, Plagscan, online citation generator, and online readability tool. Table 1. Online Technology Tools Technology-BasedTools Online Links

Technology-Based Tools in Writing Article for Publication

151

1. Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com.ph/

3. PlagScan checker/https://smallseotools.com/plagiarism

Google Scholar is a freely accessible search engine for scholarly literature. It contains articles, theses, abstracts, books, and court opinions from various sources such as online repositories, academic publishers, universities, professional societies, and other web sites. Such software provides scholarly works across the world. The Google scholar also effectively explores citations, related works, publications, and authors. It locates the original links of the documents. It also has the advantage of keeping recent developments in the different research areas while one can cite publications and make a Google scholar author profile. MacEachen (2016) recommends using Google Scholar for

The pre and post scores were tabulated and subjected to appropriate statistical tools to arrive at the result's interpretation and discussion.

5. readabilityAutomatic Tool readabilityhttp://www.readabilityformulas.com/freeformulatests.php

4. Online GeneratorCitation http://www.citationmachine.net/

literature in evidence based dentistry searching, highlighting seven effective techniques and features in using it. Grammarly is a cloud based software developed by Grammarly Inc. It is an English language writing enhancement platform that was released in 2009 intended for checking manuscript write ups. It is also equipped with a plagiarism detection tool and proofreading resources with more than 250 rules in the grammar. This online software automatically detects errors in grammar, word choice, punctuation, spelling, and writing style. It is equipped with algorithms, flag issues that suggest auto corrections for grammar, style, spelling, punctuation, wordiness, and plagiarism (Moore, 2018; Pawlak, 2020; Chen, Xie & Hwang, 2020).

Quality Indicators of the Papers before and After the Coaching Interventions using the Technology Tools

The utilization of the different technology based tools before and after the intervention shows the following quality indicators of the papers, namely: Grammar and lexical quality, similarity index, readability index, number of references, number of correct bibliographic entries.

Google Online Citation is a free search engine for Google scholar. It guides researchers to properly cite a book, magazines, news, website, Journal, case studies, synthesis papers, methodical articles, trade publications, etc., using APA, MLA, Chicago, and more. Having proper citations in the reference section of the report allows the researcher to give credit to the scholarly works of other researchers in the field as well making the readers of the article distinguish which ideas are personally owned and borrowed by the researcher guiding the readers to trace the philosophical ideas being presented (Bradley, 2011). The field of specialization of the writer also requires them to follow citation styles.

The online readability tool calculates the words, syllables, number of sentences, and other characters in the article. This tool allows the writer to identify the reading level of the text. It also provides feedback if the possible audience can read the material well. The tool is useful since it makes the paper to be easily understood by scientific and non science people, which is an offshoot of article impact. The readability of a journal article is an essential component of scientific reading. The readability describes the easiness with which a research article can be read. Plavén Sigray et al. (2017) confirm that in scientific reporting, clear and accurate reporting is an essential part of the scientific process. Clarity of written text can be easily quantified using readability formulas to estimate the articles (Flesh, 1948; DuBay, 2004; Stajner et al., 2012).

Effectiveness of Online Grammar Checker Table 2 shows the difference in the grammar errors of the 21 papers before and after the intervention. The data shows that before implementing the intervention, the 21 documents obtained 132.85 errors along with misspelled words, incorrect punctuation, and lexical errors. After the intervention, there were only 21.28 grammar errors shown. The result showed a significant

difference in the scores before and after the grammar checker's utilization as presented with the computed t value of 12.986 and p value of 0.000, which is lower than the alpha value of 0.01. 2. The difference in the grammar quality of the manuscripts using grammar checker before and after the intervention Mean(n=21)Score SD MeanDiff t value df P value 132.85 42.17 111.57 12.968 20 0.00** After 21.28 9.10 Sig.(2 tailed)

**(significantat0.01alphalevel)

Table

Before

Table 3 reveals the similarity index of the papers before and after the use of a plagiarism scanner. The data shows that before implementing the technology, a mean of 60.04 % of the similarity index was found. After the implementation, only 20.71 % of a similar index of the papers was found, showing an acceptable paper publication rate. The lower level of similarity index increases the likelihood of an article published in respected journals. The intervention provided the participants to reduce the percentage of similarity index.

It presents that after using the online grammar checker, the papers obtained a significantly lower number of errors in the manuscript. This, however, shows that using an online proofreading checker will help facilitate a better quality of papers for publication. As an online proofreading tool, it scanned the articles for grammar errors and mistook, increasing the articles' writing quality. The writing quality of papers in the scientific publications has been one of the critical issues why high impact journals reject the paper for publication. Correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation are predictors of writing success (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017; Rozovskaya and Roth, 2010; Tetreault and Chodorow, 2008). In the scientific publication, it is essential to note that it is the author's responsibility to have the correct language of the manuscript, making it in the best possible form that would relate to the concord of grammar and spelling (Griffies et al., 2013). Grammarly tools help to prevent mistakes and improve writing skills (Sing & Mayer, 2014). Mungra & Webber (2010) investigated the peer review process in medical research found out that lexical and grammatical mistakes, clarity, and word counts are the frequent comments and criticism of peer reviewers.

Effectiveness of Online Plagiarism Scanner

Table 3. The difference in Similarity Index Before and after the intervention Mean(n=21)Score SD Mean Diff t-value df P value Before 60.04 14.12 39.33 11.503 20 0.00** After 20.71 4.80 Sig.(2 tailed) ** (significant at 0.01 alpha level)

Plagiarism detection software already predicts scientific articles' quality for publication (Bazdaric, 2012; Martin, 2005; Naik, Landge, & Mahender, 2015). Tools that detect plagiarism are useful for the academic and scientific community. Since scientific publication is an ultimate output of scientists, they are obliged to adhere to the ethical, legal, and moral standards acceptable for the scientific community (Masic, 2011 & Masic et al., 2004). Fraudulent results and plagiarized text corrupt scientific literature's essence (Sharma & Singh, 2011; Lykkesfeldt, 2016). In the study of Stretton et al. (2012), papers are being retracted because of misconduct and plagiarism.

**(significantat0.01alphalevel)

Table 4 presents the readability index of the papers before and after using an online readability tool. It can be seen from the data that before the implementation of the intervention, an average score of 30.47 % showing a problematic level of readability among the selected articles. After the implementation, a standard level of 60 readability index was found, making a better quality of the papers. The readability of articles increases the chance of acceptance in journal publication. The readability of the article constitutes its style and comprehensiveness to bring its scientific essence to the world.

Table 4. The difference in Readability Index before and after the intervention Mean(n=21)Score SD MeanDiff t value df P value Before 37.47 12.56 22.38 6.636 20 0.00** After 60.00 9.07 Sig.(2 tailed)

Effectiveness of Online Readability Tool

Likewise, Gyasi (2017) affirmed that academic journals are vehicles of information in which the research findings are presented. In the study of Severance and Cohen (2015), they examined the readability of medical journals found out that the difficulty level of reading abstract medical journals raised issues on the accessibility of medical research to reach the wider audience. Therefore, readability is a metric that successfully brings information to large groups of people (Ojha et al., 2018; Brtka et al., 2016).

As presented in Table 5, it shows that before implementing Google scholar referencing a mean count of 21.42 showing a limited number of references in the articles, an average of 41.80 references is seen after the performance. This implies a significant difference in the number of concerns before and after the intervention with the computed p value of 0.00. The intervention increased the number of credible references in the articles of the participants significantly. The

Effectiveness of Google Scholar Reference Manager

Journal articles should keep practitioners informed on the current trend and development in their field of specialization. A well published report should be easily understood by others to effectively and completely comprehend its content (Lee & French, 2011; Otto et al., 2010; Garcia Merino et al., 2009).

Effectiveness of Citation Generator Table 6 shows the effectiveness of an online citation generator on the quality of the articles. Before the intervention, an average of 6.33 bibliographic errors was traced. After the use of a citation generator, only 0.85 errors were left. It is showing a p value of 0.000. It means that it significantly improved the bibliographic entries of the papers. Proper citation is a good quality indicator of an article for publication.

The use of Google scholar reference manager improved the quality of the articles in its reference section. Google Scholar is a powerful online tool for searching the scientific literature. It allows for quick search and access to the materials for specific fields, journals, date of publication, authors, keywords, related literature, abstract, and citations. Google Scholar is a web based search engine cataloging millions of records coming from academic and grey literature. It collated results on the internet, which is free of use. Haddaway et al (2015) found that GS search results have a high level of transparency and capacity to update and provide critical systemic reviews since the literature search is an integral component of the research endeavor. It is capable of delivering literature for a specific study. As a search engine, Google scholar is used to searching synthesis papers, methodical articles, original articles, trade publications, case studies, online books, commentaries, patents, etc. (Reed et al., 2015; Hughes et al., 2014; Roe et al., 2014). Gehanno et al. (2013) studied the sufficiency of Google scholar for systematic reviews in medicine found that it is an excellent bibliographic database for systematic reviews. Researchers should use online references to look for relevant reviews of related studies and literature. The quality of papers being submitted for publication depends on the quality and number of references cited to establish the paper's scientific grounding

155 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. number and quality of connections cited to increase the likelihood of journal article accepted for publication. Table 5. The difference in the number of references before and after the intervention Mean(n=21)Score SD MeanDiff t value df P value Before 21.42 9.36 20.38 7.804 20 0.00** After 41.80 10.75 Sig.(2 tailed)

Table 6. The difference between the Number of Correct Bibliographic Entries before and after the intervention Mean(n=21)Score SD MeanDiff t value df P value Before 6.33 0.96 5.476 16.68 20 0.00** After 0.85 0.91 Sig.(2 tailed) **(significantat0.01alphalevel)

**(significantat0.01alphalevel)

Google scholar effectively provides citations for articles. It gives APA, MLA, Chicago, Vancouver, or Turabian as referencing styles depending on what the Journal requires the author to use. The quote shown in the Google Scholar search results will easily allow the researchers to get an accurate citation of papers included in the bibliographic entries. The citation is the list of formal references to online, print, published, or unpolished sources that the author obtained while writing it (Labaree, 2009). A proper way of citation will allow the audience to find the materials used by the author. An effective technique to locate relevant and useful sources for a research topic is to follow the references coming from credible sources. It suggests that researchers must determine the facts, theories, laws, concepts, and ideas derived from others. Errors in paper citation hinder scholarly communication's effectiveness, creating an adverse effect on the academic and scientific communities (Setyawan et al., 2020; Madhusudhan, 2016; Faunce & Job, 2001, Lee & Lin, 2013). Conrad, Leonard & Somerville (2015) examined the effectiveness of citation generation tools concluded that they provided efficient and effective research practices among researchers.

This paper suggests using online technology tools to facilitate the quality of articles to be submitted for publication. Research publication as global scholar merchandise requires authors to write well prepared manuscripts that will be read by a broad audience. This paper assessed the effectiveness of using online technology tools to ensure quality standards of the documents and grammar, referencing, citation, and originality. Using a pre post experimental design, 21 full length research articles were selected. The study highlighted that using the online grammar checker, a plagiarism scanner, online readability scanner, citation generator, and Google scholar reference manager improved the quality of the papers on grammar and lexical quality, similarity index, readability index, number of references, number of correct bibliographic entries for submission in high impact journals. Implications of this study will further develop the research writing competence of the academic community to creatively and effectively disseminate the results of their research studies with higher chances of being accepted in respected global databases as their contribution to knowledge generation and development of the country in terms of scientific publication as the measurement of human intellectual capital.

5. Limitations and implications

Limitation of the present study: A small number of articles were only considered and only limited to a short period. As future research directions, another analysis may be conducted using the online technology tools and track how many papers will be accepted in an actual journal submission. Notwithstanding the limitations, this study highlights researchers' necessary actions to encourage them to utilize free available quality assurance tools to establish a higher quality of their papers, promoting a robust research culture of universities. This study could serve as a useful reference to improve manuscript preparation and organization. Additionally, other available software tools ensure the quality of research articles and improve the article's quality. Nevertheless, the technology

4. Conclusion

156

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tools utilized in the study must not be seen as the mandatory regulations in which researchers and students must use for scientific writing. They are still encouraged to opt for possible best strategies which suit their interest and habits.

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163 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 163 183, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.10

Vassiliki Pliogou School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Greece https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1009 0287

Abstract. Present study aims to shed light on the relationship of working memory and executive functioning in bilingual elementary school children when compared with monolingual population of the same age. The investigation of the relationship between working memory and language learning abilities of children, who are bilingual, is particularly important as it plays a key role in understanding the literacy and language competence of bilingual populations. The purpose of this study was to examine Verbal Working Memory and Executive Functions in 20 bilingual elementary school students who were compared to 20 monolingual school age students in different cognitive tasks. The research results showed that bilingual students did not appear to perform better in Working Memory compared to the performance of monolingual students of the same age. Correspondingly, bilingual students performed better in the task of inhibitory control and cognitive change. The findings of the present study reinforce the hypothesis that when learning a language, be it the mother tongue or the foreign /second language, the working memory does not correlate to all executive functions but forms a separate cognitive function. The implications of bilingual learning strategies in multicultural class settings are discussed as a pedagogical memory frame that can empower academic achievement while acknowledging the importance of acquiring standardized language skills by promoting a variety of memory strategies.

Investigating the Relationship of Working Memory and Inhibitory Control: Bilingual Education and Pedagogical Implications in Elementary School

Maria Sofologi School of Education Sciences, University of Ioannina, Greece https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0380 2220 Makrina Zafiri Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0685 3181

Keywords: Bilingual Education; Mother Tongue; Foreign /Second Language; Working Memory; Executive Functions; Elementary School

1. Introduction In modern societies, many countries and states are called upon to deal with bilingualism or multilingualism and, at the same time, many are experiencing problems concerning this phenomenon on a daily basis. Bilingualism is that part of linguistics which deals with language learning and teaching as well as with education, in its wider sense; it also deals with the socio political factors which influence bilingualism. The phenomenon of dual language proficiency is generally used for whole societies, communities, or individuals. Language diversity is closely related to the alternative use of two or more languages by the same person and occurs when two or more people, who speak a different language, are forced to communicate using a common verbal code of communication. A bilingual person is able to use two language codes of communication, very comfortably, to meet their daily communicative needs (Gollan & Ferreira, 2009; Golberg, Paradis & Crago, 2008). It should be noted, however, that the language proficiency shown by a bilingual speaker who uses the two languages interchangeably to communicate, is found to depend on both the duration and the manner in which the second or foreign language was acquired and, on the other hand, the involvement of the speaker himself or herself (Namazi & Thordardottir, 2010; Pineda, 2010).

In an attempt to illustrate the complexity of this multi dimensional phenomenon and its impact on school performance, the research community has attempted to investigate the relationship of bilingualism with working memory and executive functions. Research has focused on the investigation of this relationship in order to create a prognostic indicator which will deal with the academic achievement of bilingual students (de Abreu, Cruz Santos, Tourinho, Martin & Bialystok, 2012). This research attempts to shed light on the challenges teachers face in their class when asked to deal with students who are linguistically diverse. More specifically, this research proposes a series of examples of practice, or memory strategies, to embrace bilingual students. Furthermore, language teaching indicates that students' language minoritized is expected to replace their home language varieties with the standardized national language. For this reason, the importance of developing innovative teaching practices is essential in order to minimize the gap which exists in language diversity. In this research, we seek to highlight a number of strategies that could be used in order to avoid reproducing a form of ‘stigmatization’ of the language used by minority students. As a result of language diversity, the ideology of language inequality can be resolved with appropriate memory strategies, which could be applied when learning a language within a school setting.

2 What is Bilingualism? Speakers of languages live in language communities; some of these communities may use two or more languages as formal communication codes. Many people who live in these communities may be competent and may also have a sound command of two languages; this is called bilingualism. Bilingualism is part of a wider social and political movement what Wei (2005, p. 10) calls “[…] a socio political issue […]”. It is important to note that there are two types of bilingualism, namely, bilingualism as an individual phenomenon and

According to Baker (1993), bilingual education may sometimes refer to native speakers of two languages, but it may also refer to students who are in the process of studying a foreign or second language. We should also not confuse foreign or second language teaching with bilingual education because teaching a foreign language is teaching the language as a subject, whereas, in bilingual education the language becomes the medium of instruction (Bacha, 2019).

bilingualism as a societal phenomenon (Hoffman, 2014). When we say that someone is bilingual, we mean that he or she is competent in two languages. The question that arises here is whether the bilingual person is competent in all four of his or her skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. There is no rigid or set answer to this question in the sense that a person may speak two languages but may use one language to communicate verbally and the other to write or to read. Or, they may understand the language when they hear the language spoken or when they read a text written in the aforementioned language, but the same person may not speak or write the language; this is called passive bilingualism (Slavkov, 2014). Still others understand a spoken language without speaking it themselves (Bligh & Drury, 2015). This is why proficiency and use of language, especially amongst bilinguals, do not always correlate. Another factor that should be considered is that the four basic language skills mentioned above are not the only ones that exist today.

According to Skutnabb Kangas (1981), a language which we have and use in our mind may be the fifth level of language proficiency or skill. In this case, a person may not speak, hear, read, or write a language, but he or she may still use it as a kind of internal speech or as a kind of tool of thought. Cummins (1984) called a person’s cognitive ability in a language, the ability to use one or both languages for thought and reflection.

3. Bilingual Education

Bilingual education should also not to be confused with bilingual child raising (McCarty, 2010), which is basically the speaking of two languages to an infant systematically at home. Bilingual education should involve teaching school subjects in two or more languages at school. Bilingual education should be meaningful education, on the one hand, and on the other hand it should show an understanding towards other languages and cultures (Ozfidan & Toprak, 2019), thus reinforcing the respect of diversity and social coexistence in a multicultural environment from the perspective of Intercultural Education (Palaiologou & Dietz, 2012 ; Pliogou & Karakatsani, 2020).

4. Pedagogical implications of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

Bilingual Education according to Hurajova, (2015, p.4), consists of “[…] two languages that are used as media of instruction in educational contexts […], in other words, two or more languages are used as media of education, and there is an integration of topic and language (in this case it may be the integration of more than two languages compared to foreign language teaching). When educating a bilingual learner, we, as teachers, expect that he or she will be able to function globally across cultures (Bacha, 2019). Mehisto (2012, p. 8) suggests that there are potential benefits to individuals, schools and societies in being or becoming bilingual, for example, there is an “increased mental flexibility”, there

are “improved inter cultural skills” and, last but not least, there are “increased opportunities for global exchange and trade”. We thus see the important role played by the appropriate choice and application of the method of teaching, the teaching approach, and the technique which should be applied to bilingual students. For bilingual students, the appropriate method, approach, and technique or a combination of methods, approaches, and techniques may lead to successful learning of both languages by the student. More particularly, Experiential Learning, Project Work, Exploratory Teaching, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), and an Eclectic Approach to teaching bilingual students could be applied to facilitate their leaning. What follows is a short presentation of the aforementioned methods and approaches. Experiential teaching (and learning) is a life experience, it is a kind of “learning in which the learner is directly in touch with the realities being studied. It is contrasted with the learner who only reads about, hears about, talks about or writes about these realities but never comes into contact with them as part of the learning process”, as Keeton and Tate (1978, p.9) put it. In a sense, experiential teaching (and learning) is the direct connection of a student’s experience with the context of what he or she is taught. It is what Kolb (1984) calls the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Kolb’s (1984) model presents a four step procedure, namely that students have their own concrete experiences upon which they reflect from a variety of perspectives. These reflective observations allow students to go through a process of abstract conceptualization, creating generalizations which then help them to integrate what they observe into theories, which in turn help them to engage in experimentation through which they test what they have just learnt in other more novel cases. Experiential teaching (and learning) is one of the best methods of teaching bilingual students as it allows them to transfer the knowledge they have of the one language, to the other language, thus engaging in a new set of experiences, and thus progressing to a more advanced level of learning (Kolb, 1984). Studies have shown that students’ believe that when teachers move away from traditional teaching models in bilingual education and towards a more experiential model of learning, this then boosts their second language acquisition while at the same time it triggers their curiosity about the cultural similarities and differences of the two languages (Moreno López, Ramos Selman, Miranda Aldaco & Gumis Quinto, 2017).

Project work or the project method of teaching is a student centered and teacher facilitated method of teaching which helps students to acquire and apply their knowledge and skills to solve a problem (Duke 2016). The project method was first introduced by Kilpatrick (1925) at the beginning of the twentieth century and since then it has come a long way and is diligently applied at a global scale. It is a method of teaching and learning through acting and experiencing, as well as problem solving (Gutek, 2003). The project method is also applied in teaching the second or foreign language to bilingual or non bilingual students. Kolber (2017) emphasizes upon the advantages of the project method in second or foreign languages teaching, especially when the project meets the student’s needs and expectations. Project work is applicable in bilingual education, especially since we want to help students develop their independence and confidence in both languages (Fried Booth, 2002), students’ autonomy is also

• Elicits responses that uncover students' current knowledge about the concept/topic.

•Tries alternatives to solve a problem and discusses them with others.

•Becomes a good listener.

enhanced in project planning (Skehan, 1998), and so is “their self esteem, and positive attitudes toward learning” (Stoller, 2006, p.27). Social cooperation and group cohesion are enhanced in bilingual education and project work, and so are improved language skills (Levine, 2004), since in project work there is a “natural integration of language skills” (Stoller, 2006, p.33), and students participate in verbal communication so as to complete authentic activities (designed to develop students’ thinking and problem solving skills) in an almost natural context (Haines, 1989), using authentic language. We thus see that the pedagogical benefits of project based teaching and learning are twofold in the sense that bilingual students don’t only develop their language learning skills and show an increased interest and motivation to participate and to promote their learning (Brophy, 2004), and also to cultivate their higher order critical thinking skills (Allen, 2004), but they also develop a sense of cooperation and group cohesion which are important in project based teaching and learning.

• Acts as a facilitator.

• Observes and listens to students as they interact.

•Shares ideas and suspends judgment.

•Conducts activities, predicts, and forms hypotheses or makes generalizations.

•Thinks creatively within the limits of the activity.

• Generates curiosity. Exploratory instruction is, as we can see, a student centered pedagogy and teacher facilitated method of teaching. It is a teaching method which encourages students to explore new concepts, knowledge and material, especially through the use of multimodal texts, and to compare this new knowledge to already existing or ‘old’ knowledge, thus making inferences. This is the reason why it is considered one of the best teaching methods in bilingual education as it allows the student to compare already existing knowledge, in the one language, to the newly acquired knowledge of the second language (Kolb, 1984).

• Asks good inquiry oriented questions.

• Generates interest

•Discusses tentative alternatives. The teacher on the other hand:

•Records observations and/or generalizations.

Exploratory instruction, as the name suggests, offers students the opportunity to search for their own ways to learn the new material which they have been presented with. More specifically, (see Education Service Center Region XIII, 2009), the student:

• Raises questions and problems.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a fairly recent approach to second and foreign language teaching. More particularly, in CLIL, content from subjects across the curriculum is taught, wholly or partly, through the medium of another language, English, for example. CLIL focuses on teaching both the subject and the language together in this way students learn to communicate both verbally (Delliou & Zafiri, 2016), and in writing (Olson 2015), about the subject they are learning, for example Geography (Korosidou & Griva 2013), using the language which they are learning. Emphasis is given to vocabulary learning as CLIL adopts a lexical approach to language teaching and learning (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008), while emphasis is given to the cultivation of all four skills by students. CLIL thus acquires a pivotal place in pedagogics and in language teaching and learning, as it promotes self efficacy in students and a deeper understanding and learning of the target language thus “moving pedagogic thinking forward beyond the bilingual classroom”, as Coyle (2018, p. 166) puts it. The eclectic approach to language teaching combines various approaches and teaching methods to teach a language depending on the aims of the lesson, the language level of the students, and their abilities. Larsen Freeman (2011) and Mellow (2002) used the term ‘an eclectic approach’ to language teaching meaning that different teaching methods are borrowed and adapted to suit the demands or needs of the students. Wali (2009) describes the eclectic approach as follows “[...] one of the premises of eclecticism is that teaching should serve students not methods […] (see Wali, Sproat, Padakannaya & Bhuvaneshwari, 2009). This is the reason why teachers should be able to choose the methods, approaches and techniques which they wish to apply in their class. According to the tenets of the eclectic approach there is no ideal method, approach or technique in language teaching and learning, it all depends on the students’ needs, language level, and abilities. Teachers are free to apply any method, approach and technique to serve the needs of their students; this is the reason why it is an approach which is highly valued in bilingual teaching.

There is a growing body of literature which illustrates contradictory findings, to date, generating two very distinct research approaches. More particularly, according to the first framework, a number of contemporary relational studies have argued that the types of different cognitive tools, which are used to assess working memory, affect the performance of bilingual students compared to monolingual students (St Clair Thompson & Gathercole, 2006; St Clair Thompson, Hunt & Bolder, 2010). As concerning the relationship between working memory and bilingualism, Bialystok (2011) argues that the ability which bilinguals have to inhibit one language while using the other increases their working memory capacity as working memory appears to be controlled through the aforementioned mechanism. Over time, research data reveals that in cognitive assessments which require strong attention spans, bilinguals exhibit greater working memory capacity than monolinguals (Kane & Engle, 2002; Robbins & Arnsten, 2009; Schneider, Kron Sperk, Hünner & 2009).

Documentation of the above research finding is confirmed by a number of studies suggesting that bilingual students exhibit better performance on

5. Working Memory and Bilingual Students

executive control assessment tools requiring selective attention and inhibition when compared with the performance of monolingual students (Blom et al., 2014; Morales, Calvo & Bialystok, 2013). The research community argues that bilingual, very young, students can steadily and systematically activate executive functions and, in particular, cognitive flexibility because of their ability to use both languages simultaneous or to use one of the two languages when this is deemed necessary (Abutalebi, Della Rosa, Green, Hernandez, Scifo, Keim & Costa, 2011). Cognitive flexibility (cognitive switching) refers to the ability a person or a learner has to switch between different tasks without causing a problem in performance in any of the tasks and in any of the languages when the person or the learner is bilingual. The aforementioned is an important component of executive control (Dana Gordon, Mazaux & Kaoua, 2014; Greene, Braet, Johnson & Bellgrove, 2007).

6. Executive Functions and Bilingual Students

The advantage of cognitive flexibility is often endorsed by the research community as the view that "improved" executive functions appear to empower bilingual populations. Furthermore, “improved” executive functions seem to enhance bilingual children to focus their attention, a lot better, while engaging in a cognitive task, while at the same time they seem to improve their problem solving skills immensely from early childhood to adulthood (Abutalebi et al., 2011). Nevertheless, in the course of time, according to Bialystok (2011), when the two languages which are spoken by the bilingual become active, then a problem of attention arises which does not seem to exist in monolinguals. Bilinguals, more frequently, use inhibition control to resolve this problem of attention and thus achieve better performance in inhibitory tasks throughout their lives when compared with monolingual populations.

Additionally, it is argued that both early and delayed acquisition of two or more languages is associated with the ability to exercise cognitive flexibility when executing multiple tasks. And that the simultaneous learning of two language systems provides essential key elements which are necessary for a learner’s cognitive background as it also increases their executive effectiveness. It is believed that bilingualism can reduce any interference from irrelevant environmental irritants. Therefore, in this way, a bilingual person can work more effectively in everyday situations where a variety of stimuli occur while at the same time, they can ignore the irrelevant information in the work which is being processed (Alvarez, Emory & Julie, 2006; Berroir, Ghazi Saidi, Dash, Adrover Roig, Benali & Ansaldo, 2017).

The aforementioned stance is supported by a number of studies in which bilingual students appear to perform better in executive tasks compared to monolingual students (Hernandez, 2009), especially in processing speed evaluation tasks (Bialystok, 2011), in using symbols, in understanding the inverse use of numbers, in the comprehension of object stability (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson & Ungeleider, 2010) and finally in non verbal creativity tests (Carlson & Meltzhof, 2008). Consequently, bilinguals are found to be more active in executive functions through the continuous management of rotation skills that require flexibility and inhibition (Hernandez, 2009; Luk & Bialystok, 2013).

7. Relationship between working memory and executive functions on the performance of bilingual students

In contrast to the above research perspective there are a number of cross sectional studies the findings of which support the theoretical view that bilingual students, of elementary school age, do not appear to be advantageous in their performance compared to monolingual students in their executive functions and in their working memory (Namazi et al., 2010). More specifically, according to this research concept, the working memory of bilinguals is considered to be affected in some cases by the use and practice of the two languages, thereby increasing the cognitive load and weakening the ability of the inhibitory control (Lehtonen, Soveri, Lane, Järvenpää, de Bruin & Antfolk, 2018; Yang, 2017).

Building upon this theory and research the present research study attempts to investigate the significant relationship between working memory and executive functions as well as their combined impact on the performance of bilingual elementary school students. According to the first research hypothesis, bilingual students are expected to achieve a better performance on working memory tasks when compared to monolingual students of the same age (Bloom et al., 2014) (Hypothesis, 1). The relationship between the phonological working memory and the second or foreign language is confirmed and supported by a number of research studies (Gathercole, Briscoe, Thorn & Tiffany, 2008). Researchers emphasize on the fact that verbal working memory capacity is related to competence when acquiring a foreign language. Over time, working memory has been found to affect the extent to which stable phonological representations are created in long term memory (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990). As for the second research hypothesis, we assume that bilingual students can perform better in visual and spatial retention tasks (Hypothesis, 2). More particularly, we hypothesize that the working memory of bilingual students in cognitive fields of management, in immediate retention and storage of visual and spatial information differs from that of monolingual students. Research has revealed that visual spatial working memory is involved directly in learning a language and more particularly during the reading process. Alongside the phonological function, the processing of a foreign language obviously requires a visualization strategy which is related to the requirements of the visual spatial working memory (Kim, Relkin, Lee & Hirsch, 1997). In elementary school students the function of visualization, for which the visual spatial notebook is responsible, is just as prominent as the phonological function for which the phonological circuit is accountable. The function of visualization is essential for the learning of the mother tongue as well as the learning of a foreign language, as it is involved in reading and learning vocabulary terms. Finally, according to the third hypothesis, it is expected that bilingual students will perform better on inhibition tasks than monolingual students of the same age (Hypothesis, 3). Michael and Gollan (2005) suggested that inhibition may be what links working memory and language learning. This means that bilingual students can acquire better working memory skills than monolingual students because using two or more languages requires a specific

Participants and settings

10. Instruments

The evaluation of Verbal Working Memory was conducted with the implementation of the Forward Digit Recall and Backward Digit Recall (Georgas, Paraskevopoulos, Bezeveggis & Giannitsis, 1997) whereas Visual Working Memory was assessed with the assessment instrument of Visual Pattern Recall (VPT) (Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano & Wilson, 1999) and Block Backward Test (Farrell Pagulayan, Busch, Medina, Bartok & Krikorian, 2006). Both sub scales are culturally neutral, and they also include general shapes, with no verbal fragments. The following projects were used to evaluate and measure the immediate visual retention of stimuli to investigate the direct involvement of the visual sketchpad: Visual Pattern Test (VPT) and Corsi Block Backward Test (Corsi Bw).

8. Methodology

metacognitive skill, namely that, when using the one language then the other language should not interfere (Morales et al., 2013).

For the purposes of the present research study, 40 elementary school students of the fifth grade aged 11 years were evaluated. More specifically, two groups were created, the experimental group, which consisted of 20 Greek bilingual elementary school students of the fifth grade aged 11 years (10 boys and 10 girls) who spoke French and Greek. The bilingual students were studying in a Greek school in the city of Paris. The control group consisted of 20 monolingual pupils who were 11 years old and studied in the fifth grade at different state schools (10 boys and 10 girls). The Greek speaking monolingual students came from Thessaloniki which is the second largest city in Greece. The participants of both groups came from different socioeconomic strata based on their parents' educational level and profession.

9. Procedure

The examination of all bilingual participants was individual and took place in a quiet school room. The evaluation of monolingual students was administered in a private room after the researchers’ consultation with the parents of the participants. Students who participated in the present study had no official diagnosis of special learning difficulties, mental disabilities (based on their teachers and their parents), or sensory impairments. Prior to the study and in collaboration with the school committees and the principal from every school, parents gave their written consent statement for the participation of their children in this study. Furthermore, for all the principals and the parents of the children an informed letter was obtained in order to clarify the objectives of the study and the anonymity of the participants as well. Additionally, the participants were informed that they were free to withdraw from testing at any time. Parents whose children met the inclusion criteria received a package containing an informative letter about the study and its purpose and a consent form. The data collection was carried out from January 2020 to April of the same year.

10.1

The verbal subtest of Digit Recall test (forward and backward recall) is part of the WISC III standardized Greek version assessment tool (Georgas et al., 1997). The task of digit recall consists of 15 complex gradient arithmetic sequences. In this project, the researchers reads a list of digits or a series of digits at a rate of one digit per second each time, and the participant is asked to recall it in the same order. The use of the Digit Recall Scale aims at evaluating participants' working memory. The task of the individual is to repeat each sequence either from the beginning to the end (straight repeat) or from the end to the beginning (reverse repeat). Each question contains two rows, each with the same number of digits. The first row in the pair is Attempt 1, and the second row is Attempt 2. In the process of direct repetition, the individual is asked to recall a total of eight pairs of rows correctly. Correspondingly for the reverse iteration, it must retract a total of seven pairs of rows. The evaluation process in the straight repetition starts with Question 1, which is given to all participants. The evaluator evaluates both attempts to each question, even if the participant has succeeded in Attempt 1. The main process is interrupted after a failed retry in both attempts. This cut off criterion applies to both straight repeat and reverse repeat questions. The evaluator is required to provide the reverse repetition questions, even if the participant has scored zero points in the direct repetition process.

Backward Digit Recall

Working Memory Measurements

Backward digit recall is preceded by a familiarization process, where the evaluator provides an example of a sequence of digits and the participant is asked to recall it in the reverse order. If the participant answers correctly, the familiarization process is completed and the evaluator answers Question 1. If a wrong answer is given, a second example of familiarization is given. Upon completion of the second example, the evaluator provides Question 1 regardless of whether the participant answered correctly or incorrectly. Each question is scored with 2 points if the participant succeeds in both attempts of the question, with 1 point if he successfully revokes only one of the two attempts of the question, and with zero points if he fails to recall the sequence of digits in both attempts at the question. The total sum of the straight digits recall comes from all the successfully replicated answers. Accordingly, the sum of the correct answers for the backward digit recall is the sum of the correct answers. The degree of the scale is the sum of the units in the two parts of the scale, that is, the total sum of the straight repeat is added to the total of the reverse repeat. The maximum number of points in a forward repeat is 16, while in the backward digit recall, it is 14. The upper point of the scale is 30.

Forward Digit Recall

10.2. Visual Working memory (working memory visual sketchpad) Visual Pattern Recall (Della Sala et al., 1999) This cognitive assessment tool is used to measure visual short term memory. The assessment consists of visual shapes (42 in total), which the participant is asked to reproduce immediately after the presentation. More specifically, the examiner presents a series of tabs in which there are combinations of squares, some of which are black and white. The participant is called upon to reproduce the previously presented image by tinting in the corresponding squares'

response protocol with those originally seen on each tab under consideration.

The complexity of the test varies as it proceeds. The visual shapes vary in size from the smallest (2x2, i.e. two designed squares) to the largest shape (5x6 squares, that is, 15 designed squares). Each card is presented to the participant for three seconds and then removed from his or her field of view and then he or she is asked to reproduce in pencil and paper the shape which he or she has just seen. The answer booklet is placed in front of each participant, with the corresponding blank shapes, which are exactly the same dimensions as the original visual shapes. The criterion for the process interrupting is the unsuccessful reproduction of two visual shapes in each field, regardless of the complexity of the design. Participants are graded in two ways: a) according to the total number of shapes successfully reproduced (Maximum Score = 24, Minimum Score = 0) and b) a field is defined as the sum of the squares of the last field which was correctly recalled (Maximum Score = 8, Minimum Score = 0).

Block Backward Test (Corsi Bw) The Corsi Block Test consists of nine cubes perched on a rectangular wooden surface. Each cube is numbered from 1 to 10 (the numbers are visible only to the researcher). The researcher touches two or three, consecutive cubes at a time and the participant is asked to reproduce the sequence he or she has just seen. Touching each cube takes one second. The difficulty level fluctuates between fields, starting with one cube in the first field and reaching nine in the last one. People with left temporal lobe deficit perform poorly while education and age are factors that influence performance. Each field comprises a total of six attempts. Responses are scored 1 if they are correct and 0 if they are unsuccessful. This score gives the total number of correct answers. The final score corresponds to the sum of the correct answers (Maximum Score = 54, Minimum Score = 0). The mnemonic field score corresponds to the maximum number of cubes contained in the order of the last field which was correctly recalled (Maximum score = 9, Minimum score = 0).

10.3 Measuring Executive Functions

The Stroop Test was used to measure and evaluate students' inhibitory control. The purpose of the Stroop test is to measure the ability the participant has to inhibit and switch a response. The format we used includes a series of repetitive words which are 'red', 'blue', 'green', each of which is printed randomly in red, blue, or green ink. The word may not be written in the respective color of the ink, in other words the word blue may not be written in blue ink but in red ink. This tool consists of three parts. The first part of this tool has three names of colors which are printed in ink (blue, red, green), and the participant is asked to voice the color he or she sees, out aloud. The second part has the XXX symbols printed in color and the job of the participant is to call out the color of the ink which is printed each time. Finally, the third part of the evaluation has color names which are printed in ink but the color of the ink and the word do not correspond, for example, the word red is printed in green. The participant is asked to name the color of the ink, not the printed word. The main purpose here is to encourage the participant to name the color but not to read the word which is presented each time. The total result is derived from the total number of items that the participant will read within 45 seconds. The rating is based on the

tasks

tasks.

Word Recall 22.40 2.83

Backward Digit Recall 14.74 4.02 15.01

43.08

Deviations for

45 23.4 8.61 In

38.07

The data were analyzed using the SPSS 23. Initially, in an attempt to evaluate the data of the current study we evaluate mean differences of the participants from both groups in order to evaluate their cognitive performances in different cognitive tasks. In the next step of the statistical analysis different repeated measures ANOVA (also referred as a within subjects ANOVA)were applied in order to test and detect any overall differences in performances between related means between the bilingual children and monolingual elementary school children in cognitive 1 presents the average and standard deviations of the participants of the two groups' regarding their performance in Working Memory and Executive Control Averages and Standard both groups Students Monolingual Students 2.33 3.36 21.20 2.33 14.57 4.45 Part A 7.61 37.56 10.02 Stroop Part B 7.91 32.76 10.28 Stroop Part C 7. order to evaluate the first hypothesis concerning the possible difference in the performance of both groups (bilingual and monolingual students) the verbal working memory a variance analysis was conducted with independent variables to the participants of both groups and the same goes for the dependent variables of their performance all working memory verbal More specifically, the analysis of variance for the Forward Digit Recall test did not show a statistically significant difference in the performance between the two groups F (2.38) = 4.19, p > .05, whereas a non statistically significant difference in performance was found between the two groups for the Backward Digit Recall Task F (2, 38) = 2.68, p > .05. Concerning the Word Recall test, the analysis of variance did not reveal any statistically significant difference in the performance of the two groups F (2, 38) = 1.69, p > .05. The findings do not confirm the first research hypothesis. It was expected that bilingual elementary school students

Μ.Ο Τ.Α Μ.Ο. Τ.Α. Forward Digit Recall 20.18 7.14 21.20

measures. 11. Results Table

Stroop

28.3

Bilingual

tests. Table 1.

Visual Patterns Recall 18.23 4.03

In order to assess the third hypothesis that bilingual students were expected to perform better in the inhibition control task, an independent variable analysis of variance was performed for the two groups, with a dependent variable being the three different conditions of the Stroop test. In particular, for the first condition of the Stroop test it was found that there was no statistical difference in the performance of the two groups F (2, 38) = 2.09, p > .05. In the second condition of the Stroop test, respectively, no statistically significant difference was found for the performance of the two groups F (2, 38) = 6.98, p > .05. Finally, in the third condition, F (2, 38) = 19.23, p < .05, a statistically significant difference was found, confirming the third hypothesis that bilingual students partially exhibit a significant inhibitory advantage when compared to monolingual students. The findings will be discussed in the ‘Discussion’ section which follows.

will perform better in the Verbal Working Memory tasks compared with monolingual students. In the next part of the analysis, and in order to evaluate the hypothesis that the performance of the two groups will differ in the Visual Pattern task, an analysis of variance was performed. The analysis of variance showed a statistically significant difference F (2, 38) = 19.56, p < .05. The statistically significant differentiation of the two groups in the visual retention task confirms the second research hypothesis.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the inhibitory control and executive functions of bilingual students and to compare their performance with monolingual students of the same age. Forward Digit Recall and Backward Digit Recall were used to evaluate Verbal Working Memory. The visual spatial Working Memory was measured by the Visual Pattern Test and the Corsi Block Backward. Executive functions were examined with the Stroop Test. The results of the research show that the two groups did not differ in their performance on working memory tasks. More specifically, the evaluation of Verbal Working Memory revealed that bilingual students did not perform better in the Forward and Backward Digit Recall sub test. According to literature review, this finding is in line with a number of similar research studies (Adesope et al., 2010. Speidel, 1993). In particular, researchers attribute the results of the findings to the simultaneous activation of the two languages. In addition, they argue that the mechanism with which bilinguals are led to cognitive change is based, mainly, on the need to focus their attention on the language they need. Nevertheless, this finding does not reflect an advantage in their performance in verbal memory tests. Bilinguals and monolinguals did not appear to differ in performance on working memory tasks, such as the Backward Corsi block and the Backward digit recall. This research finding indicates that working memory is a separate function in itself and does not belong to all of the executive Thefunctions.second hypothesis of the research seemed to be confirmed as bilingual students performed better in visual memory. One possible interpretation can be attributed to the fact that bilingual students can be characterized, from birth, by a better ability to retain visual or auditory information and thus, as a result of

12. Discussion

As concerning the screening of inhibition control, it was found that the bilingual students appeared to perform better in the third part of the assessment procedure while, at the same time, they did not differ in the first and second part of the test compared to the performance of the monolingual students. A possible interpretation may be attributed to active processing which they possess and to their continuous mental practice (Aron, 2007). Learning a foreign language from the first years of one’s life is a demanding process in which the individual initially learns separate words, then grammar and syntax, and finally forms sentences. Usually, when trying to express himself or herself in a foreign language, the learner firstly thinks about what he or she wants to say, translates it and expresses it verbally or in writing, having previously suspended his or her impulse to express himself or herself in his or her native language (Aron, 2007). This continual use of inhibition, when using the foreign /second, third, etc. language(s) contributes to faster inhibition and thus to the fewer errors observed in multilinguals in the third part of the Stroop test. These findings are in line with the hypothesis put forward at the beginning of this research, as well as with the findings of other similar research (Bialystok, Luk, Peets & Yang, 2010; Costa, Hernandez & Sebastian Galles, 2008). Finally, the ability to resist advanced interference is part of the inhibitory mechanism. It is well known that the use of foreign languages gives an advantage to bilinguals, multilinguals and linguists over monolinguals as concerning their inhibitory control (Alvarez et al., 2006; Ansaldo, Ghazi Saidi & Adrover Roig, 2015). By attempting to illustrate the complex framework of bilingualism in school populations, this study sought to clarify the relationship between working memory and executive functions in elementary school students. The above findings indicate the need to further study the relationship between working memory and executive functions in bilingual students. In that direction, it would help to provide more sensitive tools for measuring verbal working memory in bilingual populations in order to compare their performance with monolingual students. An important limitation and reflection of research is the fact that cognitive works were used to measure working memory. It has been ascertained that, in all studies examining the function of the memory, all the tasks which are applied aim at measuring short term memory and working memory and do not fully evaluate one at the expense of the other. In addition, the implementation of similar contemporary correlational studies in bilingual adult populations could also contribute to this aim by attempting to explore in depth the link between working memory and executive functions. Moreover, additional measures of literacy skills, including pragmatics, phonetics, discourse analysis, and writing skills, bear a strong relation to working memory and executive functions, thus providing a clear picture of a child’s cognitive profile.

Furthermore, our results, therefore, support the translanguaging goals of the class, namely the juxtaposition of two different languages within the same learning task, in a class setting. More bilingual classes can help to narrow the gap between monolingual and bilingual student’s language proficiency. This is

this advantage, they are able to learn a foreign language more easily (Bialiss et al., 2011). On the other hand, their practice in foreign language learning may strengthen their memory and thus increase their memory span.

This research has important practical implications for assessing culturally and linguistically diverse children and students within the framework of a multicultural environment. Today there is a demand for a variety of methods, approaches, and techniques which are necessary so as to teach bilingual students and which are also based upon a range of principles, pedagogies, and resources for teaching and developing literacies, not only within the realm of the class but also at home with the help of their students’ parents. Good, effective teaching and learning should be based on the knowledge and experiences which bilingual students bring with them to the class. In this framework, dynamic schemata of memory strategies, as mental acts, are proposed in order to enhance academic achievement and reading comprehension so as to minimize language diversity in class settings. More specifically, in the field of reading ability, the cognitive strategy of re reading can be implemented. Reading comprehension is a complex process, which takes place at both a cognitive and at a metacognitive level. As a result, repeated reading strategies contribute to the enhancement of processing and a deeper comprehension of a text, as new skills are automated, avoiding confusion with new or similar material, and thus consolidation is achieved. Furthermore, re reading strategies help students to understand the meaning of the text by generating new information from existing information and filling in the missing information in order to understand its meaning (Sofologi, Efstratopoulou, Kamari, Bonti & Katsiana, 2020). As regarding the reinforcement of the understanding mechanism, it is very important to organize information into cognitive maps (lists, charts, conceptual maps). Additionally, the learner needs to be trained in developing strategies for narrative or informative text summaries (finding the main idea and key information, using questions). The interaction with the text is also of great importance, such as for example underlining keywords, placing question marks next to unknown words (Panteliadou, 2011), etc. Another important memory strategy which can enhance school performance is the key word method. More specifically, the “target key word” is an innovative cognitive task aimed at improving the ability to monitor text comprehension and improve academic performance (Thiede, Anderson & Therriault, 2003). The implementation of this specific strategy allows participants to link the relevant information of the text, which they have stored in their memory, with their prior knowledge, enhancing thereby the comprehension of the specific text (Sofologi et al., 2020).

13. Suggestions for Future Research

crucial because it will help to avoid an erroneous diagnosis and, it will also provide appropriate remediation, which will aid students who belong to the language minority to overcome their language differences. It will also help students to improve their chances of acquiring the same opportunities as the students who belong to the majority language group (de Abreu, Cruz Santos, Tourinho, Martin & Bialystok, 2012). Additionally, the research results raise important issues which relate to the best class practices. Supporting the continuous development of both languages is a key to providing students with a good head start to becoming bilingual and to helping them elevate the status of both languages inside and outside their educational settings.

15. Acknowledgements

Finally, teachers should reshape their attitudes focusing more on their training as well as their individual and professional development, thus forming a more positive in school climate, with fewer reproaches and more praise for all students especially those with learning disabilities. It is needless to say that it is essential to develop a positive climate based on the mutual support and cooperation between the school environment and the family so that this positive interaction can work as a medium to shield, protect and promote the personality of a bilingual child. On the other hand, the professional development of teachers is of vital importance (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Professional development encourages teachers to develop and re organize a wider knowledge ‘setting’ thus becoming more knowledgeable about language and literacy development in bilingual students (Bialystok, Craik, Green & Gollan, 2009). Furthermore, teachers need to develop and document fundamental practices building on the strengths of bilingual students in order to offer real alternatives to current policies and practices.

14. Conclusion

We are grateful to Kiriazi Dimitra, Special Educator, for her contribution and support in the collection of the bilingual sample. We are also grateful to the participants of the present research.

The current study is an attempt to shed light on the complex relationship between working memory and executive functions in bilingual children and to compare them (the bilingual learner) with monolingual children. According to the current research findings the use of a foreign language gives an advantage to bilinguals, when compared to monolinguals as concerning their inhibitory control. More specifically, cognitive flexibility enables individuals to shift between different cognitive processing styles, thereby facilitates decision making, especially in environments characterized by high complexity like language (Guzman Velez & Tranel, 2015). Additionally, both groups did not differ in working memory measurements tasks, such as the Backward Corsi block and the Backward digit recall. This research finding indicates that working memory is a separate function and does not belong to all of the executive functions. Furthermore, the present study emphasizes on the essential practices and training that teachers must enhance in multicultural class settings in order to strengthen the academic development of bilingual children. Finally, the professional development of teachers is of vital importance in order to create an educational context which allows and empowers the fair linguistic and cultural exchange known as “bilingual and cultural awareness” (Tsokalidou, 2005; Ozfidan & Toprak, 2019). This exchange will construct a positive school environment for the holistic development of all students, contributing to the protection of social justice, equity and human rights.

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Universitat

The Impact of Text Messaging as an Instructional Tool to Enhance Learner Autonomy and Perception Behnam Behforouz and Anca Daniela Frumuselu Rovira i Virgili, Spain 0002 0078 2757 0003 4395 7841

Abstract This paper investigates the efficiency of text messaging as an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructional tool to enhance learner autonomy and perception at the Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch, Iran. The study considers seventy four learners to participate in the study after the administration of an Oxford Placement Test to measure their proficiency level. Participants are randomly assigned in experimental and control groups, including 37 participants each. A questionnaire is used as a pretest and posttest to measure learners` autonomy. Participants from the experimental group use text messaging (the treatment) to receive instructions, whereas those from the control group receive traditional classroom instructions in a face to face channel. A semi structured interview is also used to collect date on experimental group participants` perception in using MALL in classrooms. The results reveal remarkable differences between the experimental and control groups’ means on their learner autonomy scores. However, the impact of the independent samples t test has shown that there is no statistically meaningful gender difference among the learners regarding their autonomy scores. The findings based on the semi structured interview showed complimentary views on MALL The current study is beneficial since its outcomes could be relevant for EFL curriculum developers and English language teachers in the use of mobile learning and text messaging in the English classroom.

Keywords: Text Messaging; EFL; Learner Autonomy and Perception; MALL 1. Introduction Interest with the manifestation of communication technology, different aspects of life, including language learning systems, have been changed. This change is produced by communication technology, young people, and the worldwide use of the English language, Buckinghamas (as cited in Hazaea & Alzubi, 2018). In technology development, the mobile phone is commonly used worldwide. The

In this respect, mobile phones are used for different personal objectives, and they can transfer the learning process to a more interesting one while acquiring other language skills. As such, there is a shift in learning context from traditional to digital by emerging technological development such as mobile phones, tablets, pods, pads, personal digital assistants, electronic pocket dictionaries, MP3 players, and other portable devices (Fredrick & Karthikeyan, 2018). The capabilities of these devices are being developed in educational contexts day by day. Regardless of the place and time, their mobility, accessibility, and applications have made them useful in promoting learning. Among other moveable technological devices, cell phones are the most universally functional platform in the educational process. Some research studies have been done based on using mobile phone devices for educational goals, and they have revealed a gradually increasing use among learners (Johnson & Radhakrishnan, 2017; Ng, Hassan, Nor & Malek, 2017; Patel, 2013; De la Fuente, 2014; Ducate & Lomicka, 2009). With regard to the above said, successful foreign/second language learning process requires interaction with people and communication in the target language. In other words, learner`s foreign language skills are strengthened when learners cooperate and interact with others. These interactive and cooperative aspects of learning have been focused due to the rapidly growing interest of the current generation of EFL learners in a digital world. Using mobile phones is an excellent part of their daily experience outside of educational contexts (Ivić & Jakopec, 2017; Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009, Beland & Murphy, 2016). Utilizing mobile learning (m learning), learners can experience multimedia learner centred learning with various activities and enjoy a more interaction focused learning process. M learning gives learners the ability to experience the real world's feelings and emotions via interacting with the real environment, learning materials, and increasing their learning motivation and interest (Huang, Jeng & Huang, 2009; Liu, 2009). It should be mentioned that m learning is not a substitute for today’s existing learning tools and techniques, but is an extension for learning in a new context with modern capabilities. The learners' knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward m learning are very significant because the output quality relies on it. Therefore, MALL is considered as a compelling way to learn a language for a non native person (Krishna, 2020). Among the different types of mobile communication, texts messaging and instant messaging are practical in educational institutions. By definition, text messaging or texting is a two way communication among the phones users through some short, typed messages, so called short message service (SMS) (Kasesniemi & Rautiainen, 2002). Because texting is used pervasively among

flexibility and the other characteristics, such as size, cost effectiveness, and user friendliness, are among the benefits of mobile technology. Since phones have gained strengths, they are inexpensive and easy to use, then, the study of mobile assisted language learning (MALL) changes to be a required field of study. Due to its popularity, it is not rare that it is used as a learning tool.

Considering the resources, opportunities, and collaboration, the process of teaching in the 21st century is regarded as an inspiring activity. The portability of mobile phones has enabled learning independent of place and time, even outside the classroom. In fact, in this digital century, Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has become a good way to support the growth of learner autonomy (LA) in English as a foreign language (EFL) context It has been claimed that learners who are exposed to EFL learning materials can use their smartphone properties, applications and apply learning strategies on their own in an independent learning context to promote autonomous learning skills, and consequently enhance their language competence (Alzubi, 2019; Pollara & Broussard, 2011; Fabian, Topping & Barrons, 2018). Therefore, this study aims to investigate the implementation of text messaging in Iranian EFL university students' abilities in learning a foreign language.

RQ2: Is gender a distinguishable variable in autonomy after using text RQ3messages?

learners (Johnson, 2007; Smith, Salaway & Caruso, 2009), Rahamat et al. (2012) showed that learners whose teachers sent some text messages stayed motivated in the learning process. They were very interested in continuing learning since they had the sense of being appreciated and accepted. Based on this finding, all human activities are arbitrated through culturally defined or created signs or instruments that the ‘subject’ (person) interchanges with the ‘object’ (lesson content) via the application of the mediating devices (mobile technology) to gain the ‘outcome’ (goal) (Cowan & Butler, 2013).

Regarding gender, some of the research studies have found some gender differences in mobile technology usage in some national and cross cultural contexts (Hijazi Omari & Ribak, 2008; Baron & afSegerstad, 2010). A study carried out by Wang, Wu & Wang (2009) who examined the factors dealing with m learning acceptance to investigate age or gender differences. 330 participants were studied in this research, which was done in Taiwan. The findings showed that age and gender differences moderate the effects of social influence on the intent of using m learning. Previous research studies on MALL have tended to find learners' perceptions of the mobile device functions and its function in education (Kim, Rueckert, Kim & Seo, 2013; Stockwell, 2010), yet few studies have investigated learners' perceptions regarding the usage of a mobile device in an educational context. To fill this gap, this present study aims at answering the following research questions: RQ1: Are learners more autonomous in their learning after using text messaging as an instructional tool?

: How do learners perceive the use of MALL in the EFL learning context? Based on the above mentioned research questions, the following null hypotheses are put forward: H01: The Iranian EFL learners are not more autonomous in their learning after using text messaging as an instructional tool.

H02: Gender does not have any significant effect on the learner's autonomy after employing text messages.

According to Sung, Chang and Yang (2015), implementing a mobile phone in language learning contexts can increase the learners' autonomy levels. They mentioned that mobile phones could be helpful for some reason. The primary reason is that by using mobile phones, learners can easily control their own learning. That is to say, learners can use this option to self direct and personalize their learning process with the appropriate learning speed, without time and place restrictions. The second reason for using mobile phones is that they help

Researchers conducted a significant number of discussions and empirical studies on learner`s autonomy and learner`s perception (Little, 1991; Min & Borg, 2018; Tran & Duong, 2018; Yunus & Arshad, 2015). In light of the posited research questions, this section reviews the existing literature and presents theoretical background on learner autonomy and MALL perception in an EFL context.

2.1. The Concept of Learner Autonomy

It can be observed that no general agreement does exist on the learner autonomy among the linguists and the educators. Considering the existing literature, there is the dichotomy of autonomy and independence, each having its own advocates. In this respect, Little (1991) argues that learner autonomy focuses on interdependence over and above independence; and, Dickinson (1994) relates autonomy to the concept of learning by taking active responsibility for one’s learning. Further, Dickinson (1994) defines autonomy as an independent capability that works with the language to communicate personal concerns in real and unpredictable situations. Therefore, language learners need to have the capacity to read between the lines rather than reading the lines while autonomously completing their education. One of the most influential definitions is the one given by Holec (1981), in which he defines learner autonomy as the learners` abilities to take responsibility for their learning. Meanwhile, it includes learners' decision making while learning, particularly in setting learning goals, specifying content and progress, selecting learning methods, monitoring, and assessing learning. It indicates that learners are free to plan and control their learning by choosing what, when, and how to learn following their interests, essentials, and capabilities. As Benson and Voller (1997) state, learner autonomy is suggested to be functional in the following five modes: 1) situations where learners study entirely on their own; 2) a set of skills which can be learned and used in the self directed learning; 3) an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; 4) the exercise of learners' responsibilities for their learning; and 5) the right of learners to determine the direction of their learning. Dickinson (1995) asserts that learner autonomy is a learning behaviour or mechanism, including a learning attitude and an independent learning ability. He refers to attitude as the learners' responsibility to make decisions for their learning and capability as the reflection on decision making and learning.

2.2 MALL and Learner`s Autonomy

2. Literature Review

H03: Learners perceived mobile devices as beneficial tools to improve the teaching and learning processes to a great extent.

2.3. Promoting Learner Autonomy and EFL Teaching

In EFL research studies, learner autonomy plays a central role. Current school curricula and educational paradigms inspire pedagogy for autonomy (Council of Europe, 2001). Accordingly, plenty of scholars have promoted its development, but few have investigated its practice (Benson, 2011; Dam, 2011; Dickinson, 1995; Little, 2007; Miliander & Trebbi, 2011; Trebbi, 2011). It is also crucial to record that teachers play a significant role in the autonomous learning environment as learner`s autonomy relies on teachers who initiate an educational context where autonomy is admitted. In the same context, Camilleri (1999) mentions some attributes that teachers must consider in an autonomous learning exposure involving pedagogical realization, self awareness, and classroom management techniques. Little (1995) asserts that it is hard for learners to accept their learning responsibilities in such a new autonomous type learning environment. Therefore, teachers need to motivate the autonomy of their learners inside of the class. Nunan (1997) discusses that encouraging learners' autonomy has some stages: awareness, involvement, intervention, creation, and transcendence. In the first level, which is awareness, students will be familiarized with the course objectives and materials. In the involvement level, students choose their aim from a variety of available alternatives, and in the next stage they improve and adjust the course objective and content. In the following step, students form their own goals and finally, students use the course content in the authentic settings.

In a study by Sato, Murase and Burden (2015), ninety seven undergraduate students were participated to measure the effect of mobile assisted language learning on the learner’s autonomy. The findings of the study reveal that MALL helps the learners to remember the target language better. Although their questionnaire results are not so remarkable, they concluded that MALL could increase the level of motivation in students learning vocabulary capabilities. In another study by Ramamuruthy and Rao (2015) on seventy students of International College of Automotive (ICAM), based on using mobile phones and the number of learners` autonomy, it has been revealed that the usage of these devices fosters the learners` autonomy to a certain extent In the same vein, Purwaningrum and Yusuf (2019) studied thirty Indonesian graduate students to measure MALL's practicality on learners` autonomy. Results indicate students' satisfaction towards implementing MALL in the educational process, which leads to objectives accomplishment, and learners` autonomy enhancement as well.

students interact and collaborate with their teachers and classmates easily; thus, such collaboration can help learners to expend attention, metacognitive abilities, and reflection. Thirdly, mobile phones allow students to have easy and self access to educational materials designed by the teachers.

A number of eighty eight undergraduate university students with different majors (Chemistry, Civil Engineering, Computer Science, and Electrical Engineering) studying General English at the Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch, Iran voluntarily have participated in this study. To measure the participants' general English proficiency level and to ensure their homogeneity, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) is administered. After the OPT, a number of seventy four students (48 females and 26 males) within the age range of 21 to 26 years old who scored between 28 and 36 points (pre intermediate level) were selected as the study participants who randomly assigned into two groups, i.e., an experimental group and a control one, each including 37 research informants

3. Methodology

2.4 Learners' Perception of MALL

In fact, the field of education has been revolutionized through the manifestation of technology. The application of technology in developed countries in educational institutions and classrooms is becoming a systematic practice. Kim, Ruecker, and Kim (2017) attempt to explore the advantages of learning via cell phone for TESOL learners, and to investigate their learning insights with such a sort of technology. The study recommended effective instructional strategies, continuous technical support, and assistance through professional development training. In another context, Azli, Shah and Mohamad (2018) conducted a study to determine the perception of the application of MALL in ESL college students.

3.1. Participants

This section is meant to present the method used to design the study and how data collection has taken place. In hope to meet the objectives of the present study, an experimental design with the total procedure of sampling, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis are explained in the following sub sections.

The required data were collected through the administration of a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) questionnaire. The findings showed the positive attitudes of the participants in using MALL. More than that, most of the respondents indicate general agreement on both perceived ease of use (PEoU) and constructed perceived usefulness (PU) of MALL. They believed that the practice of MALL could improve the process of teaching and learning.

In another study, Dehkordi and Taki (2018) examined the perceptions of ninety Iranian EFL learners on MALL usage. The study's goal is to find the discrepancies among the Iranian male and female EFL learners' perceptions towards MALL. The study also attempts to reveal the difference between the mobile learning capabilities of the learners. To collect the required data, Mobile Learning Perception Scale that is developed by Uzunboylu and Ozdamli (2011) was used. The findings reveal no remarkable gender difference between Iranian learners in the m learning process. Both genders had positive attitudes on m learning and technology based language learning. Considering the studies mentioned above, there is consistent evidence that learning issues related to learner autonomy and learners' perception of MALL use are influenced not only by mobile phones in general, but also by the involvement with different aspects (e.g., text messaging, SMSs, …) of these instruments.

As far as participants' autonomy is concerned, the 21 item questionnaire designed by Zhang and Li (2004) is used to measure this variable. To calculate the questionnaire's internal reliability that Zhang and Li calculated, Cronbach alpha is therefore used, which turned out to be 0.89. This questionnaire consists of two parts; one part has 11 items through a 5 point Likert scale, which is coded as (A. never; B. rarely; C. sometimes; D. often; E. always), while the second part includes 10. The second part of the questionnaire is in a multiple choice format. The Likert type items are generally considering the principles of learner autonomy in real language learning contexts. In the contrary, the second part of the questionnaire contains 10 forced choice format items, i.e., there is no 'non response' type choice, such as "no idea," "don't know," "not sure', which examines learners' perceptions towards concepts of learner autonomy in depth.

3.2. Instruments To begin with, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was conducted before the treatment to measure the group's homogeneity and if learners had a similar proficiency English level. The allocated time to complete the test is 55 minutes. This test consists of two parts with 60 multiple choice items and close questions. The first part consists of 40 questions and the second part consists of 20 questions. Participants were required to read the items and then choose the correct answers among the choices. According to the test norms, the participants' scores are ranked in 6 levels, from beginners to advanced levels. Table 1 shows the OPT ranking. The sample of the current study is selected based on learners` lower intermediate scores; thus, all the students who scored between 28 and 36 points were considered viable participants for the present research.

They were all Persian native speakers and all of them had a mobile phone to use for the study.

To change the participants` selections to numerical data, the options A, B, C, D, and E are marked one, two, three, four, and five, respectively. 105 is considered as the total mark. The participants were asked to respond to each item, selecting one option among the others. The autonomy questionnaire is administered twice, as the pretest and posttest, to determine the differences between learners' autonomy towards implementing MALL as an instructional tool before and after the treatment.

Table 1. Oxford placement test ranking Levels Range of the scores

Beginner 1 17 Elementary 18 27 Lower Intermediate 28 36 Upper Intermediate 37 47 Advanced 48 55 Very Advanced 56 60

The researcher administered the OPT initially to ensure the participants’ homogeneity prior to the treatment's commencement. Regarding the scoring agenda in OPT, it should be mentioned that each right answer scored as plus one, and there was no negative point for any incorrect or unanswered items of the test. During the reading course in the fall semester of the academic year 2019 2020, the study is carried out over an 18 session treatment during six successive weeks (the participants in the experimental group would receive SMSs three times a week). The same teacher took the responsibility of teaching both groups. The researcher used text messaging to improve learners' autonomy and determine their perceptions toward MALL in the language learning context.

3.3 Procedures

The second step is devoted to the administration of the 21 item autonomy questionnaire as the pretest for learners of both groups to delve into the EFL learners’ hidden layer of opinions and attitudes because scholars believe that questionnaires are the most efficient and economical means of eliciting information (Denscombe, 2014). After finishing the treatment process, the learner autonomy questionnaire is administered for the second time as a posttest to check SMS text messaging effectiveness as the treatment procedure. As a final step, the teacher interviewed the learners in the experimental group to investigate interviewees’ perceptions of MALL Since the semi structured interviews provide more areas for the participants to give out their views on the subject matters (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011), the interview was carried out through a face to face session in English. The interview took about 5 10 minutes,

The third instrument is a semi structured interview prepared and administered to the experimental group by the researchers, including seven open ended questions that treat the aspect of MALL and SMS text messaging in the EFL classrooms. These items are designed to motivate a full, meaningful answer through the participant's own knowledge and/or feelings. It should be mentioned that open ended questions are often more objective and less leading than closed ended ones. Considering the theoretical background and types of questions that the interviewer required to ask, some of the questions were developed in advance (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). The purpose of the interview is to understand learners' perceptions of MALL and mobile phone usage for English learning. To ensure the relevance of the questions to the study's purpose, two EFL teachers validated the questions. They were asked to determine whether questions are relevant with respect to the objectives and whether they are clearly and coherently formulated. They were also requested to jot down some comments on the questions if necessary. The comments given have assisted the investigators to delete and revise some questions. Finally, researchers selected seven questions for the interview to indicate their opinions freely (see Appendix 1). After the treatment procedure, the experimental group participants who were exposed to SMS text messaging over a period of six weeks took part in a face to face interview. The interviewer asked the questions, and the learners were asked to state their perceptions, feelings, and opinions about the use of MALL in EFL classrooms.

This section deals with the analysis and the interpretation of collected data. After collecting the data from the research instruments, descriptive analysis is then carried out focusing on the basic features of the data, and inferentially, trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. To investigate learners’ autonomy and perception towards the use of MALL after being exposed to English learning using text messaging via mobile phones, the quantitative data are analyzed with the Statistical Package for Service Solution (SPSS) program. In order to have homogenous participants based on the General English language level, the OPT was administered, and 74 participants were considered homogenous based on their OPT scores, which ranged from 28 to 36 points that would correspond to the pre intermediate level or B1 level, according to CERF. Table 2 reveals that the mean and the standard deviation of the homogenized participants are 31.66 and 2.22, respectively. This reads that most of the numbers are close to the average; therefore, participants' scores show that they have a homogenous general English proficiency level in the experimental and control groups.

Table 2. The descriptive statistics of the homogenized participants N Min Max Mean SD V Homogenized 74 28.00 36.00 31.66 2.22 4.96 Valid N (listwise) 74 To answer the first research question, an ANCOVA test is run on the learners` performance in the autonomy questionnaire by Zhang ad Li (2004) to compare the autonomy scores between the two groups. In this concern, Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for the autonomy scores of both groups. Both groups' means related to the autonomy scores are 71.05 and 73.94. As can be seen, the standard of error (=.229) shows the standard deviation of the mean within the collected data; the smaller the spread is, the more accurate the dataset is Table 3. The descriptive statistics for the adjusted autonomy scores of the two groups Group_C_E Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound control 71.052a .229 70.596 71.507 experimental 73.948a .229 73.493 74.404

Table 4 below displays the result of the ANCOVA test. Based on the statistics, there is a statistically significant difference between the control and the experimental groups based on their autonomy scores, F (1, 71) = 80.28, p < .05, partial η2 = .53. The partial Eta Squared represents the effect size and is comparable with Cohen`s (1988) guidelines (0.2 small effect, 0.5 moderate effect,

and the learners are interviewed individually. Students are required to talk about their own previous MALL experience, their feeling about text messaging in vocabulary learning, the usefulness of text messaging in EFL classrooms, their ideas about the future implementation of text messaging in EFL learning, and the possible challenges while using text messaging in the EFL classes.

4. Data Analysis and Findings

.038 .059 Pre scores 3042.297 1

Table 4. The result of the ANCOVA for the comparison of the autonomy scores Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta Squared Model 3227.284a 1613.642 834.94 4.47 3042.297 3364.500

Source

Corrected

193 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. and 0.8 large effect). Therefore, the ANCOVA results indicate that there are significant differences between the two groups’ means on their learner autonomy scores. Consequently, the first null hypothesis is rejected. That is to say, using text messaging as an instructional tool had a statistically significant effect on learners’ autonomy.

Table 6. The descriptive statistics for the scores of males and females

.000 .959 Intercept 8.641 1 8.641

After checking the normality of data, the independent samples t test should be used for mean comparison. The descriptive statistics of the two groups are presented in table 6. The mean and standard deviation of the females and males are 70.88, 6.87, and 71, 5.89, respectively.

1574.17 .000 .957 Group_C_E 155.161 1 155.161 80.28 .000 .531 Error 137.216 71 1.933 Total 392327.000 74 Corrected Total

Gender N Mean SD Std. Error Mean Post scores female 26 70.884 6.877 1.348 male 11 71.000 5.899 1.778

The second research question aimed to answer whether gender had any statistical significant role in students' autonomy after receiving text messaging. Prior to the investigation of the second null hypothesis, the two groups (male and female) were compared to their autonomy scores. To check the assumption of normality, the Shapiro Wilk test of normality is used. Assumption of normality means that it must be sure that the data roughly fit a bell curve shape before running specific statistical tests or regression. The Shapiro Wilk test is based on the correlation between the data and the corresponding standard scores. The result of the Shapiro Wilk test of normality in Table 5 reveals that the data are typically distributed for the two sets of scores (Sig>.05). It is worth mentioning that if the Sig. Value of the Shapiro Wilk test is more prominent than 0.05, then the data are considered normal. Table 5. The result of the normality test for the scores of the males and females

Gender Shapiro Wilk Statistic df Sig. Post scores female .976 26 .776 male .963 11 .812

assumednotvariancesEqual .052

The second question sought to find more details about learners' feelings when using mobile devices to work on their English vocabulary. A number of 28 learners mentioned that using text messaging was useful; while 5 learners find it not practical and the 4 respondents state that they have no idea. For the third question, 24 learners considered MALL as useful and beneficial, and 13 others claim that the use of MALL is not helpful because they are concerned about the misuse of mobile phones. They also said that mobile phones are used for social or personal purposes, or for cheating instead of applying for educational purposes. Some state that the use of MALL might be useful in writing classes.

Post scores assumedvariancesEqual .632 .432 .049

Sig. t

.962 .11

for

The independent samples’ t test is run to measure the difference between the mean scores of female and male participants Since the p value is higher than the alpha level (.96 > .05) in Table 7, it shows that there is not a meaningful discrepancy between the male and female participants regarding their autonomy scores t (35) = .049, P> .05. Therefore, it can be concluded that gender does not have any statistically significant role in the students' autonomy who received text messaging for six weeks, so the second null hypothesis is valid Table 7. The result of the independent samples t test for the comparison of males and females Levene's Test Equality Equality Means F df (2Sig.tailed) DifferenceMean Std. DifferenceError 35 2.37 21.911 2.23

of Variances t test for

The third research question sought to find how learners in the experimental group perceive the benefits and challenges of the use of MALL in EFL classrooms. To elicit learners' responses and their feelings about using MALL in their classrooms, a number of 7 open ended questions were asked. The first interview question looked into learners' previous experiences of using MALL (e.g., Whats app, Telegram, SMS text messaging) in the EFL classroom. Out of 37 learners, 32 had no previous experience in EFL studies, and 5 had experience using MALL in their EFL classrooms.

The fourth interview question deals with the learners' future use of text messaging for English learning. 19 participants utter that they feel text messaging would improve their foreign language learning skills, and the

.959 .11

Forsoon.the fifth interview question, a number of 27 participants in the experimental group stated that EFL classes using MALL are more attractive, exciting, and enjoyable, however, it depends on the content, the context, and the way it is being Consideringpresented.the sixth question, a number of 20 learners stated that the use of MALL in EFL classrooms is more productive than without using it. They consider that due to the quick availability of the authentic materials from the World Wide Web, and it can be used immediately to enrich group discussions.

With regard to the above said, nearly all learners had previous MALL experiences in EFL studies. They used mobile phones before, while in the classroom, and after class times to support their learning. Plenty of the participants find the use of MALL for EFL tasks and activities as being advantageous, exciting, fun, and productive. While the vast majority the learners are concerned about using MALL in EFL classes, some of them perceived it as a distraction and as a threat when replacing the teacher, and/or as a tool that is not enhancing oral skills. As a whole, it can be inferred that the overall perception is positive, except a few cases that are concerned about the misuse of the tool in educational contexts.

are consistent with a study carried out by Nasr and Abbas (2018), which examined the role of MALL in improving learner autonomy in the EFL reading context among students of Najran University in Saudi Arabia. The

5. Discussion

remaining ones say it would not improve, and it would definitely be faded away

On the other hand, 10 learners did not agree that the use of MALL in EFL classrooms is more productive. They highlight that technology could not be a replacement for the teacher because the impact of technology mainly relies on the appropriate selection, which aligns with the teaching and learning purposes.

The last interview question asked learners to talk about the difficulties they face while using text messaging in EFL classes. A number of 11 learners state that there is no problem using text messaging in EFL classes. Nevertheless, 26 learners point out some issues, such as the cost of sending messages that keep them from using text messaging as an instructional tool. Some believe that through text messaging, learners are not able to master or practice oral skills.

The present study aimed to address learners' levels of autonomy regarding text messaging and find out their perceptions of mobile devices in the EFL classrooms in Iran. The first research question concerns the difference between learner autonomy of EFL learners exposed to text messaging as an instructional tool and learner autonomy of those exposed to the traditional instruction. Based on the results, participants in both groups (experimental and control) showed a statistically significant difference, considering the level of autonomy. Indeed, integrating m learning with traditional instruction can improve learner Theautonomy.results

The outcomes of the third research question are in accordance with those reported by Ali, Mahmood, Anwar, Khan, and Hussain (2019). They made an attempt to examine the Pakistani`s ESL learners` perceptions of MALL in English language classrooms. Findings read that learners have shown a positive tendency towards applying MALL inside the ESL classrooms. Similarly, White and Mills (2014), based on survey on Japanese students, find that the learners` attitudes regarding the implementation of MALL in EFL setting is improving daily.

third research question, the interview results show that the respondents, who are EFL learners, perceive mobile devices as beneficial tools to improve the teaching and learning process. It can be concluded that the use of MALL in learning contexts gives learners safe access to various resources, provides them diverse activities in English, facilitates their communication and interaction with their teachers and friends.

question investigates whether gender had any statistically significant role in the students' autonomy who received text messaging. The results did not reveal a remarkable difference in the learner autonomy based on their gender in the experimental group. The findings of this study are in agreement with those reported by Lachane and Mazzocco (2006). They state that despite the differences between male and female learners, it can be concluded that autonomous learning strategy through technology is gender friendly and engages learners’ minds on and hands on learning more than the conventional method. Although Abdel Razeq (2014) stated that there is a gap between the performance of learners, but the findings of the current study align with the results of the studies by Varol and Yilmaz (2010), and Mardjuki (2018) which reveal that there is no difference between the genders in learning activities and Consideringperformances.the

Moreover, findings on autonomy agree with those reported by Farangi, Kamyab, Izanlu, and Ghodrat (2017), which examined the impact of SMS on Iranian upper intermediate EFL students' grammar learning. The findings indicate that the implementation of SMS had a major impact on Iranian EFL learners’ grammatical knowledge, and the learners' autonomy is enhanced in their learning. The study's findings also align with what Leis, Tohei and Cooke (2015) report as an improvement in the awareness of the benefits that mobiles can provide for EFL learning. What is more is that learners have increased their learning outside the classroom in their private time and became more Theautonomous.secondresearch

findings show that the learners' LA is increased using MALL to take responsibilities and make decisions regarding reading materials. The results of this study totally correspond with Hazaea and Alzubi (2018) who state that MALL can motivate the modes of learners and autonomous learning in the EFL context, presuming that they are presented by directions on the teachers’ contact hours and free time in order to provide more chances of success and motivate more learner autonomy.

The findings also reveal that it is essential to develop new learning approaches and techniques in Iranian EFL exposures due to technology's insufficiency. The inclusion of MALL in an educational context will be inexpensive yet influential in creating qualified results for the teachers and learners as well. The time and place flexibilities will allow learners to be free from anxiety and mindful in their

The present paper leads to an understanding that text messaging affects Iranian EFL learners' autonomy and their sense of connectedness. Texting is an inseparable aspect of learners' lives; thus, it is crucial for the educational community to know if text messaging can be used as an instructional tool to improve educational achievements and if it is useful to develop and enhance learners' sense of autonomy. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that teachers and instructors should investigate ways to effectively incorporate learners' mobile phones and MALL methodologies in their classrooms. The useful form of implementing any instrument in language learning requires considerate application of L2 pedagogy, which helps learners to be no longer confined to the classroom environment; instead, they advantageously have improved their understanding outside the classroom. It can be considered essential for the language teachers to implement and effectively use mobile learning in the class and model their use for learning in general, hoping that they will use their mobile phones outside the classroom. Helping learners to be aware of their natural and preferred learning style is useful, since it helps in motivating them to move beyond their comfort zone and try out various approaches to learning. Viberg and Grönlund (2012) stated that due to insufficient considerations of students' learning styles and strategies in m learning, more research studies are essential to investigate the area.

Consequently, this paper contributes in the fields of MALL and EFL by providing meaningful insights into the areas of learner autonomy and learners' perception in the Iranian higher level context. The results emphasize that using text messaging as an instructional tool allow students to experience new learning methods, more flexibility, learning choices considering language content, learning space, and time, that in turn improve their learning autonomy.

6. Conclusion

The findings of the current study show positive perception and satisfaction of the studied participants in terms of using MALL in EFL classrooms.

The learner autonomy level depends on the different objective and subjective factors such as personality, age, educational system, etc. However, the main factor is the teachers and the learners' cultural background. This means that autonomy is idealism in some specific cultures, and the teacher has an important responsibility to improve it among the learners so that they can make a knowledgeable choice at various stages of the learning process. This central role of the teacher and some other factors, maintains the teacher centred learning model at all stages. The current study had two main findings: 1) using text messaging as a medium to improve learner autonomy, and 2) gender did not have any role in the autonomy of the students who received text messaging during a period of six weeks.

performances, so the learning process and monitoring will be more straightforward. Besides, the proper use of mobile related technologies inside and outside EFL classrooms facilitate the process of teaching and learning and would be helpful for the learners to learn the language better and gain information in depth. In this vein, language teachers are able to create an appropriate environment for teaching by using technology. However, it should be mentioned that most of the Iranian teachers do not have the required skills for the implementation of MALL in EFL classes. Based on Tai and Ting's (2011) suggestion, educational organizations should be responsible in providing EFL teachers with information and communication technology (ICT) skills for successful MALL implementation in their teaching practices

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3. Do you

6. Do you

5. In your ideas,

4. What is your

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Trebbi, T. (2011). Reinforcing the what, the why and the how: challenges and change for language learner autonomy. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 5(2), 101 110. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2011.577527

Appendix 1 Researcher made questions

2. How do you

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202

1. Have you

you

7. Is

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203 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 203 222, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.12

Online Education

https://orcid.org/0000

1. Introduction Online learning in higher education across the globe has witnessed a surge in demand, driven by the implications of the emergence of the COVID 19 pandemic.

Learning EFL Online During a Pandemic: Insights into The Quality of Emergency Hussein Assalahi King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 0003 4496 4285

Keywords: EFL; community of inquiry framework; teaching presence; social presence; cognitive presence

The International Association of Universities (IAU) Global Survey Report (Marnoni, Land & Jensen, 2020) indicates that almost two thirds of the participating higher education institutions (n=424 universities) reported a complete shift from campus based learning to distance education; vis à vis 'emergency online education'. This transformation has brought about key challenges to effective teaching and learning. These issues echo growing concerns

Abstract. This study investigates English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' perceptions of the causal relationships among teaching, social, and cognitive presences, indicative of a community of inquiry in online EFL course. Their relationships to demographic variables are also explored. There has been a growing interest in using the community of inquiry framework to explore the existence of teaching, social, and cognitive presences as indicative of the quality of online educational experience. The causal relationships among the three presences and whether demographic variables such as gender and program of study predict these presences have not received considerable attention. To examine the relationships among the three presences, the Community of policy,teachingcommunityreveahypothesizedsquaredstructureFactorInquiry(COI)surveyinstrumentwasadministeredto737learnersofEFL.analysiswasperformed,andthefindingsconfirmedthefactoroftheCOI.Inaddition,structuralequationmodellingandChiautomaticinteractiondetection(CHAID)analysesconfirmedthecausalrelationshipsamongthethreepresences.Resultsledthatteachingpresencewasthecorefactorinsustaininganonlineofinquiryandgendersignificantlypredictedperceptionsofpresence.Implicationsforresearchononlinelanguageteaching,andpracticearediscussed.

over disproportionate integration of pedagogical technological approaches to promote learners' inquiry based learning both in language research (Fotos & Browne, 2013; Pederson; 2012) and mainstream education research (Garrison, Cleveland Innes & Fung, 2010; Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). Against this backdrop, computer assisted language learning (CALL) has witnessed a paradigm shift from cognitive to socio cognitive approaches (Bax, 2003; Fotos & Browne, 2013; Henry, 2019). Language acquisition is viewed as a collaborative process socially constructedandsituatedin particularsettings(Block, 2003; Johnson, 2006; Lantolf, 2003). Despite the abundance of research in this field (Blake, 2009; Lamy & Hampel, 2007; Lee, 2014; Pinto Llorente & Sánchez Gómez, 2017), predominantly focused on learners' behaviours and attitudes (Macaro, Handley & Walter, 2018), the dynamic relationships between teaching and learning and the social context of interaction are relatively underexplored. Informed by the community of inquiry framework (COI), the present study explores the causal relationships experienceamongteaching,social,andcognitivepresencesthatframethequalityeducationalinanonlineEFLcourse.

1.2 The COI framework

The community of inquiry framework (COI) has been widely used to guide the effective conduct of online and blended learning in higher education settings (Garrison, 2017). The assumptions of COI (Figure 1) are grounded in the pursuit of higher order learning within a community of learners engaged in critical reflection and discourse (Garrison et al., 2010, p. 32). To sustain a sense of community, COI suggests that three elements frame meaningful online experience (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007): 1) the teaching presence (TP), 2) the social presence (SP), and 3) the cognitive presence (CP). However, it is through the interaction and overlap among these three presences that a more profound and meaningful online experience can be generated and attained. TP is the building block of a community of inquiry, enabling learners to achieve cognitive and social dimensions of learning (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000, p. 24). Teaching can be sustained in an online learning community through three components: 1) the design and organization of the course overall framework, curriculum, teaching methods, structure, interaction, and assessment of learning, 2) facilitation of interaction among students and their engagement with content, and 3) direct instruction through sharing knowledge, enhancing reflection and metacognitive skills and providing proportionate feedback. Teaching presence plays a crucial role in predicting students' satisfaction, perceived learning, and a sense of community (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). The instructional design envisages the prime role of a teacher in creating meaningful experiences that go beyond providing access to online materials. It aims to "facilitate the creation of communities of learners actively and collaboratively engaged in exploring, creating meaning, and confirming understanding." (Garrison et al., 2010, p. 352)

SP is defined as "the ability of learners to project themselves socially and emotionally, thereby being perceived as 'real people' in mediated communication" (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007, p. 159). SP consists of three elements: affective expression, open communication, and group cohesion. It enhances learners' sense of belonging through facilitating communication with the community members. This way, learners feel their views are valued and can express themselves within a trusting environment without fear of insecurity, isolation, and discouragement (Lambert & Fisher, 2013).

CP describes “the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse in a critical community of inquiry" (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 5). Based on collaboration and continuous reflection, communication, and critical inquiry, learners can construct new forms of knowledge. Cognitive presence in the COI framework includes four phases of inquiry: 1) the triggering event in the form of a problem of investigation, 2) exploration, where learners gather information to solve the issue under investigation, 3) integration of ideas collected individually and collaboratively to construct knowledge, and 4) resolution is attained by learners' collaborative agreement to the solution to the problem under investigation (Akyol & Garrison, T2011).hethree presences are dynamic and interrelated to generate meaningful educational experiences in particular online settings. To point out the complexity of learning process represented by the COI framework, two lines of previous research investigating the multivariate relationship among the three presences will be outlined. A significant body of mainstream education and language research has, for the most part, focused on validating particular aspects of the COI framework (e.g.,Alavi &Taghizadeh 2013; Ke, 2010; Lambert & Fisher, 2013). This line of research has been critiqued for contradicting the assumptions of the COI framework which emphasize that learning occurs due to the interplay among the three presences (Kozan & Richardson, 2014a). Emerging research interest has thus addressed the need to evaluate the model as a whole through examining the Figure 1: The COI framework (adapted from Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000)

causal relationships among the three presences (Akyol & Garrison, 2008; Arbaugh et al., 2008; Kozan & Richardson, 2014b; Archibald; 2010; Garrison et al., 2010; Lee, 2014; Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). The findings of this line of research confirm that TP and SP predict CP (Garrison et al., 2010) and that SP plays a mediating role between TP and CP. Others (e.g., Shea & Bidjerano, 2010) suggested adding the construct of learning presence to the COI framework to account for self regulation elements such as metacognition, motivation, and behaviours. However, this contention still draws heated debates about whether adding a fourth element to the COI framework is needed since 'co regulation' is an integral element of the three presences (Akyol & Garrison, 2011; Garrison, 2017). Finally, the literature surveyed located only one study conducted in the Saudi context, which investigated the correlation of the COI framework to students' satisfaction with the online program at a Saudi University (Alaulamie, 2014). It also validated the hypothesized relationship among COI presences.

While there is a lack of research examining the causal relationships among the three presences in online language learning environments, a growing body of language research has examined the impact of the COI on learning behaviours, students' achievement, and satisfaction. Three studies thatillustratethis effect will be examined. Goda & Yamada (2013) found that TP and CP were correlated with students' satisfaction in asynchronous online discussions. A higher number of discussion comments significantly correlated with teaching and social presences, and higher students' satisfaction correlated strongly with TP, SP, and CP. Asynchronous discussions in online communities of inquiry are effective learning tools because learners can "apply and practice what they have learned" and "express their ideas and communicate with others" (Goda & Yamada, 2013, p. 296). Similar findings were reported by Asoodar et al. (2014), who found out that blogs, besides other applications that enhance collaboration and communication, influenced students' learning satisfaction and academic performance. They posit that the COI framework intervention enabled students to create and engage in a community of inquiry with a strong sense of SP, which positively affected the CP. Students with a strong sense of community also showed better academic performance. Their collaboration in online writing blogs helped them co construct knowledge with the support of peers and learning materials. Olesova et al. (2011) found that teachers' audio feedback was perceived by EFL and ESL students to be better than text feedback. Still, no significant differences in preferences were found between the two groups. However, the teaching presence as an audio mode feedback was perceived to be more effective for ESL students. The written feedback was more effective in enhancing both groups' cognitive presence and satisfaction levels. The different preference was assigned to EFL students' inclination towards rereading teachers' comments, while ESL students preferred reflecting on teachers' pronunciation and enhancing comprehension.

Finally, interest in examining the impact of learners' characteristics such asgender has grown considerably due to gender-based achievement gaps in online learning environments both in the Saudi context and internationally (Adamus, Kerres, Getto & Engelhardt, 2009; Al Lily, 2011). These variables have been reported to influence learners' satisfaction, sense of community and engagement, retention,

2.1. Data collection

(4) What item level responses of the teaching and social presences reflect their significance in predicting cognitive presence?

An adapted version of the Community of Inquiry Framework Survey (Arbaugh et al.,2008)wasemployed as thedatacollection instrument(Appendix.1). Seminal work in the field (e.g., Garrison et al., 2010; Shea & Bidjerano, 2009) suggests that the COI survey is a valid and reliable instrument for investigating the interaction and overlap among TP, SP and CP in online learning environments to generate meaningful learning experience. The 34 item questionnaire examined the three presences; 13 questions examined TP, 9 questions examined SP, and 12 questions examined CP. The responses were elicited by the 5 point Likert scale (1=strongly agree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5=strongly disagree). The survey also obtained demographic information about gender and program of study.

(3) Do gender and program of study predict each of the three presences?

2. Methods

A sample of 737 was randomly selected from a list of EFL foundation year students The sample represents students from two campuses (male and female campuses). Students study the foundation program through Blackboard as the

The purpose of this quantitative research study was to examine EFL learners' perceptions of the relationships among the three presences in learning English as a foreign language online. The causal research design was adopted to investigate the causal relationships among the COI factors (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009), in different settings (Garrison et al., 2010).

(2) Do the three presences correlate by the COI framework?

and educational effectiveness (Al lHassan & Shukri, 2017; Garrison et al., 2010; Rovai & Baker, 2005; Shea & Bidjerano; 2010). Research also indicates a direct effect of gender on teaching presence (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Garrison et al., 2010). Evidence suggests that women have greater motivation in online English language learning environments than men (Wang & Zhan, 2020). Al lHassan and Shukri (2017) reported similar findings and indicated that Saudi female students were highly satisfied with the learning management system's resources' richness. However, women's persistence in online programs is hampered by "multiple responsibilities, insufficient interaction with faculty, technology, and coursework" (Müller, 2008, p. 1). The program of study is another variable of interest in this research study due to its potential to influence the relationships among the COI presences (Garrison et al., 2010). The studies conducted in EFL contexts provide significant insights, especially regarding the impact of the COI framework in designing the course content on perceptions of thepresences.However, the causal relationships among these presences are not fully understood This study set out to address these limitations and answer the following research questions:(1)Do teaching, social and cognitive presences explored in an online EFL course result in coherent factor structure of COI?

2.2. Sampling

2.4. The English Language course

The data were first checked for reliability and validity of instrument scores, missing values, univariate and multivariate outliers, and assumptions of

The population of this research study were undergraduate students enrolled in a preparatory year program to study the English language as an admission requirement prior to pursuing undergraduate degree programs. Students are admitted into two programs based on their major of interest. These are academic English for the sciences track and general English for the art track. For each track, students are assigned into four language levels based on placement test results. There is a minimum linguistic achievement requirement for each level, which is benchmarked with the corresponding European Framework of Reference (CEFR) level. The course design follows a modular approach, and each module lasts for eight weeks. The instruction is usually conducted face to face with an online written component (via Blackboard) for assessment purposes. However, due to Coronavirus (COVID 19) pandemic, learning shifted to fully online education through learning management systems (Blackboard). This transformation has entailed a change in assessment policy for both tracks. Thus, there are three types of assessment that make up the overall assessment for each module. These comprise ongoing module work and final computer based test (CBT). The ongoing module work includes written assignments such as daily activities and discussion forums. Each student is required to complete and submit these assignments through Blackboard.

2.3. Piloting The COI survey instrument, which has been widely used, validated, and translated in different languages, was first translated in Arabic to check for conceptual and cultural equivalence of the COI. This process was achieved through forward, backward, and expert panel translation approaches. The researcher translated the COI items into Arabic, and then two TESOL Ph.D. holderswere convened to identifyandresolve problematic issuesin the translated COI. Discrepancies between the twoversionswere identified, andthen alternative expressions were suggested and included in the final version of the survey. It was then piloted with a class of 35 EFL students to check for linguistic, conceptual, and cultural ambiguities and all respondents reported no issues or complaints. The final version of the questionnaire was emailed to all foundation year students at the end of the English Language course (module 3) in the second semester at a university in Saudi Arabia.

2.5. Data preparation

main learning management system and also go through the same assessment procedures The programs’ instructors receive the same professional development support. Female students (n=396) represented 53% of the sample while male students (n=341) accounted for 46.3%. 70% of these students (n=516) were general English track students, and 30% (n=221) were academic English track students. An accessible URL link to the electronic version of the COI Survey instrument was emailed to all participants The informed consent form was included in the questionnaire, which identified information about the study and the ethical guidelines of investigation.

Table 2:

Analysis. Rotation

Data were also screened for multivariate outliers using a z scores criterion, and as Osborne (2014) suggests, standardized z scores greater than ±3.29 should be excluded. The minimum z score was 2.80 and the maximum was 1.23, and in this case, no outliers were identified. Data were also checked for univariate normality distribution assumption, and despite conducting relevant transformations of variables, most variables were not normally distributed and had kurtosis greater than +1.00.However, theassumption ofnormality,which is susceptible to alarger sample size (Field, 2009), was accepted because these variables were within an acceptable ±3 range (Kline, 2010). Multivariate normality was assessed using Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS), and results showed acceptable normality. While the linearity and homoscedasticity assumptions were violated in this study, according to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), it was still possible to proceed with the statistical analysis. Finally, collinearity was tested using the correlation matrix, and multicollinearity was measured by tolerance and the variance inflation indicators (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Component Correlation Extraction Method: Principal Component Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization.

Table (2) shows that all correlations among independent variables are within the acceptable range (≤.90). Value of tolerance was greater than .10, cutoff, 0.1, and variance inflation factor (VIF) was greater than 10. Therefore, no multicollinearity issues were detected. The Cronbach's Alpha indicated an excellent internal consistency reliability coefficient all presences; Cronbach α.98 for the teaching presence, Cronbach α.95 for the social presence, Cronbach α.97 for the cognitive presence.

209 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. normality. The descriptive statistics obtained through the SPSS (Table 1) indicate that no missing values were observed for all the variables. Table 1. Descriptive statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Teaching Presence 737 3.90 0.98 Social Presence 737 3.76 0.99 Cognitive Presence 737 3.68 0 99 Valid N (listwise) 737

for

Matrix Component 1 2 3 Teaching presence 1 0 74 .67 Social Presence 0 74 1 78 Cognitive Presence 0.67 0 78 1 Note:

and

Figure 2: Scree plot of the eigenvalues

3. Findings

These findings indicate that there is sufficient significant correlation in the data for factor analysis. Primary factor loading of ≥ 0.4 was achieved, and there were no cross loadings of the factors. Table (3) shows that all components loaded heavily onto the appropriate factors; 13 indicators loaded onto teaching presence, 9 indicators loaded onto social presence, and 12 indicators also loaded onto cognitive presence. This suggests that the three factor solution provided clean factor loadings. The Eigenvalues indicated that the three factors representing TP=65.93%, SP=7.14%, and CP=3.51% of variance accounted for the relevant variables and all factors accounted for 76.51 of the variances. The correlations between the three factors and the relevant variables confirm the hypothesized correlations between the three presences. These were 0.74 between cognitive presence and teaching presence, 0.67 between social presence and teaching presence, and .78 between social presence and cognitive presence. The Eigenvalues in the Scree Plot (Figure. 2) indicate that the three factor solution would describe the data well.

3.1 Factor analysis To answer question one, principal component analysis with Promax rotation was used to extract the three factors representing the 34 items COI survey. As an oblique rotation method, Promax assumes that correlation exists between and among components (Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson, 2019; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The aim was to examine the factorability of the 34 COI items into the three components and assess the strength of correlation among these. Kaiser Normalization was applied and factors loading greater than 0.4 have been extracted. The Kaiser Meyer Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0 98, above the commonly recommended value of .70, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was significant (χ2=32016.59), the p value was (.000<).

24.

12.

31.

16.

11.

10.

13.

17.

20.

34.

21.

27.

25.

15.

23.

26.

30.

14.

19.

32.

28.

18.

33.

29.

22.

Table 3: Factor loadings of the COI Framework Components TP CP SP The instructor clearly communicated important course goals. 0.822 The instructor was helpful in guiding the class towards understanding course topics in a way that helped me clarify my thinking. 0.80 The instructor clearly communicated important course topics. 0.79 The instructor provided clear instructions on how to participate in course learning activities. 0.79 The instructor encouraged course participants to explore new concepts in this course. 0.78 The instructor was helpful in identifying areas of agreement and disagreement on course topics that helped me to learn." 0.78 The instructor helped keep the course participants on task in a way that helped me to learn. 0.78 The instructor clearly communicated important due dates/time frames for learning activities. 0.75 The instructor helped to keep course participants engaged and participating in productive dialogue. 0.74 Instructor actions reinforced the development of a sense of community among course participants. 0.74 The instructor helped to focus discussion on relevant issues in a way that helped me to learn. 0.74 The instructor provided feedback in a timely fashion. 0.71 The instructor provided feedback that helped me understand my strengths and weaknesses relative to the course’s goals and objectives. 0.42 I have developed solutions to course problems that can be applied in practice. 0.76 I can describe ways to test and apply the knowledge created in this course. 0.75 I felt motivated to explore content related questions. 0.75 Course activities piqued my curiosity. 0.73 I can apply the knowledge created in this course to my work or other non class related activities. 0.71 Learning activities helped me construct explanations/solutions. 0.71 Problems posed increased my interest in course issues. 0.72 Reflection on course content and discussions helped me understand fundamental concepts in this class. 0.68 Brainstorming and finding relevant information helped me resolve content related questions. 0.68 I utilized a variety of information sources to explore problems posed in this course. 0.65 Combining new information helped me answer questions raised in course activities. 0.65 Online discussions were valuable in helping me appreciate different perspectives. 0.61 I felt comfortable interacting with other course participants. 0.78 I felt comfortable conversing through the online medium. 0.77 I felt comfortable participating in the course discussions. 0.76 Online discussions help me to develop a sense of collaboration. 0.72 Online or web based communication is an excellent medium for social interaction. 0.69 I felt comfortable disagreeing with other course participants while still maintaining a sense of trust. 0.67 I was able to form distinct impressions of some course participants. 0.66 I felt that my point of view was acknowledged by other course participants. 0.66 Getting to know other course participants gave me a sense of belonging in the course. 0.62

3.2. Structural equation model To answer questions two and three, the COI model was tested using the structural equation model (SEM). SEM is a data analysis technique used to create path analysis to assess the relationships among observed and latent variables (Kline, 2010). It is used in this research to examine the hypothesized causal relationships among the 34 COI items (observed variables) and how these define the three presences (latent variables) of the COI model. The direct and indirect effects (Table 4) of gender and academic program on the three presences are also examined. AMOS graphical interface (SPSS Inc.) version 18.0 was used to visualize SEM.

The covariance structure analysis was achieved by comparing the hypothesized and observed covariance matrices, and hypothesized structural relationships were confirmed. Maximum likelihood estimation was used to assess the overall fit of the model (Bollen & Noble, 2011). The Fit indices produced were (Chi Square=2814.80, df=577,GFI 0.82, CFI 0.93, SPMR 0.04, and RMSEA .073, TLI=0.92 and P of close fit 0.00) which suggested a good model fit consistent with the sample size (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2010). The model (Figure. 3) shows that students' perception of teaching presence significantly predicts perceptions of cognitive presence, and the hypothesized mediating effect of social presence was confirmed as significant as well.

Figure 3: Model of the standardized relationships among teaching, cognitive and social presences

Table 4: Standardized and unstandardized path coefficients total coefficient coefficient Effect Effect Effect EffectTotal Gender to TP 0.39 0.39 0.20 0.20 Track to TP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.98 Gender to SP 0.03 0.34 0.02 0.17 0.58 TP to SP 0.79 0.79 0.75 0.75 Track to SP 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.56 SP to CP 0 60 0 60 0.62 0.62 Track to CP 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.38 TP to CP 0.36 0.83 0.35 0.82 ** Gender to CP 0.04 0.39 0.02 0 20 0.21

effects Path Unstandardized

and

Direct

standardized

P value Direct

3.3. CHAID analysis To answer question four, Chi square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) was used as a multivariate analysis to model the hypothesized relationship among the COI three presences where TP and SP can explain the development of CP. CHAID algorithm is a non parametric method of analyzing structural relationships among categorical, nominal, or ordinal response and predictor variables (Field, 1977). It has many advantages as it does not require normality, homogeneity, and linearity assumptions of the data to be met (Magidson & Vermunt, 2005). It produces a decision tree that visualizes the relationship between the categorical dependent variable and independent variables. The three factors are considered nominal variables, while the 34 items are ordinal variables. CP is the dependent variable, whereas TP and CP are the independent variables. Unlike the results drawn from the structural equation model, which categorizes the coherent items of cognitive presence, CHAID analysis visualizes the most significant items in social and teaching presences that greatly influence cognitive development (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009. Through this, it was possible to detect the highest and lowest level items from the teaching and social presence that segments students' perceptions of higher and lower cognitive presence.

Total

The results of the CHAID procedure (Figure. 4) indicate that the model contains 11 nodes within three levels of the tree depth. The most significant independent variable is item 22 of the social presence indicator (online discussion helps me to develop a sense of collaboration). This indicates that it is the variable that is most strongly associated with CP, and therefore, it has the largest potential for sorting students into cognitively present learners. It splits the root node (CP) into five groups (nodes1 5), and the majority of participants (n=312) belong to node 4 (neutraland agree). Indicator 11 of the TP indicator (Theinstructorhelpedto focus discussion on relevant issues in a way that helped me to learn) has the most influence on CP. The respondents were split into two groups; 262who are neutral in predicting the highest impact (3.93) and 50 neutral who were predicting the lowest impact on CP. On deciding whether to retain this finding, it is important to consider current debates on the issue of neutrality or mid point position in attitudinal or survey research. It is not clear whether this neutral position is genuine, and therefore this ambiguity may reduce research reliability and validity

(Sturgis, Roberts & Smith, 2014). As they suggest, "this ambiguity can only be resolved by the administration of follow up probes" (p.35), and this may be pursued in future studies. Further analysis of this node resulted in indicator 6 of TP (The instructor was helpful in guiding the class towards understanding course topics in a way that helped me clarify my thinking) as the third most statistically significant indicator predicting CP. It splits respondents into two groups. The highest number was 207respondents who reported that item 6 predicts 28.1% impact on the cognitive presence.

4. Discussion This paper aimed to examine EFL learners' perceptions about the causal relationships among the three COI presences and the impact of gender and academic program on the realization of these presences. First, the internal consistency reliability of the adopted COI instrument was high, as also suggested in some seminal work in this field (Alaulamie, 2014; Arbaugh et al., 2008; Garrison et al., 2010; Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). The factor analysis findings indicated that 76.51% of the variance in students' perceptions was explained by the three Figure 4: CHAID analysis of cognitive presence scores

Indicator 10 of TP factor (Instructor actions reinforced the development of a sense of community among course participants) has the second most significant impact on cognitive presence as 207 respondents agree that item 10 has 28.1 impact on CP. 146 of these respondents were assigned the highest position in predicting this association at 19.6%, while 61 respondents reported that indicator 10 predicted 8.3% of the impact on cognitive presence.

presences of the COI framework. This means that three presence heavily existed in the EFL online course due to the dynamic interplay among these (Garrison et al., 2010). It seems that the course design supports and encourages the formation of a community of inquiry to develop communicative language skills among learners, as alsosuggested in similar studies(Goda & Yamada, 2013; Ke,2010; Lee, The2014).findings of the structural equation modelling confirm the hypothesized causal relationships among the three presences of the COI framework. TP was perceived as the most fundamental element in shaping learners' meaningful and successful educational experience. It was perceived to directly predict SP and CP and SP predicted CP. These findings are consistent with research conducted on COI both in language acquisition and mainstream education research. Garrison et al. (2010) reported a moderate fitting model in which TP was the core factor in establishing and maintaining an effective community of inquiry in an online learning environment, and SP performed a mediating role to help learners actively construct knowledge. Shea and Bidjerano (2009) also reported a good fitting model that confirms the core function of teaching presence in cultivating a thriving community of inquiry. TP and SP directly predicted CP, and SP was perceived to predict CP indirectly. The causal relationships confirmed in this research study highlight the critical roles teaching and social presences play in designing and cultivating inquiry engendered learning environments that stimulate higher order thinking and critical discourse (Kozan & Richardson, 2014a; Garrison et al., 2010; Garrison, 2017). In such environments, learners can construct knowledge through scaffolding, reflection, collaboration, and dialogue. In addition, findings from the structural equation model in this research study confirm findings reported in the literature (Garrison et al., 2010; Shea & Bidjerano, 2009) that the cultivation of CP can be predicted by TP and SP and that SP plays a mediating role to enhance students' engagement in inquiry enriched environments. CHAID analysis results in this study also confirm that SP and TP account for higher levels of CP. Specifically, SP indicator 22 and TP indicators 11 and 10 correlate with variancein learners' CP. Thisfindingis consolidated by Shea and Bidjerano (2009), who reported that high CP was attributed to SP. However, while in this study, the online discussion helped learners develop higher levels of cognitive presence, for She and Bidjerano (2009), it was the level of comfort that enabled higher levels of cognitive engagement. In this study, the most significant impact on cognitive presence was attributed to online discussion. This finding suggests that teachers utilized synchronous chat functions and discussion boards in Blackboard to enhance students' collaboration and discussion to attain higher cognitive presence levels. The lower levels of CP can be predicted by lower levels of online discussions and lack of a sense of collaboration. This result supports the idea that attention should be paid to emotional aspects of learning, such as the feeling of comfort in participation as suggested by shea and Bidjerano (2009), and engaging students in online collaborative discussion activities. The impact of TP in directing SP and CP reported in this research is in contrast with the findings of Lee (2014), who indicated minimal teacher intervention, and as a result, only SP predicted CP. This finding confirms the COI framework principles, emphasizing that learning is a collaborative process of all the three presences (Kozan &

The findings of this research also indicate that gender predicts perceptions of TP in a community of inquiry in online learning environments. Shea and Bidjerano (2009) confirmed that gender significantly correlated with TP. The program of study (general or academic English track) in this research did not, however, predict any of each of the presences. This outcome is contrary to previous studies (e.g., Garrison et al., 2010), which have suggested that the program of study significantly predicted CP. Contradictory results were also reported by Shea and Bidjerano (2009), who found that the academic program of study predicted teaching presence. On reflection, it is reasonable to suggest that gender variance in the context of this research study can be assigned to the social richness women experience in online learning environments (Rovai & Baker, 2005). As Al lHassan and Shukri (2017, p. 200) confirm, Saudi female students' satisfaction with online learning is assigned to "appropriateness, variety of activities in contents and forms" and teachers' roles in motivating students in online environments. Since the tutors for female students in the context of this study are females, it is reasonable to suggest that students' satisfaction is brought about by "some aspects of academic practice" including "relations with tutors and tutorial practice." (Richardson and Long, 2003, p.240). Future research is called for to explore this relationship. Finally, the neutral effect of the program of study can be assigned to the shared goal of learning English as a foreign language to attain the required language proficiency irrespective of the major of study.

Richardson, 2014b). That is, teachers in this study could use the chatbox to design, facilitate, and direct instruction (TP). Students then can address triggering events, explore, integrate, and resolve problem questions (CP). This process can be facilitated through open communication, affective expression, and group cohesion (SP). These results confirm the findings of previous research (Asoodar et al., 2014; Goda & Yamada, 2013) regarding the effect of TP and SP in directing synchronous (and asynchronous) communication (chats, emails, and forum discussions) to the attainment of CP. The communicative competence, oral proficiency,and grammaticalawarenesswere reported in theliterature toindicate SP and CP enhanced through TP in online learning environments (Goda & Yamada, 2013; Olesova et al., 2011). While investigating linguistic skills is beyond the scope of this study, it can be argued that the teaching presence orientated learners to engage in meaningful collaborative and communicative activities. The sense of collaboration demonstrated by using the synchronous chatbox both by teachers and students during online classes seem to enhance learners' communicative competence. Indicator 10 of TP seems to motivate teachers to utilize synchronous chatbox or asynchronous discussion boards to encourage learners to socialize, communicate, and provide and receive spontaneous feedback. Similar findings were reported by Olesova et al. (2011), who indicated that teachers' audio feedback enhanced learners' cognitive presence. Confirming this finding, Goda and Yamada (2013) demonstrated a significant relationship between SP and discussion comment number. Moreover, students' contributions to the discussion were correlated with design and organization in TP, suggesting that student contribution to discussions in an online COI is enhanced by TP

6. Conclusion

7. References Adamus, T., Kerres, M., Getto, B., & Engelhardt, N. (2009, March 5 9). Gender and e tutoring: A concept for gender sensitive e tutor training programs. Paper presented at the 5th European symposium on gender and ICT digital cultures: Participation Empowerment Diversity, 2009, University of Bremen, Germany (pp. 5 7). Retrieved from bremen.de/soteg/gict2009/proceedings/GICT2009_Adamus.pdfhttp://www.informatik.uni Akyol, Z., & Garrison, D.(2008).The developmentof a communityof inquiryover time in an online course: understanding the progression and integration of social, cognitive, and teaching presence. JournalofAsynchronousLearningNetworks, 12(3 4), 3 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.24059/olj.v12i3.66

The findings reported in this study confirm the established causal relationships among the COI presences and highlight that TP is a crucial indicator in the cultivation of a community of inquiry in online learning settings. It also confirms that the COI framework is a useful tool to uncover the dynamic relationships among TP, SP, and CP in different sociocultural settings, such as those reported in this study. It also suggests that the COI framework is valuable in providing insights into the existence of the three presences in online learning environments as indicators of the attainment of quality educational experience, especially at times of crises such as Covid 19. In addition, the results reported in this study suggest that the COI framework proves valuable as a tool for online language education. It also provides significant insights into how the design of online language courses can enhance language learners' SP and CP. The dynamic relationships among the three presences uncovered in this study suggest that learners' positive experiences can be predicted by the learning affordances that enable learners to develop communicative competence and oral proficiency and leads to an overall positive linguistic achievement (Goda & Yamada, 2013; Olesova et al., 2011). The implication for practice is that EFL teachers play an essential role in enhancing class interactions to develop learners' communicative competence and promote situated language learning (Bax, 2003; Block, 2003).

A potential limitation of the research reported in this study is the relatively small sample size. An implication of this is the Chi square test, which is susceptible to the limitations of the correlational design of the study, and therefore the findings of the study should be explained in light of these limitations. Additionally, owing to the design of the study, it was not possible to identify what tools other than synchronous chatbox and discussion boards have enhanced the social presence. Moreover, in the absence of collaborative activities such as shared project work, it was difficult toidentifywhatlanguage skillswere developed in an onlinelearning environment due to teaching and social presence. More qualitative research is therefore needed to explore the effect of the COI framework on language skills development. Despite these weaknesses, the study provides a strong case to support using the COI framework as a reliableinstrument for EFL researchers and practitioners in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere to assess perceptions and experiences of learning English online.

5. Limitations

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5. The instructor was helpful in identifying areas of agreement and disagreement on course topics that helped me to learn.

13. The instructor provided feedback in a timely fashion. Social Presence Affective expression

14. Getting to know other course participants gave me a sense of belonging in the course. I was able to form distinct impressions of some course participants. Online or web based communication is an excellent medium for social interaction.

16.

15.

9.learn.The

221 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1. Community of Inquiry Survey Instrument (draft v14) Teaching Presence Design & Organization 1. The instructor clearly communicated important course topics. 2. The instructor clearly communicated important course goals. 3. The instructor provided clear instructions on how to participate in course learning 4.activities.Theinstructor clearly communicated important due dates/time frames for learning activities. Facilitation

10. Instructor actions reinforced the development of a sense of community among course participants. Direct Instruction

6. The instructor was helpful in guiding the class towards understanding course topics in a way that helped me clarify my thinking.

7. The instructor helped to keep course participants engaged and participating in productive dialogue.

8. The instructor helped keep the course participants on task in a way that helped me to instructor encouraged course participants to explore new concepts in this course.

11. The instructor helped to focus discussion on relevant issues in a way that helped me to 12.learn.The instructor provided feedback that helped me understand my strengths and weaknesses relative to the course’s goals and objectives.

26.

30.

21. I felt that my point of view was acknowledged by other course participants. Online discussions help me to develop a sense of collaboration. Cognitive Presence

18.

Triggering event Problems posed increased my interest in course issues. Course activities piqued my curiosity. I felt motivated to explore content related questions. Exploration I utilized a variety of information sources to explore problems posed in this course. Brainstorming and finding relevant information helped me resolve content related discussions were valuable in helping me appreciate different perspectives.

Source: (http://www.thecommunityofinquiry.org/CoISurveyDraft14b1.pdf)

27.

19.

33.

23.

34.

28.questions.Online

22.

Open communication 17. I felt comfortable conversing through the online medium. I felt comfortable participating in the course discussions. I felt comfortable interacting with other course participants. Group cohesion I felt comfortable disagreeing with other course participants while still maintaining a sense of trust.

24.

20.

Integration 29. Combining new information helped me answer questions raised in course activities. Learning activities helped me construct explanations/solutions.

25.

31. Reflection on course content and discussions helped me understand fundamental concepts in this class. Resolution 32. I can describe ways to test and apply the knowledge created in this course. I have developed solutions to course problems that can be applied in practice. I can apply the knowledge created in this course to my work or other non class related activities.

Keywords: shadow education; critical thinking; Rasch 1. Introduction Indonesia, a country in Southeast Asia, has a significant population, occupying the 4th rank globally. The United Nations (UN) estimates that Indonesia reached 274,827,175 citizens in early December of 2020 (Worldometer, 2020). The data

223 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 223 241, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.13 Shadow Education in Indonesia: Is It Relevant to Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Chemistry Learning? Maria C. S. Kawedhar, Sri Mulyani, Sulistyo Saputro and Sri Yamtinah Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1669 8699 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0181 1345 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5613 9496 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5616 4897

Abstract. Private tutoring, also known as shadow education (SE), is significant in the view of Indonesian society. It attains public reliance on children’s success at school. Although SE seems to be promising to elevate students’ achievements in school, this still needs to be proven. With the development of 21st century skills, can SE make itself worthy of being a part of proper supplementary education? This research aims to reveal how relevant SE is to develop students’ 21st century skills, especially critical thinking (CT) skills. This study involved 193 students from 3 different ranks of schools in Surakarta, Indonesia. This mixed methods explanatory research used a computerized testlet instrument to obtain quantitative data about students’ CT skills in Chemistry. Open ended questionnaires and open ended interviews were used to obtain qualitative data about students’ tendencies in their SE. Interviews were also performed to hear SE tutors’ voices about the SE field in which they worked. The quantitative data were analyzed using Rasch modeling to reveal the interaction between the items and students’ CT skills. The modeling results showed that SE still seems less significant in responding to the community’ s wishes about their children’ s success at school, especially as related to CT skills. However, the results also showed that SE can aid those with moderate cognitive ability. Furthermore, the qualitative results are worth considering by those who will take or build SE in future Thus, SE can be a proper supplement for formal education.

provided by the Data Center of Education and Culture Ministry of Indonesia show that by late December 2020, the total number of students registered and still active was 52,807,275 (Directorate General of Early Childhood, Primary, and Secondary Education, 2020). This situation requires strict attention by educators and the government. The 2018 PISA database showed that Indonesia stood in 71st place out of 76 countries in reading comprehension and 69th out of 77 countries in Science performance (OECD, 2018) This significant number of both students and problems present an excellent opportunity for Indonesia’ s education to develop and be fixed. Progress may occur in terms of the number of educational material and facility providers.

Competition among students is also becoming more challenging. Large numbers of students mean that students have to scramble for placement in bona fide schools. Although Indonesia is one of the countries with the highest number of private and public schools, private schools still cannot lower the level of competition among students and public schools remain the destination for many students. This intense competition has resulted in students and parents making various attempts and putting in more effort to get curated at their favorite school. One of the efforts is for students to attend a private tutoring course that takes on the role of supplementary education and which is commonly referred to as shadow education (SE) (Bray, 2013). SE is great for parents worrying about their children’ s ability to compete at school or to obtain higher scores. Therefore, many parents trust SE as a helper and a complement to formal education (Bray, 2014). SE follows the development of education around the world and is spreading worldwide (Nam & Chan, 2019). However, it does not focus on simple cognitive aspects. Nowadays, students need more complex abilities to succeed in their cognitive abilities. Skills are what they need as the key to working readiness (Krishnakumar & Nogales, 2020). Together with knowledge and abilities, skills have equal importance for students to complete their course (Mulyani, Widiastuti & Supriyanto, 2019).

1.1 Literature Review

Critical thinking (CT) skills, as the name suggests, become more critical in this accelerating world of change. Students are forced to face new problems, new learning styles, new adaptation, new opportunities, new ways of thinking, and even new recipes to produce more effective and efficient learning solutions. Obtaining CT skills is not as easy as having a sweet dream, though. It requires a long and integrated process (Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2014). CT is very important, especially in Chemistry learning, since it plays a big role in students’ ability to gain a complex understanding of learning. There is enough evidence showing that Chemistry is included in the “tough discipline” group. Many students in some countries have tried to study Chemistry but still failed (Woldeamanuel, Atagana & Engida, 2014) This indicates that CT skills are highly needed in Chemistry learning to address this problem. Furthermore, Mahaffy (2004) has declared the prospective form of Chemistry, making Chemistry more complex since it now has four extended dimensions. This includes the human element, which requires extra attention and knowledge from students. Students will struggle to understand this dimension, and will

Although there have been many discrepancies by consumers regarding SE (Javadi & Kazemirad, 2020), it is still beneficial, especially for the tutors Therefore, SE has inevitably developed into businesses and even franchises (Aurini & Davies, 2004). SE can be divided into three groups, as pictured in the inverted pyramid in Figure 1. The upper group is the SE that dominates the market (based on student questionnaires in three schools in Surakarta, Indonesia). We labeled the upper group as the bona fide SE institutions, followed by the middle group that does not have many branches but has great trust from society. The last is the private classes that are usually run personally by private tutors.

This research’ s preliminary study showed that out of 193 students in 3 schools in Surakarta, Indonesia, 104 have taken SE. This means that more than 53% of the sample have taken SE. From the preliminary observations, economic factors did not prevent participants from taking SE. Indonesia currently has interesting SE options, including affordable classes for the society which are not significantly difference than the expensive ones. That way, anyone is able to somehow take SE. Surprisingly, becoming a private tutor is not a new tide in Indonesia. Many pre service student teachers join this tide and cannot be blamed for this. They seize this opportunity as a way to learn and improve their skills in the educational field. Furthermore, in doing so, they can make an income or supplement it. The large number of pre service student teachers in Indonesia who become tutors has implications for SE development. Pre service student teachers acquire practice to hone didactic knowledge, better understand the complexity of subject matter, and increase their experience in interacting with students. Being a private tutor also offers them various other benefits. Moreover, this kind of exercise has proven to be mind opening for the pre service student teachers towards learning activities (Pop, 2015).

need understand it by utilizing their CT skills in everyday life. Students who master CT skills at high school level will perform better academically in college (Changwong, Sukkamart & Sisan, 2018). CT becomes more important in dealing with this world with its rapid exchange of information (Permana, Hindun, Rofi’ah & Azizah, 2019). By possessing adequate CT skills, students are expected to be better prepared for a future full of demands and challenges. SE provides hope for parents (Bray, 2006), through expectations about how their children can properly understand school lessons, and how their children can compete and successfully achieve their goals. SE seems to be a phenomenon very dear to Indonesian society, where the thought is formed that as long as the children have taken SE, everything will be fine. However, data show that many children fail to achieve their goals (Shulrufa, Keuskampb & Brakea, 2010), such as entering their desired college university, even though they have taken special classes in their SE. This is certainly very disappointing since SE has become the main hope for parents in their children’s education However, SE has not responded to the challenges (Zhang, 2018) regarding competition among students nationally and the difficulty level to enter tertiary college or university.

The bona fide SE institution has more advantages related to professionalism compared to the other two SE groups. It is highly trusted by the public because of its professionalism in maintaining service quality with good management and marketing. This group also makes promises in their advertising, such as students achieving a high score at school, students being accepted at great universities, and even applying a cashback system on payments. From this can be judged that this group is truly business oriented. However, do these promises really come true? In addition, in the 21st century, students should have good cognitive abilities and several important skills such as communication, creativity, collaboration, CT, literacy, and many other skills (Fisk, 2017). How can SE meet these needs? SE is believed to help students improve their cognitive abilities, improve their learning development diagrams, and pass school tests. However, SE still ignores the essence of real learning. SE is still focused on students’ final results while learning. Meanwhile, every learning skill is obtained through a long and iterative process. SE pays less attention to the elements of the psychology of learning (Zhang, Ma & Wang, 2020), even though this is an important key to learning. Students need not only cognitive ability but also to improve these other skills. In fact, the formation of student skills is snowballing and must be done in each education sector transversely (OECD, 2015). Nevertheless, how does SE provide these needs, especially in CT skills?

2. Research Methodology

This research used a mixed methods design, a specific explanatory design that simultaneously combines quantitative and qualitative research (Creswell, 2006). This design was chosen to ensure the data’ s credibility. This research was performed between the 2nd of September 2019 through the 4th of October 2019 in three different high schools (referred to as X, Y, and Z) in Surakarta, Indonesia.

2.2 Sample

2.1 General Background

Figure 1: The group of SE in Indonesia divided by its market

The total number of people involved in this study was 217. These can be divided into 9 instrument validators, 193 testees (which include students who filled in the questionnaire and followed the interview), and 15 tutors at SE institutions.

The computerized testlet instrument was used to obtain quantitative data about the students’ CT skills. A testlet is a test instrument that has several sets of questions. Each set consists of one stimulus, which is used in three different items below it. The stimulus in question can be in the form of reading passages, diagrams, pictures, or other appropriate contexts (Frey, Seitz & Brandt, 2016)

2.3 Instruments and Procedures

The computerized testlet is a testlet type instrument presented in computerized form. The testees consisted of both SE takers and non takers. The results would show the difference between SE takers and non takers based on their CT skills as assessed by the instrument. Computer based assessment in the learning environment also advantages students to escalate their CT skills (Kopotun, Durdynets, Teremtsova, Markina & Prisnyakova, 2020), which is why the computerized testlet was used.

Of the 193 testees, 66 were from School X, 64 from School Y, and 63 from School Z. Meanwhile, from the 193 testees, 45 testees (SE takers) filled questionnaires, every 15 testees represented each school (School X, School Y, and School Z). These groups of 15 testees were also divided into three smaller groups of five each from each respective SE institution (bona fide, middle, and private personal). School X is one of the most favored schools in Surakarta; most of its students possess more initial knowledge compared to students in other schools. The learning model used at School X is also diverse, including the use of e learning facilities. Therefore, tests using a computerized testlet at this school are very suitable. On the other hand, School Y has relatively many applicants because this school is a middle class school based on its difficulty level of entry Therefore, this school is suitable as choice for almost everyone in the city. This school is located in the city center and has adequate computer laboratory facilities, although it is not as accomplished as School X in e learning usage. In contrast, School Z is a well known private school with diverse kinds of students. This school is also located in the city center and has computer laboratory facilities, though rarely used. Thus, their e learning experience is not good enough compared to Schools X and Y. These kinds of facilities are believed to be able to encourage students to make more efforts to develop their CT (Irawan, Rahardjo & Sarwanto, 2017)

The quantitative data were analyzed using Rasch modeling. Questionnaires and interviews were used to obtain qualitative data about students’ tendencies in their SE. Interviews were also performed with SE tutors to hear their voices about the SE field in which they worked. After the quantitative research had been conducted, the qualitative data were collected and then interpreted to produce a result (Figure 2).

Item Validity Value Stem Question Answer Choices 1 0.85 0.85 0.89 2 0.96 1.00 3 0.81 1.00 4 0.96 0.93 0.85 5 0.81 0.89 6 0.96 0.89 7 0.81 0.96 0.89 8 0.89 0.96 9 0.96 0.89 10 0.96 0.89 0.85 11 0.85 0.96 12 0.96 0.96 13 0.96 0.89 1.00 14 0.93 1.00 15 0.85 0.85 16 0.85 0.89 1.00 17 0.96 1.00

Table

Figure 2: Explanatory design used in this research

The aim of the quantitative data was to reveal students’ cognitive abilities. This data were collected using 30 items of a computerized testlet instrument to measure the CT skills domain based on Facione's (2015) on the hydrocarbon topic. The hydrocarbon topic was chosen because it is one of the first yet new materials to be obtained at the 11th grade. It is a difficult topic based on national exams and daily test results (Educational Assessment Center, 2019). Nine validators validated the instrument through a focus group discussion. The validators were asked to complete the validation sheet about the fitness of stems, items, and answer choices based on its proper context, subject knowledge, clarity, spelling, and language (Fahmina, Masykuri, Ramadhani & Yamtinah, 2019). The validators were also experts in educational evaluation and Chemistry learning. The validation result was calculated using Aiken's validity (1985), which showed a validity value of more than 0.75 for each stem, item, and answer choice, as presented in Table 1. 1: Aiken’s validity value of the quantitative research instrument

229 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Item Validity Value Stem Question Answer Choices 18 0.89 1.00 19 0.85 0.96 1.00 20 0.89 0.81 21 0.96 1.00 22 0.96 0.89 0.89 23 0.89 0.96 24 0.96 0.85 25 0.93 0.93 0.85 26 0.89 0.93 27 0.89 1.00 28 0.85 0.89 0.93 29 0.96 0.85 30 0.93 0.93

On the other hand, the qualitative data were obtained through an open ended questionnaire combined with an interview about students’ satisfaction on SE and an interview addressed to tutors about the learning strategies on running the SE. 2.4 Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using the Rasch Model to evince SE takers and non takers’ mapping with their CT skills assessed. That way, we could determine how the testees responded to each item and how they functioned appropriately as a measuring instrument for each group of testees. We could further determine through this data whether testees’ response patterns contained specific profile data that cannot be displayed by other measurement tools. The data are about the testees’ responses to the items that indicate their CT skills. The quantitative data analyzed are dichotomous data and were analyzed using Winstep 3.73 software with outputs, including Wright maps, DIF plots, and summary statistics of items. The Wright map showed the relationship between the testees’ CT skills with item difficulty levels, so that we could specifically explain how each testee’ s CT skills relate to each item’ s difficulty level. The Wright map also allowed seeing outlier data and how each group and person groups were distributed. Through the person measure, we could see what each testee’ s ability to answer questions looked like, how many total questions could be answered, and in which group the testee was in. Moreover, we could also re check the testee’ s demographic data. The DIF plot showed the presence or absence of item discrimination against certain groups of testees. DIF plots presented in graphical form make it easier for readers to analyze item discrimination in certain students’ groups. The summary statistics of an item aim to show basic data from the instrument’ s statistical calculations. This data indicate the reliability of the items, standard deviation (SD), separation, the size of the logit (shown in the column measure), mean square (MNSQ), and Z standard value (ZSTD). The amount of separation can indicate item level or H, that is by calculating the following:

Qualitative data were analyzed using qualitative analysis based on Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014), through data collection, data display, data reduction, and conclusion making to obtain compact data following qualitative data collection objectives. Data collection was done using questionnaires addressed to SE takers (students) to determine their level of satisfaction in their experience of joining SE. Questionnaires were followed up with a brief interview to confirm testees’ reasons. Interviews were also conducted with SE tutors to determine their perspectives on SE. Data display was conducted to facilitate in archiving and filing. The analysis to be carried out thus became systematic. Data reduction functions to avoid non essential residual data obtained during the data collection process. The presentation of conclusions was done to display the primary data needed.

3. Research Results

The reliability of the instruments showed good results in the three schools sampled. The instruments’ summary statistics aim to display the conclusion of the statistical calculation of the item set. Through this statistical calculation, we can see the average of the item, the SD, the size of the logit (measure) MNSQ, ZSTD, separation, reliability, and the resulting Cronbach alpha value. The SD of the model is 2.00, which is slightly different from the real SD of 1.98. The real item separation is 7.64, which indicates the broader item level (H) that can applies to all students. The reliability of the item, which is 0.98 for both the real and model calculations, indicates that the instrument is acceptable and reliable for performing CT skills measurements. Besides the reliability of the instrument, it is also important to determine the bias index of the instrument. This analysis is used to determine whether the items affect or disadvantage some groups of people or not. The DIF plot in Figure 3 presents the bias index.

There were several bias effects on the total items, with the bias being quite interesting. The bias was divided into two groups: one of items advantaging the

�� = [(4��)+1]

Figure 3: Person DIF plot of DIF measure vs. item

Chemical displacement reaction SE Non takers 4 The structural formula (determination of the primary carbon atom) 7 The structural formula (determination of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes) 10 The structural formula (determination of the monomer structure formula from a polymer) 19 Basic knowledge about the Greenhouse Effect (primary gas that caused the Greenhouse Effect) 29 Basic knowledge about hydrocarbon combustion

Table 2 shows that SE takers were mostly disadvantaged by the items related to the structural formula for hydrocarbons and the basic knowledge of this material (item number 4, 7, and 10). The SE takers had much trouble with this type of problem, but the SE non takers on average could handle this type of problem and were better at it than the SE takers. Meanwhile, the average SE non taker had difficulty in the chemical displacement reaction (item number 9) This study does not, however, discuss and compare the school curriculum with the curriculum of SE institutions, which might be the gap that causes this kind of situation to occur. The questionnaire data show that 104 or 53% of the 193 participating students attended SE. The distribution of their SE group is illustrated in Figure 4.

Table 2: The context of the items that exhibit bias for SE takers and non takers

AdvantagedGroup

Item Number Context of Items SE Takers 9

Figure 4: Distribution of SE institution attended by testees at School X, Y, and Z

Figure 4 shows that the number of participating students attending bona fide SE institutions was higher than for middle and private personal institutions, which occupied a lower preference.

SE takers (Y red line) and another with items advantaging the SE non takers (T blue line). A summary of the items is presented in Table 2.

Figure 5: Wright map of person (testee) and item distribution

Eight testees fell above the T point (2SD) of the person column, which means that these eight had the highest CT skills compared with the other testees. However, they were also outliers because they had an abnormal response pattern due to the item set. The outliers are composed of six SE takers and two SE non takers (Table 3), which means that 25% of the smartest critical thinkers were non takers of SE. This data show that it is still possible for some students who do not take private courses or SE to obtain high CT skills as expected.

3.1 The Influence of Shadow Education on Students’ Ability in Critical Thinking Skills How does SE affect students’ CT skills? The results of the quantitative analysis of students’ cognitive abilities are shown on a Wright map depicted in Figure 5. In this figure, two columns are shown. The left shows the distribution of testees, and the right shows the distribution of items. Point 0 shows the median of data distribution. The positive direction shows that the testee has high CT skills because they could answer all the questions below. In the item section, the higher the item, the more difficult it is (Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015). This also applies for items under 0 (negative direction). Thus, the lower the testee, the lower their CT skills; and the lower the item, the easier it is

1. Reason for taking private educationcourse/shadow Parents’ advice 60 Self motivation 40

Table 3: Outliers identification School Quantity SE Takers SE Non-takers X 4 2 Y 2 0

Figure 6: Distribution of SE takers and non takers in each group of testees

3. Private tutor’s teaching style Interesting 84.4 Boring 15.6

Table 4: Questionnaire results of SE taker testees about their SE quality Question Response Percentage (%)

According to Rasch’ s item level (H level), the outliers are not the only ones to be concerned with There are also other high critical thinker students and two other groups to consider (Figure 6). The upper group, who had high CT skills, was composed of 38 students (excluding the outliers), 44.7% of whom were SE takers. The middle group, who had moderate CT skills, was occupied by the most testees, 88 students, of which 57.9% were SE takers. The lower group, who had low CT skills, was occupied by 59 testees, 50.8% of whom were SE takers. A summary of this quantitative data showing the composition of the three groups is shown in Figure 6.

The average of SE takers in all the groups combined (including the outliers) was 57.1% More data are needed, however, to make a final assumption, as it would be unwise to judge that students will become smarter if they take a private course or vice versa. Taking a private course or not does not necessarily mean that students will succeed in their studies This concurs with research by Subedi (2008), that relying on private courses will not simply ensure success in students’ work on problems given to them. In other words, taking a private course may not guarantee the welfare of students’ cognitive abilities at school. The qualitative data of the SE-taker questionnaire are presented in Table 4.

2. Satisfaction with the private tutor’ s teaching method Satisfied 66.7 So so 22.2 Unsatisfied 11.1

5. SE is beneficial to increase students’ cognitive score Agree 71.1 So so 15.6 Disagree 13.3

4. Students’ preference for studying with Teacher 55.6 Private tutor 44.4

Meanwhile, the interview results of SE tutors’ perspectives about SE were elicited by several questions posed to them. The results show that the SE curriculum is appropriate for the school curriculum, especially for the cognitive purpose. SE teaching is usually strengthened drill and practice, not teaching for understanding. Moreover, SE’ s function is limited in that it aims only to help students complete their homework and prepare for testing, but not to widen their skills. The orientation of the SE institution is excessively directed to the business sector. Some of them do not consider the quality they have to provide. This can be detrimental for students and parents.

4. Discussion

The reason of taking SE mostly comes from parents. For question 2, the “satisfied” testees mentioned that their tutors had a more flexible teaching approach. Simultaneously, those who were “ so so ” and “unsatisfied” enjoyed their tutoring less because they felt less comfortable with their private tutors.

The computerized testlet instrument was used to facilitate students’ thinking processes while undertaking the test. The privilege of the testlet instrument is the stem (item stimulant). Therefore, a testlet can be used as a stimulus for students’ understanding of knowledge (Yamtinah et al., 2019). Utilizing the stimulant as a resource can help students develop their CT (Stephenson & Sadler McKnight, 2016). CT has a primary role in students’ success at the college level and working environment (Rusmansyah, Yuanita, Ibrahim, Isnawati & Prahani, 2019). By utilizing the test, we could discover the testees’ responses to CT assessment. The quantitative analysis results showed that of the testees identified as outliers or the smartest critical thinkers, 25% were SE non takers. Of

Moreover, sometimes, testees’ private tutors were confused in explaining a certain topic and sometimes did not repeat what had been explained, leaving the testees unclear on the topic. Testees who answered “interesting” for question 3 stated that their private tutors often utilized videos and various media when teaching. In contrast, those who answered “boring” claimed that their private tutors only utilized conventional teaching methods. For question 4, testees who answered “teacher” felt comfortable when taught by their school’s teachers because the teaching was more systematic than that of private tutors. In contrast, those who answered “private tutor” felt that their teachers were confused and boring when teaching in class. Testees who answered “ agree” for question 5 experienced the benefits after having attended private courses because they felt that the lessons helped them to understand those topics in which they were left behind or confused about at school. Those who answered “ so so ” claimed that what is taught at school sometimes slightly differs from what tutors teach. Those who answered “disagree” claimed that their grades remained low and considered the lesson to be difficult indeed.

The qualitative data results indicate that qualified tutors at SE institutions have an important role in student learning activities and satisfaction. Tutors who are fun and have good teaching skills are in higher demand by students, bearing in mind that their goal with SE is to level up students’ abilities at school. These reasons are supported by Bray (2006), who indicated that the pattern of learning instructions of SE is mostly different from formal schools. Moreover, Yung (2019) proposed that SE mostly use a drill and practice approach. SE in countries outside Indonesia has won the public’s trust that the teaching methods used are more adaptable than those of formal schools which tend to be more conservative (Zhang & Bray, 2020). This contrasts with SE in Indonesia, which is less adaptable, as evidenced by this study’ s results. Moreover, interviews with the 15 SE tutors showed that, in general, the SE curriculum has adjusted to the school curriculum even though it is still limited to cognitive needs. Thus, SE is not yet entirely focused on the needs of other skills besides cognitive abilities. Students also need to be trained to have the skills needed in this 21st century. Besides, SE’s primary function is to get students used to working on problems, not to understand. Consequently, at this point, SE must be accompanied by a self evaluation, remembering that students need time to compete, not only for answering questions, but also for doing things like applying the concept to solve similar future problems. In addition, being business oriented is not wrong, considering that SE is also an economic business activity. However, this concept must be applied together with quality improvement by evaluating and reorienting SE objectives. Through this research, it is hoped that society can make a good assessment of SE selection, given the many important factors that need to be considered. Moreover, society must be sure and aware of the real purpose of registering children at a private course institution (Chui, 2016) to achieve cognitive scores and other skills needed. Further research on the similarities and differences

the testees with high levels of CT skills (except the outliers), 55.3% were SE non takers. The upper group, including the outliers, had an equal percentage of 50% each of SE takers and non takers, which shows that they do not differ significantly. SE does thus not significantly improve the CT of students who are already smart at school and have sufficient initial CT skills. If we look at the middle and lower groups, there were exciting and significant differences between SE takers and non takers. The middle class was constituted with more SE takers (57.9%) This shows that SE has a significant influence on helping students acquire good CT skills for moderate cognitive ability at school. There was also a common border with the lower group’s results, with 50.8% of testees being SE takers. The learning process provided by SE is predominantly about memory questions. This makes SE less effective for students who are already smart. However, for students with moderate and low intelligence levels, SE can help them remember information. SE functions like these must nonetheless be improved. In addition, SE must catch up on what the world wants, what developments the world needs. Punjabi (2019) also mentioned that SE must be more focused and serious on student development in active learning, and not stuck in facilitating passive learning.

5. Conclusions

7. Acknowledgments

6. Limitation of This Study

thinking: Its relevance for education in a shifting society. Retrieved December 19, 2020, from

This study has several limitations. Firstly, the topic used in the computerized testlet instrument was hydrocarbon material. In addition, on the bias of some items, we have not conducted further research on the possibility of explicit curriculum differences between the school curriculum and SE institution curriculum.

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between the school curriculum and SE curriculum also needs to be done to find important gaps to help SE perform its function as appropriate supplementary tutoring. SE developers must also begin to improve their learning curriculum so that SE can also become a formal education companion facility as a learning center that is aware of the learning process in forming skills, especially CT skills. That way, SE becomes more relevant as supplementary education that can help students with cognitive abilities and CT skills needed for education later on Moreover, in developing student CT, educational stakeholders, including those in SE, must work in an upright manner (Almeida & Franco, 2011).

We would like to show gratitude to the Institute of Research and Community Services of Universitas Sebelas Maret, which supported us in conducting this research through funding on Master’ s Thesis Research contract number 516/UN27.21/PP/2019.

Based on the quantitative and qualitative results, supplementary private tutoring or SE cannot significantly improve students’ CT skills for those who initially have good cognitive ability at school. However, joining SE may be good for those who have moderate cognitive ability at school. It does not mean that this private course is not useful at all, but parents must be selective and critical in choosing a private course for their child. Knowledge and understanding of parents ultimately become an important key to the success of students at school. Besides, students must succeed in their studies and compete globally by possessing the skills needed in the 21st century, especially CT skills. This research has shown several important points that must be considered by the public in determining the choice of SE that suits the needs of students in this 21st century. In addition, educational researchers are also expected to conduct further research to uncover the gap between the school curriculum and the SE curriculum so that SE can improve and adjust its objectives to appropriately supplement teaching. Moreover, after seeing the prospect of SE development, which is increasingly in demand by the society, it is necessary to improve SE’ s quality and objectives. That way, SE will help students remember lessons and be a companion for formal schools in improving student skills.

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1. What is your reason for taking a private course/ shadow education?  Parents’ advice  Self motivation Elaboration from the interview: …………………………………………………….

2. How do you describe the main characteristic of shadow education compared to the school’s teaching purpose?

4. How do you think about the shadow education orientation, considering there are more and more new institutions emerging to offer shadow education?

4. Which one do you prefer, study with your school’s teachers or your private course/ shadow education’s instructors?  Teacher  Private tutor Elaboration from the interview: …………………………………………………….

2. Are you satisfied with how your instructors teach you in your private course/ shadow education?  Satisfied  So so  ElaborationUnsatisfiedfrom the interview: …………………………………………………….

1. How do you see the fit between the shadow education curriculum and the school curriculum?

5. Do you feel the significant benefit (especially on increasing your cognitive score) after taking private course/ shadow education?  Agree  So so  Disagree Elaboration from the interview: …………………………………………………….

3. How do you think about the shadow education function?

3. How is your private tutors’ teaching style in your private course/ shadow education?  Interesting  Boring Elaboration from the interview: …………………………………………………….

Appendix II: The interview questions used to reveal private tutors’ perspectives about shadow education in which they worked

241 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix III: The summary statistic of items analyzed by Winstep 3.73 Total Score Count Measure(Logit) MNSQOUTFIT ZSTD Item MEAN 120.30 193.00 0.00 0.96 0.10 SD 45.80 0.00 1.68 0.19 0.60 MAX 176.00 193.00 2.63 1.36 1.60 MIN 52.00 193.00 2.24 0.58 1.00 REAL TRUE SD = 0.22 SEPARATION = 7.64 Item RELIABILITY = 0.98 MODEL TRUE SD = 0.21 SEPARATION = 7.73 Item RELIABILITY = 0.98 S.E. OF ITEM MEAN = 0.31 Appendix IV: The summary statistic of persons analyzed by Winstep 3.73 Total Score Count Measure(Logit) MNSQOUTFIT ZSTD Item MEAN 18.70 30.00 1.10 SD 6.50 0.00 1.99 MAX 30.00 30.00 5.72 MIN 4.00 30.00 2.72 0.24 2.70 REAL TRUE SD = 0.72 SEPARATION = 2.58 Item RELIABILITY = 0.87 MODEL TRUE SD = 0.70 SEPARATION = 2.68 Item RELIABILITY = 0.88 S.E. OF ITEM MEAN = 0.14 CRONBACH ALPHA (KR 20) RELIABILITY = 0.90

Keywords: English teachers; professional development; attitude; Saudi Arabia 1. Introduction

242 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 242 258, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.14

Saudi EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Professional Development

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. The study reported in this paper aimed to investigate the Professional Development (PD, henceforth) needs of English language teachers in Saudi Arabia. Its primary objectives were to assess the needs of PD and training of Saudi English language teachers and to explore the teachers’ attitudes towards the amount and quality of English teaching preparation received prior to their teaching career The study adopted a mixed method approach in order to gain a deep understanding of the phenomenonunder investigation. The participants of the study included 109 Saudi teachers of English language who teach in public schools. The study involved quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Whilst the quantitative data of the study was gathered via a survey questionnaire,thequalitativedatawasobtainedvia interviewswith10of EFLteachers.Thefindingsindicatedtheteachers’dissatisfactionwith the amountandqualityofpre servicetrainingtheyreceived.Thiswasdueto poor information, a lack of qualified trainers and limited selection of topics which does not serve their teaching needs.

Maha Alzahrani Technical and Vocational Training Corporation, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 0002 5553 2173

Professional development for Saudi English as a foreign language teachers is essential to improve teachers’ competence and students’ achievements. Professional development is understood as opportunities and training offered for Saudi ESL teachers to improve their knowledge, skills, language proficiency and competence, initiated by the Ministry of Education to improve teaching programs. Educators need such improvements and initiatives to influence and shape successful and proactive education. These improvements can come from an integrated and sustained system of continuous professional development, which is a powerful tool to cultivate teachers’ practices and to cater to teacher and student needs. Therefore, if teachers do not have opportunities of ongoing development to enrich their knowledge and competency, they will not be actively interested and engaged in such activities that reinforce them to grow professionally in their teaching practice (DuFour & Eaker, 1998, Igawa, 2008,

The teaching of English in Saudi Arabia still does not meet satisfactory outcomes, despite the efforts of the government and Ministry of Education towards teaching and learning English as a foreign language, including modifying curricula, encouraging teachers to implement new teaching methods, etc. (Alrashidi & Phan, 2015; Al Seghayer, 2015; Rahman & Alhaisoni 2013). Currently, Saudi English language teachers graduate without adequate training and competence which results in unintended outcomes as well as unsatisfactory students’ achievements and proficiency (Al Hazmi, 2003; Al Khairy, 2013; Al Malihi, 2015; Alrabai, 2014; Alrashidi & Phan 2015; Al Seghayer, 2014a; Alotaibi, 2014; Ahmad, 2014). Saudi English language teachers need more opportunities to improve their teaching practices, to improve their teaching methods and to improve subject knowledge. The lack of opportunities related to teaching English should be tackled immediately, otherwise, the constraints of teaching and learning EFL will generate counterproductive effects.

Putnam and Borko (2000) stated if teachers want to be successful, they need opportunities to participate in a professional community that discusses new teacher materials and judicious strategies that support their practice.

Statement of the problem

Objectives of the study

The purpose of this research was to assess the needs of professional development and training of Saudi English language teachers. This analysis required determining what professional development opportunities for English language teachers were currently available and being used in Saudi Arabia, as well as teachers’ preferences for the models and durations of professional development.

3. How do Saudi EFL teachers perceive the effectiveness of their professional development?

2. Literature Review

Professional Development for teachers is a broad term which includes a variety of aspects connected not only to a teacher’s (PD) but also to his/her personal development (Igawa, 2002) Professional development is a continuous process where teachers develop their professional qualities, knowledge skills leading to the improvement of the organization and students (Craft, 1996). Continual Professional Development (CPD) is defined as: “all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which constitute, through

Sparks, 2002). This aligns with Talbert and McLaughlin’s (1994) illustration that “without opportunities to acquire new knowledge, to reflect on practice, and to share successes and failures with colleagues, teachers are not likely to develop a sense of professional control and responsibility” (p.130). PD provides for both experienced and novice teachers opportunities to meet their learning needs.

Research questions

1. How do Saudi EFL teachers perceive the amount and quality of English teaching preparation they received prior to their teaching position?

2. What professional development opportunities for English teachers are available and being used in Saudi Arabia?

Due to lack of program standardization within Saudi universities, the number of classes and the syllabi for English teaching preparation courses may differ from one university to another (Al Hazmi, 2003). In most universities, students take only one course on teaching methodology, which, according to Al Hazmi (2003) and Alrashidi and Phan (2015), is not sufficient to cater to all the needs of pre service teachers. Teaching methods courses are offered and given in the last

these, to the quality of education in the classroom” (Day, 1999, p. 3). PD is an important topic in language teaching which requires constant and ongoing growth of teachers’ characteristics and knowledge. Teachers in teaching English as a second or foreign language need PD (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Richards and Rodgers (2001) identified the following six essential domains of second language teacher education preparation. These include (1) theories of teaching, (2) teaching skills, (3) communication skills, (4) subject matter knowledge, (5) pedagogical reasoning and decision making and (6) contextual knowledge. Professional development is the process which seeks to adjust the attitudes and skills towards great competencies and effectiveness to meet students’ needs and teachers’ needs. Experience and career development via pre and in service training would bring growth, improvements and satisfaction to teachers. Thus, they will be ready for new challenges, in current times, with organized preparation and training to develop competencies, skills and instructional practices, ultimately improving students’ growth, achievement and learning. Richard and Farrell (2005) distinguished between teacher training and teacher development, teacher training refers to short term and immediate goals. Teacher development refers to long term goals that attempt to facilitate teachers’ growth and understanding of teaching and their existence as teachers. These scholars also identified four categories of professional development activities: they included (1) individual (self monitoring, journal writing, teaching portfolio, action research), (2) group based (action research, case studies, support group, journal writing), (3) one- to-one (peer coaching, peer observation, team teaching, critical incidents, action research) and (4) institutional (support group, workshops, action research).

Preparation of English Teachers in the KSA English is a fundamental prerequisite for training and employment in all public and private sectors in Saudi Arabia Thus, teaching and learning English language are tools to enhance foreign investments in Saudi Arabia (Alrabai, 2016; Alrashidi & Phan, 2015) as well as a priority for increasing social mobility by obtaining higher paying employment. English language teachers become qualified to teach and are awarded a Bachelor’s degree in Saudi universities after completing a four year English major through the given programs by individual universities’ English departments (Al Hazmi, 2003; Alrashidi & Phan, 2015; Al Seghayer, 2014a). The first year is the preparatory year for two semesters, which is a year after graduating from secondary school. The second year begins with classes aimed at enhancing English skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary. The remaining two years include classes in linguistics (phonology, syntax, applied linguistics, discourse analysis), literature (novel, drama, poetry, history of English), and translation (advanced writing and grammar) (Al Hazmi, 2003; Alrashidi & Phan, 2015; Al Seghayer, 2014a).

3. Research Methodology

Likewise, in Badia’s (2015) study which was conducted on teacher evaluation and appraisal processes, the teachers expressed their dissatisfaction with the schemes of the teacher evaluation system as it was not enough to assess their performance appropriately

The researcher utilized a mixed method approach consisting of quantitative measurement (an online survey) and qualitative measurement (interviews). Quantitative instrument was used, an online survey was administered, the link of the survey was sent to a random sample of 109 EFL Saudi teachers who teach in different stages (K 12) in a variety of Saudi public schools. The online survey

semester, which are no more than three credits, representing approximately only 10% of their coursework (Al Seghayer, 2014a). The result of this minimal training in the theory and practice of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is that universities graduate inadequately trained teachers. Thus, Al Seghayer (2014a) stated that programs should increase the amount of English teaching preparation asserting that the “amount of time that pre service EFL teachers spend at practicum sites needs to be further extended in length and intensity to allow extensive and intensive practical activities for student teachers... rather than waiting for last semester to do practicum” (p.147).

Al Hazmi (2003) and Al Malihi (2015) who pointed out that Saudi Arabian education programs are inadequate and non systemic for the preparation of EFL teachers due to their insufficient and limited number of teaching methodology courses. Al Seghayer (2014b) added that Saudi English language teachers lack sufficient theoretical background knowledge related to the factors influencing second language learning and acquisition. Al Malihi (2015) concurred by stating that Saudi EFL teachers are not prepared with adequate pre service preparation nor training programs. Similarly, Alsalahi (2015) indicated that Saudi EFL teachers feel unmotivated and disempowered due to lack of PD programs. Additionally, teachers are not supported enough in in service training programs to develop themselves professionally and to keep them updated with sufficient training. Consequently, there were be misleading and undesired effects as (Cross,1995, Crawford & Biggs, 2008) mentioned that hiring untrained teachers in classroom results in counterproductive effects in education quality and teachers’ Additionally,competence.

Oudah and Altalhab’s (2018) findings revealed an optimistic view of Saudi EFL teachers towards the programs that are scheduled annually at the training centers of the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia. In addition, there is a need for more use of technology in educational programs that occur within the classroom as well as English language teachers are to looking forward to attending programs provided by more qualified educators and trainers and learning more about reflective skills in teaching. In the same vein, Zohairy (2012) conducted a study on the status of professional development of Saudi EFL teachers in seven universities and four private universities. The findings showed that only two universities offered EFL teachers training opportunities, and the participants were not satisfied with their professional development programs.

The survey instrument is the most valid and comprehensive approach (Creswell, 2012), which assisted the researcher to generalize findings with a larger population and to collect a variety of data simultaneously. Unlike the quantitative data analysis which follows a linear process, qualitative data analysis requires going back and forth between different stages, namely data exploration, thematic coding and interpretation (Creswell, 2012). Rubin and Rubin (2005) and DiCicco Bloom & Crabtree (2006) pointed out that thematic coding is a logical and intuitive way of thinking and ensures that research questions are addressed. In the current study, the researcher transcribed what she recorded from each interview and then coded the salient topics and issues thematically. This included a critical reading of the interviews’ transcripts to group clusters of codes and create categories to develop themes which are strongly relevant to the research questions.

Survey Results

5. Results

The data obtained from the participants underwent two separate sequential phases, quantitative followed by qualitative to meet the primary objectives of the current study. In regard to the quantitative data analysis, the survey was aided by the Google Forms platform that was employed to design and distribute the online survey; it automatically calculated the percentage of responses from the results.

PD availability, participation and opinions

The results demonstrated that the 109 respondents’ opportunities to engage in PD varied considerably. The data showed that 57% of the respondents were not provided with PD whereas the other 43% of respondents indicated that they received PD training. This demonstrates that majority of the teachers were not offered continuing PD. In table 1, the open ended question, 57% of the respondents stated they did not receive any support or PD opportunities. Further, they concurred that there were no incentives for in service training and no attention given to teachers’ needs. However, the other 43% indicated that they were provided with PD training sessions and programs which were said to take place during one week for ten hours once a year. These findings from the survey were confirmed by teachers’ interviews reported below in table 1

4. Data Analysis

This section sequentially reports the results obtained from both (1) the online survey and (2) the interviews.

focused primarily on (1) PD availability, participation, and teachers’ opinions and (2) Models and Duration of PD Opportunities. With regard to the qualitative data, it was gathered via 20 minute semi structured interviews with 10 teachers who participated in the survey and volunteered to be interviewed, whose ages ranged roughly from twenty to sixty years old.

Table 3. Preparedness to be an English Teacher and Opinions about PD Statement StronglyAgree Agree Disagree DisagreeStrongly Have receivednotinPD

b. If no, please explain why? (no opportunity, chose not to participate, no time, etc.)? No. of Participants (109) Agreed: 53 (49%) Disagreed 56 (51%)

In addition to the teachers’ responses concerning PD availability and their participation, a five point Likert Scale (as shown below in Table 3) was utilized to pursue responses to seven statements on the topic To what extent do you agree or disagree with the statements about your Preparedness to be an English teacher and opinions about personal development

As shown below in Table 2, 47 of the 109 respondents reported that they have participated in some form of ‘PD activities’ since commencing teaching English, while 62 have not participated in PD activities. The results of teacher participation in PD are like the results in Table 1 above and clearly demonstrate that approximately half of respondents have not taken part in continuing PD. Majority of teachers explained that they had not participated in PD due to the timing, place and unsatisfactory experience of repetitive topics and untrained trainers. These qualitative findings from the open ended options on the survey were confirmed by data collected in the interviews reported below

Table 2. PD Participation

1. Does your employer provide PD opportunities for English teachers?

Table 1 PD Availability

b. If no, why do you think PD is not provided? No. of Participants (109) Agreed: 47 (43%) Disagreed 62 (57%)

3 The university training and preparation that I received before beginning my first English teacher.meteachingpositionwassufficientfortobeaneffectiveEnglish 15.6%(17) 17.4%(19) 35.8%(39) 31.2%(34) None 4 PD that I have participated in improved my knowledge/skills as an English teacher. 4.6%(5) 22.9%(25) 43.1%(47) 9.2%(10) 20.2%(22)

a. If yes, briefly describe them. These include, but are not limited to, seminars, workshops, and conferences. (frequency, duration, topics)

a. If yes, briefly describe them These include, but are not limited to, seminars, workshops, and conferences. (frequency, duration, topics)

2. Have you participated in any PD activities since you started teaching English?

5 PD that I have participated in increased the effectiveness of my teaching and students’ performance. 9.2%(10) 25.7%(28) 40.4%(44) 3.7%(4) 21.1%(23)

For the responses to itemseven, as can be seen in the table above, 55.9% of teachers who participated in PD indicated that PD did not increase their effectiveness in teaching and students’ performance, while 44% who participated in PD found it increased their effectiveness.

6 PD that I have participated in helped me understand and utilize different measurements for assessment.

7 PD that I have participated in helped me/us implementstrategic plans to improve the teaching and learning of English at my school.

8.3%(9) 22.9%(25) 43.1%(47) 4.6%(5) 21.1%(23)

0.9%(1) 10.1%(11) 45.9%(50) 43.1%(47) None

In contrast to item eight, 35% agreed and 14% strongly agreed. These results may be explained by the presence of poorly designed PD programs that lack stimulation and motivation and that were presented by ill prepared trainers, all

8 Well designed PD is likely to have a positive and lasting impact on my career goals.

Items four to seven aimed at exploring the participants’ experiences of PD and training. The data showed that 65.5% of those who participated in PD indicated that PD did not improve their knowledge or skills as an English teacher. On the other hand, only 34.5% of those who participated said that it improved their skills.

Items eight and nine were about the value of PD. In item eight, 46% of respondents disagreed and 43% strongly disagreed with the statement Well designed PD is likely to have a positive and lasting impact on my career goals, and only 1% strongly agreed. However, in item nine, with the slightly different wording Well designed PD is worth my time to attend, no respondents strongly disagreed, though 51% disagreed.

8.3%(9) 23.9%(26) 42.2%(46) 4.6%(5) 21.1%(23)

For item six, the data reported that 59.3% of those who participated in PD thought that PD did not help them understand and utilize different measurements for assessment. However, 40.7% of those who participated in PD stated that PD helped them to use different measurements for assessment. Responses to item nine, indicated that 60.5% of the participants reported that PD did not help them implement strategic plans to improve the teaching and learning of English at their school. On the other hand, 40% of those who participated in PD stated that it helped them to use strategic plans in teaching and learning English.

9 Well designed PD is worth my time to attend 13.8%(15) 34.9%(38) 51.4%(56) None None As shown above in Table 3, item three aimed at asking the participants about their preparedness before their first teaching experience. The highest percentage of respondents (36%) disagreed with the statement the university training and preparation they received before commencing their first English teaching position was sufficient to be an effective English teacher. A further 31% of respondents strongly disagreed with this statement. Only 16% of respondents strongly agreed and 17% agreed with this statement. Therefore, data suggests that around 67% of trainee teachers believed they had insufficient preparation to be effective English teachers before commencing their first teaching post.

13 Attending professional organization conferences for English teachers. 70.6%(77) 17.4%(19) 5.5%(6) 6.4%(7) 14 Peer coaching/mentoring. 53.2%(58) 26.6%(29) 15.6%(17) 4.6%(5)

The same Likert scale was used to determine what methods of PD Saudi English language teachers preferred, and the analysis focused on the percentage of respondents who indicated they were Very Interested in each item. The results indicated that the highest rated method for improving PD was Attending professional organization conferences for English teachers: 71%. The highest rating of this statement could be due to the lack of availability of such organizations that help teachers attend conferences for training and enriching their knowledge and Theskills.next highest rated methods, in order of preference, were Development of professional learning communities with local colleagues: 55%, One day Workshops, Peer coaching/mentoring, and 2 3 day conferences: 53.2%, 53.2% and 52.3%, respectively. However, the lowest interest was in online courses with or without collaborative meeting software with only 40.4% of respondents indicating they were Very Interested. Teachers rated the online courses as the least preferable because they wanted more opportunities that increased their authentic practice rather than online courses. 4. Interest in Methods and Duration of PD Opportunities InterestedVery SomewhatInterested Neutral InterestedNot Online courses with or without collaborative meeting software. 40.4%(44) 31.2%(34) 18.3%(20) 10.1%(11)

Statement

11 Two three day conferences. 52.3%(57) 27.5%(30) 11%(12) 9.2%(10) 12 one day workshops 53.2%(58) 31.2%(34) 6.4%(7) 9.2%(10)

A total of 109 of Saudi English language teachers, 10 of them volunteered to participate in the interview. The participants who were varied in their teaching experiences and preparation. Four of the ten teachers had extensive experience ranging from nine to twenty years. The rest were novice ranging from three years to six years’ experience. Interestingly, all of them had a desire to teach differently than they were taught, and were very enthusiastic to improve. In order to explore the teachers’ attitudes towards teaching English, they were asked to respond to

Table

249 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. of which discouraged them from attending such events. It is also possible that teachers do not place enough value on continuing PD, and there could be further cultural factors and transportation issues that compound the problem. Methods and Duration of PD Opportunities

15 Development of professional learning communities with local colleagues. 55%(60) 26.6%(29) 13.8%(15) 4.6%(5) Interview Data Analysis

The essential inquiry about pre job preparation was to understand the nature of teachers’ pre service training and professional development. This helped the researcher to get a glimpse of whether teachers were getting adequate pre service training or not. The researcher also hoped to find any gaps that needed to be further studied and addressed for the creation of effective professional development modalities.

Several teachers had similar experiences with pre service training. Some teachers studied for four years as English majors (literature and linguistics) and at the end of the last year they took one methodology course and did a one semester teaching practicum where they taught four 45 minute periods per week. For other teachers, the first year at university was a preparatory year consisting of general courses and one course in English. The remaining three years of their major course of study in English were mostly linguistics and literature courses. Methodology courses were not part of the curriculum. Teachers during their study had never felt that the environment was conducive to learning and teaching the language which was supposed to include authentic practice full of enthusiasm and motivation for acquiring the foreign language.

Teachers who want to teach at universities, could be employed without receiving pre service and prior training. If they want to be school teachers, after they graduate they need to take a one year diploma consisting of educational courses

“When I first stood in front of my students, I had no idea what to do! I went to private English institute to practice the language. I have never done presentations and no one assessed my speaking before. In the school, I observed other teachers while they teach ”

four primary interview questions which center on the following topics: (1) pre job training preparation, (2) availability of PD opportunities, (3) participation in in service training and workshops and (4) the major obstacles which the teachers encountered while receiving PD.

Samar stated regarding her preparation:

Also, Abdullah described his experience: “There was not enough preparation for English language teachers. What I was taught in college is completely different from reality. I was so shocked when I took my first job as a teacher in intermediate school. The experience was like a puzzle that I had to work out by myself. It was the most challenging task I have ever confronted.”

(1) Pre job training preparation

How do English teachers in Saudi Arabia currently perceive the amount and quality of English teaching preparation they received prior to their teaching position? The scope of responses reflected the preparation of new English teachers. Responses indicated that much effort in the development of quality teaching skills of current classroom teachers needs to be planned, designed and implemented. Future standards may call for students to develop knowledge and skills that teachers have not previously addressed. Other teachers further elaborated that education programs were weak when they attended university and did not prepare them adequately.

The purpose of probing into the training of teachers was to gain an understanding of the perceived benefits they received from in service training and PD opportunities. Teachers reported that they often participated in PD. However, it was difficult to benefit from the PD and in service training in which they had participated due to the repetitive topics, providing useless information, not meeting teachers’ needs, trainers were not qualified, not having alternative models for professional development, and not caring to choose appropriate times and locations. The interviewees stated that the Ministry of Education offers PD opportunities only one week per year, offering up to ten hours. However, teachers felt dissatisfied with their experience of PD where trainers need to vary in their PD models and topics to cater to teachers’ needs. Teachers mentioned their dissatisfaction with their experience of PD. Reem and Omar described that as: Most of PD opportunities offered were lectures or suggested strategies that could not be implemented within our school systems due to the lack of technology and short class periods (45 minutes) Most participants stated their willingness to attend effective PD for the sake of being active practitioners. They reported their priority was ensuring the importance of attending such opportunities to mainly enhance their own skills and knowledge of the English language (i.e. their confidence in the subject) first and their teaching outcomes and students’ performance second. Teachers stressed

(3) Participation in in service training and workshops

The purpose of asking about the availability of PD opportunities was to gain a deeper understanding about PD and training for Saudi English language teachers as well as knowing what they need and what is missing in their training. Teachers in public schools indicated that they were offered limited opportunities such as meetings, or workshops offered twice annually. They viewed these PD opportunities as insufficient and not worthy of attending and considered them repetitive topics. Most of PD opportunities offered were lectures. In these PD opportunities, teachers did not find the support they wished for and found that even after the PD, they lacked effective training. There are some development programs done locally every year for all the teachers. These are like training sessions which are mostly lecturing or workshops by supervisors, periodic meetings, Ahmed described it as follows: "There are some development programs done locally every year for all the teachers. These are like training sessions which are mostly lecturing or workshops by supervisors, periodic meetings. Honestly speaking, the development programs are not considered satisfying. New teachers often need more care and attention and their needs of topics of improvements are heard and respected and need to have qualified trainer.

taught in Arabic. At the end of their second semester, teachers are required to teach English at schools. Faisal described his experience as, “The pre service training and teacher education during the Bachelor degree was not enough to be adequately prepared. Although we graduated with high GPA because of memorizing the text we lacked adequate teacher preparation, opportunities for training to practice the English language.”

(2) Availability of PD opportunities

(4) Major obstacles encountered by the teachers Investigating how teachers experienced PD training and figuring out the biggest obstacles they encountered was one of the primary purposes of the current study. These obstacles can be tackled through understanding teachers’ needs and difficulties. Most of the teachers agreed they lacked support and a voice to choose and determine what they needed. Teachers also found that timing, location, and large group size were considered the most considerable difficulties to overcome. To access PD opportunities, teachers had to travel to big cities for PD sessions as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Association of Language Teachers (KSAALT) conference that provides workshops and presentations every year. They suggested having training centers in each city would go a long way to facilitate attendance or at least enable it online platform. Samar indicated one of the obstacles of attending the PD is that “usually such programs take place in morning sessions while teachers would have to work at these periods of time.”

The highest percentage of respondents disagreed with the statement the university training and preparation they received before commencing their first English teaching position was sufficient to be an effective English teacher. The data showed that 67% of trainee teachers reported having insufficient preparation to be effective English teachers before commencing their first teaching post. They believed their training and preparation to be ineffective. Inadequate preparation raises concerns and calls into question the effectiveness of teacher training programs in Saudi Arabian universities. Interview data revealed that majority of teachers obtained a Bachelor’s degree without adequate preparedness in terms of knowledge, language proficiency and competence. Interviewees and the open ended questions indicated that some teachers took one methodology course and had a practicum during the last semester of their study to visit schools three to four times during the semester and to teach lessons, while others graduated without methodology courses or a practicum.

RQ1. How do English teachers in Saudi Arabia currently perceive the amount and quality of English teaching preparation they received prior to their teaching position?

that it is important to consider choosing the time that best suits them and to select appropriate locations which would necessitate establishing centers in every city in Saudi Arabia, not only in the big cities, or enable online platforms for better PD opportunities. Teachers further elaborated that there is an urgent need to provide weekly sessions where teachers can meet and discuss the trends and challenges in TEFL. Then provide monthly PD workshops and topics that were based upon the weekly sessions. They also indicated that they needed this support since they are the ones who are responsible for teaching the content and are accountable for students’ performance.

This section discusses significant themes emerged from the findings stated earlier.

6. Discussion

For the development of best practices for EFL teachers, university preparation programs need to be planned, designed and implemented for enhancing quality teaching skills for these current classroom teachers. This is in alignment with Al

RQ2. What professional development opportunities for English teachers are available and being used in Saudi Arabia? The questionnaire revealed that half of the teachers that responded to the questions did not have PD opportunities for continuing PD to broaden their knowledge/skills. This is confirmed by Zohairy’s (2012) study that revealed 81% of teachers were not satisfied with current PD The interviewees in the current study stated that professional development and training programs were offered once a year for ten hours during one week period while others stated it was three days per year for 25 hours total. Further, the interviewees found repetitive topics and the trainers were inadequately trained and relied on mostly giving lectures, which mirrors how they are expected to teach their own students. Saudi English language teachers have willingness, even an eagerness, to see improvements in PD opportunities and training and want to understand and try alternative models that would empower them as well as address the weaknesses of teachers’ education programs, and lack of teachers’ role in PD programs.

Hazmi (2003), Al Khairy (2013), Al Malihi (2015), Alrabai (2014), Alrashidi & Phan (2015), and Al Seghayer (2014a), who all emphasized that Saudi English language teachers graduate without theoretical background related to factors that affect second language learning and acquisition, and adequate training and competence. This in turn, results in unsuccessful learning EFL outcomes for students, i.e., unsatisfactory students’ achievements of language proficiency and competency. Teaching methodology courses are offered and are given in the last semester and are no more than three credits, representing approximately only 10% of their coursework (Al Seghayer, 2014a). Accordingly, this research strongly suggests that university programs need to be more comprehensive for effective and adequate preparation in the field of EFL. Further, preparation should be extensive, intensive and increased to nurture authentic practice and activities for the sake of successful learning language outcomes of proficiency skills and competency instead of weaknesses of teachers’ education programs.

RQ3. How do Saudi English teachers perceive the effectiveness of their professional development? Results of the questionnaire demonstrated that approximately half of the respondents did not take part in continuing PD activities’ since the

All in all, these findings confirmed Al Malihi’s (2015) study in which Saudi English language teachers responded negatively toward training programs with 59.09% of those educators reporting that they did not receive any training related to teaching theory and pedagogy. Saudi EFL teachers are not prepared with adequate pre service preparation nor training programs, and not supported enough through in service training programs to develop themselves professionally and be updated with sufficient training. Moreover, this research study supported Alsalahi’s (2015) results that demonstrated teachers’ dissatisfaction with PD and training due to the weaknesses of teachers’ education programs and lack of teacher roles in PD programs. Despite these inadequacies in the system of EFL teacher preparation and ongoing development, teachers desire PD offerings that address their specific needs for PD and training in hopes of enacting change to cater to their needs and current inadequacies and challenges.

Further, one can conclude from the collected data that teachers’ dissatisfaction with PD is due to lack of PD trainers’ professional competence, the quality of PD learning that teachers’ experience, and ultimately the students’ outcomes in terms of knowledge and skills. Teachers have not engaged in the given topics through PD and have found that the training does not match their needs. Interestingly, more than half the respondents pointed out that attending professional training is not worth their time and effort. The data confirmed dissatisfaction of not having effective PD opportunities among teachers, and this aligns with the literature review Overall,results.thisis a problem for EFL teacher due to the lack of opportunities to develop, teachers cannot acquire the knowledge/skills needed to enact improvements and strategic planning for EFL. The data further suggests that the quality of professional interaction that teachers take part in and current PD activities do not ensure teacher learning sufficient to improve the knowledge/skills of teachers which in turn impacts improvements in student learning and achievement. Most of the participants in the interview and open ended questions stated their eagerness to be active practitioners for the sake of having effective professional development and training. They reported the importance of attending to such PD opportunities that would enhance their own skills in subject and language knowledge first to raise their self confidence and they viewed their teaching outcomes and students’ performance as secondary. Teachers need a voice to be involved in choosing the topics, appropriate times, and locations that suits their needs and circumstances. They need support since they are the ones who are responsible for teaching the content and are accountable for students’ Accordingperformance.to the models of PD which Saudi English teachers prefer, the results indicated that teachers rated attending professional organization conferences for English teachers the highest, at 77 (71%). This is followed by the development of professional learning communities with local colleagues 60 (55%). One day workshops, peer coaching/mentoring, and 2 3 day conferences were 58 (53%), 58 (53%), and 57 (52%), respectively. The interviews and open ended questions revealed teachers’ opinions that opportunities for PD and training such as meetings, sessions or

commencement of their teaching career. The majority of the teachers answered that they did not participate due to the timing, place and unsatisfactory experiences or repetitive topics and untrained trainers. There were statements regarding the effectiveness of PD and training that teachers could consider and respond to. With the statement related to the effectiveness of PD, teachers generally disagreed that they were receiving effective PD development. While it is true that data can be explained in different ways, it is conceivable, based on their responses, that teachers have no faith in current PD programs, that there are very few PD programs to engage with that would enrich their career goals, and that is an absence of PD training experiences altogether.

workshops were limited to the extent that their teaching practice was negatively Intervieweesimpacted. emphasized the need for PD that include authentic practice, active training and learning by doing. Further, it was emphasized that teachers’ work schedules need to be considered as well as more appropriate locations. Teachers agreed on the utility of weekly sessions to determine their challenges and needs and to allow professional discussions between teachers to exchange ideas. This should be followed up with monthly workshops, PD and training based on what on the suggested upon topics from the weekly sessions. The ideal time should be over the weekend, and organization or centers should be available in each city in Saudi Arabia or even enable online PD sessions

7. Conclusion

To accomplish major changes in teacher satisfaction, the quality of English teacher preparation and ongoing training in Saudi Arabia must change. Attention must be paid to the teachers as they are the key factor in the teaching and learning process. The Ministry of Education needs to provide trainers and training programs that incorporate more interactive approaches, materials testing, and professional development for teachers whose opinions suggest their involvement in this training is long overdue. Thus, learning must occur after actual experiences and activities (Dewey,1938) This study has implications for further practice in relation to how the results will impact further decision making regarding the provision of PD. This research has provided a better understanding of PD needs within the Saudi context. However, further investigation in the current research area is recommended. Additionally, new systems need to be instituted to provide: (1) appropriate pre service education for English Language Teaching programs, (2) localized, appropriate professional development and training for teachers. The research on the professional development (PD) needs of English teachers in Saudi Arabia offers a grounded approach in looking at teachers’ preparation, practice,

This research aimed at exploring professional development in the teaching and learning of the English language for teachers in Saudi Arabia to support the goals of English language acquisition for Saudi English language learners. The purpose of this research was to assess teachers’ views regarding the current available of professional development and training of Saudi English teachers as well as teachers’ preferences for new and alternative models and durations of professional development. The study found a lack of provision and opportunity to undertake PD for English language teachers. The findings suggest there is a need for an organized body for maintaining PD opportunities and the quality of PD leaders. Expectations of the PD leader must be clearly stated and quantifiable in terms of the identification of teachers’ needs, PD planning and evaluation, what resources are available to support the role of teachers to benefit, and for the government to achieve its strategic goals. The research found that schools have varied understandings of both the nature and the value of PD. The implication of this finding is that PD would be of benefit if it were flexible enough to allow teachers to demonstrate learning in both traditional and non traditional ways through courses and portfolio work.

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Recommendations and future research

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contenttheteacherslearnersclassroomscompetenciesfailedacrossdiscontinuity)withthecorrespondingprogressionofmathematicaltasksthegradelevel.However,thespiraldesignofthecurriculumtodecongestthedistributionofthecontentandlearningwhichbecameunrealistictoimplementforgeneralaccordingtothelevelofcognitivedevelopmentofFilipinoasrevealedbythefeedbacksandexperiencesofmathematicsTheKto10Mathematicscurriculumneedsrevisioncoveringmostessentiallearningcompetencies(verticallyarranged)perareaanchoredoninternationalbenchmarks

Keywords: Vertical Coherence; Philippine Kto10 Mathematics; Spiral Progression Approach; Curriculum Mapping; Discrepancy Evaluation Model 1. Introduction The Philippine mathematics basic education curriculum content and standards underwent huge transformation (Verzosa & Vistru Yu, 2019; Morales, 2017; Okabe, 2013; Nebres, 2009), meeting the overarching demands and needs of the modern technological based society attuned to the challenges of globalization (Ezeudu, Nkokelonye & Adigwe, 2013; Vidali & Adam, 2006). It is believed that changes and concrete reforms must be made to have a better system, and with a better system, a better future awaits (Musa & Ziatdinov, 2012). On the other hand,

259 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 259 282, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.15 Exploring Vertical Coherence of Content Topics in Philippine Spiral Kto10 Mathematics Curriculum Ryan V. Dio Sorsogon State College, Magsaysay Street, Sorsogon City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4170 8828

Abstract. Vertical coherence of the content topics coupled with careful sequencing of learning competencies considering student’s cognitive level of development has been identified as an excellent characteristic of a well planned spiral progression approach of the curriculum. This descriptive evaluative method of study tailored with the Discrepancy Evaluation Model (DEM) as a framework of analysis explored the Philippine Kindergarten to Grade 10 (Kto10) mathematics curriculum guide (CG) to determine the program strengths and areas that need improvement. The qualitative approach to the analysis of CG is supported by the feedbacks and experiences of 16 teacher informants (3Male,13Female). Thecurriculummappingrevealed thatcontenttopics were arranged in increasing complexity (though there were observed

any practice, which entails replacing material and redesigning curricula content may be detrimental to the students’ future learning needs (Masters & Gibbs, 2007).

The Philippine Mathematics Curriculum through the implementation of expanded K to 12 Basic Education program (6 years of Elementary level, 4 years Junior High School, 2 years Senior High School) with Kindergarten as entrance requirements follow the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each grade level that is at par with international standards. The curriculum is designed to decongest the distribution of content topics and competencies. In line with the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), principles and standards for school mathematics (NCTM, 2000) consist of five content areas grouped as Numbers and Number Sense, Measurements, Geometry, Patterns and Algebra, and Probability and Statistics which are learned from Kindergarten to Grade 10 (K to 10) in increasing Initiativescomplexityhave been made so that mathematics basic education curriculum content in the Philippines is aligned with international standards. However, aside from NCTM standards, there are various international benchmarks each state needs to consider such as the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) standards among others. The Science Education Institute (SEI) of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and the Philippine Council of Mathematics Teachers Educators (MATHTED), Inc. has developed a mathematics framework as a comprehensive guide for the Philippine basic education sector (SEI DOST & MATHTED, 2011) parallel to the international benchmarks. This mathematics framework document served as an instrument in the creation of the Spiral Mathematics curriculum under the Philippine Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (Republic Act [RA] 10533, 2013) otherwise known as Philippine K to 12 Acceptingprograms.

that curriculum initiatives are generally well planned does not guarantee that the experience or that curriculum itself will be as intended by the planners (Hatzakis, Lycett & Serrano, 2007). It was reported in several fora and studies that mathematics curricula tend to concentrate on the abstract concepts of mathematics rather than the application or discovery of concepts. This leads to students' perception of mathematics to be an irrelevant subject to the real world outside the classroom (Burghes & Hindle, 2004; Smith, 2004). By not highlighting the practical applications of mathematics in the curriculum, teaching methods, and assessment, students are not challenged to develop higher-order thinking skills (Schoenfeld, 1988; Tanudjaya & Doorman, 2020). The current study assessed the consistency of competencies across grade level towards the deepening of students’ mathematics skills along with the required performance standards as an important indicator in the attainment of quality mathematics education.

The Philippine's twin goals of mathematics education in producing a mathematically empowered citizenry (SEI DOST & MATHTED, 2011) are the

Figure 1. Spiral Curriculum Content Topics and Learning Competencies

The value of the spiral curriculum lies in the provision of continuing reinforcement and learning activities arranged from simple to complex manner of deepening skills to reach higher level objectives and application of the acquired

Thelevel.Philippine

development of critical thinking and problem solving skills of learners (Department of Education [DepEd], 2016). These twin goals are to be achieved with an organized and solid mathematics content, the development of strong cognitive skills expressed in terms of performance or process standards, and the promotion of desirable cognitive values with the use of appropriate educational technologies. The emphasis of performance and/or process standards such as estimating, computing and solving; visualizing and modeling; applying and connecting among others is in consonance to the adoption of the outcomes based principles as well as revised blooms cognitive taxonomy (Ari, 2011; Amer, 2006) where learners are expected to produce products at the end of the term or grade

K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum Guide expounded that the curriculum provides necessary mathematics concepts and life skills needed by Filipino learners as they proceed to the higher stages of learning (DepEd, 2016).

The present investigation is concerned with the analysis of how the content topics and learning competencies in the current curriculum are sequentially arranged along with the mathematics content areas across grade levels in consonance with the spiral progression approach. Drew (2020) expounded Bruner’s spiral curriculum as an approach to education that involves regularly re visiting the same educational topics throughout a student’s education. The importance of the careful arrangement of topics and competencies in a spiral progression approach has been expounded in several studies (Castillo, 2014; Briggs & Peck, 2015) to achieve the expected learning outcomes in each grade level. In a spiral progression approach, previous knowledge and skills acquired by the students in the previous lessons (Schema Theory) are essential in building up new knowledge and skills connected to the next lesson (Harden, 1999; Capilitan, Cabili & Sequete, 2015; Drew, 2020).

A vertically coherent set of learning competencies and standards is essential in implementing the spiral progression approach of the curriculum Vertical coherence refers to the set competencies taught to students in one lesson, course, or grade level that prepares them for the next level of study with higher competencies. Curriculum mapping which aims to establish vertical coherence ensures that teaching is purposely structured and logically sequenced across grade levels so that students are building on what they have previously learned that will progressively prepare them for more challenging, higher level work (Schweitzer, 2020; Van den Akker, 2004). However, Snider (2004) described that the spiral design found in most of the textbooks, where many topics are covered, does not promote mastery of fundamental mathematical concepts on which higher level mathematics is built.

This calls for the need to review and study the K to 12 programs as expressed by Senator Sherwin Gatchalian of the Republic of the Philippines (Casayuran, 2020; Ager, 2020) to achieve better results in the future assessments. This claim could be supported by the research commentary of Tran, Reys, Teuscher, Dingman and Kasmer (2016) on the necessity to conduct a careful and systematic analysis of the curriculum standards with due consideration to the expected level of cognitive demand at a particular grade level by assessing vertical coherence of the content topics and learning goals as a means in improving student learning outcomes.

The spiraled curriculum tends to revisits almost all the content of the previous year (Jensen, 1990) for which students lose ground in mathematics as they progress into middle and high school levels based on the National and international assessment results (Snider, 2004). In the Philippines, Mateo (2019) emphasized in an article that there are a lot of competencies and content that the students have to study in a limited time allotted for each grade level in the current K to 12 mathematics basic education curriculum. His article also expounded that the K to 12 programs had an impact on the learning of students, bringing the Philippines to rank second lowest in mathematics and science out of 79 countries in the 2018 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) apart from the low mastery in the Grade 6 and 10 Mathematics National Achievement Test (NAT) for the last three consecutive years (Albano, 2019).

knowledge in a flexible learning environment (Harden, 1999). The spiraling of the learning content and competencies broaden as the students’ pass through higher grade level which requires mastery of the foundational knowledge, values, and skills as illustrated in Figure 1 It can be linked to the idea that any complex material can be learned by anybody if properly structured and presented. It is, therefore, necessary to review the vertical continuity of the current Philippine spiral mathematics curriculum content and competencies across grade levels to yield a better outcome.

Content Topics (CT) Learning Competencies (LC)

2. Methodology

Figure 2. Vertical Alignment of Curriculum Standards

K to 10 StandardsCurriculum

Objectives of the Study

This descriptive evaluative study utilized a qualitative approach to analysis in dealing with curriculum evaluation. The study adopted the features of curriculum evaluation defined by Glatthorn, Boschee and Whitehead (2005) focusing on the assessment of the vertical continuity of the learning competencies of the Philippine K to 10 Mathematics content area

Bradley (1985) identified vertical curriculum continuity of content topics as one of the 10 indicators to measure the effectiveness of the developed curriculum. Moreover, the study also investigated the alignment of the content topics (CT) and learning competencies (LC) to the grade level standards and over all curriculum content standards as illustrated in Figure 2.

The Philippine K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum Guide (CG) served as an object of analysis in extracting information on the vertical coherence of curriculum standards as well as the multigrade sequence of learning experiences in the spiral progression approach. The framework of curriculum evaluation used in the study was tailored from the Discrepancy Evaluation Model (DEM) of Provus (1969) which is recognized as an ongoing cycle to provide information towards program assessment and improvement. It is assumed in this study that there is an existence of discrepancy in the expected output against the K to 10 mathematics curriculum standards based on the performances of the Filipino students in the national and international standardized test (Mateo, 2019; Albano, 2019; PISA, 2018).

Key Stage Standards Grade Level ContentStandardsArea

The main purpose of the study was to explore the vertical coherence of the sequence of the content topics and the learning competencies of the Philippine K to10 spiral mathematics curriculum as a preliminary evaluation report. The study also deals with the identification of the strength and areas needing improvement of the spiraling features of the K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum.

Step 2: Plan the Evaluation Curriculum evaluation in this study focuses on the written texts represented by the planned curriculum through CG analysis. The content analysis procedure of the CG was guided by the typology model of a qualitative approach to analysis (Suter, 2012a) to establish a vertically aligned curriculum standard. The evaluation led to the identification of the curricular strengths and the areas that need improvements showing the gaps and discrepancies on the established standards which were strengthened by the teachers' feedbacks and experiences.

The implementation of the CG content analysis is supported by the analysis of teachers’ experiences in the classroom to check consistency and stakeholder agreement of the findings. Each LC and CT were coded and grouped according to the content area across grade level (K to 10) in consonance to the Mathematics Framework for Philippine Basic Education (SEI DOST & MATHTED, 2011).

Step 3: Implementing Plans to Collect Information

Teachers’ feedbacks and experiences were determined through the combination of guided face to face, electronic, and questionnaire interviews.

The curriculum evaluation in this study adopted the first stage of DEM analysis comprising the program design, input dimension, process dimension, and output dimension (Provus, 1969, p. 10) as a subject for improvement, maintenance, or termination The study revolved on the following DEM steps adapted from the presentation of Ahmad (2011): (1) establish program design standards, (2) plan the evaluation, (3) implement plans to collect information, (4) identify discrepancies, and (5) plan what to do next.

The Key Stage Standards (KSS) clustered as Lower Elementary (Kindergarten to Grade 3 [Kto3]), Upper Elementary (Grade 4 to Grade 6 [G4to6]), and High School (Grade 7 to 10 [G7to10]) per content area of mathematics are extracted as a guide in the analysis on the vertical alignment of CT and LC across grade levels. Inventory of the CT and LC were also made to determine the content emphasis across grade levels and its alignment towards the attainment of the standards. The distribution of the CT and LC were presented using the frequency count and percentage against the total per content area

The study revisited the K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum standards using the CG to determine the content area standards and required CT and LC per grade level.

Step 1: Establishing Program Design Standards

The content analysis of the DepEd CG was facilitated through curriculum mapping in assessing the alignment of CT and LC across grade levels The CT was based on the list of topics set as reflected in the Mathematics Framework for Philippine Basic Education consists of CT strands with the corresponding sub topics. The LC was based on the list of specific competencies per content area found in the CG which were grouped according to the specific mathematics skills and values such as estimating, computing, modeling, communicating, proving, reasoning, appreciating among others representing the key LC. Shilling (2013) expounded the benefits and opportunities of curriculum mapping as a process of locating academic gaps, redundancies, and misalignment in the learning

On the other hand, teachers' feedbacks and experiences in implementing the K to 10 curricula were identified through the interview with the use of an open ended question guide among the purposively selected 16 in service basic education teacher informants (3Male, 13Female) who are generally new (10 with less than 5 years teaching experience, three with 5 10 teaching experience, and another three with more than 10 years) in the service and residing in Bicol Region, Philippines. These identified teacher participants of the study were the only pre selected informants who expressed their intention to take part in the entire research process through informed consent.

There were key interview questions utilized in the conduct of the study to show the experiences, issues, and concerns of the mathematics teachers. The following key questions were asked during the interview: (a) How do you describe yourself when you first started teaching the Kto12 curriculum? (b) How was your teaching environment then? (c) How are the contents of the Mathematics subject taught [in the Grade level you are teaching]? (d) Do you have some issues and concerns in the implementation of the Mathematics curriculum [Please specify]? (e) In what way have you overcome the challenges that teaching K to 12 curricula entail? (f) What are your suggestions for improvement which may eventually minimize the occurrence of the problems you encountered? Follow up questions were then given to expound on the idea and deepen the analysis of the details.

competencies, content topics, and performance standards to improve the overall coherence of a course of study across grade levels. Assessment of the vertical coherence of CT and LC was the aim of curriculum mapping across grade levels in this study. Curriculum mapping which aims to assess vertical coherence ensures that topics and set of learning competencies are logically arranged across grade levels so that students are building up new knowledge and skills based on what they have previously learned that will progressively prepare them for a more challenging task.

The information generated from feedbacks and experiences of teacher participants who implemented the K to 12 Mathematics program during their very first few years of teaching in the field were form part of the data validation of the study both for consistency checks and stakeholders' check (Suter, 2012b) They were selected to minimize any biases and comparison from their previous experiences of implementing the old curriculum which is unique in the study. The Philippine K to 12 curriculum which was signed into law through the Basic Education Act of 2013 (RA 10533, 2013) generates employment opportunities for teachers due to two years of addition in the basic education cycle since its first year of implementation in School Year 2012 to 2013. These hired teachers within seven years of implementing the K to 12 programs in the Philippines were the targeted respondents of the study to support them with their issues and concerns in attaining the standards (Luft, Dubois, Nixon & Campbell, 2014) of implementing spiral mathematics curriculum which was further validated by the experiences, expertise, and observations of the three selected Master Teachers.

The KSS of the Philippine Spiral Mathematics Basic Education Curriculum

Numbers and Number Sense (NS) Along NS content area, the K to 3 learners are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the counting numbers (including reading, writing, and ordering) together with the fundamental operations through personal experience and hands on activities in counting, sorting, and measuring which develop an understanding of the relative size, equivalent forms of numbers, and the use of numbers in representing real world objects and quantities as applied in solving simple problems such as money. The learners are also introduced to the conceptual understanding of fractions (includes reading, writing, ordering) with the introduction of the concept of prime and composite numbers, factors, and multiples as well as the Roman Numerals towards the end of the K to 3 stages. Since the NS served as the foundational knowledge and skills in K to 10 Mathematics, it has the highest number and percentage share of key competencies and sub LC among the content areas at this stage as reflected in Table 2. The learners are also exposed to repetitive drills and practice to learn when to use and how to use the four fundamental operations as they exhibit flexibility and critical thinking in solving simple problems towards the end of this stage, Grades 2 to 3, with the highest number of sub CT when compared to other content areas as shown in Table 3.

In step 4, curriculum mapping was utilized in this study as a technique to determine whether there is an existence of discrepancies, gaps, or issues on continuity in the standards and competencies (Hale, 2008; Jacobs, 2004; Jacobs & Johnson, 2009) which hinders the smooth implementation of the spiral curriculum design Various matrices (rows = CT/LC; and columns = grade level) were made to enable and visualize the intention of curriculum mapping on vertical continuity or coherence as well as discrepancies per mathematics content area of Numbers and Number Sense (NS), Measurements (ME), Geometry (GE), Patterns and Algebra (AL), and Probability and Statistics (PS) Some portion in the implementation of the evaluation plan (Step 3) overlaps with the discrepancy identification (step 4) at this stage of DEM. Data generated from documents and teacher experiences were coded to categorized the curricular strengths and areas needing improvements

The final step of the DEM as an adopted framework for analysis provides ground for the maintenance, improvement, or termination of the program based on the identified strengths and discrepancies of the curriculum design

Step 5: Plan What to Do Next

3. Results and Discussion

Step 4: Identify Discrepancies

The KSS as shown in Table 1 reflects the curriculum content and LC across grade levels per NS, ME, GE, AL, and PS content areas beginning in kindergarten. The analysis of the KSS of Mathematics Basic Education Curriculum grouped into three clusters: Lower Elementary (Kto3), Upper Elementary (G4to6), and High School (G7to10) extracted the standards for the five identified content areas of Mathematics. With the spiral curriculum design, the basic ideas, and foundational skills in mathematics are required to be introduced in the Lower Elementary (Kto3) and are reinforced and deepened in the higher grade levels.

(ME)Measurement

Demonstrate an understanding of some number theory concepts such as GCF (greatest common factor) and LCM (least common multiple) and the series of operations of numbers; mastery of the operations of whole numbers, fractions, and decimals; understanding and solving problems involving ratio, proportion and percent; and understanding of the concepts of integers, exponents, base and scientific notation. Demonstrate an understanding of the key concepts of sets, the real number system, estimation/ approximation of a square root of a number and the measures of quantities, and the applications of real numbers to measurements.

Demonstrate an understanding of patterns, relationships, and sequence on numbers, operations, and geometric objects. Demonstrate an understanding of patterns and number sentences, algebraic expressions in one variable, and simple equations. Demonstrate an understanding of sequences, algebraic expressions, variations, relations and functions, inequalities in one and two variables, and basic concepts of trigonometry.

Statistics Probabilityand(PS)

The concept of base, exponents and scientific notations, percent, ratio and proportion, and integers are also introduced towards the end of the upper elementary stage, G5 to 6, which accumulated the highest number and percentage share of LC and CT of NS as exhibited in Tables 2 and 3.

Demonstrate an understanding of the data collection, organizing data through graphs, charts, or tables and the idea of the likelihood of the event to happen with the use of appropriate educational tools in various designed learning activities such as purposeful play and manipulatives. Demonstrate an understanding of organizing and interpreting data using tables, bar graphs, line graphs, or circle graphs and predicting outcomes of experiments. Demonstrate an understanding of the importance of the processes of statistics, measures of central tendencies, measures of variability, measures of position, and basic combinatorial concepts and probability.

Table 1. The KSS of Mathematics Content Area

Demonstrate an understanding of the concept, application, and use of standard and non-standard units in measuring time, length, mass, area, and capacity. Demonstrate an understanding of measurements to approximate and compute for the perimeter, circumference, area of plane figures, surface area and volume of solid figures, capacity, and temperature. Continue to deepen their understanding of the different types of measures as they apply them in problem-solving that involves measurements such as perimeter, area, weight, time, speed, temperature, volume/ capacity, and utility usage (meter reading).

Patterns and Algebra (AL)

Key Stage StandardsContentAreas

The KSS along NS content at the High School level (G7 to10) are expected to provide the learner a deeper understanding of the set of real numbers (whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers) as applied to measurements. Tables 2 and 3 displayed that KSS at this stage on the NS content area is expected to demonstrate the set of LC along with the CT by the learners at Lower Elementary ( K to 3) Upper Elementary (G 4 to 6) Junior High School (G 7 to 10) Numbers and Number Sense (NS) Demonstrate an understanding of number notation, place value, comparing and ordering whole numbers up to 10000; operations and properties of whole numbers applied to problem-solving, Roman numerals; identification of money value and solving money problems; and the concepts, simplifying, and ordering fractions.

Students in the upper elementary grades (G4 to 6) are expected to demonstrate mastery of the operations of whole numbers using a more efficient and practical algorithm. Students at this stage are introduced to the fundamental operations of fractions and decimals (includes the meaning, reading, writing, ordering, estimation) as well as the order of operations as applied to real world situations.

Geometry (GE) Demonstrate an understanding of the basic properties of 2D and 3D shapes through identifying, classifying, and constructing figures including tessellations and symmetry through the use of appropriate educational tools in hands-on or manipulative activities and informal discussions. Demonstrate an understanding of angles and lines relationship, symmetry, polygons up to 10 sides, circles, and its parts, and 2D representations of a 3D solid figure Demonstrate an understanding of the axiomatic development of geometry, triangle congruence, triangle and quadrilateral similarity and inequalities, and the applications of measurements in geometric figures.

Geometry (GE) The GE content area KSS is progressively exhibited by the K to 3 learners through exposure to manipulative activities of sorting things, measuring, classifying models, constructing figures including tessellations and symmetry as they build the skill to make sense of the real world. The G4 to 6 learners will be exposed to more formal use of geometric terms in appreciating and understanding angles and lines relationship, symmetry, polygons, circles, and solid figures through explorations and experimentations Learners are exposed to most of the lessons and LC in GE when they reach the upper elementary (G4to6) stage, see Tables 2 and 3. The High School learners will continue to investigate, give proof, and solve problems in deepening their knowledge and skills as well as the appreciation of the geometric shapes, congruence, similarity and inequalities, and the applications of measurements. The focus of geometry in high school is the analysis of the plane figure properties and the use of mathematical arguments and reasoning as applied in solving routine and non routine problems to produce analytical and critical thinker graduates.

Measurements (ME). The ME content focuses on finding, estimating, and comparing actual measurements of objects or events using real tools of standards and non standard units of measures. The K to 3 learners begin with using non standards units in comparing objects or sets of objects which are longer or shorter, heavier or lighter, warmer or colder, quicker or slower, greater or lesser, and later on (towards the end of this stage, Grade 3) with the use of standard units of measurement. The learners at this stage will learn to choose appropriate units and tools to measure physical attributes as they develop critical thinking, making connections, and appreciation of the applications of measurements in daily life. Table 3 shows that most of the CT of ME is placed under lower elementary (Kto3) with the highest number and percentage share (about 4 to 5 content strand, and 9 to 10 sub topics) among the five content areas. The learners will be exposed to a more experimental approach of learning when they reach the Upper Elementary stage (G4 to6) in approximating and computing for the perimeter, circumference, area of plane figures, surface area and volume of solid figures, capacity, and temperature with the use of appropriate tools. The ME content area has the highest number of key learning competencies across grade level in Grade 7 as shown in Table 2 to deepen student understanding of the different types of measures. Students at this stage are expected to apply and integrate their ME knowledge, skills, and values acquired in problem solving with other disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, social sciences, economics, and livelihood education.

the end of Grade 7. The KSS on NS illustrates that integration of the concepts within, between, and among the content areas are strengthened at this stage such as learning the base, exponents, square roots among others which also could be learned in AL content areas. The high school students will learn that there are decimal numbers which are under the set of rational numbers (numbers which could be written in the form of �� ) and under the set of irrational numbers (decimals which are non terminating non repeating decimals) which help describe the roots of equations such as x2 5 = 0 and in predicting results of sin �� 3 under AL content area.

Table 2. Distribution of the K to10 Mathematics Learning Competencies (LC) GradeLevel LC Content Area Overall NS ME GE AL PS K Key LC 13 (11%) 4 (7%) 2 (3%) 5 (6%) 1 (2%) 25 (7%) Sub LC 29 (8%) 15 (13%) 9 (7%) 11 (7%) 2 (3%) 66 (8%) 1 Key LC 13 (11%) 4 (7%) 1 (1%) 5 (6%) 5 (10%) 28 (8%) Sub LC 42 (11%) 7 (6%) 4 (3%) 5 (3%) 5 (6%) 63 (7%) 2 Key LC 17 (14%) 6 (11%) 4 (6%) 4 (5%) 5 (10%) 36 (10%) Sub LC 60 (16%) 18 (15%) 8 (7%) 3 (2%) 5 (6%) 94 (11%) 3 Key LC 18 (15%) 5 (9%) 3 (4%) 2 (3%) 5 (10%) 33 (9%) Sub LC 63 (17%) 12 (10%) 7 (6%) 4 (2%) 5 (6%) 91 (11%) 4 Key LC 13 (11%) 7 (13%) 7 (10%) 1 (1%) 5 (10%) 33 (9%) Sub LC 46 (12%) 15 (13%) 13 (11%) 3 (2%) 6 (8%) 83 (10%) 5 Key LC 19 (16%) 8 (15%) 9 (13%) 1 (1%) 6 (12%) 43 (12%) Sub LC 66 (17%) 24 (21%) 11 (9%) 3 (2%) 8 (10%) 112 (13%) 6 Key LC 13 (11%) 9 (17%) 10 (14%) 7 (9%) 5 (10%) 44 (12%) Sub LC 52 (14%) 20 (17%) 7 (6%) 14 (8%) 8 (10%) 101 (12%) 7 Key LC 13 (11%) 11 (20%) 10 (14%) 10 (13%) 5 (10%) 49 (13%) Sub LC 21 (6%) 6 (5%) 14 (11%) 18 (11%) 7 (9%) 66 (8%) 8 Key LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 10 (14%) 19 (25%) 6 (12%) 35 (10%) Sub LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 21 (17%) 40 (24%) 10 (13%) 71 (8%) 9 Key LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 6 (9%) 15 (19%) 0 (0%) 21 (6%) Sub LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 16 (13%) 39 (24%) 0 (0%) 55 (6%) 10 Key LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 7 (10%) 8 (10%) 6 (12%) 21 (6%) Sub LC 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 12 (10%) 25 (15%) 23 (29%) 60 (7%) K to 10 Key LC 119 54 69 77 49 368 Sub LC 379 117 122 165 79 862 The high school learners are expected to deepen their representational skills in various situations, transforming expressions, equations, or inequality into its simpler format, and to use the most appropriate strategies in finding a solution to a problem. The bulk of LC and CT of AL content area are placed in high school level with 10% 25% key competencies per grade level as illustrated in Table 2 and 24% 48% content strand of AL as shown in Table 3. Statistics and Probability (PS). The PS content area focuses on data interpretation and analysis as well as making inferences, predictions, conclusions, and decisions

activities on generalizing,

Patterns and Algebra (AL). The AL content area highlights the patterns and relationships of quantities represented by variables used to generalize and model real situations. The K to 3 learners will learn and appreciate patterns, relationships, and sequence on numbers, operations, and geometric objects as they develop representations skills with the use of appropriate technology in experiential and hands on activities. The G4 to 6 learners will be exposed to a variety of learning representations, and modeling of quantitative changes to learn patterns and number sentences, algebraic expressions in one variable, and simple equations. Learners of elementary level are expected to acquire the foundational knowledge, skills, and values of AL needed in challenging LC along with the CT when reach high school.

they

from the given data set presented (tables, charts, and graphs) and collected. As early as lower elementary stage learners will begin to learn to record, read and interpret the displayed data as they realize that data can represent information through the use of appropriate educational tools in various designed appropriate learning activities.

Table

The upper elementary learners start to simulate surveys and investigations to answer questions and problems objectively about organizing and interpreting data using tables and graphs as well as predicting outcomes of experiments. The high school learners continue to build their understanding of the different statistical measures and the basic combinatorial concepts and probability. Learners will be exposed to real world data as they are made to realize the importance of baseline statistical information in decision making and problem solving which are made available in today’s technological society for easy accession. The PS content area has the least number of LC (79 out of 862 learning competencies) and CT (25 out of 269 topics) among the five content area of Mathematics K to 10 Curriculum which is usually tackled in the last quarter of the school year. 3. Distribution of Content Topics (CT) per Content Area of K to 10 Curriculum GradeLevel CT Content Area Overall NS ME GE AL PS K Strand 2 (20%) 5 (83%) 2 (40%) 3 (14%) 1 (20%) 13 (28%) Sub Topic 7 (11%) 10 (43%) 3 (6%) 3 (3%) 1 (7%) 24 (9%) Strand

270

2 (20%) 4 (67%) 1 (20%) 3 (14%) 3 (60%) 13 (28%) Sub Topic 7 (11%) 9 (39%) 3 (6%) 3 (3%) 4 (16%) 26 (10%) 2 Strand 3 (30%) 4 (67%) 3 (60%) 4 (19%) 3 (60%) 17 (36%) Sub Topic 11 (18%) 10 (43%) 5 (10%) 4 (4%) 3 (12%) 33 (12%) 3 Strand 2 (20%) 4 (67%) 3 (60%) 4 (19%) 3 (60%) 16 (34%) Sub Topic 11 (18%) 10 (43%) 9 (18%) 7 (6%) 3 (12%) 40 (15%) 4 Strand 3 (30%) 4 (67%) 3 (60%) 3 (14%) 3 (60%) 16 (34%) Sub Topic 13 (21%) 7 (30%) 12 (24%) 3 (3%) 4 (16%) 39 (14%) 5 Strand 6 (60%) 4 (67%) 1 (20%) 1 (5%) 4 (80%) 16 (34%) Sub Topic 28 (45%) 9 (39%) 9 (18%) 2 (2%) 5 (20%) 53 (20%) 6 Strand 7 (70%) 4 (67%) 3 (60%) 3 (14%) 3 (60%) 20 (43%) Sub Topic 26 (42%) 10 (43%) 10 (20%) 10 (9%) 3 (12%) 59 (22%) 7 Strand 6 (60%) 4 (67%) 3 (60%) 10 (48%) 3 (60%) 26 (55%) Sub Topic 22 (35%) 15 (65%) 17 (33%) 31 (29%) 11 (44%) 96 (36%) 8 Strand 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (80%) 10 (48%) 2 (40%) 16 (34%) Sub Topic 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 15 (29%) 31 (29%) 7 (28%) 53 (20%) 9 Strand 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (20%) 6 (29%) 0 (0%) 7 (15%) Sub Topic 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 6 (12%) 33 (31%) 0 (0%) 39 (14%) 10 Strand 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (40%) 5 (24%) 1 (20%) 8 (17%) Sub Topic 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (8%) 19 (18%) 7 (28%) 30 (11%) Kto10 Strand 10 6 5 21 5 47 Sub Topic 62 23 51 108 25 269 Generally, mathematics concepts at the lower elementary are taught using informal language which could be understood by the learners in their common language while the instruction at the upper elementary underwent a transition

Articulating Vertical Coherence of the K to 10 Mathematics Content Topics

from informal to formal language to raise the level of understanding of mathematics concepts that are needed in high school. Mathematics at the high school level is taught with formal notations and is highly symbolic and structural as it equips learners with a more comprehensive set of mathematical concepts and higher order thinking skills (Tanudjaya & Doorman, 2020) that they need to either pursue the world of work or higher education.

The content analysis of the KSS shows the vertical alignment of the CT and LC arranged in increasing complexity across grade levels. This section will discuss the specific details and characteristics of the CT coherence across grade levels The curriculum mapping reveals that essential Mathematics CT along the five content areas is expected to be introduced informally in Kindergarten before entering Grade 1. Informal introduction of the CT usually happens in the early grade level of the lower elementary stage since learning activities are made with the use of models and/or concrete objects using the language of the learners and a situation familiar to them. The learner is therefore exposed to various mathematical tasks while playing and doing manipulative activities with models and concrete materials in the classroom as early as Kindergarten.

Table 2 highlighted the LC per stage of the K to 10 mathematics which shows that NS and ME will be learned mostly by the students at the lower elementary level that served as the foundational knowledge, skills, and values needed in the other three content areas and higher grade level. The content topics of NS, ME, and GE areas are mostly with immediate practical applications in the daily life activities for the students, making it easier to relate the concept to daily life experiences, hence, providing them with the needed life skills.

Data also shows that high school learners are exposed to the more challenging LC of the GE, AL, and PS. This also implies that the upper elementary served as bridged from the informal instructions in lower elementary through the use of manipulative materials to a more formal and comprehensive set of instructions in high school level that equips the learner with a highly symbolic way of thinking and mathematical processes. This could be supported by the data in Table 3 where most of the content topics in high school are dominated by the AL content with Grade 7 has the highest percentage (55% content strand and 36% sub topics). Data also shows that the AL content area dominates the CT with 21 out of 47 content strands and 108 out of 269 sub topics. These spiral arrangements of the set of LC along with the organized CT are towards the attainment of the grade level standards and KSS which will facilitate the learners manifest the twin goal of mathematics education: critical thinking and problem solving skills. These two goals are to be achieved with a highly equipped and capable teachers in implementing the well defined set of high level skills and processes and desirable attitudes among the learners through the use of appropriate educational technologies and teaching pedagogies with due recognition to the different contexts of Filipino learners.

Numbers

1. Counting Numbers/Whole Numbers 1.1 Conceptual understanding (including reading, writing, and ordering) 1.2 The four basic operations (meaning, properties, algorithms) 1.2.1 Addition 1.2.2 Subtraction meaning and properties 1.2.3 Multiplication meaning and properties 1.2.4 Division meaning and properties 1.2.5 Exponents and square roots 1.2.6 Order of operations 1.3 Number Theory (factors, multiples, prime, composite, and parity) 1.4 Problem solving/ application to real world situations 1.5 Estimation and rounding off 1.6 Roman Numerals

272

Figure 3: A Sample Mapping of Content Topics in Numbers and Number Sense

The formal introduction of the content topic takes place when the teacher uses formal language and mathematical symbols and notations which usually happens beginning Grade 1 for foundational concepts and skills along with the five content areas of Mathematics. Ideally, depending on the level of difficulty of content topics are to be mastered by the learners in upper elementary (G4 to 6) and High school (G7 to 10) after the formal introduction and reinforcements of the prerequisite topics such as the ones illustrated in Figure 3. Reinforcements happen when the concept is re introduced with more drills and practice exercises to help students deepen their understanding and rectify errors and misconceptions about the topic. Mastery of the content topics indicates that students demonstrate a solid understanding of the concepts and can execute the processes involved in doing mathematical tasks through further reinforcements. Moreover, a review of the CT and processes involved may be required so that learners can easily link the previous knowledge and skills to the new mathematics materials (SEI DOST & MATHTED, 2011).

The analysis on the vertical coherence of content topics of the K to 10 mathematics curriculum reveals the following themes showing both the strength and the areas for improvement: (1) vertical arrangements of the content topics, (2) placement of

Figure 3 illustrates how the sequencing of the content topics on Counting/Whole Numbers in NS are made from Kindergarten to Grade 7. Topics are introduced depending on what the learners have acquired such as order of operations in Grade 4 since learners acquired the skills on four fundamental operations in lower elementary. After reinforcements of the order of operations in Grade 5, exponents and square roots may be introduced (informal or formal) in Grade 6 and deepened in Grade 7 through reinforcements. A review of the lesson may be made after mastery for the deepening of skills. and Number Sense Content Topic GRADE LEVEL K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Legend: Informal FormalIntroduction Reinforcements Mastery Review

273

The sequence of the content topics also reveals the progression of the mathematical task and problem solving activity which are arranged from simple to complex. The problem solving task in Lower Elementary NS requires manipulation of whole numbers, the Upper Elementary NS problem solving may involve decimals and fractions, while the High School NS problem solving may involve rational numbers as well as integers. Teachers, therefore, need to be oriented with this sequencing of content topics to limit the scope of CT per stage or grade level. Mathematics high school teachers should not touch lessons on quadratic equations with complex numbers (non real numbers) solution, e.g., 3x2+ 12 = 0 with {±2i} as solution set. However, the continuity of some concepts introduced to learners at the lower grade level is not visible on the next grade level such as the concept of multiplication and division which are introduced informally in kindergarten with a one grade level gap since formal introduction happened in Grade 2 as illustrated in Figure 3. Discontinuity of the concepts introduced can be also observed in higher grade levels such as simplifying fractions in NS; time measures, mass measures, and conversion of units in ME; points, lines relationships, polygons,

Draw describeandacircle. Draw a circle with different radii and identify the basic parts of the Derivecircle.the formula in finding the circumference (C= 2��r) and area (A=��r2) of the circle. Sketch the graph of a circle on (xform:usingcoordinatetheplanecenterradiush)

content topic of reinforcements, (3) teaching emphasis per grade level, (4) (de)congestion of CT, and (5) integration and connection between and among content areas. Vertical arrangements of CT. In consideration of the cognitive level of development of the learner, topics are arranged in increasing complexity from addition and subtraction of whole numbers in Grade 1 to multiplication and Division in Grade 2 going to order of operations in Grades 4 to 6 NS topics. The concept of the circle is first introduced through models, drawings, and construction in the Lower Elementary GE, introduced formally in Grade 5 GE with its basic parts, reinforced in Grades 6 to 7 ME, and mastered in Grade 10 GE and AL as shown in Figure 4. Lower Elementary Upper Elementary High School cLRepresentationearningompetencies

2 + (y k)2 = r2 Content area Geometry MeasurementGeometry, PatternsGeometry,&Algebra

Figure 4. Progression of Circle Representation

2.5.3 Congruence 2.5.4 Similarity 2.5.5 Median, altitude, and angle bisector 2.5.6 Triangle inequality 2.5.7 Right triangles 2.5.7.1 Pythagorean theorem 2.5.7.2 Special right triangles 2.5.8 Area M E M E M E Legend: Informal Formal Introduction Reinforcement Measurements Content Topic

sides and angles) 2.5.2 Angles in

2.3 Congruence 2.4 Similarity 2.52.Triangles5.1Classification (according

exterior

. The curriculum mapping reveals that there is an existence of CT (mostly in high school) that are introduced once only, with no reinforcement or deepening of skills for mastery in the next higher grade level. This can be illustrated in Figure 5 where Geometry content topics and learning competencies on shapes are mostly undertaken at the high school level and are introduced only once such as congruence and similarity of the triangle, and special right triangles. These topics require a solid foundation of the competencies of CT in the lower years and require more reinforcements for deepening and mastery of skills as prerequisites in the study of Mathematics in the higher grade level. This calls for a review of the geometry content (Abdullah & Shin, 2019) of the current spiral progression mathematics curriculum to suit the need of students in developing 21st century skills. Figure 5. A Sample Mapping of Content Topics in Geometry

Geometry Content Topic Grade Level K 1 2 3 4

8 9 10 2 2.1PolygonsBasicconcepts (e.g.,

Placement of CT Reinforcements

2.2 Properties of

The analysis of the curriculum reveals that the majority (83% or 223 out of 269) of the CT are introduced (informal or formal) only to the learners with no further reinforcements for mastery of the content in the higher grade level. Most of the CT reinforcements are along with NS (14 out of 62), ME (12 out of 23), and GE (11 5 7 terms, classifications) polygons (e.g., number diagonals, angle sums) to a triangle (e.g., angle sum theorem, angle theorem)

solids, and area measure in GE; patterns and polynomial concept in AL; and tables, graphs, and probability in PS In line with this scenario, the teacher informants disclosed that they exercised their judgment in ordering the content topics and which mathematics content to cover based on the felt needs of the students. The Grade 9 Mathematics Teachers in Sorsogon Province reported that “The grade 9 teachers decide, as a group, to arrange the contents of the curriculum guide thinking that some topics (Prerequisite) should be discussed first before some other topics.”

Teaching Emphasis per Grade Level

. The transition from focus to spiral content design brought some adjustments on the part of the Mathematics teacher since most of them taught one specific content area for several years and now they are obliged to teach all the five content areas. Teaching emphasis of CT in the elementary level focuses along with the NS and ME content areas where they have acquired mastery in the previous curriculum design. There were features of skipping of lessons especially in the upper elementary along with AL, GE, and PS content area as disclosed by elementary teacher informants since they were not so familiar with the CT.

The high school CT teaching emphasis depends on the learners’ acquired mathematics competency. Teachers spend so much time on the review of the prerequisite topics to help students acquire the required mathematics skills on the least mastered competencies to ensure their readiness (Herrera & Dio, 2016) on the new materials The Grade 10 Teacher 3 in Sorsogon City observed that “ students do not have a strong foundation on the subject requisites. ” This scenario resulted in non coverage of all the required LC along with the CT in the grade

The second form of teaching emphasis deals with the intent of the teacher based on their capability A grade 7 teacher in Irosin, Sorsogon who teaches Mathematics for 24 years commented that "I am not so familiar with the new set of learning competencies under the K to 12 programs”

The teaching of congruence and similarity of polygons introduced in Grade 5 (informal or formal) is expected to be reinforced in Grade 6 level for mastery in Grades 7 and 8, and review in Grade 9 This concept was also introduced informally in kindergarten ME estimation and measuring. However, the CG reflects that this CT introduced in Grade 5 with the teaching reinforcement in Grades 8 (Triangle congruence) and Grade 9 (Triangle similarity) may not be enough to acquire mastery in a spiral progression curriculum. This is also true in the Plotting of points in the Cartesian Coordinate System of AL as reflected in the CG where students will formally learn the content topic in Grade 8 and reinforcements will just happen only in Grade 10. Feedback from an HS Teacher 3 in Gubat, Sorsogon reveals “Students lose mastery of the content since they find it hard to track the continuity of the mathematics contents from kinder to 10 especially if some competencies were not covered from the lower level.”

Upon curriculum review and feedback from the teachers, the teaching emphasis of CT depends on first, the intent of the lesson, and second, the intent of the teacher. The intent of the lesson is guided by the expected LC that the learners need to execute at the end of the lesson whether it is for an informal or formal introduction, reinforcements, mastery, or review. It is expected for the learners to have mastery on the order of operations (introduced in Grade 5) by Grade 7 as reflected in the Mathematics Framework, however, the K to 10 Mathematics CG expects the mastery by Grade 6 since it was introduced already in Grade 4.

out of 51) content areas which usually place in the upper elementary level. Very few (5 out of 108) of the CT in AL has teaching reinforcements, only in the elementary level, which shows that most of the high school AL content is introduced (informal or formal) once with no follow up reinforcements

level when there are several observed learning deficiencies emanated in the lower grade Mathematicslevel teachers across grade levels should therefore be well oriented with the CT emphasis required per grade level so that appropriate classroom intervention can be made. However, limited teachers’ understanding and use of the learning progression approach towards a vertically aligned curriculum implementation were observed (Jin, Mikeska, Hokayem & Mavronikolas, 2019; Reeves & McAuliffe, 2012).

Feedbacks from the informants reveal that training and orientations on the curricular reforms have not saturated the entire classroom teachers. Training and orientations provided were superficial, dealing only with the coverage and objectives of the curriculum, while content emphasis and the arrangement of topics across grade level were not tackled. A Teacher 3 in a remote area in Sorsogon City shares his experiences: “Back then, when I was given teaching assignment in Grade 7 Mathematics by our School Principal in SY 2013 2014, I was hesitant at first since I don’t have the training yet. I only have a copy of the curriculum guide, teacher’s material, and learners’ material to study.”

(De)Congestion of Content Topic. Upon careful review of the Mathematics Curriculum, there was K to 10 topics such as complex numbers in NS; maps scale in ME; skew and concurrent lines, Thales theorem, Transformations such as reflections, translations, rotations, symmetries in GE; and Historical development of algebra, midpoint of a line segment, parabola, special functions and operations of functions, systems of linear equations in three unknowns, quadratic relations, circular functions and trigonometry, and exponential and logarithmic functions in AL were removed for inclusion in the senior high school (G11 to 12) These decongestions imply that teachers should delimit the scope of the lesson according to the grade level standards. On the other hand, the K to 10 Mathematics Curriculum Guide has added CT along the five content area that students are expected to learn. Some prerequisite CT included is factor tree, continuous division, GCF, LCM, and divisibility rule in learning number theory; attributes of objects in learning geometric shape and size; and basic concepts and importance of Statistics in learning measures of central tendencies and measures of variation. Other content topics added are necessary in acquiring the required mathematical skills such as ordinal numbers, place value of numbers, and money value in NS; Trigonometric Ratios, and solving problems involving right triangles, surveying, and navigation in AL; and measures of position in PS. These additions contribute to the congestions of the required CT in the K to 10 spiral mathematics curriculums. With this, feedbacks from the teacher informants reveals that students started to lose their mathematical interest when they reach the upper elementary level (Snider, 2004) because of the overloaded LC along with the five content areas. A Grade 8 Mathematics Teacher I in Masbate Province said that “The last quarter topics (usually Statistics and Probability) are not being discussed because of too many topics being covered in the entire school year.” This scenario brought a significant

impact on the ability of the students to learn the new concepts in the higher grade level because of the unmastered competencies in the lower grade level. Another feedback from a Grade 7 Teacher I in Sorsogon City “Time allotted was not enough to cover all the learning competencies in the curriculum guide.” It supported the claim that the coverage and congestion of the curriculum contribute to the low mastery of students on content and competencies as revealed by their performances in the Grade 6 and 10 Mathematics National Achievement Test (NAT) for the last three consecutive years (Albano, 2019).

Integration and Connection between and among Content Areas. The connection of topics between and among the Mathematics content area is one of the strengths identified in the current curriculum. Students cannot proceed to the study of the Pythagorean Theorem in Grade 9 GE without passing through the concept of square roots (Rational Numbers) in Grade 7 NS. Students cannot build their knowledge in finding the Distance between Two Points in Grade 10 GE without their previous knowledge of Cartesian Coordinate Plane in Grade 8 AL. The mapping of competencies also shows strong integration of the CT among Mathematics content area such as the concept of parallel and perpendicular lines, Pythagorean Theorem, areas of two dimensional figures, rational numbers, sets, among others which are repeatedly taught from one Mathematics content area to another. Figure 4 illustrates the integration and connection of the learning competencies among the content areas of GE, ME, and AL. This demonstrates that a strong integration among the Mathematics content area is necessary to be able to see the connections of the CT which is essential to the spiral progression design of the curriculum. Spiraling the contents exemplifies the idea that every mathematics concept relates to each other; and every mathematical task requires processes from simple to complex.

In summary, upon careful analysis of the curriculum through content and competency mapping, the good attributes of the Philippine Mathematics K to 10 Curriculum Guide shows that topics were arranged in increasing complexity with the corresponding parallel progression of the mathematical task and problem solving activity. The curriculum illustrates integration and connection of topics between and among content areas which indicate strength and should be maintained in the curriculum. Research suggests learners learn mathematics more readily if topics and sub topics are presented to them in ways that are conceptually connected over the school year (Reeves & McAuliffe, 2012).

On the other hand, it was also found out that there was some discontinuity between the introduction (informal or formal) and teaching reinforcements of several CT. This scenario can contribute to the low mastery of the mathematical concepts and skills in a spiral progression approach where learners need to immediately utilize those acquired skills for mastery Mathematics teachers, therefore, need to be oriented of this curriculum set up and the corresponding consequence when integration and connection between and among the content areas are not emphasized, pre requisites topics are not

The Philippine K to 10 Mathematics content topics and learning competencies were arranged in increasing complexity with the corresponding progression of the mathematical tasks per grade level. Strong integration and connection of topics between and among content areas were the identified strength of the curriculum. However, the Philippine spiral Mathematics basic education curriculum failed to decongest the distribution of the content and learning competencies across grade levels. The overcrowded mathematics curriculum with some identified gaps in the sequence and reinforcements of the topics along the five content areas became unrealistic to implement for general classrooms according to the level of cognitive development of Filipino learners. Execution of vertically aligned mathematics contents and standards from lower elementary to high school level which is necessary for attaining 21st century skills among

Vertical coherence of the content topics from kindergarten to Grade 10 has been identified not as the sole characteristic of a well planned spiral progression approach of the curriculum. It also needs careful sequencing of learning competencies (Briggs & Peck, 2015) according to the level of student cognitive development (Tran, Reys, Teuscher, Dingman & Kasmer, 2016) with the provision of appropriate instructional technologies as suggested by the Master Teachers Integration and connection of topics between and among the content areas capitalizing student prior experiences are necessary for the spiral curriculum design either for reinforcements and/or deepening of skills or for mastery. This approach also lessens the identified discontinuity of CT when properly implemented. This study does not claim that a vertically aligned curriculum causes high student achievement, but it is essential though not a sufficient ingredient in the recipe for greater student achievement (Roach, Niebling & Kurz, The2008).curriculum mapping confirms the report of Mateo (2019) that there are a lot of competencies and content that the learners must study in a limited time allotted for each grade level. It was found out that the original plan of decongesting the curriculum through the enhanced basic education act of 2013 is not visible in the mathematics subject as revealed by the experiences of the basic education teachers in implementing the curriculum. Feedback from mathematics teacher informants exposes that the allotted time for the teaching of the subject is insufficient to cover all the required set of learning competencies per grade level, especially in the upper elementary and high school level, which resulted in the skipping of the lessons. It is therefore recommended the revision of K to 10 curricula featuring the most essential learning competencies per content area where redundancies and gaps are minimized, and full utilization of the learning resources are optimized anchored on the international benchmarks.

4. Conclusion

discussed, gaps between the introduction (formal or informal), and reinforcements are not minimized, and topics introduced are not reinforced. The findings of this study also imply that pre service mathematics teachers need to be adequately trained in their content courses in a manner that is consistent with the spiral Mathematics K to 12 reforms (Mingus, 2002).

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learners depends on teachers’ readiness and understanding of the curriculum design. The K to 10 Mathematics curriculum needs revision covering the most essential learning competencies per content area aligned to the international standards. The provision of regular conduct of training and seminars as part of the professional development program for the mathematics teachers be conducted to have a full understanding and mindset readiness in the implementation of the K to 10 mathematics spiral curriculum design. This paper recommends to further explore the alignment of the set standards to the actual classroom practice as well as assessment practices.

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Acknowledgment

The author is grateful to the Sorsogon State College Research and Extension Council for the guidance in the conceptualization of the research project, Ms. Kimberly Dig, for her time doing the clerical works during the entire duration of the study, and to all teacher informants who willingly participated in the research process. The author also acknowledges the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP) for the publication grant.

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Gino G. Sumalinog Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5967 4769

English Language Teachers in Diaspora: A Heideggerian Phenomenology

Abstract. Working abroad has been a job that many Filipino teachers embarked on due to the benefits it offers. This paper explores the lived experiences of the ten (10) Filipino ESL and EFL teachers working in Mozambique, Cambodia, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Cambodia, Japan, Laos, Singapore, Vietnam, and Thailand. These teachers have been in service for three (3) years and more. The study employed a qualitative phenomenological research design. It used Heideggerian’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) with illustrated steps

The researcher uses a semi structured interview to identify the lived experiences these participants have come across. The virtual data are gathered by means of Skype and Facebook Messenger After an intensive analysis of the data, five themes emerged: (a) the driving force of the participants; (b) boons of the sojourn; (c) life learning encounters with students, and (d) scaffolds for the success of the sojourn. The findings reveal that the sojourn of the teachers in a foreign land had produced positive results and meaningful life experiences that had developed them economically, personally, and professionally. For future directions, researchers may delve deeply into the informants’ cultural encounters with their students and colleagues.

283 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 283 295, November 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.16

1. Introduction As the world moves towards raising the bar of excellence in education, it also seeks to find more competent and world class teachers. As a result, schools in other foreign countries hire teachers regardless of race and ethnicity giving more priority to competence, character, and abilities to deal with students in a complex and diverse classroom. Thus, teachers became noble professionals due to the bulk of tasks that they do and their dedication to imparting knowledge, skills, and morals to students. However, a country’s educational system does not always fully and justly compensates for the efforts and accomplishments. In other parts of the world, the teaching profession gets valued more than any other job.

Keywords: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis; lived experiences; ESL/EFL teachers; Filipino teachers abroad

The country mainly recruits Math, Science, Music, and English teachers in pre schools and secondary schools. Though these countries differ in their hiring guidelines, they follow almost similar qualification criteria. They require applicants to be college graduates possessing an Education degree (pre school secondary or college). For applicants aspiring to go to Singapore, New Zealand, and the US, teachers must pass and obtain an IELTS average of 7.0. Adding to this, the teaching experience they are required to have ranges from 2 5 years (Alase, 2017). At present, Filipino teachers have been spread worldwide in search of teaching opportunities despite the downsides they get. The Philippine Statistics Authority in 2019, released an article stating that the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs), including teachers, who are currently working abroad reached up 2.3 million from April to September 2018. 96.2 percent of the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) have existing legal contracts, while 3.8 percent do not have Thesecontracts.numbers

For example, New Zealand hires kinder and music teachers for Montessori schools. However, the country only recruits skilled applicants that can pass the International English Language Test System (IELTS) as well as the assessment administered by the New Zealand Teachers Council. Even though English is the official language in the United States, it still hires competent teachers since the country’s teachers are not enough to educate the increasing population of American students.

are increasing each year and the possibility of seeing higher data of teachers going out of the country is also predictable. The reasons for these professionals are varied. The good thing is that the government is continuously protecting its people from illegal recruiters and bogus agencies from indirectly preying over the interested teachers. This move results in a favourable experience for the sojourn teachers. In this regard, Altun (2015) mentions that teachers are subject to benefit abroad better from their country of origin, for they get to experience and develop teaching techniques. Upon their return, they tend to become more imaginative and manipulative in their classes. Due to their journey outside their comfort zone, they encounter varied curricula, get in contact with teachers originating from other countries, and eventually get professionally developed. In the long run, these teachers can develop materials to enliven their classroom and make each teaching learning time productive. Therefore, the challenges and gains of Filipino teachers working abroad are worth studying. There are still young teachers who are aspiring to work as teachers abroad. In this vein, it is fitting to examine the lived experiences of Filipino English teachers. Their experiences can provide an eye-opener to others who wish to work abroad. This study could contribute to the personal and professional experiences of ESL and EFL teachers. These experienced teachers can then influence the administrators and curriculum implementers to enhance the present educational system. The result of this study can be the basis for the improvement of the country’s internationalization. It can also raise the percentage of successful ESL and EFL teachers.

Serin (2017) stated that teaching abroad includes a package of benefits such as having international experience, learning about cultural practices, and understanding people from diverse cultures.

2. Related Literature

ESL and EFL teaching abroad is a transformational experience. Teachers meet new people from diverse backgrounds, try new foods and delicacies, and visit fascinating places near their locations (Online English Teaching Jobs [OETJ], 2020). Teachers learned about managing the classroom, developing instructional materials, motivating students effectively, involving technology in their content and pedagogy, and making the classroom inclusive and conducive for both the students and the teacher (Celik, 2017). Teaching in a new setting gives so much pleasure and happiness that money could not equate, despite the drawbacks.

The experience fulfilled the desire to try something new, but the dream is to make the best out of the experience (Zayed, 2018). Accordingly, a life long fulfilment could come into the reality that changed their lives forever.

In the same manner, teachers also understand the rich and complex cultural differences of their students. Specifically, these teachers become adaptive, confident, determined, tolerant, understanding, and respectful of other people's views. They could encourage their students to be gain consider and global perspectives (Kong, 2020). With experiences outside one's culture, teachers dramatically become empowered both in their personal and professional characteristics (Markoulias, 2020). Looking at the different practices that teachers performed in the foreign school they were employed, they enjoy enhancing their teaching techniques and professional growth. They acquired a new and broader

On the same note, Johnson (2013) expressed that teaching abroad becomes attractive to many due to the offered incentives and benefits that the schools abroad could afford Teachers preferred to teach overseas because of the high salary (Serbes, 2017). For Ulla (2019), teachers went abroad to teach and learn at the same time to support their families, learn how to handle EFL learners, acquire new methodologies and strategies. In the same line of thought, Walters (2020) mentioned that most teachers who went abroad could save money, learn a new language, experience personal growth, gain perspectives of life, and help others land the same job. Teachers could explore other places and take advantage of a global work experience that enhanced personal and professional teaching skills (Council on International Exchange [CIEE], 2020). Pachina (2020) said that teachers also got the chance to brush elbows with business people from different professions and interact with them in person.

Teaching in other countries is an adventure that teachers remembered for a lifetime. Teachers get the chance to enhance their skills through the pre departure resources, training, and support from the government and their sponsoring agencies (Explore Asia, 2020). According to Toraman, Ozdemir and Orakci (2020), teachers become more motivated to go abroad to prove themselves worthy of being chosen among the many applicants. They feel more confident that they have what it takes to be foreign teachers abroad. They also become curious to learn about other country’s culture and experience living abroad.

However, Tseng & Newtown (as cited in Alghamdi & Otte, 2016) report that working abroad is associated with language difficulties, discrimination, and homesickness. Gul & Gokce (2020) added that teachers also meet professional problems such as grasping a new curriculum, familiarizing learners' interests, and creating a harmonious relationship with co workers and administrators. As far as non native English teachers are concerned, they were sometimes doubted by their students and administrators just because they are non native speakers of English. Administrators and students sometimes believe that native English teachers are better teachers (Tosuncuoglu, 2017). Non native English teachers carry heavy pressure against their native English counterparts. They attempt to sound native, work more than expected, and stand against discrimination (Bolgoa, 2019). In reality, both native and non native English teachers struggled to contextualize their teaching strategies with their foreign learners. In this sense and according to Ulla (2018), both teachers experience hindrances to students' learning, including lack of exposure to the English language, a nonestablished English curriculum, insufficient teachers' training, and lack of interest in learning English. For Altun (2015), teachers who work abroad also encounter varied curricula that are different from the ones they have followed. With regard to these issues, teachers should remember that the focus in education is quality learning and experience. In this concern, instructors should be considerate in dealing with learners' cultural differences (Medved, Franco, Gao & Yang, 2013). Similarly, since teachers love being treated well by their students, they must try to call their students by their names no matter how difficult they are and learn to approach students’ opinions about common issues (Kisch, 2013). Besides, Lee (as cited in Medved et al., 2013) suggests teachers should reduce their talking speed, so students would have the opportunity to understand them and engage in a friendly conversation with them that could result in mutual respect. Bassett (2018) adds that while teachers are outside their comfort zones, they are well encouraged to establish relationships with residents, the people working in a school, and others they may meet.

Consequently, the experience could bolster teachers' curriculum vitae (CV) and further their educational careers back in the Philippines. The years they spent teaching could make them weigh whether the job was suitable for them or not. They also got the chance to grab insights into the life of foreign educators. They learned new moves applicable in any classroom scenario that they might have if they would still teach in the Philippines upon return (Bryan, 2020), and their skills could go a long way even upon their return.

view of the educational practices which they may use in their own country (Kong, 2020). Moreover, Ellwood (2015) added that teachers handling international students gain experience interacting with other cultures and understand the complexity of the host country's practices and customs.

3.4. Inclusion Criteria

3. Methodology

This paper explores the lived experiences of the informants using the qualitative phenomenological research design. It notably uses the Heideggerian Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) which mostly suites the objectives of this research paper. It provides exact steps and a stance in understanding and interpreting the lived experiences of the involved informants. When used as an approach, the IPA mainly shows an informant oriented nature (Alase, 2017).

This section displays the research design used in this study, the employed research instruments, and the informants involved. It also specifies the inclusion and exclusion criteria used in selecting the informants.

3.2. Research Environment

3.5. Research Instruments

3.1. Research Design

A semi interview is used in this study wherein the interview schedule goes through a validation process involving three language researchers and experts. The purpose from this research tool is to explore and examine Filipino teachers' lived experiences as English teachers abroad. The answers are collected through Skype and Facebook messenger.

Ten informants are Filipino English teachers involved in this study. This number fell within Laverty's (2003) criteria when he stated that there should be five to twenty five individuals who have experienced the phenomenon. These ten informants narrate their lived experiences as English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers. Generally, the informants are bachelor's degree graduates in any of the schools in the Philippines. They are currently teaching English as Second Language (ESL) or as English as Foreign Language (EFL) in any primary school abroad.

The informants are needed to be in service for more than three years to provide the intended data. The informants should be ESL or EFL teachers handling English classes in any primary schools abroad. They should be at least bachelor's degree holders and graduates of any teacher education degrees in the Philippines. Furthermore, the informants should make it through the criterionbased purposive sampling procedure.

The study is conducted virtually with the informants' involvement from the different schools abroad where they worked as English as Second Language (ESL) or English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers. These schools are limited to international schools within Asia, and these schools offer English language courses, implement English language instruction, and accept Filipino English teachers. These schools are from Mozambique, Cambodia, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Cambodia, Japan, Laos, Singapore, Vietnam, and Thailand. These countries offer English language curricula differently from the ones our country is currently practicing.

3.3. Research Informants

This step was concerned with writing reports for publication or submission for a degree using the master list of themes. The narration of facts became the main task of the researcher.

5. Results and Discussion

In this step, the transcript was read and re read several times to gain intimacy and familiarity with the transcripts. Besides, the transcript was a margin where anything significant, engaging and striking statements laid.

As the analysis progressed following the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the final list of themes emerged. In this stage, the researcher needs to avoid biases too.

In this stage, the emerging themes are listed and clustered on the paper's right side. The transcript is suggested to be returned in hope to check the accuracy of the information.

4.1. Looking for Themes in Each Case

4.2. Looking for Connections

The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) data analysis method comprised of five steps as enumerated below:

4.4. A Master List of Themes for the Group

4.5. Write Up

After a careful and extensive analysis of the transcripts, six themes related to the lived experiences emerged, and are as follows: (a) the driving force of the informants; (b) boon of the sojourn; (c) life learning encounters with students, and (d) scaffold for the success of the sojourn.

Theme 1: Driving force of the Informants Altun (2015) mentioned that teachers who work abroad significantly benefit from their country of origin in terms of money and other perks. Teachers go abroad to teach and learn at the same time to support their families, learn how to handle EFL learners, acquire new methodologies and strategies (Ulla, 2019). In the informants of this study, they go abroad primarily for financial reasons, for they have families to support, needs to meet, investments to realize, business to establish, and siblings to send to school. Secondly, they also desire to emerge in a new culture, experience a new environment, get international teaching experience, and a chance to travel abroad. However, the other informants shared about their sojourn, yet with emphasis on economic reasons. Despite the vacant teaching positions in the Philippines' public and private schools, they still insisted on going abroad. To experience a new culture and live in a new

4.3. A Table of Themes

4. Data Analysis

This stage displayed all the themes that are clustered, labelled, and ordered coherently according to connections. This process needs careful attention to avoid biases.

Toraman, Ozdemir and Orakci (2020) added that teachers also become curious to learn about other countries' cultures, experience living abroad, and the chance to earn better than the salary they are getting from where they previously worked. Besides earning, they also significantly hope to experience a new environment and culture in the flesh. Stepping into foreign soil attract them to leave their countries. They believed that sojourning into another country to work could be worthy and life fulfilling.

Looking at the informants' responses, they have common reasons that were centered not only towards meeting their wants and desires, but also meeting the needs of immediate family members. On the same note, Johnson (2013) expresses the same idea that teaching abroad becomes attractive to many due to the offered incentives and benefits the schools abroad could afford. Put simply, teachers prefer to teach overseas because of monetary reasons (Serbes, 2017).

Theme 2: Boons of the Sojourn Teaching abroad could lead to many opportunities for teachers to enhance their teaching techniques and uplift their lives. As they face a new type of learners, they encounter new curricula in the host country. As they teach, they try new methodologies and experiment with effective teaching means. At the same time, they also develop their knowledge of the content. They get to experience with their senses and observe how teachers from other countries teach. Teachers learn about managing the classroom, developing instructional materials, motivating students effectively, involving technology in their content and pedagogy, and making the classroom inclusive and conducive for both the students and the teacher (Celik, 2017). In the context of the informants' experience, they all admit that the journey gave them more benefits than the negative impact it brought to them. They cite that they have grown personally, professionally, and Toeconomically.beginwith, they got to experience a salary that was twice up to six times higher than how much the Philippine government paid its teachers (Altun, 2015). Based on their answers, from the beginning, the informants mainly went abroad to earn, to honestly get higher pay. They earned more because they also had part time jobs for 2 4 hours as English educators and tutors every night after their classes. These proved that these teachers are exhausting all the means that they could resort to earn extra besides their salaries. The informants happily shared that their economic status has improved. There was a significant difference between their past and current earnings, yet they refused to mention where their money went. On the other hand, some of them highlighted that they had bought a small lot, paid a loan, and were able to send their siblings to school. However, two of them claimed that their income from their work and part time jobs have gone a long way. They explained that they had supported the studies of their siblings as well as the needs of their families. One of the

environment have still been their desires, but they highlighted their motives to earn to help their families and put off investments. They have listed some desires such as: owning a house, pay their loans, and save for their families.

research informants mentioned that investing and supporting the needs of her family and siblings are also met to a great extent. Though it was never ideal for comparing how immense the salary difference between the Philippines and abroad teachers, their comfort from being close to their family members could not match with money alone. However, the money earned in a foreign land could also make a significant change in the teachers' aspirations and dreams in life. Concerning the respondents’ personal growth, they had expanded their understanding regarding students' behaviour and learning styles in class. Nonetheless, three of them highlighted that they exhausted their creativity before going there and fit them into the target context.

Some others have developed the sense of understanding in which they became patient when students found the lessons difficult to understand. Their ability to react to negative classroom situations has improved more. One of them stated that it was genuinely possible to tolerate cultural differences and learn Thevariations.findings displayed the positive characteristics they gained from experience. Expectedly, they already had all these attributes before their employment abroad. Accordingly, these teachers had only practiced them more. They had only gotten the chance to test them in different contexts and in new situations. In the same manner, teachers also understand the rich and complex cultural differences of their students. Specifically, these teachers become adaptive, confident, determined, tolerant, understanding, and respectful of other people's views. They all insisted that they had grown personally, making them confident, open minded, and flexible. With the different practices the teachers performed in the foreign school they were employed in, teachers enjoyed enhancing their teaching techniques and professional growth. They acquired a new and broader view of the educational practices which they may use in their own country (Kong, 2020). They became exposed to varied teaching approaches and class delivery styles (Expat Quotes, 2020). In this study, the teachers explicitly replied that they had gained professional teaching skills and new strategies to help them handle their current students. They proudly imparted that all the learning experiences they had in the classroom have contributed to the "better teachers" versions of themselves. For example, two of them stressed that they had learned to manage the learning behaviour of students from another culture

Based on the informants' responses, they had become adaptive and equipped with the needed skills in teaching. They learned varied strategies to address the learning style of the learners despite cultural differences. The professional growth they gained was worth keeping, for these could go a long way. The teachers, as long as they continue teaching, could directly use these in their profession.

Theme 3: Life Learning Encounters with the Students

Though education focuses on quality learning and experience, professors should be considerate in dealing with the learners' cultural differences (Medved et al.,

Understandably, calling the teacher's first name in Spain was normal to them, but not following the Filipinos' practices; that's why it appeared awkward and off. However, the same participant admitted that she knew the culture well; she was just uncomfortable listening to the students not calling him, "Ma'am."

Looking at the teachers' experiences regarding their encounters with the students, it was clear that respect could come from the school's teaching sometimes; what students perceived to be normal might still appear undesirable to teachers due to cultural differences.

2013). The teachers asserted that their employees had some memorable events which they would remember all their lives even after their employment years. These events were either positive or negative. The negative experiences resulted in good results, those that awaken them about cultural differences, and those that made them the better teachers that they are now. Teachers seriously played their roles as second parents to the students. The students would soon pay tribute to the kindness of the teachers by showing respect and love. For example, two of the research informants emphasized that the school and its administrators were consistent in inculcating respect to the students' minds at all times. They were overwhelmed by how their students respected them. It gave them pleasure despite the homesickness they felt. They felt relieved that their fear that students might disrespect them and throw them some papers like what they often saw in the Western part of the world might happen to them. On the other hand, three others also experienced the utmost respect their students who never failed to manifest their love to them too. The students' gestures were essential to the psychological aspect of the teachers, for their teaching became light and easy since the learners they were with were easy to manage. Among the informants, only one went further and explained that the interesting difference between Japanese and Philippine schools was the heavier emphasis on morals and ethics education in Japan. They respect teachers above everyone else in school. Despite the majority of the informants' heart warming experiences, one of them gave a comment that was completely contradicting the other teachers' experience. It has been claimed that students in Spain were less respectful than the Filipino students It is also quite surprising to be called by the students by the teacher’s name without "Ma'am" "Teacher".

Theme 4: Scaffolds for the Success of the Sojourn Teaching abroad was an uncertain journey, for the paths ahead might end in fulfilment, if not in unfortunate disgrace. The informants insisted that before a teacher decided to work abroad, they all agreed that internal and external support should be present so that working away from home could be endured.

To start with, teachers insisted that teaching outside the country could be through ESL teaching experience, strong will, and motivation. They believed that exposure to students from other cultures such as the Koreans, Japanese, Chinese and other nationalities in ESL institutions, English language schools, and English tutorial centres in the Philippines could be of great help. In this light, the informants highlighted that ESL teaching had been their best guide and their advantage over the challenges. On the other hand, one of them

6. Conclusion Based on the findings, the informants went abroad primarily for financial reasons. They have families to support, needs to meet, investments to realize, business to establish, and siblings to send to school. Secondly, they also desired to emerge in a new culture, experience a new environment, get international teaching experience, and a chance to travel abroad. Moreover, teaching abroad could lead to many opportunities to enhance their teaching techniques and better their lives. As they faced a new type of learners, they encountered new curricula in the host country. As they teach, they tried new methodologies and experiment with effective teaching means. It has been concluded that before a teacher decided to work abroad, they all agreed that internal and external supports should be present so that working away from home could be endured.

expressed how thankful she was for having an ESL experience. Some others firmly believed that motivation is the main factor that teachers needed in working abroad. Yet, for one participant, experience and motivation could fuel aspiring teachers who wished to work abroad.

However, among them, only one wanted to have training and seminars. In contrast, one of the basic requirements when working abroad was pre departure training and orientation. Therefore, getting trained was not an issue for others.

In short terms, the informants were on the same boat regarding the support that teachers could give themselves to be fully ready when working abroad. They all adhered to the importance of motivation and job experience to promote successful foreign teaching employment.

Regarding the so called External Support, the informants shared that the government could contribute to their successes. They wished the TEFL certificates are free of charge for Filipino teachers heading abroad. The teachers hoped that language training for the countries they were heading is government sponsored. They even wanted that English teachers' internship would include handling international students to prepare them for the ample opportunities that the ESL field had in store. These heroes all acknowledged the importance of having a TEFL certificate, though not required, for it could be an advantage over the other applicants. Based on their observations, most of the promoted employees in their workplaces were TEFL holders. To have one, they wished that government may help them acquire one for free. Besides the TEFL certificate, the informants had seen another vital need that could be addressed by the government through the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Three of them claimed for internship to be part of the curriculum. One of them added that future English teachers need exposure to support the theories introduced in classes. Indeed, there was a need for exposure to foreign language learners that most of the informants believed so. The emerged themes only suggested that life is an unpredictable cycle of daily experiences where its details can be tried and lived. The experiences then become the guiding principles and blueprints for the other dreamers who wish to go abroad.

For future directions, researchers could seize the opportunities to delve deeply into the informants' cultural encounters with their students and colleagues.

Exploring the lived experiences of English teachers working abroad could open a series of insights. This output could positively influence not only experimenting theories, practices, and policies, but also the following:

This study could pose awareness to all the teachers, no matter what level they are handling on going abroad. Knowing this information beforehand could lead the teachers to think a million times whether to gamble their comfort zones against an uncertain journey.

7.4. To the Researchers

As researchers dig for new trends, this paper's result, which exposed them to international work experience, could lead them to a more narrowed inquiry in terms of the ESL/EFL teachers' lived experiences. They could seize the opportunities to delve deeply into the informants' cultural encounters with their students and colleagues.

Alghamdi, H., & Otte, S. (2016). The challenges and benefits of study abroad International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(5), 17. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_6_No_5_May_2016/2.pdf

Altun, M. (2015). The role of working abroad as a teacher in professional development 4InternationalJournalofAcademicResearchinProgressiveEducationandDevelopment., (4), 102 103. doi:10.6007/IJARPED/v4 i4/1937 Bassett, R. (2018). Intercultural adjustment for teachers abroad (Master’s thesis, St. Cloud State University, New Mexico, USA). Retrieved engl_etdshttps://repository.stcloudstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1198&context=from

The students who are part of the reading public could get a gist of what it will be like to be in their teachers' place. With it, students could become more understanding of the complexity of the teaching profession. They could start planning about their future, including the greener future that going abroad could give them.

7.1. To the Teachers

7. Implications

7.3. To the Field of English Language Teaching

The field of English Language Teaching (ELT) has been continuously updating, and hence this study could contribute to the expected change through its novelty.

8. References Alase, A. (2017). The interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): A guide to a good qualitative research approach. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies,5(2), 12 13. doi:10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.5n.2p.9

7.2. To the Students

Johnson, G. (2013). Teaching English abroad. University Wire News. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3631Bgc Kisch, M. (2013). Helping faculty teach international students. Georgia Tech. Retrieved from https://counselingcenter.ecu.edu/wp uploads/sites/180/2020/05/TeachingInternationalStudents.pdfcontent/pv Kong, P. (2020). Understanding the teachers’ perspectives on the role of teacher autonomy in English classrooms in Chinese secondary schools. Journal of EducationalStudies,3(2), 46 47. doi:10.1080/03055698.2020.1763784 Laverty, S. (2003). Hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology: A comparison of historical and methodological considerations. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,2(3), 25 26. doi:10.1177/160940690300200303

Markoulias, K (2020) The experience of teaching abroad: pedagogical and other benefits (Master's thesis, Concordia University, Edmonton, Canada). Retrieved from Medved,https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/979213/D.,Franco,A.,Gao,X.,&Yang,F.(2013).

Challenges in teaching international students: group separation, language barriers, and culture diﬀerences.Genombrottet, Lunds tekniska högskola. Online English Teaching Jobs. (2020). The ultimate guide to teaching English abroad jobs. Retrieved from https://oetjobs.com/the ultimate guide to teaching english abroad jobs/ Pachina, E. (2020, July 8). My journey as an English teacher abroad [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.teflcourse.net/blog/my journey as an english teacher abroad ittt tefl blog/

Bolgoa, N. (2019). Filipino English teachers in Japan: Non native status and the teaching and learning of English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 10(2), 262. doi:10.17507/jltr.1002.06 Bryan, F. (2020) Is teaching English abroad the right move for me? Retrieved from https://www.budgetyourtrip.com/blog/2020/01/is teaching english abroad the right move for me/ Celik, B. (2017). The effects of working abroad on the development of teaching skills. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 4(3), 214 215. Councildoi:10.23918/ijsses.v4i3p212onInternationalEducational Exchange (CIEE). (2020). Discover the benefits of teaching abroad with CIEE. Retrieved from https://www.ciee.org/go abroad/work/teach english abroad Ellwood, S. (2015). School board strengthening new international partnerships; EDUCATION: Sending teachers abroad to gain cultural experience. Observer’s News. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/2WZMG2k.

Eusafzai, H. (2015). Foreign English language teachers’ local pedagogy. English Language Teaching,8(5), 90. doi:10.5539/elt.v8n5p82 Expat Quotes. (2020). Expat Teachers: Stories from Teaching Abroad: Guides for your expatriation Expat Quotes. Retrieved from https://www.expat quotes.com/guides/global/education/expat teachers stories from teaching Exploreabroad.htmAsia (2020). Teach Abroad Programs. Retrieved from https://www.xploreasia.org/teaching abroad adventure of a lifetime Gul, H., & Gokce, A. (2020). Challenges and Advantages of working abroad: Turkish and Turkish culture teachers’ perspective. International Journal of Psycho Educational Sciences,9(1), 36. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1250661.pdf

Appendix

teacher? 4. What experiences as an

do you have and how these affect your teaching? 5. How did your experience change your perspective as regards to: a. educational system; b. teaching methods and techniques; c. language programs and policies; d. kinds of students; and e. economic status?

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Serbes, M. (2017). Teaching abroad: Why teachers prefer teaching overseas. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 4(3), 184. doi:10.23918/ijsses.v4i3p182 Serin, H. (2017). The effects of teaching abroad on personal and professional development. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 4(1), 113 114. doi:10.23918/ijsses.v4i1p110

Tosuncuoglu, I. (2017). Non native and native English teachers. Journal of History Culture andResearch,6(6), 4. doi:10.7596/taksad.v6i6.573 Ulla, M. (2018). English language teaching in Thailand: Filipino teachers’ experiences and perspectives. Issues in Educational Research, 28(4), 1090. Retrieved ing_in_Thailand_Filipino_teachers'_experiences_and_perspectiveshttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/328783554_English_language_teachfrom Ulla, M. (2019). Filipinos as EFL teachers in Bangkok, Thailand: Implications for Language Education Policy in the ASEAN Region. RELC Journal, 1(2), 12. Walters,doi:10.1177/0033688219879775D.(2020).

Interview Schedule Guide Questions 1. How would you generally describe your experience as an English teacher handling courses in non English speaking countries? Please provide specific examples. 2. What brought you to teaching abroad and working with English as a Second Language (ESL) program? 3. What supports need to be in place for you to be successful English as a Second

Toraman, C., Ozdemir, H. S., & Orakci, S. (2020). Experiences of Turkish Teachers Working Abroad. SageJournals, 5(2), 34 35. doi:10.1177/2158244020914655

Teaching EFL: Why you should teach abroad. Retrieved from https://www.saxoncourt.com/teaching efl why you should teach abroad/ Zayed, N. (2018) Teaching in Abroad: A Cross Cultural Experience. Journal of Tourism andHospitality,7(4), 371. doi:10.4172/2167 0269.1000371 1 Language (ESL) ESL teacher

Port RepublicLouisof www.ijlter.orgMauritius

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

IJLTER.ORG Vol 19 No 11 November 2020

Articles inside

English Language Teachers in Diaspora: A Heideggerian Phenomenology

Exploring Vertical Coherence of Content Topics in Philippine Spiral Kto10 Mathematics Curriculum

Shadow Education in Indonesia: Is It Relevant to Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Chemistry Learning?

Saudi EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Professional Development

Learning EFL Online During a Pandemic: Insights into The Quality of Emergency Online Education

The Impact of Text Messaging as an Instructional Tool to Enhance Learner Autonomy and Perception

Investigating the Relationship of Working Memory and Inhibitory Control: Bilingual Education and Pedagogical Implications in Elementary School

Advancing the Design of Self-Explanation Prompts for Complex Problem-Solving

Comparison of Students in Teacher Education from China and the USA: An Assessment of Dispositions

Levels of Readiness and Preparedness of Selected South African TVET Colleges in Meeting the Requirements of the Hospitality Industry

Custom Practices of English Education at the Rural Primary Schools in Bangladesh

Cultivating Problem-Solving Scholar-Practitioners: Impact of One CPED Program on Leader Self-Efficacy

Use of Technology-Based Tools in Ensuring Quality of Publishable Journal Articles

A Review of Theories and Practices of Multiliteracies in Classroom: Issues and Trends

Trust, Self Efficacy, and Work Engagement