International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 9 (September 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 9
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Editors of the September 2022 IssueExploring International Post Graduate Students’ Speaking Experiences in an English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Context 1 Ma Huiling, Lilliati Ismail
Promoting Self Directed Learning as Learning Presence through Cooperative Blended Learning .......................... 17 Chantelle Bosch, Dorothy J Laubscher
Academic Satisfaction of Pedagogy Students Regarding Learning in Virtual Mode 35 Fabián Muñoz, Juan Carlos Beltrán, Regina Alves, Fabián Rodríguez
Socio Cognitive Awareness of Inmates through an Encrypted Innovative Educational Platform 52 Hera Antonopoulou, Athanasios Giannoulis, Leonidas Theodorakopoulos, Constantinos Halkiopoulos
Mapping the Efficacy of Artificial Intelligence based Online Proctored Examination (OPE) in Higher Education during COVID 19: Evidence from Assam, India 76 Afzalur Rahman
The Roles of Mediators and Moderators in the Adoption of Madrasati (M) LMS among Teachers in Riyadh 95 Hamad Alharbi, Habibah Ab Jalil, Muhd Khaizer Omar, Mohd Hazwan Mohd Puad
Economic and Management Sciences as the Ground Rule for Grades 10 to 12 Accounting Learners in South Africa 120 Motalenyane Alfred Modise, Nombulelo Dorah Jonda
Opportunities to Stimulate the Critical Thinking Performance of Preservice Science Teachers Through the Ethno Inquiry Model in an E Learning Platform 134 Saiful Prayogi, Sukainil Ahzan, Indriaturrahmi Indriaturrahmi, Joni Rokhmat
Reliability and Construct Validity of Computational Thinking Scale for Junior High School Students: Thai Adaptation 154 Meechai Junpho, Alisa Songsriwittaya, Puthyrom Tep
Impact of a Digital Repository on Producing e Courses for Mathematics Teachers 174 Essa A. Alibraheim, Hassan F. Hassan, Mohamed W. Soliman
Factors Affecting Teachers’ Pragmatic Knowledge Incorporation into Thai EFL Classrooms 197 Somboon Pojprasat, Somchai Watcharapunyawong
The Smartboard in Chemistry Classrooms: What is Its Effect on Chemistry Teaching and Learning in Selected Topics in Grade 11? 217 Abdou L. J. Jammeh, Claude Karegeya, Savita Ladage
Inquiry Creative Learning Integrated with Ethnoscience: Efforts to Encourage Prospective Science Teachers’ Critical Thinking in Indonesia........................................................................................................................................... 232
Ni Nyoman Sri Putu Verawati, Ahmad Harjono, Wahyudi Wahyudi, Syifa’ul Gummah
An Investigation on the Speaking Constraints and Strategies Used by College Students Studying English as EFL Learners 232
Like Raskova Octaberlina, Afif Ikhwanul Muslimin, Imam Rofiki
Spicing up Undergraduate Collaborative Writing Course through Feedback Dialogues 250 Abdulrahman Nasser Alqefari
The Development of a Guideline in Assessing Students’ Creation Video Based Project in Programming Subject 274
Jamilah Hamid, Haslinda Hashim, Saira Banu Omar Khan, Nor Hasbiah Ubaidullah
Teachers’ Perceptions of School Readiness Among Grade 1 Learners in Lesotho Schools: The Case of Roma
Valley.................................................................................................................................................................................... 291 Julia Chere Masopha
Instructors and Students’ Practices and Behaviours during a Quantum Physics class at the University of Rwanda: Exploring the Usage of Multimedia 309 Pascasie Nyirahabimana, Evariste Minani, Mathias Nduwingoma, Imelda Kemeza
Effectiveness of Learning and Teaching the Appreciation of Ethics and Civilization Course from the Perspective of the Educators and Students in the University of Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) 327 Ateerah Abdul Razak, Siti Fathihah Abd Latif, Fairuz A'dilah Rusdi, Amanina Abdul Razak @ Mohamed, Yohan Kurniawan, Lukman, Z. M., Ruzaini Ijon, Nur Azuki Yusuff, Asma Lailee Mohd Noor
Ergonomic Perceptions and Practices among Students in E learning during COVID 19 348 Huny Bakry, Noha A. Alrasheed, Shahad M. Alqahtani, Reem M. Alshahri, Ghada S. Alburaidi, Fatmah Almoayad
Correlation of Self regulated Learning on Blackboard and Academic Achievement of Islamic Studies Students 370 Ibrahim Al Dawood
The Effects of Connected Speech Instruction on Second or Foreign Language Learners’ Perceptive Skills and Connected Speech Production: A Systematic Review of the Literature (2000 2021) 389 Najma Momen Omar, Zahariah Pilus
The Influence of Lighting, Noise, and Temperature on the Academic Performance of Students amid Covid 19 Pandemic 415 Phuong Nguyen Hoang, Maisoon Samara, Sami Shannawi, Johnry P Dayupay, Hani Jarrah, Cheryl F Olvida, Eddiebel P Layco, Alfe M Solina, Sanny S Maglente, Alson Rae F Luna, Leonilo B Capulso, Cinder Dianne L Tabiolo, Sixto N Ras
Investigating the Role of Digital Learning in Enhancing Educational Values: Online Socialization and Its Effect on Peer Learning, Collaborative Skills and Knowledge Construction 441 Rohaila Yusof, Khoo Yin Yin, Norlia Mat Norwani, Noor Lela Ahmad, Zuriadah Ismail
EFL Students’ Perceptions of Online Flipped Classrooms during the Covid 19 Pandemic and Beyond 460 Luu Nguyen Quoc Hung
The Influence of English Literacy on High School Students’ Academic Achievement 477 Xiaoxia Tian, Guangchao Zhang, Kyung Hee Park
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 1 16, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.1
Received Jul 3, 2022; Revised Sep 20, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Lilliati Ismail
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. This study aims to explore the practice of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in Malaysia by investigating the experiences of international students enrolled in doctoral programs at the university level. In addition, the study provides an in depth insight into the students’ attitudes, the challenges they face, and the factors that influence academic English speaking. The authors also examine the implications of enhancing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) within the international post graduate students’ academic English speaking experience in the Malaysian EMI context. This study adopted a qualitative approach. Data were collected using semi structured interviews with 16 international doctoral students enrolled in various doctoral programs at a university in Malaysia. Data were coded and categorized according to themes using the NVIVO 12 software. The results show that there is a variety of challenges faced by the students in academic English speaking in an EMI context. Factors influencing their academic speaking include their past experiences and willingness to communicate. The study also suggests that lecturers should know that code switching between English and Malay may impact international students’ understanding and involvement in class.
Keywords: doctoralstudents;AcademicEnglishspeaking; EMI; Malaysia
The English language is widely used around the world. It is a medium of instruction in universities where English is a foreign language (EFL), as in the Malaysian context However, some students with inadequate English proficiency struggle where English is used exclusively at the tertiary level. Thus, studying the practices, challenges, and factors related to academic English speaking is fundamental to ensuring academic progress.
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
High English language proficiency gives students a significant advantage in communication and research. Therefore, there has been an increase in English medium courses in universities in many EFL countries. University programs and courses in English as the medium of instruction capture international students’ attention and align with the university’s mission to be world class. As an international medium of instruction, many journal articles, textbooks, resource books, and other resource materials are also written in English. Thus, universities adopting EMI is a growing phenomenon in all phases of education and educational contexts (Dearden, 2014). Therefore, there is a growing need to understand EFL students’ experiences and practices in using academic English in the EMI context In particular, doctoral studies require extensive and intensive reading, academic discussions, attending lectures, presenting at conferences, and thesis writing. As such, there is a strong need for doctoral students to study in an EMI context to achieve high proficiency in English, including academic speaking.
In this era of globalization, English is an essential language for professional, educational and personal growth. As the medium of instruction, English usage increases the opportunity for EFL students to study abroad and obtain employment. Dearden (2014) mapped the increasing number of EMI on a global scale and found a rapid expansion of EMI provision in 54 countries with prospects of higher growth in the future. As one of the countries using EMI, this is a common phenomenon in Malaysia as the preferred education destination among international students Currently, 170,000 international students are enrolled in Malaysian universities from 162 countries Further, Malaysia aims to attract 250,000 international students by 2025 (Education Malaysia Global Services, 2021)
The internationalization of universities has resulted in a growing interest in investigating post graduate students’ experiences in EMI contexts, including in Malaysia, the US, Singapore, and Pakistan (e.g., Bolton et al., 2017; Gu & Lee, 2019; Kaur, J., 2020; Owen et al., 2021). Previous studies predominantly focused on local students or both local and international students. However, this paper attempts to gain valuable insight into international students’ experiences in the Malaysian EMI context. The number of international doctoral students has increased and constitutes the majority of students in many universities in Malaysia. However, there is a lack of understanding regarding Ph.D. international students’ experiences in the Malaysian EMI context. Rahman et al. (2022) claimed that EMI had been implemented in the context of higher education in non native English speaking countries for internationalization purposes. Therefore, there is a strong need to understand the academic English speaking experiences, practices, and needs of international students in Malaysia.
This study examines three research questions as follows:
1. What are international doctoral students’ English speaking practices, perceptions, and attitudes in the EMI context in Malaysia?
2. What challenges do international students face in academic Englishspeaking practices within the EMI context in Malaysia?
3. What factors affect the academic speaking of international students in the EMI context in Malaysia?
Higher education requires students to display their strength in academic English speaking for world class education and better employment opportunities. Accordingly, the global use of EMI in higher education is the most significant current trend in internationalizing higher education for the global visibility of national education systems (Parr, 2014).
Student engagement in the academic language is the specialized language, both oral and written, of academic contexts that facilitate communication and understanding of academic content (Nagy & Townsend, 2012). As the number of English learners in higher education programs increases, lecturers must ensure that students meet specific academic standards. In other words, students must be proficient in English for educational and career growth.
In order to enhance English learners’ academic speaking ability, higher learning institutions will have to provide a conducive learning environment for learners to improve their speaking ability. The measures that can be implemented include: (1) more opportunities to speak while lowering anxiety; (2) emphasizing the importance of academic speaking; and (3) specific courses on teaching academic and content vocabulary.
Many higher education institutions worldwide are committed to international recognition English medium instruction is mainstream in countries where English is not the native language (Bradford, 2016; Chang et al., 2017; Clegg & Simpson, 2016; Dafouz & Camacho Miñano, 2016). Dearden (2014) also defined EMI as the use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where most of the population’ s first language (L1) is not English. Past related studies have mainly been conducted in Europe, focusing on the impact of EMI on learning outcomes. There is also an increase in studies on EMI in Asia as practices and challenges in implementing EMI vary depending on local conditions and contexts.
Byun et al. (2011) studied students’ beliefs about EMI in Korean higher learning institutions. They pointed out that EMI improved English proficiency. Yeh (2014) also carried out a similar study and found that 75% of students in Taiwan claimed that EMI benefited their English, mainly in listening. Song (2019) conducted in depth interviews with 51 Chinese students from EMI programs and concluded that EMI guarantees employability and career growth. Universities can also benefit from EMI by attracting and increasing international students' mobility and raising university rankings (Chang et al., 2017). Similarly, in their study involving graduate students from China studying at a university in South Korea, Yong-Jik, Davis, & Yue (2021) found that the EMI environment helped the graduate students improve their English ability and learn content.
Corrales, Rey & Escamilla (2016) found that implementing EMI can be beneficial but also poses challenges. Generally, they were concerned whether the challenges of implementing EMI have been neglected with the accelerated expansion of EMI. They found three categories of challenges: linguistic challenges, including
students’ inability to take academic notes and lecturers’ use of a less accessible language in the classroom, cultural challenges related to different cultural backgrounds, and structural challenges related to management.
Due to the reason that there is no systematic guide for EMI, different countries have adopted different methods and standards. Thus, further studies will determine the specific patterns of EMI in higher learning institutions in different countries and contexts.
This study aims to develop a deeper understanding of students’ academic English speaking experiences and practices among students with different English proficiency levels The study utilizes a qualitative case study approach, which is an in depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the richness and complexity of a bounded social phenomenon (Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. 2018) A qualitative approach helps generate deep insights to inform international students’ practices and challenges in the EMI context when studying in Malaysia
The sample group in the study consisted of 16 international doctoral students currently studying in an EMI context in a public university in Malaysia.
Data were collected through individual face to face, in depth interviews with 16 international doctoral students from different countries who share the same experience of studying in a public university in Malaysia.
In order to encourage the interviewee to share detailed descriptions of their experience (DiCicco Bloom & Crabtree, 2006), semi structured interviews were used to explore the experiences of international doctoral students and seek patterns using the NVivo software version 12. The interview questions were designed to guide the interview and enable the researchers to cover the main topic of the present study (Mason, 2004).
This study collected qualitative data through purposive sampling. The respondents were international doctoral students in Malaysia. Since the respondents were a small group, the snowball sampling technique was used The respondent identified their friends or colleagues so the data could be enriched like rolling snow (Haque, 2010). Table 1 shows the respondents’ profiles.
No. Age Gender Nationality First language
S1L 26 Female China Chinese
S3H 26 Male Pakistan Urdu
S5H 27 Female China Chinese
S2A 35 Male Nigeria Hausa
S4E 49 Male Nigeria Hausa
S5E 32 Female Iran Persian
S4L 41 Female China Chinese
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S2H 35 Female Pakistan Urdu
S3L 28 Male China Chinese
S2M 33 Female Iran Persian
S2E 35 Male Iran Persian
S1E 45 Female Iraq Arabic
S1A 25 Female Iran Persian
S3A 27 Female China Chinese
S3E 39 Male Iran Persian S4A 29 Female China Chinese
The researchers conducted semi structured interviews for data collection. The objective of the interviews was to understand the independent thoughts of international students in Malaysia on their English speaking experience within the EMI context The semi structured interview guide was constructed based on the research objectives and questions. The researcher mainly asked probing, open ended questions, such as “How do you feel about the EMI education in Malaysia?” and “What are the academic English speaking challenges you are facing now?” . Before the actual interview, the guideline was sent to several researchers for proofreading. Meanwhile, a pilot study was conducted to gather participants’ feedback regarding the research questions to ensure trustworthiness.
The interviews were conducted on a one to one basis Each interview took approximately 30 minutes on average During the interview, the researchers took notes and recorded the audio. At the end of the interview, the researchers transcribed the interview verbatim. Next, the researchers employed a thematic analysis to analyze the transcripts Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006) with the aid of NVivo qualitative data analysis software. Participants signed a consent form. Pseudonyms were used to protect their identities through a coding scheme. The researchers also asked the students to assess and rate their English proficiency level.
The answers varied when respondents were asked about their former education in English. The results reveal a significant disparity in the English proficiency of international doctoral students due to different education policies on the English language Some countries use English as the official language, while others adopt English as a medium of instruction in the classroom Some students have been using English since primary school and perceive that they have mastered the English language.
On the contrary, some students studied English only as one subject or never used English as a medium of instruction because their official L2 is another language (e.g., French). The data findings fell within three groups as follows:
(1) good performance in academic English speaking;
(2) lack English language proficiency; and
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The self assessment and categories depend on former English education experience. Those who have been using English as an official language or as a medium of instruction, such as students from Nigeria, perceive that they tend to perform well in academic English speaking. For example, two respondents reported that: “Because I think previously in my institution, for my master, undergraduate, and even my high school, I was a good English user, so that’s why I didn’t face any difficulty when I got here.” [S3H]
“I have so many experiences regarding to this, so I feel less difficulties. I don’t face any stress when doing presentations because in my university, All the presentations, all the discussions, everything was in English. I can even speak without preparation.” [S2A]
However, those who had less opportunity to use English in school or daily life found it challenging to express themselves in English. They had to overcome difficulties when studying for the courses they were taking. Otherwise, they will not understand the content of the courses. Inevitably, their academic research becomes more complex, distracting them from their research focus by spending extra time studying the English language. Some students felt they did not have sufficient vocabulary to express themselves, while others found it hard to find the right words to express their thoughts. Communicating in English was strange and new, as doctoral studentswere required to present their studies to their classmates and discuss their research. Their limited academic English speaking skills also hindered them from being understood The concerns of doctoral students to communicate effectively are shown in the following excerpts:
“I can only understand a little when I first came here after often communicate with classmates and ask them, like if there is something I do not understand, I will let them write it down on a piece of paper. It's the only way to understand what the teacher's questions was. Now, I'm used to it If I preview in advance, I may understand sixty or seventy percent. If I don't, I'll probably have a hard time. If there were something beyond the course he was talking about, some extra knowledge, I probably wouldn't understand it too well.” [S1L]
“My vocabulary is limited, I can't express it well, but I can use simple words to express it.” [S5H]
“It’s just my English is not good enough; I wouldn’t understand what they were saying until they repeat two or three times.” [S4L]
“I feel that my words are not satisfactory. I feel that I am not accurate enough to express their ideas. Maybe it's because I use less English on a daily basis.” [S5E]
“I remember one time I did a presentation, and someone asked a question, I knew what he meant and I knew what I thought, but I just couldn't express it. People may not understand what I was trying to say.” [S1L]
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The respondents indicated that EMI is one of the crucial reasons why international students prefer furthering their studies in Malaysia. The international students took the language of instruction and the language dominantly used in the country into account when deciding to study abroad. They went online to research university websites or learned from friends and teachers that university lectures would be conducted in English. EMI is essential to international doctoral students because it is beneficial for them to read scholarly work in English and understand progressive ideas. English can also help them present their research to people from different countries. These findings are reflected in the responses given by the respondents below:
“I choose to study in Malaysia because the cultures are near and the language is English. It’s not like other countries, for example. Russia, you have to speak Russian. Or, like Germany and other countries. So, I can improve my English.” [S3H]
“Malaysia is an English speaking country with a similar academic system as British universities.” [S1L]
“Yes, I considered… English is very popular recently, and I wouldn't come to Malaysia if they are teaching in Malay.” [S4E]
“Actually, one of my teachers told me that whenever you choose University for Ph.D. study, you better choose those using English as first language. But I heard from my friend in Malaysia, their first language is Malay, but the courses are taught in English. So, it’s all the same to me, come here or go to the L1 Countries. Because here people can speak English. And teachers also speak English. That’s why I don’t face any problems.” [S2H]
The doctoral students also believe that EMI provides more opportunities for students to practice speaking in English. Malaysia is a multicultural country, with Malay, Chinese, and Indian ethnicities making up most of the population. Therefore, people have to be proficient in more than one language. Besides the Malay language, Malaysians often use English in their daily activities. Therefore, international students have the opportunity to talk to others in English. They made remarkable improvements in their academic English speaking abilities by talking to their classmates and practicing during academic activities, as shown in the following excerpts:
“I can communicate with friends from different countries. … Because I’ m in this situation, situation is very important because if I’m in Iran. In my country. Maybe I couldn’t be like now, because now I can communicate with others in this situation. So, … it’s very good for me, especially good for my English.” [S5E]
“After all, there is no language situation (in China) We do not need to always use English to communicate with the teacher. But here you have to communicate with him in English. It's a challenge for me. It forces me to speak English.” [S1L]
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“
In the past, English was not like everyday language tools, but just a knowledge to learn, you rarely use it. Here it is your daily communication tool. You have to go and use it. Malaysia's classroom activities are more diverse, students are more willing to directly ask questions and interact with lecturers. The Chinese classroom form is relatively single. Most of the teacher is doing all the speaking, so the interaction is less. I think the Malaysian classroom activities are very good for my English.” [S3L]
4.2.1 Malaysian English Accent and L1 Use during Lectures Since Malaysia is a multicultural country, there are people from many ethnic groups. There are also international students from different countries with different accents. Based on the findings, respondents had a difficult time, especially when they first encountered people speaking in different accents. Most of them found it very hard to understand each other when speaking. In return, this contributed to adverse effects on their academic journey due to miscommunication with supervisors or lack of understanding of the course content, research discussions, and various academic activities. Even some students confident in their academic English speaking abilities face problems when talking with their supervisors. One respondent claimed that his supervisor did not know how to express certain words in English. Therefore, the information conveyed was incomplete, and that caused somemisunderstandings when he was submitting his thesis draft. However, this problem can be solved by frequently communicating in English with supervisors, lecturers, or classmates. According to respondents, they got used to the different accents after a while. They also often asked for clarification from their supervisors It took approximately two months to one semester to adapt to the situation and learn to manage communication with their supervisors in English.
“
Language is one part, but there are some accents, you know? There is something that the lecturers said I can't understand. As usual communication, teacher might say a very simple word, but I cannot recognize. I don't know what he said. In fact, I know the word, maybe they have accents, maybe I have some misconceptions about the pronunciation of words myself, so it leads to some difficulties in communication.” [S5H]
“
The first time I got here is very hard for me to understand what are people saying. For every sentence, I have to say; please repeat again. But after a while, I got used to the accent.” [S5E]
“When I first started talking to my advisor, I felt a little bit of a problem. He has a strong accent and speaks fast. I understood 60% of the first communication with him. Then the second time I spoke to him was two months later. I found that I could almost understand what he was saying, about 85%. There's another class teacher. I don't understand what he's
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saying. Because his accent is too heavy. And he's always mixed with Malay. Some of the teachers have a heavy accent.” [S2A]
One problem commonly raised by international students is that lecturers mix both languages, Malay and English. International students get confused because they have difficulty understanding different accents besides the Malay language. They feel like an outsider in class when the lecturer makes a joke in the Malay language, and everyone laughs except the international students When teaching local students, it was common practice to build rapport and understanding by explaining certain things in the native language. However, with the rapid internationalization of universities in Malaysia, the composition of students has changed with more international students, especially in doctoral courses. It is crucial to consider the needs of international students from both educational and psychological perspectives. Language use can affect these facets, as highlighted by some of the respondents:
“Unfortunately, our lectures during class also speak Malay. This is not good for international student. This is a big problem.” [S2M]
“Because I even don’t understand what he saying in English, can you imagine he speaks Malay, one time after the first class, I went to the lecturer, and I said please, we are from different countries. Please speak English. He said, of course, yes. He said yes, but next time he forgot. This is a very big problem I heard this from many international students.” [S2E]
“This brought very bad feeling It seems like they were talking about us or even laughing at us, I know they are not, of course, but it’s just feelings.” [S1E]
Several international students from countries where English is the official language considered themselves fluent in the language. However, most students with problems in academic speaking include those who consider themselves familiar with academic English use. Generally, they believe that their academic vocabulary is inadequate and that they cannot find the right words when discussing academic issues. Many expressed that they spend a lot of time reading and thinking deeply about their research and use rigorous research methods However, they cannot adequately describe and discuss their research plans or results due to a lack of academic speaking ability and language proficiency. As a result, many students feel nervous during a presentation and fear making a negative impression on lecturers and other students.
“My vocabulary is limited, I can't express it well, but I can translate it into other words to express. So, I chose to use simple words to reorganize and express it.” [S5H]
“The language I use is very low level language. I have not used very academic vocabulary. I might think deeply, but the words and ways in which I express something is very simple. The vocabulary presented is not professional enough.” [S5H]
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4.2.3
Most universities provide English language courses for international students who do not have the minimum English language requirement to pursue doctoral programs. These courses are beneficial for enhancing English language proficiency. However, it can be time consuming and distract students from their research work. Further, the respondents claimed that the fees could be high. Despite the importance of being proficient in English for a doctoral program in an EMI environment, they hope for less time consuming and more economical English courses.
“When I first got here… (I) spent six months studying English. I spent 700 dollars for each English courses.” [S5E]
“If you have a certification, I didn’t want to take language courses to study English. But because I didn’t have. And I didn’t have time. I didn’t want to spend a lot of time. If my country force us to get certificates for bachelor or master. I must have certificates that I didn’t need to go to English language center ” [S1A]
“We have English language center, but it’s expensive.” [S2M]
“If they make it cheaper, it would be much better for us. This is good for the students, maybe some reasons they haven’t studied English in their own countries. So, they would decide to come here and study English. It is very good opportunity and very good time. But only if they are cheaper.” [S3L]
4.3.1
Previous learning experiences have significantly influenced the English academic standards of international students. Some of these experiences include the age they started learning English, the length of time spent learning English, and whether they have experienced authentic English communication situations. Students who claimed to be fluent in spoken English stated that English is the most familiar language. They have also been communicating with others in English since a young age, and English is their official language. Several respondents also reported that they have been neglecting their native language, as English is the language of instruction and official language.
“Since I was a child. My tutors have been using English. But we have one subject called native language subject. In that subject, we use our native language to teach. So, you can recognize it, but all the other subjects are taught in English.” [S4E]
“We use both our native language and English in our daily life, but English is the official language. To communicate in all the school and universities in Nigeria. Right from kindergarten to university.” [S2A]
In response to this phenomenon, some countries have adopted multilingual mediums for education. Students or parents can choose between native language or English medium schools.
“Actually, in Pakistan, we have two systems. Although English is recommended for some certain subject. But there are two mediums to study, English medium and Urdu medium. There are Urdu medium class that children can choose to study all the subjects in Urdu, and there’ s English medium as well, and there are semi mediums as well, that some subjects can be taught in English and some subjects taught in Urdu. But even I was in English medium. But I cannot say it was fully English medium because some courses are in Urdu.” [S3H]
Countries implementing multilingual policies above reflect the importance of spoken English However, in other countries, most courses are taught in the native language English is taught as one of the school subjects. It would appear that teachers attach more importance to the development of other English skills, especially reading and writing, compared to verbal skills. Therefore, students from these educational backgrounds showed a lower level of spoken English. The lack of emphasis on English and failure to use English to communicate in their daily lives were the primary reasons for low English proficiency.
“
During the master's degree, we have a course that is taught in English. There are foreign teachers in class. Basically, attend to pass the exam, course is taught in English fully in English, and among many courses, only this one is taught in English.” [S5H]
“Unfortunately, English is not very important in my country education system. Until when you want to get a Ph.D., none of any universities or institutions want you to study in English or want you to get English certificate It’s up to you, whether you want or not. But it would be better if it was composed before I study for Ph.D.” [S5E]
4.3.2
The respondents stated that some do not communicate much in English due to lack of English proficiency, while others are less willing to communicate. Although universities in Malaysia provide more opportunities for students to speak in English, much depends on the student’ s willingness to communicate and their personalities Some students admit they are unwilling to communicate in English, and some choose to use their native language to communicate with international students from the same country. In Malaysia, the Chinese language is also commonly used at the university level since some lecturers and Malaysian students also speak Chinese. On the other hand, some students are shy and introverted. They are not talkative, even in their native language. Generally, students from Asian countries, influenced by their Confucius culture, believe that asking questions or speaking too much in class is a sign of disrespect to the teacher. Traditionally, students are only allowed to speak when the teacher calls their names.
“
But in general, there are more opportunities for English exchange in Malaysia than in China. But I may still avoid it (communication in English).” [S5H]
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“At present… because usually I’m surrounded by Chinese, so there are less chance for me to have to speak English, I have a lot of Chinese classmates, when I … There is no need to communicate in English.” [S3A]
“This depends on their own willingness. If you are active to communicate, you can meet foreigners (who speak English) everywhere. But if someone who lacks motivation like me might just want to get the job done and pass the exam.” [S5E]
“This is depending on personality. I am sociable. So, I like to talk to people. But some people didn’t like to communicate. They don’t want to speak. I have many Chinese friend in ESL, they always complain English is difficult, but they are silent like a statue.” [S3E]
“Sometimes, it's not that I don't want to answer a question, but I'm used to the teacher naming you and asking you to answer, so I'm always hesitant. I might be about to answer when a student from another country has already spoken. Maybe we all think differently, but I always feel that I should wait until the teacher agrees before answering Otherwise, I'm not respecting him (or her).” [S1L]
There is also a minority of students who consider English speaking skills a burden because their careers do not require extensive use of spoken English. Learning about matters related to their area of expertise and scientific research methods is much more critical than practicing spoken English. English speaking skills are only necessary to pursue a Ph.D., not a practical tool they would need in the future. As such, they are reluctant to communicate in English and lack the motivation to practice spoken English. It is acceptable not to waste time and energy on a skill they would not need in their home country.
“In terms of language, I prefer Chinese teaching, or we can also combine the two languages. But I still want to be native speaking because I intend to return home after finished my study, and I don't need to speak English often in my country.” [S1L]
“I feel that I can just accomplish something academically, and I don't think about practicing well in English language. To be honest, I prefer Chinese medium My future work on the requirements of English is not very high. It rarely require me to use English.” [S4A]
However, most people think English speaking skills are indispensable for doctoral students. It is commonly believed that mastering English speaking skills will be an added advantage for future job applications and career development.
“The urban citizen would prefer to choose English (medium) because they want to get good job. If you know English more, you can get a better job.” [S3H]
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You will become competitive because you have international skills, because like when writing emails, everything in computer is English.” [S2A]
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I think that English is a proof of your personal ability. For example, it will be very helpful when educating children and going out on a trip.” [S5H]
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It depends on whether the parents in a family have instilled in the idea of learning English and persuading children to learn English.” [S1L]
In summary, the English speaking ability of international students in Malaysia varies depending on their previous experiences. Some international students come from countries where English is the first or most common language Others come from countries where English is a second language or do not converse in English before coming to Malaysia for further studies. However, the respondents agreed that English as the medium of instruction was one of the key reasons why they chose to study in Malaysia compared to other countries. They were all motivated to master English and achieve excellence in their academic pursuits They faced different challenges in the Malaysian EMI context, such as lack of English vocabulary and willingness to communicate, difficulties in understanding utterances due to different accents, and feeling like an outsider when locals in the classroom communicate in their native language International students who do not meet tertiary level language requirements, e.g., IELTS 6 or above, had to enroll in language classes to improve their academic English for doctoral studies. These language classes helped them improve their English language skills at a high cost. In this regard, international students require financial aid from the university management
Three main conclusions were derived from the study. First, the practices of academic English are diverse and complicated because of different backgrounds and experiences in using English. Hence, the international students in the same class may have very different academic English speaking abilities that pose a challenge for educators. Students who are not very good at academic English due to past learning experiences have difficulties expressing themselves effectively in English compared to their counterparts who have been using English for academic purposes since primary school. Therefore, this is another obstacle for EMI classes with international students from different countries. Thus, lack of proficiency significantly influences learners’ academic speaking Data for the study were collected by interviewing six Ph.D. students and two master’s students in European countries. These findings support Yildiz's (2021) qualitative study, which investigated the factors influencing non English major students’ English speaking ability in the EMI context.
Secondly, the EMI adopted and applied in non native English speaking contexts is still a developing phenomenon. The findings show that almost every international student cited accents and mixed spoken languages, mainly Malay, posed a significant challenge. They had to get used to many accents and work
hard to improve their English. However, combining the Malay language and English adversely affects international students’ comprehension of the lesson content and makes them feel excluded. It is vital to ensure that international students do not feel like outsiders. Therefore, future research should address the issue of translanguaging in an EMI context.
Thirdly, students from different cultural backgrounds are unwilling to communicate in English. Such attitudes are viewed as ostentatious and undesirable. In order to complement the English academic needs of these students, instructors need to understand the reasons behind their rejection of English communication The primary reasons include family influence and personality While Confucian influenced international students tend to communicate among their groups, they also show higher respect for the teachers’ authority. Therefore, they will follow their teachers' arrangements without questions. Instructors may use this knowledge to design their relevant classroom speaking activities For example, a good mix of international students from different countries and local students enables better communication in English. There are many issues related to EMI in the higher education of international doctoral students. This study shows that EMI has a significant impact on doctoral students. Studying the practices of such students enhances the process and practices in EMI contexts. In conclusion, this study provides practical value for doctoral level education in the EMI context.
This study has certain limitations. Due to the nature of the study and the small sample size, the results cannot be generalized to the population of international doctoral students in Malaysian universities. However, it serves to inform stakeholders in their effort to create a better academic learning environment for international students in Malaysia. This study mainly focused on students’ views of academic English speaking in an EMI context for EFL doctoral students. It is suggested that future studies explore this issue from the perspective of lecturers and university management.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 17 34, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.2
Received Jun 2, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Sep 6, 2022
Research Unit Self Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
Dorothy J LaubscherResearch Unit Self Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
Abstract Students often feel isolated when they do blended learning courses and they do not always have the necessary skills to work on their own. Blended learning courses need to be thoughtfully planned to actively involve students in the learning processes. Cooperative learning is an active teaching strategy that can assist students to engage in online and blended courses and is known to promote self directed learning. The communitiesofinquiryframeworkisoftenusedasaframeworktodesign blended learning. In this study, we focused on an additional dimension of the communities of inquiry framework, namely courses learning presence, which is closely linked with self directed learning skills. In this basic qualitative study, semi structured interviews were conducted with post graduate Mathematics Education students (n = 8) to establish their experience of the cooperative blended learning course. Data were coded and analysed using a deductive approach. The aim of this article is to describe how self directed learning as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative blended learning course. The findings showed that the use of cooperative learning was a useful strategy to promote self directed learning as learning presence. Furthermore, matters relating to motivation as a component of self directed learning were incorporated into the design of the course, such as allowing students to manage their own learning, making the learning experience enjoyable, and providing encouraging feedback. Aspects of the course design that assisted in promoting self directed learning as learning presence included the use of authentic tasks, allowing students to develop and apply their own learning strategies, and providing students with the opportunity to socially construct knowledge.
Keywords: blended learning; communities of inquiry; cooperative learning; learning presence; self directed learning
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The rapidly changing educational landscape and the use of educational technologies have increased the need for effective online and blended learning (BL) However, some educators still embrace old learning paradigms, such as John Locke’s theory of titularity, when turning to BL (Cunningham & Bergstrom, 2020). The transition is often undertaken without realising the importance of a paradigm shift in the process of planning and designing the new blended approach to the course (Chandler et al., 2020). It is not only educators who have difficulty adapting, as this shift is new to many students as well. It is, therefore, even more important to plan BL courses thoughtfully so that meaningful learning will occur and the use of the technology will add value to the course instead of hindering the learning process (Bizami et al., 2022; Mishra et al., 2020)
Actively involving students in BL courses is a difficult task. Students are removed in time and space and often tend to struggle on their own. We believe that learning happens in a social constructive setting and, consequently, we tried to find an alternative to the isolated learning environment that students often experience in online courses. Cooperative learning (CL) involves the use of small groups of students working together on shared experiences and successes (Johnson & Johnson, 2018) In face to face environments, CL is a well researched active teaching strategy, known to enhance self directed learning (SDL) and student engagement and motivation (Bosch, 2017). According to Knowles (1975:18), “in its broadest meaning self directed learning describes a process by which individuals take the initiative, with or without the assistance of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18). By implementing CL strategies, students become more engaged in their own learning by taking responsibility to teach and assist their fellow group members in a more engaged and social manner, which are key characteristics of SDL (Bhandari et al., 2022; Van Zyl & Mentz, 2022).
We redesigned our online Mathematics Education course by adapting CL strategies for a BL environment and used Google Docs as the main collaboration platform. Students were divided into CL groups, and each student was assigned a specific role. The communities of inquiry (CoI) framework was used as a theoretical model in this qualitative study. Although the CoI framework originally focused on three presences, namely teacher presence, social presence, and cognitive presence (Garrison, 2018), researchers have also identified other presences that are visible in online and blended environments. One of these alternative presences is the learning presence that was introduced by Shea and Bidjerano (2010) and has been studied by researchers since then (Ryu et al., 2022; Wertz, 2022). According to Shea and Bidjerano (2010), “learning presence represents elements such as self efficacy as well as other cognitive, behavioral, and motivational constructs supportive of online learner self regulation” (p. 1)
Much research has been done on the constructs of BL, CL, SDL, and the CoI framework, not only in isolation but also in combination with one another.
However, this paper highlights the particular relationship between SDL and learning presence, where CL is used as a teaching strategy in a BL environment This study specifically focuses on enhancing the learning presence in the BL course In this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL course. Two questions drove this research, namely:
• How does SDL relate to learning presence?
• What aspects of SDL as learning presence were promoted through a cooperative BL course?
From a social constructive perspective, learning is seen as an interactive social phenomenon between teachers and students (Perdana & Atmojo, 2019) This study shares the view of Vygotsky’s cognitive developmental theory in that knowledge is a societal product that is constructed from cooperative efforts to learn, understand, and solve problems (Picciano, 2017). This process entails collaborating and reflecting with others, which lead to the co construction of knowledge (Bozkurt, 2017) CL refers to a teaching strategy that makes use of small groups to complete tasks (Johnson & Johnson, 2018). It requires students to take responsibility for their own learning while coordinating with their peers in the process of achieving common goals (Delgado García et al., 2021).
Previous studies have suggested that CL is one of the key teaching and learning strategies to equip students with 21st century competencies by promoting active learning and SDL (Bosch, 2017; Loh & Ang, 2020). For successful implementation of CL, the facilitator should foster the willingness and skills of students to work together (Loh & Ang, 2020) Johnson and Johnson (2018) stress that five elements are essential to implementing genuine CL. These are positive interdependence, face to face interaction, interpersonal and small group skills, individual and group accountability, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson, 2018) When these elements are consciously planned for, students are more likely to benefit from active, deep level learning (Munir et al., 2018).
Johnson and Johnson (2018) assert that through the discussions in which students engage, conceptual understanding is constructed and mental models of the phenomena they deal with are formed It is through group discussions and interaction that students acquire attitudes, values, and a need for continuous improvement (Duran et al., 2019; Johnson et al., 2007). Unlike other methodologies that support group work, CL stresses the notion of group members being assigned specific roles to perform during the CL task (Ortuzar, 2016) Facilitators can create role interdependence among students when they assign them complementary roles such as reader, recorder, checker of understanding, encourager of participation, and elaborator of knowledge. These roles will differ according to the teaching strategies and CL techniques used and are vital to high quality learning (Bosch, 2017).
When incorporating CL in online and blended environments, the process of socially constructing knowledge is used to guide students to take responsibility
for their own learning and become more self directed (Bosch, 2017). As with CL, BL also offers opportunities where these skills can be facilitated (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004) In BL environments, classroom interaction is extended to a space where students who might have difficulties meeting in person can effortlessly work together (Fan & Woodrich, 2017). In web based collaborative platforms, such as Google Docs, students do not only focus on their own perspectives but also learn through social interaction and joint activities in groups (Hsu & Shiue, 2018; Widodo, 2017) Furthermore, Hsu and Shiue (2018) stress that with “the support of effective collaborative technologies, knowledge can be transferred not only from the teacher to students, but also the students can effectively construct knowledge through collaboration in the learning process” (p. 936) The fact remains that in a CL BL environment, Google Docs, like numerous other online collaboration platforms, can only enhance learning if the learning tasks are carefully planned (in terms of the CL elements and BL principles) and consist of real world problems (authentic learning tasks), and students know exactly what is expected of them (division of roles) To ensure that no aspect is left behind, a framework such as the CoI framework is often used when planning collaborative constructivist learning environments.
The CoI framework consists of three core dimensions, namely cognitive presence, teaching presence, and social presence (Fiock, 2020). These dimensions need to interact dynamically so that a meaningful online learning environment, which supports purposeful inquiry and meaningful collaboration, can be established (Hsu & Shiue, 2018) The teaching presence focuses on the visibility of the facilitator and what they do to structure and facilitate the learning process The teaching presence interacts with the cognitive presence when the resources that assist with completing the tasks are selected, while the social presence has to do with the engagement of the students and the climate of the learning community (Nolan Grant, 2019)
In a review of a number of CoI studies, Dempsey and Zhang (2019) report that social presence has been shown to be the mediating factor between cognitive presence and teaching presence, while cognitive presence is most indicative of student satisfaction and success. They further assert that teaching presence is understood to be of the greatest value to students and the most critical in establishing purposeful CoI (Dempsey & Zhang, 2019) This may raise some concerns, as it may indicate that students feel the need for facilitators to give them the information and knowledge needed to succeed in their learning. This again highlights the importance for educators to rethink their teaching role and to plan for the promotion of SDL skills when designing their BL courses. In addition to the three presences that the original CoI framework explored, several other presences have been identified in research, such as a learning presence, an agency presence, and an emotional presence (Bosch et al., 2020).
To answer the first research question, namely “How does SDL relate to learning presence?”, we explore the literature relating to the CoI framework further. As we value the need for student self direction, we also recognise the learning presence, as originally conceptualised by Shea and Bidjerano (2010) and Shea et al. (2012)
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As discussed above, learning in blended environments requires students to be more self regulated (Bosch et al., 2020) Shea and Bidjerano (2010) have examined student self and co regulation in online environments They believe that these skills relate to desired outcomes such as higher levels of cognitive presence as described in the CoI framework. Shea et al. (2012) further assert that student motivation and engagement are crucial in the learning process. The aspects included in Shea and colleagues’ (2012) discussion on learning presence, such as self efficacy and self regulation, are clearly recognisable in the SDL framework presented by Fisher et al. (2001). They categorise SDL into three main concepts, namely self management, self control, and the desire for learning (Fisher et al., 2001) These concepts are key to other SDL conceptual frameworks as well (Brockett & Hiemstra, 2018; Candy, 1991; Garrison, 1997) Learning presence, therefore, features within the conceptual framework of SDL (Bosch et al., 2020); subsequently, we will use the term “SDL as learning presence ” as an amalgamated concept.
In this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL course. To answer the second research question, “What aspects of SDL as learning presence were promoted through a cooperative BL course?”, we followed a set of guidelines presented by Laubscher and Bosch (2021) on how to design a self directed, BL environment. This systematic review scrutinised the literature to create guidelines for facilitators to use when designing BL environments. The focus is specifically on the promotion of SDL in these environments. Their recommendations include four SDL categories, namely SDL skills, strategies to promote SDL, motivation as an aspect of SDL, and designing for SDL (Laubscher & Bosch, 2021). Under each of these categories, a number of recommendations are presented that guide the facilitator in designing a self directed BL environment. In this paper, in order to explore aspects of SDL as learning presence, these recommendations serve as a suitable guide to use when designing for learning presence.
3. Course DesignIn this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL courseIn this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL courseIn this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL courseIn this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL course The course was designed by using the CoI framework, where learning presence is included. This was done because of the importance of enhancing SDL skills in students, especially in a distance environment. The course formed part of a post graduate degree in Mathematics Education, offered through the distance mode The student group comprised students who resided in various regions of South Africa. It was a diverse group of students in terms of age, race, background, culture, and educational background. They were all studying part time and had the challenge of balancing their careers, studies, home life, and personal relationships. The module focused on students’ ability to engage critically with content relating to mathematics teaching and learning, where effective mathematics teaching is placed under theoretical and practical scrutiny. The
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focus, therefore, is mainly on the coherence between the teaching and the learning of mathematics, as viewed from the perspective of not only a researcher or theorist but also a practitioner (the mathematics teacher). In the course, students are expected to engage with these aspects independently and collaboratively.
Throughout the presentation of the course and the design of the assessments, as suggested by the recommendations of Laubscher and Bosch (2021), we wanted to provide students with the opportunity to engage with the content and provide them with sufficient opportunity to take responsibility for their own learning, plan, find and use resources (including human resources), process information, and think critically, which are all key components of a self directed student The recommendations suggest CL as a teaching strategy, which was implemented in the learning tasks. CL is a teaching learning strategy that is known to promote SDL (Mentz & Van Zyl, 2018). As the students were distance students and were physically removed from one another, they communicated through a Google Doc that served as a platform for students to interact and engage with one another. It also formed the basis from which we could stimulate the five elements of CL that are known to assist in enhancing students’ SDL. Each member of the group was assigned a specific role that needed to be fulfilled in the group to ensure even work distribution In addition, by allocating a specific responsibility to each member, the elements of CL were enhanced. There were other tasks too that needed to be completed to ensure the smooth functioning of the group and the successful completion of the assignment.
In this paper, we aim to describe how SDL as learning presence can be enhanced through a cooperative BL course. To answer the second research question, “What aspects of SDL as learning presence were promoted through a cooperative BL course?” , an interpretive qualitative research study was done. In this study, semi structured interviews were conducted to understand the students’ experiences of the course. The interviews were conducted and analysed at the end of the academic year after the students had completed the module (for ethical reasons). The students, therefore, participated in the interviews knowing that it could not influence their course marks.
In this basic qualitative study, the target population consisted of the students enrolled for the post graduate degree course in Mathematics Education (n = 12) Of the population, eight students agreed to participate in semi structured interviews. These students participated voluntarily, and they all signed an informed consent form. The interview questions were related to the participants’ experiences of the CL tasks and aspects relating to SDL. The transcripts of the interviews were analysed in ATLAS.ti™ The data were analysed using a deductive approach where the participants’ statements were coded through a thematic, step by step analysing method (Braun & Clarke, 2013; Karlsen et al., 2017) In qualitative research, validity and reliability are concerned with the issue of trustworthiness (Coleman, 2021). To ensure validity, we made use of member checking and respondent validation by confirming the accuracy of our understanding by the participants during the data collection. Multiple coding was
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used to ensure reliability and minimise bias. The two researchers independently coded the data and identified the main themes of the study. Where discrepancies arose, revisions were made, and the data analysis was done using the codes and themes that were agreed upon. The study and its associated research procedures were approved by the research ethics committee of the faculty.
Since we have already established the close connection between learning presence and SDL by answering the first research question, the data will be discussed according to the main themes proposed by Laubscher and Bosch (2021) in their guidelines to create a self directed blended environment. However, where suitable, we will use the amalgamated concept of “SDL as learning presence” where they referred to “SDL” Figure 1 illustrates the identified themes in this study in the form of a diagram
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Source:Author’sowncreation
5.1 Strategies to promote SDL as learning presence
Laubscher and Bosch (2021) suggest CL as a strategy to enhance SDL. Various studies confirm that CL is a suitable strategy to promote SDL (e.g. Bhandari et al., 2022; Van Zyl & Mentz, 2022) Sekano and colleagues (2020) confirm the significance of enhancing SDL in the mathematics classroom. To evaluate the success of CL environments, it is important to measure it against the five principles identified by Johnson and Johnson (2018), namely positive interdependence, face to face interaction, interpersonal and small group skills,
individual and group accountability, and group processing. In the data, there were clear references to the elements of CL In addition, the group sizes and role division were identified. With regard to positive interdependence, most of the students conceded that in their groups, they were working towards the same goal. One student said: “What I can take away from the experience is that both parties need to be focused on the same goal” [3:3]1. Another student added: “We complimented each other by each doing our part to reach the final goal” [7:5]. Another one said: “The tasks helped me to realise that I have to make deadlines for myself and to keep them. Because if I don’t, not only I but also my group will suffer” [1:10]
This goes hand in hand with the principle of individual accountability, where they also acknowledged that not only were they responsible for their own work, but the success of their group member also depended on their individual contribution. The sharing of responsibilities is evident from the following response: “[The group work was] making my work much easier because, if the assignment could have been assigned to one person only you can only imagine how much reading one person is expected to do” [2:4]. Another student noted: “Because you are working together, it also helping [your group partner] to prepare for the exam. You have to check the other person’s work because you are going to use that person’s work to prepare for the exam. So, you are killing two birds with one stone. One person is helping you to prepare for the exam, and you are also helping the other person.” [3:9]. Another student confessed: “If the CL was not there, I would not have much energy and I would be a bit lazy to google a lot of articles, and I would only rely on the ones that are on [the learning management system]” [2:11].
The students also mentioned interpersonal and small group skills. One of them revealed: “I learned so much about myself. I usually do not like group tasks … but I learned how to work [together] … this is a new way to approach a group task” [5:3] Another student concurred: “I learned that sharing ideas and [collaborating] just makes it much easier” [2:1]. A similar response provided was: “It helped a lot getting feedback from someone who is going through the same thing that I am going” [3:5] Another student added to that by saying that “it was nice to share knowledge and also to get another’s perspective” [8:4].
The fourth principle relating to CL that could be found in the interviews was group processing. This specifically relates to reflecting on one’s own learning, as well as reflecting on the group goals. There was not much evidence of the aspect of group reflection, since the group as a whole reflected on the goals they set for themselves (as a group). There was, however, enough evidence with regard to the role that the group played in personal reflection. One student mentioned: “ … positive in the sense that I could get feedback from my partner. It helped a lot getting feedback from someone who is going through the same thing that I am going” [3:1]. Another said: “Two is better than one. If you work collaboratively, you can correct each other’s mistakes. The results is [sic], therefore, more valid and reliable” [6:2]. One student mentioned that, in distance education, one is often isolated. The fact that they then had the opportunity to have interaction regularly and reflect together with other people
1 [a:b] is an identifier for the participant, where “a” refers to the participant number and “b” to the quotation number in ATLAS.ti™ .
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made for a good experience. Another participant asserted that “it was nice to hear from someone else from time to time… we did not only talk about the work, but also about our experiences in the course in general” [8:4].
The principle of face to face interaction was not mentioned often, which is understandable when one takes into account that it was a distance course. One student remarked: “When you are studying in distance courses, you don’t get much interaction with lecturers and other students. [This task] was really nice because you got the opportunity to talk to other people and work with them” [8:2].
The final two aspects regarding CL were the group sizes and the roles that the group members fulfilled. When asked whether they were happy with the group size, all the students agreed that they were. One student elaborated as follows: “The bigger the group gets, the more difficult it is to manage. Two is the perfect group size for me. It worked well” [1:15]. The same goes for the roles of the group members. The students were asked whether they felt it was necessary to have specific roles in the group and if it contributed to the effectiveness of the group. All the students agreed on both accounts, and they elaborated on the importance of specific roles. One student stated: “Yes, it did help. Especially like when you are doing the group assignments, having the roles clearly defined that, okay, the technical person must insert this, this, and this. It helped a lot” [3:6].
Laubscher and Bosch (2021) assert that when designing a BL environment, educators should plan the tasks in a manner that will encourage SDL skills. The importance of SDL skills cannot be denied. According to Yulianti et al. (2021), self directed students can use their knowledge and abilities in various contexts and continue to improve their learning capabilities throughout their lives. They further state that by giving students the freedom to learn what is essential from their perception, learning motivation is increased and the students are motivated to develop their SDL abilities. When the data were analysed, responses relating to SDL skills yielded aspects of time management, finding relevant resources, socially constructing knowledge, and communication These are in line with SDL skills identified by Garcia (2021). The students’ responses revealed that the designed tasks required them to plan their time well in advance in order to accommodate the group members and spend sufficient time on the sections they were responsible for.
Thus, the students were responsible to manage and plan their own learning processes. The skill of time management was of the utmost importance and is evident from the following student’s response: “[The course] helped me to make myself deadlines and forced me keep to them. I think now I will make better deadlines in future, even if you don’t work in a group” [1:10] Another student added that the communication between the group partners was crucial when it came to time management and provided the following example: “My partner would say that [he is] going to [the] rural areas and [he] won’t be online for the next couple of days. I would understand and not put messages and things there in that time that he will not be there. So, it helped me also to relax and not feeling that he is not just going off the grid, and I am worried that he has dropped out or things like that. So, at the end (especially when we did
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assignment 2) I was more relaxed, knowing that if he’s got any issues, he does communicate” [3:18] While most students agreed on the importance of their personal time management, one student pointed out that they decided on “smaller” deadlines in their group to complete specific sections of the task. They were then responsible for adhering to not only the module deadlines but also those of the group. The student stated that “keeping to those [group] deadlines actually helped me to plan my own time better and I know if I keep to the group’s deadlines I don’t have to stress about the timeframes of the module” [7:5]
With regard to finding relevant resources, one student said: “We had to get more articles [than what was given to us] to answer the questions … The more you read, the more you try to construct your own meaning and the more you understand” [2:8]. One student was of the opinion that the group setting helped them to collect more information and declared as follows: “[Working in a group] just makes it easier for me. I just go straight to [the resources that other group members found] and read the [relevant] information found there. It also helped me … when I was studying for the exam, because I [now have] more articles and understand more information [than when I work alone]” [2:7]. Another student stated: “We had to find our own resources. I went to the library, used the internet to find information on the topics. It gave me better insight [into the topic] because I now have information from different people with different perspectives and not just the two or three sources that the [lecturer] gave us” [8:8].
Most of the students found that working in a group helped them to construct new knowledge and improve the quality of their work. One of the students remarked: “I think because we had different sections to deal with you are working on your own, but you are getting feedback from the other person, so the individual work is still the same, and you are doing it as if you are doing it alone, but you are taking the other person’ s input to adjust your work” [3:10]. Another one added: “[Your group partner] will then help you to plan much better and write the perfect assignment that you need to write” [2:12]. Another student agreed as follows: “Sometimes you have to figure out some information and you are not 100% sure. But I could always talk to [my group partner] and ask him if I understand correctly and if he agrees” [7:2]. This student concluded with the following statement: “I sometimes feel that in a normal setting, students feel in a sense that they are competing with each other. But [with these tasks] the whole point is to work together and that was really nice for me” [7.2].
With regard to the use of social and other web technologies, Google Docs and the learning management system were the main platforms for interaction during the course. The participants indicated that they used other communication platforms too, such as WhatsApp and SMS. One student explained: “I feel it is important that we have that start communication that when the person is not responding, you can just check on them via WhatsApp and SMS to say” [3:16]. Another one said that you “type something and then you put it on Google Doc and then that would give a chance for your partner to comment” [2:11]. Furthermore, one student asserted: “I enjoyed the fact that we used Google Docs; it was new to me. I learned a lot” [1:14].
5.3
According to Laubscher and Bosch (2021) and Zhu et al. (2022), motivation in SDL can be increased through lecturer involvement and feedback, scaffolding,
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incorporating a variety of learning tasks, and creating a feeling of enjoyment among the students In the interviews, the students mentioned that they enjoyed the tasks, and some of them also mentioned that their group partners contributed to their motivation. One student said: “Because we are all working and studying part time, it gets difficult, and you are not always motivated. It was so nice to have someone who help motivated me and help keep me on track … I really enjoyed these group tasks” [1:5]. Another one mentioned: “I was lucky that my partner was also working hard on their part I want to also pull my weight so that they do not do all the work alone” [3:8]. In addition, the following explanation was provided: “I sometimes feel that in a normal setting, students feel, in a sense, that they are competing with each other. But [with these tasks] the whole point is to work together and I, that was really nice for me” [7:2].
With regard to lecturer involvement, the students mentioned that the active involvement of the lecturer was visible in the course, especially in Google Docs where she gave weekly feedback on the students’ work and progress. One student remarked that “the fact that the lecturer monitored our progress and motivated us on a regular basis was really nice” [1:2]. They also mentioned that they valued the support from the lecturer, and one student said: “I like how supportive the lecturer has been, how informative the assignments have been, and I like the fact that they make me explore new methods of teaching the subject [mathematics] in class” [5:1].
When analysing the data, various aspects relating to the design of the course were evident. A few students commented on the structure of the tasks. One of them said: “There were very good instructions that showed us how to do the task and what is expected from us in terms of communication … I enjoyed the tasks they were practical and doable. It also gave us perspectives on how other people think and reason” [8:6]. Another student declared: “I think this was one of my better university experiences … at first I was concerned because I did not know what was required of me, but as soon as I figured it out, I enjoyed it very much” [7:1]. The task structure did not only contribute to the cognitive development of the students “[The structure of the task] helped me understand the content much better” [2:11] but also played an important role in the application thereof in their teaching practice. One student stated that “[the fact that we worked together] made the task seem easier than working alone” [1:3] and continued as follows: “A lot of the topics that we researched were relevant in our own teaching and classrooms” [1:16]. Another student remarked: “I believe that people learn better when they learn from each other and when they learn from their peers. So, I have tried to incorporate that in my lessons” [3:7].
Table 1 gives a summary of the SDL aspects evident in the findings in relation to the recommendations made by Laubscher and Bosch (2021, p. 162) The table presents the four categories with specific recommendations relating to the category. For this study, we added a third column in which we provide evidence of how the aspects were promoted or if they were not evident in the study.
Table 1: A summary of the SDL aspects evident in the findings in relation to the recommendations made by Laubscher and Bosch
Category Recommendations Aspects promoted
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1 Strategies to promote SDL as learning presence
The varied use of social and web technologies can create interest, independence, and creativity
The following strategies can promote SDL: Problem based learning Collaborative learning CL (cooperative learning) Project based learning
Google Docs was the main platform for social and academic collaboration, and the students communicated with one another on WhatsApp [1:14; 2:11; 3:16]
CL was chosen as the strategy to promote SDL as learning presence The findings referred to all five elements of CL:
Positive interdependence [3:3; 7:5; 1:10]
Individual accountability [2:4; 3:9; 2:11]
Interpersonal and small group skills [2:1; 3:5; 8:4]
Group processing [3:1; 6:2; 8:4] Face to face interaction [8:2]
The findings also revealed the importance of group sizes and the role division that was implemented [1:15; 3:6]
2 SDL skills
Institutional policy should support SDL
Facilitators should enrol for professional development in SDL
The learning design should encourage the use of SDL skills (e.g. planning, goal setting, task analysis, and self assessment)
Notevidentinthefindings;however,SDLisa strategicpriorityattheinstitutionandforms partoftheteaching learningplaninthefaculty
Notevidentinthefindings;however,the facilitatorsareactivelyinvolvedinSDL researchandtraining
The findings revealed that students took responsibility for their own learning, and a number of SDL skills were promoted: Time management [1:10; 3:18; 7:5]
Finding relevant resources [2:8; 8:8; 2:7]
Social construction of knowledge [3:10; 2:12; 7:2]
3 Motivation as an aspect of SDL as learning presence
Encourage critical thinking and reflection
To increase motivation, students should be allowed to manage, choose, and evaluate their own learning
Scaffolding and coaching sessions can increase motivation
Facilitators should provide encouraging feedback
Incorporate a variety of learning tasks and resources
Make learning fun
This aspect is linked to the CL principles of interpersonal and small group skills [2:1; 3:5; 8:4] and group processing [3:1; 6:2; 8:4]
This aspect correlates with time management [1:10; 3:18; 7:5]
Notevidentinthefindings
The students recognised the valuable input of the lecturer [1:2; 5:1]
Nomentionwasmadeofthisaspectinthedata
The aspect of enjoyment was evident in the findings [1:5; 3:8; 7:2]
4 Designing for SDL as learning presence
Authentic tasks and learning environments can promote SDL
A BL environment should be user focused
Incorporate learning analytics
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The findings yielded aspects of authentic learning that are linked with real world contexts [8:6; 2:11; 1:16; 3:7]
Nomentionwasmadeofthisaspectinthedata; however,theCLtaskswereplannedtoaddress thisaspect
Thisaspectwasnotimplementedinthisstudy
Encourage sharing
This corresponds with positive interdependence [3:3; 7:5; 1:10] and the social construction of knowledge [3:10; 2:12; 7:2]
Make students aware of their learning needs
The students indicated that they knew what was expected of them [7:1; 8:6]
Encourage self assessment Thisaspectwasnotimplementedinthisstudy Allow students to plan, develop, and apply their own learning strategies
This was evident from the SDL skills that were promoted [1:10; 3:18; 7:5; 2:8; 8:8; 2:7]
Source: Adapted from Laubscher and Bosch (2021, p. 162)
In order to address the research question “What aspects of SDL as learning presence were promoted through a cooperative BL course?” , we reflect on the findings above. SDL is a 21st century skill that is important to be a successful lifelong learner (Beckers et al., 2016). With regard to the SDL categories in the recommendations suggested by Laubscher and Bosch (2021), all four categories were evident in the findings of this study Various aspects of SDL as learning presence were promoted in the cooperative BL course. As mentioned in the literature review, CL is a key strategy to promote SDL and 21st century skills (Hsu & Shiue, 2018; Loh & Ang, 2020) In order to achieve this, the CL tasks need to be based on the five key elements that are essential to implementing genuine CL (Johnson & Johnson, 2018). From the data, it is evident that all five elements were woven into the course design, which resulted in the students acknowledging the use of SDL skills. These elements were time management skills, improved resource management, critical reflection, critical thinking, and the ability to construct knowledge socially. Mishra et al. (2020) and Ortuzar (2016) also acknowledge the importance of motivation as an aspect of SDL. In line with this, the findings revealed that the following aspects contributed to the participants’ motivation: the active involvement of the lecturer; the benefits of sharing responsibilities and successes; and the fact that they enjoyed the group tasks. With regard to design, the CoI framework (see Fiock, 2020; Shea et al., 2012) was used as the main design framework. Our focus was on SDL as learning presence, and the findings explored these aspects. It was evident that the use of authentic tasks was of value to the participants, not only in their studies but also in the application thereof in their teaching practice. They also indicated that the instructions were clear and they knew what was expected of them in the course. Furthermore, they emphasised the value of shared reasoning and the perspectives of their peers and the lecturer. Based on the data, we conclude that the cooperative BL environment enhanced SDL as learning presence in this course.
Since only 12 students were enrolled for the course, and eight agreed to participate, a small sample was used, which could be viewed as a limitation of the study. For future research in the field, we suggest incorporating more scaffolding in the course with the aim of increasing motivation. Furthermore, in the course, only two comprehensive tasks, which were similar in nature, were implemented We, therefore, suggest exploring the use of a variety of smaller and different tasks,
as well as other assessment strategies, such as self assessment. Learning analytics can also be used as an additional indicator of student participation and achievement. Although some elements of face to face interaction were evident in this study, it remains an aspect of CL that is difficult to implement in an online environment and, therefore, needs to be investigated further.
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This work was based on research supported by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number 113598) and funding provided the UNESCO Chair on Multimodal Learning and Open Educational Resources and the NWU Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
1. Tell me about your experience of the CL tasks that you did in the module.
2. What were the positive aspects of working together in the CL tasks?
3. What were the challenges involved with working cooperatively on the tasks?
4. What have you learnt from working together in pairs in the tasks?
5. How did learning with other teachers or colleagues affect you and/or your teaching?
6. How did the CL tasks support you in:
6.1. Gathering relevant resources?
6.2. Taking responsibility for your own learning?
6.3. Reflecting on your own teaching practices?
7. How did you experience the use of specific roles in the CL task?
8. Compare your feelings of working together at the start of the task with the way you felt at the end of the module
9. What role did the CL task play in developing you in terms of:
9.1. Module content knowledge?
9.2. Planning the solution to the task?
9.3. Taking responsibility for your own learning / Working more autonomously?
9.4. The use of technology?
9.5. Collaborating with colleagues?
10. What would you do differently if you were the lecturer of the module?
11. Is there anything else you would like to add?
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 35 51, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.3
Received May 17, 2022; Revised Aug 23, 2022; Accepted Sep 5, 2022
Fabián Muñoz
Universidad Católica del Maule, Ph D. Program in Education, Talca, Chile Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
Juan Carlos Beltrán
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile Universidad Mayor, Temuco, Chile
Regina Alves
Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal
Fabián Rodríguez
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
Abstract. The Covid 19 pandemic in Chile was declared as such in March 2020. As a result, the Ministry of Education compiled guidelines to provide continuity to the formative processes, through which the concept of remote learning emerged. This research paper aims at identifying academic satisfaction of pedagogy students in a higher education institution (HEI) regarding learning in the virtual mode in the pandemic context. A quantitative, non experimental, cross sectional methodology was used. The sample consisted of 337 students in 6 pedagogical courses atanHEIintheAraucaníaregiontowhomaquestionnaireonsatisfaction with virtual teaching was administered. Results indicated that student satisfaction was low regarding the way content was handled and evaluation mechanisms used in the virtual mode. However, high satisfaction was shown in the items corresponding to teacher student interaction. In addition, we found no statistically significant differences in the items related to the fulfillment of expectations and learning achieved in the virtual mode, either by gender, level of study, program, or academic performance. Finally, there was high dissatisfaction with virtual teaching during the present academic cycle. We recommend the systematic evaluation of the indicators of educational quality, mainly linked to the treatment of the content, the evaluation mechanisms used, and the teacher student interaction channels, since they improve the academic performance of HEIs.
Keywords: distance learning; education; higher education; performance; satisfaction
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The context of the pandemic caused by the new SARS CoV 2 coronavirus and the disease it causes (Covid 19) has generated an unprecedented health crisis worldwide. The exponential increase of infections forced the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a public health emergency of international scope on January 30, 2020, and by March 11 of the same year, it was declared a pandemic. Simultaneously, WHO presented a series of recommendations and measures to contain the infections and effects of the mentioned virus to put a stop to the spreading and secure the population’s wellbeing. Measures that stood out were to increase the conditions of hygiene and to diminish the possibilities of people coming in physical contact with each other, hence the necessary social distancing.
The impact of this disease has been of such extent that different areas have been affected, for instance higher education. Many institutions had to temporarily suspend many of their activities, affecting about 165 million students in Latin America and the Caribbean alone, due to the social immobilization and mandatory isolation that were enforced by health authorities as strategies to reduce the spread of the virus (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura [UNESCO], 2020a). Ducoing (2020) pointed out that Covid 19 has conditioned most governments to definitively close teaching institutions, thereby preventing the spread of the virus. To give continuity to the training and teaching learning processes, UNESCO (2020b) recommended the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as an indispensable tool for developing educational work at all levels.
Under this new educational paradigm, higher education institutions (HEIs) have adhered to the measures of social distancing and mandatory interruption of academic activities, aiming at the in person context and all related activities. Thus, a new educational scenario has emerged spontaneously the virtual mode. This gave rise to the imminent search for changes and adaptations to make the continuity of teaching practices and evaluation processes both feasible and practical simultaneously, traditionally consolidated in a face to face teaching learning model. Therefore, the challenge for university authorities and teachers has been to focus on the incorporation of new didactic strategies, the adaptation of teaching materials and activities, and the implementation of flexible learning models Special emphasis has been put on initial teacher training, allowing and guaranteeing the curricular appropriation of student teachers (Hamdy, 2018) under this new way to facilitate teaching and learning processes.
Of course, the situation in the Chilean teaching context is no different from that experienced at the international level once this new disease began to spread. The pandemic was declared as such nationwide in March 2020. On March 15, 2020, the Ministry of Education communicated a series of guidelines to provide continuity to the educational processes. In the case of higher education, the Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educación [MINEDUC], 2020a) established a sanitary regime effective from March 13 to reduce risks by isolating cases and communities. Based on this measure, an action plan was established to face the
contingency that considers the provision of access to the online teaching platform Google Suite. The plan also included securing funding for institutions in order to develop and strengthen online education funds for the development and strengthening of online projects and permanent dissemination of good practices and training for teachers in online mode, formally establishing virtual teaching.
Adhering to these orientations and measures to face this new educational scenario and the new relationships established in this social distancing context, the Undersecretary of Higher Education (MINEDUC, 2020b) informed a series of mechanisms to the country’s universities to give continuity to the formative processes. Similarly, since April 2020, an inspection plan was carried out by the Superintendent of Higher Education with the purpose of promoting the development of educational quality and monitor the implementation of virtual teaching environments in the various institutions at the national level.
Despite the educational difficulties catalyzed by the pandemic, which meant changing a large part of the usual practices of teachers and students (García Aretio, 2021), it is evident that HEIs made important efforts to break the traditional structure and deliver a series of additional services in initial teacher training. The transition from a face to face teaching learning space to a virtual one required the use of educational and communicational platforms (Prendes Espinosa & Cerdán Cartagena, 2021), becoming essential to continue academic activities in virtual environments. However, the frequent use of these tools does not necessarily mean better learning, due to the methodologies and practices of their implementation (Sánchez Mendiola et al., 2020), which is closely linked to the lack of student follow up regarding learning and teacher training (Verduna et al., 2020). This context requires greater skill in the use of ICT and the implementation of new teaching strategies (Chávez, 2020) to generate significant learning.
The way content is handled, the methodological strategies, and the evaluation processes implemented in the virtual mode pose difficulties and challenges that focus their attention on educational quality. For this reason, this research wishes to determine the academic satisfaction of pedagogy students regarding learning in virtual mode (content, methodology, evaluation) during the pandemic period and compare it in relation to their sociodemographic characteristics. The research is based on the gaps that surround the situation described. Consequently, the need to know the implications of the effects of teaching in virtual mode during the pandemic period on student satisfaction from a scientific perspective emerges as an issue in current public debate.
The findings of this research will be of vital importance for university authorities and units that manage the curricular framework of undergraduate courses, since they will be able to implement corrective pedagogical actions based on empirical data. It is expected to strengthen areas such as the organization and content management in virtual classrooms, contextualized evaluations relevant to virtuality, correct use of digital tools and resources, as well as the promotion of teacher student interaction in virtual teaching spaces. In the same way, it will
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serve as a reference for future studies on the subject, considering the relevance and generalization of the problem in universities with a national and international scope.
Literature has defined teaching in virtual mode as the conglomerate of training actions that are mediated by ICT tools that allow fluent two way communication between teacher and student (Bonilla Guachamín, 2016), reducing barriers such as time and space, which are significant in the face to face mode Undoubtedly, virtual teaching has been presented as an educational alternative for quite some time. However, it is undeniable that the global pandemic scenario increased the use of digital tools and platforms, due to the opportunities that this teaching mode offers Among the opportunities are new educational experiences, access to various learning resources, and a high degree of interaction between the student and teacher (Cedeño Solorzano et al., 2021).
The confinement by Covid 19 forced the population into indefinite isolation. In this context, teaching in virtual mode took on an indescribable value, due to how unnecessary the physical meeting is to promote channels of interaction between the teacher and the student (Santana Sardi et al., 2020). It became a mechanism that temporarily resolved the challenge experienced by universities to provide continuity to the training processes.
Initially, globalization positioned the use of technological tools to favor unlimited communication and interconnection between stakeholders. However, it is necessary to point out that the pandemic scenario caused an unprecedented break in terms of the massive use of ICTs to carry out teaching learning processes, occupying a valuable space in HEIs (Expósito & Marsollier, 2020).
Various HEIs have experimented with implementing emerging study modalities linked to the use of ICTs, moving from traditional teaching (in person) to virtual teaching environments (Fernández Pascual et al., 2013). They have thereby highlighted the importance of ICT in teacher training and continuous learning.
In one of their many investigations, Cabero et al. (2010) analyzed the development of introductory courses in philosophy and introductory physics. Two hundred and eighty four (284) students from the Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra de la República Dominicana (PUCMM) participated in b learning mode. To acquire the data they needed, they utilized a university student satisfaction questionnaire (CASAUF), a virtual survey of students, and an online interview with teachers and tutors. Results showed a tendency by students to favor those dimensions related to the online teacher/tutor and unfavorable aspects concerning those referring to communication between teacher-student and peers. The researchers concluded that the students who participated in the b learning courses demonstrated medium satisfaction with the online learning experience.
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Likewise, Zambrano (2016) conducted correlational research in which he determined a strong relationship between relevant teacher response and student satisfaction (r = 0.26), course quality (r = 0.52), and diversity of learning assessment (r = 0.41), respectively. All those previous indicators are related to the study of the predictive components of satisfaction of distance learning students. In addition, the stepwise regression analysis found that the factors of course flexibility, teacher attitude towards e learning, student self efficacy in internet use, and perception of interaction predicted student satisfaction of 47.2%. A similar situation was observed in the non experimental study by Viloria and González (2019). These researchers addressed the communicative dimension (focusing on the use of videoconferencing) used by teachers to maintain the idea of connecting with their students. They found that this type of resource (videoconferencing) was only used 50% of the time as a communication tool. They recommended creating continuous training plans for teachers to improve the use of communication tools in virtual learning environments.
On his part, Durán (2016) conducted research with students at the Polytechnic Institute of Panama. He identified a high degree of satisfaction (44%) among students with the expectations or learning results of the virtual platform. In addition, 77.8% of students claimed to have met their expectations in the virtual teaching mode and 100% with the classes provided by the teacher.
Similarly, Estrada Araoz et al. (2020) conducted a study with the aim of quantifying the attitudes of university students towards virtual teaching implemented during the pandemic. The results showed that most students have an indifferent attitude towards virtual education. In addition, statistically significant differences were found between the sex and age groups of the 145 students who made up the sample.
Furthermore, Taveras et al. (2021) determined students’ satisfaction with virtual teaching during the pandemic through a quantitative, non experimental study in which 2,806 subjects participated. The results showed that students were satisfied with the teaching practices, activities, resources, and accompaniment. On the contrary, students were not satisfied with the conditions of and technical support to access virtual classes.
There is sufficient evidence relating various experiences of the student body regarding satisfaction of teaching in virtual mode. However, more in depth investigation needs to be done to understand the phenomenon in a contextualized way and based on lived student experiences in the university at the local level. This needs to be done considering that this scenario of uncertainty underlies the momentary return of teaching in the face to face mode
A cross sectional study was conducted during the academic year 2020 2021. The sample included 337 pedagogy students belonging to 6 teacher training programs
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of a Chilean university, collected via convenience sampling. The sociodemographic information of respondents is presented in Table 1.
Of the 337 respondents, 162 were female (48%) and 175 were male (52%). Furthermore, 91 respondents were in their first year of study (27%), 73 in their second year (21.6%), 74 in their third year (22%), and 99 in their fourth year (29.4%). Regarding the teaching program of the respondents, 27 (8%) were studying Spanish and communication; 40 (11.8%) science, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics; 100 (29.6%) physical education, sports, and recreation; 50 (14.8%) history, geography, and civic education; 75 (22.2%) English; and 45 (13.3%) mathematics
Table 1: Sociodemographic characterization of the respondents Variable
n % Program
Spanish and communication 27 8 Science, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics 40 11.8 Physical education, sports, and recreation 100 29.6 History, geography, and civic education 50 14.8 English 75 22.2 Mathematics 45 13.3
Year of study
1 91 27 2 73 21.6 3 74 22 4 99 29.4
Sex Male 175 52 Female 162 48
The instrument used in this study was the satisfaction scale (Flores Ferro et al., 2021), which comprises 13 items (see Table 2). These items inquire about students’ satisfaction with teaching procedures in the virtual mode, highlighting the development of lectures, content, evaluations, and teacher student interaction. The scale is a 5 point Likert type scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree The Cronbach alpha for the scale calculated with the sample of this study was good (α = .849). In addition to these items, sociodemographic elements are included: gender, academic achievement, level of study, and teaching program.
To ensure the optimal collection of data for this study, the first approach with the respondents involved using a formal letter sent to their respective e mail addresses, inviting them to participate in the study voluntarily. The goal of distributing this letter to all possible candidates was to clearly explain the framework in which the research were to be carried out, the objectives, methodological aspects, and when specifically their participation would be requested. Likewise, it was explained that given the current health emergency in the country, informed consent could be completed online through a link directed to the respective questionnaire. This instrument indicated the conditions of participation, thus complying with the ethical and formal requirements of any
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research process. For this purpose, if a respondent agreed to participate in the research and that they had read and understood what their participation would entail, they authorized their participation in this study in a free and voluntary manner. The questionnaire was administered during the first academic semester of 2021. Furthermore, respondents were notified that given the health emergency that the country was experiencing, the questionnaire would be completed online through a link that would direct them to the respective form, with an estimated response time of 10 to 15 minutes.
The statistical program IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, version 25, Armonk, NY, USA was used in data analysis. SPSS works with descriptive statistics such as frequencies, means, and percentages. Reliability was determined through the calculation of Cronbach’s alpha (α). In addition, the independent t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used, as appropriate, with a significance level of 0.05, to determine whether there were statistically significant differences between academic satisfaction with virtual teaching and the respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics. We decided to dichotomize the variable of academic satisfaction with virtual teaching to better show respondents’ perception of the items that made up the measuring instrument. The dichotomization was done by adding answers 1, 2, and 3, classifying them as No, and answers 4 and 5 as Yes. Finally, the following categories were used to determine the academic performance of respondents: failed (1 3.99); passed (4 4.5); distinction (4.51 5.5); maximum distinction (5.51 6.5); and unanimous distinction (6.51 7).
Table 2 shows the frequencies achieved of the total sample for each of the questionnaire items on the scale of satisfaction with virtual teaching. Concerning the academic satisfaction of the respondents, item 12 obtained the highest percentage of satisfaction (66.2%), followed by item 7 (65.9%). This proves that the strategies implemented for interaction between student respondents and faculty were relevant. On the contrary, item 2 obtained the lowest percentage of satisfaction with teaching in virtual mode (10.4%), followed by item 11 (19.3%). Items 3 (42.2%), 4 (57.8%), and 13 (33.8%) were concerned with strategies used for the development of the evaluations and organization of the subjects in virtual mode and reflected low satisfaction among respondents. In general terms, respondents negatively evaluated learning in virtual mode, emphasizing mainly the development of content, organization of time, and didactic resources.
Table 2: Distribution of percentages on the satisfaction scale regarding learning in virtual mode
Item
No(n)(%) Yes(n)(%)
1. In general, the virtual courses have met my expectations 243 72.1 94 27.9
2. I have learned the same as if the courses had been entirely in person 302 89.6 35 10.4
3. The evaluation system of the subjects in virtual mode seems adequate 195 57.8 142 42.2
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4. The evaluation guidelines for the virtual mode subjects have been clear and concise 142 42.2 195 57.8
5. The activities requested in the virtual mode subjects have had an adequate degree of difficulty 150 44.5 187 55.5
6. The deadlines for delivering assignments in the virtual modality have been appropriate 139 41.3 198 58.7
7. Various resources (notes, guides, articles, etc.) have been included to complement the virtual courses 115 34.1 222 65.9
8. The online communication tools (Zoom, Teams, Meet, etc.) have helped build a learning community among my professors, classmates, and myself in the virtual courses 126 37.4 211 62.6
9. I consider useful the use of forums inthe subjects invirtual mode 193 57.3 144 42.7
10. I have always felt accompanied during the subjects’ work in virtual mode 244 72.4 93 27.6
11. The strategies used in the virtual modality subjects are motivating to study 272 80.7 65 19.3
12. I have been able to contact my teachers of the subjects in virtual mode quickly and permanently through communication tools (e mail, WhatsApp, chat, etc.) 114 33.8 223 66.2
13. I think the class implementation of the subjects in virtual mode has been well organized to take advantage of the most time possible 223 66.2 114 33.8
Figures 1 and 2 show the percentages achieved for items 1 and 2, respectively, of the satisfaction scale with virtual teaching comparing the frequencies for male and female respondents Both items 1 and 2 yielded higher scores in favor of the female respondents (29.7% and 11.1%, respectively). However, there were no significant differences for the two items (х²(1) = .468, p > .05; х²(1) = .176, p > .05). This means that both male and female respondents showed low satisfaction when asked about expectations and learning achieved in virtual teaching environments.
Figure 1: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 1 of the virtual teaching satisfaction scale, according to sample gender
Figure 2: Comparison of the percentages obtained for item 2 of the virtual teaching satisfaction scale, according to sample gender
Tables 3 and 4 show the percentages obtained for items 1 and 2, respectively, according to the level of study of the sample. Item 1 presented higher scores for respondents in their fourth (33.4%) and second (30.1%) years, although without significant differences (х²(3) = 6.799, p > .05). Likewise, item 2 presented higher scores for respondents in their second (16.5%) and fourth (10.1%) years. Similarly, there were no significant differences (х²(3) = 4.356, p > .05).
Table 3: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 1 of the scale of satisfaction with virtual teaching, according to the year of study of the sample
Year of Study No n (%) Yes n (%) 1 64 (70.3) 27 (29.7) 2 51 (69.9) 22 (30.1) 3 62 (83.7) 12 (16.3) 4 66 (66.6) 33 (33.4) Total 243 (72.1) 94 (27.9)
Table 4: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 2 of the scale of satisfaction with virtual teaching, according to the year of study of the sample
Year of study No n (%) Yes n (%) 1 85 (93.4) 6 (6.6) 2 61 (83.5) 12 (16.5) 3 67 (90.5) 17 (9.5) 4 89 (89.9) 10 (10.1) Total 302 (89.4) 35 (10.6)
The trend in the above scores shows low academic satisfaction among respondents regarding the expectations and learning achieved in virtual teaching environments, regardless of their level of study. This area showed significant academic dissatisfaction among respondents in their third and first years.
Tables 5 and 6 show the relationship between the program of the students surveyed and items 1 and 2.
Table 5: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 1 of the scale of satisfaction with teaching in virtual mode, according to the program to which the sample belonged Program
No n (%) Yes n (%)
Spanish and communication 15 (55.6) 12 (44.4) Science, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics 29 (72.5) 11 (27.5) Physical education, sports, and recreation 70 (70) 30 (30) History, geography, and civic education 37 (74) 13 (26) English 58 (77.3) 17 (22.7) Mathematics 34 (75.6) 11 (24.4) Total 243 (72.1) 94 (27.9)
Item 1 presented higher scores for the respondents in the physical education, sports, and recreation teaching training program (30%) and the sciences, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics teaching training program (27.5%).
Table 6: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 2 of the scale of satisfaction with teaching in virtual mode, according to the program to which the sample belonged Program
No n (%) Yes n (%)
Spanish and communication 26 (96.3) 1 (3.7) Science, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics 33 (82.5) 7 (17.5) Physical education, sports, and recreation 95 (95) 5 (5) History, geography, and civic education 40 (80) 10 (20) English 70 (93.3) 5 (6.7) Mathematics 38 (84.4) 7 (15.6) Total 302 (89.6) 35 (11.4)
Item 2 presented higher scores for respondents belonging to the science teaching training program, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics (17.5%) and the history, geography, and civic education teaching training program (20%). However, the trend shows low academic satisfaction regarding the expectations and learning achieved in virtual teaching environments, regardless of the program. In this area, high dissatisfaction was observed by respondents in the physical education, sports, and recreation teaching training program (95%) and those in the Spanish and communication teaching training program (96.3%). In this sense, it is important to mention that there were no significant differences for item 1 (х²(5) = 5.275, p > .05). However, for item 2, it was verified that the respondents in the Spanish and communication program were more satisfied compared to those in the other programs (х²(5) = 13.960, p < .05).
Figures 3 and 4 show the percentages achieved for items 1 and 2 in relation to the scale of satisfaction with teaching in virtual mode according to the academic performance of respondents. Concerning academic satisfaction of the
respondents, item 1 presented higher scores in the category of unanimous distinction (44.5%). Likewise, item 2 presented higher scores in the passed category (12.5%).
Q1. In general, the virtual courses have met my expectations
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0%
Students Percentages Academic Performance
Failed Passed Distinction Maximun distinction Unanimous distinction
No Yes
Figure 3: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 1 of the virtual teaching satisfaction scale, according to the academic performance of the sample
Q2. I have learned the same as if the courses had been entirely in person
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0% 100.0%
Students Percentages Academic Performance
Failed Passed Distinction Maximun distinction Unanimous distinction
No Yes
Figure 4: Comparison of percentages obtained for item 2 of the virtual teaching satisfaction scale, according to the academic performance of the sample
The above trend shows low academic satisfaction regarding the expectations and learning achieved in virtual teaching environments, regardless of the academic performance of the respondents in their educational program. From this, a significant level of academic dissatisfaction can be seen by respondents belonging to the passed and unanimous distinction categories. Based on the above, it can be evidenced that there were no significant differences (х²(4) = 2.686, p > .05; х²(4) = 1.665, p > .05).
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The results showed deficient learning among respondents from the virtual mode. In this sense, only 10.4% of respondents indicated being satisfied with learning in a virtual mode, hence low satisfaction was determined This is firstly due to the absence of face to face interaction between teachers and students. With the in person situation, the parties are subjective and accessible to each other, that is decidedly close, and the other is completely real (Berger & Luckmann, 2001). This implies a direct relationship, which is constitutedwhen the one party (the student) is aware of the person in front of them (the teacher) and, by this, assumes an orientation towards them (Schutz, 1993). This precedent allows the student body to share the space experientially in a communicative and common environment (Rizo, 2012). The above is closely related to the sociocultural perspective, which implies a natural beneficial process of cognitive and social transformation, given that it occurs in a collaborative context. In other words, people learn by observing and participating with other individuals through the mediation of cultural artifacts in goal directed activities that allow them to understand reality (Antón, 2010). On the contrary, virtual education has led to the reduction or elimination of social contact between classmates and other educational agents (Aguilar, 2020). In this context, the lack of access to face to face classes leads to a loss of learning (García Riveros et al., 2021).
On the other hand, learning should be developed from a context oriented perspective; in this sense, Páramo et al. (2015) indicated that teaching must adapt situations and activities in a real context, so that learning is situated. This implies learning by doing, considering the lived experience, mediated by the culture and the context of the student. Learning becomes relevant and therefore useful through the interaction between the student, teacher, and context in the development of various real and in site activities that occur daily. These are based on a flow of knowledge and experiences from a mediating and collaborative perspective based on dialogue and understanding. This coincides with the results of the study by Taveras et al. (2021), who evidenced a dissatisfaction among university students regarding the communication spaces enabled in virtual teaching environments. These authors emphasized that physical isolation should not condition teacher student interaction; on the contrary, the educational resources used should increase this interaction.
Furthermore, we found that the evaluation system used in virtual teaching was inadequate, as reflected in the satisfaction levels of respondents of 57.8%. In this sense, one of the features that characterizes teaching in virtual mode is the use of multiple educational tools and resources (presentations, videos, discussion forums and consultations, social networks, tasks, etc.) to carry out the evaluations These are, however, scarcely used by the teaching staff in higher education (Mercader, 2019). This implies that the evaluation method would be focused on the results and not on the process. Likewise, Blázquez and Lucero (2009) indicated that this form of evaluation is focused on verifying the degree to which thestudent achieved the planned objectives and, in addition, verifies the achievement of objectives. Therefore, the evaluation would focus on control and measurement, which would be expressed in quantitative results reflected in a grade (Beltrán
Véliz et al., 2020). This implies that the evaluation is not focused on the learning process, which is reflected in the difficulties that teachers face when systematically generating instances of evaluation of the learning process (Ibaceta Vergara & Villanueva Morales, 2021).
On the contrary, according to Ahumada (2001), “assessment should be considered as a process and not as an event and should be a means and never an end” (p. 3).
In other words, assessment should be centered on the diversity and context of the student body, as well as offering continuous and timely written and oral feedback. It should also consider error as a natural element of learning (Ahumada, 2001). In this regard, Martínez Mínguez et al. (2015) stated that only from the understanding of assessment as a formative experience can it be expected that students become aware of how their learning evolves and to what extent they can use and apply the knowledge and cognitive, affective, and social skills developed in a variety of contexts. From this perspective, virtual education should not only focus on the evaluation of specific products (summative evaluation). Monitoring and follow up opportunities must also be provided in the learning process (formative evaluation) (Santacruz, 2020), which allows evidencing of the student’s progress based on the contents assimilated in their training. In this way, the evaluative practice is transformed, and in turn, learning through autonomy and reflection is improved (García Riveros et al., 2021). To this end, dialogue, collaboration, and systematic reflection should be considered key elements in generating knowledge. In this context, the evaluation guidelines must be made using criteria coherent with the teaching and learning process, where disciplinary, procedural, attitudinal, ethical, and affective knowledge converge. At the same time, it must be mediated by the characteristics, styles, and rhythms of learning and by the social and cultural context of the students. This will contribute to developing formative assessment guidelines, techniques, and instruments (López et al., 2007) focused on learning.
Regarding academic performance in virtual teaching, 3.8% of respondents had failed a subject, which is primarily positive. However, the results showed no statistically significant differences between satisfaction regarding the fulfillment of respondents’ expectations and learning and their academic performance. Castejón (2014) stated that the best teaching methods enable direct, active, and participatory contact, an atmosphere significantly diminished in virtual teaching. In this context, scientific evidence has reaffirmed the positive relationship between academic performance and interactions between teachers and students (Gómez, 2014). Students’ connections with their peers and academics are irreplaceable; the benefits are multiple at a basic cognitive psychological level (perception, attention, memory) and higher level (goals, self-esteem, self-efficacy) However, the incidence differs depending on the teaching contexts in which these interactions take place (Tomás Miquel et al., 2016).
Technological evolution, after the accelerated digital metamorphosis in the context of the Covid 19 pandemic, has impacted different areas of knowledge, transforming the traditional educational model. Learning to use new
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technological tools to improve students’ learning experiences has undoubtedly become a persistent challenge for teachers. Despite the difficulties faced in the implementation of virtual teaching during this critical educational period, HEIs, together with the teaching staff, have managed to continue the training process. The results of this research showed high satisfaction among respondents with virtual teaching for items 8 (62.6%) and 12 (66.2%) concerning teacher student interaction. Students value the innovation in the interaction mechanisms and the variety of tools and communication channels, consolidating learning communities in the virtual mode subjects. However, students generally negatively perceive the items that correspond to the treatment of the content and the evaluation mechanisms used in the virtual mode teaching. In this framework, we suggest the implementation of methodological strategies that promote student activity/action/reflection and facilitate cognitive, psychological, and motivational interaction, with the purpose of improving the quality of learning acquired in virtual mode. Likewise, we recommend the involvement of students in the construction of evaluation instruments, making them more relevant and contextualized to the reality of each of the pedagogical disciplines of the HEI. Regarding the treatment of the content, we suggest that students and teachers be trained in the use of digital tools and resources, which will allow them to interact smoothly and efficiently. It is necessary to specify that the conclusions presented are limited to the sample of university students who were part of the research. We therefore recommend using a larger sample, considering students from other faculties, programs, or fields of study, to allow broadening the generalization of the results. Additional research is needed, mainly qualitative, to allow a deeper understanding of the dissatisfaction shown in these dimensions.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 52 75, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.4
Received Jun 11, 2022; Revised Sep 17, 2022; Accepted Sep 26, 2022
Hera Antonopoulou
University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Athanasios Giannoulis University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Leonidas Theodorakopoulos University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Constantinos Halkiopoulos University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Abstract. This research examines the educational challenges encountered by second chance school students in the correctional facility during the pandemic. The opportunity to utilise a specialised digital interconnection facility with the eLearning Platform deprived offenders of the right to equal access to education. Using open source software, a unique encrypted platform that enables distance learning, while preventing access to any other portion of the internet, besides the learning process, has been created. The findings of the review highlight the possibility of educating and training socially excluded individuals, such as prison inmates, through innovative learning techniques. Innovative education andlearningtechniques,suchasGamification,enhance inmates'attitudes in their cognitive and emotional dimensions. The innovative and secure platform enables inmates attending alternative schools, to assert their inherent right to information and lifelong learning. This study proposes a gamified perspective for educational access and lifelong learning. In conclusion, it was determined that the implementation of innovative learning methods with Gamification in distance learning education via the suggested encrypted platform, is a motivating lever for student inmates, thereby boosting key skills, such as emotional, social, socio cognitive awareness, leadership, and digital skills.
Keywords: socio cognitive awareness; gamification; cognition; inmates; Distance Learning Education; encrypted platform; pandemic
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Throughout a person's life, there is a need to improve/maintain one’s skills, in order to manage the demands arising from the various challenges in many areas of life, such as economic, demographic, technological, social, and environmental challenges. On this basis, education/learning, as a whole and lifelong learning, mean that there is a need for continuous education and renewal of knowledge (Innovation Quarterly, 2016) as a response to current socio economic data. Many supranational organisations, such as OECD, UNESCO, and the European Union, promote lifelong learning, in order to complement the knowledge that society and the various social, economic, and educational changes need, resulting from broader developments (Kehm, 2015).
In addition, the flexibility of digital education is a significant advantage and a motivation for many people. The main reason is that it theoretically facilitates attending classes, especially when one’s physical presence may now be difficult, or even impossible.
Second Chance Schools are aimed at adult inmates who have not completed compulsory education, i.e., High School. By attending Second Chance Schools which last for two years – they can obtain a high school diploma equivalent to that of High School. It also allows them to serve two days of their imposed sentence for each day of schooling. Notably, based on the national statistics authority, 72% of those released from prison return to prison, while the corresponding percentage of inmates who have attended Second Chance Schools amounts to 10% (Duguid, 2000)
Accordingly, in other European countries, programs similar to those of second chance schools have been implemented regarding inmates' reintegration. Specifically, in Norway, the "Internet for Inmates" program was created, as a continuation of another broader Grundtvig Program entitled "Co operation in Prison Education Learning in a Network Environment (PIPELINE)." The program aimed to improve the quality of education in prisons by enabling inmates to access and use Information and Communication Technology (European Commission, 2017).
At the same time, correspondingly good practice was implemented in the United Kingdom through the Virtual Campus program, through which a secure online re integration tool, which provided student inmates with the opportunity to access learning materials and tools, which were useful for their future social reintegration (Tewksbury & Stengel, 2006). The evaluation of the program highlighted particularly positive results concerning both the inmates themselves, as well as the agencies and staff involved in their training process (Turley C. & Webster S., (February 2010), Implementation and Delivery of the Test Beds Virtual Campus Case Study, National Centre for Social Research).
Cornell University in the United States implements incarceration programs. Twelve such projects have been established in the United States. The government has already financed 350 training programs for convicts in 37 states (Garrison,
2017). However, from 1995 onwards, it was determined to curtail funding, thereby reducing the number of programs. According to research, forty three per cent (43%) of inmates in US prison education programs return to prison after their release (Chipere, 2017).
Sweden implements one of the most sophisticated inmate education programs. There is a training centre with one or more teachers and a computer room in every prison; and the offenders have access to more than 130 educational disciplines. In addition, Internet access in Norway serves an educational function; and it facilitates family communication. However, prison officials strictly regulate the use of the Internet.
In Greece, the operation of Second Chance Schools in the nation's jails is included in upgrading the correctional system, thereby allowing offenders to complete their primary education. However, this endeavour is restricted to an educational environment that reflects the unique characteristics and constraints of the jail regime, indicating potential hurdles to the educational process that hinder the operation of the Second Chance Schools institution within prisons an innovative endeavour to reconnect adult inmates with both the educational process and their re admission into society (Gkintoni et al. 2022c)
By using a flexible program, Critical Pedagogy, and taking into account the social needs of the trainees, the Second Chance Schools operating within the penitentiary framework, as well as the objectives of the Second Chance Schools operating outside prisons, attempt to provide the detained adults with knowledge and skills, to contribute to the development of their critical thinking, and to the effort to transform the assumptions that cut them off from the social fabric, emphasising thereby the importance of reintegration.
Education, regardless of level and form, whether we are referring to adult education or life long learning, must have immediacy and flexibility, in order to be able to respond to the stimuli of society and theimpending needs of the market. Digital learning fills the gap created by the conditions mentioned above (Antonopoulou et al., 2019). It can provide the necessary tools to render the learning process more effective and to meet its goal (Gegenfurtner et al., 2020). E learning is a learning process through modern technologies, such as computer applications and online platforms. Developing services in education and integrating different digital architecture approaches into a single framework is unique (Antonopoulou et al., 2020).
The cloud-infrastructure architecture is significantly more effective. It improves the response time of the digital ecosystem in situations where physical interaction is not feasible (e.g., a pandemic) (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a). The Coronavirus 2019 (COVID 19) was detected in China in December 2019; and it has now spread worldwide within a few months; and it was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organisation on 11th March 2020 (Bao, 2020).
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sIn these special days caused by the Corona pandemic, there are limited opportunities to discover alternatives to online classes. Consequently, online classes are currently the most popular option. (Alam, 2020).
From the time of the pandemic (Covid 19) onwards, the educational process in Greece, in the places of detention, have faced serious problems, which are magnified due to the management policies applied by the respective administrations of the detention centres. A vital parameter of the above dysfunction is that prison education is not a continuous process; as it is interrupted after the end of the sentence. Education in detention centres is essential, in order to remain stable and continuous, as its interruption is a terrible setback for establishing the relationship between the school environment and that of the prisoner. The sharing of educational material and the assignment of tasks in the distance education of inmates, as has been implemented in other corresponding European programs (Conway, 2018), in order to cover the teaching of the subject to a certain extent; but it does not set the conditions for developing trusting relationships between instructors students inmates. The application of a horizontal solution proposed through creating a specially encrypted educational platform (reference our work cite) seems to contribute to this purpose.
This encrypted platform can allow inmates to improve their knowledge, to acquire and practice ICT skills and generally develop skills that would help in their functional rehabilitation and gradual social reintegration (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a)
In addition, the correctional system provides few educational opportunities and options for adult and juvenile detainees, making the need for education and life long learning an urgent priority. Moreover, innovative learning and teaching methods with inmates, through various techniques, such as gamification, promoting thereby cognitive and emotional parameters of the learners' personalities, such as the enhancement of their perception, attention, memory, and executive functions in general, as well as their emotional development (Gkintoni et al. 2021b). Therefore, it is recognised that the inmates have a greater need than any other educational group to engage in an educational policy that is aimed at developing and enhancing both their cognitive and psycho emotional functionality for their eventual social reintegration, as well as strengthening the motivation for behavioural change in general.
This study aims to demonstrate the need for a secure distance learning innovative educational platform for Greek inmates, based on the country's Constitution and penal code, as well as the significance of education in the context of their sentence. Creating the specially designed platform can contribute substantially to the above wishes requests of the student inmates. The present research proposes a Game based Learning application to learn basic digital skills and their further enhancement at a cognitive and social level. Furthermore, the application of game based teaching methods stimulates the temper of the student inmates, thereby creating pleasant feelings for them and improving their motivation and the desire to learn.
The process of learning is a process that includes a multitude of methods and motivations. The overall goal of the learning process is to encourage learners to participate in lessons and to perform to the best of their ability. Some of these motivations include using information and communication technologies (ICTs) (Ojo & Adu, 2018; Chien, Liao, & Walters, 2015, Antonopoulou et al., 2021b). However, the social benefits of the essential goods of society, and among them that of education, are not always possible to offer with equal access to all citizens, for various reasons and limitations of physical, economic, and other kinds of advocacy.
An example of such inequality and the associated restrictions are detention centres, or prisons, as they are more commonly known. In other words, the possibility of continued studies by incarcerated students is often a difficult, if not impossible, prospect precisely because of this limitation of their freedom. Therefore, restoring the facility that can be developed, as the result of a targeted effort through Information and Communication Technologies to supplement, repeat or substitute the learning and training opportunities of students serving their sentence in prisons, is a challenge and an issue of value. However, mainly, it is a response to the fact that the right to education is fundamental and should be given to everyone, without any restrictions (European Council, 1989).
In an ever increasing digitising society, it is further deepening the idea that inmates cannot be excluded from society, especially when in a digital way inequality and barriers to access and the use of information through ICT exists However, it can be bridged (Barreiro Gen & Novo Corti, 2015). Considering the importance of education in the development of the individual and the community, and considering that educational needs can be multiple, education in prison is a crucial way of facilitating the return of fundamental rights to inmates, such as economic and/or educational rights.
In the light of this logic, the encouragement of inmates to actively participate in development programs and the continuation of their studies aims at the development of the whole person.
In order to accomplish this, inmates should have immediate access to information and organised teaching, which would include practical elements (appropriate forms of training), which would enable the prisoner to complete his education in confinement.
According to research, education is critical to improving many long term outcomes for inmates, their families, and communities including reducing recidivism and increasing employability and earnings after release (Vera Institute of Justice, 2019). In the international community, as mentioned in the introduction, various innovative learning models, specifically designed for inmates, have been implemented (Torlone, Vryonides, 2016; Farley & Doyle, 2014). These projects, mostly e Learning (California Community Colleges, 2018),
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use Virtual Campus, a secure networked system that allows incarcerated people to access university education (Montenegro, 2021)
From the relative experience of these programs, there are three main conclusions: Firstly, the prison education process should improve the educational opportunities of the inmates and, accordingly, their employment prospects (Parson & Langenback, 1993)
The digital divide between inmates and the wider community negatively impacts inmates' ability to reintegrate into society (Hopkins, 2015). Inmates' education, on the other hand, is one of the measures that could contribute multiple times daily; as it seems to reduce delinquent behaviour and violence in prison (Tan, 2015), but also the entire system of detention centres, reducing depression and anxiety and that of prison staff, who undertake part of this training (Finney et al., 2013). Secondly, in this way, re offending is reduced, and this can render communities safer (Justice Data Lab Re offending Analysis, 2013; Davis et al., 2013).
Much of this research on incarcerated education focuses on individual learning benefits (Pike, 2014). The general conclusion is that participation in higher levels of education provides cognitive solid and social learning, based on the restorative model (Risk Need Response); and it encourages inmates to express themselves without resorting to violence (Forster, 1990).
The international experience of educational policy within detention centres demonstrates the existence of three distinct approaches (pillars), depending on the weight each time given to the many reasons it serves and the orientation it adopts. Specifically, it has been discovered that throughout Europe, educational programs are provided within Detention Centres, which are either geared towards the completion of the individual's personality and their empowerment through Adult Education, so that they can respond to a variety of roles in modern society, or to deal with the delinquent behaviour, or solely to his professional training and expertise (Costelloe & Warner, 2014).
In particular, the first approach is imposed by the directive of the Council of Europe on Education in Prisons (Council of Europe, 1990), which highlights the global development of the individual's personality through Adult Education, taking into consideration the social, economic and cultural environment in which he lives. In this view, Adult Education promotes creativity and critical thinking, which contribute to a more significant and lasting change in the individual's awareness, his view of the world, and in the path that he follows in his life. Also, the adoption and promotion of the humanitarian visa underlines the need to implement educational activities within the detention facilities, so that the inmates can positively redefine their life attitudes, encouraging them to develop at a personal and social level (Coyle, 2009). The application of this view to the modern reality of prisons is by providing secondary education programs oriented to the needs of the target group, i.e., adult inmates.
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According to the second approach, the incarcerated person is perceived as a "delinquent" and a criminal, so the educational programs that are provided are oriented towards dealing with delinquent behaviour and suppressing the generative causes of crime, emphasising the moral development of the individual by managing his cognitive deficits (Munoz, 2009). Such programs were implemented in Canada in the early 90s and later in other European countries, focusing on developing cognitive skills and managing anger and addiction. A variation of this view is the focus of educational practices regarding the context of incarceration and the dysfunctional situations it creates.
Finally, in the third approach, the educational practice focuses on vocational education and training, as the consideration of vocational rehabilitation prevails with education contributing to finding work after release, aiming to reintegrate the released inmate, and avoiding his diversion into crime. Indeed, this view from some scholars is purely "utilitarian" (Munoz, 2009); as it links learning through the exclusivity of training to work, thereby limiting the broader horizon of the learning process (Ebner, 2019). The criticism that this model is subject to is based on targeting the universal development of the personality of the inmates, which is achieved through the provision for the provision of formal and non formal education, programs with an emphasis on improving literacy, basic education, vocational training, creative employment, religious and cultural activities, sporting events, socio cognitive education, higher education and the extensive use of libraries.
It is clear from the previous description of the three approaches that, in order to build a beneficial learning environment for adult inmates, prison education should envisage and provide an expanded curriculum aimed at the multi facetted development of the individual's personality, and not only on the reintegration of the "criminal", or on his professional rehabilitation; since Adult Education aims at the development of various knowledge and skills, as well as at the transformation of assumptions and attitudes.
Inmate participation in Second Chance Schools is facilitated by both the institutional framework and the enhancement of incentives relating to personal growth, the improvement of professional abilities, the escape from boredom, and the liberation from the mundane. Many incarcerated individuals view their involvement in Second Chance Schools as a fresh opportunity for education and learning. According to research, the prison system itself is the key motivator for offenders to participate in the educational process; and, consequently, also of Second Chance Schools. Monitoring educational activities is encouraged by the emancipation from daily oppression, the enhancement of professional abilities, and acceptance by the family. The motivation of detainees to participate in educational programs is also attributed to the existence of reasons connected to preparation for life after prison, social variables that interact with the prison environment, and the acquisition of information and skills.
One of the most recent advances in neuroscience that can be used in the educational process and learning is the discovery that the human brain is extremely flexible, i.e., it can be altered by experience, a process known as experience dependent plasticity that happens throughout life. In addition, throughout adolescence, and beyond, major developmental changes in brain structure and function occur; and these changes are impacted by the environmental input. Specifically, the hypothesis of brain neuroplasticity can be used in prisoners’ education, as has been demonstrated by research undertaken with other population groups.
Exemplifying this is a study of London taxi drivers that studied the effect of extensive training on brain structure. The training consisted of learning how to navigate the city. This study found that educating taxi drivers’ navigational abilities affected their hippocampi, a comparable region engaged in spatial navigation. There was a correlation between the amount of training and the extent of the observed morphological changes in the brain. There were notable individual differences in the extent to which training can alter brain structure, indicating that plasticity is not unlimited. Special education is another area in which the effects of education on the brain have been established, as seen by studies examining the effects of particular remedial interventions on the brain structure and function of children with atypical development.
Normalisation, in which the brain function becomes increasingly comparable to that of a typically developing control group, and compensation, in which activity patterns in regions other than those described in typically developing youngsters, were demonstrated by these studies. These patterns of how persons, with atypical learning, compensate for their difficulties, are particularly significant in education; because they may provide new techniques for teaching specific compensatory strategies, the effects of which should be investigated through educational research.
Even though gamification is frequently connected with expertise, competence, flow, and goal commitment, it is self evident that social components also play an important role. In the light of this, we aimed to investigate empirically how social variables, such as social influence, recognition, and reciprocal rewards, affect attitudes and usage intentions in gamification services (Gkintoni et al., 2021a). Therefore, gamification in the form of points and levels, facilitates this social process within the group. Therefore, it is possible that even a basic "pontification" could become "meaningful", when shared among a group of like minded individuals working towards the same goals.
Distance Learning is well suited for gaming applications, due to its intrinsic and intangible characteristics, as well as the nature of gaming. Traditional education is less aesthetically appealing and engaging than electronic learning. Thus, gamification can be used to increase motivation and compensate for certain fundamental pedagogical flaws inherent in e learning systems, such as the lack of emotional connection between teacher and student in conventional education.
This emotion is aided in its development and expansion by gamification. Thus, the incorporation of gaming into remote education has several evident advantages.
It improves students' commitment, motivation, achievement, and memory of the target, as well as their individual learning and critical thinking abilities. It can form collaborative teams and help them achieve greater success through competition. Additionally, it promotes digital literacy and improves academic standards.
A fundamental component of inmates' behaviour, in which education can be decisive, is strengthening their social vigilance. Socio Cognitive awareness seeks to correct problematic behaviours, based on entrenched negative patterns of behaviour learned from early childhood and adolescence. The purpose of education in detention centres is to develop cognitive and social skills, such as insight, in order to practise new skills during training (Gkintoni et al. 2022a), and to integrate them into all the aspects of their lives through group meetings that take place in detention centres, skills that can, or may also be useful during the phase of their social reintegration.
Insight, as part of social vigilance, is the inmate's skill to have a clear or deep understanding of a situation through self awareness, which is a practice that, when engaged, literally raises one's consciousness. Three fundamental approaches are used to develop self awareness in social vigilance. Firstly, learning these skills is linked to changes in behaviour, from an inmate's impulsive reaction to various social situations to making conscious choices. This parameter can be linked to the motivation for the manifestation of delinquent behaviour, or the committing of a crime. These three practices are described below.
Conscious awareness, Emotional Intelligence, Critical Thinking, and Awakening skills that are components of socio cognitive awareness, are skills that can be improved through innovative training methods, such as the application of gamification through experiential scenarios that strengthen these parameters of socio cognitive awareness. In addition, the application of innovative digital teaching methods through gamification to student inmates contributes to the development of insight through increased awareness of the connection between the mental, emotional and physical aspects of one's being, using emotional intelligence and critical thinking and learning tools to process difficult emotions effectively (Gkintoni et al. 2022b).
Through these, each student inmate has the opportunity to rediscover his most authentic self. At the same time, the critical thinking that is strengthened through the educational scenarios of gamification, includes self reflection for rational evaluation and interpretation of situations and circumstances. A student inmate, as a critical thinker, now strives to improve his reasoning ability, in order to recognise that he will occasionally make mistakes, due to the human irrationality of prejudice and uncritically accepted social norms and self interest. Through the
educational scenarios of gamification, the student prisoner, as a Cretan thinker, is now taught to learn that often, what causes him anger, disturbance or depression is not so much about the world around him, but how he sees and interprets these circumstances.
The above is connected to the well known saying of the philosopher aide, who mentions that "the interpretation of events or circumstances is responsible for people's problems and not the events themselves", which is an important parameter and basis for the principle of a cognitive behavioural intervention that determines the change of behaviour (Herbert et al., 2013). An additional parameter that is strengthened through the application of educational gamification scenarios is emotional intelligence, which includes an adequate understanding of oneself and others, a good relationship with people, and the adaptation and effective treatment of situations and individuals (citation).
Given the importance of e Learning education for Greek inmates and socially isolated individuals, this study aims to describe the process by using a flowchart (Figure 1). Considering what has been reported thus far, and the current body of literature, the following research questions can be formulated:
[RQ1] Is social adequacy a predictor of inmates’ self control?
[RQ2] Is emotional adequacy a predictor of inmates’ self control?
[RQ3] Are leadership and digital skills predictors of inmates’ self control?
[RQ4] Can inmates' socio cognitive awareness be facilitated by using gamification techniques via an innovative educational platform?
[RQ5] What role does gamification play in improving motivation, self control, and social functioning?
[RQ6] What effect does gamification have on cognition?
Based on the country's constitution and penitentiary code, the objective of the first part of this study is to implement a modern, asynchronous, and encrypted distance education platform for Greek inmates. In addition, the second phase of the present study intends to give information regarding the education of inmates through modern remote learning techniques. Particularly, an attempt is made to determinewhether educational techniques that incorporate fun, motivate convicts to learn and familiarise themselves through life long learning. The primary objective (Phase A) of the study is to present an innovative encrypted educational platform with the application of gamification techniques, to a sample of inmates, with the intention of strengthening their socio cognitive awareness.
Furthermore, a secondary aim of the study (Phase B) is to emphasise the significance of life long education for inmates, with socio cognitive awareness facilitated by using gamification, during the time they are serving their sentence. The research approach is depicted in the image below (Figure 1).
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Asynchronous Training of Proposed Platforms by web conferencing tools
The supplied system is based on the Moodle open source code, which is the product of a highly successful effort to develop open source software that is utilised internationally for real time course delivery by universities, colleges, enterprises, organisations, and institutions. The third version of the GNU General Public Licence governs the Moodle platform. There will be no limit to the number of registered users of the platform and/or its licences, as a result of the system’s licensing. In addition, the licences include lifetime access to the software. Official figures reveal that Moodle has over 72,000 (registered) facilities in 230 countries; and it delivers instruction through over 11.2 million courses to over 96 million users, thereby demonstrating the completeness of the intended system.
Apparently, 530 million queries have been developed on Moodle systems across the globe, and about 200 million posts have been composed in educational communities inside the systems. (Source: http://stats.moodle.net/)
Moodle stands for Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment; and it is a software package for distant learning. Moodle is written in PHP; and it is compatible with any machine that can run PHP, as well as many database types. It is highlighted that the proposed method has apparent benefits; and it meets all the declaration's conditions. In addition, the system's flexible design and modular, open architecture permit future extensions and replacements, integrations, upgrades, or changes of individual sub system components, without requiring reliance on a single item of equipment, or software provider.
The Big Blue Button program is suggested to suit these requirements. Big Blue Button is a video conferencing solution that was created to facilitate virtual meetings between geographically distant people. However, the application's ongoing development has enabled the addition of features that make it a great tool for distance learning. Big Blue Button enables the development of "virtual" classrooms, in which geographically distributed users can conduct online
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meetings for training, information exchange, question submission, and resolution, etc.
In addition, because of the system's ability to record each session/lesson, a series of lecture films may be readily separated into sections for the convenience of the learner (Giannoulis et al., 2022). The trainees would have direct, any time access, to the "recorded" lectures.
This sophisticated e learning system is fully compatible with the asynchronous e learning system, thereby ensuring: The possibility of organising, scheduling, and integrating current e learning sessions into any educational program, as well as the option of adopting blended learning programs. This may include asynchronous e learning courses, the scheduling of modern e learning sessions (virtual classes), and any additional study materials, exercises, case studies, etc.
The usage of a completely integrated system by trainees, who enter with a unique password and have access to all the services, functions, activities, and data connected to their education, from a single educational environment, thereby allowing them to participate in all asynchronous and contemporary e learning processes.
Intolerability between Asynchronous Synchronous Training Planning an instructional activity with Big Blue Button is a function that can be completed quickly. In addition, the program has no prerequisites (such as software installation, set up of previously installed apps, or user PC intervention). This practically means that the system can be used in cases of "strictly" structured educational programs (as one of the educational activities provided within the structure of a program), but also for conducting "ad hoc" sessions, whenever an immediate "meeting" for education, information, co operation, etc. is required, "inviting" to the meeting even users who have not previously used similar systems.
Practically, participants in a session using Big Blue Button have access to modern real time communication and a suite of tools that permit the presentation and display of virtually any type of instructional content. Using a typical microphone camera, for instance, participants in a video conference can view and hear each other, as well as exchange text messages. It is mentioned that there are no special equipment requirements, and that the system has been tested and operated with different types of internal external microphones, integrated or not with the camera, speakers, etc.
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During the sessions, some participants assume the role of speaker; and they can have the "step" of the meeting and address all the other participants, as well as display on the virtual "board" accompanying educational material of any kind, or share the operation of their computer with the other participants (desk top sharing). In any meeting, and particularly when there are many sessions, one of the participants is designated as the moderator of the conference call; and s/he assists the speaker(s). The manager can co ordinate the meeting (Figure 2), thereby assisting the participants, and granting them the floor upon request, etc.
Due to the system's capacity to record each session/lesson, a series of videos with classified "recorded" lectures may be simply constructed for the learners’ convenience. After the class, the trainees would have immediate access to the "recorded" lectures; and they would be able to refer to them at any time (Figure 2). Due to the GDPR Law 2018/1725, all the participants must consent to the recording, in order for this feature to be used. Online browsers save web browsing data and history for the users’ convenience, such as instant website recommendations, or faster access to previously visited websites (Mahaju & Atkinson, 2017). Each computer, whose access we intend to restrict, must have a local administrative account (which usually exists or should exist on shared computers). It is assumed that Windows 10 is utilised as the operating system.
Our objective is to define every computer. This firewall rule employs numerous, non overlapping sequences of IP addresses, in order to cover the entirety of the internal network's IP address range. For instance, imagine we wish to restrict Mozilla Firefox's Internet access to the local server. This approach can be used in any application that we wish to restrict.
In addition, as shown in Figure 3, an Apache Server is deployed to support the Windows server operations and to provide the TCP/IP communication demands of the installed components with the connected learners' PCs. The server's operating system is Windows 10 64 bit. All apps within the "triangle" reside on the same server, which is protected by the previously described firewall configuration. Due to the simplicity of our program, no virtual machines were constructed, as just two applications (supported by the Apache Server connection
features) operate concurrently: a local (to the server) Web browser and the BBB (Big Blue Button see https://bigbluebutton.org) virtual classroom platform.
In addition, no cloud architecture or services were established (locally); because our application did not require them. Lastly, no external cloud services were utilised, for the same reason, in addition to the stringent security requirements (mostly limited or restricted, connectivity with the Internet and the World Wide Web outside of the protected prison's local network). Concerning security, the enabled modes’ module of the Apache Server provides an interface to the OpenSSL library, in order for strong encryption, based on the Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security (SSL and TLS) protocols. In the classrooms of the institution, the students are connected via Ethernet ports; and computers have been installed in the classrooms for greater security.
There are no permitted WiFi connections to the local WiFi router (the router is configured to block any request for connection, beyond specific devices, if necessary, with specific MAC addresses). The Ethernet ports only support the computers that are already connected (through safe listing), and no other computer can be attached to them. Regarding the BBB platform, it can be installed on the same Windows 10 server (although the native method is to use Ubuntu Linux if Windows 10 is not required; however, it is in our case).
Installing the VMWare player is followed by launching the Big Blue Button VM and red5 add on for live streaming support. This enables screen sharing as well. The Big Blue Button client module can be installed on classroom computers, so that viewers can access and observe a shared presenter's desktop. Using the Apache Server's functionalities, all communications are fully protected by using the TLS/SSL (secure) encryption.
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The Psycho social Adaptation Scale is an assessment instrument designed to evaluate skills and deficits in social, emotional, and school adaptation, as well as intrapersonal and interpersonal adjustment. Also, it is an instrument that evaluates the multi dimensional structure of an adult’s psycho social adjustment by concentrating on deficiencies, while also including information from the instructor. The expert can use the scale to examine the psycho social features linked with learning impairments, and to discover aspects of the psycho social profile of an adult.
The research was conducted in Western Greek correctional facilities with a sample of sixty inmates, by using the proposed training platform during the Covid 19 pandemic. 60% (N = 36) of the sample consisted of men, and 40% (N = 24) consisted of women. The mean age of the student sample was 25.5 years (SD: 0.8 years).
The Psycho social Adaptation Scale, a self reporting measure, was used to assess their cognitive function and psycho social function in two time periods: before and after the implementation of gamified teaching approaches. The questionnaire contains a list of recommendations describing different aspects of their behaviour. Each inmate was instructed to carefully read each scale sentence and circle the number corresponding to his or her level of identification with that behaviour.
The inmates' responses were then rated by using the Likert scale's five point scale (1 2 3 4 5) as follows: 1 = if this sentence does not apply, it is completely inappropriate for you; 2 = if it fits you somewhat; 3 = if it fits you moderately; 4 = if it fits you rather well; and 5 = if it fits you quite well. Below are detailed descriptions of the scale's dimensions: Social Adequacy Educational Adequacy Emotional Adequacy Leadership Skills Digital Skills Perception of the ability to learn Self control Motivation
The assessment is comparable to measurements frequently applied in a number of nations. Typically, individual scales are used to evaluate social skills, executive functions and behaviours, emotional adequacy, motivation, and self perception. An additional aim of the study was to determine whether the playfulness of distance modern and asynchronous learning, as well as the use of educational digital and play centred learning objects, increases the interest and motivation of particular groups of the population, such as inmates, to engage in the educational process.
Gamification is anticipated to increase learners’ engagement and interaction with one another, the instructor, the game, and with the instructional materials, resulting in the achievement of critical learning objectives, such as cognitive object depth (the acquisition of essential/advanced information, familiarity with diverse perspectives/interpretations, and application of information in every day life) and the identification of cognitive and emotional parameters.
This study confirmed the use of an awareness program applied to instructional practices for the improvement of socio emotional functions and, over time, the improvement of cognitive performance through gamification. Undoubtedly, the Covid 19 outbreak is a driving force in the formation of new working and educational conditions in a range of environments of social integration. Digital on line education tends to entirely replace traditional education. For this purpose, the adoption of novel distance learning strategies that foster learners' motivation, psycho social, and cognitive growth is seen as an absolute requirement.
Gamification is a reward system technique that has been implemented in a range of fields, including business, healthcare, and education. However, a paradigm shift has happened in the definition of gamification, as indicated by the literature review. Before introducing game components into the system and its key users, the learners’ thorough preparation is essential, in order to bring value to the gamification process. The fact that gamification may be utilised in both traditional and digital learning contexts is one of its key advantages.
With meticulous planning and incorporation of gamification into teaching and learning, such as a user centred top down system approach, elements of fun that create a fun loop, and adequately supported challenges, it is hoped that a meaningful gamification system could be created, thereby enhancing students' cognitive abilities.
As far as the results of the study variables' descriptive indices were investigated and assessed, in order to describe the demographic features, the major location and dispersion metrics, as well as the frequencies and relative frequencies, were utilised. Cronbach's alpha reliability index was computed, in order to determine the reliability of the students' responses (before and after the session) to the individual phrases that comprise the dimensions. Factor analysis was conducted, in order to determine the importance (i.e., the proportion of variance explained) of each questionnaire factor in the composition of the individual dimensions and the sub scales. For the sub scale correlation (using standard variables), the Pearson-correlation coefficient was determined.
The t test was used to compare the means of two independent samples, in order to examine the relationship between dimensions and student inmates' demographics and gender. Multiple linear regression and machine learning algorithms (Antonopoulou et al, 2022) were used to predict any possible behavioural difficulties, based on self perception, emotional and social adequacy simultaneously. The dependent variables of the model were "Self control" and
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"Motivation," whereas the independent variables (potential predictor variables) were "Self perception", "Emotional adequacy", "Social adequacy", "Educational adequacy", "Leadership skills” –“Digital Skills ", and the "Perception "of the ability to learn.
By using the paired t test, the variation in scale dimensions, before and after the use of the play methods, was assessed. These values were obtained by applying regression models to the dimensions, in order to determine the non response of some student inmates. The reported p values were derived from bilateral controls. The results with P values less than 0.05, were regarded as statistically significant. The statistical analysis was performed by utilizing SPSS software (SPSS Inc., 2003, Chicago, USA).
The findings of applying the multiple linear regression model to predict "Self control" by "social competence," "emotional competence," and "leadership skills digital skills" are presented in Table 1. It appears that "Leadership Skills Digital Skills" is a significant predictor of "self control" (p=0.019) [RQ3]. Similarly, the "social adequacy" component appears to predict the "self control" dimension (p=0.016) [RQ1]. In addition, the "emotional adequacy" dimension appears to be a significant predictor of the "self control" dimension (p=0.018) [RQ2].
In contrast, it did not appear that the other aspects were statistically significant in predicting self monitoring.
Table 1. Multiple-Linear Regression model with dependent variable dimension "Selfcontrol"
Independent variables
Social Adequacy
β 95% CI p value
0,5 [ 0,7] [ 0,1] 0,016*
Emotional Adequacy 0,4 [ 0,6] [ 0,5] 0,018*
Leadership Skills Digital Skills 0,5 [ 0,9] [ 0,1] 0,019*
β: coefficient of partial dependence 95% CI: 95% Confidence Interval for β * Statistically significant result
Gamification Pre/Post Evaluation
Table 2 displays the findings of an enquiry into the difference between the scale's dimensions before and after an instructional procedure employing playful methods. Regarding the dimensions, it shows that there is a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) in the average value of the dimension "Leadership Abilities Digital Skills" of "Emotional Adequacy" and "Social Adequacy" before and after the use of games. More specifically, the average score of the above dimensions is on average higher after the intervention.
Therefore, the highest score after applying the gamification methods highlights the success of the intervention, regarding the skills Leadership, the Skills Digital
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Skills, Emotional and Social Adequacy. The parameters mentioned above represent the degree of socio cognitive awareness of the inmates, whence a significant improvement and expansion of socio cognitive function was observed [RQ4]. Also, the intervention seems to have contributed to the average increase of the scores on the dimensions "Motivation", "Educational Adequacy", "Self control," and "Perception of Learning Ability". However, these differences were not statistically significant.
Higher levels of social and emotional competence result in greater Self Control. Gender does not appear to play a significant influence in the psychological adjustment of student inmates. As indicated in Table 2, the educational intervention considerably improved the social and emotional adequacy and digital/leadership abilities of student inmates [RQ5]. In the present study, novel teaching approaches incorporating the use of play in distant education, serve as a motivational drive for student inmates, thereby boosting their emotional and social competence skills. Moreover, via the use of new learning methodologies, personal qualities, such as leadership and digital literacy, are improved. In addition, other variables, such as motivation, educational competence, self control, and the perception of learning ability, appear also to be improved [RQ6].
As a function in education, gamification can be important for the population of inmates; and it can facilitate their subsequent social reintegration, by providing them with essential resources for their continued personal and professional development and their psycho emotional development, thereby providing them with a second opportunity
Table 2. Dimensional-correlation results, before and after the application of gamification
Dimensions Intervention Mean Difference p-value Pre (n=60) Post (n=60)
Leadership Skills Digital Skills 50,0 (10,0) 52,4 (9,2) 2,4 0,042*
Emotional Adequacy 50,1 (10,0) 50,1 (9,7) 0,0 0,922
Perception of the ability to learn 49,9 (10,0) 51,9 (10,0) 2 0,154
Motivation 49,9 (10,0) 51,1 (9,3) 1,1 0,474
Educational Adequacy 50,2 (9,9) 51,4 (9,2) 1,3 0,008*
Self control 50 (10,1) 50,1 (10,0) 0,1 0,905
SD: Standard Deviation
1Mean Difference = Score Pre Score Post
2t test in pairs
* Statistically significant result
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According to the study of the research data, offenders participate in training programs to obtain professional upgrades and "arm" themselves with formal and substantive qualifications, in order to plan their futures and to prepare for their release from jail. As a reason for participation, they note that their education gives an escape from the routine and stress of prison; they wish to develop hobbies and fill their spare time. In addition, during the educational process, the relationship between the inmates and the trainers functions as a conduit to the "outside world."
After their fundamental requirements are met, participation in educational activities becomes a vital part of their development, self determination, and the pursuit of interests; they seek to comprehend what they did not grasp at an earlier age. In addition, communication is essential for engaging incarcerated individuals in educational programs. Firstly, they need communication with professors and instructors, who represent the "outside world"; and secondly, they desire internal contact with themselves, away from the cell area, in a different environment, such as laboratories or classrooms. Teaching would create internal connections between how people express their emotions and what they feel.
To sum up, it is crucial to mention that the results of this study suggest that gamification may be an effective method for enhancing the cognitive performance of inmates, and thereby creating a meaningful learning experience.
At this point, it is worth mentioning that, before conducting the primary research, a preliminary survey was conducted among the teachers of second chance feedback by administering a self reporting questionnaire to 7 of the 13 Second Chance Schools in the country. As a result, 85% of the respondents answered that student prisoners reported that their motivation for attending second chance schools was to acquire and improve their basic cognitive and social skills. In addition, the interviewed teachers mentioned student inmates' desire for further education and for the acquisition of essential IT and communication technological skills.
The necessity of using ICTs to allow incarcerated students access to learning and academic information is evident, given their incarceration for the duration of any sentence. Inmates are generally not allowed to access e learning technologies, due to prison restrictions that prohibit inmates from accessing the internet. Their training is usually in the form of books and notes. Although this method allows access to course material, it does not develop modern digital skills in incarcerated students, when these are becoming increasingly necessary in today's world.
Utilising several cognitive tasks and standardised neuro-psychological instruments in conjunction with e games and other psychometric scales for social functions in various educational environments at all levels of education, future research should demonstrate the value of gamification in cognition and psycho social development in a larger sample of inmates.
The present study has confirmed the use of an educational intervention applied to learning settings for the development of psycho social functions and, at a
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macroscopic level, the improvement of neuro cognition through gamification. Undoubtedly, the Covid 19 epidemic is a driving force in the formation of new working and educational conditions in a variety of professional settings. Digital distant education tends to entirely replace traditional education. For this reason, the adoption of novel distance learning strategies that foster students' motivation, psycho social skills, and cognitive growth is seen as an essential component.
In addition, the recent study has demonstrated the significance of gamification in the cognitive and social growth of inmates participating in distance education. The research technique, as well as the conclusions, appear to cover the research issues that were addressed. Gamification technology in distance education appears to boost the interest and motivation of incarcerated students.
Ultimately, the gamification based educational intervention has enhanced socio cognitive awareness and dramatically enhanced three characteristics, namely social adequacy, emotional adequacy, and leadership, as well as digital skills. Incorporating gamified techniques into distant, modern, and asynchronous education, appears to boost learners' motivation.
The philosophy of digital education for incarcerated students recognises the inmate as an adult entitled to participate in fundamental academic, vocational, health, cultural, and socio cognitive education, and not just to a limited availability of programs. Access to academics, and not just learning, must be modernised, in order to meet the critical challenges faced by inmates and their support services, particularly considering the current economic crisis. Potentially reshaping the appropriate technological tools and modifying the educational models in the prison system would alter the role of the educator, organisational class issues, teaching and learning processes, and interactive mechanisms. It permits the educators and student inmates to improve learning and teaching practices through the use of ICT.
They may encounter numerous obstacles and personal insecurities. However, widespread access to the internet, the use of social media, and the capacity to manage vast amounts of information and communicate directly with everyone in the world has a positive effect on coping with daily life and learning within the prison system.
The European nations are interested in providing high quality education in prisons; and they recognise the significance of education in reducing recidivism and preparing inmates for a better life upon release. This broader effort is motivated by the belief that, if properly structured, education improves a person's employment prospects and contributes to their long term social integration. Recent economic developments have compelled Member States to develop prison education with greater ingenuity. For prisons to keep pace with society and the demand for social justice, reducing social exclusion and enhancing labour market skills, digital and technological progress, leads to the development of digital applications pertaining to prisons.
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All the parameters lead to the conclusion that all European nations, including Greece, will soon be forced to make difficult decisions in the light of the economic constraints and the corresponding social requirements for prisons, and the education of their inmates.
For the duration of their sentences, incarcerated students must have access to academic and learning content via ICT. Most of the time, inmates do not have access to digital educational technologies, due to jail regulations prohibiting Internet access. Despite the limited number of available programs, the concept of digital education for inmate students recognises the offender as an adult, who is permitted to participate in primary academic, vocational, health, and socio cognitive education (focusing only on basic literacy programs). Access to academic and non academic learning must be expanded, in order to address the significant challenges facing inmates and their support services, particularly considering the current economic climate.
The educator’s role, organisational class issues, teaching and learning strategies, and interaction mechanisms would be altered if the appropriate technical instruments and teaching models are potentially modified during the disciplinary process.
Other studies may use additional research instruments, such as surveys, questionnaires, focus groups, and qualitative methods, such us individual interviews, in order to enhance learning materials and obtain a better understanding of the study's findings.
H.A., A.G., L.T. & C.H. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results, and to the writing of the manuscript. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or the publication of this article.
Participants with prior approval from their parents, gave their written consent to use their anonymous data for statistical purposes.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests, regarding the publication of this manuscript. In addition, the ethical issues, including plagiarism, informed
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consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication and/or submission, and redundancies have been fully observed by the authors.
We would like to express our gratitude to all of the kids, their parents and instructors who participated in the research process.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 76 94, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.5
Received Jun 15, 2022; Revised Aug 29, 2022; Accepted Sep 9, 2022
Afzalur Rahman* Nowgong College (Autonomous) Nagaon, Assam, India
Abstract. The COVID 19 induced lockdown forced education institutes to use different synchronous and asynchronous assessment techniques The present study is a case investigation of the Artificial Intelligence based Online Proctored Examination (OPE) adopted by Nowgong College (Autonomous), Assam, India, during the COVID 19 pandemic. It follows a hybrid approach to understand the OPE mechanisms; to consider challenges faced therein; to assess its efficacy based on students’ perception and satisfaction; and finally, to ascertain the perceived issues and concerns of students. Information from multiple sources was gathered including semi structured interview with representatives of the exam controlling body, document analysis, observation and a survey of 209randomlyselectedstudents;differentparametersofOPE,constructed as per the attributes of Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI), were considered. The qualitative data were analysed thematically, while the quantitative data were analysed according to frequency, percentage, mean, sd and one sample t test. The results revealed that additional costs, lack of compatible devices, low bandwidth in rural areas, technical inability of students are the major challenges in implementing OPE successfully. Students’ perception of OPE was found to be significantly positive and the sampled students were significantly satisfied with their overall experiences in OPE. However, students were found to be significantly negative and reluctant about its future use, as they experienced various technical and financial issues, and were concerned about the environmental and psychological aspects. Thus, the insights from this study yield significant implications for stakeholders, which could assist in ensuring a robust and scalable OPE in the future
Keywords: efficacy; Artificial Intelligence; Online Proctored Examination; Higher Education, COVID 19
* Corresponding author: AfzalurRahman,afzalurrhmn@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The novel Coronavirus that emerged in Wuhan in December 2019 has shaken the world, causing millions of deaths and great suffering. To ensure social distancing to contain the spread of the virus, countries across the globe used partial or complete lockdowns, resulting in unprecedented losses to economies and other indiscernible effects such as loss of lives, stress and frustration among others. Institutions of all kinds, governments, industries and others, including the education sector, stopped functioning as normal. The crisis left academic institutions with no choice but to shift all their educational activities, including teaching learning and assessment, to online modes of delivery. This pushed educational institutions to revamp curricula, reinvent the learning teaching process, and redesign the mechanisms used to evaluate students' performance (Ashri & Sahoo, 2021). Consequently, there has been widespread interest among government agencies, educational and research institutions worldwide to explore and adopt innovative approaches and tools for online learning and assessment at all levels of education, especially tertiary level. Concerning assessment, remote electronic examinations have been adopted by most academic institutions as a primary mode (Elsalem et al., 2021). Different synchronous and asynchronous methods for e assessment, assignments, assessment portfolios, multiple choice questions, open book exams and oral exams are being used (Khan & Jawaid 2020); this is despite the recognition of many difficulties linked with internet connectivity, e exam portals, impracticality in assessing specific skills in an online environment and so on.
2.1
Valid and reliable assessment techniques that reflect students’ achievements and maintain integrity, are the core of any learning system. Technological advancement in the twenty first century has penetrated every sphere of mankind and education is no exception. Along with e learning, e assessments have emerged as a progressive challenge to the hegemony of conservative paper pencil assessment (Kundu & Bej, 2020). E assessment broadly refers to practices where technology is used to improve or assist assessment and feedback mechanisms (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017) There are many pedagogic benefits to it over traditional paper pencil assessments Because of the intrinsic characteristics of automated marking and prompt feedback, e assessments can be highly efficient, fast and reliable (Gipps, 2005). They can save time for teachers (Gilbert et al., 2011); reduce the burden faced by teachers in assessing large numbers of students (Nicol, 2007); and also saving valuable time for academic institutions (Gilbert et al., 2011; Ridgway et al., 2004; Donovan et al., 2007; Sorensen, 2013). E assessments are also reported to be advantageous in testing a wide range of topics in a short duration of time, as compared to conventional assessment which require responses to be constructed (Brady, 2005). Additionally, they provide learners, teachers, and institutions with a more flexible, efficient, and convenient assessment opportunities (Attia, 2014; Sorensen, 2013; Pedersen et al., 2012; De Villiers et al., 2016; Crisp et al., 2016). Online assessment can also be used efficiently in evaluating high order thinking abilities, including facilitation of group projects, critique, and reflection on cognitive processes (Ridgway et al., 2004).
Despite promising benefits, e assessment mechanisms are not free from criticism. Cahapay (2021) pointed out that browser incompatibility, anxiety over tracking tools, poor internet connections, power cuts, distractions in the environment and unknown accessibility issues are the major challenges of online assessment. A lack of confidence among students and teachers due to poor computer skills has also been highlighted by Whitelock and Brasher (2006). Isaias and Issa (2013) revealed that a lack of institutional commitment can be a problematic issue in online assessment. The possibility of academic misconduct, cheating and plagiarism in e assessments are also all identified as potential issues by many previous studies (Pedersen et al., 2012; Kocdar et al., 2018; Bartley, 2005; Rowe, 2004; Gathuri et al., 2014; Mellar et al., 2018; Hillier, 2014). Apampa et al. (2011), Bartley (2005) and Mellar et al. (2018) categorized different plagiarism and cheating mechanisms in e assessment, like impersonation, bringing materials into exams, pursuing others’ answers and ghostwriting.
A more secure and reliable e assessment method called an Online Proctored Examination (OPE) has arisen in recent years to ensure academic integrity. Online Proctored Examination is a setup that shares the characteristics of face to face conventional hall examinations in which a proctor monitors the examinees remotely (Raman et al., 2021). The characteristics of actual exams, such as proctor participation during exams, exam timetable, and various questioning techniques are applicable in OPE (Northcutt et al., 2016). In an artificial intelligence based OPE set up, the proctor remotely monitors the examinees via webcams, device screens and microphones (Drew, 2020). Thus, OPE has the potential to prevent all types of cheating that could be engaged in by students (D’Souza & Siegfeldt, 2017) Students wait for the scheduled examination time and enter the online examination room using identity verification with login credentials and face recognition to ensure that the actual examinee rather than someone else is sitting the exam. Students must keep audio and visual connections in one position throughout the examination (Kharbat & Daabes, 2021), allowing proctors to monitor them in real time. In addition, there the examinations are also recorded in their entirety so that they can be reviewed later, if necessary, to identify malpractices. Besides live proctoring, OPE can also be automated, whereby, unlike for live proctoring, students do not need to wait for a scheduled time, but can sit examinations at their chosen time. During the test, the examinees' screen sharing feeds and audio visuals are captured. Advanced audio video analytics are used by a system to monitor the feeds and look for suspicious activity. Automated proctoring is expanding quickly because it is extremely scalable, saves time, helps with individualised supervision, and prevents potential exam fraud (Raman et al., 2021).
2.3 Experience with Online Proctored Examination (OPE) Worldwide Harvard University, the University of California, the Georgia Institute of Technology, École Polytechnique, Michigan State University, the California Institute of the Arts, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, University College London (UCL) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) are some of the premier universities around the world that practice OPE (Siemens, 2015, as cited in Raman et al., 2021). Though institutions in relatively inadequate countries
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also moved to adopt OPE during the COVID 19 lockdowns, a number of concerns have been reported. Participation in OPEs is difficult for students in developing countries like India, China, and Nigeria due to a lack of access to devices (Raman et al., 2021). Milone et al. (2017) revealed that the advantages of e proctoring were outweighed by the necessity for technical specifications, the prevalence of technology challenges, and the added cost involved with each exam. lgaz and Adanır (2020), though, reported a positive attitude of students towards OPE, in spite of identifying various technical challenges that need to be resolved to ensure the effectiveness of OPE. Kubiatko (2020) stated that in India and Romania, 42% of students who participated in e learning and OPE could only use smart phones and not laptops. Besides technological issues, Kharbat and Daabes (2021) highlighted that privacy and various environmental and psychological factors are the major concerns for students with regard to e proctored examinations. In the US, Weiner and Hurtz (2017) revealed that though students’ achievements were not influenced by OPE, there were fewer positive reactions of students to remote proctored testing conditions. Karim et al. (2014) reported that in remote proctored examinations, the examinees tend to perceive slightly more pressure and tension, and expressed some elevated concerns over privacy.
Despite the debates, there is no disagreement among academics regarding the out performance of OPEs over other non proctored forms of online assessment techniques. However, although many private universities were unaffected by the COVID 19 crisis in terms of their ability to conduct online examinations, underfunded public universities found it difficult to adapt to the situation (Ashri & Sahoo, 2021). In such a situation, OPE has become a panacea in assessing students’ performance with some degree of objectivity and reliability.
A critical analysis of the related literature, as presented earlier, has shown that Milone et al. (2017) and lgaz and Adanır (2020) identified impending technical difficulties in relation to OPE. Meanwhile, Kharbat and Daabes (2021) and Karim et al. (2014) focused on identifying psychological, environmental and other concerns of students in attending OPE. However, none of the studies were conducted in India or other developing counties. Kubiatko (2020) stated that in India and Romania, 42% of students who participated in e learning and OPE could only use smart phones and not laptops. Raman et al. (2021) argued that OPEs are difficult for students in developing countries like India, China, and Nigeria due to a lack of access to devices. Nevertheless, none of them investigated the other concerns of students, such as environmental, psychological, cultural and personal privacy issues, as the present study does. Moreover, no study explored the technical architecture of OPE modules combining an attempt to identify impending difficulties, issues and concerns from the perspectives of students as well as the institution. The present study is the first of its kind and as such, is expected to fill a knowledge gap in this regard.
In a crisis like the COVID 19 pandemic situation, where teaching and learning are facing uncertainty, online assessment has turned out to be a bolt from the blue.
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Though online tests have seen considerable growth since the early part of the twenty first century, especially with the implementation of Learning Management Systems (LMSs) in higher education (Stone & Zheng 2014), in India they are still restricted to top level institutions. The All India Management Association Management Aptitude Test, India (AIMA MAT), National Law Admission Test (NLAT), India and some other premier examination bodies in the country have adopted Online Proctored Examinations (Berkey & Halfond, 2015).
During COVID 19, the central government institutions and some private institutions in the country had sufficient digital infrastructure facilities to conduct seamless online examinations, yet most of the underfunded public institutions, especially state universities and colleges across the country, either cancelled their examinations and assessed students based on past performances or adopted simplified assessment techniques like home assignments, open book examinations etc.
Assam, being one of the economically backward and geographically remote states in the country, is encumbered with inherent challenges relating to digital infrastructure, with a digital divide across dimensions and a digital literacy gap (Rahman, 2021). The prompt shift to an online mode of teaching in the region left higher education teachers scrambling; and universities and colleges experienced a nightmare in conducting examinations. Most universities in the region had partly cancelled the semester end of term examinations and partly conducted assessments in the form of home assignments and online open book examinations. However, Nowgong College (Autonomous) in Assam conducted semester examinations using an artificial intelligence based OPE mode. As such, it is imperative to report on the design and adoption mechanism for the OPE and assess its efficacy. The study will also help identify issues and concerns, which will undoubtedly open the doors for a more secure and reliable online examination system in the future
The primary focus of the study is to assess the design and adoption mechanism for an Online Proctored Examination (OPE) adopted by Nowgong College (Autonomous); and to assess its efficacy on the basis of students’ perceptions and experiences. The study also aims to identify the issues and concerns in implementing OPE.
RQ 1: What is the technical architecture and flow of the OPE adopted by the case institutions and what are the challenges faced in its implementation?
RQ 2: How do the students perceive Online Proctored Examination (OPE)?
RQ 3: Are the students satisfied with the overall experience of Online Proctored Examination (OPE) and do they prefer it for the future?
RQ 4: What are the perceived issues and concerns of students with regard to Online Proctored Examination (OPE)?
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The present paper adopted a case study as a research design. The case study method offers a more detailed and focused approach to investigating a system, event, or attribute by gathering information from multiple sources (Cahapay, 2021). Since the prime focus of the present study is to throw light on the design and adoption mechanism for the OPE adopted by Nowgong College (Autonomous) and to assess its efficacy, the case study method is best suited and, as such, adopted
A hybrid approach combining both qualitative and quantitative methods was employed and multiple sources were used to gather required information to answer various research questions. To answer RQ 1, a qualitative approach was used and the necessary data were primarily derived through interviews, documents and observation. The Controller and two Deputy Controllers of Examinations at the case institution were interviewed face to face in a semi structured mode. Relevant data were also collected from documents available from the institution in the form of office memorandums, OPE modalities, a test manual, Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), images and video recordings of the examinations. Moreover, the researcher used an observation technique to validate the information.
With regard to the remaining three research questions, i.e., RQ 2, RQ 3 and RQ 4, which required only the perspective of students, a quantitative approach was adopted. All 1043 students from the 2020 21 batch (UG=879 and PG=164) of the institution who appearedsemester end term examination conducted through OPE tool, during the month June July 2021 made up the research population, of whom 20 percent, i.e., 209 students, were randomly selected as research participants. The data were collected through a self structured survey questionnaire, which was presented to the selected student participants (n=209) at a physical meeting in the case institution.
The survey was generated for student respondents after consulting the available literature on OPE (Raman et al., 2021; Kharbat & Daabes, 2021; Cahapay, 2021) to ensure that items in the survey pertained to the students’ experiences with OPE. The survey was divided into three subsections to solicit the required information to answer RQ 2, RQ 3 and RQ 4. Initially, a total of 20 closed ended items were included throughout the three subsections, and given to 12 students who experienced OPE, as a pre survey. After eliminating the irrelevant and ambiguous items, the final survey was reduced to a total of 15 items. The first subsection was designed to assess students' perceptions of OPE and included 12 items, which were presented in a five-point Likert response mode ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree, representing scores 5 to 1, respectively. The items in this section were determined based on Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI). According to DOI, there are five factors, namely relative advantage, compatibility, complexity/ease of use, trialability, and observability, that influence the adoption of an innovation (Rogers, 2003). Therefore, potential adopters must believe that an invention is superior to other innovations, consistent with current practices, simple to use, testable in a small scale before adoption, and provides measurable
outcomes (Raman et al., 2021). The second subsection included two items soliciting students’ responses regarding their satisfaction with the overall OPE experience and their future preferences. Items in this subsection too were presented in a five point Likert response mode ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree, representing scores 5 to 1, respectively. The third subsection was designed in the form of a checklist including one item representing six possible issues and four possible concerns that students might encounter during their participation in OPE. The issues and concerns were identified and included, keeping in mind the existing digital infrastructure, socio economic and geographical scenario of Assam and inputs from the interviews with the exam controlling body regarding challenges experienced. The respondents were free to check or tick any number of issues and concerns according to their perception The reliability of the scale was determined at .76 through the test retest method. The initial survey containing 20 items was sent to two experts on OPE and the Controller of Examinations of the case institutions to ascertain the content validity. As per their suggestions, the items were rephrased and five items were eliminated. Subsequently, the final survey consisted of 15 items. According to the experts, the final survey covers all the aspects that the research intends to investigate.
RQ 1: What is the technical architecture and flow of the OPE adopted by the case institutions and what are the challenges faced in its implementation?
The research adopted a qualitative approach concerning RQ 1. Primary data were collected through semi structured interviews with the Controller and Deputy Controllers of Examinations. Moreover, secondary data were collected through observation and document analysis (Bowen, 2009) of various documents available with the institution like office memorandums, OPE modalities, a test manual, Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), images and video recordings of the examinations.
Immediately after completing the interview sessions, the data obtained were transcribed. Secondary data obtained through observation and document analysis were also organized and reviewed. As per the requirement of RQ 1, the data were analysed thematically according to two themes viz. (a) technical architecture and flow of OPE adopted by the case institution, and (b) challenges faced by the institution in implementing OPE
Educational institutions typically collaborate with for profit companies to get e proctoring software (Kharbat & Daabes, 2021). The e proctoring software increases the reliability of the remote exam procedure and provides a digital trail to track it Live OPE assigns proctors to invigilate students and keep an eye on exams in real time (Raman et al., 2021). It is preferable since it allows the proctor to see the students through the screen and remotely oversee the exam (Nie et al., 2020). The case institution adopted a similar OPE, as evident from the Controller's responses to the examinations
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“We deployed artificial intelligence based live proctoring tool with audit login system … as the exam started, the question paper was displayed in students’ interface along with the start of exam timer. Simultaneously, webcam and microphone of students’ devices were enabled automatically, and the entire screen of their gadgets was shared too. Several proctors monitored and communicated with the assigned students, sitting at their homes through the weblink. Besides, there was provision of automated recording of the entire examination sessions.” (Controller of Examinations, Male)
The technical architecture and flow of the OPE adopted by the institution is shown in Figure 1, which is prepared by the author and validated with the exam controlling body of the case institution.
An imposter replacing the actual examine is an issue which can be associated with online examinations. OPE provides a platform where examinees need to verify and validate their identity in order to log into the examination room to make sure that no imposter replaces the actual examinee (Raman et al., 2021). Hence, an audit login of actual examinees is crucial for the effective implementation of OPE. In this regard the Deputy Controller of Examinations responded that “Our OPE tool was robust and scalable. Registered students only could login to the examination portal with their unique login credentials along with OTP confirmation. Moreover, face recognition and bio metric confirmation through capturing eye retina were there to allow successful login of students.” (Deputy Controller of Examinations 1, Male)
Maintaining academic integrity is a pre requisite for an OPE. Besides audit login, live proctor monitoring and recording of the examination sessions, other technical glitches like web browsing for contents, copy and paste and audio cheating need to be controlled. Such examination malpractices can be reduced if OPE is well executed (Corrigan Gibbs et al., 2015). A safe exam browser can be used to lock
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down the examinees' devices and prohibit them from opening other browsers and to stop applications from running in the background (Raman et al., 2021) The institution deployed a similar proctoring tool, as evident from the response of the Deputy Controller of Examinations
“The provisions incorporated in our OPE tool to maintain integrity were audit login, secure browser, live remote proctoring through image capture, video capture, voice proctoring and screen capture, disabled copy paste feature etc. However, we could not implement the provision of keeping mirror behind the examinee to monitor the physical environment comprehensively due to bandwidth issue of some students inside their rooms at home. They had to went outside their homes to get access to strong bandwidth.” (Deputy Controller of Examinations 2, Male)
The interface of invigilators’ access to students’ images, audio video and screen is shown in Figure 2.
b. Technical Challenges Faced by the Case Institution in Implementing OPE Milone et al. (2017) stated the advantages of e proctoring were outweighed by the need for technical specifications, the prevalence of technology challenges, and the added cost involved with each exam In a developing country like India, it is challenging for students living in distant places to access the internet and digital devices to engage in OPE (Raman et al., 2021). In addition to poor digital infrastructure and the digital divide, insufficient technical know how on the part of the students is another challenge in the effective implementation of online education in Assam (Rahman, 2021). In line with the previous findings, the present investigation also revealed a similar picture as the exam controlling body expressed:
“We faced many challenges in implementing OPE. Major among these were additional cost involvement in OPE tool development, dearth of
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compatible devices among few students, low bandwidth among students living in rural areas and technical inability among a small section of students.” (Deputy Controller of Examinations 1, Male)
The results related to RQ 1 showed that the OPE deployed by the case institution incorporated most of the features of standard online proctored examinations as documented by previous research studies (Northcutt et al., 2016; Drew, 2020; D’Souza & Siegfeldt, 2017; Nie et al., 2020; Kharbat & Daabes, 2021; Raman et al., 2021). However, the institution experienced challenges regarding additional costs, a lack of compatible devices among students, low bandwidth in rural areas, and students' technical inability to implement the OPE. The financial condition of government higher education institutions across India in general and in the state of Assam has been awful for the last decade The government of India's budget allocation for digital learning was decreased from 6.04 billion in 2019 20 to 4.69 billion in 2020 21 (Banerjee, 2020). Jha (2020) stated that only 28.9 per cent of students in higher education in India had computers at home in the year 2017 18. Only 24 percent of Indian households had internet facilities in 2017 18 (National Statistical Office [NSO], 2019) Overall, 76 percent of students in India in the age range 5 35 years did not know how to use a computer (Jha, 2020). Under these circumstances, the present study’s findings that financial burden, inadequate access to compatible gadgets, low bandwidth and insufficient technical know how among students are major challenges in implementing OPE successfully seems quite justified.
To answer RQ 2, item wise analysis of the students' responses (n=209) in 12 closed ended items, presented in the first subsection of the survey, was primarily done using frequency and simple percentage. Moreover, a one sample t test was employed to analyse the sample mean of overall perception. One sample t tests compare a sample mean with a hypothesized mean to ascertain if it is significantly greater or less. The present survey items adopted a five point Likert response mode ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree, indicated by scores 5 to 1, respectively. Thus, the average score for each item is 3. As 12 items were included to assess students’ perceptions, the predetermined value (mean) of students’ perceptions was 36 (Kharbat & Daabes, 2021). Hence, a one sample t test was conducted to determine if the average perception of the students was significantly higher or less than 36 with p<0.05. The results are presented in Table 1.
Perusal of the result depicted in Table 1 indicates that the majority of the respondents, i.e., 51.2 percent (n=209), agreed that OPE is credible (16.27 percent strongly agree and 34.93 percent agree). Regarding the statement “Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is more valid and reliable than other forms of e assessment”, 49.28 percent of students recorded a positive response (11.49 percent strongly agree and 37.79 percent agree). Again, 49.28 percent of respondents agreed that academic honesty is maintained in OPE (15.31 percent strongly agree and 33.97 percent agree), whereas 34.93 percent responded in a negative direction (12.44 percent strongly disagree and 22.49 percent disagree), and 15.79 percent of respondents were neutral in this regard. Overall, 44.49 percent of respondents
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agreed (8.61 percent strongly agree and 35.88 percent agree) that OPE increases student engagement in online learning, while 60.29 percent rated OPE as helping in improving technical know how (19.14 percent strongly agree and 41.15 percent agree). Thus, with regard to the attribute relative advantage as per Rogers’ DOI (Rogers, 2003), it is evident that students perceived OPE to be relatively advantageous in terms of the proportion of positive responses regarding its credibility, validity & reliability, ability to maintain academic honesty, increase student engagement and improve technical know how is higher than the proportion of negative responses.
Table 1: Students’ Perception of Online Proctored Examination (OPE) Items Responses in frequency (n=209)
Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is credible as students are being monitored during examinations.
Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is more valid and reliable than other forms of e assessment
SA A NC D SD
34 (16. 27)
24 (11. 49)
Academic honesty is maintained in Online Proctored Examination (OPE). 32 (15. 31)
Student engagement in online learning increases because of attending Online Proctored Examination (OPE)
Attending Online Proctored Examination (OPE) helps in improving technical know how.
18 (8.6 1)
40 (19. 14)
Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is easy to be compatible with 30 (14. 35)
There is nothing objectionable to continuous audio video surveillance in Online Proctored Examination (OPE).
It is not difficult to understand and handle technical aspects related to Online Proctored Examination (OPE)
Getting prior instructions, SOPs and training make Online Proctored Examination (OPE) easy to participate in.
23 (11. 01)
23 (11. 01)
23 (11. 01)
Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is more fun and interesting 17 (8.1 3)
73 (34. 93)
79 (37. 79)
71 (33. 97)
75 (35. 88)
86 (41. 15)
74 (35. 41)
99 (47. 37)
78 (37. 32)
78 (37. 32)
64 (30. 62)
31 (14. 83)
46 (22. 01)
33 (15. 79)
37 (17. 70)
21 (10. 05)
30 (14. 35)
31 (14. 83)
32 (15. 31)
43 (20. 57)
46 (22. 01)
47 (22. 49)
49 (23. 44)
47 (22. 49)
62 (29. 67)
44 (21. 05)
57 (27. 27)
39 (18. 66)
58 (27. 75)
49 (23. 45)
56 (26. 79)
24 (11. 48)
11 (5.2 6)
26 (12. 44)
17 (8.1 3)
18 (8.6 1)
18 (8.6 1)
17 (8.1 3)
18 (8.6 1)
16 (7.6 6)
26 (12. 44)
M= 38.54 sd = 11.957 t = 3.071 p= .0024
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There is no loss in trying Online Proctored Examination (OPE), even if one does not like it.
38 (18. 18)
82 (39. 23)
67 (32. 06)
24 (11. 48)
51 (24. 40)
45 (21. 53)
42 (20. 10)
20 (9.5 7)
20 (9.5 7) Participating in OPE motivates other students to use it. 29 (13. 88)
Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate each item’s percentage of total responses SA Strongly Agree, A Agree, NC No Comment, D Disagree, SD Strongly disagree Source: the author
Approximately half of the respondents were compatible with OPE as 49.76 percent students responded positively to the statement “Online Proctored Examination (OPE) is easy to be compatible with” (14.35 percent strongly agree and 35.41 percent agree), whereas one third of responses were in a negative direction (27.27 percent disagree and 8.61 percent strongly disagree), and another 14.35 percent were neutral The majority of the respondents, i.e., 58.38 percent, stated that there is nothing objectionable in continuous audio video surveillance in OPE (11.01 percent strongly agree and 47.37 percent agree). Thus, more students had a positive perception towards the statements reflecting compatibility with OPE, than those who perceived OPE to be incompatible.
In statements representing ease of use of OPE, almost half of the respondents recorded their response positively. Overall, 48.33 percent (n=209) of students perceived that it is not difficult to understand and handle technical aspects related to OPE and pointed out that prior instructions, SOPs and training make OPE easy to participate in (11.01 percent strongly agree and 37.32 percent agree). However, only one third (38.75 percent, n=209) of respondents felt that OPE is more fun and interesting (8.13 percent strongly agree and 30.62 percent agree). As far as trialability and observability of OPE were concerned, again a higher proportion of students responded in a positive direction. In total, 57.41 percent of students agreed that there is no loss in trying OPE, even if one does not like it (18.18 percent strongly agree and 39.23 percent agree). To the statement “Participating in OPE motivates other students to use it”, 45.94 percent of responses were in a positive direction (13.88 strongly agree and 32.06 percent agree).
The t analysis showed that the average score for perception of the students towards OPE was 38.54 (sd=11.957), in comparison to the predetermined average of student perception (36), which was significant, t = 3.071, p = 0.0024; indicating that students were significantly positive in their perception towards OPE.
The findings relating to RQ 2 showed that the perception of the majority of the students was inclined in a positive direction regarding all the attributes as per Rogers’ DOI Theory (Rogers, 2003) Relative advantage, compatibility, complexity/ease of use, trialability and observability were previously been discovered to be favorably associated to OPE acceptance (Raman et al., 2021). Approximately 50 percent of respondents perceived that OPE is credible, valid and reliable and has the ability to maintain academic integrity, which is backed by the findings of Kharbat and Daabes (2021). Regarding compatibility and ease of use of OPE, the respondents
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showed a positive attitude as evident in Table 1. Moreover, 57.41 percent of students agreed that there is no loss in trying OPE. Previously, Raman et al. (2021) highlighted that before and during COVID 19, students had adapted to the online examination environment very well With regard to the overall perception, the t analysis showed that students were significantly positive in their perception towards OPE, which is also corroborated with the findings of lgaz and Adanır, (2020) and Raman et al. (2021)
RQ 3: Are the students satisfied with the overall experience in Online Proctored Examination (OPE) and do they prefer it for future?
Kotler and Keller (2006) elaborated that, to become effective and successful, the satisfaction of its beneficiaries is primarily important for any system. Besides perception, students’ satisfaction with the overall experience as well as their future preferences relating to OPE were identified. The responses of students (n=209) were analyzed through frequency and simple percentage. In line with the analysis undertaken to answer RQ 2, here also a one sample t test was employed to ascertain whether the students are significantly satisfied or not with their overall experiences in OPE and whether they significantly prefer OPE for the future or not. Both the items used a five point Likert scale, representing scores 5 to 1, with 5 being strongly agree and 1 being strongly disagree; as such, the predetermined means for both the items were 3 (Kharbat & Daabes, 2021). To test the significance, a .05 level of significance was used. The results are presented in Table 2.
As depicted in Table 2, the overall experience of 56.94 percent of students was satisfactory for OPE, as 20.10 percent and 36.84 percent of students strongly agreed and agreed respectively with the statement “My overall experience with OPE is satisfactory” The average satisfaction score for respondents regarding OPE was 3.31 (sd=1.34), compared to the predetermined average of 3, which was significant, t = 3.408, p = .0008, indicating that students were significantly satisfied with their overall experience with OPE.
My overall experience with OPE is satisfactory.
I will choose OPE in the future, even if it is optional.
42 (20. 10)
29 (13. 88)
77 (36. 84)
39 (18. 66)
(n=209)
Mean sd t p SA A NC D SD
22 (10. 53)
23 (11. 01)
41 (19. 62)
77 (36. 84)
27 (12. 92) 3.31 1.34 3.408 (Sig.) .0008
41 (19. 62) 2.70 1.35 3.183 (Sig.) .0017
Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate each item’s percentage of total responses SA Strongly Agree, A Agree, NC No Comment, D Disagree, SD Strongly disagree Source: the author
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If participation in OPE is optional, the majority of students would not choose OPE in the future as only one third of students responded positively to the statement “I will choose OPE in future, even if it is optional” (13.88 strongly agree and 18.66 percent agree), while 56.46 percent of students responded negatively to the statement (36.84 percent disagree and 19.62 percent strongly disagree). The average score for students’ responses relating to future preference for OPE was 2.70 (sd = 1.35), which was significantly less than the predetermined score of 3, t = 3.183, p = .0017, indicating that students were significantly negative about or reluctant to choose OPE in the future.
Thus, the present finding yields an interesting picture. The students were significantly satisfied with the overall experience with OPE. However, they were significantly reluctant to use it in the future. This finding is supported by Kharbat and Daabes (2021), who revealed, in their study, that students indicated a very strong reluctance to use OPE in the future. The contradictory finding, revealing significant satisfaction but significant reluctance to use OPE in the future, can be attributed to several issues and concerns that students experienced while participating in OPE, like poor internet connectivity, high cost involvement, lack of compatible devices, a disruptive home environment and psychological concerns as evident in Table 3.
RQ 4: What are the perceived issues and concerns of students with regard to Online Proctored Examination (OPE)?
To answer RQ 4, the responses of participants (n=209) in the checklist containing six possible issues and four concerns, selected based on local socio economic, geographical and digital infrastructure scenarios, inputs from interviews with the exam controlling body and previous research studies, were analysed using frequency and percentage.
Table 3: Perceived Issues and Concerns of Students with Online Proctored Examination (OPE)
Problems Faced
Frequency Percentage to total N
Perceived Issues
Incompatible device 70 33.49 Poor Internet Connectivity 142 67.94 High Cost Involvement 75 35.89
Irregular Electricity 68 32.54 Difficulty in Handling Tools 72 34.45
Unknown Accessibility Issues 27 12.92
Distractions in the Physical Environment 67 32.06
Perceived Concerns
Feel Tense, Anxious and Nervous 124 59.33
Breaches in Personal Privacy 55 26.31 Unacceptable for My Culture and Family as Webcam Remains Open 32 15.31
Source: the author
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The results presented in Table 3 reveal that 67.94 percent of students experienced poor internet connectivity, while 34.45.24 percent faced difficulty in handling tools Again, 35.89 percent of students were concerned about the high cost involvement, while 33.49 percent experienced incompatible device issues. The problem of irregular electricity was faced by 32.54 percent of students, while 12.92 percent were confronted with unknown accessibility issues. Previously, Cahapay (2021) pointed out that browser incompatibility, anxiety over tracking tools, poor internet connection, power cuts, and unknown accessibility issues are the major challenges for online assessment. According to the Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI, 2019), the internet users in India vary widely in terms of socio economic and geographic classes. The internet penetration for the 12 plus age population is only 27 percent in rural areas and 51 percent in urban areas. Thus, the issue of poor internet connectivity, experienced by the highest percentage (67.94 percent) of students, is not surprising.
With regard to the concerns of students about their participation in OPE, psychological concerns were the most prevalent with 59.33 percent of students reporting that they felt tense, anxious and nervous, followed by concerns about the physical environment, privacy concerns and cultural & family concerns, with 32.06, 26.31 and 15.31 percent of responses, respectively. Kharbat and Daabes (2021) previously reported that the predominant concerns of students in OPE were privacy, various environmental and psychological factors. Psychological and privacy concerns were also reported by Karim et al. (2014), who revealed that, in remote proctored examinations, the examinees tend to perceive slightly more pressure and tension, and expressed some elevated concerns over privacy. Concerns about the physical environment at home were also reported by Das (2020), Cahapay (2021) and Rahman (2021). According to Das (2020), with only 37% of Indian homes having one living space, it would be a luxury for many students to be able to take online classes in a quiet setting Rahman (2021) revealed that the lack of a proper environment at home is one of the leading problems in online learning in Assam.
The need for online examinations during COVID 19 lockdowns presented an unprecedented challenge to the global academics. However, the results of the present study indicated a satisfactory picture regarding the efficacy of the OPE adopted by the case institution. It incorporated most of the security features to ensure an objective, reliable, transparent, secure and flexible online assessment. The students were significantly positive in their perception of OPE and significantly satisfied with their overall OPE experiences. Nevertheless, they were significantly negative about or reluctant to endorse future use of OPE. Poor internet connectivity, high cost involvement, difficulty in handling tools, incompatible devices, and power cuts turned out to be the major issues; while psychological factors followed by physical and privacy factors were among the leading concerns of students. An additional financial burden in designing and adopting an artificial intelligence based OPE was another concern at the institutional level. Thus, the findings yield significant implications for the academic body by highlighting institutional challenges as well as the prominent
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issues and concerns of students. Wide installation of IT infrastructure regardless of geographical area is the precondition for ensuring all classes of people can access internet connectivity. Students belonging to a poor class require support from the educational institution, government and at societal level at large to ensure access to compatible devices as well as data plans (Rahman, 2021). There is a need to execute a well thought through series of training programmes on technical know how for tool handling to build up the confidence level of both teachers and students. The government should review and enhance the budgetary allocation to higher education institutions to boost their digital infrastructure potential. Institutions in India at large should work to align with the global scenario of digital developments and embrace the new norm of online learning and assessment.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 95 119, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.6
Received Jun 6, 2022; Revised Sep 11, 2022; Accepted Sep 18, 2022
Hamad Alharbi
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Habibah Ab Jalil
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Muhd Khaizer Omar
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohd Hazwan Mohd Puad
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. This study aims to determine the mediators’ and moderators’ roles in the adoption of the Madrasati (M) learning management system (LMS) among teachers in Riyadh. This study used the survey approach; it and involved 374 teachers, that use M LMS to deliver their instructions. The study’s samples represent the larger population of 13,782 public school teachers in Riyadh; 413 responses were collected after distributing 500 questionnaires. The independent variables are performance expectancy (PE), effort expectancy (EE), social influence (SI), and facilitating conditions (FC); while Madrasati (M) LMS utilisation is the dependent variable. Meanwhile, behavioural intention serves as a moderator variable, while age and gender functions serve as mediators. Thisstudydiscoveredthat behaviouralintention,age,andgenderallplay mediating or moderating roles in M LMS utilisation among Riyadh teachers. In terms of mediation variables, this study found that the links between PE, SI, and FC and M LMS utilisation are significantly mediated by behavioural intention. However, there is no evidence that BI plays a moderating role in the relationship between EE and M LMS. Regarding age, all age groups’ moderating effects on M LMS utilisations showed significant beta values, except on PE, which is not significant. However, EE had a substantially moderating effect on M LMS usage for teachers aged 30 and younger and teachers aged 31 40, while the beta values for teachers aged 41 50, and 51 and above, were not significant. It is suggested that future research should consider other variables, such as years of experience, which could influence the link between the variables and other components.
Keywords: Adoption; M LMS; Mediator; Moderators; Teachers
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
In Riyadh, Madrasati (M) technology has a significant role in education. Its usage has made teaching and learning easier than other technologies and traditional methods (Alkinani and Alzahrani, 2021) In today’s world, technological advances have brought changes that support teachers and students; and they can establish a high quality educational system that meets international standards (Albaqami, 2019). In the meantime, while e learning systems have become increasingly popular in higher education in Saudi Arabia over the last 10 years, this is not the case in K 12 education (Al Ohali et al., 2019).
Subsequently, M was introduced in 2020; and it has become increasingly important in K 12 education. The Ministry of Education introduced the M project as part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s (KSA) Vision 2030, which aspires to bring about a significant digital transformation in K 12 education in the KSA (Mitchell & Alfuraih, 2018) Madrasati, launched in 2020, is part of the Future Gate program. It is integrated with the LMS for all Saudi Arabian public schools (Masmali, 2020). In the meantime, Riyadh schools are well equipped, allowing them to provide a high quality education to the students (Alrashoud, 2020). As a result, Riyadh schools have become leading educational institutions in Saudi Arabia; and they provide outstanding K 12 public education.
The introduction of M allows a significant digital change in teaching and learning in K 12 education in the KSA. However, the utilisation of M LMS technology in KSA still needs to be improved, in order to ensure its widespread adoption across the country (Almaiah et al., 2022), particularly in Riyadh. In this sense, the teacher’s role in fully utilizing M LMS technology is crucial, in line with the Kingdom’s adoption enforcement. Theories and models of technology adoption or acceptance behaviour, such as the Unified Theory of Technology Acceptance and the use of (UTAUT; based on Venkatesh’s et al., 2003 framework), can help explain the level of teachers’ adoption of M in Riyadh (Scherer et al., 2019).
This study examines the role played by age. Earlier studies found that age plays a significant role in technological adoption and usage (Al Hunaiyyan, Alhajri, & Al Sharhan, 2020). The younger generation is more concerned about the link between technology usage and performance; while the older generation is more concerned about FC and SI.
Similarly, gender has also been shown to influence new technology’s adoption. It is crucial to examine how male and female teachers use technology in the classrooms, given the gender segregation in the Saudi Arabian educational system. Wiseman et al. (2018) found that gender and computer use are significantly related to classroom technology usage. Studies have reported that male teachers use technology more frequently than their female counterparts.
In addition, age and gender could potentially moderate the adoption of M LMS among teachers in Riyadh. The moderating roles of age and gender have been previously reported by studies (Mahdi and Al Dera, 2013; Al Hunaiyyan et al., 2020; Binyamin et al., 2020) that focused on teachers’ attitudes and behaviour
towards technology utilization. According to Al Hunaiyyan et al. (2017), age moderates the influence of all UTAUT parameters on technology utilisation. Khechine et al. (2014) investigated the roles of gender and age on the intention to use webinars in the UTAUT model for blended learning.
According to the author, only the age variable had a moderating effect. Yu (2012) revealed that gender significantly moderated the effects of performance anticipation and perceived financial cost on behavioural intention, when using gender and age as moderators. Magsamen Conrad et al. (2015) investigated the contributions of the four UTAUT determinants, PE, EE, SI, and FC, in predicting behavioural intention to use tablets, when using age, gender, and users’ experience as moderators.
After adjusting for age, gender, and tablet use, they discovered that EE and FC were the only determinants that positively predicted tablet use intentions. Both gender and age moderate the association between particular experiences, attitudes, and intentions. Chawla and Joshi (2020) found that this influence is more significant for younger male users.
The adoption of new technologies, such as M LMS, has become crucial in KSA teaching and learning. However, the adoption and utilisation of M technology are still poor in KSA (Al Ohali et al., 2019; Masmali, 2020), and particularly in Riyadh. Even though M LMS has been adopted and implemented for two years (Aldossry, 2021), the system in Riyadh is still new and inadequate. There is little or no reporting on the adoption of M LMS in intermediate and secondary schools in Riyadh.
The key aims of this study are: (1) to determine the mediating role of behavioural intention in the relationship between PE, EE, SI, and FC and the utilisation of M among teachers in Saudi public schools in Riyadh; (2) in order to determine whether behavioural intention significantly influences M’s utilisation among teachers in Saudi public schools in Riyadh; (3) in order to determine the role of gender and age as moderators for the utilisation of M among the teachers in Saudi public schools in Riyadh.
Based on these objectives, this study hypothesised that:
H1: Behavioural intention mediates the PE on M utilisation among teachers.
H2: Behavioural intention mediates the EE on M utilisation among teachers.
H3: Behavioural intention mediates the FC on M utilisation among teachers.
H4: Behavioural intention mediates the SI on M utilisation among teachers.
H5: Gender moderates the influence of PE on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H6: Gender moderates the influence of EE on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H7: Gender moderates the influence of SI on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H8: Gender moderates the influence of FC on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H9: Age moderates the influence of PE on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H10: Age moderates the influence of EE on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H11: Age moderates the influence of SI on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
H12: Age moderates the influence of FC on M LMS utilisation among teachers.
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H13: There is a direct effect of behavioural intention on M utilisation among teachers.
The findings of this study are important in increasing the utilisation level of M LMS among Saudi teachers. It is expected to add to the literature the usage of M LMS among teachers, in addition to assisting in developing and supporting strategies to increase M LMS use among Saudi teachers.
2.1 The mediating role
Behavioural intention has been identified as a mediating component impacting the use of technology (Urhahne, 2015; Bervell, Nyagorme, and Arkorful, 2020). According to these studies, technology’s use as a mediator, which mediates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, has no significant effect on behavioural intention. However, Singh and Sinha (2020) found that technology use has a considerable impact on behavioural intention; and that the mediating function of intention is critical in understanding the effect of technological origin and acceptability characteristics.
Similarly, Shanmugam et al. (2014) discovered that behavioural intention plays a significant role in mediating all paths between technology and acceptability. Moreover, Bervell, Nyagorme, and Arkorful (2020) found that in remote education, LMS enabled blended learning use intentions to moderate the role of attitude, based on technology related stimulus response.
In summary, the behavioural intention towards LMS adoption and usage can influence teachers’ teaching attitudes. This mindset influences their actual behaviour in the classroom, when it comes to the use of technology. This implies that behavioural intention may mediate the relationship between several factors (such as FC and attitudes) and LMS use.
Demographic factors, such as age and gender, have been discovered to have a considerable moderating effect on technology use. In line with this, Binyamin et al. (2020) discovered a substantial negative moderating influence of age, gender, and experience on EFL teachers’ use of technology. However, a number of research have found that age and gender are insignificant modifiers of technology adoption (Mahdi and Al Dera, 2013; Wiseman et al., 2018)
Gender has been utilised as a direct factor in UTAUT studies between technological uptake and teachers’ usage. Yu (2012) revealed that gender moderated the effects of PE and perceived financial cost on behavioural intention when gender and age were employed as moderators. Magsamen Conrad et al. (2015) used age, gender, and users’ experience as moderators, in order to examine the contributions of the four UTAUT determinants, PE, EE, SI, and FC, in predicting behavioural intention on using tablets.
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After adjusting for age, gender, and tablet use, they discovered that EE and FC were the only predictors positively predicting tablet use intentions. Gender moderates the effects of SI on behavioural intention and FC on usage behaviour (Guo, 2014). Both gender and age moderate the association between select antecedents and attitude and intention (Chawla and Joshi, 2020), with the influence being stronger for males and young users. However, Mahdi and Al Dera (2013) did not suggest using age as a moderator; because it is a continuous variable.
Studies have reported that PE is a significant influencing factor in LMS utilisation (Coleman and Mtshazi, 2017). Teachers acknowledged the function of LMS in assisting them in improving their jobs or assignments (Alahmari and Kyei Blankson, 2018). According to Do Nam Hung et al. (2019), the PE was strongly linked to and varied with the users’ possession and use of digital mobile devices. According to Pangaribuan and Wulandari (2018), PE significantly impacted behavioural intention. Furthermore, PE has a negligible effect on ICT adoption (Attuquayefio & Addo, 2014) and a substantial direct effect on behavioural intention to use Moodle, according to Ziraba, Akwene, & Lwanga (2020). Similarly, Onaolapo and Oyewole (2018) discussed how PE impacts behavioural intentions to accept smartphones.
Studies have found that EE declines as teachers become more comfortable with the new technology (Funmilola et al., 2019). In terms of LMS, the more familiar a teacher is with the internet, the less effort they believe is required to utilize one (Nyembezi and Bayaga, 2015). According to Ling et al. (2020), teachers adopt new technology when they perceive it as easy to use and requires less effort. Users would be apathetic towards unstable systems. The EE is the general ease with which the system can be accessed.
In this regard, Venkatesh et al. (2003) defined EE as people’s perceptions of how easy or difficult it is to use technology. EE has been demonstrated to have a negative impact on risk perception (Nyembezi, N., and Bayaga, 2015). The study employed the UTAUT model to evaluate the risks associated with ICT adoption; and they discovered that risk strongly predicts the components contributing to behavioural intention and enhancement (Gunasinghe et al., 2019) Dong (2019) found that EE is one of the most important factors in creating positive behavioural intentions for e learning adoption among teachers. Sánchez Prieto et al. (2017) found a correlation between EE and behavioural intention to use e governance technologies.
Teachers are more likely to use new technologies if they receive support and encouragement from others regarding their social impact (Al Gahtani, 2016; Fu et al., 2020). According to Singh and Sinha (2020), for an LMS to be effective, it must fit and engage instructors’ learning styles. Hence, institutions intending to use an LMS must provide sufficient direction and motivation to educators, demonstrating how it can and should be integrated into their teaching
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(Zimmermann, 2020). Teachers must be active users and supporters of technology; and the correct levels of institutional encouragement impart a level of social influence to which learners respond (Funmilola et al., 2019). The social dimension concentrated on the function of peers in motivating one another.
Furthermore, SI is concerned with how others influence an instructor’s attitude towards technology, whether positively or adversely. Ling et al. (2020) discovered that teachers’ attitudes influenced their own computer usage and predicted computer usage among students. Bervell et al. (2020) reached the same conclusion about SI’s role in LMS implementation in Saudi Arabian colleges. Both educators and students may use technology in the teaching and learning process, as the result of a greater awareness of how it satisfies their needs and those of their students (Cabero Almenara et al., 2019).
Several studies have discovered that FC is a significant external element influencing respondents’ willingness to accept an ICT based learning system (Peñarroja et al., 2019). However, the study’s recommendations stated that the findings should be validated. FC is frequently regarded as a resource, and technological considerations consider compatibility difficulties that affect consumption (Onaolapo and Oyewole, 2018). When all other factors are equal, it is reasonable to predict that the intention to use, and the actual use, would be less likely if there is less time and capital available, and when technical compatibility declines (Alghamdi and Holland, 2020)
In this light, the FC can also be viewed as being external and controlled by the environment. Hence, behaviour cannot occur if the facilitator is externally controlled.
On the other hand, FC has been found to moderate the intention to use e learning (Tarhini et al., 2017). A major issue linked to environmental considerations is the lack of availability and quality of technical help. Regardless of whether these past studies were conducted, they all pointed to the need for increased technological assistance for the LMS. This requirement stays true, regardless of the technical to non technical employee ratio. Therefore, the implementation of LMS in Saudi Arabia has been greatly hampered by the lack of top notch technical support.
This study used the UTAUT model as a conceptual framework (Figure 1). This conceptual framework shows that PE, EE, SI, and FC are independent variables. The study’s mediator variable is behavioural intention. At the same time, gender and age are the moderating variables directly impacting M LMS utilisation (the dependent variable) among teachers. It can be safely concluded that age and gender would be hypothesised as moderators of the utilisation of M LMS. Furthermore, these variables affected the efficacy of UTAUT as an instrument for this study.
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The conceptual framework is expected to assess how the selected UTAUT factors influence teachers’ behavioural intentions to utilise M LMS. In this light, the study considered the research population’s distinct culture and context. This is because studies found that these aspects contribute to the body of knowledge in this discipline. It would also be especially useful because there is still a scarcity of empirical research that examines BI as a mediator in LMS usage (Al Busaidi and Al Shihi, 2012) In Saudi Arabia, especially when M LMS is used, such scarcity is noticeably severe.
Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework
The study used a quantitative research design; specifically, the survey method was utilised to determine the factors (PE, EE, SI, and FC) impacting teachers’ behavioural intentions (mediator), as moderated by age and gender on M LMS utilisation in Saudi public schools in Riyadh. The problem is described by using a quantitative approach. It is useful for developing behaviour, for testing hypotheses, and when figuring out the opinions and behaviours of a large group.
Positivism is based on quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses. In this regard, this study used the quantitative positivist approach to examine a high degree of generalisability (McMurtry, 2020). Quantitative approaches, such as surveys, structured questionnaires, and certified statistics, are preferred by positivists; because they are more reliable and representative (Wang et al., 2020) The approach of this investigation was backed by a positivist epistemology.
The study targets teachers in public middle and secondary schools in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, who adopt the Madrasati platform. According to M LMS administrators and administration, approximately 13,782 public school teachers in Riyadh utilise Madrasati in all phases, constituting the study’s population. The sample size for this study was calculated to be 374 samples, using Cochran’s formula (Raosoft® software). Teachers at Riyadh’s public schools were picked from a pool of candidates. The samples used in the study are a subset of a larger population because they are representative of the whole.
The participants of this study include public school teachers utilising M LMS in Riyadh at all school levels, regardless of their experience in teaching. This study used suggestions given by Hair et al. (2010) to determine the sample size of this study. Hair et al. (2010) suggested that the ideal sample size suitable for SEM analysis should be approximately between 300 and 800 samples. Based on this suggestion, the sample size for this study was 374 samples. In addition to this, Raosoft® software and Cochran’s formula (2007) were used to calculate the sample size.
Although a sample size of 374 was sufficient to test the hypotheses for this study, 500 survey questionnaireswere randomly distributed via the internet to target the participants. This study oversamples, in order to account for difficulties like sampling flaws or potential participants’ unwillingness to complete surveys. 500 surveys were sent out, and 425 participants responded. Mistakes and missingdata were detected in 12 responses. These responses were removed from the analysis, and only 413 responses were used in the actual data analysis. The valid data are based on the return rate of 85 percent. According to Pallant (2020), a 60% rate of return is adequate for analysis.
This study adopted the survey method. Participants’ data were collected using questionnaires as a survey instrument. A survey questionnaire is the most utilised instrument in quantitative research on technology adoption and e learning. The questionnaires for this study used a 5 point Likert scale (Ziraba, Akwene, and Lwanga, 2020). On a five point rating scale, the respondents were asked to express their agreement or disagreement with each statement in each item, including 1 to 5 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Undecided; 4 = Agree; 5 = Agree Strongly.
Google Forms were used to conduct the survey. The questionnaire was distributed to all the targeted teachers in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, who were adopting Madrasati. A consent letter and a direct link to the poll were included in the emails. Because instructors often have less time to check their email at weekends, the survey was sent out during school hours, and at a time that was convenient for them (free time). A covering letter, or consent form, was included with the questionnaire survey.
When the relationship between two variables, such as dependent and independent, can be explained with the help of a third variable, the mediation effect occurs (Hayes and Preacher, 2014). The effect of behavioural intention on independent variables (PE, EE, SI, and FC) and on the dependent variable,M LMS, was investigated in this study. The indirect effect was used to further examine the relevance of the mediation in this study, which was assessed by using a boot strapping approach (Hayes and Preacher, 2014). The boot strapping analysis approach has the advantages of not assuming that the standard error distribution is associated with the indirect effect; and it gives the necessary confidence intervals for the estimation.
The substantial indirect impact of the two variables is decided on the basis of the P value. The null hypothesis indicated that there was no indirect effect between the two variables; since the t value was greater than 1.96. Hence, this hypothesis was rejected. The boot strapping analysis was used to measure the mediating effect of this research. For the mediation analysis, Hair et al. (2003) proposed boot strapping. The author also suggests that simple and many models be analyzed via boot strapping.
A Cronbach’s alpha test was employed to determine each variable’s internal consistency. According to Hayes and Coutts (2020), 0.7 is a satisfactory reliability coefficient. In this regard, PE (α=0.730), EE (α=0.867), SI (α=0.878), FC (α=0.846), and BI (0.835) all show high and satisfactory reliability. This result demonstrated that each of the five variables is reliable. It was possible to employ Cronbach's Alpha statistics for data analysis; because the reliability values were higher than the suggested cut off point of 0.700.
The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 2,3 was used to examine the quantitative data in this study. Percentages, means, and standard deviations were included in the descriptive analysis of the data. The data were also loaded into the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) v23, in order to investigate the hypotheses using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) by considering PE, EE, SI, and FC as independent variables; while M LMS was loaded as a dependent variable.
AMOS was used to examine the factors (PE, EE, SI, FC, and M LMS) in the three steps: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), measurement model analysis, and structural model analysis (Morin et al., 2020). Skewness and kurtosis were employed to determine the data’s normalcy. The skewness is between 0.038 and 1.506, and the kurtosis was between 1.506 and 1.506. The significance level was set at p < 0.05 for all the variables.
4.1
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the results of the boot strapping analysis to examine the
……possible mediating effect of BI in the relationship between PE, EE, SI, and FC on M LMS utilisation. The bootstrap estimates the magnitude of the indirect effects; and it examines the statistical significance of the indirect effects. The upper and lower limits for the 95% confidence interval values correspond to the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles from the lowest to the highest rank ordered estimates of the indirect effect derived from the 500 samples.
The indirect effect showed that PE, EE, SI, and FC had beta values of 0.193, 0.143, 0.114, and 0.191, respectively (Figure). The derivation of the mediating effect of BI in this study was based on this percentile confidence interval. If it does not include zero, the indirect effect is statistically significant with bias corrected at a 0.05 level of significance (Figure 2). This finding revealed that the indirect effect of PE on M LMS through the mediator BI is statistically significant at the 0.05 level of significance (Figure 2). The direct and mediation models’ results were compared to explain the mediation effect (Figure 3). Due to the statistical significance of the direct impact, it can be argued that BI somewhat mediated the association between PE and M LMS. Thus, BI partially mediates the relationship between PE and M LMS (Figure 3). The null hypothesis was rejected.
This finding revealed that the indirect effect of EE on M LMS through mediator BI is not statistically significant; as the p value of the standardised indirect effect is higher than 0.05, which indicates no significant mediation (Figure 2). The direct and mediation models’ results were compared to explain the mediation effect. Due to the lack of statistical significance of the direct impact, it can be stated that BI did not mediate the relationship between EE and M LMS. Furthermore, the indirect effect of SI on M LMS through mediator BI is statistically significant; as the standardised indirect effect is less than 0.05 (Figure 2), which indicates a significant mediation effect of BI in the relationship between social influence and M LMS. Also, the findings revealed that the indirect effect of FC on M LMS through mediator BI is statistically significant; as the p value of the standardised indirect effect is less than 0.05, which indicates a significant mediation effect. Thus, the null hypotheses were rejected. Therefore, BI partially mediates the relationship between SI, FC, and M LMS utilisation.
4.2
The moderation effects on the individual paths were tested once the moderation effects were established in the overall structural model. The test was based on Hair et al. (2010), which stated that a two group moderator has a moderation effect if 1) one group’s beta is significant, while the other group’s beta is non significant, or 2) both groups’ betas are significant, but one group’s beta is positive, while the other group’s beta is negative. The male beta value for PE on M LMS utilization is significant because the p value is 0.000.
In contrast, the female beta value for PE is insignificant; since the p value is 0.155 and it is larger than 0.05 (Table 1). Moreover, the male beta value for EE on M LMS
is significant because the p value is 0.000; whereas the female beta value for EE is insignificant; since the p value is 0.306, which is higher than 0.05.
Table 1: The mediating role of gender results with individual path Hypotheses
Beta SE. CR. P Decision
Male M LMS < PE 0.290 0.071 3.972 *** Mediate
Female M LMS < PE 0.101 0.076 1.423 0.155
Male M LMS < EE 0.253 0.060 4.040 *** Mediate
Female M LMS < EE 0.062 0.043 1.023 0.306
Male M LMS < SI 0.242 0.068 3.206 0.001 Mediate
Female M LMS < SI 0.013 0.076 0.188 0.851
Male M LMS < FC 0.059 0.101 0.541 0.588 Mediate Female M LMS < FC 0.149 0.042 2.110 0.035
The male beta value for SI on M LMS is significant; because the p value is 0.001, whereas the female beta value for SI is insignificant; since the p value is 0.851, which is higher than 0.05 (Table 1). Furthermore, the male beta value for FC on M LMS was not significant; because the p value was 0.588, which is greater than 0.05. Meanwhile, the female beta value for FC is significant; since the p value is 0.035, which is less than 0.05.
The multi group analysis (MGA) was used to assess the study’s hypotheses. We divided the participants into four age groups: 30 years and under; 31 40 years old; 41 50 years old; and 51 years and above (Table 2).
Table 2: The moderating role of age results, according to the individual path Hy. No. Age Groups Relationships Beta SE. CR. P Decision H1
30 years old and less M LMS < PE 0.230 0.188 1.898 0.058
31 40 years old M LMS < PE 0.199 0.137 1.712 0.087 41 50 years old M LMS < PE 0.129 0.100 1.568 0.117 51 years and above M LMS < PE 0.129 0.050 1.458 0.145 H2 30 years old and less M LMS < EE 0.210 0.105 2.162 0.031 Moderate 31 40 years old M LMS < EE 0.207 0.077 2.200 0.028
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Does not Moderate
Hy. No. Age Groups Relationships Beta SE. CR. P Decision
30 years old and less M LMS < SI 0.273 0.095 2.624 0.009
31 40 years old M LMS < SI 0.200 0.106 1.837 0.066
41 50 years old M LMS < EE 0.089 0.069 1.075 0.282 51 years and above M LMS < EE 0.089 0.042 1.164 0.244 H3
41 50 years old M LMS < SI 0.059 0.127 0.387 0.699
Moderate
30 years old and less M LMS < FC 0.247 0.122 1.980 0.048
31 40 years old M LMS < FC 0.113 0.079 1.059 0.289
51 years and above M LMS < SI 0.059 0.052 0.693 0.488 H4
41 50 years old M LMS < FC 0.027 0.082 1.709 0.087
51 years and above M LMS < FC 0.027 0.059 0.319 0.750
Moderate
Based on the results in Table 2, the beta values of all the age groups for PE on M LMS utilisation are not significant, as the p values of all the groups are higher than 0.05. This indicates that all the groups do not show any significant effect, and all of them have similar results, confirming no moderation effect. The result of the moderating effect of age between EE and M LMS is statistically significant; because the p values of groups 30 and under and 31 40 are significant, but the beta values of groups 41 50 years old and 51 years and above are insignificant; because the p value is greater than 0.05.
The moderating effect of age in the link between SI and M LMS was found to be statistically significant; as the p values of the groups 30 years old and less are significant. However, the beta values of 31 40, 41 50, and 51 and above were found insignificant; as the p value was more than 0.05. However, the result of FC was found to be statistically significant; as the p values of the age group of 30 and under are significant. In the meantime, the beta values for the age groups of 31 40, 41 50, and 51 years and above were found to be insignificant; as the p value was more than 0.05.
The findings of this study revealed that behavioural intention has a direct impact on M usage among teachers, implying that technology is used positively. Individuals who see the purpose of using an LMS, according to Ifinedo et al. (2018) and Zheng et al. (2018), use it favourably to improve their achievements. A person’s conscious or purposeful intention to engage in either positive or negative action is known as behavioural intention (Chao, 2019).
This indicates that if a person expects to benefit from specific activities or jobs, they will engage in them. Behavioural intention is important in learning and development; because it helps us understand how new behaviours are acquired and habits can be developed. Behavioural intention, according to Alharbi et al. (2014), has a mediated function in affecting the adoption of technology, like M LMS. The research data also showed that behavioural intention has a positive mediating effect on M LMS use among Riyadh public school teachers.
This study also showed that behavioural intention mediates the PE on M utilisation among teachers. The results suggest that the behavioural intention of teachers to get a task done in public schools can be translated into PE. This finding is consistent with those reported by Bervell et al. (2020), who exhibited that behavioural intention mediated PE towards technology usage. The M LMS utilisation was achieved through improvement in PE, as supported by facilitating conditions in the public schools.
The finding also revealed that behavioural intention mediated the FC on M utilisation among teachers, which implied that the higher the FC, the ultimate the behavioural intention towards M LMS utilisation. This showed the significant impact of behavioural intention serving as a mediator in the relationship between FC and the usage of M LMS. Consistent with this finding, Pangaribuan and Wulandari (2018) found a significant relationship between FC and behavioural intention. However, behavioural intention did not mediate the EE on M utilisation among teachers.
The explanation for this could be that the instructors’ behavioural aims, as they create a practice of continuous usage of LMS in a Riyadh public school have yet to be fully fulfilled. According to Magsamen Conrad et al. (2015), the only characteristics that positively predict technology use intentions are EE and FC. When the influence of FC is controlled, the findings imply that FC has a considerable impact on behavioural intention; but EE has no effect. Likewise, the results of this study also exhibited that behavioural intention mediates the SI on M LMS utilisation among teachers, indicating that behavioural intention has a mediating effect on PE, FC, and SI.
Another finding is that gender, specifically that of male teachers, is a significant moderator in the link between PE, EE, and SI on M LMS utilisation among school teachers in Riyadh. while female teachers play no significant moderating role. This finding confirms the gender moderation effect on the overall model. This suggests that the male teachers performed better in terms of new technological advancements, such as M LMS, than did the female teachers. This finding was supported by Guo (2014), who discovered that gender moderates the effects of SI on BI and FC on user behaviour, which is consistent with the findings here. However, the present result showed that FC has no male gender moderating role on M LMS. Since FC could not moderate the influence of males on M LMS utilisation among Saudi teachers, this factor might not be a matter of concern in the context of Riyadh. However, the current findings do not agree with the findings of Yu (2012), who indicated gender and age as moderators, and who
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found that gender significantly moderates the effects of PE and the perceived financial cost on behavioural intention. Similarly, it does not agree with the findings of Binyamin et al. (2020), which showed that gender has no moderating effect on the acceptance of LMS in Saudi Arabia.
The association between EE, SI, and FC was shown to be moderated by age, implying that teachers’ age category (30 and below, between 31 and 40 years old, between 41 50, and 51 years and above) directly impacts M LMS usage in Riyadh schools. This suggests that the overall impact of the UTAUT factors on M LMS utilisation through behavioural intentions among the school teachers. However, both the p value and beta values for the 31 40 age group, the 41 50 age group, and 51 and above with regard to PE are insignificant. Hence, age has no significant moderating role in the relationship between PE and M LMS utilisation. In this light, age plays a major role in teachers’ lives, because younger teachers are more concerned with their performance, while older ones are more concerned about FC.
Consequently, it may not have the same effect on teachers who are experienced in teaching and in the use of technology. The results contradict the results reported by Yu (2012), who found that age considerably moderates the effects of PE and the perceived self efficacy on actual adoption behaviour. Conversely, Wiseman et al. (2018) considered the age range of faculty members to be relatively wide, with the participants ranging from 20 to 57 years old, and the effect between the two variables was found to be insignificant.
The findings of the study revealed that behavioural intention, age, and gender played mediating and moderating roles in M LMS utilisation among Riyadh teachers. In terms of mediation, behavioural intention was found to significantly mediate the relationship between PE, SI, and FC on M LMS utilisations. However, BI was found to have no significant mediating role between EE and M LMS. In terms of age, the beta values of all the age groups' moderating effects on M LMS utilisation were significant, except for PE, which was not significant. However, the moderating effect of age of EE on M LMS utilisation is significant for age groups 30 and under and 31 40 years old, but the beta values of age groups 41 50 years old and 51 years and above were insignificant.
In terms of gender, the moderating influence of male beta value for PE and EE on M LMS was found to be significant. In contrast, no moderating role was observed for the female beta value; because PE and EE were insignificant. The moderating effect of SI on M LMS was significant, whereas the female beta value for SI was insignificant. Furthermore, the male beta value for FC on M LMS is insignificant, while the female beta value for FC is significant. The finding showed that teachers’ gender (male) significantly moderates the role of PE, EE, and SI on M LMS utilisation among teachers in Riyadh.
As this study found, the moderating role of age and gender in the relationship, it is recommended that future studies should consider other factors, such as time and experience, which might also moderate the relationship between BI and other
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variables. Therefore, these variables should be deemed as moderators in future studies.
The limitations of this study include: (i) Schools in Riyadh widely use Moodle, which further limits the scope of this study to this Moodle, thereby limiting the generalisation of the findings to other related cities within Saudi Arabia, which are using different LMS tools, such as M LMS. (ii) The selected population was limited only to teachers in Riyadh public schools. The results may also not be generalised to all the teacher population in Saudi Arabia, but rather to studies that have similar characteristics.
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Dear esteemed teacher,
I would like to thank youinadvance for your cooperation in completingthis survey,which aims to clarify the most important factors influencing teachers’ behavioural intentions and utilization of Madrasati (M) in Saudi Public Schools. E learning encompasses the management of the entire learning process, as well as the integration of computer systems to manage teaching and learning procedures, commonly referred to as Learning Management Systems (LMS).Madrasati is a system that enables the teacher to manage the educational process electronically, provide educational activities, prepare lessons,manage courses, disseminate class assignments, present topics related to the objectives of the coursefordiscussioninthecourseforums,recordstudentattendance,managethe dialogue synchronously and asynchronously with the learners, and provide electronic educational tastings and evaluation processes to determine the level of the learner's performance.
This survey is important as a part of data collection purposes, and your feedback is important to the study. The data and information will be treated with confidentiality. The researcher hopes to receive genuine and truthful feedback from the respondents. Your participation in this study is strictly voluntary. Feel free to contact me if you wish to be excluded from this study. Any questions or enquiries about the questionnaire are welcome by e mail or contact number. Finally, I thank you for giving me this part of your precious time.
Ph.D. Candidate Hamad Muaybid Alharbi Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Faculty of Educational Studies hamad_4106@hotmail.com 0555154106
Please, read each statement and answer: Please fill in the blank or tick the appropriate boxes for each of the following questions. Please make sure that you have answered all the questions. 1.
2. Age
30 years old and less
31 40 years old
41 50 years old
51 years old and above 3. Education Level
Undergraduate
Postgraduate 4. Experience (years)
7 years and less
8 14 years
15 21 years
22 28 years
29 years and above 5. What number of Madrasati (M) workshops have you attended in this year?
One workshop
Two workshops
Three workshops
More than three workshops
Part B: Factors influencing the utilization of Madrasati Please circle the number that best reflects your opinion. 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral (not sure, don't care, not a factor to me) 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree No Performance Expectancy (PE) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree 6 Madrasati helps me to teach. 1 2 3 4 5 7 Madrasati enables me to accomplish tasks (e.g.to provide assignments, reports etc.) more quickly. 1 2 3 4 5 8 Madrasati improves the quality of my work (e.g. assignments, reports etc). 1 2 3 4 5 9 Madrasati increases my knowledge of the subject matter 1 2 3 4 5 10 Madrasati is well integrated with all other aspects of my teaching assignment 1 2 3 4 5
No Effort Expectancy (EE) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
11 Madrasati is user friendly 1 2 3 4 5
12 Madrasati is easy to use 1 2 3 4 5
13 The features in Madrasati are clear and easy to understand hence operating the system becomes much easier 1 2 3 4 5
14 Madrasati’s features are straight forward 1 2 3 4 5
15 Using the Madrasati requires time and effort appropriate and it rewarding normal duties 1 2 3 4 5 No Social influence (SI) Strong ly Disagr ee
16
Disagr ee Neutr al Agree Strong ly Agree
Being amongst the first to use the Madrasati within my circle of friends and family makes me special. 1 2 3 4 5
17 In general, the management of the school has supported the use of the Madrasati. 1 2 3 4 5
18 People who are important to me think that I should use the Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5 19 Current technology trends in social life have increased the popularity of Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5
20 Nowadays, society expects that learning include the use of LMS like Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5
No Facilitating Conditions (FC) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree 21 I have the resources necessary to use the Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5 22 A specific person (or group) is available in school for assistance with Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5 23 The facilities (e.g. Internet accessibility, WiFi) provided by management to use the Madrasati fully, meets users’ needs 1 2 3 4 5 24 The workshops and training to familiarise teachers with the Madrasati are helpful and sufficient 1 2 3 4 5 25 Management support services and infrastructure gives teachers the confidence 1 2 3 4 5
No Behavioural Intention (BI) Strong ly Disagr ee
Disagr ee Neutra l Agree Strong ly Agree 55 I predict that I will continue to use Madrasati. 1 2 3 4 5 56 I believe that teachers will increasingly familiarize themselves with the Madrasati in the next 6 months 1 2 3 4 5 57 I am looking forward to attend workshops about the effective use of Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5 58 I expect to fully enjoy the use of Madrasati 1 2 3 4 5 59 I intend to make the Madrasati central to my learning in school. 1 2 3 4 5
Please circle the number that best reflects your opinion.
Never = Not ever used at all
Rarely = Used at least once a month Sometimes = Used at least once a week Often = Used at least three times a week Always = Used every day
No Level of M Utilization
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 65
I use the “Announcement tool” to add updates related to the course I am teaching.
1 2 3 4 5 66 I use the “Forum tool” to enhance the dialogue with my students.
1 2 3 4 5 67 I use the “File exchange tool” to share the course documents with my students. 1 2 3 4 5 68 I use the “chat tool” for synchronous communication in real time with students on topics related to the course. 1 2 3 4 5 69 I use the “Glossary tool” to insert new terms and definitions related to the course I am teaching 1 2 3 4 5 70 I use the “Assignment tool” to send/ download/ upload tasks for all or particular students.
1 2 3 4 5 71 I use the “Assessment Tool” to conduct online short tests/exercises. 1 2 3 4 5 72
I see the information of students registered in the course for the purposes of communication (such as: see personal information, e mail, mobile phone number
1 2 3 4 5 73 I use the “Questions bank tool” to create /prepare tests for my student. 1 2 3 4 5 74 I use the “Survey manager tool” to explore the students’ perceptions on the course I am teaching. 1 2 3 4 5 75 I use the “Grade book tool” to record/ edit or delete students’ scores. 1 2 3 4 5 76 I use the “Tracking forum Participation tool” to track student participation in forums. 1 2 3 4 5 77
I use the “Virtual classroom tool” to enable synchronous communication with my students by using multimedia features. (For example audio, video, text chat, application sharing).
1 2 3 4 5
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 120 133, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.7
Received Jun 16, 2022; Revised Aug 21, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Motalenyane Alfred Modise*
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to explore economic and management sciences (EMS) as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners in South Africa. The objective of introducing EMS in schools was to equip learners with basic real life skills in accounting, economics, and business This requires educators who are highly skilled and well vested withthe content of EMS toimpart knowledge tolearners. However, research has shown continuous challenges in accounting, as it is regarded as a difficult subject due to a high failure rate. Data were obtained through semi structured interviews from six EMS educators who were purposively sampled. The results revealed that EMS educators arequalifiedforeitheroneortwoEMSdisciplines,resultinginEMSbeing taught by unqualified educators with inadequate content knowledge (CK) due to the scarcity of qualified educators. The study revealedacontinuousneglectionofaccountingcontent,asEMSeducators focus more on economics and business studies. The study also revealed that the time allocated to teach EMS is insufficient and that accounting should not be merged with other subjects as it requires more time. We recommend that the way in which EMS educators are trained should be reviewed. In addition, we suggest that a special program should be designed to fully equip EMS educators in all three areas to ensure the availability of qualified EMS educators. We further recommend that the Department of Education should review time allocation for EMS.
Keywords: accounting; educators; EMS; ground rule; learners
The purpose of this study was to explore economic and management sciences (EMS) as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners in South Africa and to identify factors that affect learner performance. Lately, there has been a
* Corresponding author: MotalenyaneAlfredModise,mamodise@cut.ac.za
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
repeated recognition of the importance of educators’ EMS subject matter knowledge (SMK), also known as content knowledge (CK). Not surprisingly, it has become clear that both the pedagogical knowledge and SMK of educators are key to high quality EMS teaching and learner understanding (Van Driel & Berry, 2012). Therefore, a lack CK for EMS can be a potential barrier to effective teaching. For the profession that instructs other professions, there is no agreement about the body of knowledge compulsory to be an educator. Thus, the notion of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) pursues the embodying of educators’ professional knowledge and has been commonly used in the literature about educator knowledge (Gess Newsome et al., 2019). The focus of this paper is the dimension of knowledge Shulman (1987) identified to be “the base of all knowledge bases” : CK
2.1 Educators’ PCK and CK
CK, also known as SMK, is one of the fundamental types of knowledge bases an EMS educator must possess. SMK relates to the knowledge that is typically learned through formal education in schools and universities (Shulman, 1986; Uzzo et al., 2018). CK can be defined as facts, knowledge of ideas, ideologies, relations, procedures, and applications that learners should know in each subject area, or that educators should know about for their teaching, or simply the knowledge about the subject matter to be learned or taught (Etikan et al., 2016). Shulman (1986) emphasized that a mixture of SMK and pedagogical knowledge enables an educator to assist learners to construct proper understanding.
A strong theoretical grasp of themes enables educators to easily identify learners’ misunderstandings and errors. Hence, a deep understanding of appropriate CK is one of the attributes of effective EMS educators (Mthethwa Kunene, 2014). Educators’ capability to recognize, describe, and use theories is important in education, as well as their ability to create, apply, and measure teaching (Banjo, 2019). According to Kotoka (2018) and Jadama (2014), educators’ SMK can be evaluated by examination of the accurateness of EMS facts, the flexibility of presenting explanations demonstrated by educators, consecutive demonstration of facts, categorized presentation of facts, and lastly, the flow of concepts of presenting themes throughout a lesson (Jadama, 2014; Ngwenya & Maistry, 2012). Thus, educators with deep and comprehensible CK are expected to offer clear clarifications of difficult concepts and relations between essential ideas. Educators can detect applicable and correct illustrations of ideas They organize and implement teaching that consists of several demonstrations and simulations of the perceptions, offering accurate illustrations of technical concepts, assessing learners’ understanding, and identifying misconceptions and practical learning difficulties (Kunter et al., 2013).
However, many studies have shown that most EMS educators do not possess adequate CK and may avoid teaching some content or offer artificial treatment to difficult ideas as a lack of content adds to nervousness and a low level of self efficiency, resulting in less operative instruction (Khanare, 2012; Modise, 2016). The measuring of educators’ CK involves numerous tests, and previous research
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papers have applied extensive approaches to appraise it. Consequently, it is at times problematic to produce results of such an appraisal procedure. Other researchers have utilized certain programs to verify educators’ CK level, trying to directly assess CK through right or wrong replies or multiple choice items (Mthethwa Kunene, 2014; Olfos et al., 2014). Educators’ PCK and knowledge of learners’ misconceptions will be highlighted next.
Learners do not come to the classroom as plain slates, but with some misunderstandings in relation to EMS themes. Olfos et al. (2014) affirmed that PCK is identified as the knowledge of how to educate a specific subject. However, knowledge of subject matter and knowledge of pedagogy are not sufficient to accomplish an active education training without understanding learners. This involves some knowledge about learners and their characteristics (conceptions, preconceptions, misconceptions, and learning difficulties). For learner and other contexts, educators require knowledge regarding opinions, interpretations, or attitudes learners carry to the teaching space from their personal background knowledge prior to learning about certain concepts (Gess Newsome et al., 2019; Sithole & Lumadi, 2012). This knowledge is usually not imparted throughout educator training programs. However, it is developed throughout the years of teaching experience, through educators carefully giving attention to learners’ feedback and as a result becoming acquainted with their learners’ usual ideas about EMS technical topics or concepts (Qian & Lehman, 2017). Learners have differing understanding and attention concentrations regarding the EMS subject topics presented by educators. Their prior knowledge (preconceptions) around EMS can affect their recent learning understanding and may end in an idea being wrongly understood by learners (Banjo, 2019). Most learners bring with them into the classroom errors which most educators do not know how to address or most often tend to duplicate. These may relate to how to conduct certain procedures, explaining how to apply a rule to resolve a problem, instead of clarifying the accurate ideas that can aid to resolve learner errors (Mthethwa Kunene, 2014).
To examine learner mistakes in relation to themes that they were taught, it is crucial to be able to identify these misconceptions. The term misconception is defined as chunks of incorrect knowledge that occur from pupils’ prior knowledge and understanding, both within and beyond the teaching space (Kotoka, 2018). When educators are aware of what learners know, they will be able to help construct connections between what is known and unknown, and this can help educators to illuminate misunderstandings to assist learners to comprehend new information (Qian & Lehman, 2017). This will enable the educator to prepare their lessons using a technique that confronts any learner misconceptions, inspires debate and reasoning of views that pupils may carry in the EMS teaching space, and formulates clarifications and illustrations that may aid learners to access the content of the topic (Phakathi, 2018). Knowledge of such learning difficulties will also permit educators to set up potential prior CK required for specific subject matter, which learners may then simply connect to the new knowledge. In addition, Badu Nyarko and Torto (2014) confirmed that for the teaching space to be productive in removing misunderstandings,
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educators should introduce proper ideas in clear opposition to the learners’ incorrect perceptions. A selected teaching (if the educator holds knowledge of learners’ misconceptions) must incorporate demonstrations and activities that produce counterevidence and credible conceptual options to focus on misconceptions. Educators’ PCK and knowledge of instructional strategies is discussed next.
The experience of teaching and learning differs according to the mode of the subject at a particular time, which entails various instructional strategies to attain the lesson objectives for the subject to be taught (Peklaj, 2015). Pedagogical knowledge is depicted as the science of education, instruction, and training. It is one of the mediating factors between educators’ SMK and classroom practice (Mthethwa Kunene, 2014). It comprises understanding the subject matter and the exact requirements of that subject, such as instructional strategies. Instructional strategies serve as a pillar for teaching, and, when utilized properly, can help learners to acquire a richer knowledge of course material and inspire critical thinking beyond basic retention and shallow understanding (Killen, 2015) The selection of instructional strategies by EMS educators during a lesson is extremely significant because individual lessons need various instructional strategies (Shulman, 1987). Therefore, the proper selection of instructional strategy does not rely only on the educator’ s CK but then again also on their skill of learners’ degree of knowledge (Badu Nyarko & Torto, 2014; Killen, 2015). Karthikeyan (2013) inferred that the educator’s success in teaching a specific topic of the subject (EMS) depends on the depth and extensiveness of the individual educator’s PCK. Prior to the beginning of a lesson, an EMS educator is simply required to properly plan the lesson. They need to choose a suitable teaching strategy for that lesson, choose content that is fit to the learners’ level of understanding, and lastly facilitate the exchange of ideas among the learners in their groupwork.
Educators with a wide ranging knowledge of the elements of PCK constantly make a proper choice of instructional strategies applicable for the level of learners’ development (Phakathi, 2018). PCK enables an educator to predict difficulties that learners may encounter during teaching, and to consequently become skilled with proper methods when designing lessons (Gess Newsome et al., 2019). Similarly, during the process of instruction, an educator fuses more than a few knowledge domains, such as SMK and knowledge of instructional strategies, and at that phase an EMS educator links new EMS knowledge with what learners already know. Educators’ PCK includes learning how to take advantage of diverse instructional methods that add up to a learning experience applicable to all learners. This comprises being adaptable and altering teaching that considers a few learning styles, abilities, and interests (Phakathi, 2018). According to Killen (2015), good instructional strategies ought to actively involve learners, help them to use their skills and prior knowledge to resolve problems encountered, stimulate them to take part throughout a lesson, and, lastly, build a conducive teaching space for all learners.
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Studies have shown that even though skillful educators vary in their real teaching style and administration, they all use instructional strategies to get the best out of learners and their engagement in learning tasks. They inspire learners’ energetic involvement, make certain that learners comprehend a task they are instructed to do, and set tasks and activities at the accurate level to guarantee high rates of achievement. In addition, they fashion a constructive and helpful classroom atmosphere, are good supervisors of conduct, and are skilled in motivating learners to learn (McNeill et al., 2016). Furthermore, the choice of a teaching strategy must also encourage a disciplined learning environment that allows learners to listen to other learners’ inputs and encourage the sharing of ideas as they unfold from the lesson (Khudair, 2018). This distinct type of knowledge concerns an awareness of how learners come to know, common classroom management abilities and lesson planning, as well as evaluation of learners. Badu Nyarko and Torto (2014) and Killen (2015) asserted that outstanding EMS educators are those who are aware of inclusive useful instructional strategies combined with procedures for learning and teaching that encourage learners’ enjoyment of EMS topics. Such educators often decide on instructional strategies that manage to produce the greatest learning experience for all learners.
However, a partial knowledge of instructional strategies can negatively influence the art of teaching (Khudair, 2018). One of the reasons for a deficiency of knowledge around instructional strategies may be deficient CK. Stripling et al. (2014) affirmed that educator knowledge of instructional strategies is reliant on their SMK. A review of research on educators’ PCK (Killen, 2015) showed that factors manipulating educators’ choice of instructional approaches are the time accessible to prepare lessons and teach, school resources, anxiety about classroom management, views around the use of activities, and individual knowledge of previous learning of a theme. Therefore, knowledge of subject matter and instruction implies that an educator has power over the success with which a lesson is presented (Chen, 2014).
Mohammadi et al. (2013) and Tambara (2015) discussed four elements that enhance effective teaching delivery. The first is the excellence of instruction, which refers to activities of instruction that make sense to learners (such as introducing information in an organized manner or observing changeovers to current issues) Secondly, the suitability level of teaching refers to an educator adapting their approach of teaching to the learners’ various demands. Adaptability means the level of instruction (e.g., a lesson must be neither extremely hard nor simple for learners) or the different methods of within class ability grouping. The third element is motivation, where learners must be effectively driven to want to pay attention to learning and to complete given tasks. For EMS educators, this requires linking EMS themes to the learners’ experiences. The last element that enhances effective teaching delivery is time. This means that teaching and learning aspects must be measurable, for instance, approaches of classroom management allowing learners to spend a substantial quantity of time on assignments. Factors affecting leaner performance are discussed below.
Learner performance and the achievement of the desired EMS goals are strongly reliant on educator training (Papageorgiou & Halabi, 2014). Educators are confronted with the task of acquiring knowledge of financial literacy, economics, and entrepreneurship, which require three hours of teaching each week. This three element combination of EMS is unfavorable to educators who are trained only on a single element. Odumbe et al (2015) claimed that an educator cannot assertively teach learners while he or she is educationally vulnerable in one of the elements. Factors which weaken EMS learners’ performance are discussed below.
The school environment needs to be conducive to the intended goals and objectives of the EMS to succeed. Many schools find themselves having no option but to hire educators who lack EMS CK since there is a lack of qualified educators who are well vested and equipped to teach the subject, and it is challenging for unqualified educators to teach a subject without proper training. The concern is that EMS educators are not adequately trained to handle the demands of the new curriculum, considering that they are skilled in specialized subjects. As a result, educators who are poorly trained, unmotivated, and show no creativity are not likely to produce inspired entrepreneurial thinkers (Papageorgiou & Halabi, 2014). Unfortunately, most schools find themselves with educators who either were only exposed to commercial subjects up to matric level; at least specialized in one or two of the three components of the EMS; never exposed to any EMS knowledge in their schooling; or qualified and knowledgeable with all the three components of EMS. Modise (2016) asserted that even though the attention of the school curriculum is on entrepreneurship, teaching these skills is beyond the skills of many educators. By nature of educators’ training and experience, often, educators do not have the knowledge to provide learners with skills on how the economy works. This is because several educators do not have business training, do not own a business, or have never worked in the business sector or any business, except in education. If EMS educators lack sound background knowledge of EMS but are expected to teach, this is sure to have dire consequences. Undoubtedly, the schooling system rather than the tertiary education system is responsible for this failure, hence the country has low rates of entrepreneurial activity. Below, EMS instructional time allocation is reviewed.
In the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document for EMS, it is specified that the time allocation for EMS teaching is two hours per week (South Africa. Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2011). Time allocation plays an essential role in the attainment of EMS related goals and objectives. Learners have different ways of grasping concepts, some being quick and others slow. Time allocation can therefore be a challenge for those learners who are slow. On the other hand, time allocation presents a problem as it does not take into consideration the situational factors (such as lack of textbooks, teaching aids, poorly built classrooms, and learners from disadvantaged backgrounds) that could negatively influence educators’ objectives. EMS learning space demands that learners be exposed to the movement of money, goods, and services; business
and government; the rights and responsibilities of the various role players in the economy; environmental economic growth; and poverty reduction strategies. A lack of exposure to various business environments, norms, language, and procedures of the business world can also be a challenge to learners who are slow to understand and internalize the EMS related knowledge. Therefore, school authorities need to align time allocated to EMS with what is prescribed in the CAPS document. As a result, educators also cannot seek to achieve the EMS related classroom objectives if schools are disregarding and pay no attention to the recommendations outlined in the CAPS document. Furthermore, objectives of the EMS classroom cannot be achieved if the time allocated for EMS learning does not match what is approved by the educational publications of the Department of Education. Next, overcrowded classrooms is discussed.
Many South African government schools are characterized by overcrowded classrooms (Modise, 2016). Overcrowding in the classroom can be defined as where a classroom has more learners than the prescribed educator learner ratio of 1:30. In EMS, because of its nature, an overcrowded classroom can be a disruption of the educator’s lesson objectives, leading to inferior performance. Assan and Lumadi (2012) asserted that goals in place will be difficult to achieve if educational organization authorities pay no attention to class sizes. It is challenging for EMS educators to give attention to overcrowded classes filled with learners from different backgrounds and who have different understanding abilities, often affecting the motivation level. Therefore, overcrowded classrooms affect how much time educators give to individual learners and make it difficult for them to monitor behaviours and activities. Alber (2014) added that an overcrowded classrooms can be noisy, which is why it is important for educators to set up rules to help monitor the noise levels.
Motivation is defined as an inner state that stimulates, produces, and supports behavior. Therefore, the mindset of educators is greatly related to their lack of motivation (South Africa. DBE, 2012). The integration of accounting (financial literacy), economics, and business studies (entrepreneurship) into the further education and training (FET) level has been shown to contribute to poor learner performance and low abstract insight, which have led to poor matric outcomes. Assan and Lumadi (2012) added that some EMS educators lack motivation to boldly present information on something that has not produced any required outcomes previously. The absence of motivation overshadows the desire and the eagerness to conduct EMS work and creates unwanted EMS related impediments. It deprives learners of the ability to be creative and analytical and causes individual learners to be satisfied with mediocrity. It restricts learners in striving for life long solutions to daily challenges, which certainly leads to inferior performance.
The aim of this study was to gain an in depth understanding of EMS as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners and to identify factors that affect
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learner performance. To do this, we employed a qualitative research method. According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2018), Creswell (2015), and Johnson and Christensen (2012), qualitative research enables the researcher to examine people’s words and actions and report it in narrative and descriptive ways more closely representing the situation as experienced by the participants. For this study, interviews were used as data collection instrument and were conducted with six EMS educators. Letters and consent forms were sent to all EMS educators from secondary schools in Lejweleputswa District in South Africa Six EMS educators agreed to participate by signing the consent form. A small sample size should be considered appropriate in qualitative research as it can be useful in reaching data capacity (Kumar, 2014). A tape recorder was used to record the interviews, while the note taking technique was also utilized as a complementary strategy. The phenomenological approach is appropriate for studies which have the goal of exploring people’s actual social experiences. In this regard, it was appropriate to investigate EMS as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners and to identify factors that affect learner performance.
Data were collected from six EMS educators, who were selected using the guidelines of purpose sampling by Creswell and Creswell (2018). Semi structured interviews were used to collect the data from the participants to elicit information about EMS as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners and to identify factors that affect learner performance. Approval to conduct research was granted by the participants, who completed consent forms as individuals in the Free State province, South Africa. For ethical reasons, participants volunteered for the study and the purpose of the research was explained to the participants.
Data were thematically analyzed using open coding procedures (Belotto, 2018; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). These involved systematically organizing, categorizing, and summarizing data and describing it in meaningful themes. Themes were assigned codes to condense the data into categories.
To present the findings and discussion, we assigned pseudonyms to the participating EMS educators (e.g., Participant 1, Participant 2, etc.). The findings and discussion are presented in the order of the three identified themes: (i) educators’ CK about EMS, (ii) teaching strategies applied by EMS educators, and (iii) learners’ misconceptions.
One of our focuses was the knowledge that EMS educators should possess to teach the subject. Participants responded to this in the following ways: “… as an EMS educator, you must know all those three subjects. You must be able to understand accounting, know accounting, and how to apply it as much as they know how to apply economics and business studies, because EMS is inclusive of the three of them.” (Participant 1)
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“
I think as an educator, you should have the content knowledge of all three elements of EMS. You must be well vested in all of them to be able to effectively present or teach your learners. However, it becomes a challenge for an educator who only specialized in one and not all the subjects.” (Participant 4)
“
It is especially important to have a content knowledge of EMS. I mean, if you do not, then you will not be able to deliver the content to the kids, hence it becomes a problem For instance, when coming to financial literacy ... it becomes a challenge for me to thoroughly teach it to my class, because I do not have the depth of it as I did not specialize in it.” (Participant 2)
The notion of having a full CK as educators shows how important it is to possess such knowledge to be able to teach and empower learners. This supports the literature in this paper, which indicated that challenges concerning the subject matter of EMS are centered on the demand for educators to grasp and understand EMS content as a merged subject (Modise, 2016). When that is not taken into consideration, educators will continue to neglect some content in which they are not fully confident (e.g., accounting), simply because they lack knowledge in it. Modise (2016) confirmed that several educators instructing EMS who did not specialize in accounting, as a result tended to teach entrepreneurial or economics aspects, while sacrificing the financial literacy curriculum. Modise (2016) stated that when these educators present financial literacy, it is too theoretical rather than practical.
Teaching strategies applied by educators play an important role when teaching EMS to ensure that content is properly presented. Supported by literature, teaching strategy is defined as the methods of teaching appropriate in assisting learners to learn the intended lesson content and to be able to create achievable goals in the future (Mohammadi et al., 2013). In the interviews, participants mentioned the following different teaching strategies:
“I make use of scaffolding strategy … where I teach a learner and you are with them step by step until they can do things themselves, especially when you are teaching the accounting part of EMS, where you give the learner content week in, week out, until you let them be able to calculate certain things by themselves. I start with them, I do the activity in class, do examples with them, and then I give them home activities The next time we meet, they can do them on board themselves, cause now they have learned how to.” (Participant 1)
“Mostly, I use teamwork strategy, where learners can work together and help one another about a certain topic, and come make presentations, where learners can create posters and come in class and present.” (Participant 3)
“I love doing question and answer. If I teach the general ledger, I will explain it to them first, step by step. I also break down everything in steps,
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everything. Everything I do, I break it down in steps, then they write the steps down and they go study the steps. And then I will, when we do the general ledger, I will say, ‘Ok, opening balance, what is my month?’ Then they give the month, I write it. ‘What is the day?’ They give it to me, I write. Then I ask them the details: ‘Folio, where did I get the information, what is the month?’ So, I never write everything on the board for them. I ask them the whole time. Every single transaction, I ask them. And I also ask children to come write on the board for me, especially when I do the AOL [assets, owner’s equity, and liabilities]. I say, ‘Come ... do this transaction for me.” (Participant 5)
“… the use of textbook in classroom can never be overlooked, and that’s what I make use of every day, and of course the combination of other teaching strategies like case studies to provide learners an opportunity to apply what they learn in my class to real life experiences and come up with solutions to the problem.” (Participant 4)
Learners learn differently and at their own pace, so educators should make use of different strategies that accommodate different learners in the classroom. Participants made use of different teaching strategies that they found suitable for each lesson presentation in their own classroom. This provides learners with the opportunity to be the center of teaching and learning and allows them to take the lead and choose how they want to learn.
Learners do not enter a classroom as empty slates but have presumptions concerning certain topics of the subject (EMS). This supports the literature in this paper, where PCK is identified as the ability of exactly how to instruct specific subject matter (Olfos et al., 2014). Yet, knowledge of subject matter and pedagogy is not considered sufficient to achieve efficient teaching preparation without an understanding of learners. This involves some knowledge about learners and their characteristics (their conceptions, preconceptions, misconceptions, and learning difficulties). It also involves knowledge regarding other contexts that require educators’ knowledge around thoughts, opinions, or views learners carry to the class from their personal background experience prior to learning certain topics that are taught (Gess Newsome et al., 2019). Regarding this, participants said the following: “Well, I have noticed that most of my learners do not like the financial literacy, because they think that accounting is hard, and the entrepreneur and economics parts are easier and would want to rather focus on them.” (Participant 4)
“Different types of accounts. Learners cannot distinguish between capital, owners’ equity, and salaries. They do not know which ones are an expense. They think about salaries as them receiving it, so to them it is an income. When they are in Grade 8 accounting class, I start teaching them to think about themselves as a business organization. ‘So, you are the business, so a salary, you [are] going to pay the salary, you do not receive
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the salary. So, it is an expense for you.’ But a lot of them still do not understand it.” (Participant 6)
“… learners lack interest of the financial literacy, because you may find they are not even interested to do commercial subjects in the next grades, so they find it difficult and think that they are unable to understand [the] accounting part.” (Participant 2)
Accounting, also known as financial literacy as part of EMS content, is perceived by learners as the most difficult element of the subject. Therefore, financial literacy (accounting) has continued to be problematic in schools. Learners find the accounting part of EMS difficult to understand and therefore lack interest. In addition, there is a pattern of educators instructing EMS as an integrated subject that combines different subjects even though they were not trained to teach all three of its components and might have specialized in only one of the three. This is one of the major factors weakening the performance of learners
A summary of the findings is provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of findings
Finding 1 Finding 2 Finding 3 Finding 4
EMS educators are qualified for either one or two disciplines in EMS, which results in EMS being taught by unqualified educators with inadequate CK due to the scarcity of qualified educators
There is continuous neglection of accounting content, as EMS educators focus more on economics and business studies
The time allocated to teach EMS is insufficient, and accounting should not be merged with other subjects as it requires more time
Very few EMS educators are trained in all three EMS disciplines.
Research has increasingly shown an interest in EMS as the ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners. This study aimed to explore EMS as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners in South African schools and to identify factors that affect learner performance. The study commenced with a methodical review, which revealed the need for EMS educators to be trained in all elements of EMS to properly present the content to learners. The study revealed that a lack of training of EMS educators has led to them ignoring or not giving much attention to certain areas in which they did not specialize, specifically accounting. The study revealed that for teaching space to be productive in removing misunderstandings, educators should introduce proper ideas in clear opposition to the learners’ incorrect perceptions. Also, the research revealed that a proper selection of instructional strategy does not rely only on the educator’ s CK but also on their ability to determine learners’ degree of knowledge.
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Only six educators from secondary schools in Lejweleputswa district in South Africa were willing to take part in this study. The voices of a larger educator cohort were thus excluded, who might have had different sentiments about EMS as ground rule for Grades 10 to 12 accounting learners and factors that affect learner performance.
Based on the limitations of this study, we recommend that similar and relative studies be conducted in different districts and provinces in South Africa. Through this, the voices of more educators will be heard regarding issues such as educator training. These studies should also consider the way in which EMS educators are appointed to teach the subject. Furthermore, research should be conducted to determine the applicability of this study in other subjects.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 134 153, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.8
Received Jun 20, 2022; Revised Sep 9, 2022; Accepted Sep 22, 2022
Saiful Prayogi*
Department of Physics Education, Universitas Pendidikan Mandalika, Indonesia
Sukainil Ahzan
Department of Physics Education, Universitas Pendidikan Mandalika, Indonesia
Indriaturrahmi
Department of Information Technology Education, Universitas Pendidikan Mandalika, Indonesia
Joni
RokhmatDepartment of Physics Education, University of Mataram, Indonesia
Abstract. The acquisition of critical thinking (CT) as one of the 21st century skills is categorically crucial. Therefore, the effective training of CT skills in terms of learning activities needs detailed exploration. This study applied the ethno inquiry model in an e learning platform and evaluated itsimpact on the CT skills of preservice science teachers (PSTs). The experimental design employed the randomized pretest posttest control design involving 62 PSTs as participants, divided equally into an experimental and control group. Participants’ CT skills were assessed using essay tests. The tests focused on the CT skills dealing with analysis, inferencing, evaluation, and decision making indicators. The CT scores were analyzed using parameters of the average pretest posttest. The learning implementation effects were calculated using a paired t test and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at the significance level of .05. The findings demonstrated that the CT scores for the experimental group increased from the less critical to the critical level. This result was better than that of the control group. Similarly, the improvement of individual CT performance was better in the experimental group. Based on the results of the analysis, the t test and ANCOVA of both groups confirmed that the ethno inquiry model had a significant effect on the CT skills of participants.Theresultsthusprovideconvincingevidenceoftheessential
* Corresponding author: Saiful Prayogi, saifulprayogi@undikma.ac.id
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
roles of the ethno inquiry model in science learning and it is therefore recommended that the model be implemented in science classes.
Keywords: critical thinking skills; e learning platform; ethno inquiry model; preservice science teachers
The recent developments of digital technology, the interest in using the internet, and the trend of virtual learning have changed learning systems worldwide, where face to face learning is being replaced by an online system (e learning). It has been predicted that e learning will be applied massively in all modes of education and learning around the world by 2025 (Palvia et al., 2018). This is a challenge for education stakeholders to prepare the pedagogical model infrastructure with a digital system (Herodotou et al., 2020). At the same time, it presents a good opportunity to continue to support preservice science teachers’ (PSTs) achievement of critical thinking (CT) as demanded by 21st century global learning needs (Bilad et al., 2022).
In today’ s modern education, higher education is increasingly crucial in building CT as a competency and a learning experience that strongly support students’ future professional abilities (Erikson & Erikson, 2019). Even developed countries have paid significant attention to this issue, as a strategic effort to make CT skills a core graduate attribute in higher education curricula (Verawati et al., 2019). The implication is that every effort and learning teaching process in the classroom are oriented towards CT achievement (Bezanilla et al., 2019). However, the current mechanism for CT classroom training is still a problem, especially since lecturers’ competence and performance are low in intervening in CT training (Gilmanshina et al., 2021). On the one hand, it is recognized that CT is necessary for students in higher education; however, it is still challenging in relation to teaching and still appears difficult and is thus a topic of debate (Lee et al., 2021)
Previous studies have shown that the CT performance results of PSTs were not so promising. For example, an essay study conducted by Trostek (2020) on 38 PSTs in Sweden showed their poor level of reasoning and analytical skills. These findings are in line with that of Ma and Luo (2021), who found that the CT performance of prospective senior scholars at five Chinese universities was inadequate. The inadequate CT performance was resultant of the limited learning experience and no support of learning activities emphasizing CT (Ma & Luo, 2021). The results of a study on PSTs were not less worrying. The findings of a study by Fitriani et al. (2019) showed that the CT skills of learners were not developing, and it was recommended that a strict plan be followed to overcome the problems. Some educational institutions seem not to rely too much on the achievement of CT skills and place more emphasis on student academic achievement. However, academic achievement is derived from the CT activities, and many studies have reported that CT performance impacts academic achievement (D’Alessio et al., 2019; Ghanizadeh, 2017; Siburian et al., 2019).
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Universities can build a culture of CT in students by modernizing the teaching system as such to lead to the achievement of CT (Dekker, 2020). One such method is to apply an innovative learning model based on inquiry activities (Verawati et al., 2021) On the one hand, the integration of local wisdom values in learning is highly emphasized (Suprapto et al., 2021). What is in question here is the characteristic of a holistic learning process that encourages the formation of a comprehensive mindset by internalizing local and national wisdom. In thecontext of science teaching, the enculturation of science by internalizing local wisdom is referred to as ethnoscience (Sudarmin et al., 2019).
Inquiry is recognized as a teaching foundation to train students how to think (Arends, 2012), while ethnoscience, which is taught through an investigation or exploration process, has the potential to train CT skills (Ramdani et al., 2021). By integrating ethnoscience and inquiry (ethno inquiry) as a digitally presented learning model (e learning), the perfect combination is created that can provide a learning experience for students to support their CT performance. It is important that the ethno inquiry model within the framework of an e learning system is developed in learning, which will involve various important factors. First, an innovative and interactive digital learning model is needed that supports learning interactivity to achieve students’ CT goals. Second, ethnoscience is a learning characteristic that is expected in today’s science teaching, especially in the context of developing regional potential based learning (local cultural values), as a means of building national competitiveness, and to encourage students’ CT. Third, ethno inquiry can be a learning model that can accommodate the needs of science learning in general, prioritize the knowledge acquisition process, and specifically train CT through exploration activities on contextual problems.
This study aimed to implement the ethno inquiry model in an e learning platform and then evaluate its impact on the CT skills of PSTs Based on the research aim, the research hypothesis is that the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform has a statistically significant impact on the CT skills of PSTs when compared to traditional teaching. In addition, the significant impact of the ethno inquiry model of the e learning platform leads to its effectiveness in improving the CT skills of PSTs
Cultural diversity and local wisdom values in Indonesia can be used to create opportunities to impart scientific ways of thinking to students in higher education. One of the expected characteristics stipulated in the Indonesian National Standard for Higher Education is a holistic instructional process to encourage a comprehensive mindset by internalizing local and national wisdom. In the context of science learning, the enculturation of science by internalizing local wisdom matters is referred to as ethnoscience (Sudarmin et al., 2019). The achievement of the National Standard for Higher Education criteria is supported by the Independent Learning Independent Campus Program in Indonesia, where one of the instructional objectives is to develop students’ talent to be able to think critically. Furthermore, higher education institutions that educate prospective teachers are expected to play a crucial role in supporting the national education
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standards to be achieved, and the Independent Learning Independent Campus Program to be applied well. Through a decentralized research mechanism, the Mandalika University of Education has established a leading field of research, namely educational policy and innovation. This was done by developing instructional activities based on regional potential (local cultural values) as a means of building the nation’s competitiveness and encouraging students’ CT.
The context of the current study is in accordance with the university’s leading field of research, so that the context of ethnoscience in ethno inquiry learning is strongly related to the Indonesian national cultural entity. The participants involved in this study were PSTs from Indonesia. All learning instruments, such as lesson plans and scenarios, teaching materials, students’ worksheets, and CT skills tests, were presented in Indonesian to be understood well. The language of instruction was also Indonesian, as this was the participants’ mother tongue, so that the ethnoscience context being taught could be understood by participants Finally, although this study was conducted in the context of Indonesian ethnoscience, it provides an opportunity to be applied in a wider context to encourage other countries to explore ethno inquiry.
2.1
John Dewey as a psychologist has long emphasized CT concepts. He explained that CT is the same as reflective thinking, and that it is known as active thinking, where the individual is persistent and thorough in their consideration of knowledge in terms of the reasons (Dewey, 1910). Active thinking processes can be contradicted with an illustration of where a learner takes information and ideas of others for granted, does not think deeply, and cannot engage in active thinking processes (this is called passive thinking). Facione (2020) stated that CT is a detailed elaboration of several characteristics engaging the interpretation and analysis activities. Furthermore, CT involves learners carrying out evaluation tasks, inferencing activities, explanation activities, and self regulation learning activities. Similarly, Ennis (2011) stated that the concept of CT involves reasoning and reflecting, which focus on deciding what to believe and do. In another definition, Elder and Paul (2012) explained that CT is a way of thinking about any matter or problem. A learner can skillfully improve their thinking by handling the structures inherent in thinking and applying intellectual standards to it. Furthermore, CT refers to analyzing and evaluating activities to think critically with a perspective to enhance the skill itself.
Almost every expert dealing with CT issues has recognized such thinking skills as a fundamental factor. As far as review of the related literature is concerned, we have concluded that CT is extracted from three approaches: philosophical, cognitive psychological, and educational. The philosophical approach emphasizes the qualities and characteristics of a critical thinker. The cognitive psychological approach highlights the real action and behavior performed by a critical learner who should have skills. Lastly, the educational approach directs the thinking process towards higher skills, called higher order thinking (HOT) skills. Without discrediting or ignoring the CT views of certain experts, in the
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context of the current study, we tended more to adhere to the CT view according to Ennis (2018) and adapting the four leading indicators of CT abilities (analysis, inferencing, evaluation, and decision making). These four indicators have been elaborated extensively in previous studies (Verawati et al., 2019, 2021; Wahyudi et al., 2018, 2019), because these reflect the view of CT from a philosophical, psychological, and educational approach. In addition, the indicators have reflected aspects of learning required at the higher education level.
In science teaching, inquiry learning is becoming increasingly popular. This can be seen from the developments in teaching and research projects in science that continue to lead to scientific inquiry issues (Pedaste et al., 2015). Since the early 20th century, inquiry learning activities have long been echoed by Dewey, who implied using inquiry activities in learning (Tillmann et al., 2017). However, we argue that scientific inquiry was extracted from the Atkin Karplus learning cycle popularized in 1962 (Hussain et al., 2011), where within the teaching phase, they presented the steps of inquiry that became the forerunners of inquiry activities.
Sund and Trowbridge (1973) defined inquiry as a teaching method focusing on how learners understand, develop, and apply their new ideas through systematic questions, hypotheses, and experiments involving discovery activities. In the classroom teaching practice, students resemble professional scientists in constructing their knowledge (Keselman, 2003). In inquiry, knowledge is built through the process of discovering causal relationships. It begins with formulating hypotheses and conducting experiments to test them (Pedaste et al., 2012) Compared with other teaching learning strategies such as direct instruction, inquiry teaching is assumed to produce better learning performance (Alfieri et al., 2011). Others have also stated that inquiry learning or experimentation is better than traditional teaching, which does not invite students to explore (Furtak et al., 2012; Verawati et al., 2022)
Arends (2012) elaborated that inquiry activities are a learning model to teach learners to think. Learning tasks in inquiry learning are oriented towards the contents and processes Regarding the content, teachers want to direct their learners to gain new insight through investigation activities. The process is oriented towards helping students learn the inquiry activities, especially those dealing with scientific inquiry, and to develop a positive stance towards investigation activities Professional experts have used many terms to describe inquiry. For instance, Buck et al. (2008) used guided inquiry, open inquiry, structured inquiry, inquiry teaching, inquiry learning, and scientific inquiry. However, the core of all processes involving students in inquiry learning activities are the processes of problem identification and hypothesis formulation, and testing those through experimental activities such as data collection, data analysis, and drawing conclusions based on the hypotheses established (Minner et al., 2010).
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Ethnoscience, a term originating in the 1960s, has often been defined as a field of inquiry used to identify the conceptual schemes that indigenous peoples use to organize their experiences of the environment (Rist & Dahdouh Guebas, 2006). The term ethnoscience comes from the word ethnos (from Greek), which refers to nation, and the word scientia (from Latin), which means knowledge. Ethnoscience thus means knowledge possessed by a nation, or an ethnic group, or a certain social group.
Sturtevant (1964) defined ethnoscience as a system of knowledge and cognition typical of a given culture. The emphasis is on knowledge systems or devices that are unique to a community (local wisdom), because it is different from the knowledge of other communities. Ethnoscience is developed further to identify material phenomena that are considered important by a society or culture and how these phenomena are organized in their knowledge system. It is then known as indigenous knowledge or indigenous science.
Ethnoscience can be interpreted as a system of knowledge about nature that is owned by a certain indigenous or traditional culture. This knowledge covers aspects of ecology and the interrelationships between humans and nature (Rist & Dahdouh Guebas, 2006; Zidny et al., 2020). Ethnoscience is sometimes referred to by other names, such as “indigenous science” or “traditional ecological knowledge” (Zidny & Eilks, 2022).
The process of inquiry in the context of science teaching is inseparable from students’ learning experiences in the environment and culture in which they grow and develop. In addition, the expression of scientific thought is a manifestation of the local environment and culture (Fasasi, 2017). The integration of local wisdom and cultural values with scientific principles is called ethnoscience (Sudarmin et al., 2019). Scientific problems can be solved by integrating inquiry processes with ethnoscience concepts. Inquiry is recognized as a teaching foundation to train students how to think critically, while ethnoscience, which is taught through an inquiry process, has the potential to train CT skills (Ramdani et al., 2021). Therefore, it is important to develop a learning model that integrates ethnoscience with inquiry (ethno inquiry). In the current research context, the ethno inquiry model is used to support the CT performance of PSTs
The ethno inquiry model is defined as a learning model based on integrating scientific inquiry activities with ethnoscience. As such, the existing ethnoscience and the indigenous knowledge of the community are investigated through scientific inquiry activities. One form of integration involves the process of experimentation with adequate analytical methods in solving ethnoscience problems that exist in society.
In principle, PSTs’ learning experiences are utilized to carry out an in depth exploration towards local cultural values related to science, and the problems are solved using scientific principles. This process becomes a CT drilling process for students. An example of the CT drilling process in the ethno inquiry learning
model is when students are required to be skilled in reflecting on scientific phenomena that become cultural traditions and local wisdom, identify specific ethnoscience problems contained therein, and solve ethnoscience problems through experimentation or other analysis methods that support ethnoscience problem solving. These then become important aspects of how student CT skills can be developed through the ethno inquiry model. The learning phases of the ethno inquiry model to support the achievement of CT skills are presented in Table 1.
1.Ethno orientation • Prepare students to learn and introduce ethnoscience concepts.
2.Ethno reflection • Invite students to reflect on scientific phenomena that have become cultural traditions and local wisdom.
3.Ethno authentic problem
4.Ethno problem solving
• In depth discussion of ethnoscience phenomena based on students’ prior experiences, and identifying specific problems related to learning materials.
• Solve ethnoscience problems: This can be done through experimentation or analytical methods that support problem solving.
5.Ethno explanation • Formulate scientific explanations of ethnoscience phenomena based on ethnoscience problems.
The ethno inquiry model is presented in an e learning platform. This is in line with the growth of digitalization systems, interest in using the internet, and trend of virtual learning (online) which have replaced face to face learning. Therefore, an innovative and interactive digital learning model is needed that supports interactive learning to attain students’ CT goals. The results of previous studies showed that digital learning (e learning) plays an important role in improving students’ CT performance (Chen & Wu, 2021). The implementation of a well designed online learning system can create an active, collaborative learning environment; motivate students to be actively involved in the learning process; and train students’ CT skills (Ebadi & Rahimi, 2018)
A true experimental study was conducted with the randomized pretest posttest control design (Fraenkel et al., 2012). The design adopted was as follows:
Experimental group R O1 X1 O2
Control group R O1 X2 O2
The experimental (X1) and control (X2) groups were designated, and the measurements were done twice, first as a pretest and secondly as a posttest. Randomization was carried out to form the experimental and control groups. Observations were made at the same time levels for both groups. The experimental group (X1) was given a learning method with the ethno inquiry
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model in the e learning platform, while the control group (X2) was subjected to an expository learning method (traditional teaching).
The participants of this study were PSTs in the first semester at Mandalika University of Education. In all, 62 PSTs formed the research sample, which was equally divided into 31 PSTs for the experimental group and 31 PSTs for the control group. The experimental and control groups were selected using simple random sampling Participants were between 19 and 20 years of age, with the sample being relatively balanced as to gender (male and female participants)
Within the scope of the research, for the involvement of humans as research participants, research permits were obtained from the Institute for Research and Community Service at the Mandalika University of Education (with number 2022/104).
The research procedure was in accordance with the research design adopted in this study. First, experimental and control groups were formed based on randomization of the sample. Next, the CT skills of the groups were observed (as the pretest) in both groups using a CT skills test instrument. Thereafter, both groups underwent the learning implementation, with the experimental group taught using the ethno inquiry learning model of the e learning platform, while the control group was subjected to expository learning (traditional teaching). After the learning implementation was completed for each group, the CT skills were observed in both (as the posttest). The results of the CT skills between pretest and posttest were then analyzed and concluded according to the objectives and hypotheses in this study. The implementations for both groups were carried out as far as possible to avoid threats of internal and external validity. Each sample group was formed through randomization so that the two were relatively balanced. The pretest and posttest were conducted at the same time for both groups, the learning process was scheduled at the same time, the materials were administered at the same, but the learning models used were different. In addition, the tutors who taught in each group had equally adequate knowledge and experience in the context of the applied model.
The classroom learning utilized some learning tools (LTs), including lesson plans and scenarios, teaching materials, students’ worksheets, and CT skills test instruments. The CT skills test instruments were in the form of essay questions consisting of eight questions to accommodate the CT skills indicators in the aspects of analysis, inferencing, evaluation, and decision making Before the LTs were implemented, two validators assessed their validity. The validators were selected based on specific criteria. They had to: (a) be professionals involved in science learning; (b) have at least a doctorate in science education; and (c) have three years of experience in instructional design. The content and construct validity were evaluated on all aspects of the LTs. The LTs were declared as having a good degree of validity if the minimum score was valid. If the score attained was low, the validity was revised (Fitriani et al., 2022). The reliability of the LTs
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was determined according to the assessment by the validators, using a percentage of agreement (Emmer & Millett, 1970). Finally, referring to the validation results, the LTs were declared valid and reliable, and could thus be used to support the implementation of the ethno inquiry model.
Table 2 presents the scoring rubric used for each item of the test instrument (essay test). The test instrument was employed to assess the CT skills of participants with analysis, inferencing, evaluation, and decision making as skill indicators. Scoring was adopted from the Ennis Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test, with five scoring scales ( 1, 0, +1, +2, and +3) (Prayogi et al., 2018). Each CT indicator contained two test items, so the total number of test instrument items was eight.
Table 2. The scoring rubric for testing CT skills in the test instruments
Score Descriptor
1 The answer was incorrect, with incorrect arguments not supported by facts, concepts, and laws.
0 No answer was provided.
+1 The answer was correct, but each CT indicator was not supported by strong arguments, facts, concepts, and laws.
+2 The answer was correct, and each CT indicator was sufficiently supported by arguments, facts, concepts, and laws.
+3 The answer was correct, and a strong argument supported each CT indicator with facts, concepts, and laws.
Data on participants’ CT skills were analyzed descriptively and statistically. Descriptive analysis of CT skills scores was conducted for both the experimental and the control groups on each pretest, posttest, and n gain. Analysis was done on each CT indicator and on the CT performance of individual participants (CTi and CTs, respectively). Each scoring method was guided by the rubric shown in Table 2, while the category of CT skills for each indicator was according to the score interval shown in Table 3. The score interval of Verawati et al. (2021) was used, where Xi is the ideal average and Sdi is the ideal standard deviation, both of which depend on the maximum and minimum scores. The CT skills for each indicator (CTi) were scored from 1 to +3. Thus, the range of the CT score of each individual (CTs) was 8 to +24 (based on the eight test instrument items). The increase of CT skills scores between the pretest and posttest of each sample group was evaluated through n gain analysis (Hake, 1999)
Table
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The measurements of CT skills were based on the analysis parameters of the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain. Furthermore, statistical analysis was used to evaluate the differences in the CT scores between groups. This relates to the research hypothesis being tested, namely that the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform has a statistically significant impact on the CT skills of PSTs when compared to traditional teaching. Hypothesis testing was performed statistically using paired t test analysis and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), which was applied at a significance level of .05. Prior to this test, each group of data was tested for normality using the Shapiro Wilk test at a significance level of .05. All statistical analyses were done using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 25.0 software
The CT skills data of the participants for each indicator (CTi) are summarized in Table 4. (Data of the individual CT performances (CTs) are presented in Table 5.) The data for both the experimental and the control group are represented by the average pretest, posttest, and n gain scores
Table 4. CTi results represented by the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n-gain
Group Score
Experimental (n = 31)
Control (n = 31)
CT skills indicators (mean group values) Analysis Inferencing Evaluation Dec.-making
Pretest 0.16 0.08 0.11 0.18 Posttest 2.08 1.98 2.13 2.11 n gain 0.50 (Moderate) 0.48 (Moderate) 0.52 (Moderate) 0.51 (Moderate)
Pretest 0.35 0.19 0.29 0.40 Posttest 0.90 0.79 0.63 0.82 n gain 0.15 (Low) 0.16 (Low) 0.09 (Low) 0.12 (Low)
Table 4 shows the results of each indicator of the CT skills test for both the experimental and the control group based on the analysis parameters of the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain. It shows that all the participants’ CT skills (pretest) were at the less critical level for all indicators ( 0.20 < CTi ≤ 0.60) (see the criteria of CT skills scoring in Table 3). For the experimental group, the pretest results on inferencing received the lowest CTi score (0.08), followed by the evaluation (0.11), analysis (0.16), and decision making indicators (0.18). Likewise, for the control group, the inferencing indicator also received the lowest CTi score (0.19), followed by the evaluation (0.29), analysis (0.35), and decision making indicators (0.40). A visualization of the CT skills data of the participants for each CTi is presented in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. The CT skills data visualization of the participants for each CTi
Implementation of the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform on participants in the experimental group impacted the posttest results of each indicator. This can be seen from the posttest results of the experimental group (see Table 4 and Figure 1), where the average CTi score was at the critical level (1.40 < CTi ≤ 2.20). Different results were yielded for the control group (traditional teaching), where the average CTi score was at the critical enough level (0.60 < CTi ≤1.40). Data of the individual CT performances (CTs) are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. CTs results represented by the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain Group
Individual CT performances (CTs) n gain Criterion Pretest Criterion Posttest Criterion Experimental (n = 31) 1.06 Less critical 16.61 Critical 0.67 Moderate Control (n = 31) 2.48 Less critical 6.29 Quite critical 0.17 Low
Table 5 shows the results of participants’ individual CT performance (CTs) based on the analysis parameters of the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain. Regarding the pretest, the groups had CTs scores of 1.06 and 2.48, respectively, both under the less critical level ( 1.6 < CTs ≤ 4.8). In the posttest results, the experimental group was at the critical level, with a CTs score of 16.61 (11.2 < CTs ≤ 17.6), while the control group was at the critical enough level, with a CTs score of 6.29 (4.8< CTs ≤ 11.2). The difference in n gain between the two sample groups based on individual CT performance (CTs) is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The difference in n gain between the two sample groups based on individual CT performances (CTs)
The n gain of the two groups differed significantly. The experimental group was at the moderate level (n gain = 0.67), while the control group was at the low level (n gain = 0.17). The difference in CT skills scores of the participants between groups was tested statistically. The average score, standard deviation, and the results of the data normality test for each group are displayed in Table 6. For the normality test, the Shapiro Wilk technique was used, and the normality test results were used as a reference in the parametric statistical testing
Table 6. The average score, standard deviation, and results of the data normality test for each group (p > .05)
Group Test n Mean SD Sig. Normality
Experimental Pretest 31 1.064 1.807 0.200 Normal distribution Posttest 31 16.612
Control Pretest 31 2.484 1.794 0.200 Normal distribution Posttest 31 6.290
The normality assumption analysis was met, so we applied the parametric statistical analysis (paired t test) for each group, the results of which are presented in Table 7.
Table 7. The average score, standard deviation, and results of the paired t test of participants’ CTs scores (p < .05)
Group n Mean SD df t Sig.
Experimental Pretest 31 1.064 1.86074 30 35.980 0.000 Posttest 31 16.612 1.14535
Control Pretest 31 2.484 2.14275 30 11.230 0.000 Posttest 31 6.290 1.75487
The paired t test for both groups yielded a p value < .05 (see Table 7), demonstrating significant differences between the CT skills of participants before and after implementation in each group. It also confirmed the findings in Table 5,
where CT skills scores improved in the two sample groups from less critical to critical (experimental group) and from less critical to critical enough (control group). The CT skills results of the ANCOVA test are presented in Table 8. The ANCOVA test was conducted to analyze the effect of the learning implementation (ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform) on the CT skills of the participants.
p < .05)
Source Sum of sqr. df Mean sqr. F Sig. Corrected model 1660.531 2 830.266 398.829 0.000 Intercept 4233.910 1 4233.910 2033.815 0.000 Pretest 8.918 1 8.918 4.284 0.043 Group 1540.884 1 1540.884 740.184 0.000 Error 122.824 59 2.082 Total 9914.000 62
Corrected total 1783.355 61
The results in Table 8 show a significant difference between each group in terms of CT skills of participants in the posttest after the implementation of the learning (ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform), with Fgroup = 740.184 (p < .05). The covariate variable (pretest) had at least had an effect on participants’ CT skills, with Fpretest = 4.284 (p < .05). The findings indicate that the ethno inquiry model experienced by the experimental group was effective in improving the CT skills of participants when compared to the traditional teaching experienced by the control group.
Table 4 shows the results of each CT skills indicator for both the experimental and control group based on the analysis parameters of the mean scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain Results showed that all the participants’ CT skills (pretest) were at the less critical level for all indicators ( 0.20 < CTi ≤ 0.60). For the experimental group, the pretest results on the inferencing indicator received the lowest CTi score, followed by the evaluation, analysis, and decision making indicators. Likewise, for the control group, the inferencing indicator also received the lowest CTi score, followed by the evaluation, analysis, and decision making indicators. The low level of CT skills by PSTs was also reported in other studies (Prayogi et al., 2018), which identified aspects of analysis, inferencing, evaluation, and decision making indicators that were uncritical during the pretest. This poor situation is most likely due to the previous learning experiences of PSTs, where they were not trained to think critically.
The implementation of the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform on participants (experimental group) impacted the posttest results of each indicator. This can be seen from the posttest results of the experimental group (see Table 4), where the average CTi score was at the critical level (1.40 < CTi ≤ 2.20). Different results were shown for the control group (traditional teaching), where the average CTi score was at the critical enough level (0.60 < CTi ≤ 1.40). These results respond to the problem in the findings of previous studies that PSTs face difficulties
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practicing CT aspects such as inferencing (Qing et al., 2010) and evaluation (Miri et al., 2007) by applying inquiry learning.
This study demonstrated empirical evidence that the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform can improve aspects of the CT skills of PSTs. Descriptive analysis of the parameter improvement of each CTi score (n gain) showed different results for the two groups (experimental and control). The n gain score of the experimental group was moderate (n gain = 0.3 0.7), while in the control group it was low (n gain < 0.3). This finding refutes previous claims (Uiterwijk Luijk et al., 2019) that learners’ CT habits were not affiliated with the teacher’ s inquiry approach. The finding of our study implies that the improvement of CT skills categorically occurred in accordance with the implementation of the ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform.
Participants’ individual CT performance was measured based on the analysis parameters of the scores of the pretest, posttest, and n gain. The results in Table 5 for the pretest showed that the groups had CTs scores of 1.06 and 2.48, respectively, both under the less critical level ( 1.6 < CTs ≤ 4.8). For the posttest, the experimental group was at the critical level, with a CTs score of 16.61 (11.2 < CTs ≤ 17.6), while the control group was at the critical enough level, with a CTs score of 6.29 (4.8 < CTs ≤ 11.2). The n gain score of the two groups differed significantly. The experimental group was at the moderate level (n gain = 0.67), while the control group was at the low level (n gain = 0.17). The difference in CT skills scores of the participants between groups was tested statistically. Table 6 shows the average score, standard deviation, and the results of the normality test of the data for each group. The normality test results showed that the sample group data were normally distributed (p > .05). The normality test results become a reference in the statistical (parametric) testing, as shown in Tables 7 and 8. The paired t test for both groups yielded a p value < .05 (Table 7), demonstrating significant differences between the CT skills of participants in both groups before and after the learning implementation. It also confirmed the findings in Table 5, where CT skills scores improved in the two sample groups from less critical to critical (experimental group) and from less critical to critical enough (control group).
Comparisons between the two groups were analyzed using ANCOVA (Table 8). A significant difference was shown between each group in terms of the CT skills of participants in the posttest after the implementation of the learning (ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform), with Fgroup = 740.184 (p < .05). The covariate variable (pretest) had at least had an effect on participants’ CT skills, with Fpretest = 4.284 (p < .05). The findings indicated that the ethno-inquiry model experienced by the experimental group was effective in improving the CT skills of participants when compared to the traditional teaching experienced by the control group.
Through inquiry, learners’ CT skills have been trained through exploration (Ernita et al., 2021), while through ethno inquiry learning, PSTs have reflected on the rules of science in everyday life in accordance with cultural entities and local
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wisdom. This practice of reflection is important as a process of cognitive regulation (Asy’ari & Da Rosa, 2022), where PSTs have the experience of learning how they self evaluate each process and the way they think (Choy et al., 2017) The self assessment process carried out continuously has an impact on increasing the CT skills of PSTs (Verawati et al., 2021). In addition to training CT skills, other studies have also reported that the practice of reflection impacts more meaningful deep learning (Griggs et al., 2018). These findings are relevant to previous studies (Colomer et al., 2020), suggesting that reflection could encourage new reasoned action plans to make decisions (decision making) correctly. It is also carefully understood that reasoned action in decision making is the fundamental essence of CT (Ennis, 2018)
The learning process is characterized by cognitive contemplation, managing and monitoring the process through sharpening skills and actively experimenting (Cañabate et al., 2019; Lozano et al., 2017), which can be done through scientific inquiry. The learning framework in the ethno inquiry model has emphasized the reflective process (ethno reflection). In some conditions, the process of ethnoscience reflection is seen as an anomalous phenomenon on actual problems that become cultural traditions. This becomes a reflection pedagogic intervention space needed to achieve CT The presentation of ethnoscience that emphasizes authentic problems is a process where PSTs can reflect deeply on existing information based on previous knowledge. In inquiry learning, this is found to be the best process of reflection (Kahan, 2013) Previous study reports have shown that presenting authentic problems can encourage students and serve as bridge to hone their CT skills (Akmam et al., 2018) and creativity in problem solving (de Oliveira Biazus & Mahtari, 2022).
Ethnoscience problem solving is done through experimentation. In experimental activities, PSTs monitor the process at the data collection steps; they identify each step and errors in the experimental procedures carried out. It is categorized as a reflection on the control of learning experiences done by self knowledge through connecting real experiences (Colomer et al., 2018). Performance evaluation is carried out carefully on the learning process, specifically on how PSTs reflect experimental findings based on the hypotheses built, examine the learning process that had been carried out, and identify errors for further improvement. This process supports the development of their CT skills (Procter, 2020) Finally, the ethnoscience problem solving steps that have been carried out through experiments have proven effective in training the CT skills of PSTs.
The implementation of the ethno-inquiry model in the e-learning platform was evaluated and showed a convincing impact on improving the CT skills of the participating PSTs. The CTi performance for the experimental group (ethno inquiry model in the e learning platform) increased from less critical (0.2 < CTi ≤ 0.6) to critical (1.4 < CTi ≤ 2.2), better than that of the control group (traditional teaching), which only increased from less critical to critical enough (0.6 < CTi ≤ 1.4). Similarly, the CTs performance was better for the experimental group, increasing from 1.06 to 16.6 and with a moderate n gain of 0.67, than for the
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control group, with an increase from 2.48 to 6.29 and with a low n gain of 0.17. Based on the results of analysis, the t test and ANCOVA of both groups confirmed that the ethno inquiry model had a significant effect on participants’ CT skills. This means that the results provide convincing evidence on the essential role of the ethno inquiry model in science learning and it is recommended as such that the model be implemented in science classes.
The implication of the findings is that the ethno inquiry learning model can be applied in regular classroom learning to stimulate the CT performance of PSTs. This should be done with the support of an adequate learning environment, broad understanding of learning instructors related to ethnoscience contexts, and an understanding of the ethno inquiry model itself. A limitation of this research is that CT stimulation does not include aspects of CT disposition. An important recommendation for future research is thus to assess the impact of applying the ethno inquiry learning model to CT dispositions
This study is Applied Research of Leading Higher Education [Penelitian Terapan Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi] funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia (main contract number: 160/E5/PG.02.00.PT/2022, derivative contract number: 0967/LL8/Ak.04/2022, 58/L1/PP/UNDIKMA/2022). The authors gratefully acknowledge all those who greatly contributed to its success.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 154 173, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.9
Received Jul 23, 2022; Revised Sep 12, 2022; Accepted Sep 22, 2022
Abstract. Computational thinking (CT) is defined as a broad spectrum of cognitive abilities including creativity, algorithmic reasoning, critical analysis, problem solving, collaborative thinking, and communication. There are currently not many self rated CT skill measurements available. One of these tools for measurement is the Korkmaz Computational Thinking Scale (CTS). The purposes of this present study are to adapt the Korkmaz CTS into Thai and to assess its reliability and validity. Employing a convenience sampling method, data from 3,241 junior high school students in Thailand were collected using Thai translated Korkmaz CTS. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used for data analysis. According to the findings, Thai version of Korkmaz CTS exhibited reliable psychometric properties. However, one item from the Thai CTS was eliminated during the EFA process whereas six items were removed during the CFA. Thus, the Thai CTS can be used as a self rating instrument to assess the CT of junior high school students in addition to high school and undergraduate students. Schools can measure students’ CT faster and with cost saving.
Keywords: Computational Thinking, Computational Thinking Scale, Psychometric Properties, Junior High Students
The world is evolving rapidly in nearly every industry, likewise in the field of education. The development of each student’s unique skills is given more weight in the 21st century global educational system. The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) identifies high level abilities, e.g., problem solving, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking as “21st century student standards.” According to several surveys, students in the 21st century need to be proficient in technology as well as other abilities including teamwork, research, social interaction, learning, communication, and self management (Gunuc et al., 2013). It seems critical thinking, analytical thinking, and problem solving have
* Corresponding author: MeechaiJunpho,meechai.junpho@mail.kmutt.ac.th
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
become important in the 21st century (Yilmaz et al., 2018). Notably, computational thinking (CT) is incorporated among these skills. According to Wing (2006), CT is a mental skill that each person possesses not only computer scientists. It is indeed a fundamental skill related to logic, analysis, and problem solving. It is considered useful for learning, working, and daily living (Cuny et al., 2010; Wing, 2006). The main goal of CT is to solve problems using concepts that are fundamental to computer science (Wing, 2006).
All students should possess and develop their CT skills as technology advances because they are crucial to their professional success in the modern digital age (Vallance & Towndrow, 2016). The ability to distinguish and extrapolate important information from larger sources is one of the “digital literacy” sub skills that are crucial for the 21st century. It is connected to other 21st century empowerment skills, e.g., problem solving, critical thinking, job effectiveness, and creativity. Wing (2006) propounded the view that this empowerment needs to be incorporated into all children’s’ analytical capability which is the crucial backbone in their science, technology, engineering, and math learning. Advocating CT in the educational system will add a new ability to the student skill list they need in the not too distant future and which many institutes have initiated (Grover & Pea, 2013). For example, promoting CT was infused into the US Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) and STEM courses in the level of K 12. CT was integrated into various educational programs in many countries, e.g., Finland, Norway, South Korea, Israel, Poland, New Zealand, and Estonia (Tikva & Tambouris, 2021). CT was also incorporated into the elementary school curricula in 52 countries according to the surveys of studies published between 2006 and 2018 (Tang et al., 2020). In Thailand, CT was introduced as part of the National Standards Curriculum in 2017.
The development of students’ technological and learning style specific skills has become a top priority in Thailand. The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) has revised its technology curricula with a focus on material that supports the key CT skills of thinking, analysing, and problem solving. Due to the significance of CT performing in a technology role, IPST places a high priority on CT development among students. CT is important in concepts and planning frameworks, design, imagination, creativity, systematic thinking, and societal coexistence with the digital ecosystem. It is a thought process that requires skills and techniques or a kind of style or method that allows students to analyse and find answers (Janpilom et al., 2019). Students use CT to solve their problems in learning. CT not only offers a new perspective to K 12 children but also enhances their capabilities in terms of observing and perceiving the surrounding world. It reckons to be a novel comprehension that allows students to solve issues utilising computational techniques and approaches. It is a practical skill that is crucial for them to handle upcoming challenges and competitions.
Computational thinking is currently receiving more attention from researchers, notably from professionals in the field of educational technology who have underlined that CT is crucial for developing 21st century skills (Voogt et al.,
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2015). According to the literature mentioned above, CT is seen as being very important for students, with numerous institutions all over the world working very hard to develop it. However, there are some viewpoints catching their interest that are predicated on the idea that it is critical to establish methods for developing and evaluating students’ computational abilities. This means that, before they design and develop some practical intervention in order to enhance CT skills, all educational institutes should try to discover what the current CT skill level of their students is. This has led to the matter of CT assessment, which is quick and cost saving. A self report questionnaire is one feasible option and has been widely used in educational psychology.
Currently, there are only a few self rated CT skill measurements (e.g., Ertuğrul Akyol, 2019; Kukul, 2019; Tsai et al., 2021; Yağcı, 2019). The Computational Thinking Scale (CTS) is among these assessment scales and was developed by Korkmaz et al. (2017). This scale is created in English and consists of 29 items from five dimensions, e.g., creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving.
Presently, CTS has been adapted into only two languages: Turkish (Srakaya et al., 2020) and Chinese (Korkmaz and Bai, 2019). Korkmaz and Bai (2019) collected data from 1,015 grade 10 and grade 11 students and results showed that there remained 20 items measuring CT under the five dimensions. Adapting CTS into the Turkish language, Sırakaya et al. (2020) collected data from 703 secondary school students. The results showed that there were 22 items under five constructs as well with a valid and reliable CTS measurement scale. In light of this evidence, there were only two researches concerned with this issue (see Table 1). More research should be required to demonstrate the reliability and validity of CTS, especially with different educational levels, i.e., junior high school students and larger number of participants. There is also no scale available to test CT proficiency in Thai that has been proven to measure validity and reliability. The purposes of this study are to adapt the 29 items of CTS into Thai and to assess its reliability and validity.
Table 1: CTS assessment in different languages
Study Language Location Participants Data analysis Result
Korkmaz et al. (2017) English Turkey 726 Undergraduate Students EFA, CFA five factor construct 29 items
Korkmaz and Bai (2019) Chinese China 1,015 K10 and K11 students EFA, CFA five factor construct 20 items
Sırakaya et al. (2020) Turkey Turkey 703 Secondary school EFA, CFA five factor construct 22 items
Current study Thai Thailand 3,241 Junior high school students EFA, CFA
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Over time, the concept of CT has gained in popularity. Papert and Wing were the pioneers in this field. Using the fundamental ideas of computer science, Wing (2006) described CT as an approach for problem solving, system design, and comprehending human behaviour., while the article by Papert (1996) contains one of the earliest mentions of CT. According to Papert (1996), it is beneficial to observe relationships between the many parts of complex systems and to apply fundamental human cognition to object oriented problems. It is a technique to problem solving, system design, and human behaviour understanding that is founded in computer science (Korkmaz et al., 2017; Wing, 2006). It is a type of mental process that entails articulating issues and outlining options in a way that enables a computer to function properly (Wing, 2014).
Similarly, Curzon (2015) defined CT as a fundamental skill meant to solve problems for humans and indicated that problem comprehension is considered crucial due to the consequence regarding producing practical solutions. CT is a general reflection of creativity, algorithmic thinking, critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative thinking, and communication skills (ISTE, 2015). These are skills that are mostly mentioned in the literature. The Computer Science Teacher Association (CSTA) revised its definition of a problem solving mechanism in 2016. This strategy can be applied to all fields of study in the field of computer science, allowing for analysis and the creation of solutions to issues that can be resolved by computational means (CSTA, 2017).
Alternatively, CT is a combination of comprehensive thinking abilities, e.g., mathematical, engineering, and scientific thinking (Mannila et al., 2014; Riley & Hunt, 2014; Syslo & Kwiatkowska, 2013). It contributes a remarkable capacity for original thought (Korkmaz & Bai, 2019). Although CT is not specifically defined as one, its importance is clear given that everyone is expected to utilise it as one of the fundamental skills, along with reading, writing, logic, and math (Wing, 2006, 2010). Every child’s critical thinking ability for reading, writing, and mathematics should be integrated with it (ISTE, 2015; Wing, 2008). The dimensions of the computational thinking abilities determined by Korkmaz et al. (2017) are shown below and include creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving.
2.2.1
Creative thinking is one of the dimensions of CT (Grover & Pea, 2013). It is a cognitive process that entails the generation of fresh concepts or ideas as well as fresh connections between old concepts or ideas (Agogi et al., 2014; Jackson et al., 2012). The “capacity for creation” or “ability to create” is creativity. Making something out of nothing is another meaning of creation. Therefore, fresh notions or ideas are meant when one talks about creativity. It has to do with creativity, originality, and imagination. The ability to recognise novel challenges and propose a solution requires the use of creative thinking. It is not a stand
alone skill but is intimately tied to analytical and problem solving abilities (Korkmaz et al., 2017).
Algorithmic thinking is the basis of CT (Aho, 2012; Denning, 2009). An algorithm is a process that uses stages that are clearly specified to solve a problem (Futschek, 2006). The capacity to comprehend, act upon, assess, and create an algorithm is known as algorithmic thinking (Brown, 2015). It derives from the idea of an algorithm, which is the process of designing a sequence of sequential steps to solve a problem and produce the intended outcome (Katai, 2015). Algorithmic thinking relates to the notion of developing and comprehending algorithms (Futschek, 2006; Katai, 2015). The primary CT feature is algorithmic reasoning used to solve problems automatically (Barr & Stephenson, 2011). It is a meticulous ability that calls for a capacity for conceptual thinking and problem solving. It entails creating a flowchart of steps leading to suitable solutions, refining the flowchart, and coming up with other processes to make sure that supported alternative solutions to the problem are found (Futschek, 2006). The capacity to define abstraction, which is the core of computational thinking, is also strongly tied to it (Wing, 2008; Wong & Jiang, 2018). One of the fundamental competencies in CT is algorithmic thinking (Yadav et al., 2017).
Cooperativity is also deemed to be a part of CT dimension (Farris & Sengupta, 2014; Grover & Pea, 2017). According to Missiroli et al. (2017), cooperative thinking is the ability to explain, recognise, dissect issues and computationally solve them in teams in a socially sustainable fashion. Cooperative thinking and the concept of CT are blended in this definition. Essentially, it is a procedure for solving problems. Corporation and collaboration between people leads to effective problem solving because when issues grow more complicated, it becomes challenging for one person to arrive at a solution. Students should be able to describe and dissect large problems into their component parts. In CT, wherein students employ higher level reasoning (National Research Council, 2011), social collaboration plays a major role (Farris & Sengupta, 2014; Standl, 2016). Interoperability is essential when the problem’s complexity rises, while cooperativity is superior among learning methods because of the participation in which individuals can share information and build social relationships (Korkmaz, 2012; Nam, 2014).
2.2.4
Having numerous definitions for it, a crucial component of CT is critical thinking, one of the higher order thinking abilities, which helps students solve problems by assessing them at a deeper level of thought (Doleck et al., 2017). Individual attitudes, information, and abilities which are utilised to reason and evaluate the situation of a problem are all part of the critical thinking process. According to Csizmadia et al. (2015), critical thinking refers to the process of thoughts assessment and evaluation in an attempt to seek room for improvement. It entails asking “how” and “why” inquiries (Seferolu & Akbyk, 2006). Kules (2016) identified parallels between the eight dimensional critical
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thinking framework and the Computer Science Standards suggested by CSTA (2017) and figured out several akin concepts, e.g., “concepts and abstraction, formulation and question at issue, information/data, confidence and persistence, and logic” (p. 508). Many approaches can be used to tackle problems; however, it requires critical thinking. Therefore, critical thinking is considered a significant element of CT.
Barr and Stephenson (2011) emphasised that problem solving is the core dimension of CT. Problem solving is interchangeable with CT (Grover & Pea, 2013; Israel et al., 2015). It is the mechanism of seeking any available solutions to confront with daily life problems people are engaging in (Brandell, 2010). This process comprises of four fundamental steps, e.g., defining the problem, generating alternative solutions, evaluating and selecting an alternative, and implementing and following up on the solution. The problem solving process includes these characteristics, e.g., defining the problem in a way that allows us to use computers and other tools to help; logical organisation and analysis of data; data visualisation through abstraction; automatic problem solving through algorithmic thinking; identifying, analysing, and implementing feasible solutions to achieve the most efficient and effective combination of procedures and resources; and orienting and transferring this problem solving process to a wide range of problems (Barr & Stephenson, 2011). These characteristics are closely related to the four fundamental steps of problem solving.
In numerous research all over the world, the CTS of Korkmaz was adopted and utilised to assess students’ CT. For instance, Law et al. (2021) determined the relationship between academic achievement and CT of domestic STEM students in Malaysia; Doleck et al. (2017) explored the CT skills and academic performance relation among students in north eastern Canada; Günbatar (2019) studied the comparison between in service and pre service teachers CT skill in Turkey; Mindetbay et al. (2019) explored the relationship between the efficacy of CT and the academic achievement of grade 8 students in 28 schools in Kazakhstan; Lemay et al. (2021) examined the link between CT and the academic results of students in Turkey; Srakaya et al. (2020) explored the CT skills, STEM attitudes, and thinking styles association among secondary school students in Turkey; Paf and Dinçer (2021) studied the relationship between CT skills and creative problem solving skills of grade 8 12 students in Turkey; Zgür (2020) investigated the relationship between CT skills, ways of thinking, and demographic variables of grade 5 12 students in Turkey; Alyahya and Alotaibi (2019) studied the relationship between CT skills and grade 8 students in Saudi Arabia; and Durak and Saritepeci (2018) assessed the relationship between CT skills and various variables in Turkey.
Through the lens of gaining mutual advantage from a research network, the convenience sampling technique was employed in the current study due to the
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expectation of the highest responses possible. Data were collected from junior high school students in Thailand. During data screening outliers were observed using the Mahalanobis distance method with a critical point of 58.30, resulting in 266 responses dismissed from the dataset. The final total number of participants comprised 2975 students; 1880 (63.2%) of the participants were female whereas 1095 (36.8%) were male. The average age of participants was 13.84 years with a standard deviation of 2.39.
In this study, the researchers adopted the Korkmaz CTS (Appendix 1). The researchers translated CTS items into Thai (Hambleton & Patsula, 1999). Then the Thai version of CTS adjusted the words to suit junior high school students. The Thai CTS consists of 29 items with a 5 level rating on a Likert scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always). Each CT dimension consists of several items, e.g., creativity (8 items), algorithmic thinking (6 items), cooperativity (4 items), critical thinking (5 items), and problem solving (6 items).
First, research consent was obtained from the University Institute Research Board (IRB). Educational technology specialists who are fluent in both Thai and English translated the original CTS from English into Thai. The Thai CTS was sent to a language specialist for translation back to English and then compared with the original. The results showed that the original scale items and the items obtained from the English translation were linguistically equivalent. The translation process was completed with all necessary language modifications. Second, the pilot test was conducted using the Thai CTS in order to review psychometric characteristics and make further adjustments (Deniz, 2007). Finally, the scale was used to collect data from junior high school students. All the participants were volunteers and had the right to partially or not complete the survey.
All analysis in this study was computed using R programming language (R Core Team, 2020). Each statistic test requires specific loading package and function. Data analysis was performed in three stages after removing all outliers. First, it was scanned for missing values and a preliminary analysis was performed in order to investigate the assumption of normality and multicollinearity. Normality was checked via skewness and kurtosis. Lomax and Hahs Vaughn (2013) suggested that data are considered normal when skewness and kurtosis are within the range of an absolute value of 1.5. Multicollinearity was checked through Pearson’s correlation among all observed variables in a dataset. Multicollinearity is manifested when the strength of the relationship value is high, that is, r >.8 (Gana & Broc, 2019). Second, to investigate the structural validity of this CTS scale, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were conducted. Therefore, a dataset was randomly selected and separated into two parts via R. Part one consisted of 500 for performing EFA, whereas part two contained 2475 for undergoing CFA.
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An EFA was conducted to discover the rational CTS scale factor structure. Prior to carrying out the EFA, its assumptions were explored through sampling size adequacy and observed variable intercorrelation. To extract the factors, principal axis factoring (PAF) was utilised with oblique rotation (Promax) along with parallel analysis and scree plot. PAF determines the quantity of factors and their nature in corresponding to participants’ responses (O’Rourke & Hatcher, 2013). The oblique rotation was selected in terms of theoretical expected factor correlation. Each factor is elected based on its eigenvalues which are higher than 1 (Kaiser, 1960). Factor loading that is significant indicates the relative importance of a variable towards underlying factors. Thus, to interpret the factor, the value of loading must be higher than 0.4 (Stevens, 2012). Cronbach’s alpha (α) of all scales and subscales was also investigated due to the verification of measurement scale reliability.
Second, CFA was conducted due to the assurance that the first separated dataset was well fitted with the proposed EFA structural model. CFA verifies the factor structure by assessing the model fit. The assessment criteria concerned with a significant p value chi square divided by the degree of freedom (χ²/df), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI), the standardised root mean square residual (SRMR), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). A model comprised of 12 30 overserved variables requires at least 250 participants, χ²/df smaller than 3, CFI or TLI higher than .94, SRMR = 0.08 or less (with CFI above .94), and RMSEA smaller than .07 with CFI of .94 or higher is a well fitted model (Hair et al., 2022). The authors further postulated that exerting three or four indices is considered adequate to confirm the model fit.
Finally, the validity and reliability of the CFA measurement model were assessed. The measurement model reliability was evaluated via Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR). AVE values exceeding 0.50 indicate reliability, whereas CR values must exceed 0.60. In terms of the validity of the scale, it was examined through convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity is achieved when all AVE values are at least 0.50 or higher. Discriminant validity is achieved when Pearson’s correlation among all constructs is smaller than the square root of the AVE of each construct.
No missing values were found through data screening. The skewness values of all items were in between 0.72 and 0.94 whereas kurtosis values were between 0.14 to 0.66. These values were within the range of 1.5 absolute value. Therefore, the assumptions pertaining to normality and missing data showed no violation. Pearson’s correlation values of all items ranged between 0.78 to 0.23 which were low than 0.80. Therefore, the multicollinearity assumption did not cause any violation in the main analysis. Table 2 shows skewness, kurtosis, and Pearson’s correlation between all items.
Item C01 C02 C03 C04 C05 C06 C07 C08 A01 A02 A03 A04 A05 A06 O01 O02 O03 O04 T01 T02 T03 T04 T05 P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06
C01
C02 .50
C03 .41 .42
C04 .40 .35 .59
C05 .40 .38 .55 .58
C06 .39 .38 .47 .50 .54
C07 .40 .42 .53 .50 .54 .49
C08 .38 .41 .50 .51 .53 .47 .55
A01 .34 .30 .45 .52 .49 .45 .48 .54
A02 .28 .22 .32 .37 .37 .34 .29 .38 .41
A03 .30 .23 .33 .40 .39 .35 .30 .37 .43 .78
A04 .32 .29 .41 .49 .44 .44 .39 .44 .48 .52 .58
A05 .28 .18 .34 .43 .40 .37 .31 .39 .48 .59 .67 .60
A06 .27 .19 .34 .43 .39 .37 .30 .38 .47 .56 .62 .59 .73
O01 .31 .38 .33 .29 .33 .34 .40 .35 .28 .20 .19 .24 .15 .16
O02 .31 .33 .31 .31 .33 .35 .35 .35 .32 .21 .21 .27 .21 .23 .59
O03 .32 .37 .32 .29 .33 .34 .37 .35 .29 .18 .18 .25 .17 .19 .63 .65
O04 .32 .34 .33 .29 .33 .34 .35 .34 .29 .20 .22 .28 .20 .23 .50 .56 .58
T01 .35 .28 .44 .51 .48 .42 .41 .46 .51 .42 .47 .53 .52 .52 .26 .35 .32 .40
T02 .30 .26 .38 .43 .38 .36 .34 .40 .44 .45 .48 .51 .52 .52 .20 .27 .25 .32 .60
T03 .39 .41 .43 .41 .45 .42 .47 .46 .39 .32 .32 .39 .31 .32 .43 .36 .39 .40 .43 .46
T04 .37 .40 .44 .41 .46 .42 .46 .46 .44 .38 .38 .46 .38 .40 .36 .36 .35 .35 .52 .49 .55
T05 .38 .35 .44 .46 .46 .44 .45 .50 .49 .40 .43 .51 .45 .47 .33 .36 .35 .35 .56 .50 .49 .60
P01 .20 .17 .27 .27 .23 .27 .25 .25 .31 .21 .24 .31 .29 .29 .17 .22 .19 .22 .34 .30 .26 .32 .38
P02 .20 .16 .22 .25 .22 .24 .21 .22 .26 .23 .25 .31 .30 .31 .13 .20 .17 .20 .31 .27 .21 .30 .33 .44
P03 .11 .04 .14 .17 .14 .14 .12 .12 .20 .14 .18 .23 .22 .21 .06 .13 .08 .11 .22 .18 .11 .19 .24 .43 .45
P04 .14 .09 .12 .13 .10 .14 .12 .12 .16 .13 .15 .21 .19 .21 .09 .12 .08 .12 .17 .14 .11 .15 .22 .39 .40 .62
P05 .05 .03 .07 .06 .04 .03 .02 .04 .12 .12 .13 .16 .17 .18 .05 .01 .04 .01 .12 .12 .01 .06 .12 .31 .30 .53 .54
P06 .02 .09 .06 .10 .05 .04 .02 .05 .15 .18 .20 .21 .26 .27 .21 .16 .23 .11 .20 .17 .03 .06 .15 .25 .24 .37 .38 .50
Mean 3.71 4.21 3.61 3.36 3.57 3.56 3.79 3.61 3.27 3.02 2.91 3.11 2.73 2.76 4.12 3.83 3.96 3.79 3.13 3.07 3.90 3.54 3.35 3.13 2.96 2.86 2.85 2.66 2.18
SD .99 .93 .92 .90 .92 .98 .95 .95 .94 1.12 1.06 .92 1.04 1.03 .98 1.01 1.00 1.04 .93 1.06 1.01 1.05 .94 1.02 1.05 .97 1.00 1.11 1.21
Skewness .26 .94 .21 .00 .22 .25 .39 .23 .06 .06 .16 .16 .24 .19 .81 .50 .60 .43 .02 .01 .50 .19 .08 .01 .06 .13 .11 .26 .72
Kurtosis .51 .14 .34 .17 .25 .39 .37 .36 .29 .66 .48 .11 .39 .41 .24 .46 .42 .59 .18 .52 .58 .63 .25 .42 .40 .13 .25 .51 .48
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The sample adequacy was confirmed by the Kaiser Meyer Olkin measure (KMO) for performing EFA. The KMO overall value was 0.92 whereas the individual value of each item was larger than 0.78. These values were greater than 0.5. The correlation of all items demonstrated sufficient adequacy for conducting PAF due to Bartlett’s test of sphericity with χ² (406) = 7239.29 and a p value smaller than .001. A five factor solution was suggested by running a parallel analysis and scree plot, which was reckoned entirely suitable. These five factors incorporated creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. However, on account of the cut off point and cross loading values, one item (A01) was excluded from the Thai CTS instrument. All item loaded values were greater than 0.4 among all factors. The eventual five factor illustrated a 52.5% variance. The Cronbach’s alpha values for creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving were 0.86, 0.89, 0.83, 0.84, and 0.79, respectively, which presented the reliability of the items as seen in Table 3.
Promax rotated factor loadings
Item Creativity Algorithmic Thinking Cooperativity Critical Thinking Problem Solving
C01 0.47 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.15
C02 0.43 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.21
C03 0.82 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.07 C04 0.77 0.16 0.07 0.01 0.15
C05 0.75 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.10 C06 0.76 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.04 C07 0.70 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.04
C08 0.52 0.05 0.11 0.05 0.07 A02 0.00 0.82 0.07 0.09 0.06
A03 0.02 0.93 0.09 0.06 0.10 A04 0.14 0.52 0.09 0.07 0.04
A05 0.01 0.75 0.08 0.05 0.01
A06 0.00 0.71 0.06 0.08 0.01
T01 0.10 0.05 0.60 0.07 0.03
T02 0.05 0.27 0.70 0.15 0.13
T03 0.21 0.08 0.60 0.12 0.05
T04 0.01 0.07 0.75 0.04 0.09
T05 0.01 0.02 0.66 0.06 0.04
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P01 0.09 0.04 0.17 0.47 0.08
P02 0.05 0.03 0.11 0.42 0.12
P03 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.78 0.07
P04 0.05 0.03 0.19 0.79 0.14
P05 0.01 0.04 0.17 0.79 0.10
P06 0.02 0.08 0.11 0.56 0.39
O01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.79
O02 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.69
O03 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.89
O04 0.05 0.01 0.18 0.01 0.54
Eigenvalues 3.80 3.18 2.59 2.56 2.55
% of variance 14 11 9 9 9
Cronbach’s α 0.86 0.89 0.83 0.84 0.79
Factor loadings over .40 are in bold
The five factor structure model was verified by CFA. However, six items, e.g., items C01 and C02 of creativity, item T03 of critical thinking, and items P01, P02, and P06 of problem solving were removed because standardised factor loadings were lower than 0.5, which indicated they were non significant. The remained factor loadings of measurement items represented as significantly standardized, which ranged from 0.65 to 0.84. The current model was adjusted. Eventually, the fitting indices appeared satisfactory, e.g., χ² = 409.72, degree of freedom (df) = 196, χ²/df = 2.09 which is smaller than 3 (Parsimonious fit), p <.001, CFI = .96 which is higher than .94, TLI = .95 which is higher than .94, SRMR = .049 which is less than .08, and RMSEA = .047 which is less than .07 (see Table 4).
Model df χ² χ²/df CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA
Five factor (from EFA) 340 1187.77 3.49 .87 .86 .078 .071 Modified five factor (6 items dropped) 196 409.721 2.09 .96 .95 .049 .047
Model df χ² χ²/df CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA
TLI=Tucker Lewisindex,CFI=comparativefitindex,SRMR=standardisedrootmeansquare residual,RMSEA=rootmeansquareerrorofapproximation,***p<.001
Convergent validity was investigated based on AVE value of each construct. They were varied between 0.51 to 0.58, which is slightly higher than 0.50. All the CR values were also higher than 0.60. Thus, the CFA measurement model
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reliability was earned. Pertaining to the validity, all AVE values were higher than 0.50. Pearson’s correlation among all constructs was smaller than the square root of AVE. Therefore, scale validity was also attained (see Table 5). In general, good reliability and validity of the CT scale were gained. Each construct was discrete.
Table 5: CFA Report for every construct in the model
Construct Item Factor Loading CR (Above 0.6) AVE (Above 0.5)
Creativity
C03 0.72 0.86 0.51
C04 0.75 C05 0.75 C06 0.71 C07 0.66 C08 0.66
Algorithmic Thinking
A02 0.67 0.89 0.58
A03 0.77 A04 0.76 A05 0.82 A06 0.79
Cooperativity
O01 0.77 0.83 0.56 O02 0.71 O03 0.84 O04 0.66
Critical Thinking
T01 0.74 0.81 0.51 T02 0.70 T04 0.67 T05 0.71
Problem Solving
P03 0.76 0.77 0.53 P04 0.80 P05 0.65
CR=CompositeReliability,AVE=AverageVarianceExtracted
This study aims to adapt Korkmaz CTS into Thai and investigate the validity and reliability. Data were collected from Thai junior high school students in grades 7 9 by using a 29 item questionnaire with a 5 level rating Likert Scale. An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was conducted. EFA was evaluated
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by factor loading and eigenvalues and the results showed that the scale was structurally correct. Subsequently, a CFA was performed to confirm the scale factor structure, which contained five factors resulting from the EFA. The CFA was confirmed, as determined by the chi square, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI), the standardised root mean square residual (SRMR), and the root means square error of approximation (RMSEA). Finally, the reliability and validity were evaluated using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) values.
From the theoretical framework of Korkmaz et al. (2017), CT consisted of five constructs, e.g., creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. Creativity refers to a type of ability in producing any creative solutions to a problem. Algorithmic thinking is the ability to proceed in sequence to solve a problem. Cooperativity is the ability to cooperate with different skills in problem solving. Critical thinking is the ability pertaining to the analysis and assessment oriented conscious judgments for solving a problem. Problem solving is the ability to find solutions to problems. The results of the EFA in the current study showed that there were also five dimensions of CT, e.g., creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. These findings were consistent with the theoretical framework of Korkmaz et al. (2017).
Although the result from EFA showed that there were five constructs, one item, A01, was cut off due to the cut off point and cross loading values. This result of our EFA was inconsistent with the research by Korkmaz and Bai (2019) who adapted CTS to the Chinese language and collected data from high school students. Their results showed that nine items were removed. Further, in the current study, six items were removed during the CFA process. Two items were eliminated from the creativity dimension, i.e., item C01 and item C02. One item was removed from the critical thinking dimension, i.e., item T03. Three items were excluded from the problem solving dimension, i.e., item P01, item P02 and item P06. These findings also showed discrepancies with Korkmaz and Bai (2019). Their elimination of items was different from the current study, probably due to their sample educational level. They used K10 K11 students whereas this research utilised K7 K9 students. However, Thai CTS showed validity and reliability due to the non violation of convergent and discrimination analyses. In this regard, Thai CTS is suitable for measuring the CT of junior high school students.
In this research, Korkmaz CTS was adopted into Thai and its validity and reliability were investigated. The findings suggested that the CTS in terms of Thai adaptation was convincing and was able to measure not only undergraduate and high school students but also junior high school students. The findings of the study offer some implications: First, it contributed to the CT theoretical framework by confirming that CT incorporates five constructs, e.g., creativity, algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. Second, this study added more weight on the reliability and validity of
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the Korkmaz original CTS and confirmed that CTS can be utilised in order to measure CT at the junior high school level. Therefore, using CTS, schools can measure students’ CT faster and with cost saving. However, there are several limitations to this study. Firstly, the questionnaire measured CT in the form of domain general, not domain specific, e.g., computational thinking in computer programming. Second, female participants were more than male because Thai is a collectivistic and feminine culture (Koul, 2018). Third, even though the discriminant validity was accepted, the correlation of the sub constructs was too high. It almost violated scale validity and reliability. However, this occurred because the scale items of creativity, algorithmic thinking, and critical thinking constructs were quite similar. Finally, this research collected data in Thailand, so the results can be limited to one country only. Thus, it is recommended that future studies may conduct a cross cultural investigation of CTS scale reliability and validity.
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I like the people who are sure of most of their decisions
I like the people who are realistic and neutral
I believe that I can solve most of the problems I face if I have sufficient amount of time and if I show effort
I have a belief that I can solve the problems possible to occur when I encounter with a new situation
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proceeding to another subject and think over that problem
Algorithmic Thinking 9. I can immediately establish the equity that will give the solution of a problem
10. I think that I have a special interest in the mathematical processes
11. I think that I learn better the instructions made with the help of mathematical symbols and concepts
I believe that I can easily catch the relation between the figures
I can mathematically express the solution ways of the problems I face in the daily life
I can digitize a mathematical problem expressed verbally
14. ฉันสามารถแปลงปัญหาทางคณิตศาสตร์ที่แสดงด้วยวาจาได้
16. ฉันคิดว่าฉันจะประสบความสาเร็จมากกว่าหากฉันได้เรียนรู้แบบร่วมมือกันเป็นกลุ่ม 19. ฉันเก่งในการจัดเตรียมแผนการแก้ไขปัญหาอยู่เสมอเพื่อรับมือกับปัญหาที่ซับซ้อน 20. It is fun to try to solve the complex problem 20 ฉันสนุกกับการลองแก้ไขปัญหาที่ซับซ้อน 21. I am willing to learn new challenging things 21. ฉันยินดีที่จะเรียนรู้สิ่งใหม่ ๆ ที่ท้าทาย
I like solving problems related to group project together with my friends in cooperative learning
22. I am proud of being able to think with a great precision
23. I make use of a systemic method while comparing the options at my hand and while reaching a decision
22. ฉันภูมิใจที่สามารถคิดได้อย่างแม่นยา
23. ฉันใช้วิธีคิดเป็นระบบเวลาเปรียบเทียบตัวเลือกและเวลาตัดสินใจ
24. ฉันมีปัญหาในการแสดงวิธีการแก้ปัญหาในใจ 25. I have problems in the issue of where and how I should use the variables such as X and Y in the solution of a problem
25. ฉันมีปัญหาว่าฉันควรใช้ตัวแปร เช่น X และ Y
26.
27.
28. ฉันไม่สามารถสร้างไอเดียของตัวเองได้เวลาแก้ไขปัญหาตอนทางานเป็นกลุ่ม
29. ฉันเหนื่อยที่จะต้องเรียนรู้ร่วมกันกับเพื่อนเวลาทางานเป็นกลุ่ม
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 174 196, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.10
Received Jun 28, 2022; Revised Sep 8, 2022; Accepted Sep 28, 2022
Mohamed
W. Soliman Alexandria University, EgyptAbstract In light of the rapid and increasing spread of technology in all aspects of life, developing the skills for producing e courses for teachers has become an important need. This empirical research aims at designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects and measuring its impact on developing the skills necessary for producing e courses based on Quality Matters (QM) standards for middle school mathematics teachers. We apply both a descriptive analytical approach and an experimental approach to achieve this objective. This empirical research was conducted on a random sample of 60 schoolteachers, who were randomly divided into two groups: an experimental one, consisting of 30 schoolteachers who were trained using the digital repository based on interactive learning objects; and the control, consisting of 30 schoolteachers who were trained using the traditional training method. The research tools consisted of an achievement test and a quality assessment card for e courses based on QM standards. To analyse the data, an independent sample t test was used. The results revealed that, in contrast with the control group, the experimental group acquired superior skills in designing and producing e courses, as well as in the quality of e courses These resultsconfirm the importance of using digital repositories based on interactive learning objects as one of the modern directionsforfuturedevelopmentintheproduction ofe coursesbasedon QM standards for middle school teachers.
Keywords: digital repository; interactive learning objects; mathematics teachers; producing e courses; quality matters standards
Conducting education and training programs through the internet have recently gained greater importance as it ensures the components of education and training
* Corresponding author: Essa A. Alibraheim; ealibraheim@iau.edu.sa
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
are more easily accessible in comparison to conventionally conducted programs. However, designing these online educational and training components pose a major challenge in terms of choosing the instructional strategies, learning media, and learning style that allow the creation of digital content of high scientific value with efficient interoperability on most devices.
Part of e courses’ success as important educational resources relates to their availability at anytime, anywhere, without any need for conventional classroom settings. Also, running e courses does not necessitate the presence of computers at the university or school campus. Additionally, students can use the e course several times, with the ability to regularly watch the lectures (Aboukhatwa, 2010).
Several studies (e.g., Abu Azmah et al., 2012; Mousa et al., 2013) have emphasized the need to develop the skills in designing and producing e courses for schoolteachers. On the other hand, those studies have also confirmed the existence of many challenges associated with the process of developing e courses, such as the existent inaccuracies in many of the elements of developing these courses, which more or less look like a printed book, yet in electronic form. Furthermore, the results of those studies emphasize the need to pay attention to setting standards for developing e courses.
Quality Matters (QM) standards are among the tools for evaluating modern e courses and ensuring quality in e learning in terms of their increasing recognition in United States, and abroad. According to the standards' website, QM standards have now become the most widely used criteria in evaluating the design of electronic courses (Quality Matters, n.d.).
Digital learning repositories can be employed in training programs to develop teachers' e course design and production skills. It is worth noting that the application of what is known as the learning objects involves, among others, development, interaction, reuse, and the possibility of sharing the educational material for the training of teachers and students. It is to be noted that interactive learning objects refer to individual multimedia or hypermedia that can be used in various learning processes and stages (Abdelrahman, 2022). Those digital objects, which stand as independent entities, are easy to place within digital repositories across the web, are part of the learning process, and do greatly assist students in carrying out their cognitive processes (Yigit et al., 2014).
Cameron and Bennett (2010) show that the basic idea behind learning objects is that designers can create a small learning object that is flexible and unique, can be reused and adapted to suit different learning contexts, and can be stored on different digital media such as CD ROM or DVD.
Abouelmmaati et al. (2015) emphasized the effectiveness of designing digital learning objects based on the combination of interaction patterns and audio media broadcasting technology to develop listening skills among first year secondary students. Elnajar's study (2014) also confirmed a significant impact of learning objects in the e learning environment in developing engineering drawing skills
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and the tendency towards their use among Al Aqsa University students in Palestine
Digital Repositories are places to store and manage interactive learning objects in a practical and organized manner, with the possibility of search and retrieval through the metadata accompanying the learning objects available within them (Azmy, 2014).
Several studies (e.g., Khalil, 2012; Salem, 2011) emphasized the importance of digital repositories. Salem (2011) studied the effectiveness of designing and building an electronic repository of digital objects and publishing it online to develop English language teaching skills. Through his studies, Salem prepared a proposed model for designing and building digital repositories. Similarly, Khalil's study (2012) pivoted on the effectiveness of the digital learning units' repository in developing e content design skills for graduate students in view of e learning quality standards.
It is clear from the above that developing the skills of designing and producing e courses for teachers is as important as employing digital learning repositories in both education and training arenas, as it can contribute to the development of design and production skills. In view of the foregoing, developing e course production expertise according to the QM standards among middle school mathematics teachers is necessary. This need might be achieved through the design of a digital repository based on interactive learning objects.
1.1.
The current research's objectives are to:
1. Reveal the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects in the process of developing the cognitive aspect of e course production skills based on the QM standards that must be developed for middle school mathematics teachers,
2. Reveal the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects in the process of developing the skills for producing e courses based on the QM standards that must be developed for middle school mathematics teachers.
The problem addressed in this work is illustrated by the recommendations of many studies (e.g., Abu Azmah et al., 2012; Mousa et al., 2013) that teachers possess the skills for designing and producing e course due to its importance and educational effectiveness. Similarly, the results of the study of Hayat and Nouby (2015) confirmed the effectiveness of electronic courses in the educational process. Although there are studies that have dealt with the development of teachers’ skills in producing e-courses, these studies did not address the development of these skills according to QM standards for Saudi Arabian middle school mathematics instructors. These skills can be achieved by designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects.
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Before conducting the current study, an exploratory study was administered to identify the level of teachers’ electronic course design and production skills. Fifty middle school mathematics schoolteachers were interviewed through the Directorate of Education in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, and the results showed that: (1) 95% of middle school mathematics teachers agreed that they do not possess the skills to produce e courses; (2) all middle school mathematics teachers agreed that it is greatly important for middle school teachers to possess the skills to produce electronic courses, especially in view of the spread of the Corona virus (COVID 19); (3) all of them indicated that they are not aware of the QM standards for the production of e courses; and (4) all middle school mathematics teachers emphasized that e environments can help them to possess the skills to produce e courses.
Accordingly, there is an evident need for developing the skills for producing e courses based on the QM standards for mathematics teachers at the intermediate stage. This goal can be achieved by designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects. Therefore, the research problem of the current study can be addressed by answering the following main problematic: How can a digital repository based on interactive learning objects be designed to develop the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards for middle school mathematics teachers? The study also addressed the ensuing questions in detail:
1. What is the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, aiming at developing the cognitive aspect of e course production skills based on the QM standards that should be developed among middle school mathematics teachers?
2. What is the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, aiming at developing the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards that need to be developed among middle school mathematics teachers?
The current research sought to test the following two hypotheses:
1. There are no statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects and the mean scores of the control group teachers who used traditional training in the post application of the achievement test related to the skills of designing and producing e courses based on the QM standards,
2. There are no statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects and the mean scores of the control group teachers who used traditional training in the post application of the quality assessment card for e courses based on the QM standards.
Population Delimitation: Middle school mathematics teachers. Objective Delimitation: Skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards
Temporal Delimitation: The academic year's first term 2019 2020
Spatial Delimitation: Middle Schools within the Directorate of Education in the Eastern Province, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
1.4.1. Research terms
The researchers of the current study defined the study terms operationally as follows:
Digital repositories: A database in which a large number of interactive digital learning objects related to the development of e course production design skills for middle school teachers is stored, whereby those objects are indexed based on Metadata standards, thus making it easy to retrieve and reuse them quickly and at any time.
Interactive digital learning objects: Digital components of a relatively small size. It could be text, image, audio, video, animation, etc. It can be used in training in interactive and repetitive forms to develop the skills required for designing and producing e courses in view of Metadata Standards, copyright, and use.
E courses: An electronic educational system consisting of objectives, content, activities, teaching methods, learning resources, and assessment methods, which are produced and presented using the computer and the Internet.
E course production skills: The set of knowledge and tools that enable middle school math teachers to design and produce e courses using Articulate Storyline program and Moodle system, as will identify in the procedures section.
Quality Matters (QM) Standards: The most prominent means of evaluating e courses and ensuring quality in e learning in terms of its increasing recognition, whether at the level of the United States of America or abroad, recently becoming, according to the QM's website, the most widely used criteria in evaluating the quality of e course design.
The importance of the current research lies in the following: 1. Directing attention towards the application of the digital repository based on interactive learning objects in training by providing a practical model for digital repositories that can be emulated when preparing other similar training programs with the aim of developing the training needs of teachers in general and the skills of designing e courses in particular, and
2. Directing the attention of those responsible for designing e training programs and applications to the importance of developing the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards among teachers in general and middle school mathematics teachers in particular.
2.1.
E training, which is an integral part of the e learning process, is of great importance to trainees, for reasons including: (1) Self reliance and self confidence (Riel & Fulton, 2011), (2) availability of participation and interaction among the trainees through communication technologies, such as e mail, mailing groups, discussion panels, and chat, whilst exchanging experiences and creating knowledge, (3) enhancement of trainees’ e training abilities to search for and build knowledge (Roblyer & Ekhaml, 2000), (4) and providing trainees with access to multiple forms of digital training resources through hypermedia and available links, thus reducing anxiety, stress and boredom from training and practice and eventually creating knowledge and gaining experiences (Alvarez Trujillo, 2008).
Derek Stockley (n.d.) defined e training as the process of distributing and receiving training or educational programs using electronic tools and media, including the use of a computer and a smartphone, and any other means that can facilitate the training process and help achieve the training goals.
Ramayah et al. (2012) indicates that e training is similar to e learning in terms of implementation methods and technology employed; however, it includes a much shorter time frame than the learning process. E training is specifically designed to achieve a specific goal or skill that is acquired or developed through training.
Not only does the e training environment have many advantages, but it also has some uniqueness that is not found in any other training system, such as interactive and participatory; integration; freedom of training, learning and control; continuity; training flexibility; diversity; privacy; and organization (El Ghool, 2015).
With the rapid pace of development, the increase in the volume of information, and the diversity of its sources, the need has increased to provide digital information sources that are presented in a correct manner and properly prepared, in addition to the interest in updating them on an ongoing basis. Digital repositories are a form of dissemination and availability of digital information resources through the free and unimpeded exchange of information. The existence of digital repositories is linked to e learning environments, as the integration between them brings many advantages to learners and teachers. Incorporating digital materials makes it easier for learners to locate and retrieve these materials. Also, this integration works to raise the informational awareness of learners, encourages teachers and learners to interact and exchange experiences, and helps them discover knowledge with the possibility of searching and retrieving information sources in their various forms. Hence, repositories support the teaching and learning process in e learning environments.
There are many terms for digital repositories, such as self or free archives, free access repositories, future library management systems, and institutional repositories. All the previous terms have the same meaning, as indicated by
several studies (e.g., Azmy, 2014; He et al., 2010). Digital repositories aim to create a reliable and trustworthy collection of information that provides minimal services for searching and controlling digital contents.
Digital repositories support communication and provide the possibility of communication between users so that this contributes to searches and to finding learning elements that suit the characteristics and needs of learners. Therefore, many studies (e.g., Al Bassam & Al Yami, 2013; Hafez, 2010) have identified the importance of digital repositories as follows:
1 Helping educational institutions to facilitate access to electronic content, which includes activities, electronic exams, texts, and videos, thereby moving learners from learning by traditional methods to learning in which the learner becomes the focus of the educational process,
2 Providing a variety of services, which are represented in the search and retrieval of learning objects. These services also help in organizing and indexing the learning objects based on metadata standards, and keeping the learning objects long term and securely so that they are easily accessible and reused, which saves the learners time,
3. Serving as a platform for exchanging experiences, educational and training resources. Also, these repositories provide open and free access to many lessons, seminars, courses, and exercises,
4. Allowing institutions to publish their work, research, and activities, which increases opportunities to improve learning and experiences, and encourages collaboration between different groups and disciplines.
Several studies (e.g., Hansen, 2006; Hendawy, 2011; Metwally, 2013; Huang, 2007; Khalil, 2012; Thomas & McDonald, 2007) have addressed the importance of digital repositories in providing a space for digital publishing of learning resources and facilitating the process of accessing them. Metwally's study (2013) seeked to develop a proposed scenario for employing and developing social networks that support repositories of learning objects to help teachers produce computer programs based on educational and technical standards of production. The study showed that digital repository helped in developing the skills for producing these programs. Khalil (2012) aimed to identify the effectiveness of the digital learning unit repository in developing skills in preparing electronic tests and designing question banks among university students. The study found the importance of digital learning repositories in developing the cognitive and performance aspects related to these skills. Hendawy (2011) attempted to design and build a proposed model for the online educational unit repository based on quality standards and measure its impact on some aspects of students' learning. The results showed that the repository of learning items contributed to the development of cognitive achievement, the development of the ability to think innovatively, and the development of positive attitudes towards the use of online educational units in learning. Huang (2007) sought to identify common factors among small groups
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using digital repositories. The results confirmed that working in groups can contribute to sharing information and digital resources, while facilitating the process of searching and retrieval within the digital repository. The study by Thomas and McDonald (2007) attempted to use digital repositories in the scientific publishing of research and measured its impact on the attitude towards the repository. The results showed the effectiveness of the digital repository in scientific publishing and its impact on increasing the positive attitude towards it. Hansen's study (2006) aimed to create and develop a repository of learning objects in the field of culture and language that serves learners and teachers. The study concluded that the repository contributed to improving the quality of teaching and learning for both learners and teachers.
Therefore, digital repositories are considered as a new and important model for scientific publishing with a set of features that provide them with a distinctive interactive role in encouraging preservation, search, and retrieval processes. Several studies (e.g., Gombiro et al., 2008; Heery & Anderson, 2005) have indicated the characteristics of digital repositories as follows: stability, flexibility, non repetition, and diversity, among others.
Digital repositories preserve e learning resources in a way that allows users the freedom to choose and search, where the search process is one of its most important functions. Several studies (e.g., Abdel Gawad, 2009; Alfano & Henderson, 2007) indicate that the functions of digital repositories lie in the following points: search, deliver, request, store, submit, and quality control.
2.3.
There are many definitions of digital learning objects. Abu Shama and Al Jabbour (2013) define digital learning objects as one of the modern electronic applications, which is based on the modern idea of activating the use of digital media. These digital media may be in the form of text, audio, image, still and animation, video clips, and interactive simulations in teaching subjects. This is done by preparing banks or repositories for a large number of independent and self existing digital media particles and presenting them to teachers for reuse several times in a new educational framework and in different generalized situations than those for which they were produced. It takes between 1 15 minutes for each of these digital media to be displayed in the learning situation.
Many studies (e.g., Ritzhaupt, 2010; Salas & Ellis, 2006) emphasized the characteristics of interactive learning objects, as follows: understandability, learner control, goal orientation, time, interactivity, multiple representation of information, motivation, differentiation, flexibility, autonomy, collaboration, variation, accessible, reusable, interoperable, and adaptable.
In order to come up with a suitable design for the digital repository, which serves as the empirical treatment of the current research, an analytical descriptive approach to monitoring and analysing Arabic and English studies and literature that dealt with digital repositories was used.
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Quasi experimental approach is used to find out the impact of the independent variable (designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects) on the dependent variable (e course production skills based on QM standards.
Thus, the current research employs the quasi experimental design that is known as the randomization control group pre test post test, where participants were randomly assigned in both groups Table 1 describes the current study design.
Experimental Achievement test
Training on a digital repository based on interactive learning objects
Achievement test. Quality assessment card for the production of e courses based on the QM standards. Control Traditional training
The research population was middle school mathematics teachers within the Directorate of Education in the Eastern Province, Dammam, Saudi Arabia, and the application of the research was limited to a random sample representing the research population, consisting of 60 schoolteachers Simple random selection was used to split the participants into two groups after making sure that the two groups were equivalent: the first one was an experimental group consisting of 30 teachers who were trained in using the digital repository based on interactive learning objects, and the second one was a control group consisting of 30 teachers who were trained in the traditional way.
The following were the research variables:
1. The independent variable: The training style has two levels: training using a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, and training in the traditional way.
2. Dependent variable: E course production skills based on the QM standards.
To answer the research questions and verify their hypotheses, the work in the current research proceeded based on the following procedures:
1 Preparing an initial list of e course production skills based on the QM standards: An initial list of e course production skills has been reached based on the QM standards that need to be developed. The list of skills included 8 main skills, and 41 sub skills.
2. Preparing a list of digital repository design standards based on interactive learning objects: A list of digital repository design standards based on interactive
learning objects as developed. The list included 7 main standards, and 57 indicators.
3 We used the general model of educational design (ADDIE) by following:
First stage: The analysis stage: This stage includes many steps, which were as follows: 1) identify general goals; 2) determine educational needs and problems; 3) analyse the characteristics of the trainees; and 4) analyse resources and constraints in the educational environment.
Second stage: The design stage: The subsequent actions were part of this phase: i. Setting training goals: The researchers prepared a list of training objectives and presented to a set of experts in educational technology. The list of objectives in its final form consisted of 62 educational objectives,
ii. Identifying educational content: The researchers reviewed many previous studies and literature that dealt with the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards. Then, the researchers prepared educational content that includes e course production skills based on the QM standards,
iii. Determining a content organization strategy for the digital repository: In organizing the content, the researchers considered that it is determined based on the nature of the digital repository, and it is sequenced in the form of objectives followed by educational activities and interactions, where the teacher moves from one training task to another in a way that leads to the achievement of the previously specified training goal,
iv. Identifying training activities and tasks,
v. Determining the training pattern and strategies for its implementation in the digital repository,
vi. Choosing and employing electronic resources: Researchers designed media and electronic resources that fit the nature of the digital repository environment. These media were text files (pdf), images, videos, flash files, and links. These media were employed in the digital repository environment,
vii. Interaction design within a digital repository environment: The researchers designed the training interactions as follows: Interaction between the trainees and the content; Interaction among the trainees; and Interaction between trainees and researchers,
viii. Designing an educational scenario for a digital repository environment: The educational scenario is designed for the digital repository environment in the form of a screen-by-screen story board, which is often used with e-training environments.
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After completing the formulation of the basic scenario in its initial form, the researchers presented the educational scenario to experts in the field of educational technology to get their comments. The scenarios were finalized in preparation for the production of the experimental processing materials (digital repository environment).
Third stage: The production stage: The researchers hired a company specialized in designing digital repository environments based on interactive learning objects.
Fourth stage: The evaluation stage: This stage aims to ensure the validity of the digital repository environment that was produced for the application. The website was presented to a group of arbitrators, who used a standard list for this evaluation. Based on the arbitrators’ suggestions, the researchers made the necessary modifications in the digital repository environment. Finally, the digital repository was prepared in its final form in preparation for a field trial on a pilot sample of teachers to ensure the validity of use.
The research tools were created by the researchers. The tools were an achievement test to measure the cognitive aspect of e course production skills based on the QM standards and a quality assessment card for the production of e courses based on the QM standards. Therefore, the researchers followed the following stages:
The test aims to measure the extent to which middle level mathematics schoolteachers have mastered the cognitive components connected to the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards.
The researchers formulated the achievement test vocabulary in the form of multiple choice. The number of test questions in its initial form was 62 questions (See Table 2). The duration of the test was 60 minutes.
Concepts about the quality of e courses based on the QM standards 10 10
Analysis stage 13 13 Design stage 16 16 Production stage 12 12 Experimentation stage 2 2 Display stage 2 2 Evaluation stage 7 7 Total 62 62
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3.4.1.1
The face validity was used to determine the test's validity. The result of the arbitrators' agreement on the test items was more than 85%, and thus the test became characterized by internal validity.
After verifying the face validity of the achievement test, the internal consistency validity was verified on an exploratory sample of 20 teachers (not the research sample). The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated between the score of each test question and the overall test score (See Table 3).
Table 3: Pearson correlation coefficients between each question and the overall test score
Question
Pearson Correlation Question
Pearson Correlation Question Pearson Correlation
1 0.736* 22 0.640* 43 0.765*
2 0.569* 23 0.693* 44 0.641*
3 0.694* 24 0.503* 45 0.607* 4 0.765* 25 0.745* 46 0.624* 5 0.577* 26 0.694* 47 0.533* 6 0.736* 27 0.650* 48 0.694*
7 0.574* 28 0.621* 49 0.650*
8 0.736* 29 0.628* 50 0.621* 9 0.577* 30 0.645* 51 0.628* 10 0.694* 31 0.612* 52 0.645* 11 0.608* 32 0.569* 53 0.612* 12 0.610* 33 0.694* 54 0.562* 13 0.594* 34 0.765* 55 0.589* 14 0.594* 35 0.885* 56 0.634* 15 0.786* 36 0.607* 57 0.615* 16 0.547* 37 0.647* 58 0.664* 17 0.885* 38 0.621* 59 0.792* 18 0.607* 39 0.562* 60 0.649* 19 0.647* 40 0.589* 61 0.506* 20 0.621* 41 0.634* 62 0.597* 21 0.564* 42 0.615*
Note. * Correlation is statistically significant at 0.01.
3.4.1.2.
After confirming the validity of the initial form of the achievement test and the validity of its vocabulary based on the opinions of the arbitrators, the researchers conducted the pilot study of the test on a random sample of 20 teachers (not the research sample).
3.4.1.3
The researchers used the split half reliability method, in which they calculated the Spearman Brown coefficients to calculate the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient between the scores of the single questions and the scores of the paired questions for the test questions was 0.95. This result means that the test was largely reliable.
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3.4.2. Quality assessment card for the production of e courses based on the QM standards
The purpose of the card is to evaluate the production quality of middle level mathematics schoolteachers based on the QM standards. The QM e course production standards were referenced and translated to build the assessment card. The QM standards have been modified to suit the purposes of the current research.
Each main standard includes a set of sub indicators that represent the set of performances that teachers engage in when developing an e course based on the QM standards.
3.4.2.1. Initial image of the assessment card
In the initial form, the card included 8 main skills (standards) and 32 sub performances (indicators) to judge teachers' performance of e course development skills based on the QM standards.
3.4.2.2. Assessment card validity
Five arbitrators received the card's first form to confirm its validity. Some of the standards have been changed according to the recommendations of the arbitrators. Those amendments were limited to the reformulation of some standards. The five arbitrators unanimously agreed on the validity of the card for application after making the proposed modifications, and the card was ready for application in its final form.
3.4.2.3. Assessment card reliability
The assessment card was applied to a pilot sample of 20 teachers to calculate the reliability of the tool. Teachers' works were evaluated using two supervisors, in addition to one of the three researchers. The reliability coefficient was calculated using Cronbach's alpha, where it reached 0.92, which indicates a high coefficient of reliability. Therefore, the card is valid for the application.
In its final form, the card included 8 basic skills (standard) and 32 sub skills (indicator). Table 4 describes the assessment card form.
Table 4: The basic skills and sub-skills contained in the assessment card
The presence of the e course instructions provided clearly.
An introduction to the components of the e course.
An introduction to the rules of ethics for the e course.
Overall design of the content
An introduction to the knowledge and competencies required in advance of studying the e course.
The provision of a definition of the electronic course preparer.
The provision of an opportunity for students to introduce themselves to their peers.
To correctly formulate the overall objectives of the content.
To correctly formulate the educational objectives of the lessons included in the e course units.
Choosing assessment tools that measure the identified learning objectives.
Using clear wording of the grading policy.
Providing specific and codified criteria for evaluating student performance and participation.
Choosing regular, varied, and appropriate assessment tools.
Giving students several opportunities to see their learning development.
The educational materials contribute to achieving the educational objectives of the e course.
A clear explanation of the purpose of the educational materials and how to use them is provided
The educational materials and resources used in the e course are correctly documented.
The educational materials used in the e course are characterized by modernity.
The educational materials vary according to the content of the e course.
There is a clear explanation of the distinction between basic materials and enrichment materials.
Educational activities achieve different interaction patterns.
Employing a real, meaningful interaction
Educational activities provide many opportunities for interaction.
The teacher's plan to respond to students and provide feedback is clearly stated.
The requirements for student interaction are stated and clear.
The materials and tools used in the e course support student participation.
Navigating through the elements of the e course is logical, consistent, and effective.
There is ease of access for students to the required components in the e course.
The techniques used in the e course are modern to support the learning objectives.
There is a link to technical support and how to access it in the e course.
Student access to necessary institution services
A link to the policies followed in the institution is available in the e course.
A link to the academic support services in the institution is available in the e course.
Standards are available for text, images & still graphics, video clips & animation, and audio.
The researchers conducted a pilot study of the digital repository environment based on interactive learning objects on 20 middle school mathematics teachers (volunteers) in the city of Dammam (not the study sample).
Based on what the pilot sample agreed on, the researchers made the necessary adjustments in the digital repository environment and prepared it in its final form in preparation for its field trial on the main research sample.
The achievement test was pre applied to the experimental and control groups, and the list of evaluating the skills of designing and producing e courses was not applied due to the lack of those skills in the research sample.
Table 5: Independent samples t test results in the pre application of the achievement test
Group Mean Standard Deviation Count t Significance Level
Experimental 13.60 2.372 30 0.178 0.859 Control 13.50 1.961 30
Table 5 shows that the test significance level is equal to 0.859, which means the test significance level is above 0.05. Thus, this result indicates that there are no statistically significant differences between the two groups in the pre application. Therefore, the experimental and control groups were equivalent, and any difference that occurs in the post application is due to the experimental treatment used.
The two groups' average scores in the preliminary application of the achievement test related to the cognitive aspect of e course design and production skills were as follows: the mean score of experimental group = 13.6, and the mean score of control group = 13.5.
4.1.
First Hypothesis: There are no statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, and the mean scores of the control group teachers who used traditional training in the post application of the achievement test related to the skills of designing and producing e courses based on the QM standards.
Table 6 reveals statistically significant differences (p = 0.000) between the mean achievement test scores of the two groups (experimental and control group) in favour of the experimental group (Mean = 38.07). Thus, the first null hypothesis of the research is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which states that, there are statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, and the mean scores of the control group teachers who
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used traditional training in the post application of the achievement test related to the skills of designing and producing e courses based on the QM standards. This means that the use of a digital repository based on interactive learning objects made a difference in post application of the achievement test in favor of the experimental group. To ensure that the statistical significance is due only to the effect of the independent variable (the digital repository), the researchers calculated the effect size using Cohen's d. Table 6 shows that the size of the digital repository’s effect is medium (d = 0.732) because 0.5<d<0.8 (Cohen, 1988). This value means that there is an impact of the digital repository in developing the cognitive aspect related to the skills of producing e courses based on the QM standards.
Table 6: Independent samples t test results in the post application of the achievement test
Group
Mean Standard Deviation Count t Cohen's d Significance Level
Experimental 38.07 1.818 30 12.712 0.732 0.000* Control 31.67 2.073 30
Note. * The p value is significant at the p < 0.05 level.
The result of the current research shows the experimental group teachers' average scores and the control group teachers in the post application of the achievement test related to the cognitive aspect of e course design and production skills (Mean score of experimental group = 38.07, and mean score of control group = 31.67).
To verify the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning objects in developing the cognitive aspect related to the cognitive aspect of e course design and production skills among middle school teachers, the researchers used the Eta equation to calculate the effect size. Therefore, the effect size for the first hypothesis is 0.73, which means that the effect size is high.
4.2. The effect of a digital repository on the production quality Second Hypothesis: There are no statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects, and the mean scores of thecontrol group teachers who used traditional training in the post application of the quality assessment card for e courses based on the QM standards.
Table 7 reveals statistically significant differences (p = 0.000) between the average quality assessment card scores of the two groups in favor of the experimental group (Mean = 203.70). Thus, the second null hypothesis of the research is rejected, and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which states that there are statistically significant differences at (0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group teachers who used a digital repository based on interactive learning objects and the mean scores of the control group teachers who used traditional training in the post application of the quality assessment card for e courses based on the QM standards. This means that the use of a digital repository based on interactive learning objects made a difference in after applying the quality assessment card in favour of the experimental group. To ensure that the statistical significance is
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due only to the effect of the independent variable (the digital repository), the researchers calculated the effect size using Cohen's d. Table 7 shows that the size of the digital repository’s effect is medium (d = 0.585) because 0.5<d<0.8 (Cohen, 1988). This value means that there is an impact of the digital repository in developing the quality of production of e courses based on the QM standards.
Table 7: Independent samples t test results in the post application of the quality assessment card
Group Mean Standard Deviation Count t Cohen's d Significance Level
Experimental 203.70 5.279 30 9.136 0.585 0.000* Control 182.87 11.319 30
Note. * The p value is significant at the p < 0.05 level.
The finding of this research also shows the experimental group teachers' average scores and the control group teachers in the post application of the quality assessment card related to the cognitive aspect of e course design and production skills (Mean score of experimental group = 203.7, and mean score of control group = 182.87).
To investigate the effect of designing a digital repository based on interactive learning elements in developing the level of e course production among middle school teachers, the researchers used the Eta equation to calculate the effect size. Therefore, the effect size for the second hypothesis is 0.585, which means that the effect size is high.
The results of this research are based on the principles of behavioural theory, which emphasizes that the success of the learning process depends on defining training objectives in an observable and measurable manner (Delprato & Midgley, 1992). This principle was achieved through the provision of learning directions in the interactive learning objects, which included educational objectives and instructions that explain how to implement the required activities and tasks. The principles of constructivist theory also explain the results of this study, which shows that the success of the learning process requires providing support and assistance to trainees, enhancing their responses, and providing them with feedback so that they can process information and build their own knowledge (Fosnot, 2005). This principle was achieved in the repository of digital learning objects, which contributed to the development of the cognitive and performance aspects of electronic content production skills in accordance with QM standards. In addition, the trend of using a digital repository based on interactive learning objects has been supported by several models, such as the TPACK model developed by Koehler & Mishra (2009). The TPACK model describes how technology, pedagogical knowledge, and content can be integrated to produce effective teaching appropriate to the technology and communications revolution. This integration produces a new, three pronged model called the TPACK framework. The TPACK framework focuses on the new knowledge that results from the combination of the three main kinds of knowledge either bilaterally or tripartite, resulting in four additional kinds of knowledge that are different in
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content from the basic kinds of knowledge (Gür & Karamete, 2015). The digital repository based on interactive learning objects allowed middle school mathematics teachers to acquire the skills for producing e courses based on QM standards, and also according to the TPACK integrative model effectively by taking advantage of the modern technology represented in the digital repository.
Additionally, the outcomes of the current study were consistent with those of numerous other investigations (e.g., Khalil, 2012; Metwally, 2013), which all recognized the effectiveness of digital repositories in the development of cognitive and performance aspects.
The researchers attribute the explanation of these results to the following:
1. E training using a digital repository based on interactive learning objects has helped in increasing teachers' abilities to cognitively represent new information. A digital repository provides teachers with new and specific information, and presents it to them in a clear, detailed, and structured manner. This is within the framework of integration with the previous cognitive structure that exists in the trainee's mind, which made it easier for them to build the new structure of knowledge and encode it for sustainable storage in their long term memory. This increased the ability to retain information for as long as possible and recall it when needed. Perhaps, this is due to the feature of flow in the content that is achieved by the digital repository based on interactive learning objects.
2. The ability to view and review the learning objects in the repository allows teachers to view the learning objects and download them to their devices before making any modifications for reuse in achieving a new educational goal. This contributed to the development of e course design and production skills.
3. Teachers view and review the content of the digital repository based on educational interactive learning objects that clarify the educational and technical standards necessary for designing and producing e courses in addition to the models of learning objects that have been produced and submitted to the repository by other teachers. This may have helped in advancing the knowledge portion of the abilities needed to create and produce e courses.
4. E training using the digital repository based on interactive learning objects helped reduce mental stress and cognitive load while properly accessing the correct information and linking them with prior knowledge.
5. This trend towards using the digital repository based on interactive learning objects has been supported by many theories, such as the Motivation Theory. One of the most important motivational factors is a curiosity to learn. Curiosity is a cognitive process that is aroused by the information itself, where this information struggles with the learner's prior knowledge and expectations (Locke & Latham, 2004; Purwoko et al., 2019). This struggle occurs when the information is incomplete, where it pushes the learner to search for new and complementary information. This can be provided by the use of a digital repository based on interactive learning objects.
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In view of the results of the research and its discussion, the researchers recommend the following:
1. Using digital learning repositories based on interactive learning objects if the target learning outcome is cognitive skills learning in its performance and cognitive aspects,
2. Educating teachers about the importance of educational digital repositories based on interactive learning objects that store content and provide a large number of links. Also, encouraging the Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to build digital learning repositories based on interactive learning objects for different curricula and for different educational stages,
3. Establishing centres for designing and producing the content of interactive learning objects in various fields and supporting them financially, and then uploading them to a digital repository for the benefit of all teachers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
In view of the findings of this study, the researchers suggest conducting further research in the following research topics:
1. This research was limited to addressing the impact of the independent variable represented in digital repositories based on interactive learning objects on middle school mathematics teachers, so it is possible for future research to measure the impact of using interactive video supported by virtual reality technology in e training through digital learning repositories,
2. Adaptive learning objects could be developed in digital repositories and their impact measured on developing creative thinking skills for middle school mathematics teachers,
3. A digital repository, based on navigation methods and its impact measured on developing the knowledge and skills of teachers of different curricula at the middle level, could be designed.
The purpose of this study was to design a design a digital repository using interactive learning objects and measuring its impact on developing the skills of producing e courses based on QM standards for middle school mathematics teachers in Saudi Arabia. An independent samples t test results procedure estimated that the experimental group was superior in the skills of designing and producing e courses, as well as in the quality of those e courses based on QM standards.
The current research supports the application of the digital repository based on interactive learning objects in developing the training needs of teachers by providing a practical model for digital repositories that can be emulated. The
findings of this study may help people responsible for creating e training programs focus their efforts to the importance of developing e course production skills according to QM standards for middle school mathematics teachers.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 197 216, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.11
Received Jun 26, 2022; Revised Sep 19, 2022; Accepted Sep 28, 2022
Somboon Pojprasat Mahidol University, Nakhonprathom, Thailand
Somchai Watcharapunyawong* Thepsatri Rajabhat University, Lop Buri, Thailand
Abstract. In second language pragmatics, the student has long received much more attention than the teacher with the principal aim to examine the former’s pragmatic competence and to innovate teaching in order to increase it. However, reports on students’ poor pragmatic performance have identified the ineffectiveness of this predisposed interest. Therefore, the researchers argue for a closer investigation into the teachers who are crucial in contributing to the latter’s ability. In the present study, a survey and a structured interview were used with a purposive sample of 38 Thai EFL university instructors to elicit in depth information about their beliefs in the value of pragmatic knowledge, their self reflection of incorporating pragmatic content in class, and factors that might complicate the relation between the beliefs and actual teaching. Findings show that while participants hold considerable positivity regarding the need for pragmatic content, their existent teaching is relatively less due to certain limitations. Among them, student background and type of course are the most influential factors in their pragmatic teaching knowledge. Moreover, participants’ pragmatic knowledge background and language experience have a significant correlation with their existing teaching (r =.38, p = .01). The inadequate proportion of in class pragmatic content presents itself as a direct cause for students’ poor performance since they lack both the necessary knowledge and practice. The paper concludes with practical steps to systemize in class teaching of pragmatic knowledge in Thai EFL contexts and perhaps elsewhere.
Keywords: L2 pragmatics; pragmatic competence; Thai EFL teachers; self reflection
* Corresponding author: SomchaiWatcharapunyawong,somchai.wa@lawasri.tru.ac.th
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
To begin with, L2 pragmatic competence is related to the accurate knowledge of language, and its appropriate use at the same time (Bardovi Harlig, 2010). The phrase ‘using it appropriately’ is operative here since it constitutes the essence of pragmatic competence. This appropriate (natural, conventional, cultural or acceptable can be sometimes used interchangeably) use takes into consideration, for example, the speaker, listener, time of speaking and place of speaking. In simpler terms, L2 pragmatic competence concerns “how leaners come to know how to say what to whom when” (Bardovi Harlig, 2013, p. 68). In contrast, any inability to combine the accurate use of the language with its appropriate use is deemed a failure in L2 pragmatic competence. Generally, according to studies to date, EFL students have demonstrated poor pragmatic ability (e.g. Bardovi Harlig & Shin, 2014; Blum Kulka et al., 1989; Hudson et al., 1995; Liu, 2007; Roeover, 2005; Roever et al., 2014; Xu & Wannaruk, 2016; Zhang et al., 2019). Common failures include students’ inability to grasp the speaker’s meaning in indirect speech acts (Chokwiwatkul, 2017), to make requests and apologies culturally appropriate to native English speakers (Blum Kulka et al., 1989; Pinyo et. al., 2010), or to display acceptable politeness by means of speech to the native speakers (Blum Kulka et al., 1989; Tajeddin & Pezeshki, 2014).
The aforementioned issues have paved the way for new pedagogical philosophy and methodology of teaching English pragmatics to EFL students, notably through an emergence of blended teaching between language and culture of the natives (Basturkmen & Nguyen, 2017; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Martínez Flor & Usó Juan, 2006), a meticulous exploration into interlanguage/intercultural language use in order to see how the mother tongue promotes or impedes acquisition of L2 (i.e. English) pragmatics (Celce Murcia, 2007; Kasper, 1992; Kasper & Dahl, 1991), as well as various tests developed to measure and increase students’ pragmatic performance (Hudson et al., 1995; Liu, 2007; Roever et al., 2014).
This area of study has traditionally been anchored in the student’s side, inadvertently leaving the teacher’s perspective much less explored, a worrying scenario pointed out by Ekin and Damar (2013). The consequence is that this imbalanced interest has resulted in more adverse than beneficial effects, even to the students, since despite all the efforts aforesaid, reports on EFL students’ failure in pragmatic competence are continuously published. Further, the problem involves the teachers, their limited expertise (Vasquez & Sharpless, 2009), their beliefs about teaching English pragmatics (Savvidou & Economidou Kogetsidis, 2019), and the materials they use (Nu & Murray, 2020; Ren & Han, 2016). There is insufficient quantitative and qualitative investigation into this, and this lack of study is probably responsible for the long unresolved problem. In fact, some scholars have made strong points and concerns about teachers in L2 pragmatics. For instance, Mei Xiao (2008) argued for the crucial role of teachers as a major contributor to students’ pragmatic competence alongside the differences between L1 and L2 culture and pragmatic transfer, and Glasgow (2008) recommended that an L2 teacher should be able to help their students gradually develop pragmatic awareness of the English language through in class opportunities so that they can
explore a wide range of linguistic choices and choose the best option in various situations until they have become autonomous learners. Their voice seems not to have attracted much attention, however. Thus, the current study aimed to explore to what extent Thai EFL teachers believe pragmatic knowledge is important for their students and whether there are any factors affecting their incorporation of pragmatics into actual teaching.
This section specifically outlines five factors that have been generally reported to affect EFL teachers’ practice, with a focus on teaching pragmatics. These include teachers’ knowledge, students’ background, course characteristics, textbooks and tests. Each factor will be discussed individually in greater detail.
In an EFL classroom setting, especially in an Asian context, pedagogy is primarily teacher centered, an approach in which teachers play a principal role in providing students with a set of knowledge and learning activities involved, due to the fact that students are culturallyless active and that they, as a foreign language learner, rely on their teachers’ knowledge and experience. As far as teaching pragmatics is concerned, this kind of pedagogy is problematic since teachers’ cognition on this area of linguistic knowledge is reported to be somewhat limited (Cohen, 2016; Suprijadi, 2013), so they feel uncomfortable to discuss it in fear of relaying incorrect information (Cohen, 2016; Ishihara, 2011). Research has indicated two main problems involved. First, as Savvidou and Economidou Kogetsidis (2019, p. 42) reported, “language teacher education programmes across the world tend not to focus on the pragmatic aspects of language, or neglect having a pedagogical component on training teachers on how to actually teach the pragmatics of the target language.” Second, the fact that EFL teachers share the same linguistic background with students and, in some cases, lack an opportunity to immerse themselves in the native English speaking environments makes them even less confident in incorporating English pragmatics in class (Basturkmen et al., 2004; Farashaiyan et al., 2014; Kasper, 2001; Suh, 2012).
Adverse effects of teachers’ limited pragmatics include the lack of adequate pragmatic knowledge in class, resulting in a higher concentration placed on other language areas with which teachers are familiar, such as grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary (Ishihara, 2011), as well as reading and writing (Al Sha'r, 2017; Chi, 2017; Yue et al., 2020). Even though one may argue that resources for this kind of content may be available outside class and the lack of in class pragmatic knowledge matters little, students find it difficult to learn if not well advised on the nuances of the language by instructors. For instance, the ubiquitous use of modal verbs, e.g. might vs can vs could, as a politeness marker, often escapes their careful attention. As a consequence, the researchers argue that teaching pragmatics in class is still a requisite.
Undoubtedly, a critical factor that affects a teacher’s decision on their teaching content (including what and how to teach and how much) lies in the students’
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background, including proficiency level, learning style, preference and attitude. Given pragmatics in particular, Asian students, especially Thai students, seem to lack an effective way to learn, and there are at least three important underlying causes. First, their proficiency level seems to be a strong determinant. The fact that the less competent English students outnumber their more competent counterparts in a heterogeneous class leads the teachers not to introduce pragmatic knowledge at an adequate level, for fear that the majority of students will have difficulty understanding this given that it is, by nature, more advanced than other language areas such as grammar and pronunciation. Second, since students have very limited linguistic awareness, they fail to grasp pragmatic meanings, assuming that both languages are similar in terms of usage and meaning (Krishnamurthy et al., 2009; McLean, 2004), especially when teachers offer these in an implicit manner. Last, students’ language exposure in communicative situations is limited. Despite some studies showing that in class communicative activities can help enhance learners’ pragmatic competence (e.g. Kasper & Schmidt, 1996; Kasper & Rose, 2002; Soboleva & Obdalova, 2014), a set of activities provided is still far less effective than those in genuine situations where students interact with native English speakers and can observe the differences in using the language of the two cultures (Chi, 2017; Qiao, 2014; Thijittang, 2010).
Having discussed the above, the researchers consider that students’ background leads to a smaller proportion of pragmatic knowledge taught in class by EFL teachers, even to those students with a solid foundation of English pragmatics.
Due to certain limitations, EFL courses seem to present a challenge for pragmatic knowledge to be taught to students. This can include, for example, substantial amounts of subject specific content, teaching time, and aims and objectives which are set parallel to the content. The most concrete evidence of this is in the course syllabi which reflect the instructor’s belief and practice with regard to pragmatics. Most English course syllabi prescribe the knowledge of basic formal structures and meanings rather than the contextual use of language (Al Sha’r, 2017; Mirzaei & Rezaei, 2012). This is perhaps because its proper place in English courses or even in the whole curriculum is somewhat vague, as claimed by Vasquez and Sharpless (2009). For whatever reason, pragmatics does not receive enough attention from teachers, and is rarely taught in a classroom setting. To solve this problem, most studies recommended the integration of instructional pragmatics into syllabi (Ekin & Damar, 2013; Povolna, 2012) and, if possible, its inclusion in all relevant courses so as to increase students’ pragmatic awareness more extensively (Barron, 2003; Koike & Pearson, 2005; Ishihara, 2007; Vasquez & Sharpless, 2009; Yuan et al., 2015).
Generally speaking, textbooks have considerable impacts on EFL teachers who require concrete assistance from the ready to use materials they can afford (Kim & Hall, 2002). Texts serve as both the most important, if not only, source of linguistic input teachers select to teach in class, as well as the pedagogical
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guidelines they follow for teaching. As far as pragmatics is concerned, most studies have identified a surprisingly smaller proportion of this sort of linguistic content than the other domains of language knowledge, such as grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation (e.g. Berry, 2000; Cane, 1998; Grant & Stark, 2001; Vellenga, 2004). What’s more, even within a limited space devoted to providing pragmatic input, most EFL textbooks choose to offer a repetitive and narrow coverage of pragmatic topics, with instruction on speech act and politeness under which requests and refusals are the most popular (Meihami & Khanlarzadeh, 2015; Ren & Han, 2016). To illustrate this point more tangibly, the work of Vellenga (2004), whose clear objective was “to determine the amount and quality of pragmatic information” (p. 2), covered in eight popular EFL (integrated skills oriented) and ESL (grammar oriented) textbooks showed us two interesting corresponding facts. First, the level of pragmatic input was very low in both EFL and ESL texts, in, on average, 26.5 pages out of 131.5 pages for the first, and 24.5 pages out of 469 pages for the latter. Second, types of pragmatic information are very limited, centering primarily on different kinds of speech act. In the conclusion of her study, Vellenga cautioned that “there is a dearth of metalinguistic and metapragmatic information related to ways of speaking in textbooks” (p. 15).
Without doubt, criticisms on these shortcomings in EFL textbooks have been immense and numerous, particularly the frequent complaints about the lack of authenticlanguage use applicable in real life situations (Bardovi Harlig,2001), the lack of tools that should be provided to students so they are able to recognize language in contexts by themselves (Grant & Starks, 2001), and the problems about the aforesaid amounts of pragmatic knowledge. Unfortunately, no substantial changes have been seen: the most recent study by Nu and Murray (2020) reported only a 5.5 percent coverage of pragmatic input in EFL textbooks. On the one hand, this dearth implies a lack of effort in dealing with this important factor that contributes to EFL students’ pragmatic performance, and on the other it reflects the value placed on sociolinguistic knowledge by EFL textbook writers or developers, as well as its place in teaching materials. Text writers may not be aware of any adverse consequences, but for the majority of EFL teachers, including Thais, who place a high value on textbooks and so faithfully follow them, the effects can be disastrous.
The very fact that tests have direct, immense and concrete impacts on both how teachers teach and how studentslearn is undeniable.With Thailandas an example for an EFL context, the well known expert in assessment and linguist Kanchana Prapphal maintained that “the relationship between language testing and teaching is reflected throughout the history of English teaching in the Thai context” (2008: 127). Given pragmatic knowledge in particular, English tests in all levels of Thai education measure learners’ ability to use correct vocabulary and sentence structures rather than their ability to communicate in English properly and naturally (Chaisuriya & Shin, 2004; Sinwongsuwat, 2012). Even the most high stakes national English proficiency test for university admission is composed of a much larger number of grammar and vocabulary items than those
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involved in the cultural use of the language (Imsa ard, 2020). Similar to the textbook scenario, this mode of tests reflects the status and position that EFL instructors place on pragmatic knowledge.
Instantly, there emerge two points of note. First, it is a paradox that despite numerous efforts in having developed and scrutinized measures for assessing EFL students’ pragmatic performance, among which are the most popular six measures of pragmatic assessments introduced by Hudson, Detmer and Brown (1992, 1995), which consist of oral, written, and multiple choice DCTs (discourse completion tasks, roleplays and two types of self assessment), using them in tests at the course or above course level is very limited both in terms of quality and quantity. Studies by Hudson (2001), Liu (2015), Liu (2007) and Xu and Wannaruk (2016), for instance, reported an impartial selection of pragmatic topics with speech acts being the most popular area in EFL tests. Second, in extension from the first point, why is it so? constitutes a critical question. It is not easy to respond to this doubt, for there are, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no empirical studies devoting to this investigation. Thus, the present study seeks to examine Thai EFL teachers’ decisions regarding the inclusion of pragmatic knowledge in their tests to help better clarify the existing scenario and at the same time fill in the gap in the existing literature.
The current study was carried out in a qualitative manner through a survey followed by a structured interview with a purposive sample of participants, each of whom was carefully selected to represent more or less the overall population relevant to the topic under investigation. The sample consisted of 38 Thai university English instructors from 13 different public universities across Thailand, each of whom was carefully chosen due to their high teaching performance assessed by students. In the sample, there were 10 males and 28 females aged between 25 and 56 years old. Six universities were prestigious, and the rest local. Participants had obtained a master’s degree or higher in English or any other related field such as teaching English as a foreign language, linguistics and translation. They had at between two years and 24 years of teaching English at university level Fifteen reported a pragmatic knowledge background obtained from their formative years of study, either by a proper course on pragmatics or as a key component in other courses, and the rest reported no pragmatic background at all.
The researchers developed a 5 point Likert scale questionnaire based on the literature review that indicated five main factors that contributed to EFL instructors’ teaching of pragmatics in class, namely their own background, students’ background, courses taught, textbooks and test. In parallel to this information, the questionnaire was divided into six parts, the first of which asked participants about their attitude towards the importance of instructional pragmatics as well as their actual teaching, and the rest corresponded to each of the factors aforesaid. Participants were asked to specify their level of agreement
with the statement in respect to the given factor, with 1 being the least and 5 being the most, through statements such as the following: the content of the course that you teach affects the amount of pragmatics you teach in class. The questionnaire was first piloted with 30 instructors who were not included in the final sample, and then revised to ensure its validity and clarity prior to actual use.
In the interview, five questions aimed to elicit detailed and free attitudes with respect to each of the factors in the questionnaire, plus the culminating question in the end. These questions asked the participants to explain the relationships between their background and their incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in class; those between their students’ background and their incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in class; those between the nature of the courses they teach and their incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in class; those between the textbooks they use and their incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in class; and those between the test and their incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in class.
First, individual participants were contacted to indicate their availability for the data collection process. On the appointed day, they were given a questionnaire to complete via an online meeting platform with the researchers present, in case any incomprehensible question items required clarification. After participants finished the questionnaire, they were individually informed the details of the interview, including its structure and guidelines in order to facilitate an accurate provision of information. Following this, they began to respond to five questions regarding the factors affecting their incorporation of pragmatics in class.
The questionnaire data provided a percentage, mean and standard deviation to quantitatively identify each participant’s attitude towards the importance of instructional pragmatics and the factors that affect their actual teaching. Pearson correlation coefficient scores were used to establish the relationship between participants’ existing incorporation of pragmatics in class and the effects of the five factors. The data from the interview were recorded with notes taken, transcribed verbatim and analyzed through content analysis in order to substantiate the data from the questionnaire and to offer deeper insights into each of the factors being explored.
The following section presents quantitative and qualitative results obtained from the questionnaires and interviews of participants with specific regard to their beliefs about the importance of instructional pragmatics, their incorporation of this sociolinguistic knowledge into EFL classrooms as well as the five factors that affected their respective teaching.
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Table 1: Teacher’s beliefs and practice about English pragmatics Statements N 5 4 3 2 1 Mean SD
Importance of pragmatics in enhancing students’ communicative competence in English
Importance of pragmatic knowledge in enhancing students to use the language more naturally and more appropriately
Self reported incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in EFL classrooms
38 44.73% 47.36% 7.89% 0.00% 0.00% 4.368 .633
38 78.94% 18.42% 2.63% 0.00% 0.00% 4.763 .489
38 2.63% 31.57% 44.73% 18.42% 2.63% 3.144 .845
As shown in the above table, data reveals a noticeable gap between participants’ beliefs towards the importance of pragmatics for their students’ English ability in language competence and language use versus their actual teaching of this knowledge in class. To be more precise, while teachers expressed considerable positivity towards the value of pragmatics (x = 4.763, SD .489 and x = 4.368, SD .633), the amounts of their respective teaching (x = 3.144, SD .845) did not appear to be concomitant due to certain factors that affect their instructional decisions, particularly their own pragmatic knowledge and experience, as well as external influences, such as students’ background, courses they cover, and textbooks used, as will be shown in more detail in the next table.
Factor
Teachers’ Background
Sub factor N 5 4 3 2 1 Mean SD
Teachers’ pragmatic knowledge and experience
Experience in English speaking countries
Everyday contact with native speakers of English
38 31.58% 31.58% 28.95% 7.89% 0.00% 3.881 .954
20 35.00% 50.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 4.150 .812
38 21.05% 55.26% 15.79% 7.89% 0.00% 3.894 .831
Average 28.15% 44.79% 19.76% 7.29% 0.00% 3.975 .866
Students’ Background Students’ English language ability
Course Characteristics
Types of English courses responsible for
38 55.26% 21.05% 10.53% 10.53% 2.63% 4.157 1.151
38 50.00% 31.58% 18.42% 0.00% 0.00% 4.315 .774
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Factor Sub-factor N 5 4 3 2 1 Mean SD Course objectives 38 42.10% 23.68% 23.68% 10.53% 0.00% 3.973 1.052
Amounts of course content 38 15.79% 31.58% 39.47% 7.89% 5.26% 3.447 1.031
Average 35.96% 28.95% 27.19% 6.14% 1.75% 3.912 .952
Textbooks
Amounts of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks used
Difficulty level of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks used
38 28.95% 36.84% 18.42% 5.26% 10.53% 3.684 1.254
37 16.22% 37.84% 27.03% 10.80% 8.11% 3.432 1.143
Average 22.67% 37.33% 22.67% 8.00% 9.33% 3.558 1.198 Tests
Amounts of pragmatic knowledge in course tests
38 21.05% 31.57% 26.32% 10.53% 10.53% 3.421 1.244
Findings indicate both internal (i.e., teacher’s background) and external factors (i.e., student’s background, courses taken, textbooks and tests) that have certain effects on the extent of teachers’ incorporation of pragmatic knowledge into their EFL classrooms. Among the 10 sub factors, teacher’s pragmatic knowledge and experience and everyday contact with native speakers of English are the onlytwo factors that can be carried out with freedom and ease; the rest require harder work and active consent from the people involved.
Surprisingly, participants considered tests (x = 3.421, S.D. 1.244) and textbooks (x = 3.558, S.D. 1.198) in their course to have the least effect. This is a surprising finding especially for the case of the effects of tests, since these findings are somewhat inconsistent with most studies in Thailand that have argued for their tremendous impacts on what and how teachers teach in class (e.g., Chaisuriya & Shin, 2004; Prapphal, 2008; Sinwongsuwat, 2012).
Table 3: Correlation between incorporation of pragmatic knowledge into EFL classroom and factors
Factor Sub factor
Teacher Belief Importance of pragmatics in enhancing my students’ communicative competence in English
Importance of pragmatic knowledge in enhancing my students to use the language in any given contexts more naturally and more appropriately
N
Incorporation of pragmatic knowledge into EFL classroom Correlation coefficient P value
38 .027 .874
38 .078 .641
Teacher Background Teachers’ pragmatic knowledge and experience 38 .382* .018 Experience in English speaking countries 20 .399 .081
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Everyday contact with native speakers of English 38 .138 .410 Student Background Students’ English language ability 38 .087 .604 Course Characteristics
Types of English courses 38 .092 .582 Course objectives 38 .284 .084 Amounts of course content 38 .138 .408 Textbooks Amounts of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks used 38 .198 .234
Difficulty level of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks used 37 .093 .585 Tests Amounts of pragmatic knowledge in course tests 38 .188 .258
* Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
Table 3 shows a low level of correlation between the factors and the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge into EFL classrooms in both positive and negative directions. There is only one sub factor, i.e. teachers’ pragmatic knowledge and experience, that shows a statistical significant relationship with the incorporation of instructional pragmatics (r = .382, p = .018). This strongly suggests that the amounts of pragmatic knowledge transferred to students rely heavily on teachers’ experience.
The data from the interviews with respect to teachers yielded three main points, namely their (limited) pragmatic knowledge, their authentic use of the language, and their belief in the value of pragmatics. Twelve participants pointed out a lack of pragmatic cognition as the main reason for insufficient in class teaching of this content. A participant stated: I normally include very little pragmatics in my lessons because I did not study pragmatics during my undergraduate studies. Furthermore, I was introduced inadequate pragmatics when I did a master’s degree.
However, thirteen participants realized the value of this sociolinguistic content. Despite having limited cognition, they utilized first hand experiences in using the language in an English speaking country or from their daily contact with native speakers, and some of them used authentic materials, such as movies and music, to increase both their own knowledge and their students’. One instructor maintained: When teaching in either a university or a tutoring class, I always go beyond the usual lessons, for instance, in a grammar lesson, I often give my students some examples through multimodal materials, such as songs and movies, so as to make them more clearly comprehend the content.
Further, the other asserted: Whenever we talk about a language or teaching a language, the word “pragmatics” is always immediately thought of without any sense of its place as it normally goes along with the language itself. The teacher with a high level of English proficiencyunconsciouslyteaches it or knows when to appropriately include it in his/her class. No matter what skills are emphasized, they all are in relation to pragmatics, which is about the use of English.
There were two main issues about students: their (low) English level and the heterogeneous English levels in one class. Nineteen participants considered grammar and vocabulary to be the major linguistic aspects focused on by most Thai teachers due to the fact that learners with low English proficiency could not understand the implicit meanings in context, similar to the bulk of studies stating that forms and structures are the areas that teachers firstly teach to EFL learners as they believe that only proficient language users can comprehend pragmatics (e.g. Choraih et al., 2016; Jalilifar, 2009; Rue et al., 2007; Rueda, 2006). One instructor mentioned: Most students in Rajabhat universities (local institutions) are not somewhat good at English. I think pragmatics is hard for them to comprehend, so it had better not be taught in the class in order to avoid the students’ confusion.
Nonetheless, some participants argued for the place of pragmatic content since they thought that the content could be taught to learners at moderate to high English levels. In regard to the second point raised by seventeen participants, a number of Thai university classes consist of students with various English levels. So, to elevate the ability of the competent students to use English naturally and appropriately, pragmatics is considered essential (Bardovi Harlig & Mahan Taylor, 2003). One instructor stated: Some students in my class have a personal interest in English, and their pragmatic background is higher than their friends’. Therefore, they easily understand the implicit meanings hidden in the sentences.
The courses that the instructors are responsible for have a substantial impact on instructional pragmatics. The interviews suggested three salient points: course types, course content and course objectives. For the first point, 29 participants considered that the amounts of pragmatics taught in classes relied on the nature of the courses. For them, pragmatic content is better incorporated in English courses for communication or for specific purposes, while it is somewhat difficult to be included in content based courses, e.g. academic writing, syntax and phonetics. This is consistent with some studies reporting the underrepresentation of pragmatics in undergraduate courses (e.g. Basturkmen & Nguyen, 2017; Choraih et al., 2016; Hagiwara, 2010). One instructor stated: The course that I am responsible for is English for Hotel Business, which is related to service provision, and the students of course have to give services to foreigners. So, pragmatics is reasonably required, for example,
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greetings, offering something, etc. Sometimes we want to be acquainted with the guests, but we do not know what appropriate words or sentences should be used.
However, a need to incorporate pragmatics in all English courses is still seen as crucial as it is believed to be the knowledge that develops learners’ language competence to a better level. One participant urged: Pragmatics is very important, so we should reconsider the course descriptions and objectives so that we can incorporate it in our lessons.
In a word, English courses, especially in regard to the types of courses, relatively affect the amounts of pragmatics incorporated in an EFL class. Teachers who have a practical pragmatic background may find it hard to introduce this knowledge as they have to follow the objectives and descriptions of a particular course. Even though a number of researchers recommend that pragmatics be included in English language teaching (e.g. Alsuhaibani, 2020; Vasquez & Sharpless, 2009; Soler & Flor, 2008; Rueda, 2006), practices of teaching pragmatics are rare and inadequate.
The interviews identified two important points regarding the textbooks used by instructors. First, they noted the amount of pragmatic knowledge in the materials. Second, comparisons between textbooks written by native English speakers and Thai speakers were explicitly made. As far as the first point is concerned, findings reveal the teachers consider textbooks to contain insufficient amounts of pragmatic knowledge, and even less when compared to other areas in the book, such as grammar, vocabulary, conversation and other pieces of information regardless of what subject or topic under which the textbooks fall. In other words, the proportion of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks on communication and on subject specific courses, e.g. linguistics and writing, do not differ significantly, and are present in similarly small amounts. This insufficiency has a direct impact on the instructors’ limited teaching of instructional pragmatics in class. One instructor in a course taught by a number of instructors admitted that Since there are very sparing amounts of pragmatic knowledge in the textbook we use, incorporation of instructional pragmatics is limited, difficult to do, and depends largely on the individual instructors.
Besides, the level of taught pragmatics is affected by the way pragmatic knowledge is presented in textbooks. One instructor identified that Mostly I see pragmatic content only in the conversation part that teaches how to listen and speak appropriately. And, the variety of pragmatic topics is limited.
Indeed, the insufficiency in textbook pragmatic knowledge found by Thai instructors has been similarly reported by studies investigating the amounts of pragmatic content (e.g. Nu & Murray, 2020; Vellenga, 2004) and pragmatic topics in EFL textbooks (e.g. Meihami & Khanlarzadeh, 2015; Ren & Han, 2016).
As for the second point, all relevant instructors pointed out the noticeable gap between the amounts of pragmatic knowledge in textbooks by English and Thai speakers. The latter have much smaller proportions of this sociolinguistic knowledge than the former even though they primarily teach language for communication in specific contexts. A female instructor of English for Hotel Business commented: My main textbook for the course was written by a Thai writer. It has no information about pragmatic use of the English language in the field.
Having said this, this instructor implied that the consequence of following her book would result in a low level of her students’ culturalawareness when it comes to their real usage of English. Most of the instructors cited more or less the same reasons for this insufficiency in Thai texts. Another emphasized: Thai English textbooks prefer to present the central theories on the topic being discussed than to include pragmatic contents that they find rather peripheral, fearing that readers of the books might not be well equipped with the important knowledge in the field.
Following those found in the course objectives and textbooks, the number of tests on pragmatic English knowledge are very small and are determined by the subjects or topics covered in class. Most courses do not includepragmatic content, and so there is no assessment of this knowledge. On the other hand, courses that naturally require pragmatic awareness, such as translation, conversational English, and drama, do includepragmatic awareness, albeit at a low level. Among the participants, an instructor who teaches both translation and foundational English noted: While my translation course assesses the students’ pragmatic knowledge [related to translation], most other general English courses almost have no tests on this knowledge.
Again, this is largely due to the fact that English pragmatic knowledge receives too little attention from the course instructor and/or coordinator, so it is not translated into the course contents or course objectives. During the course, instructors had to follow that which was explicitly stated in the course syllabus, which automatically means the core contents that will appear in the course tests. Unfortunately, emphasis is placed on forms of the language and direct meaning. However, not all Thai instructors fell in this trap. Some, although much fewer in number, reported no effects of tests on their instruction of pragmatics in the classroom. One instructor said briefly: My incorporation of pragmatic knowledge is independent of the test [which does not often include it].
The current study has exhibited a significant mismatch between Thai EFL teachers’ belief in the value of pragmatic knowledge and their actual teaching and the factors that have huge impacts on their pedagogical decisions. As the correlation analysis shows, teachers’ backgrounds determine the extent to which pragmatic content is taught in class. Data from the interview also confirmed this
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point: since most of the participants had limited pragmatic knowledge, the participants lacked confidence to deliver it to students.
The findings of this study align with previous research reporting EFL teachers’ limited pragmatic expertise (Cohen, 2016; Ishihara, 2011; Savvidou & Economidou Kogetsidis, 2019; Suprijadi, 2013). Thus, the researchers recommend a better holistic solution by which English pragmatics will have a secure place in Thai EFL classrooms. Above all, Thai teachers of English must be well versed in pragmatics and understand the importance of it being taught from both a cognitive and affective perspective. This can be achieved by the establishment of this subject as a compulsory individual course where practice teachers are fully immersed in the relevant theory and application as well as pedagogical training in this specific area to ensure they systematically deliver content, deal with students of different backgrounds, be it language proficiency, interest and learning styles, and to assess their incremental pragmatic competence. Then, during their profession, they should make efforts in incorporating pragmatic knowledge into English classes at a policy level with an aim to ensure EFL students are not only able to use the language correctly, but that they also use it appropriately and naturally. These practices will in turn help the teachers in Thailand and perhaps beyond with regard to the inclusion of pragmatics in their teaching practice, including the course objectives, course content, textbooks, and tests.
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Factors Affecting Teachers’ Pragmatic Knowledge Incorporation into Thai EFL Classrooms
Instructions: As part of a research project on Teacher Factors Affecting Incorporation of Pragmatic Knowledge into Thai EFL Classrooms, we would like to know your view on this issue. Please complete this questionnaire based on your experience. The information provided by you will be confidentially secured and used only for the purposes of the intended research.
The questionnaire is divided into two sections.
Section 1: Demographic information
Section 2: Factors affecting incorporation of English pragmatics into an EFL class
Pragmatics in this research refers to the ability to interpret meanings represented in real situations according to various contexts, for example, age, gender, culture, time, place, level of formality and politeness.
Examples: “Is it pretty hot in here?” can be interpreted that the speaker wants the listener to turn on the air conditioner. “I’d love to, but my mom won’t be happy” can be used when the speaker wants to refuse an invitation to a party.
Section 1: Demographic information (Please tick your choice or write your answer in the provided space.)
1. Your present workplace: ………………………………………… 2. What is your highest degree? Bachelor Master Doctorate 3. What are your majors/fields of study? (List all): …………………………… 4. How long have you been teaching English? Less than 5 years 5 10 years 11 15 years More than 15 years 5. What course(s) are you responsible for?: ……………………………………
6. Have you ever stayed in an English speaking country? (If yes, what countries and how long?) No Yes What country/ies?: ………………………………. How long?:…………
7. Have you studied a pragmatic course or participated in pragmatic training? No
Yes, as part of a course Yes, as a full course Yes, as a training/workshop
8. Please rate your level of pragmatic competence from 1 5 (1 means the least, and 5 means the most). 1 2 3 4 5
Please tick only one choice out of five options which best matches your agreement with the statements.
1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree NA = Non applicable
Item Statement NA 1 2 3 4 5
1 I believe that pragmatics is important to my students’ English learning.
2 I believe that pragmatics will help my students use the language in any given context more appropriately.
3 I include sufficient pragmatic knowledge in my class.
4 My pragmatic competence influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
5 My overseas experience (no less than 1 month) in an English speaking country influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
6 My contact with native speakers of English influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
7 My students’ English ability influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
8 The nature of courses that I am responsible for influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
9 The objectives of the course that I am responsible for influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
10 The amounts of content of the course I am responsible for influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
11 The amounts of pragmatic content in the coursebook I use influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
12 The level of difficulty of pragmatics in the coursebook I use influences the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
13 The amount of pragmatic content in the course tests influence the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in my class.
1. What are your opinions about your pragmatic background that might affect the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in your class?
2. What are your opinions about your students’ English ability that might affect the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in your class?
3. What are your opinions about the type of English courses that might affect the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in your class?
4. What are your opinions about the English coursebook that you use that might affect the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in your class?
5. What are your opinions about the course tests that might affect the incorporation of pragmatic knowledge in your class?
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 217 231, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.12
Received Jul 15, 2022; Revised Sep 21, 2022; Accepted Sep 29, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science University of Rwanda College of Education, Rwanda
Claude Karegeya University of Rwanda College of Education, Rwanda Savita LadageHomi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, India
Abstract. The study aimed to investigate the effect of using the smartboard on teaching and learning acid base reactions by applying qualitative and quantitative calculations. The effect of the smartboard on knowledge retention of the concept application was examined and compared to traditional teaching methods. A quasi experimental design with experimental and control groups using the pretest and posttest design was adapted for the study. A convenient sampling technique was usedtoselect 284Grade11studentsfroman urbanregion ofThe Gambia. We prepared an achievement test with 15 questions to collect data. While the experimental group studied the topics using the smartboard, the control group studied using traditional teaching methods. The achievement test was prepared to measure the groups’ differences in knowledge retention and application. The same test was applied to compare the pretest and posttest to measure group differences. The independent t test results showed a significant difference (p = .000) between the experimental group (M = 34.30, SD = 18.971) and the control group (M = 28.01, SD = 13.853). Furthermore, the results of the knowledge retention rate were higher among the experimental group participants (M = 29.23, SD = 14.232) than inthe control group (M = 26.72, SD = 12.673) This leads to the conclusion that using the smartboard provides an educative contribution to technology integration in the classroom, especially innovation in teaching and learning.
Keywords: academic achievement; chemistry teaching and learning; smartboard learning
* Corresponding author: Abdou L. J. Jammeh;jammehljurce.rw@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The use of modern technology is fast growing in science teaching and learning, and most practitioners are looking to its use in classrooms to enhance learners’ affective and cognitive domains. This domain has led to increased progress in science education in countries that have used technology and followed the technology rules. For example, nurturing creativity has promoted individuals to be productive due to the mastery of technology applications and expressing their potential in the scientific arena (Tall et al., 2021). On the other hand, countries that have not used technology and have not followed the technology rules have had setbacks in many aspects of development (Blonder & Mamlok Naama, 2019). In particular, the quality of science education has affected students’ ability to be qualified individuals even after completing school. Inadequate teaching and learning resources (Igharo et al., 2011), teacher quality (Ryoko & Tanya, n.d.), pedagogical approaches (Bayram Jacobs et al., 2019), and inadequate content knowledge (Tall et al., 2021; Usak et al., 2011) are the current issues affecting quality science education. Kafyulilo et al. (2016) described instructional hours as inadequate, not permitting teachers to execute intensive, interactive engagement, including experimentation with chemical phenomena. Therefore, the common understanding is that new technology based learning could alleviate the current status quo. Nonetheless, teachers may lose out on this opportunity if they do not apply technology knowledge and skills in a meaningful manner (Rosmansyah et al., 2022), as they are moving from traditional teaching to modern methods of teaching
The smartboard is one of the current technology based learning tools introduced in education systems. The United States of America, the United Kingdom, and Turkey are among the countries that have benefited from the outcomes of the smartboard in science education (Akar, 2020; Hanover Independent Research [HIR], 2016; Kirbas, 2018). Several studies have found that smartboards enhance learning environments, engage students, and facilitate effective lesson delivery. As a result of these conveniences, through the World Bank and New Jersey Centre for Teaching and Learning (NJCTL), the Ministry of Education, The Gambia, has invested extensively in providing smartboards to 12 selected secondary schools in the country. Technology based learning is consistent with the policy goal (Ministries of BSE and HERST, 2016; Republic of The Gambia, 2004) to achieve changes in teaching dynamics, particularly in science and mathematics education. The Gambia has introduced smartboard instruction through the Progressive Science and Mathematics Initiative (PSMI). The social constructivism approach is the primary teaching strategy integrated with technology application instead of traditional teaching methods. This initiative has made teaching and learning apparent and interactive in the Gambian context (Hanover Research, 2014; Moussa et al., 2020; Ryoko & Tanya, n.d.).
Smartboard integration has been found to reduce the amount of physical equipment needed through multimedia learning objects (Phoong et al., 2019). Glassware and reagents for physical experimentation could be expensive for third world countries, including The Gambia, but smartboard teaching and learning can be integrated with these as complement. Lesson courses, such as
qualitative description and quantitative calculation or measurement of acid base reactions, can be learned through virtual learning platforms (Aldosari et al., 2022) without physical interaction with the glassware or reagents. Davidovitch and Yavich (2017) further reiterated that by teaching with a smartboard, learning becomes flexible and interactive through different learning opportunities. Immediate feedback, for example, is one of the opportunities smartboards provide to promote learning, which might be challenging in a traditional classroom (Moore, 2021). Through interaction with the technology, teacher performance and student learning are improved (Tyagi et al., 2020).
Furthermore, a good number of studies have appreciated the promotion of conceptual understanding of concepts taught through smartboards (Aldalalah, 2021; Mihindo et al., 2017). For example, integrating the physics education technology (PhET) software into a smartboard demonstrates the mole ratio or concentration calculation. The variables can be adjusted by adding indicators or changing values or substance amounts. According to Aktas and Aydin (2016), such learning processes promote more permanent learning than learning through traditional methods. Therefore, to prepare students for a bright future, teachers must create an environment conducive to mastery and application rather than passive learning or memorization.
Besides, smartboards, as the current modern instructional tool, encourage application, student centered learning, active participation, and student motivation (Kirbas, 2018). The use of automatic student response systems (clickers) in smartboards, for example, motivates students to participate and coordinates and monitors students’ progress and learning challenges (Cutrim, 2008; Krajcik & Mun, 2014). During teaching, students can discuss in class questions (formative questions) in groups before submitting their answers using the unique code assigned to each student in clickers. The percentages of their answers to A, B, C, or D are generated by the smartboard for everyone to see (Ryoko & Tanya, n.d.). In essence, if there are misconceptions or learning challenges, this will be reflected in the percentages of scores on the smartboard. Then, the task of the teacher is to restate the questions if there are divergent answers or continue to another question. In this approach, therefore, “waiting time” is encouraged in the class, which is another critical teaching and learning strategy (Bayram Jacobs et al., 2019; Cutrim, 2008). Contrarily, in traditional classrooms, teachers may not encourage waiting time due to classrooms being overpopulated with students, inadequate instructional periods for a chemistry lesson (Kafyulilo et al., 2016), or their attitude towards chemistry teaching (Tabor, 2021).
In order to improve and promote waiting time, smartboard integration has replaced the classic or traditional application. While considering this modern technology, sample chemistry topics can be uploaded to investigate the learning difference by comparing them with the classic application. In this regard, this study intends to investigate if the smartboard could support the teaching and learning of topics that pose challenges for Gambian students, as enshrined in the Chief Examiners’ Report (West African Examinations Council [WAEC], 2019).
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These topics involve qualitative identification and interpretation of common substances into acidic or basic using pH scales and quantitative measurement and calculation of acid base reactions. Students instructed through the smartboard are thus compared to those in traditional instruction.
Moreover, studies have shown significant differences in students’ learning outcomes (Aktas & Aydin, 2016; Kirbas, 2018), but most of those studies concentrated on pre service teachers or students and little on secondary school students. However, this study has taken a different approach by considering secondary school students’ interaction with learning objects on the smartboard and learning the topics. In contrast, other students learn the same topics using textbook problem solving and physical experimentation. A retention test is also conducted to determine their knowledge application and retention. Research has shown that the more students are exposed, the more permanent the learning event and the more they remember the concept (Aktas & Aydin, 2016; Aldosari et al., 2022).
Nevertheless, for students to remember what they have learned, paradigm shifting is imperative and investigates how learning occurs. It can be determined which students have trouble grasping the topical learning of the material and which can perform better at learning the materials. This is because there is a common feeling that chemistry concepts are challenging to understand (Tekin & Kolomuc, 2011), especially with the traditional approach. There is thus a need for an alternative approach, such as smartboard integration, to engage students in active and permanent learning. Unfortunately, little is known about such an extensive technology investment in The Gambia. Researching the value of this investment to the nation and academia is just as crucial as making plans when deciding the planning procedure. In addition, The Gambia lacks data on learning retention and application in chemistry instruction supplemented by smartboards. Although there are a few evaluation studies on national examination results (Hanover Research, 2014; Moussa et al., 2020; Ryoko & Tanya, n.d.), none focus on academic retention and application. Jammeh et al. (2022) highlighted some important information about Gambian teachers concerning technological pedagogical content knowledge in the smart classroom. On this premise, the following research questions guide the study:
1. What is the effect of the smartboard in chemistry teaching and learning among students in Grade 11?
2. What is the difference in terms of knowledge application between students taught using the smartboard or traditional teaching facilities?
This section defines the data collection techniques employed, including the authorization granted to investigate the impact of using smartboards in chemistry teaching and learning. It also presents the participants, data sources, and variable measures.
This study involved a quasi experimental design with a control group. The complementing approach was pretest, posttest, and retention test design. This approach controls external variables by measuring the cause and effect relationships between variables (Dugard & Todman, 1995). In other words, smartboards were used by one group (experimental) and the other group (control group) used textbooks and chalkboard problem solving. We used social constructivism learning as the integrated theory in the smartboard application and it guided the instructional interventions for about 24 days (see Akyol & Fer, 2010). For example, the experimental group learned the topic using learning concepts in smartboard. These processes included clarification, exploration, interaction, group discussion, sharing, and answering in class questions using clickers. It also included physical experimentation. Conversely, the control group learned the topic using textbook problem solving, note presentation on the blackboard, classwork, assignments, activity problem solving, and answering in class questions by raising hands. They, too, had to perform physical experimentation.
The study sample consisted of 284 students from secondary schools in the urban regions of The Gambia who were selected through a convenient sampling technique from 568 chemistry students. Regions 1 and 2 were selected due to the number of chemistry students and availability of smartboards in classrooms. Chemistry students in Grade 11 from both public and private schools were selected and divided equally into an experimental group (142 students) and a control group (142 students). Students from Grade 11 were chosen since this grade is the most important intermediate class in the education structure of The Gambia. In addition, as seen in the school records, the academic performance of the selected students concerning their work and academic records was similar
We developed 20 open ended test items and categorized them under topics that pose challenges to students’ learning at the final examination (WAEC, 2019). As highlighted in Table 1, these topics were used to ascertain participants’ application and conceptual understanding instead of their behavior, as is the common practice in schools. Because there is no direct way to determine if students attain their educational goals, in this regard, three behavioral test items were derived directly from the previous items prepared by the WAEC. We prepared 17 items on conceptual understanding using the Aki Ola core chemistry textbook for secondary schools and the Grade 11 chemistry curriculum. Item analysis was performed to identify defective items. This analysis identified the items’ discriminant index, which separates participants’ differences and to what degree. It also identified the items’ difficulty index, which indicates the proportion of questions answered correctly and the number of students who did so. This process led us to determine the instrument’ s validity and reliability.
1:
Sl. Topic
1. Introductoryconceptsofacids,bases,andsalts,which was an opportunity to test participants’ prerequisite knowledge
2. Substance identification or interpretation through pH scales and testing of common substances using indicators (red cabbage or red camelina communis flower, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, and bromothymol blue)
Number of questions framed
In the draft tool In the final tool
2 2
2 2
3. Quantitative measurements of acids and bases 5 3
4. Measurements and calculations of numerical values of the pH for each sample to determine color representation by comparing with values
5 4
5. Titration of antiacids with distilled water, bromothymol blue indicator, and 1M HCl 3 2
6. Weak acids weak base titration and calculations 3 2 Total 20 15
For content validity purposes, 20 questions were prepared, reviewed, and validated using interrater reliability to ensure that the questions were factual, and the conceptual questions were applicable and critical. Questions that did not meet these criteria were revised by us and returned to the raters for re scoring. Items that failed to meet the criteria after three rounds were excluded from the study, thus reducing the number to 18 items. Piloting took place using 40 Grade 11 students who had previously taken this course and were not part of the study sample to determine the test’s reliability and discriminant level. Each response from students was graded for item analysis. The items with the highest scores were mentioned first. The highest group included 44% of the responses on the list. A sub group was created using the exact number of the lowest scoring values through the difficulty index and the discriminant index concept on all items. In light of these findings, we chose to eliminate 3 questions, thus reducing the total number of test questions to 15. The reliability coefficient of the instrument was found to be 0.86 Cronbach alpha, which revealed to what extent the questions were measured according to the difference between the questions and the variance of these questions (Hinton et al., 2004).
The data were collected after obtaining permission from the Ministry of Basic and Secondary Education, The Gambia. As for research assistance and support, national trainers in technology and pedagogy were used and guided. We organized weekly meetings to address any challenges that may have compromised the plans and implementation. Both groups were subjected to a pretest and a posttest after 24 days of teaching. An additional four weeks were provided for the two groups after the posttest without any activities to test for knowledge retention.
Participants in the experimental group were taught using learning objects in smartboard, including physical experimentation. Participants in groups explored, clarified, and discussed topics among themselves. As they were learning, challenges were encountered, and they used multimedia platforms (YouTube) or online search within the smartboard for alternative explanations. Within the lecture notes, participants attempted in class questions through group discussions to convince one another before responding to the answers individually using their unique code in clickers. While in their groups, they explored and clarified by accessing functional tools (Activity builder, image designer, etc.) in the smartboard, which promoted them to be knowledge creators and not consumers (Goodman et al., 2013).
In contrast, in the control group, participants were taught using textbook problem solving and workbook exercises. The exercises were delivered utilizing traditional techniques or approaches, such as note taking on the blackboard, presentation, explanation, direct questioning, hands on activities, or physical experimentation to solve problems. They learned through lectures and physical experimental modes. Group discussion and interaction were encouraged as another important pedagogical approach in classrooms. However, participants responded to in class questions during lectures by raising their hands.
Both groups were provided with constant electricity and internet connectivity to minimize interruption during the intervention. In addition, both groups were taught through the support of national trainers, which included one of the researchers of this study, using specific topics for about 24 days. These topics were: (i) introductory concepts of acids, bases, and salts to assess prior knowledge, (ii) substance identification or interpretation using pH scales and testing of common substances using indicators (red cabbage or red camelina communis flower, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, and bromothymol blue), (iii) quantitative measurements of acids and bases, and (iv) measurements and numerical pH values for each sample.
The items in the achievement test were scored and recorded, which provided the resultant data. A point (1) was awarded for each correct answer on an item, while zero points (0) were awarded for incorrect or unanswered answers. The items were examined following the application of the two different statistical tests. Inferential statistics was used to determine the difference between the two independent groups before and after the intervention (that is, pretest & posttest). An independent sample t test was conducted comparing the two groups, while a dependent t test was conducted to compare the pretest and posttest scores of the groups at the .05 significance level. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 21 software was used for statistical data generation.
Results obtained from the quantitative statistical analysis are discussed in Tables 2 to 6. The t test results of the pretest for the two independent groups are presented in Table 2, comparing means and standard deviations.
Table 2: Independent t test results of the pretest for both groups
Group n Mean Standard deviation t df Sig. (2 tailed)
Experimental 142 20.18 9.352 5.516 282 0.003 Control 142 24.26 10.151
The mean and standard deviation scores indicate that the two groups were significantly different (experimental = 20.18 & 9.352; control = 24.26 & 10.151), with t = 5.516, p ˂ .05. This indicates that the groups differed, favoring the control group. However, their results from the first term academic year were not significantly different from their margin of difference in the pretest scores. The dependent t test results are presented in Table 3, comparing the means and standard deviations of the pretest and posttest of the experimental group.
Table 3: Dependent t test results of the pretest and posttest for the experimental group
Experimental group n Mean Standard deviation t df Sig. (2 tailed)
Pretest 142 20.18 9. 352 3.694 281 0.000 Posttest 141 35.30 18.971
The results revealed that the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group were significantly different (t = 3.69, p < .05). This indicates that after the application, there was a mean gain of 15.12 and a standard deviation of 9.619 (Table 3).
A similar analysis was conducted for the control group (Table 4), which also showed a significant difference in pretest and posttest scores (t = 3.690, p < .05). There were some improvements in the mean and standard deviation (M = 3. 75, SD = 3.702) with the use of the study approach on the control group compared with the smartboard for the experimental group.
Table 4: Dependent t test results of the pretest and posttest for the control group Control group n Mean Standard deviation t df Sig. (2 tailed)
Pretest 142 24.26 10.151 3.690 282 0.000 Posttest 142 28.01 13.853
We compared the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups (Table 5).
Table 5: Independent t test results of the posttest for both groups
Group n Mean Standard deviation t df Sig (2 tailed)
Experimental 141 35.30 18.971 3.694 281 0.000 Control 142 28.01 13.853
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The independent t test showed a positive improvement for both groups. For the posttest, the experimental group’s mean was 35.30, with a standard deviation of 18.971, while the control group’s mean was 28.01, with a standard deviation of 13.853. The mean difference was 7.29 (t = 281, p = 000), favoring the experimental group. This shows that the smartboard, including the study approach, promoted participant success after the intervention.
A similar impact assessment was used to determine the knowledge retention of the two groups (Table 6).
Table 6:
Group n Mean Standard deviation t df Sig(2 tailed)
Experimental 142 29.23 14.232 3.763 281 0.023 Control 142 26.72 12.673
The mean and standard deviation (M = 29.23, SD = 14.232) of the experimental group on knowledge retention was higher than the mean and standard deviation (M = 26.72, SD = 12.673) of the control group, at a 0.023 significance level. Nevertheless, comparison of the posttest scores also revealed that both groups showed a significant decrease in means and standard deviations. The independent t test revealed a significant difference in knowledge retention and application, favoring the experimental group at posttest (t = 3.763, p ˂ .05)
The interventional approach in this study adds value to current studies about technology integration in teaching and learning. We applied the intervention to the two groups with different mediums of instruction. However, the topics were the same for both groups in a monitored environment. Before the intervention, the two groups were not significantly different in terms of academic performance, as shown in Table 2. The control group performed slightly better than the experimental group in the pretest, but in the posttest, the experimental group performed better. Aktas and Aydin (2016) similarly found a slight difference between two groups. Before the intervention, the control group performed better against the experimental group, but after the intervention, the experimental group performed better. Statistically, both groups had progressive improvement in performance as they moved from the pretest to the posttest. This implies that learning could be improved in any learning environment, depending on how the content was taught and prepared, resources, or students’ background to learn the topics. In another study, higher academic improvement was found from pretest to posttest in the experimental group than in the control group (Mihindo et al., 2017).
In this study, we further compared the two groups on knowledge retention four weeks after the study activities, finding that the difference between the groups was statistically significant. The experimental group performed better than the control group on knowledge retention and application. Notably, the smartboard technology supported the experimental group to learn through learning
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objectives, which may have enabled them to retain factual knowledge after four weeks of intervention. Participants were able to understand the conceptual knowledge about the qualitative and quantitative measurement of acids and bases in this study, and it may therefore be concluded that the teaching strategy should be appropriate and interactive (Hennessy et al., 2010). According to the WAEC (2019), students found it difficult to perform well in the final examination on these topics. Research has also shown conceptual understanding and positive learning outcomes post intervention of two different groups (Aktas & Aydin, 2016; Aldalalah, 2021; Hennessy et al., 2010). This happens because student learning in the smart classrooms is motivated by availability of facilities, such as student response systems (Cutrim, 2008) and smart learning objects (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017; Lopez, 2010; Tekin, 2013), which may differ from the traditional classrooms. In using audio visual teaching aids in the smartboard, Kirbas (2018) found significant improvement in students’ interpretation of chemical phenomena compared to students who only used a textbook problem solving approach. For example, the integration of PhET software into a smartboard can be used to demonstrate the mole or concentration ratio calculation by adding indicators or changing variables or the substance quantity. However, the instructional hours can be compromised (Kirbas, 2018) and the performance of students may not be as outstanding as anticipated (Higgins, 2010) if the technological knowledge is inadequate (Jammeh et al., 2022).
The evaluation of national examination results has also supported the conclusion that smartboards contribute to positive learning outcomes (Hanover Research, 2014; Ryoko & Tanya, n.d.). In terms of the mean average, students in the smart classroom had a higher average than those in the traditional classroom on the national examination (Hanover Research, 2014). Similar results were found by Moussa et al. (2020) during the comparative study on students in two different classrooms (smart technology schools and non smart technology schools). The results showed that students in the smart technology schools obtained more passes, and the mean scores from the designed questions were also higher than in the non smart technology schools (Moussa et al., 2020). This success could be attributed to the flexibility and interactive nature of smartboard integration (Davidovitch & Yavich 2017), particularly immediate feedback while using the smartboard (Moore, 2021).
According to Krajcik and Mun (2014) and Cutrim (2008), immediate feedback is imperative in learning and is mainly associated with the integration of clickers with the smartboard application. For example, during the formative assessment, each student’s scores are projected on the smartboard, which indicates the percentage of students in the class, which is different in the non-smart classrooms (Mehtela, 2021). On the other hand, in traditional classrooms, feedback may take longer than usual, and evaluation is done on paper (Tyagi et al., 2020).
Due to the self regulatory, adaptive, and resource enriched nature of smartboards (Rosmansyah et al., 2022), students apply less effort to assess their conceptual understanding and application (Goodman et al., 2013). Because the smartboard coordinates the three presences in the classroom (learners, teaching,
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and technology) and these presences are coordinated, students are supported to perform better (Zhu et al., 2016) In educational technology applications such as smartboard integration, students have the opportunity to explore and interact (Graham, 2013) with learning objects, whereas in the traditional classroom, this aspect might be limited to physical experimentation. This convenience therefore supports the teaching and learning of qualitative and quantitative measurement and calculation of acid base reactions, as seen in the positive reflections of students’ academic performance. However, Higgins (2010) contradicted these notions in his study on the interactive whiteboard in the science classroom. He found that conceptual understanding through learning outcomes was little during students’ interaction with technology. Because most of the technology applications used by teachers are under their control, students have few opportunities to use the technology (Kafyulilo et al., 2016). This implies that teachers were not practicing the purpose and functions of instructional technology, instead using technology for non educational purposes, such as playing movies (Sorokoumova et al., 2021).
The conceptual understanding of the qualitative and quantitative calculation and measurement of acid base reactions, which the participants found challenging, translated positively into their academic performance. The test scores of participants taught using smartboards were compared with the test scores of participants taught using traditional instructional facilities. The results revealed that the experimental group performed better than the control group. In addition, both groups showed significant improvement in the intervention from the pretest to the posttest. This implies that the condition of the teaching strategy must be effective and appropriate as it reflects positively on students’ learning outcomes.
Learning by doing and seeing was one of the strategies reflected in this study which might contribute to learning retention, other than in a situation where students learn through hands on (physical experimentation) only without audio visual teaching aids. For example, the experimental group, who learned concepts through the smartboard, performed better in knowledge retention and application than the control group.
The results imply that smartboard integration is as important as the typical technology classroom. Based on the test scores of the two groups, we may conclude that the smartboard can improve learning in subjects other than chemistry if policymakers step up to increase the number of technological tools and continue to upgrade smart facilities in schools. The effectiveness could be further investigated if all smartboards are upgraded, and the provision of power and internet supply is consistent. There is a need for professionals, including present teachers and students, to receive technology training to be adept at using future instructional tools. Monitoring and evaluation need to be strengthened and implemented to reflect positive smartboard integration into teaching and learning.
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This quasi experimental study has provided an educative contribution to technology integration in the classroom, especially innovation in teaching and learning. It provides policymakers with insight into the technology used, processes, and the creation and growth of learning processes. Policymakers may regard the smartboard as necessary for improving curricular teaching and learning outcomes. Instructors who recognize technology as a problem solving tool may change how they teach. Future researchers will benefit by learning about the application of technology, including not only traditional technology but also smartboards.
This research involved only urban centers and Grade 11 students and can therefore be expanded to other regions and include different grades to determine the effectiveness of the smartboard in learning As such, generalizations concerning the effects of education aided by the smartboard on a larger population can only be made after researching more extensive and diverse populations. Given the account of the study duration, the extended period of future studies may stimulate more general use and interaction.
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Zhu, Z., Sun, Y., & Riezebos, P. (2016). Introducing the smart education framework: Core elements for successful learning in a digital world. InternationalJournalof Smart Technology and Learning, 1(1), 53 78. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijsmarttl.2016.078159
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 232 248, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.13
Received Jul 4, 2022; Revised Sep 14, 2022; Accepted Sep 21, 2022
Ni Nyoman Sri Putu Verawati*
Physics Education Department, University of Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia
Ahmad Harjono
Physics Education Department, University of Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia
Wahyudi
Physics Education Department, University of Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia
Syifa’ul Gummah
Physics Education Department, Mandalika University of Education, Mataram, Indonesia
Abstract. Cultural entities and local or national wisdom can serve to provide scientific knowledge to students, and the in depth knowledge in the fields of science must be underpinned by critical thinking (CT). In a developing perspective, inquiry is the best way to train CT skills, and creativity becomes one of the supporting aspects. This study aimed to implement inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience to develop the CT skills of prospective science teachers (PSTs). The study applied the randomized pretest posttest control design, involving two intervention groups, one with inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience (n = 29) and the other with traditional teaching (n = 26). The participants were PSTs at two universities in Indonesia. Each group was observedfortheirCTskillsinlinewithCTindicators(CTi)andindividual performance (CTs) using the pretest posttest method and compared, and a valid essay test was applied to collect data. The CT skills data analysis was descriptive based on the average pretest posttest and n gain parameters. The effects of the two interventions on CT skills were analyzed using the t test (p < .05). After descriptive and statistical tests were carried out, the assessment of CT performance on participants inthe two intervention groups showed different results. For the CTi and CTs, inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience had a better
Corresponding author: Ni Nyoman Sri Putu Verawati; veyra@unram.ac.id
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
impact on training participants’ CT skills when compared to traditional instruction. The statistical analysis results showed a significant difference in the performance of CT skills in participants between the two groups being compared. The findings of this study emphasize that in relation to improving CT performance, teaching practice with inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience is most effective in improving the CT skills of PSTs. The advantages of the learning intervention are discussed and may contribute to the literature of future studies.
Keywords: critical thinking skills; ethnoscience; inquiry creative learning; prospective science teachers; traditional teaching
Science education reform is needed to prepare students for more brilliant future careers. It is related to the paradigm shift that was built from teaching to know to learning to think (Zoller & Nahum, 2012). In the end, the modernization of science education puts critical thinking (CT) in the top position as the most necessary skill (Bilad et al., 2022; Jang, 2016). CT is a cognitive activity to develop knowledge, understanding, and skills, and according to Bloom (1956), CT is a higher order thinking skill. CT skills are important to be taught because they allow learners to find the truth of information from phenomena or academic problems encountered (Suhirman et al., 2020). Unfortunately, most practical learning has not been oriented towards the attainment of CT skills (Bensley & Murtagh, 2012) because of differences in concepts in building CT skills, and components of CT (Moore, 2013). The worst thing is that even for a professional teacher, CT skills cannot always be taught properly (Phillips et al., 2011)
An important outcome expected in all forms of learning interventions at the higher education level is that students should be able to think critically (Tiruneh et al., 2017). This is especially true for prospective science teachers (PSTs) (Prayogi et al., 2018), because a professional teacher has a role as an agent of change for a better education system in terms of developing students’ CT skills (Ma & Luo, 2021). In higher education institutions that produce science teacher candidates, lecturers must train CT skills for prospective teachers, and the process during education before becoming a teacher is the right time for intervention activities that can train their CT skills (Verawati et al., 2021).
A recent teaching intervention with good potential to train CT skills is to apply a holistic learning process based on local wisdom (Sudarmin et al., 2019) This process has been adapted in the context of education in Indonesia. In line with the Indonesian National Higher Education Standards, the goal of training CT skills for students can thus be achieved by applying the characteristics of a holistic learning process that encourages the formation of a comprehensive and broad mindset by internalizing local or national wisdom and excellence (Dewi et al., 2019). It should be understood that science is a branch of knowledge that is based on natural phenomena, and the inquiry mode of teaching is used to attain the objectives of science learning (Aditomo & Klieme, 2020; Cheung et al., 2020) Inquiry in science is an enculturation process in which students participate in
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experimental communities in the classroom (Darling Hammond et al., 2020; Kock et al., 2015) In practice, inquiry is understood as process oriented learning to comprehend a concept theoretically only (Kock et al., 2013), and in the context of current learning, it is not in accordance with the characteristics of holistic learning. The holistic science learning process is carried out by integrating and internalizing local and contextual wisdom (Suprapto et al., 2021).
Ethnoscience is the specialization of indigenous knowledge systems, where the ethnoscience looks at culture from a scientific perspective (Atran, 1991). Ethnoscience originated from the words ethnos, which means nation, and scientia, which means knowledge Ethnoscience is seen as a system of knowledge and cognition typical of a given culture (Sturtevant, 1964) Ethnoscience is the integration of local wisdom and cultural values with scientific principles (Sudarmin et al., 2019). In the concept of ethnoscience, knowledge cannot be separated from local culture and traditions (Garcia et al., 2020) From birth, students are bound by the culture of life and nature before they go to formal education. Ethnoscience rooted in their lives is a form of contextual experiences (Parmin & Fibriana, 2019). Ethnoscience is balanced between the knowledge gained in the formal learning process in the class and the learning entities in their socio cultural life (Arfianawati et al., 2016). Ethnoscience is a knowledge system that involves an explanation of nature. It has practical applications and is used for predictive purposes in learning (Wang, 2013) and to achieve the learning objectives themselves (Lestari & Fitriani, 2016)
Previous studies have shown that the integration of ethnoscience in learning can increase students’ scientific literacy and CT ability (Seraphin, 2014), and affect them in logical and critical ways of thinking in science learning (Risdianto et al., 2020). The function of ethnoscience makes it easier for students to explore facts and phenomena in society, as it is integrated with science (Gunawan et al., 2019; Ramdani et al., 2021). However, the integration of learning with ethnoscience to optimize students’ thinking skills has not been adequately studied (Sudarmin et al., 2019), so that practicing CT is still difficult for many teachers (van Peppen et al., 2021). The distressing thing is that the aspects of current learning practices are not holistic in that they do not integrate and internalize local wisdom (Suprapto et al., 2021). This is certainly a learning problem that should be resolved. CT is defined as reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do (Ennis, 2018) CT skills are very important for individuals, because it deals with their ways of solving problems effectively (Karantzas et al., 2013). CT skills cannot be trained arbitrarily; they must be honed with an appropriate pedagogical model intervention (Fitriani et al., 2022; Prayogi et al., 2018; Verawati et al., 2021; Wahyudi et al., 2019) CT can be practiced by presenting authentic problems in the surrounding environment and exploring them (Evendi et al., 2022) Authentic problems can be connected to experience and scientific knowledge in the cultural context in the environment where the individual or student grows and develops. Exploration of authentic problems related to ethnoscience is a process of training students in their CT skills
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Recently, inquiry learning has been modified by adding scientific creativity into its learning activities. This fusion has become well known as inquiry creative learning (Wahyudi et al., 2018) When this is associated with science, scientific creativity is the hallmark of science learning in the class, and optimizing the quality of the students’ creativity has an impact on many aspects of thinking (de Oliveira Biazus & Mahtari, 2022; Iskandar et al., 2020). Creative pedagogy cannot be separated from human life and contributes to students’ success in the workplace (Prahani et al., 2021) As such, creative pedagogy must be implemented to support student success. Zainuddin et al. (2020) discussed routine learning that does not emphasize scientific creativity and fixates on traditional learning routines that hardly support changing learning. At the same time, students’ knowledge construction and cognitive development can be attained through scientific investigations by optimizing creativity in experimenting (Suyidno et al., 2017). Prahani et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of creative pedagogy to train higher order thinking skills, because there is a relationship between the learning process conducted and the learning outcomes to be gained. To clarify this, literature has reported that when learning ignores scientific creativity, it is the same as traditional learning, with no expectation for any progress in learning performance (Zainuddin et al., 2020).
Practicing creative pedagogy in experimental models has been investigated, showing that it can train students in creativity and responsibility (Suyidno et al., 2019). However, to our best knowledge, creative pedagogy in the inquiry model has not been adequately studied in relation to improving CT performance. To attain a better perspective of CT skills, the present study integrates inquiry creative learning with ethnoscience. The empirical framework in the current study is supported for several reasons. First, inquiry learning is designed with the aim of optimizing the quality of students’ thinking (Arends, 2012), and several empirical studies have shown that inquiry has the potential to train the CT skills of PSTs (Ernita et al., 2021; Prayogi et al., 2018; Verawati et al., 2019, 2021). Second, the inquiry creative process that is taught to PSTs has an impact on maintaining their CT skills (Wahyudi et al., 2019). Third, learning interventions that have the potential to train CT skills utilize a holistic learning process based on local wisdom, through ethnoscience (Sudarmin et al., 2019). Based on the review of related literature, the use of inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience has not been studied for the purpose of training the CT skills of PSTs Therefore, the findings of this study might potentially contribute to the body of knowledge, especially related to classroom learning experiences, to support the CT performance of PSTs.
The specific aim of this study is to implement inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience and to evaluate its impact on the performance of PSTs in their CT skills. As a comparison, the study used a control group taught using traditional or expository teaching methods.
In line with the research aim, the following research variables are investigated in this study:
• The improvement of CT skills of PSTs by implementing inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience.
• The difference in increasing CT skills of PSTs between the two learning interventions (inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience vs. traditional teaching).
This study was an experimental study with a randomized pretest posttest control design (Fraenkel et al., 2012). Two sample groups were formed based on the randomization scheme of the population, one as the experimental group (intervention group A) and one as the control group (intervention group B) Intervention group A was subjected to inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience (X1), whereas intervention group B was subjected to traditional teaching (X2). Each group was observed for their CT skills using a pretest (O1) and a posttest (O2). Below is the design adopted for this study:
Intervention group A R O1 X1 O2
Intervention group B R O1 X2 O2
To avoid bias between the groups, the implementation of learning was conducted by professional lecturers concurrently. Apart from the pretest and posttest, the number of learning sessions for each group were four.
The research participants were PSTs from the University of Mataram (Unram) and Mandalika University of Education (Undikma), Indonesia. The participants were randomly selected from the population of first semester PSTs who were taking specialist courses in science at the universities In all, 55 PSTs participated, of which 29 were in intervention group A and 26 were in intervention group B. The demographic characteristics of the participants based on gender and age are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants by gender and age
Characteristic
Intervention group A (n = 29) Intervention group B (n = 26) n % n %
Gender Male 15 52 13 50 Female 14 48 13 50 Age (Years)
< 18 2 6.9 3 11.5 18 19 24 82.8 22 84.6 > 19 3 10.3 1 3.8
Within the scope of the research, and to involve humans as participants, permission was obtained from the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education –
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University of Mataram, and the Institute for Research and Community Service Mandalika University of Education.
The research instruments for this study involved two aspects, learning tools and data collection instruments. The learning tools took the form of lesson plans and scenarios, learning modules, and worksheets, and were employed to support the implementation of inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience. The data collection instruments took the form of a CT skills test. Before being implemented in class, each instrument was validated by three validators. The validators were experts in science education and learning, had experience in science education research, and understood the context of inquiry and ethnoscience learning. The purpose with validation was to assess the feasibility of the learning instruments (learning tools and test instruments) before implementation. The learning tools and test instruments were assessed for validity in the aspects of content and construct validity using a validation sheet. Furthermore, each validator provided feedback on the validity of the learning tools and test instruments. The learning tools and CT skills test instruments were declared valid. Based on these results, the learning tools and test instruments could be employed to support the implementation of inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience.
Data on the CT skills of participants were collected using an essay test instrument. CT skills were assessed using four indicators: analysis, inferencing, evaluating, and decision making. There were eight test items, with each indicator comprising two test items. Multi level scoring (five scales) were used, according to Ennis and Weir (1985) We adapted the scoring criteria to range from 0 (lowest score) to +4 (highest score). The summary of the scoring rubric for each test item is shown in Table 2.
1. No answer was provided. 0
2. The answer was incorrect, with incorrect arguments, not supported by facts, concepts, and laws +1
3. The answer was correct, but each CT indicator was not supported by strong arguments based on facts, concepts, and laws. +2
4. The answer was correct, and each CT indicator was sufficiently supported by arguments based on facts, concepts, and laws. +3
5. The answer was correct, and a strong argument supported each CT indicator with facts, concepts, and laws. +4
CT skills data collection was carried out by administering valid test instruments to the participants of the two sample groups. The test was given at the beginning, before learning (pretest), and at the end, after learning (posttest). The test was administered to the two sample groups at the same time, and the time limit for answering the questions was 100 minutes.
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CT data were analyzed descriptively and statistically according to participants’ CT performance parameters on the pretest and posttest for both intervention groups. CT data were computed in two main aspects: the CT performance for each indicator (CTi) and of each individual (CTs). Different calculations were used to determine CTi and CTs scores To measure CTi, the min max score range was 0 to +4. On the contrary, to measure CTs, the min max individual score range was 0 to +32 (max score +4, multiplied by eight test items). The scoring criteria are summarized in Table 3 The score interval was adopted from a previous study (Prayogi et al., 2018), resulting in different score ranges for CTi and CTs.
Table 3. Score interval, CT skills score for each indicator (CTi) and each individual (CTs), and CT skills criteria
Score interval Score interval of CTi Score interval of CTs Criterion
CT > Xi + 1.8 Sdi CTi > 3.21 CTs > 25.60 Very critical
Xi + 0.6 Sdi < CT ≤ Xi + 1.8 Sdi 2.40 < CTi ≤ 3.21 19.20 < CTs ≤ 25.60 Critical
Xi 0.6 Sdi < CT ≤ Xi + 0.6 Sdi 1.60 < CTi ≤ 2.40 12.80 < CTs ≤ 19.20 Quite critical
Xi 1.8 Sdi < CT ≤ Xi 0.6 Sdi 0.80 < CTi ≤ 1.60 6.41 < CTs ≤ 12.80 Less critical
CT ≤ Xi 1.8 Sdi CTi ≤ 0.80 CTs ≤ 6.41 Not critical
Note: Xi (ideal average) = ½ (max score + min score); Sdi (ideal deviation standard) = 1/6 (max score min score)
Descriptively, the increase in CT skills scores on the pretest and posttest for both groups was analyzed using Hake’s formulation (n gain analysis) (Hake, 1999)
The differences in CT scores of the two groups were statistically analyzed. The parametric statistical tests at least fulfilled the assumption of data normality (p > .05). The effects of the two learning interventions (X1, X2) on CT skills were analyzed using a paired t test, and the different effects of the two with an independent sample t test (n gain parameters), each at p < .05.
The results of the CTi analysis are summarized in Table 4. CTi was assessed for each group in line with the mean parameters of the pretest, posttest, and n gain. Descriptively, the results in Table 4 show the variation in the scores of the four CT indicators.
Table 4. CTi measurement results based on the average parameters of the pretest, posttest, and n-gain
Group n Variable
Intervention group A 29
Intervention group B 26
Average AS IF EV DM
CT skills indicator
Pretest 1.22 1.17 1.34 1.47 1.30 Posttest 3.33 3.14 3.12 3.19 3.19 n gain 0.76 (High) 0.70 (Moderate) 0.67 (Moderate) 0.68 (Moderate) 0.70 (Moderate)
Pretest 1.12 1.06 1.13 1.15 1.12 Posttest 1.35 1.44 1.37 1.33 1.37 n gain 0.08 (Low) 0.13 (Low) 0.08 (Low) 0.06 (Low) 0.09 (Low)
Note: AS (analysis), IF (inferencing), EV (evaluation), DM (decision making)
Based on the interventions, the pretest scores of participants were in the range of 0.80 < CTi ≤ 1.60. This means that the CT skills performance of participants according to the CT indicators was at the less critical level. In the posttest, the CTi scores of both groups increased. Intervention group A (inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience) acquired a CTi score which was higher than that of intervention group B (traditional teaching), with a posttest mean score range of 3.19 (critical, with 2.40 < CTi ≤ 3.21). Intervention group B achieved 1.37 (less critical, with 0.80 < CTi ≤ 1.60).
Figure 1 presents a visualization of the CTi results.
Figure 1. Comparison of CTi measurement results based on the average parameters of the pretest, posttest, and n-gain
The results in Figure 1 confirm the findings of this study Intervention group A clearly achieved more superior CTi scores, with an increase in score (n gain) of 0.71, whereas in group B, there was almost no increase in CTi. Furthermore, individual CT skills performance (CTs) was assessed, the results of which are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. CTs measurement results based on the average parameters of the pretest, posttest, and n-gain
Group n CTs mean score and criteria n gain Criterion Pretest Criterion Posttest Criterion Intervention group A 29 10.41 Less critical 25.55 Critical 0.70 Moderate Intervention group B 26 8.92 Less critical 10.96 Less critical 0.09 Low
Table 5 shows the mean CTs scores. The mean pretest score for intervention group A was 10.41 (less critical, with 6.41 < CTs ≤ 12.80), with the score increasing to a critical level, with a CTs score of 25.55 in the posttest (critical, with 19.20 < CTs ≤ 25.60). For intervention group B, participant scores remained on the less critical level for the pretest posttest.
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Differences in CTs measurement results for the two groups are shown in Figure 2.
measurement of the two groups
Next, a statistical analysis of differences in CT skills for each group was carried out. This was preceded by a normality test for each group (see Table 6). The results of the normality test showed that both test groups were normally distributed, meaning that a different test could be used (parametric assumptions were met). The results of the paired t test are presented in Table 7.
Table 6. Results of the normality test (p > .05)
Group n Mean SD Sig. Normality Intervention group A Pretest 29 10.413 1.991 .200 Normal distribution Posttest 29 25.551
Intervention group B Pretest 26 8.923 1.768 .200 Normal distribution Posttest 26 10.961
Table 7. Paired t test results (p < .05)
Group n Mean SD df t Sig. Intervention group A Pretest 29 10.413 2.009 28 33.741 .000 Posttest 29 25.551 1.638
Intervention group B Pretest 26 8.923 1.958 25 5.706 .000 Posttest 26 10.961 1.280
The results of the paired t test in Table 7 showed that there were differences in the two sample groups’ CT skills between the pretest and posttest, with a significance value of p < .05. The effect of intervention differences between groups on the improvement of CT skills (n-gain parameters) was analyzed using an independent sample t test. The results are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Independent sample t test results of the two sample groups (p < .05)
Measurement t df Sig. (2 tailed) Std. err. diff. 95% Conf. int. diff. Lower Upper n gain of CT skill Equal variances assumed
30.707 52.999 .000 2.003 57.486 65.521
30.526 53 .000 2.014 57.462 65.545 Equal variances not assumed
Table 8 confirms that there was a significant difference in CT skills results between the two intervention groups (A and B), with a significance value of p < .05.
In depth knowledge in the fields of science must be supported by the CT skills of science students. In this study, the initial assessment (pretest) based on the results in Table 4 (the CTi parameter) indicated that both intervention groups in the pretest were at the less critical level. Our analysis showed that PSTs are not trained in their learning experience to think critically. As the results of Fitriani et al. (2019) showed, the teaching routines at universities are not aimed at fostering CT skills, with students’ analytical abilities and CT skills being underdeveloped. Similar results were found for mechanical engineering students at a university in Taiwan who wanted a change in perspective and reform of education towards fostering CT (Hsu, 2021). A CT skills pre assessment showed poor performance in CT and was far from what the university expected.
In the current study, the opportunity to develop CT skills in PSTs was widely broadened by implementing inquiry learning, which is recognized as a pedagogy used in training CT skills. In this study, intervention group A (inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience) acquired a CTi score at the critical level, outperforming intervention group B (traditional teaching), who were at the less critical level. Visualization of the CTi results (see Figure 1) convincingly showed that intervention group A achieved a much superior CTi score than intervention group B. For group B, there was almost no increase in CTi (n gain was very small 0.09). Intervention group A achieved the most significant increase in CTi, as shown by the analysis indicators, with high n gain criteria, and other indicators, with moderate criteria. This is clearly due to scientific creativity interventions that have been able to improve CT skills. This finding is in line with that of previous studies, reporting that better analytical skills are found in prospective teachers when scientific creativity is integrated into inquiry teaching (Wahyudi et al., 2019). When compared to traditional teaching, inquiry learning is better. This is in line with Furtak et al.’s (2012) findings that inquiry learning is better for improving students’ skills and learning outcomes when compared to traditional teaching.
The CTs performance of participants on the pretest for both intervention groups was at a less critical level, while the posttest showed various increases in CTs skills. In the posttest, the CTs performance of intervention group A was found to be superior, at the critical level, and the CTs performance of group B was found
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to be the lowest, at a less critical level (there was no change in CTs level between the pretest and posttest in this group). The highest increase in CTs scores (n gain) was found for intervention group A. Statistically, the CTs scores at pretest posttest differed between the two groups (see paired t test results in Table 7). Our assumption specifically for traditional teaching is that CTs scores increased (although the increase looks small) as a result of material conduction in this group. When compared with traditional teaching, it is clear that inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience is better Even when compared to another cooperative teaching method such as student teams achievement divisions (STAD), the inquiry model is better at training CT skills (Pahrudin et al., 2021). Nonetheless, we emphasize again that inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience is much better in improving the CT skills of PSTs. The significant difference in CT skills scores between the two intervention groups (A and B) is confirmed by the results in Table 8.
Inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience has the advantage over traditional teaching for various reasons, as will be explained next. The differences between traditional teaching and inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience in the context of the current study are presented in Figure 3. In our study, traditional teaching is identified with expository teaching (Suweta, 2020), while inquiry creative learning is based on the results of the development in a recent study by Wahyudi et al. (2018, 2019), which is then integrated with ethnoscience.
Inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience can be superior in training the CT skills of PSTs when compared to traditional teaching for various important reasons (Figure 3). First, the orientation phase is focused on problem finding, where PSTs are asked to find as many authentic issues and discrepant events
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about ethnoscience as possible. This kind of encouragement can broaden the spectrum of PST thinking by exploring not only one focus of the problem but as many as possible. Their creative ideas will emerge when they receive such encouragement. Dimensionally, critical and creative thinking are different, but the intervention of scientific creativity in finding problems has a positive impact on students’ CT skills (Birgili, 2015). An important instrument that can serve as navigation to build students’ thinking skills in inquiry is to find problems and solve them creatively (Doss, 2018). Therefore, inquiry should not be taught in ordinary ways but should begin by encouraging students to find problems creatively and solve them (Jia et al., 2017). Second, the encouragement to creatively hypothesize and design creative experiments about ethnoscience becomes a stimulus in PSTs’ creative thinking, which results in building deeper knowledge by experimenting with creativity. Creative ideas in experimenting strengthen students’ scientific knowledge and science process skills (Verawati et al., 2022; Zainuddin et al., 2020), and this has an impact on their CT skills (Wahyudi et al., 2019). Third, the value of encouraging critical thinking through the process of evaluating creative experimental procedures about ethnoscience has been confirmed by the findings of this study. Experimental creativity requires high imaginative capability and creative thinking skills of students (Haryani et al., 2021), and when there is an urge to evaluate the creative experimental procedures compiled, it can improve their CT skills. Creative ways of experimenting are needed for PSTs. This can have a more advanced impact on their CT skills (Chen & Chen, 2021). Fourth, presenting scientific creativity products about ethnoscience is the main outcome of the CT skills of PSTs. It is considered a product of CT as long as the products are experimented with creatively. Finally, all intervention forms of inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience have a better impact on supporting the CT skills of PSTs compared to traditional teaching.
We want to emphasize that the inquiry instruction popularized by Arends (2012) is different from the inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience used in this study Arends’ (2012) inquiry instruction is focused on one problem or discrepant event. Focusing on one problem is not necessarily appealing to different PSTs, because of the different learning experiences, and this has an impact on the process of manipulating the ideas of inquiry. This factor is also a finding in previous studies, showing that students are not so good at manipulating their ideas in inquiry (Rahmawan et al., 2020) This also has an impact on students’ dependence on teacher instructions in inquiry learning. Although teacher instruction is considered effective for mastering the content domain in inquiry (van der Graaf et al., 2019), it is also considered a factor that causes students’ initiative and CT skills to be less developed (Mutmainah et al., 2019) This weakness is addressed in inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience. In this approach, various issues are verified and then solved creatively, where each PST freely manipulates their creative ideas. Finally, without neglecting inquiry learning, this study provides a reference point that in training the CT skills of PSTs, learning processes should be oriented to apply inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience.
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This study implemented inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience in an experimental study framework The performance assessment of the CT skills of PSTs in the two intervention groups, inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience, and traditional teaching, showed different results. For the parameters of CTi and CTs, inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience has a better impact on training the CT skills of PSTs compared to traditional teaching. The statistical analysis results showed a significant difference in the CT performance of participants between the two groups. The results of this study emphasize that in relation to improving CT performance, teaching practice with inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience is the most effective method in improving the CT skills of PSTs
The implication of the findings of this study is the feasibility of applying inquiry creative learning integrated with ethnoscience broadly and extensively in science education to train the CT skills of PSTs Although the study proved successful, it was not without limitations. First, participating PSTs’ responses to each learning intervention were not assessed, reducing information about their interest in each learning intervention. Second, this study did not measure the dispositional aspect of CT, where the dispositional aspect complements the acquisition of CT skills in learning. Third, the learning program was carried out on one subject only and was of relatively short duration. Future research thus needs to conduct similar learning interventions with a variety of different materials in longer learning activities
This study is a Decentralized Research in PTUPT scheme funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia (contract number: 117/E5/PG.02.00.PT/2022, and 1309/UN 18.L1/PP/2022).
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