International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 8 (August 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 8
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Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching in Further Education and Training Phase: Evidence from Entry Level Student Teachers’ Baseline Assessments 1 Folake Modupe Adelabu, Jogymol Kalariparampil Alex
Exploring the Use of Chemistry based Computer Simulations and Animations Instructional Activities to Support Students’ Learning of Science Process Skills 21 Flavia Beichumila, Eugenia Kafanabo, Bernard Bahati
Issues Surrounding Teachers’ Readiness in Implementing the Competency Based ‘O’ Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in Zimbabwe 43
Paul Chanda, Tafirenyika Mafugu
Exploring Headteachers, Teachers and Learners’ Perceptions of Instructional Effectiveness of Distance Trained Teachers
................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Vincent Mensah Minadzi, Ernest Kofi Davis, Bethel Tawiah Ababio
The Role of Middle Managers in Strategy Execution in two Colleges at a South African Higher Education Institution (HEI) 75 Ntokozo Mngadi, Cecile N. Gerwel Proches
Learners’ Active Engagement in Searching and Designing Learning Materials through a Hands on Instructional Model 92 Esther S. Kibga, Emmanuel Gakuba, John Sentongo
The Development of e Reading to Improve English Reading Ability and Energise Thai Learners’ Self Directed Learning Strategies 109 Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate
The Role of Mother’s Education and Early Skills in Language and Literacy Learning Opportunities 129 Dyah Lyesmaya, Bachrudin Musthafa, Dadang Sunendar
Exploring Assessment Techniques that Integrate Soft Skills in Teaching Mathematics in Secondary Schools in Zambia 144 Chileshe Busaka, Septimi Reuben Kitta, Odette Umugiraneza
Generic Competences of University Students from Peru and Cuba 163 Miguel A. Saavedra López, Xiomara M. Calle Ramírez, Karel Llopiz Guerra, Marieta Alvarez Insua, Tania Hernández Nodarse, Julio Cjuno, Andrea Moya, Ronald M. Hernández
Representation of Nature of Science Aspects in Secondary School Physics Curricula in East African Community Countries.............................................................................................................................................................................. 175
Jean Bosco Bugingo, Lakhan Lal Yadav, K.K Mashood
Using Graphic Oral History Texts to Operationalize the TEIL Paradigm and Multimodality in the Malaysian English Language Classroom............................................................................................................................................ 202
Said Ahmed Mustafa Ibrahim, Azlina Abdul Aziz, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said, Hanita Hanim Ismail
Remote Teaching and Learning at a South African University During Covid 19 Lockdown: Moments of Resilience, Agency and Resignation in First Year Students’ Online Discussions 219 Pineteh E. Angu
Enhancing Upper Secondary Learners’ Problem solving Abilities using Problem based Learning in Mathematics 235
Aline Dorimana, Alphonse Uworwabayeho, Gabriel Nizeyimana
The Development of Mobile Applications for Language Learning: A Systematic Review of Theoretical Frameworks 253 Kee Man Chuah, Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan
The Effect of Professional Training on In service Secondary School Physics 'Teachers' Motivation to Use Problem Based Learning 271 Stella Teddy Kanyesigye, Jean Uwamahoro, Imelda Kemeza
Knowledge of Some Evidence Based Practices Utilized for Managing Behavioral Problems in Students with Disabilities and Barriers to Implementation: Educators' Perspectives ........................................................................ 288 Hajar Almutlaq
Exploring Virtual Reality based Teaching Capacities: Focusing on Survival Swimming during COVID 19 ........ 307 Yoo Churl Shin, Chulwoo Kim
Math Anxiety, Math Achievement and Gender Differences among Primary School Children and their Parents from Palestine...................................................................................................................................................................... 326 Nagham Anbar, Lavinia Cheie, Laura Visu Petra
Investigating the Tertiary Level Students’ Practice of Collaborative Learning in English Language Classrooms, and Its Implications at Public Universities and at Arabic Institutions 345 Md Anwar, Md Nurul Ahad, Md. Kamrul Hasan
Navigating the New Covid 19 Normal: The Challenges and Attitudes of Teachers and Students during Online Learning in Qatar 368 Caleb Moyo, Selaelo Maifala
The Classical Test or Item Response Measurement Theory: The Status of the Framework at the Examination Council of Lesotho 384 Musa Adekunle Ayanwale, Julia Chere Masopha, Malebohang Catherine Morena
Addressing the Issues in Democratic Civilian Control in Ukraine through Updating the Refresher Course for Civil Servants
...................................................................................................................................................................... 407 Valentyna I. Bobrytska, Leonid V. Bobrytskyi, Andriy L. Bobrytskyi, Svitlana M. Protska
Supervisory Performance of Cooperative Teachers in Improving the Professional Preparation of Student Teachers 425
Ali Ahmad Al Barakat, Rommel Mahmoud Al Ali, Mu’aweya Mohammad Al Hassan, Omayya M. Al Hassan
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 1 20, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.1
Received Mar 7, 2022; Revised May 31, 2022; Accepted Jul 17, 2022
Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela Drive, Mthatha, South Africa
Jogymol Kalariparampil Alex
Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela Drive, Mthatha, South Africa
Abstract. This paper investigates entry level student teachers' mathematical knowledge for teaching in the Further Education and Training phase (FET) through Baseline Assessment. The study employed a quantitative research technique. The data collection instrument was a mathematics subject knowledge test (Baseline Assessment) for FET phase student teachers. Purposive and convenient sampling methods were employed in the study. The study enlisted the participation of 222 first year mathematics education student teachers from a rural Higher Education Institution (HEI) specialising in FET phase mathematics teaching.Onehundredandseventy five(175)studentteacherscompleted the Baseline Assessment for all grades in this study (10, 11, and 12). The Baseline Assessment findings were examined using descriptive statistics. The results revealed that student teachers have a moderate knowledge of mathematics topics in the FET phase at the entry level. In addition, an adequate level of understanding for teaching Grades 10 and 12 Patterns, Functions, Algebra, Space and Shape (Geometry), and Functional Relationships. While the elementary level of understanding for teaching grade 10 Measurement, Grade 11 Patterns, Functions, Algebra, and Trigonometry and Grade 12 Space and Shape (Geometry). There is no level of understanding for teaching FET phase Data and Statistics and Probability. The paper suggests that student teachers must develop a comprehensive understanding of the mathematics curriculum with the assistance of teacher educators in HEIs.
Keywords: Mathematical knowledge; student teachers’ entry level; Baseline Assessments; Further Education and Training
* Corresponding author: FolakeModupeAdelabu,fadelabu@wsu.ac.za
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
There was much emphasis on the teachers’ content knowledge in mathematics in 2013, according to Julie (2019). The focus on content knowledge was due to the Diagnostic Measures for the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011, which focused mainly on student and mathematics teacher performance in public schools. Based on the test results, Reddy et al. (2016) concluded a need for significant improvement in teachers' content knowledge of classroom mathematics They found that most teachers' lack of mathematical content knowledge is a contributing factor to learners' poor mathematics performance in most South African schools. According to research, several studies in developed countries and developing countries suggest that teachers’ content knowledge for teaching mathematics contributes significantly and is a good predictor of student achievement (Mullens, Murnane and Willett, 1996; Altinok, 2013). (e.g. Norton 2019, Shepherd, 2013) (Monk, 1994; Wayne & Youngs, 2003; Hill, Rowan & Ball, 2005; Rivkin, Hanushek & Kain, 2005). This paper presents the findings of a baseline assessment that investigated the mathematical subject content knowledge of entry level student teachers who are being trained to teach mathematics in the Further Education and Training (FET) phase in South Africa.
The South African educational system is divided into three hierarchical phases: General Education and Training (GET), Further Education and Training (FET), and s Higher Education (HE). The national matriculation examination takes place at the end of Grade 12 to mark the shift from the GET to the FET phase of schooling (DBE, 2011). Secondary school is known as the FET phase, where learners' abilities are improved to prepare them for careers of their choice During this stage, learners lay the groundwork for future success. At the end of the FET phase, learners prepare to transition into university and higher education. According to the DBE (2011), it is expected that all learners will have a sound foundational grasp of the fundamentals that will assist them in choosing courses or study programmes at a higher education institution. Therefore, at this stage, learners concentrate on course selections consistent with their unique professional objectives and goals, whether in Commerce, Humanities, or Sciences
To advance to the HE level for Bachelor’s degree in South Africa, learners must attain at least 40% minimum passes in three or four subjects, including one official home language in the national matriculation and school leaving examination (DBE, 2012). Therefore, the teachers who specialise in the FET phase during the Bachelor of Education degree teach subjects in the FET phase in secondary schools. For example, a student teacher with a degree in FET phase mathematics learns how to teach mathematics to learners in Grades 10 to 12. As a result, the student teacher devotes themselves to mathematics as a subject specialist. The student-teacher concentrates on merging basic mathematics knowledge with efficiently communicating the knowledge to prospective Grades 10 to 12 learners. According to DBE (2011), the link between the Senior Phase and the Higher Education band is FET. Therefore, all learners who complete this phase gain a functional understanding of mathematics, allowing them to make sense of society. FET learners get exposed to various mathematical experiences that provide them with numerous possibilities to build mathematical reasoning and creative skills in
preparation for abstract mathematics in higher education. In this regard, the student teachers for the FET phase need to be prepared for the task and the comprehensive role ahead since studies show that learners' poor performance in mathematics is due to the teachers' poor mathematical content knowledge (Pino Fan, Assis & Castro, 2015; Reddy et al., 2016; Siyepu & Vimbelo, 2021; Verster, 2018). In recent times, there has been increasing attention to investigating knowledge that mathematics teachers should have to execute an adequate control of the learners’ learning. Hence, to quantify the mathematical knowledge content for teaching and understanding level of the student teacher for the FET phase, this paper reports on the Baseline Assessment that investigated the mathematical content knowledge of entry level FET phase student teachers for teaching mathematics in South Africa.
Specifically, it sought an answer to the following questions:
1. What is the mathematical content knowledge of student teachers for teaching FET phase Mathematics through baseline assessment?
2. What is the level of understanding of the entry level student teachers' mathematical content knowledge for teaching FET phase mathematics through baseline assessment?
The theoretical framework that underpins this study is Mathematical Content Knowledge. Mathematical Content Knowledge (MCK) was built on Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge by Ball and colleagues in 2005. Mathematical Content Knowledge (MCK) is an essential factor to consider when teaching mathematics because it influences teachers' decisions towards teaching and learning mathematics. The entry level mathematics subject knowledge of the student teachers for teaching in the FET phase is crucial because it determines the student achievement in mathematics (Reddy et al., 2016) Jacinto & Jakobsen (2020) argues that several studies highlight that teachers should be able to teach what they know and comprehend. Jakimovik (2013) further supports this, who states that teachers should have the appropriate MCK for effective teaching and learning. (According to Narh Kert (2021), effective mathematics teachers know the mathematics relevant to the grade level and the value of the mathematics courses they teach. Therefore, the authors believe that the quality of FET mathematics teaching depends on teachers' knowledge of the content in the phase.
Deborah Ball and colleagues in Michigan created a test for mathematics teachers' professional expertise aimed at elementary school teachers in the United States (Ball, Hill & Bass, 2005) to assess their MCK for the grades they teach. The test was a multiple choice measure of number and operation, pattern, function, algebra and geometry. This test became a measure and was used to evaluate the MCK of mathematics educators, mathematicians, professional developers, project staff, and classroom teachers. Ball et al. (2005) discovered that teachers lack sound mathematical knowledge and skills. The test results led to the definition of mathematical content knowledge and its two components, Common Content Knowledge (CCK) and Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK) (Ball et al. 2005).
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These researchers further explained that most of the in service mathematics teachers in the U.S are graduates of a weak system. Therefore, there is a dire need to improve the mathematical knowledge of educators. Ball et al. (2005) state that the system clarifies that these in service teachers learned mathematics with irregularity and insufficient mathematical knowledge, leading to many teachers' weak mathematical knowledge. To improve teachers' MCK, Ball et al. (2005) test approach is embedded in Shulman's (1986, 1987) taxonomy of teacher knowledge.
Shulman makes a theoretical distinction between pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is the knowledge of how to make the subject accessible to others, and content knowledge (CK), which is the knowledge of deep comprehension of the domain itself (Shulman 1986). As a result, Shulman (1986, 1987) and Ball et al. (2005) use mathematical subject knowledge to assess teachers’ performance. Both rely on a distinct teaching philosophy that emphasises teachers' capacity to translate content knowledge into pedagogical strategies that help students learn effectively. Jacinto and Jakobsen (2020) state that Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching (MKfT) also provides a long term theoretical foundation and practical ramifications for teacher preparation programs. (. Hence, the theory of MKfT proposed by Ball, Thames, and Phelps (2008) is used in this study.
According to the MK, the following domains are the key focus: common content knowledge (CCK), horizon content knowledge (HCK), specialised content knowledge (SCK), knowledge of content and students (KCS), knowledge of content and teaching (KCT), and knowledge of content and curriculum (KCC) (Jacinto & Jakobsen, 2020).
• The first domain (CCK) refers to mathematical knowledge that is frequently utilised and created in various settings, including outside of formal education. This form of knowledge consists of questions that can be answered by those who know mathematics rather than specialised understandings (Ball et al., 2008).
• CCK is demonstrated by using an algorithm to solve an addition problem.
• Horizon content knowledge (HCK) is the knowledge of "how the content being taught fits into and is connected to the larger disciplinary domain." This domain includes knowing the origins and concepts of the subject and how useful it may be to students' learning. HCK allows teachers to "make judgements about the value of particular concepts" raised by students, as well as address "the discipline with integrity, all resources for balancing the core goal of linking students to a large and highly developed area" (Ball et al., 2008: 400; Jacinto & Jakobsen, 2020).
• Specialized Content Knowledge (SCK) is defined as "the mathematical knowledge specific to the teaching profession." It entails an unusual form of mathematical unpacking that is not required in environments other than education. It necessitates knowledge that extends beyond a thorough understanding of the subject matter. Teachers' roles include being able to present mathematical ideas during instruction and responding to students' queries, both of which necessitate mathematical expertise specific to teaching mathematics (Ball et al., 2008: 400; Jacinto & Jakobsen, 2020).
• Knowledge of content and students (KCS) was another sub construct that needed to be redefined because it did not fit the criterion for one dimensionality. For instance, respondents such as teachers, non teachers, and mathematicians used standard mathematical procedures to answer the items designed to reflect KCS, according to cognitive tracing interviews. Furthermore, the use of multiple choice items in KCS measurement was reviewed in favour of open ended questions.
Teachers utilise CCK to plan and teach mathematics concepts, allowing them to evaluate students' answers, respond to concept definitions, and complete a mathematical approach. Therefore, any adult with a well developed CCK but not the knowledge required to educate, such as new student teachers entering Higher Education Institutions (HEI), may have a well developed CCK but lack the necessary knowledge to teach. Hence, this study investigates the mathematical content knowledge of entry level student teachers in the FET phase training phase for teaching mathematics through Baseline Assessment in South Africa.
Educational assessment supports knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs, usually in measurable terms. Assessment is an essential component of a coherent educational experience (Sarka, Lijalem & Shibiru, 2017). According to Sarka et al. (2017), assessment methods considerably influence the breadth and depth of students' learning, that is, the approach to studying and retention, with either a strong influence or a lack thereof. Assessments are used in a variety of ways, which include motivating students and focusing their attention on what is essential, providing feedback on the students' thinking, determining what understandings and ideas that are within the zone of proximal development, and gauging the effectiveness of teaching, including identifying parts of lessons that could be improved. (Patterson, Parrott & Belnap, 2020).
Assessment is a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to assist teachers, parents and other stakeholders in making decisions about the progress of learners (DBE, 2011). Therefore, assessment serves a wide range of functions, including permission to progress to the next level, classifying students' performance in ranked order, improving their learning and evaluating the success of a particular technique for improvement (Sarka et al., 2017). Furthermore, the assessment goals include curriculum development, teaching, gathering data to aid decision making, communication with stakeholders, instructional improvement, program support, and motivation (Pattersonet et al., 2020; Sarka et al., 2017; Wilson, 2018)
According to the DBE (2011), there are various types of assessments. These include formative assessment, summative assessment, diagnostic and baseline assessment. Formative assessment is assessing students' progress and knowledge regularly to identify learning needs and adapt teaching accordingly (Wilson, 2018) The Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) (2008) states that teachers who use formative assessment methods and strategies are better equipped to address the requirements of a wide range of students. This can be done by differentiating
and adapting their instruction to enhance students' achievement to achieve more significant equity in their learning outcomes Formative assessment can also be defined as the activity that supports learning by giving information that can be utilised as feedback by teachers and students to evaluate themselves and each other to improve the teaching and learning activities. Therefore, formative assessment is one of the primary core activities in teachers' work (Wilson, 2018).
Summative assessments are used to determine what students have learned at the end of a unit and are used as a measure for promotion purposes. Dolin et al. (2018) state that summative assessment ensures that students have fulfilled the requirements to achieve certification for school completion or admittance into higher education institutions or occupations In addition, when an assessment activity is used to provide a summary of what a student knows, understands, and can do rather than to aid in the modification of the teaching and learning activities in which the student is engaged by providing feedback, it is considered summative (CERI, 2008; Wilson, 2018). Summative assessments are used in education for a variety of reasons. Individual students and their parents discuss progress and receive an overall assessment that includes praise, inspiration, and guidance for what has been accomplished. Summative assessments provide a comprehensive guide to the effectiveness of the students' work, which may be externally standardised ((Dolin et al., 2018; Wilson, 2018). Wilson (2018) agrees that summative assessments assist schools in making the best possible grouping and subject choices for the learners Both a school and a public authority employ summative assessments to inform teachers and the school’s accountability. As a result, a common element of summative assessments is that the results are utilised to guide future decisions.
The initial assessment occurs when a student begins a new learning program. The initial assessment is a comprehensive process in which students start to piece together a picture of an individual's accomplishments, abilities, interests, prior learning experiences, ambitions, and the learning requirements associated with those ambitions. The information from the initial assessment is used to negotiate a program or course (Quality Improvement Agency (QI), 2008). Diagnostic assessment supports the identification of individual learning strengths and weaknesses. It provides learning objectives and the necessary teaching and learning strategies for achievement. This is necessary because many students excel in some areas but struggle in others. Diagnostic evaluation occurs at the start of a learning program and again when required. It has to do with the specialised talents needed for specific tasks. The information acquired from the initial examination is supplemented by diagnostic testing (QIA, 2008).
Baseline assessment commonly used in early childhood education gathers information regarding a child's development or achievement as they transition to a new environment or grade. These assessments are conducted in various ways, ranging from casual observations to standardised examinations. The information gathered from these assessments assists educators in fulfilling the learner's requirements, highlighting their strengths and areas for improvement. All these assessments are helpful in their capacity to assess the learners. Baseline
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assessments assist schools in understanding the students' requirements. It also aids in determining learners' learning capability and potential and assessing the influence the schools have on learners. Information from baseline assessment facilitates schools in customising planning, teaching, and learning, including determining the most effective resource allocation to track learners’ progress throughout the school year. According to Khuzwayo and Khuzwayo (2020) and Tomlinson (2020), the baseline assessment findings provide information to the teacher regarding the learners’ abilities and knowledge gaps. This evidence assists the teacher in organising learning content, selecting, and matching teaching and learning approaches with the learning needs of individual students or groups of students.
The three assessments (The Initial, Diagnostic, and Baseline assessments) are interrelated in education. The assessments are always administered at the beginning or entry of students into the school, measure the strengths and weaknesses, and deduce places for improvement in a learner. The assessments are embedded in formative assessment.
The baseline assessment (CAMI) utilised in this paper is in accordance with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for Further Education and Training in South Africa. The licensed online Computer Aided Mathematics Instruction (CAMI) software is used to program the baseline assessments. CAMI is a high productivity software system that can improve mathematics grades in a minimal amount of time. One of the software's functions is to correct extension work for a more advanced student. CAMI employs the computer as a "Drill and Practice" system rather than a tutoring system because it focuses on knowledge retention (see www.cami.co.za).
The main mathematics topics in the FET phase are Functions; Number Patterns, Sequences, and Series; Finance, growth, and decay; Algebra; Differential Calculus; Probability; Euclidean Geometry and Measurement; Analytical Geometry; Trigonometry; and Statistics. The topics constitute Papers 1 and 2 of the national examinations in South Africa. The weighting of content areas is shown in Table 1 below:
Table 1: The weight of content areas description of FET’s mathematics topics
The weighting of Content Areas
Description Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Paper 1 (Grades 12: bookwork: maximum 6 marks) Algebra and Equations (and Inequalities) 30 ± 3 45 ± 3 25 ± 3 Patterns and Sequences 15 ± 3 25 ± 3 25 ± 3 Finance and Growth 10 ± 3
Finance, growth, and decay 15 ± 3 15 ± 3 Functions and Graphs 30 ± 3 45 ± 3 35 ± 3 Differential Calculus 35 ± 3 Probability 15 ± 3 20 ± 3 15 ± 3
TOTAL 100 150 150
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Paper 2: Grade 11 and 12: theorems and /or trigonometric proofs: maximum 12 marks
Description Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12
Statistics 15 ± 3 20 ± 3 20 ± 3 Analytical Geometry 15 ± 3 30 ± 3 40 ± 3
Trigonometry 40 ± 3 50 ± 3 40 ± 3 Euclidean Geometry and Measurement 30 ± 3 50 ± 3 50 ± 3
TOTAL 100 150 150 (Source: CAPS Documents, DBE, 2011)
A quantitative research design and methodology were used in this study. The data collection instrument was a mathematics subject knowledge test (Baseline Assessment by CAMI) for FET phase student teachers. The Baseline Assessment was used to assess the entry level student teachers' mathematical content knowledge through online Computer Aided Mathematics Instruction (CAMI) software. The CAMI programme is part of the ongoing research conducted in the Mathematics Education and Research Centre established in rural higher education (HEI) in South Africa. Two hundred and twenty two (222) first year mathematics student teachers specialising in FET phase mathematics teaching participated in the study. This paper included 175 student teachers who completed the Baseline Assessment for all grades (10, 11, and 12). Purposive and convenience samplings were utilised to collect data. Participation in the CAMI Baseline Assessment was done in a controlled environment in an invigilated computer lab for two weeks. The majority of the student teachers enrolled in the FET Teaching Bachelor of Education Course came from rural secondary schools and had not experienced computer assisted learning.
3.2.1 Baseline Assessment through CAMI Computer Aided Mathematics Instruction (CAMI) baseline assessment is an online assessment available in the CAMI EduSuite program (further information is available from www.cami.co.za). The FET baseline assessment consisted of a 60 minute online test with 25 items that student teachers can easily access through internet connectivity CAMI was installed on the lab computers, and all student teachers participating in the FET Mathematics courses were given credentials to log in and access the FET Baseline Test (Grades 10, 11, and 12). After completing the Baseline Assessment, the teacher can access their results The navigation to the FET Baseline Test on the CAMI package is illustrated in the figure below.
After logging into the system, student teachers should go to the Assessment box and click ‘Do assessment’, which will bring up the Baseline and Grades assessments. After that, the student teachers choose Grades 10, 11, and 12 from the Baseline Assessment and complete the test items one by one, as shown in figure 1. Each of the Baseline Assessments for Grades 10, 11, and 12 has 25 items.
The findings of the Baseline Assessment were analyses using descriptive statistics. The frequency distributions were used to establish the mathematical content knowledge and the level of understanding of the contents for teaching mathematics in the FET phase. One way ANOVA was used to establish the variability of the mean performance of the student teachers from grade to grade. Because the program includes the Baseline Assessment, all the questions on each grade are valid. All ethical requirements were completed, and the student teachers participated (Ethical Clearance Number: FEDSRECC001 06 21).
Below are some of the sample items from the CAMI Baseline Assessment.
Figure 2: assessment items no. 9 and 16 (source: www.cami.co.za)
Figure 3: assessment items no. 20 and 25 (source: www.cami.co.za)
According to international benchmarks, 60 per cent was used as the understanding level of mathematical content knowledge in the FET phase in this study. The national codes and descriptions of the percentages that qualify learner performance can be found in Table 2 (DBE, 2011).
Table 2: Codes and percentages for recording and reporting in Grades R-12 performances
Achievement level Achievement description Marks % 7 Outstanding achievement 80 100 6 Meritorious achievement 70 79 5 Substantial achievement 60 69 4 Adequate achievement 50 59 3 Moderate achievement 40 49 2 Elementary achievement 30 39 1 Not achieved 0 29 (Source: DBE, 2011)
According to the benchmarking, "Substantial achievement" was the minimum score for student teachers' subject content knowledge mastery at a specific grade level.
4.1. Baseline assessment of the mathematical content knowledge of student teachers for teaching FET
The mean of the Baseline Assessment in the three grades of the FET phase was determined using a one way single factor ANOVA. The following tables depict the outcome:
Table 3: ANOVA Summary table
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
Grade 10 175 7832 44.75429 113.3588
Grade 11 175 6580 37.6 166.9885
Grade 12 175 5756 32.89143 171.7985
Table 4: One way ANOVA single factor
Source of Variation Sum of Squares Df Mean Squares F P value F crit
Between Groups 12488.11 2 6244.053 41.42947 2E 17 3.012991 Within Groups 78673.37 522 150.7153 Total 91161.48 524
Notes: Df Degreeoffreedom;P value:p<0.05
As shown in Table 3, the mean strengths range from 32.89 for Grade 12 to 44.75 for Grade 10, indicating that the sample means are different. That is to say; the average score is not the same. Table 4 shows that the p value of 2 ×10 17 is less than the significant level of 0.05, implying that the Baseline Assessment mean scores for FET student teachers are not equal. This means that student teachers' average performance in the FET phase varies from grade to grade. The mean percentage scores of student teachers in the FET phase Baseline Assessment are shown in the graph below.
The mean percentage scores of student teachers in the FET phase Baseline Assessment according to the content areas are shown in Figure 4 above. The results revealed that the students' mean percentage in Space and Shape (Geometry) Grade 10 was 59.18%, Patterns, Functions, and Algebra at 50.96%, measurement at 36.48 per cent, data and statistics at 19.13%, and probability at 2.55%. Patterns, Functions, and Algebra (39.59%), Trigonometry (30.35%), and Space and Shape (Geometry) (27.69%) are the average percentage scores of student teachers in Grade 11. The student teachers had the highest mean percentage in Functional Relationships Grade 12 (54.28%), 38.07%percent in Space and Shape (Geometry), 27.60% in Trigonometry, and 22.68% in Patterns, Functions, and Algebra (see Figure 4).
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According to the above findings, student teachers scored better in Grade 10 concepts than in Grades 11 and 12 during the FET phase. Patterns, Functions, and Algebra in Grade 12 and Measurement and Space and Shape (Geometry) in Grade 11 were all below average. Students in Grades 11 and 12 should study trigonometry and functional relationships, whereas, in Grade 10, students should study Data Statistics and Probability. The frequency distribution of the student teachers' achievements was analysed to corroborate the study's findings. Figure 5 depicts the frequency distribution of student teacher marks for the FET phase:
Figure 5: Frequency distribution of the student teachers’ achievements in Grades 10, 11, and 12
The percentage marks from the CAMI Baseline Assessment for Grades 10, 11, and 12 for entry level student teachers are shown in different percentiles in Figure 5. As indicated in the graph, most student teachers' achievements for Grades 10, 11, and 12 are within 40% and 49% of each other, corresponding to 66, 56, and 48 in Grades 10, 11, and 12, respectively. For the three FET Grades (10, 11 and 12), the number of student teacher marks above 50% is 61, 29, and 18. The number of student teachers with scores below 30% in Grades 10, 11, and 12 is 16, 56, and 71. In Grades 10, 11, and 12, 32, 34, and 38, student teachers within 30 per cent and 39 per cent, respectively. In Grades 10 and 12, no student teacher receives a score higher than 70%. In Grade 11, just two student teachers receive a score of more than 70%. The signal denotes moderate achievement in Grades 10, 11, and 12.
According to national codes and descriptions (DBE, 2011), the number of 'not achieved' student teachers in the FET phase Baseline Assessment is 16, 56, and 71 in Grades 10, 11, and 12, respectively as shown in Figure 5 above. In Grades 10, 11, and 12; 32, 34, and 38 of the student teachers have elementary achievement, 66, 56, and 48 have moderate achievement, 43, 18, and 17 have adequate achievement, 18, 9 and 1 have substantial achievement, respectively and just two have meritorious achievement at Grade 11 level. In the FET phase Baseline Assessment, no student teacher achieved the outstanding achievement (80% and above) According to the findings, the student teachers have a moderate level of accomplishment. As a
result, student teachers' entry level mathematical content knowledge in the FET phase is of modest achievement.
4.2. Level of understanding of student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge for teaching FET phase mathematics through baseline assessment Table 5 shows the student teachers' mathematical content knowledge level for teaching the FET phase in each grade according to the content areas.
Table 5: The understanding level of student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge for teaching FET phase mathematics according to content areas
Achievement level Achievement description Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 7 Outstanding achievement 6 Meritorious achievement 5 Substantial achievement 4 Adequate achievement Patterns, Functions, and Algebra; Space and Shape (Geometry)
Functional Relationships 3 Moderate achievement 2 Elementary achievement Measurement Patterns, Functions, and Algebra; Trigonometry
Space and Shape (Geometry)
1 Not achieved Data and statistics; Probability; Trigonometry; Functional Relationships
Data and statistics; Space and Shape (Geometry); Measurement Probability; Functional Relationships
Data and statistics; Measurement; Probability; Patterns, Functions, and Algebra; Trigonometry
The results given in Table 5 show the level ofunderstanding of the student teachers according to the content areas. The findings revealed that student teachers have an adequate level of understanding of Patterns, Functions, Algebra and Space and Shape (Geometry) in Grade 10 and Functional Relationships in Grade 12. Furthermore, the student teachers have an elementary level of understanding of Measurement in Grade 10, Patterns, Functions, and Algebra, Trigonometry in Grade 11, and Space and Shape (Geometry) in Grade 12. The student teachers have no level of understanding of Data and statistics and Probability in any of the grades, that is, Grade 10, 11 and 12. The finding indicated that the level of understanding of the student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge for teaching Grade 10 Patterns, Functions, and Algebra, as well as Space and Shape (Geometry) and Grade 12 Functional Relationships, is adequate level. While the level of understanding of the student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge
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for teaching Grade 10 Measurement, Grade 11 Patterns, Functions, Algebra, and Trigonometry and Grade 12 Space and Shape (Geometry) is elementary level. In addition, the results revealed that the student teachers did not have sufficient understanding of the mathematical content knowledge for teaching FET phase Data and Statistics and Probability.
The evidence can be drawn from the findings that the entry level student teachers' mathematical knowledge for the FET phase is at the 'moderate level' of achievement. In contrast, the actual level of understanding was not attainable. However, the findings in table 5 revealed an adequate level of understanding of the entry level student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge for teaching grades 10 and 12 Patterns, Functions, and Algebra, Space and Shape (Geometry) Functional Relationships. Elementary level of understanding for teaching Grade 10 Measurement, Grade 11 Patterns, Functions, and Algebra, including Trigonometry and Grade 12 Space and Shape (Geometry) The entry level student teachers do not have adequate mathematical content knowledge for teaching FET phase Data and Statistics and Probability.
The result of the mean percentage from the Baseline Assessment (Figure 4) determined the mathematical content knowledge of the student teachers to be in Grade 10 Space and Shape (Geometry) and Patterns, Functions, and Algebra with (59.18%) and (50.96%) respectively as well as Grade 12 Functional Relationships with (54.28%). Similar results were obtained by Fonseca, Maseko, and Roberts (2018) in their study ‘Students’ mathematical knowledge in a Bachelor of Education (Foundation or intermediate phase) programme’ that there is a good distribution of attainment for the first year students in their pilot test. In contrast, the findings in this study disagree with Alex and Roberts (2019), where low percentage performance and poor mathematical knowledge for teaching were recorded in their research. There is a need to improve entry level first year student teachers’ mathematical content knowledge. The finding also revealed that none of the student teachers achieved the “outstanding achievement", and only two have “meritorious achievement” at Grade 11 level.
The results of the student teachers' level of understanding are in agreement with Reid and Reid (2017). They found that student teachers had difficulty understanding mathematical content knowledge,such as probability and standard algorithms. According to the above researchers, the student teachers performed below the expected standard. As a result, student teachers must have a strong understanding of mathematical concepts and be able to express and explain them in a variety of ways in their future teaching.
According to studies, the primary purpose of a baseline assessment in teaching and learning is to get to know students at the entry level of a new school year (Khuzwayo & Khuzwayo, 2020; Nguare, Hungi & Matisya, 2018; Tiymms, 2013; Tomlinson, 2020). Therefore, the goal of baseline assessment in this study is to assist HEIs teacher educators in developing learning activities inclusive of various learning styles. This would also assist in detecting student teachers' special needs
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at an early stage so that a remediation program can be implemented (DBE, 2019). Taylor (2021) states that in South Africa, a vicious cycle system problem is evident Due to the negative public perception of teaching, ITE programs cannot attract competent matriculants to study for a teaching qualifications. Most of the students intending to study teaching as a career are often rejected in their first and second choices at the university level. Often universities are forced to recruit a lesser quality of pre service teachers into the programme, which demands a reduction in the rigour of their training. A lower quality or competent teacher is thus deployed into schools, resulting in poor quality teaching, thus lowering the learner performance and the prestige of the teaching profession. Matriculant quality while also lowering the perceived prestige of teaching. Taylor & Robinson (2016) opine that the inability to recruit qualified pre service teachers enhances the cycle of poor quality teaching and learning.
According to Deacon (2016), the entrance requirements for Initial Teacher Education programs are generally lower than most other entry level degree programs. The evidence suggested that the weakest students enter education faculties as a last resort, motivated by a desire to earn a university qualification rather than a desire to make a difference in students' lives. Taylor (2021) supported his claim with data from the Centre for Educational Testing for Access and Placement's National Benchmark Tests (NBTs) (CETAP, 2020). Most university applicants take the NBTs, which require a minimum to gain admission into a particular programme. However, this is not applicable to most Initial Teacher Development Programme. Over 75 000 university applicants took the Academic Literacy (AL) and Quantitative Literacy (QL) examinations, while over 58 000 took the Mathematics Test (MAT) during the 2019 NBT entry cycle. Candidates planning to study Education had the second lowest average score of all applications to all faculties, with only those intending to study Allied Healthcare or Nursing having a lower average (CETAP, 2020). Basic, Intermediate, and Proficient are the three tiers of NBT scores, with applicants in the Basic band defined as: “Test performance reveals serious learning challenges: it is predicted that students will not cope with degree level study without extensive and long term support, perhaps best provided through bridging programmes (i.e., non credit preparatory courses, special skills provision) or FET provision. Institutions admitting students performing at this level need to provide such support themselves.” (CETAP, 2020, p. 18).
Due to the low mathematics achievement of students entering teacher education programs, the goal of creating a deep understanding of mathematics required for teaching should become an essential aspect of the mathematics course design and implementation (Jakimovik, 2013). Furthermore, Jakimovik (2013) claims that the complete lack of a link between mathematics and methods courses is a long standing trend in teacher preparation programs. The only stipulation is that students complete the mathematics course’s exams before enrolling in the methods courses. The mathematics courses are taught by university mathematicians and academics who teach the techniques courses, which place less emphasis on the interaction between subject matter expertise and teaching.
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According to Ma (1999), teachers should possess a Profound Understanding of Fundamental Mathematics (PUFM). This means teachers' mathematical content knowledge should be a thorough understanding of mathematics that has breadth, depth, connectedness, and thoroughness, not on the average level. Jakimovik (2013) maintains that one of the most critical aspects of teaching is understanding what will be taught. In addition, mathematics is one of the fundamental realms of human thought and investigation. Learners need to build intellectual resources for knowing about and actively engaging in mathematics. The above researcher explains that the future teachers must use their mathematical knowledge in conducting classroom discourse in a learning community, mentioning students' educational needs by involving them in genuine mathematics learning, analysing students' productions, examining students' mathematical knowledge and skills in lesson preparation, or in evaluating curriculum materials. Consequently, to provide successful learning for future teachers, educators must establish specialised instructional methodologies in the HEIs.
According to Burghes and Geach (2011), the requirements for being a good mathematics teacher are confidence, competency, commitment and a passion for mathematics at a level much higher than the one being taught. Furthermore, knowledge of the topic tobe taught is a significantfactor in determining thequality of training. Goldsmith, Doerr and Lewis (2014) believe that teacher’s capacity to recognise and analyse student’s thinking also their ability to engage in effective professional conversations are hampered by a lack of mathematical content understanding
In conclusion, to become a FET mathematics teacher, student teachers must be exposed to many mathematical experiences. They should be offered a variety of opportunities to hone their mathematical reasoning and creative abilities in preparation for teaching mathematics in the FET phase. Their low level of mathematical knowledge and understanding may make it difficult for the student teachers to teach the FET phase in the future. To teach in the FET phase, student teachers must have mathematical solid foundational knowledge and understanding. Since FET is the link between the Senior Phase and the Higher Education band, the student teachers should have an appropriate achievement level, namely, adequate, substantial, meritorious, and outstanding achievement level, to link FET learners to the Higher Education band.
Consequently, student teachers will need to improve their ability to teach mathematics effectively and ensure that it is meaningful for learners. They will be able to effectively teach mathematics in the future, even further than their current level of knowledge and ability. Then the mathematics performance of the learners will improve.
This paper showed that the mathematical content knowledge of the student teachers at the entry level is at a moderate level, and the level of understanding was low. Therefore, this paper recommends that with the assistance of teacher
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educators in HEIs, student teachers must gain a thorough understanding of the mathematics curriculum. Furthermore, the mathematics appropriate to the grade level and mathematical courses that the student teachers are responsible for teaching should be known and well understood. This study also recommends that only those students who have attained substantial achievement in mathematics should be allowed to study FET mathematics at higher education institutions. HEI should consider those students who have applied for teaching as their 1st option rather than their last option as an entry requirement Stricter entry level to FET teaching programmes should be implemented at HEIs, such as good mathematics attainment levels in the matriculation examination. Finally, every university should build into their entry level programme a 'Baseline assessment’ for all students intending to study towards teaching mathematics in the FET phase.
In conclusion, the authors believe that teachers with a low entry level and a low level of understanding will have poor content knowledge of mathematics. As a result, there will be ineffective classroom teaching and poor mathematics performance in secondary schools. Therefore, for learner performance improvement, HEIs and the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) should ensure that student teachers have a solid entry level level of understanding of the mathematics curriculum. Student teachers' entry level should be investigated for all educational system stages, including general education and training, further education and training, and higher education for future studies.
This research is confined to student teachers who enrolled in a FET mathematics teaching programme and came from poor, disadvantaged backgrounds The majority of the student teachers had not experienced computer assisted learning, which may have contributed to their performance in the baseline test.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 21 42, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.2
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised July 12, 2022; Accepted July 27, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda, College of Education
Eugenia
KafanaboUniversity of Dar es Salaam, School of Education, Tanzania
Bernard BahatiUniversity of Rwanda, College of Education, Rwanda
Abstract. This study aimed at exploring the instructional activities that could support students’ learning of science process skills by using chemistry based computer simulations and animations. A total of 160 students were randomly selected and 20 teachers were purposively selected to participate inthe study. Data were gathered in both qualitative and quantitative formats. This was accomplished through the use of a classroom observation checklist as well as a lesson reflection sheet. The qualitative data were analyzed thematically, while the quantitative data were analyzed using percentages. The key findings from the study indicated that chemistry based computer simulations and animations through instructional activities, particularly formulating hypotheses, planning experiments, identifying variables, developing operational definitions and interpretations, and drawing conclusions, support students in learning science process skills. It was found that during the teaching and learning process, more than 70% of students were able to perform well in the aforementioned types of instructional activities, while 60% performed well in planning experiments. On the other hand, as compared toother instructional activities, planning experiments was least observed among students and teachers Students can be engaged in knowledge construction while learning science process skills through the use of chemistry based computer simulations and animations instructional activities. Therefore, the current study strongly recommends the use of chemistry based computer simulations and animations by teachers to facilitate students’ learning of chemistry concepts in Tanzanian secondary schools.
Keywords: chemistry based computer simulations; instructional activities; science process skills
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Thepossibilityof involvingstudents in theacquisition of knowledgeandscientific skills, particularly science process skills (SPSs), has grown in importance in chemistry curricula globally (Aydm, 2013; Bete, 2020). This is owing to the science process skills' alignment with students' learning and application in everyday life. As a result, different countries' chemistry curricula include science process skills in both basic and integrated SPSs. Basic SPSs includes observing, classifying, measuring, calculating, inferring, and communicating. Integrated SPSs include formulating hypotheses, identifying and controlling variables, designing experiments, data recording and interpretation (Abungu et al., 2014; Athuman, 2019; Aydm, 2013). During chemistry teaching and learning, effective instructional strategies that engage students in inquiry activities are essential for the development of science process skills. Therefore, inquiry based approaches to teaching and learning, such as practical work and hands on activities, are critical for engaging students in active learning (Abungu et al., 2014; Irwanto et al., 2018; & Seetee et al., 2016).
Chemistry includes abstract concepts such as chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics which students find difficult to learn (Lati et al., 2012). Along the same line, teacher centeredness dominates chemistry teaching and learning in Tanzanian classrooms, with the teacher remaining the primary source of information through the chalk and talk technique. Moreover, inquiry learning tasks such as observations, hypotheses, testing, data collection, interpretations, discourse, and conclusions are similarly restricted in the learning process (Kalolo, 2015; Kinyota, 2020). Consequently, memorization learning persists, and there is little effort to support learners with science process skills (Mkimbili et al., 2018; Kinyota, 2020; Semali & Mehta, 2012). In this regard, inappropriate teaching strategies which rely on teacher centeredness and occasional practical work, shortages of laboratories and teaching aids, as well as large class size, are among the contributing causes (Mkimbili et al., 2018; Semali & Mehta, 2012).
Chemistry based computer simulations and animations are examples of an information and communication technology (ICT) invention that has been explored and used as alternative teaching and learning resources in classrooms globally. Computer simulations are computational models of real orhypothesized situations or natural phenomena that allow users to explore the implications by manipulating or changing parameters within them (Nkemakolam et al., 2018). In addition, animations are dynamic displays of graphics, images, and colors that are used to create certain visual effects over a series of frames (Trindade et al., 2002). Computer simulations and animations include virtual laboratories and visualizations of phenomena. Further, the interactivity feature of computer simulations in involving students in hands on activities has promoted their importance as they are essential for inquiry learning and a learner centered environment in the classroom (Moore et al., 2014; Plass et al., 2012). Based on the significance of ICT, the competence based curriculum in Tanzania recommends the availability and use of ICT, including computer simulations and animations This is to ensure smooth teaching and learning as well as giving learners real world experience in learning (MoEST, 2015; MoEST, 2019).
Despite Tanzania's government's initiatives to integrate ICT into classrooms, little is known about how chemistry content may be presented effectively in an inquiry based setting(Ngeze,2017). ICTuses encompassesspecific instructional strategies that support students in learning science process skills through inquiry learning in the chemistry classroom. This follows the fact that blending proper instructional activities when using computer simulations is an important factor in engaging students in learning chemistry concepts and specific science process skills (Çelik, 2022). The reviewed literature (Beichumila et al., 2022; Çelik, 2022; Moore et al., 2014) advocates the use of computer simulations and animations in chemistry learning to improve students’ acquisition of science process skills.
In the above regard, Çelik (2022) and Sreelekha (2018) emphasize teaching strategies for students to acquire science process skills through computer simulations and animations. In such a learning context, little is known about instructional strategies that support the learning of these integrated science process skills through computer simulations and animations. Therefore, the goal of this study was to investigate the chemistry based computer instructional activities used to engage students in building integrated science process skills during chemistry teaching and learning. The study sought to address the following research question: What are the chemistry based computer simulation and animation instructional activities used to engage students in building integrated science process skills during chemistry teaching and learning?
The interactivity feature of computer simulations and animations has ability to enable students to observe process, events, and activities during learning (Smetana & Bell, 2012). As students interact with computer simulations and animations, they become engaged in the exploration of the world around them through inquiry activities (Moore et al., 2014). In this sense, students get the opportunity to engage in inquiry learning and gather scientific evidence that are important for learning science concepts. Through computer simulations students develop scientific knowledge as well as science process skills (Beichumila et al., 2022; Çelik, 2022; Supriyatman & Sukarino, 2014). However, aspects of inquiry are not the focus in most of the lessons in science classrooms. As a result, instructional strategies as advocated by Yadav and Mishra (2013) in teaching and learning processes are critical towards using any inquiry based approach, including computer simulations and animations to develop science process skills. Students learn less in terms of science process skills by using computer simulations in a teacher centeredformat in which students’ complete recipe type tasks thatrequire them to verify solutions (Çelik, 2022; Smetana & Bell, 2012). Thus, instructional activities for inquiry learning are important.
2.2 The importance of instructional activities and development of science process skills
Instructional activities relate toall activities that support theteaching andlearning process (Akdeniz, 2016). These instructional activities are teaching and learning activities and assessment activities that play a significant role in engaging
students in the construction of knowledge and the acquisition of skills. Instructional activities that engage teachers in explaining or lecturing students while students are passivelisteners donothelpstudents toacquirescience process skills. One way to develop the science process skills among students is to use appropriate instructional activities that engage students in inquiry activities (Bete, 2020; Coil et al., 2010; Irwanto et al., 2018; Seok, 2010). Activating students' background knowledge, offering analogies, asking questions, and encouraging students to use alternative forms of representation are some of the teaching strategies. According to Supriyatman and Sukarino, (2014), teachers can use computer simulations to assist students in predictions to generate inquiry.
Furthermore, Brien and Peter (1994) and Jiang and McComas (2015) advocated the need for instructional activities that integrate well into lessons for inquiry learning. The approach allows students to gain a deeper and broader understanding of science content with real world applications, as well as learning about the scientific inquiry process. This includes developing general investigative skills (such as posing and pursuing open ended questions, synthesizing information, planning and conducting experiments, analyzing, and presenting results). For example, during classroom lessons, students were engaged in tasks such as making observations and inferences, planning experiments, and generating predictions (Abungu et al., 2014., Chebii et al., 2012, Rauf et al. 2013, Saputri, 2021). As a consequence of involving students in these learning activities, they work collaboratively in groups, interact with each other through discussion and carrying out experiments under the guidance of the teacher. In addition, the instructional activities mentioned develop critical thinking skills and learning curiosity among learners (Higgins & Moeed, 2017; Pradana et al., 2020). Thus, in the Tanzanian context it was important to explore instructional activities that support students’ learning of science process skills while using computer simulations and animations to learn chemistry concepts.
This study was framed within social constructivism theory by Vygotsky (1978) whobelieved that knowledge construction is an active process conducted through social interaction among learners themselves, learners and teachers or learners and materials. This indicates that scientific knowledge and skills are socially constructed and verified under social constructivism in science learning. As a result, Onwioduokit (2013) suggested that when students are taught science, they should participate in inquiry activities. This becomes possible when learners are encouraged to learn by doing something as a means of learning instead of only listening (Demirci, 2009). In essence, these instructional activities are essential to enable teachers and learners to interact with computer simulations and animations during teaching and learning.
Vygotsky (1978) explained the role of teachers in using instructional activities and learner centered strategies to enable students to construct knowledge and skills. Therefore, using social constructivism theory, it was believed that it could help to understand instructional activities that engage learners in knowledge construction and learning science process skills as they learn using computer simulations. These are essential learning environments to create a social learning
environment that facilitates students' construction of knowledge and skills that can be applied from a classroom context to real life experiences.
The study was carried out at four secondary schools from the Dodoma and Singida regions of Tanzania's central part. The area was chosen because students perform poorly in science, including chemistry, and there is a shortage of instructional materials (MoEST, 2019, 2020). The selection of schools was based on the availability of computer laboratories and other ICT equipment or tools such as projectors. The assumption was that by using computer laboratories, students could be subjected to the teaching and learning of chemistry using computer simulations as one way to engage learners in hands on activities
The challenging topic of chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics was the focal point of the current study (Beichumila et al., 2022; Lati et al., 2012), which is taught at level three of secondary education in Tanzania (MoEVT, 2010). This served the choice of 160 Form Three students (level 3 of ordinary secondary education), who were rondomly selected to be involved in this study. Furthermore, 20 chemistry teachers were purposely involved in the study based on the criteria that they had prior training in ICT integration in the classroom.
The study employed a mixed method through both quantitative and qualitative approaches to collect data This was done through classroom observations focusing on both teachers' and students' learning activities (Cresswell, 2013; Cresswell & Clark, 2018). In addition, a lesson reflection sheet was used to explore students’ insights on lesson instructional activities. The focus was to explore the instructional activities that could support students’ learning of science process skills by using chemistry based computer simulations and animations. This generated information that helped the research team to explore the instructional strategies that could engage students in learning chemistry concepts using computer simulations and animations The use of both classroom observation and a lesson reflection sheet was considered as triangulation of information (Cohen et al., 2011). The design of the study followed two steps, namely pre intervention and post intervention.
The first four sessions, which were utilized as a pre intervention, focused on the topics of chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics, with conducted one lesson per school being conducted. The four lessons in pre intervention were purposely used to capture an actual picture of instructional activities used by teachers to support students’ learning of science process skills through computer simulations. This was a baseline setting. At this stage a classroom observation checklist was used as a data collection tool. The classroom observation checklist was developed by the researcher from existing literature, for example, Chebii et al. (2012). Classroom observation was chosen as the method since it provides first
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hand evidence of what the teacher and students perform in class as compared to a questionnaire (Atkinson & Bolt, 2010).
In post intervention, seven consecutive series of lessons were conducted at school level, making a total of 28 lessons in four secondary schools. Teachers and researchers were involved in the process of lesson planning, classroom teaching, and reflection. During lesson planning, teachers collaborated to prepare a lesson. It was to ensure that the lesson was prepared based on inquiry learning, focusing on achieving science process skills. Classroom teaching involved observations of different instructional activities and how students were learning chemistry concepts as well as science process skills. During lesson reflection, students were given a lesson reflection sheet on which they identified their favorite learning activities from the lesson. This was also time for the research team to reflect on the lesson and plan for the next one. Therefore, in this study, students were required to acquire knowledge as well as to formulate hypothesis, plan experiments, identify variables, define operationally, make interpretations, and draw conclusions. Table 1 indicates the nature of teaching strategies that accompanied the lessons adapted from Jiang and McComas’s (2015) framework on inquiry instructional strategies for learning science concepts and process skills in the classroom context. This was to engage students in a more discursive context, as supported by chemistry based computer simulations and animations in each lesson.
Item Instructional strategies in classroom context Indicators of science process skills
1 Students were required to formulate a hypothesis in relation to the question under investigation
2 Students were required to think of scientific procures, plan an investigation, and conduct experiments for the purpose of testing the hypothesis
3 Students were required to identify associated variables of the investigation that could be controlled variables, dependent or independent variables
4 Students were required to make interpretations of the collected evidence or data through tables, graphs, or words in order to obtain meaningful information and thereafter draw conclusions basing on collected evidence
5 Students were required to develop statements presenting a concrete description of an event that indicates what to observe/do as the evidence towards their observations and conclusion in relation to the question under investigation
Formulating a hypothesis
Identifying procedures and planning for investigation
Identifying variables
Making interpretations and conclusions
Developing operational definitions
Furthermore, computer simulations from Yenka chemistry (https://www.yenka.com/en/Yenka_Chemistry), and one model of PhET simulation of reactions and rates (https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/reactions and rates) were used duringthe teachingand learning processin this study. Figures 1 and2 aresamples of these simulations in which students were engaged to learn chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics.
In the case of ensuring validity, the classroom observation checklist and reflection sheets were evaluatedby three chemistry teachers. Later on, the tools were piloted in two secondary schools that were not part of the selected schools in the study. This helped to identify and remove irrelevant items. In addition, inter observer reliability which is a measure of consistency between two or more observers of the same construct was calculated (Cohen, 1988). The value of the Kappa coefficient (ka) across three observer pairs was found to be 0.80, 0.78, and 0.79 which are acceptable. The use of three observers (the researcher and two assistant researchers) independently during classroom observation helped to improve the internal reliability of the findings from classroom observation (Cresswell, 2013).
For the quantitative data, percentages (Pallant, 2020) were used to show the number of students and teachers in relation to instructional activities and science
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process skills indicators in the teaching and learning process. The qualitative data generated from classroom observations were thematically analyzed according to Braun and Clarke (2012) Information from the classroom observation and reflection sheet were transcribed and coded after a thorough discussion among the research team. This included notes and comments from observers on specific instructional activities that engaged students to learn science process skills through computer simulations. Finally, the agreed themes were used to conclude specific instructional activities supporting the learning of chemistry concepts with computer simulations and animations.
The general findings from this study indicate that instructional activities, particularly formulating hypothesis, planning experiments, identifying variables, developing operational definitions, making interpretations, and drawing conclusions, support students in learning integrated science process skills using chemistry based computer simulations. It was found that during the teaching and learning process, generally more than 70% of students were able to perform the aforementioned activities well while 60% performed well in planning experiments. On the other hand, as compared to other instructional activities, planning experiments was the least observed among students and teachers Tables 2 6 indicate the findings under each instructional activity.
The findings from this study indicated that the hypothesis formulation as an instructional activity involved students in predictions skill as 75% of students in post interventions were able to formulate hypotheses. It was observed that, initially, 70% of students had no idea on how to hypothesize; however, their ability improved as they were involved in this learning activity. The activity helped students to make their predictions that could be scientifically tested. It was found in this study that using chemistry based computer simulations to learn and understand chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics made students more engaged in the teaching and learning process. Students were more involved in the lesson when they were asked to formulate a hypothesis in relation to the experiment’s aim, rather than doing experiments by following predetermined sequence of procedures, as is the case in most science classrooms (Table 2).
90% of teachers guided students in small groups of 3 5 students through the process of writing down the aim of the experiment to be explored.
Then teachers guided students to observe the
Students in small groups of 3 5 students were required to think and write down the question to be investigated and the aim of the experiment.
Students discussed in groups what the
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Before:
The majority of students (70%) were not able to formulate a hypothesis correctly. For example, one of students in school C wrote:
computer simulation models, for example, the simulation that exhibited the effect of temperature and rate of reaction. They began writing down their hypothesis in relation to the question being investigated. For example, investigating how the temperature affect the rate of reaction.
The teacher used probing questions to help students use their prior knowledge to understand how they could formulate the hypothesis before further activity, for example: “From the collision theory whatdoyouthinkwill happenifthetemperatureis lowerorhighinthereaction ofcalciumcarbonateand hydrochloricacid?”
hypothesis could be in relation to the aim of the experiment they determined by observing the computer simulations
“Surfaceareaandrateof reactionarerelated”
After: 75% of students could formulate a hypothesis. Captured sentences from students formulating a hypothesis: “
The majority of students (75%) were able to think and discuss in their small groups how collision theory relates with temperature and rate of any chemical reaction
Thehigherthetemperature, thehighertherateofa chemicalreaction”
In another group: “Thehigherthetemperature, thefastthechemicalreaction” “Temperatureaffectstherate of a chemical reaction”
Another group in another lesson: “Thepresenceofcatalystwill speedupthedecompositionof hydrogenperoxide”
Observations from students: “Increasingthe rateofareactionmeans increasingthenumberof fruitfulcollisionsbetween particles,thereforeincreasing thetemperaturewillincrease the rate of reaction”.
The findings from this study support Seok (2010), who found that engaging students in formulating a hypothesis on the question to be investigated in the science classroom helps develop this science process skill. Moreover, the findings indicated that through this instructional activity students developed a sense of collaboration and ownership of the lesson. This was revealed through learning from each other and arguing to reach a conclusion on the kind of hypothesis being formulated. This helped students to construct knowledge while at the same time developing a hypothesis formulation skill. Darus and Saat (2014) found that teaching strategies that could be used by teachers to help students in hypothesis formulation to generate inquiry include activating students’ background knowledge, providing analogies, questioning, and encouraging students to use alternative forms of representation. Thus, hypothesizing as learning with computer simulations in science classroom is one way to promote active learning and reasoning among students (Moore et al., 2014; Sreelekha, 2018).
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Furthermore, collaboration is discussed under social constructivism theory as one of the essential elements in the learning process as it changes the dynamics of the classroom by encouraging discussion among the learners. Vygotsky (1978) further explained that collaboration impacts students’ learning. As a result, one of active learning strategies that promote students' curiosity in learning chemistry is their ability to make predictions. As has been suggested in the literature, students' interest in the subject matter contributes significantly to their ability to learn the subject when they are exposed to a social learning environment through active learning activities (Anderhag et al., 2015; Higgins & Moeed, 2017).
The findings revealed that students (60%) learned to plan experiments through interaction with their peers during the investigation process since students could brainstorm with each other and work cooperatively in their small group to ensure that they come up with a good procedure to test their hypothesis. For example, when investigating how a catalyst affects the rate of reaction, a student told his group members that they needed to use the same amount of hydrogen peroxide in both test tubes, but one test tube needed to be added with a catalyst while the other did not, so that they could observe the difference. This is because some students understand the procedures more easily than others. Therefore, it was observed that this process helped students to share their ideas in the lesson which was also another way of being aware of the procedures and important related aspects such as materials, variables to consider and how to conduct their experiment (Table 3).
60% of teachers guided students in groups of 3 4 to devise procedures to investigate the scientific question being explored to test their hypotheses/predictions. For instance, in a scientific question where students were to investigate how the catalyst affects the rate of a chemical reaction, teachers guided students to use their plans and computer simulations to conduct simple experiments, make observations, record data and write simple reports
The majority of teachers were insisting students use specific measurements to obtain justifiable scientific
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Learning activities
60% of students in groups of 3 4 students were able to discuss and critically think of the best plan they could use for the procedure to test their hypothesis with the computer simulation
Indicators of science process skills in the classroom context
Evidence from students’ work in one of the groups: “Wehavetoputthesame amountofhydrogen peroxideintwotesttubes, theninoneofthetesttubes putcertainamountof catalystmanganese(IV) oxide,thenwewillstartthe reactionandobservethe timetakenforthereaction betweenthetwotesttubes tocomplete ”
Students were able to discuss and decide the amount of solution or solute to be used in their
In another group “Wewillput25mlsof hydrogenperoxide(H2O2) intwotesttubes,thenwe willadd2gofmanganese (IV)oxide(catalyst)and
conclusions, for example one of the teachers: “Doyouthink ifyouuseadifferentamountof hydrogenperoxideinthetwotest tubesandadifferentamountof catalystyouwillcomeupwitha goodscientificconclusion?”
60% of teachers used probing questions to help students understand how to plan scientific investigation/experiments by relating various concepts of kinetics in daily life activities in their homes
experiment to come up with scientific conclusion.
observethereactioninboth testtubes.”
Students were listening to teacher’s questions and trying to think of and give examples of short plans for scientific investigation or experiments from daily life experiences in society
Observations from students’ group discussion “ no,we needtotakethesame amountofhydrogen peroxideinbothtesttubes andmeasurespecific amountofcatalysttobe addedinoneofthetest tubes” .
Another student: “Yes, thisisgood,letususe2gof manganese(IV)oxideasa catalyst.”
Observations from students: “Wecanscientifically investigateagoodsoapto removestainsonclothesif weusesameamountand typesofwater,thesame clothesbutwevarythe soaps.”
It was found that planning and performing experiments as an instructional activity enabled students to use concrete activities through computer simulations to test their hypotheses and come up with evidence. Students could learn other skills such as measuringsubstances, knowing when to mix chemicals and start the reaction, making observations, keeping records on what they observed, either in tables or in words and making relevant decisions Irwanto et al. (2018) and Seetee et al. (2016) suggested that students’ experimenting skill is developed when a science teacher guides them to write out detailed steps to their procedure and determine the variables, including what needs to be controlled, and thinking of the data to be collected. The capacity to design an experiment is essential for comprehending the scientific process and developing critical thinking abilities (Pradana et al., 2020).
In addition, experimentation, a process which engages students directly with the physical world has been found to be effective in developing various students’ science process skills (Chebii et al., 2012). Moreover, the study mentioned did not explain the students’ abilities to plan experiments based on their own experience and understanding rather than following predetermined procedures The use of these instructional procedures during practical activities is teacher centered and does not match directly with social constructivist theory as used in the context of the present study. As a result, the current study has revealed that experimentation instructional activity through computer simulations is one way to enable students to think critically and devise procedures to test their hypotheses. As students engage in these learning activities, they learn to reason and think critically.
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According to Coil et al. (2010) and Pradana et al. (2020), this encompasses designing experimental skills that involve students in critical thinking and reasoning abilities.
It was observed that initially, the majority of students (80%) were not able to identify variables. The findings in post interventions from this study indicated that using the instructional activity of identifying variables involved students in learning to understand concepts of variables in scientific investigations. Therefore, it was observed that 70% of students could identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome, keeping variables constant while manipulating only the independent variables. Students could explain the independent variables as they manipulated computer simulations. For example, when learning the effect of concentration on reaction rate, one of the students explained that the concentration of acid was an independent variable since it was the one that was manipulated, whereas the rate of a chemical reaction was a dependent variable because it was the one that was measured. Table 4 provides more specific examples.
Teachers were guiding students to be aware of variables associated with the investigation they were conducting. For example, teachers were guiding students to identify the variables through probing questions.
For instance, where students were investing the effect of concentration on the rate of chemical reaction with computer simulation, the teacher asked what the controlled variables or factors in the experiment were as well as what the dependent and independent variables were.
Students, in their small groups of 3 4, were able to discuss and identify the variables as they were observing the computer simulations.
Before intervention: 80% of students had wrong answers. For example, one student in school A said: “…thecontrolledvariablein ourexperimentistime becauseineverytesttube timetakenforthereactionto completewasdifferent”
Again, some teachers through probing questions techniques guided
The majority of students (70%) were able to brainstorm in their groups
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After intervention: One of the student’s words from school A: “ inthisexperiment amountofcalciumcarbonate andtemperaturearethe controlledvariablesbecause inallthreetesttubesthereis 0.6gofcalciumcarbonateand temperatureis250cinalltest tubesbuttherearedifferent concentrationsof hydrochloricacidwhichis 1M,1.5Mand2M. Concentrationof hydrochloricacidinthis
students to understand the logic behind these variables and their role in scientific investigations.
For instance, in an investigation of how the temperature affect the rate of reaction, one of the teachers asked “Whydoyou thinki)theamountofcalcium carbonatewasmaintainedor keptconstantinbothtest tubes?”
ii) “…the temperatureinboth thetesttubeswasvaried?”
why some factors were kept constant while some were varied in their experiments
experimentisindependent variablebecauseitistheone beingvaried.Therateof reactionisdependentvariable asitdependsonthe concentrationoftheacidin the rate of reaction”
Observations by from students: “...becausewewantedto knowhowthetemperature affecttherateofachemical reaction,sowehadtovary thetemperatureonlyinboth reactionswhilekeepingother factorsconstantlikeamount ofreactingsubstanceinorder tocomeupwithscientific evidencethatrealthe temperatureaffecttherateof reaction”
Another observation was that students were also active and eager to ask questions, for example, one student asked “What will happen if we don’t controlothervariables?”
Therefore, the study findings support the teaching and learning methodologies of Athuman (2017) and Irwanto et al. (2018) for the skill of identifying and manipulating variables during the learning process. They include asking learners how they would decide on the set up of the inquiry that would result in the most complete answer to the problem, as well as leading learners to the conclusion that they will only need to compare one component at a time. This implies that this is the kind of learning that situates students in knowledge construction rather than cramming the concepts. Moreover, Beichumila et al. (2022) and Saat (2004) found that the use of computer simulations based environment improved students’ ability to identify variables. In this case, identifying variables as a teaching and learning activity in chemistry is critical because it exposes students to the reality of these variables and their implications in scientific investigation as recommended in the chemistry competence curriculum.
Even though Ardac and Sezen (2002) and Beichumila et al. (2022) acknowledge the importance of identification and manipulation of variables in learning science, there is much more to be added. This includes the questions around how students are provided with opportunities to explain their understanding of variables in relation to daily life experiences. The focus of the curriculum is on students'
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understanding of the idea of variables in many situations in everyday life activities so that they may apply what they have learned in chemistry to other contexts (MoEVT, 2010). In this sense, it was critical for the chemistry students in this study to grasp the concepts of variables as they learned chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics, all of which are closely tied to numerous daily activities. Moreover, as students are involved in asking questions and assessing their responses, they use their rational and logical thinking (Harrison, 2014).
From the study findings, students (75%) were able to engage in learning activities such as providing meaning to the obtained data in order to comprehend the patterns and relationships that lead to the formation of conclusions. Students collaboratedto organize their information eitherin tables,words or graphs as they interacted with computer simulations and animations. It was observed that students had an excellent opportunity to discuss in small groups and reach agreement with one another during this teaching and learning activity, and then present their agreed upon results to the rest of the class. As a result, students learned to develop their own scientific explanations, as opposed to being passive in a teacher centered classroom where teachers do all the work of explaining and writing notes on the chalkboard. Table 5 provides more insights and examples.
90% of teachers guided students to make interpretations of the collected data with computer simulations. Teachers supported students to do it better by probing questions in the data, for example, “Why dotheballoons connectedtothetest tubewithahigh concentrationofacid inflatefasterandburst fasterthantherest?”
Teachers were guiding students to make conclusions on their own from their observations in relation to the hypothesis which
75% of students in groups of 3 4 students were able to make interpretations on the observations made by making simple tables to show the pattern of the data, and reading the graphs from the computer simulation experiments. Moreover, explanations given from the observations when performing simple experiments
Students in their groups were able to make conclusions based on the collected evidence or observations made
Evidence from students works
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Students’ observation when explaining the table above: “Whenthetemperatureofareaction increases,therateofreactionincreases. Temperatureandrateofreactionalaredirectly proportional.”
Observations from students: “Therateofthereactionincreasesasthe temperatureincreases,hencethetemperature affectstherateofachemicalreaction”
Another student observation:
was also presented to the whole class
“Thehigherthetemperature,thefastthereaction; thelowerthetemperature,theslowthereaction. Hencetemperatureaffectstherateofreaction”
Therefore, the findings have revealed the role of interpretation and conclusion as an instructional activity for students learning to interpret the collected information and constructing the meaning from them. The findings support the views of Coil et al (2010) and Rauf et al. (2013), namely that the central part of the teacher’s role in developing interpreting and conclusion skills is to ensure that results are used, and that students do not rush from one activity to another without discussing and thinking through what the results mean, for example, communicating the units such as centigrade, seconds per time, molarity, grams as they report what they did, observed and found. It was also an opportunity for students learning to read tables and graphs for them to interpret these more easily depending on the patterns.
Furthermore, it was found that discussing their results involved students in meaningful learning as they interacted with real activities, the teacher, and the learners themselves. It was therefore observed that students discussing and making conclusions on their own is very important in the teaching and learning process. It enables students to communicate their results but also to improve their communicative skills in interpreting what they have observed through words, graphs, or tables and drawing their own conclusions depending on the patterns or relationship of their results. In addition, Rauf et al. (2013) and Saputri (2021) explained that when students are involved in a discursive process, their science process skills become more developed. However, the studies are based on biological and physics phenomena rather than the current, which is based on chemistry, particularly chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics. The common link between the previous mentioned studies and the present study is that both agree on the role of a teaching strategy that involves students in making relevant interpretations through words, graphs, or tables to make meaning. This supports social constructivism theory as employed in this study that involving students in discursive processes promotes student interaction
From the findings (Table 6), it was found that defining operationally is one of the instructional activities that involves students (70%) in learning. This includes what to observe or measure when conducting a scientific investigation. During scientific investigations, students areencouraged to uselogic andcritical thinking, and to participate in knowledge construction. Table 6 gives more evidence.
80% of teachers were able to guide students to make operational definitions which engaged students in critical thinking on the
70% of students were able to make operational definitions of their observations to justify their
Indicators of science process skills in the classroom context
The observation of one of the students answering the question:
“
Thetimetakenforthegreen balloontoinflateandburst,
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observations made as they performed experiments.
Teachers used probing questions.
For example: “Howdoyou knowthattherateofreaction wasfastorslow?"
conclusions to answer the questions
For example, students were recording the time for each reaction to be completed, observing the color changes, the differences in chemical reactions, the formation and disappearance of bubbles as they mixed chemicals through computer simulations.
whichwasplacedatthe reactionwithahigh temperature,wasveryshort comparedtotheredballoon placedatthereactionwitha low temperature.”
Another student indicated: “Becausethegreenballoon tooklesstimetofillandburst (8seconds)thanthered balloon,thegreenballoon's reactionwasfast,butthered balloon'sreactionwas delayed” .
Athuman (2017) and Ngozi (2021) claimed that by providing a variety of materials and resources to aid students' investigations, posing thoughtful questions, encouraging dialogue among students and with the teacher, and maintaining students' natural curiosity throughout the process students’ development of science process skills can be promoted In addition, Athuman (2019) explained that involving students directly to develop understanding could deflect them from cramming information. Instead, they are involved in the process of understanding what is happening.
Furthermore, similar findings from students’ lesson reflection sheets (Figures 3 and 4) indicated that learning using a chemistry based computer strategy exposes students to instructional activities. This implies that the instructional activities are important in helping students to learn the associated science process skills.
Figure 3: Students’ lesson reflection in school C
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Because chemistry is so closely connected to our daily lives, learning these science process skills makes it a meaningful subject. Students get the opportunity to discuss and evaluate their solutions with classmates and teachers while acquiring these science process skills. Students utilize their logical and reasonable thinking while encouraging higher order thinking skills in the act of generating assessments and discourse (Harrison, 2014; Pradana et al., 2020). Although, the current study has demonstrated that students can be engaged in the process of the learning science process to some extent, more work needs to be done on the exploration and development of chemistry computer simulations and animations
Thefindings of this studyrevealedthat instructional activities such as formulating hypotheses, planning experiments, identifying variables, compiling operational definitions, making interpretations, and drawing conclusions can support students in learning integrated science process skills. However, the study was limited to the exploration of the chemistry based computer simulations and animations instructional activities supporting science process skills learning. To extend the scope beyond this sudy, further studies may be conducted on students’ perceptions towards the use of computer simulations andanimations in chemistry teaching and learning at secondary school level.
The study revealed that during the teaching and learning process, instructional activities as used in this study can support students in learning integrated science process skills using chemistry based computer simulations and animations. This implies that instructional activities that focus not only on scientific content but also on transferable skills such as hypothesis formulation, designing experiments, identifying variables, interpreting results, and drawing conclusions are needed to prepare students more effectively to apply chemistry concepts in daily life. The same activities are essential in students’ daily lives as they need to observe or predict different phenomena they come across. Furthermore, the use of
chemistry based computer simulations is one way to engage students in active teaching and learning processes, which creates a favorable learning environment for students to construct knowledge in the classroom at the same time that they acquire science process skills.
The findings of this study suggest that chemistry based computer simulation instructional strategies that focus on engaging students in both scientific content and process skills such as formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, identifying variables, interpreting information, and drawing conclusions are essential in the learning process Therefore, teachers need to consider the use of these instructional activities through chemistry based computer simulations to facilitate students' learning of chemistry concepts in secondary schools.
The authors would like to thank the management of the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) at the University of Rwanda, College of Education, which provided the funding for the entire study. We also acknowledge the participation of all the teachers, students, and the researchers’ team.
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Classroom observation checklist
Directions: In each item below, place a tick (√) depending on what you will observe by using the given scales. Also indicate any supporting evidence or comments depending on your observation.
1 Teacher guides students to make predictions or hypothesis of an investigation
2 Teacher forms groups for students to work collaboratively during teaching and learning process at different stages of the lesson e.g., to formulate hypotheses, identify procedures, conduct investigations, and interpret and communicate results
3 Teacher guides students’ participation in identifying
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and writing procedures to conduct a certain investigation
4 Teacher guide students through questions to identify variables associated with an investigation
5 Teacher guides students to plan and perform experiments to collect relevant data
6 Teacher guides students to observe changes taking place in reactions, for example, color changes, formation and disappearance of bubbles, changes in the volume of gases being emitted when performing experiments,
7 Teacher guides students to record observations and ideas when doing activities
8 Teacher guides students to develop operational definitions during investigative activities
9 The teacher provides an opportunity for students to discuss with each other in groups to describe the results of an investigation
10 Teacher guides students to communicate the results of an investigation using words or graphs through whole class presentation, group presentation or report writing
11 Students discuss and compare the results of the investigations to predictions/hypothesis made prior to investigations
12 Others (specify below)………
Students’ lesson reflection sheet
1) In the table below, indicate learning activities in which you have been involved during the teaching and learning process. For each activity, write explanations of how it was done.
Favored learning activities
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 43 57, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.3
Received Apr 22, 2022; Revised July 27, 2022; Accepted Aug 23, 2022
Abstract. The qualitative study, which involved a multiple case study design, focused on the issues surrounding the readiness of teachers to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in the Zimbabwe secondary school system In adopting a multiple case study design, the research sought to solicit the opinions of all Geography teachers in the Kwekwe district of Zimbabwe on their readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022. A technique involving an analysis of primary documents published by MoPSE was done, and ten in depth interviews with Geography teachers drawn from two secondary schools and two Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) from the same schools were adopted to generate data. The study established that the updated O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 was introduced without enough consideration of the readiness of teachers for its implementation. It also emerged from the study that the breadth and depth of the issues surrounding teacher readiness to implement an updated syllabus require action to be taken from several fronts to ensure that the subject community is ready for its rapid delivery. Finally, the research paper recommends massive advocacy and sensitisation of O Level Geography teachers who are at the helm of the user system to allow for effective delivery of the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in the secondary school sector in Zimbabwe.
Keywords: readiness; educator; competency based; syllabus; geography
The introduction of the competency based curriculum in Zimbabwe posed a repertoire of challenges as classroom practitioners grappled with coming to terms with the underlying assumptions, goals, content, and principles that guide the operation of the new practice in both the primary and secondary schools system. Thus, most of the world’s knowledge societies considering adopting reform initiatives in their education systems have primarily focused on holistic and integrated professional and pedagogical training concepts as a step toward
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
promoting basic theoretical levels of knowledge, skills, and personal qualities in teachers (Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev, 2019). However, contemporary research evidence has revealed that introducing reforms in some less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) is not always perfect and, as such, often results in adverse effects on the envisaged curriculum package. The problem has been attributed to policies and mandates introducing innovations with little regard for teacher readiness before the implementation phase. For instance, the state of teacher readiness for implementing the updated O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in Zimbabwe seems to project a negative picture following its adoption, which cynics claim was impromptu. Georgescu (2015) reports that at the inception of the competency based curriculum, the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) committed itself to taking the curriculum seriously and promised that it would give teachers total support to make curriculum implementation more effective. As a priority, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) arranged for teacher capacity development programmes meant to provide direction for classroom instruction and effective implementation of the new practice (Mipfide & Mapolisa, 2021 and Simba, 2021). An operational plan was established based on the terms of reference that included: ❖ provision of new syllabuses to all teachers for reviewing so that adjustments are made, if necessary, ❖ provision of professional development for teachers, pre service training to help teachers learn to develop lessons and material resources, follow up support through clusters, district, provincial, and national staff, ❖ preparation, printing and delivering new learning materials including textbooks and giving first preference to the poorest schools ❖ introduction of continuous assessment system (CA) and ❖ Monitoring and feedback.
The operational plan was sound and laudable, although its implementation failed to live up to policy expectations due to pushback and lack of buy in by the people who were to deliver or benefit from the scheme. Meanwhile, a gap in practice emerged because teachers were not well grounded in the philosophy that informs the curriculum syllabus in question. This scenario is believed to have demotivated teachers to engage the updated curriculum with learners in their classrooms (Moyo and Hadebe, 2018). For Dube & Jita (2018) the competency based curriculum in Zimbabwe faced serious challenges of being resisted by teachers, parents, and even learners themselves Along the same thread, the Progressive Teachers' Union of Zimbabwe (PTUZ) alleged that teachers and parents were not consulted, so schools were inadequately prepared to implement the curriculum framework (Newsday Zimbabwe, 9 January 2017). PTUZ expressed concern about the lack of coherent programmes to train teachers to operationalise the competency based curriculum, particularly continuous assessment (CA), despite the government’s insistence that the new assessment should be adopted in schools. This decision of the government sparked a lot of noise from different stakeholders, leading to the suspension of CA without formal communication to schools. Thus, the then minister of education publicly announced:
We have totally scrapped the issue of tasks, so we are saying we will no longer have tasks in our schools. From my study, these tasks are not part of the syllabus, and even if one would look at our syllabus, it has no tasks. Above all, the tasks were too much a burden to both teachers and learners because if a learner is doing ten subjects, they are required to do at least one task per subject, meaning ten tasks for the ten subjects per term or simply 30 tasks per year. We will compress the curriculum especially for lower levels, because the learning areas are too much (Sunday Times Zimbabwe, 4 March 2018).
The announcement in the national media implied that the implementation of the competency based curriculum was abortive at this point in time and that this was due to the lack of support and collaboration within the system. This also justifies the assertion of Barrow & Delisle (2010) that the inherent lack of support from stakeholders makes implementation more difficult. Several other studies reveal that teachers were uncomfortable with the way the new curriculum was adopted, citing as reasons that the introduction was impromptu without giving teachers opportunities to prepare for operationalising it. In a study conducted by Mangwaya, Blignaut & Pillay (2016), the authors allege that there was lack of consultation on the part of teachers who for this reason found it difficult fulfilling their roles effectively. Elsewhere in the literature, it is further alleged that the introduction of the competency based curriculum created challenges for teachers who were not well acquainted with the demands of the new practice, especially its mode of assessment (Newsday Zimbabwe, 9 January 2017). In a survey conducted by Dube & Jita (2018), the authors reported that the introduction of CA brought more pain, friction and agony between teachers, school heads, parents, as well as curriculum planners themselves
Above all, there is overwhelming evidence to support the observation that the introduction of the competency based curriculum faced many challenges that impeded its effective implementation In that regard, there is therefore definite need for research to be done in this area to build on the body of knowledge about these challenges with respect to the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in the Zimbabwean context.
This section sets the scene to provide the theoretical discourse surrounding issues about teacher readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in the Zimbabwean secondary school sector. The section begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research and looks at the nature and dynamics of the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 and finally ends by examining the teacher readiness for the updated O Level Syllabus 4022.
This research article contextualises the study within the theoretical discourse of the Readiness Theory, mooted by Colney (2008). This theoretical discourse alludes to the readiness discourse to imply a high level of professional competence, which involves a combination of professional and personal qualities necessary for high quality work in educational endeavours (Ozhegov,
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2007; Belin & Gonchar, 2013; Lane & Bourke, 2019). Authors such as Mizambaeva and Baimyrzaev (2019) use professional competence to mean the theoretical and practical readiness of a teacher to carry out educational activities at the highest level of professionalism. In the current study, the research problem has been approached through a multidimensional and interconnected component classification model involving gnoseological, axiological, praxiological, and professional personal components presented by Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev (2019) in Table 1.
Table 1: Classification of teacher readiness components (Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev, 2019)
The content involves various aspects of the Knowledge System as indicated below:
Gnoseological
Knowledge of Geography: The focus of the content is on:
Understanding the role of Geography in the modern scientific worldview and its value.
Knowledge of basic Geography concepts, relationships, theories, cause and effect relationships, laws, and regularities underlying school Geography courses.
Knowledge of ecology: this aspect of content is concerned with developing:
Knowledge of environmental issues as a cross cutting line of Geography
Knowledge in the field of education and methods of teaching Geography,
Knowledge of modern teaching aids, professional methods, and techniques.
What follows are the competencies developed from the proposed component classification.
Readiness to use knowledge of modern science and education problems in solving professional tasks.
Readiness to interact with the parties of the educational process and social partners, to lead the team, with a tolerant perception of social ethno confessional and cultural differences.
Geographic knowledge of the teacher:
The aim is to develop the
Geographical worldview, geographical thinking, Geography methods, Geography terms.
The aspect emphasises the development of values of individual teachers with respect to their educational needs, interests, emotions, and attitudes to teaching, as well as the development of readiness for self education and self development.
Readiness to recognise the social significance of their future profession and to have the motivation to carry out professional activities.
Ability to carry out professional and personal self education, to design further learning routes and professional career.
Ability to develop the trajectory of your professional growth and personal development.
Professional Skills: The main thrust is to develop the following readiness skills:
Gnostic Skills: ability to work with scientific papers on Geography, education, methodology; the ability to master the methodology of pedagogical research, etc.
Design Skills: the ability to measure, observe, predict, and model natural and social processes and phenomena in time and space, etc.
Constructive Skills: creating a lesson plan, selecting the best teaching methods and techniques, and using modern teaching tools.
Ability to analyze the results of scientific research, apply them when solving specific research problems in the field of science and education, carry out independent scientific research, the ability to apply modern methods and techniques to organise the learning process, diagnose, and evaluate the quality of the educational process within various educational programmes.
Ability to develop and implement methodological models, methods, training techniques, to analyse the results of their application in educational organisations.
Organizational Skills: The ability to organize interaction
Ability to systematise, synthesise, and disseminate international methodological
with students, the ability of teachers to control themselves and be tactful in unforeseen situations, etc.
Communicative Skills: the ability to carry out a conversation or a discussion, the ability to establish rapport with students, teachers, parents, etc.
Reflexive Skills: Self analysis and self esteem, the ability to adequately assess the activities of students, etc.
Professional Personal Emotional and Intellectual Features of Geography Teachers, as well as Operational and Voluntary Qualities.
experience related to teaching.
Readiness to conduct professional communication to solve problems related to teaching.
Readiness to interact with the parties to the educational process and social partners to lead the team.
Readiness to work as a teacher.
The study used the component classification presented in Table 1 in relation to the readiness model developed by Colney (2008) to provide a theoretical basis for interrogating the issues surrounding teacher readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in Zimbabwe. The Colney (2008) model focuses on three related key facets directly linked to teacher readiness development, namely cognitive strategies, content knowledge, academic behaviours, and contextual skills (Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev (2019) The following paragraphs provide an apt exposition of the key facets of the model and subsequent action plans necessary to ensure that teachers are ready to deliver a new practice in an expeditiously timely manner.
Colney’s cognitive strategies represent the praxiological component in the Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev component classification (Table 1). The authors are of the idea that readiness relates to the functional level mechanics of an innovation, and therefore adopting cognitive strategies during teacher capacity development allows them to integrate constructive skills, such as those required for creating lesson plans, selecting the best teaching methods and techniques, and using modern teaching tools (Colney, 2008). Apparently, key cognitive strategies are necessary tools for developing professional skills that subsequently lead to the development of various competencies, including the teacher’s ability to apply modern methods and techniques, organising the learning process, diagnosing, and evaluating the quality of the educational process within various educational programmes (Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev, 2019).
In addition, Colney (2008) considers the acquisition of key content knowledge as critical to enhancing teacher readiness to deliver the content for the criterion referenced assessment. The refined consensus model considers five pillars to be
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critical for a teacher to effectively deliver subject content. The five include curricular knowledge, assessment knowledge, content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and students' knowledge (Carlson & Daehler, 2019). The assumption is that an appropriate praxiological plan of action should be adopted during teacher capacity development to equip them with adequate knowledge that is intrinsically specific to the subject taught in the school curriculum (Young, 2012). Similar conception finds expression in the classification of the gnoseological component, which involves teacher readiness development covering issues such as readiness for the knowledge of modern science problems, as well as skills required to solve professional tasks, team leadership and tolerance, perception of social ethno confessional and cultural differences (Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev, 2019). Elsewhere in the literature, Colney (2008) perceives metacognitive skills as critical for developing teacher curriculum implementation readiness. The author draws distinctive categories of metacognitive skills to develop teacher readiness that includes self awareness, self monitoring, and self control. These skills relate quite well to the classes of the praxiological and personal components presented in Table 1. The assumption is that the possible outcomes from a teacher readiness development programme necessitate the development of axiological and praxiological related skills such as organisational skills, communicative skills, and reflective skills (see Table 1).
Finally, Colney (2008)'s readiness model values the development of contextual knowledge readiness for the development of systemic readiness in addition to the generic understanding of the norms, values, and conventions of a new practice. Colney (2008) further argues that contextual knowledge promotes the teacher's ability to cope with and adapt to new systems. Thus, according to Colney, teachers who do not understand or who are not ready to adopt the institutions' norms, values, and expectations are more likely to feel alienated and thus foster intentions to withdraw from the system voluntarily. Similarly, Colney (2008) sees early readiness for organisational change as one of the most important factors that affect the successful implementation of change. For this reason, many teachers are expected to acquire readiness as an important construct for the first step in the change process. According to Vakola (2013), once teachers attain readiness, they become confident and motivated to implement change. The literature further acknowledges that change can best be made when members of an institution are ready to implement it. The assumption is that if the change is accepted and understood by every institutional member, then the members become motivated and committed to provide support to implement it effectively. However, if change is ignored and resisted, obstacles that inhibit the success of the planned change often emerge (Vakola, 2013).
One of the major changes in education (post 2015) was the shift toward a competency based curriculum. More precisely, economic and political challenges overwhelmed the need for a new curriculum; one that responds to the external pressures and lived realities of the 21st century world (Mipfide & Mapolisa, 2021; Simba, 2021). The upgraded O Level Geography Syllabus 4022
was one such reform initiative. In essence, the upgraded O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 was developed from the MoPSE designed Curriculum Framework for Primary and Secondary Education (CFPSE) template. The syllabus adopted competency based approaches that allow learners to manipulate geographical data and make informed decisions in their day to day experiences. Such approaches are learner centred and can be managed through the application of orthodidactic principles and multisensory approaches to teaching (Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council [ZIMSEC] O Level Geography Syllabus, 2015 2022). It is worth mentioning that in its programmatic whole; the upgraded O Level syllabus 4022 has been designed to cover the study of Geography from Forms One to Four progressively, unlike the previous one, which only focused on Forms Three and Four. Basically, programmes grounded within the competency based phenomenon have a link with what learners need to know, what they need to learn to do, and to be able to live and work with other people (MoPSE, 2021). Simply put, effective learning under a competency based system is one that endures and is capable of being put to good use in differing situations in the future (Georgescu, 2015). Despite this educationally sound initiative, teachers seem to be still not in terms with the best practices for delivering the new practice yet. This has overwhelmed the need to ask questions about teacher readiness to implement the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022. The ensuing section attempts to explain the concept of readiness, which is the theoretical basis for this research paper.
Teacher readiness is the premier phase of curriculum innovation; hence, curriculum change should be framed by telos, which means by ‘sense of purpose ’ (Biesta, 2012). The implication is that developing readiness in teachers requires a deliberate decision to ensure that they are ready before the start of the implementation phase. Most importantly, Biesta is of the idea that ongoing professional development campaigns should be adopted to get teachers ready to use approaches that match the new practice. Hall & Hord (2006) use the analogy of an implementation bridge to express the need for a thorough thought out strategy to direct teacher readiness development. The analogy of the implementation bridge represents teacher readiness development programmes whose purpose is to prevent teachers from failing to achieve the desired results of their teaching.
Just like crossing a bridge, the implementation of an innovation is problematic when teachers lack the praxiological skills that are important for maintaining the use of a curriculum syllabus. In Zimbabwe, for example, some important stakeholders, including teachers’ unions and PTUZ particularly, concede that at the start of the new curriculum, professional development programmes were not properly executed to promote pedagogical skills, making it difficult to transfer the required syllabus competencies into practice. Evidence is available that shows that teachers could not embrace the three competency based pedagogical skill related goals namely, helping students acquire important information and work related skills, making meaning of the content, and effectively transferring the learning to new situations both within school and beyond (by Wiggins & McTighe, 2008). In line with the challenges mentioned before, Whitehead in
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Brown (2019) proposed the rhythm of learning model as an intervention avenue that (Geography) teachers may adopt to make their teaching enjoyable. Whitehead argues that courses and curricular evolve around three well meshed phases of learning, namely romance, precision, and generalisation stages; all which characterise the rhythm of learning. Thus, the ideal introduction to a curriculum subject is to be romantic, full of excitement and attractive, making it alive, real, stimulating, and worth studying In summary, the rhythm of learning emphasises the acquisition of knowledge and skills that continue to sustain interest, eventually leading to the generalisation phase. For Brown (2019), in the rhythm of learning, learners need not be pressured to cover the topic, but should be invited to explore it. Certainly, the rhythm of learning model exhibits ascertainable general traits which are valid for most pupils, as it links quite well with the component classification and therefore, teachers need to receive appropriate training that makes them ready to adapt their teaching to suit the stages in the rhythm to which learners have advanced (Brown, 2019).
The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of a qualitative multiple case study design. The technique drew data from analysis of the primary documents published by MoPSE and ten in depth key informant interviews involving five Geography teachers from each of the two purposively selected secondary schools. In addition, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with two groups consisting mainly of O Level Geography teachers from each of the two secondary schools To investigate the research problem, the interview with Geography teachers took 10 to 15 minutes and 30 to 40 minutes for each FGD. In all instances, data were generated through asking questions based on a set of three categories that emerged as subthemes upon which the discussion of results is centred. In addition, literature reviews were specifically used to provide conceptual and theoretical support as well as to demonstrate to the readers how this research particularly fits into the larger field of inquiry.
Although the purpose of this research article was to solicit the opinions of all Geography teachers in the Kwekwe district of Zimbabwe regarding their readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022, this was not possible due to several limitations. The potential limitations were its small population size Often, the generalisability of findings is problematic if the data are not representative of wider contexts (Creswell, 2014). The deliberate selection of such a sample arose from the small establishment of the schools that were used as research sites, limitation of time, financial constraints, as well as the Covid-19 restrictions on movement.
In soliciting participation in this study, informants were made aware that the research was not going to use actual names. Instead, pseudonyms were used to conceal the identity of the participants. The informants were identified by letters: A B C D E while schools by numbers 1 and 2. The reader will find that the results are presented and then immediately discussed. This approach has been adopted
for this study to avoid unnecessary repetition that usually results when presentation of results and their discussion are separated (Mouton, 2008). In addition, a thematic analysis approach has also been adopted in which the presentation is structured into three major themes, viz:
o Dissemination of the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022,
o Availability of Resources and
o Teacher readiness for implementation of the O Level Geography Syllabus
These three themes formed the basis for discussing the research findings. In adopting this approach, McMillan & Schumacher (2010) stated that it is prudent for the researcher to interpret the collected data organised according to themes and categories.
The way a syllabus is distributed is a critical factor that cannot be ignored in any serious analysis of issues such as those surrounding teachers’ readiness to adopt and subsequently implement a new curriculum package. For instance, an analysis of the primary documents published by MoPSE suggests that the adoption and dissemination of the updated O Level Geography Syllabus to secondary schools around the country was a fait accompli. In that case, teachers were only asked to implement the syllabus without prior training. In confirmation of this evidence, reference is made to a circular published by MoPSE, part of which reads:
“This circular deliberates on the direction to the implementation of Phase 2 of the new Curriculum commencing January 2017. Therefore, it is incumbent upon every school to effectively implement the provisions of the circular.”
It emerged from documentary evidence that the proposed change was more revolutionary (in the sense that it was introduced using circular/it came as a directive) rather than evolutionary (Mangwaya et al., 2016). This was a flawed process to develop the readiness of the teacher to adopt the new practice, and surprisingly, the change was resisted. In fact, the use of a circular is a clear indication that no meaningful programmes were put in place to prepare teachers for the updated O Level Geography Syllabus 4022. One of the key informants did not hide to say: “
We need thorough training, and this should be done by subject managers from ZIMSEC. The idea of using circulars dilutes the quality of information that ends us up with something different altogether as circulars are prone to different interpretations by individual teachers. I even doubt very much if the education inspectors themselves are knowledgeable of what is supposed to be done. I am reliably told that during a one day seminar with school heads, the inspectors told the school heads to go back to their schools and continue with what they thought was the correct thing.”
This is consistent with the position of Stronge (2018) that teachers need an induction of some sort prior to the implementation phase. If they are not ready
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as curriculum end users, they can reject all planned changes in schools and can act in negative ways such as being hesitant and fearful, and they can even attempt to undermine the efforts of the changes that are to be implemented. During a focus group discussion, Participant A from school 1 expressed resentment by saying: “I never received any training; instead, circulars were read to us during a briefing after assembly, at which time we had different interpretations of what the curriculum intended to achieve. The school head who usually read the circular avoided questions at all costs fearing he wouldn’t be in a better position to explain satisfactorily.”
The consensus from participants in School 1 is that the new curriculum was brought in without consultation and sufficient guidelines; a situation which could have triggered some confusion along the way. Teachers struggled to understand the procedure, particularly on the issue of tasks and projects. Teachers who participated in the focus group discussions at school 2, generally agreed in their observation that pilot testing of the curriculum and a needs analysis were not carried out. Pilot testing and needs analysis are critical practices for effective implementation of reform initiatives as pointed out by Ndawi & Maravanyika (2011) who acknowledged that these practices identify the exact nature of the deficiency to be addressed and eventually single out the exact change to be instituted. In some instances, needs analysis may reveal that some conceived changes are not fundamentally different from the present practice or cannot be instituted in a system for some reason or another. Therefore, the omission of a need analysis during the decision to disseminate an innovation often creates a disjunction that jeopardises the implementation of a reform initiative. Teachers from both schools confirmed that they experienced a disjunction in engaging the new curriculum in their classrooms.
An analysis of issues surrounding the readiness of teachers to implement O Level Geography would be incomplete without an examination of the availability of resources, since their availability determines the extent to which teachers are ready to use them for successful operationalisation of any instructional practice carried out in the school with learners. Although it is true that the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) provided material resources as indicated in its terms of reference, the resources were grossly inadequate. Participant C from School 1 remarked: “When the new curriculum was introduced, the Government promised it would provide resources to all public schools. I am appalled by the existing state of affairs as not much in terms of material resource support has been offered. There are no funds to purchase textbooks and other essential resources like project files which are a requirement for every subject in addition to several exercise books we used to ask for. This has put an extra uncalled for burden on the parents who are already struggling to raise money for tuition.”
The available evidence suggests that the GoZ paid little attention to the provision of adequate resources, as initially promised. To confirm this observation, Participant A from school 1 made the following remarks. “Considering the urgency that was given to introduce the curriculum, most of us teachers were expecting the government to provide a school with adequate resources and to train us on the proper handling and use of curriculum material but that was not the case. We definitely need resources in order for us to operationalise the new curriculum successfully. Most of the concepts that were included to the curriculum cannot be implemented without or with limited knowledge of the resource use. For instance, you cannot just walk into the computer lab and teach learners without having first to be trained.”
Teachers are the main hub around which the successful implementation of the new curriculum revolves. However, it is particularly troubling to find that there was an inherent lack of orientation for Geography teachers; therefore, the implementation of the syllabus was made difficult. For example, teachers who participated in the FDGs at both schools shared the sentiment that they were asked to implement the updated curriculum immediately without understanding how they were going to do it, as no explanations were provided as advance information. As a consequence, the teachers involved experienced serious problems in interpreting the new syllabus, the hallmarks of daily classroom delivery, and practice. Based on the FGDs, the teachers of the two schools did not receive a proper orientation to the new curriculum. An informant who participated in FGDs at school 2 indicated that he was committed.
“I was introduced to the competence based curriculum at a one day cluster workshop. The training I received was not adequate. I still do not understand certain aspects of the competency based curriculum to effectively implement it. The trainers who happened to be fellow teachers were not very much conversant with the competency based system. The training was too theoretical for teachers already in the field to understand yet it was supposed to be hands on to facilitate understanding.”
All FGD participants agreed in their opinions that there was a need for ongoing reconfiguration of professional development approaches that correspond to the new practice, which should be done through a positive engagement of teachers already in the field. The issue of positive engagement is supported by Ndawi & Maravanyika (2011), who pointed out that policy makers and leaders must positively engage teachers by fostering values of respect and justice to promote the new idea and change the attitude of teachers. One of the findings of this study is that the method used to induct teachers was dictatorial and full of threats, and because of that, teachers fearing victimisation did not voice their concerns, but just accepted what was dictated by the authority. The consensus of the teachers who participated in the FGDs was that those who facilitated the workshops were not knowledgeable, so they responded to the questions of the participants in a threatening way. Participant E from school 1 expressed concern:
“Some schoolteachers could not attend workshops organised by MoPSE as their schools could not manage the travel and subsistence allowances as schools were left to sponsor their teachers to go for training. Instead of sending a reasonable number of teachers, only one or no representative would be sent. We were lucky as a cluster centre that all our teachers received training although it was superficial to say the least.”
One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study is that teachers were expected to implement the new curriculum with too little support, guidance, and coherent orientation programmes and their readiness was doubtful. In fact, this situation has been blamed for stifling gnoseological competencies that are necessary to promote teacher readiness to effectively deliver the O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 as suggested by Mizambaeva & Baimyrzaev (2019).The results of the study support the idea that change can best be done when members of an institution are ready to implement it. Meanwhile, Vakola (2013) agrees that if change is accepted and understood by every institutional member, then members become motivated and committed to provide support to implement it effectively, but if change is ignored and resisted, obstacles that inhibit the success of the planned change often emerge. Teacher B who participated in the FGD at school 2 had no kind words about the way the new practice was introduced. The following comment was made: “The cluster workshops we attended were actually useless to say the least. They were facilitated by HoDs who were sufficiently confused and were not confident. When asked to give more explanation, they failed. We were left with no option except to do what we used to do.”
The general observation made in the study is that some certain aspects of the updated syllabus were resisted because teachers were prematurely ready. The study also went some way towards making it understood that when readiness for curriculum change must be developed in teachers, action must be taken from several fronts and that intervention strategies that must be instituted must be done so through positive engagement of teachers to ensure expeditious delivery.
This study has taken into account the issues surrounding teachers' readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in Zimbabwe. In general, the study found that the competency based O Level Geography curriculum was introduced with insufficient consideration of teacher readiness for its implementation. The study also found that the breadth and depth of the issues surrounding teacher readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 requires action to be taken from several fronts to ensure that the subject community is ready for its rapid delivery. One such action is to have in place an ongoing reconfiguration of professional development approaches that correspond to the new practice. To be more successful, this must be done through positive engagement of teachers already in the field.
Taking into account the findings of the study on the issues surrounding teacher readiness to implement the competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 in the Zimbabwean secondary school system, this research recommends ongoing intensive training to get teachers ready to ensure high levels of performance. In addition, the study implores policy makers to make massive advocacy and sensitisation of Geography teachers, the end users of the updated competency based O Level Geography Syllabus 4022 for more effective implementation.
The authors are heartily grateful to all the people who, through various contributions, made possible the success of this study. We are thankful to the Geography teachers who participated in this study. Without their participation and cooperation, this study would not have been a success. Finally, we are grateful to our colleagues and friends who contributed immensely to this study with moral support.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 58 74, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.4
Received May 18, 2022; Revised Aug 5, 2022; Accepted Aug 12, 2022
College of Distance Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast
Ernest Kofi DavisCollege of Education Studies, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast
Bethel Tawiah AbabioCollege of Education Studies, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast
Abstract. This study examined the perceptions of headteachers, teachers, and learners regarding instructional effectiveness of University of Cape Coast distance trained teachers. The convergent parallel mixed method design was employed to conduct the study. Research participants comprising 25 headteachers, 667 distance trained teachers, and 138 learners were selected through purposive sampling, stratified random sampling, and simple random sampling techniques respectively. Mean and standard deviations, independent sample t test, and thematic analysis were employed to analyse the data. The study revealed that headteachers, teachers and learners perceived distance trained teachers as instructionally effective because they demonstrated professional knowledge, professional practice and professional values and attitudes in their instructions. Results also indicated that there was statistically significant difference between male and female teachers with regard to perceived instructional effectiveness. It is recommended that stakeholders such as parents and prospective applicants should consider UCC distance education programme as an alternative to the conventional education.
Keywords: distance education; headteachers; instructional effectiveness; pre service teacher
Instructionally effective teachers play important roles in the lives of learners across the globe. It is against this background that Mtetesha (2017) asserted that an effective education system in any society hinges on the caliber of its teaching staff. This indicates that teachers who are effective in their instruction form part
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of the critical human resource as highlighted by Davis, Yarkwah, Beccles, and Ayebi Arthur (2019) that quality and effective teachers are important in the preparation of quality human force What constitutes effective instruction and from whose perspectives instructional effectiveness is measured has been the subject of concern for academics, researchers and school administrators. We enumerated in this study three domains of instructional effectiveness from the perspectives of headteachers, distance trained teachers and learners Evaluating effective teaching based on the views of headteachers, teachers and learners has always been a contested area since researchers have not concluded on the validity within the education enterprise (Almutairi & Shraid, 2021). Notwithstanding, their perspectives on effective teaching could provide insights into the classroom practices
Training instructionally effective teachers falls within the domain of higher education institutions. However, there came a time in Ghana’s history where public universities and teacher training institutions were unable to meet the teacher training needs as expected. This was due partly to unavailability of space to accommodate ever increasing youths who wanted to acquire higher education (Kumi Yeboah, Blankson, & Young, 2014). This with other possible factors culminated in the birth of distance education in the country where a number of both public and private tertiary education institutions engaged in the training of teachers. Distance education is an educational experience during which instructors and students are separated in time and space; and consequently, it employs various technological gadgets so as to connect students with their teachers (Tzivinikou, Charitaki, & Kagkara, 2021) We conceptualised distance education as a teaching and learning phenomenon where study materials (modules) are used in combination with technology to bridge the geographical vacuum between the learner and the instructor.
The College of Distance Education (CoDE), a college dedicated to the training of teachers at the University of Cape Coast has since its establishment in 1997, trained thousands of teachers The College trains different groups/cohorts of teachers principally for the basic education system. We have pre service teachers who had not been professionally trained prior to enrolling on the programme while the other enrolled on the programme to upgrade from diploma degree to bachelor degree The current study focused on the former cohort as the first group to be given professional training. The focus on this cohort was to help make a case for or otherwise of the contribution of distance programme to perceived instructional effectiveness of teachers. Having trained many of this cohorts since the inception of the distance programme, little is known about their perceived instructional effectiveness This study therefore sought to examine headteachers, teachers and pupils’ perspectives through the mixed methods approach The study was guided by the following research question and hypotheses:
1. How do headteachers, teachers and learners perceive instructional effectiveness of teachers trained through distance education?
H1: There is no statistically significant difference in teachers’ perception about instructional effectiveness based on gender.
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H2: There is a statistically significant difference in teachers’ perceptions about instructional effectiveness based on gender
The raging debate about whether distance trained products can match those who enrolled on traditional face to face programmes seems to be far from over. All things being equal, distance trained and traditionally trained teachers who pursued the same programme should exhibit similar instructional competences in their teaching. Per the teaching standards developed by the National Teaching Council (NTC) in Ghana, teachers irrespective of the training mode are expected to demonstrate three minimum characteristics namely, professional knowledge, professional practice and professional values and attitudes. Professional knowledge is a collection of knowledge pre service teachers acquired through initial professional and continuous training as well as engaging in active participation in professional collaboration (Wang, Lai, & Lo, 2014). Effective teachers must possess vast knowledge about learners and how they should be taught. Professional knowledge also covers knowledge of the official school curriculum and the learning outcomes that are to be stated in the lesson notes. Additionally, effective instruction covers demonstration of adequate subject matter, knowing how to transmit the knowledge to the learner and knowing how best to transmit the knowledge so that the learner in particular can learn better (Nopriyeni, Prasetyo, & Djukri, 2019). Understanding the way learners grow and learn in varied settings and how it should be applied in teaching to enhance learners’ academic work is crucial to a good teacher (National Council for Tertiary Education [NCTE], 2010).
Moreover, an effective teacher demonstrates professional practice which comprises managing the learning space, teaching and learning and evaluation. Managing the learning space is one of the surest ways to improve academic outcomes of learners. Hence, an effective teacher ensures a safe and enabling learning context that facilitates teaching and learning (Dhanapala, 2021). For Danielson (2013), it is appropriate that teachers establish and monitor daily routines for the smooth running of classroom activities including use of time. She adds that, for learners to immensely benefit from what is taught, the classroom environment must be orderly; a business like atmosphere should exist and dictatorial tendencies should be avoided. It is imperative therefore that an effective teacher engages in a number of activities that promote learners’ academic outcomes. For instance, an instructionally effective teacher adopts a variety of teaching approaches that give learners encouragement and motivation to participate thereby developing in them critical thinking. Assessment is very critical in teaching and learning for it is one of the best approaches to determine how learners have progressed. Assessment affords teachers the opportunity to establish if learning has actually taken place (Msimanga, 2017).
Professional values and attitudes characterize how a teacher engages in activities to project the image of the teaching profession within the school and beyond. This may include behaviours such as establishing a cordial relationship with learners, colleague staff, and parents. An effective and well trained teacher should be seen
as someone who recognizes that the school is a professional learning community (PLC) where knowledge is shared for the improvement of teaching and learning. Being instructionally effective is not limited to classroom teaching but goes beyond to include, for instance, serving as a role model for learners. Under professional values and attitudes, an effective and qualified teacher should keenly take part in school wide activities such as Parent Teacher Association/ School Management Committee (PTA/SMC) events, sporting and cultural activities. Effective teachers should also keep leaners records to serve as reference points in monitoring learners’ progress.
Perceived instructional effectiveness, in general, and in distance education in particular continues to receive the attention of scholars and researchers. Åhslund and Boström’s (2018) study describes how primary school teachers perceive differences in behaviour and learning of boys and girls, and showed that they had positive view of their teaching. A case study was conducted by Jangu (2015) in the Upper West region of Ghana to evaluate the perception of headteachers on the instructional performance of distance trained teachers. Results of the study showed that headteachers were satisfied with the instructional performance of distance trained teachers. It can further be explained that teachers who obtained their certificates through DE were perceived as effective in delivering the curriculum in the classroom. The finding was in line with Samkange (2016) whose study showed that headteachers perceived that there was no major difference between traditional face to face teaching approach of training teachers and the open and distance learning (ODL) means of training teachers. This means that teachers who were produced through DE were perceived to be as good as graduates from the conventional mode.
Moreover, Fernandez Garcia, Maulana, Inda Caro, Helms Lorenz and Garcia Perez (2019) conducted a study concerning students’ evaluation of their teachers. The purpose of the study was to examine students’ perception of teaching behaviour and teacher characteristics that explain teacher effectiveness. The study revealed that students perceived teachers’ learning climate, efficient classroom management and instructional clarity (less complex task) as good while activating teaching, differentiation and teaching learning strategies (more complex task) as sufficient.
Another variable of interest to researchers and educationists is whether gender has influence on perceived instructional effectiveness of teachers. A gender and perceived instructional effectiveness study was conducted by El Emadi, Said and Friesen (2019). The study examined the motivation factors and attitudes toward and interest in science among Qatari students. It was shown that there were differences in the teaching styles of male and female teachers. The finding that there is difference in perceived instructional effectiveness based on gender finds expression in the study by Ahmed, Ambreen and Hussain (2018). Their study revealed that female teachers exhibited more classroom management skills on four out of six dimensions of classroom management than the male teachers However, the finding was inconsistent with the work of Singh and Attri (2020),
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who found out that there was no significant difference in the perceived instructional effectiveness of male and female teachers.
The current study was underpinned by social constructivism theory developed by Vygotsky (1968). The theory is premised on the assumption that humans experience, communicate and understand reality through two sources language and culture. According to Vygotsky, culture and language play a pivotal role in cognitive development and how humans conceptualise the world around them. It indicates that learning concepts and principles are transferred through communication, interpreted and understood by experience and interactions within a particular social setting. Within this context, it takes a group of individuals to have language and culture to construct cognitive structures Knowledge, therefore, is not only socially constructed but co constructed (Akpan, Igwe, Mpamah & Okoro, 2020). The connection, therefore, is that while the constructivist sees knowledge as what students construct among themselves based on the experiences they gather from their environment, the social constructivist sees knowledge as what students do in collaboration with other students, teachers and peers (Akpan, et al. 2020). An effective teacher adopts collaborative approach where learners are encouraged to learn in groups through sharing ideas and knowledge. This easily deepens learners’ understanding of the knowledge they are constructing in the classroom.
In addition, the study applied the theory of self efficacy, a psychological construct which is rooted in the framework of social cognitive theory propounded by Albert Bandura in 1977. It is conceptualised as people’s conviction about their capability to produce acceptable and desired results within an organisation. Self efficacy beliefs provide direction as to how people feel, reason, and encourage themselves to take certain action (Bandura, 1994). A person who has positive orientation towards self efficacy is believed to succeed because the chances are that there will be perseverance towards an activity until it is completed. However, a person with low perception of self efficacy foresees failure and is less likely to make conscious efforts or persist in challenging the status quo (Harahsheh, 2017). Self efficacy can be equated to “I can do this” attitude. Researchers such as Clement and Rencewigg (2020) investigated into the characteristics of effective teachers and discovered that good teachers are optimistic for academic excellence and behaviour for their learners to give off their best The theory of self efficacy is premised on the assumption that expectation of personal capability and ability to make progress is depended on whether a person will be ready to take a particular cause of action. It is also presumed that an individual’s ability to demonstrate a specific action lies basically on the persons’ psychological status, including the drive, readiness to exhibit the behaviour, endurance in the face of setbacks, dedication, success in foreseeable future, and the positive mind.
By way of filling the research gap, all the studies reviewed were different from the current study in terms of multiple respondents in a single study as in the case of the present study. Headteachers, teachers and learners occupy different positions within the teaching and learning context to the extent that when their views converge, such views are deemed to be valid. Moreso, we also employed a
mixed methods design to seek different perspectives to the topic under study since it is one of the complex human experiences. A single approach may not yield the kind of results that may be encompassing.
The researchers adopted a convergent parallel mixed method design to carry out the study. The mixed method was employed on the grounds that social phenomena such as teaching and learning processes can best be understood by adopting both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods in the same research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researchers believe that this approach would enable them to understand the complex nature of human aspects (Plano Clark, Foote & Walton, 2018; Minadzi, Gyimah & Ankoma Sey, 2019) like teaching and learning. In this milieu, the study was carried out by employing different data collection instruments to seek how headteachers, teachers and learners perceived instructional effectiveness of distance trained teachers from the University of Cape Coast. We merged the data sets (point of interface or integration) during the interpretation stage where the results from the qualitative and quantitative data were compared for confirmation, corroboration and complementation or disconfirmation.
Respondents comprised teachers who graduated from the College of Distance Education and had up to six years of teaching experience in public basic schools at the time of the study. The year was limited to six since the impact of good or poor training stays a bit longer and can be examined for at least few years after the pre service teachers have completed the programme (Wendel, 2000). Headteachers and learners in whose schools’ distance trained teachers teach were included in the study. The inclusion of the headteachers and learners was to triangulate distance trained teachers’ views with respect to their perceived instructional effectiveness. Research respondents were selected from three out of sixteen randomly selected regions in Ghana A region each was selected from the three administrative zones of the College of Distance Education (CoDE) namely, Ashanti region from the Middle Zone, Volta Region from the Southern Zone, and Northern Region from the Northern Zone. Record from Students’ Records and Management Unit (SRMU, 2020) showed that a total of 15,671 comprising 8997 males and 6674 females graduated within the period. In all, 399 males (representing 59.8%) while 268 females (representing 40.2%) were selected through the stratified random sampling technique. Their average age ranges from 21 to 41. The majority (56.5%) of the teachers indicated they had 5 6 years teaching experience while 24.8% had less than 3 teaching experience respectively. Finally, 18. 7% stated they had 3 4 years teaching experience. Twenty five(18 males and 7 females) headteachers with averageage ranging from 31 to 57 were selected through the purposive sampling technique. Headteachers were chosen because they had deep knowledge and experience in classroom practices and could provide rich information (Cresswell and Plano Clark, 2011) about the perceived instructional effectiveness of distance trained teachers. Their inclusion in the study, therefore, was important since they play roles such as
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planning, supervision of staff and vetting of lesson notes. These activities equip them to be able to provide valid information concerning effective teaching. For the headteacher to be included in the study, his or her teacher who went through the UCC distance programme willingly agreed to be observed in the classroom (we were unable to carry out classroom observation due to COVID 19 pandemic leading to the closure of schools). Hence, headteachers were excluded on the basis that their teachers were unwilling to be observed in the classroom. Moreover, headteachers who also pursued distance programme from the same institution were excluded from the study. Learners (67 males and 71 females) whose average age ranged from 11 to 14 years were also included in the study because they occupy a critical position in the teaching and learning process and are at the receiving end of quality or poor teaching. They could tell whether the teacher is good or otherwise (McCoy, Smyth, Watson, & Darmody, 2014) in terms of classroom practices. Six learners each were selected through random sampling from the schools where headteachers and distance trained teachers were selected. In total, 23 FGDs were conducted across the three regions.
Three instruments namely, interview guide, questionnaire and focus group discussion (FGD) guide were used to collect data Questionnaire was used to data from distance trained teachers. Part A of the questionnaire had seven items which dealt with the bio data of respondents while Part B covered the perceived instructional effectiveness of distance trained teachers. Part B of the questionnaire was adapted from National Teachers’ Standards (NTS, 2017) for teaching, a framework designed by the National Teaching Council in Ghana to assess teachers’ instructional practices. The framework has three domains namely, professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional values and attitudes. Coincidentally, the framework aligns well with the widely used Danielson (2013) framework, a framework used to assess teachers’ professional practices. Danielson’s framework has four domains which are planning and preparation, the classroom environment, instruction and professional responsibilities. The framework was used because it is rooted in the social constructivist theory of learning developed by Vygotsky (1978) which is premised on interaction, discussion and sharing of ideas among students (Akpan, Igwe, Mpamah & Okoro, 2020). Additionally, the NTS framework was used because it was the only locally developed standard document to assess teachers’ performance in Ghanaian basic schools. Finally, Part C of the questionnaire was adapted from Nsamba’s (2016) instrument which yielded reliability coefficient of 0.89. The questionnaire was designed to find out students’ perception about the service quality provided by the University of South Africa (UNISA). This part of the questionnaire has four subheadings which included student support service, face to face teaching session, teaching practice, and assessment/evaluation procedures. Interview and FGD guide were used to collect data from headteachers and learners respectively. The interview guide and FGD were designed to cover the three domains of teachers’ classroom practices namely professional knowledge, professional practice and professional values and attitudes.
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Priortopretestingthedata collection instrumentson thefield,theywerevalidated through seeking the assessment of two experts at the College of Education Studies who had vast experience in the area of teacher education. This was done to seek their inputs regarding the challenges with the items. Their inputs helped to fine tune the instruments for optimal results. The questionnaire was pre tested in the Central region of Ghana before final administration for the study. Fifty (50) distance trained teachers were selected for the pre test. This sample was good for pre test because Ornstein (2022) suggested a sample between 20 to 50. The Cronbach Alpha for professional knowledge, professional practice and professional attitudes and valuewas .974, .973 and .973 respectively. Afterthe pre test, words or phrases which were not clear to the respondents were modified or deleted. The interview and FGD were pre tested on two headteachers and six learners respectively to enable fine tune the instruments before the final administration. The initial four questions in the interview guide and FGD were reduced to three questions because they appeared to lack clarity.
Prior to the data collection, clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at the University of Cape Coast. Apart from the IRB clearance, an introduction letter was obtained from the three regional directorates of Ghana Education Service that permitted us to have access to the selected schools The researchers self administered the questionnaire in the three regions. Data collection assistants were recruited and given brief training about questionnaire administration. For example, explaining to respondents the purpose of the study, when to administer it and how to handle the questionnaire after filling them to ensure no respondent was identified. Researchers themselves conducted the interview and FGD in the respective schools of the respondents. The interview was conducted in the headteachers’ offices while the FGDs were conducted in the classrooms during the time learners were on break. The classroom enabled the learners to feel relaxed since they were used to the environment and that it also provided a conducive atmosphere devoid of disruptions. Data collection lasted for 3 months.
Research question one sought to find out how headteachers, teachers and learners perceived instructional effectiveness of CoDE trained teachers. Descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used to analyse the data from respondents. Specifically, data from distance trained teachers were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, and independent sample t test Qualitative data from headteachers and learners was analysed using thematic approach. The qualitative data were reduced to manageable units through coding into themes or categories based on emerging patterns or similarity among the codes The reduction exercise was helpful to us because we were able to edit the data, summarize it, and make it presentable. For example, after the coding exercise, major themes namely professional knowledge, professional practice, professional values and attitudes emerged from minor themes. Some of the minor themes were knowledge of the learners, knowledge of the curriculum, managing the learning environment, teaching and learning, assessment and school as a learning community.
In all, six hundred and sixty seven (667) distance trained teachers comprising 399 males and 268 females completed the questionnaire Moreover, twenty five (25) headteachers whose school distance trained teachers teach were purposively selected for interviews. Finally, 6 learners each were also randomly sampled to engage in FGD in schools where the headteachers were selected. Standard deviations which range from 0.70 to 0.85 were moderate and closer to each other indicating the non dispersion in a widely spread distribution. The moderateness of the standard deviations of the distribution implies that the perspectives of the respondents were coming from a moderately homogeneous group. This indicates, to large extent, that the group had similar characteristics or understanding with regard to the issues being investigated. In other words, teachers’ views on perceived instructional effectiveness were an approximation to a normal distribution.
Responses to the close ended items, used in collecting data on perceived instructional effectiveness, were measured on a four point unilinear scale. This ranged from one to four where one indicated the strongest disagreement to the itemswhile fourindicated thestrongest agreement to the items. Basedon the four point numerical scale used, the study interpreted the results using recommendation of Sarstedt and Mooi (2019) which states that in a unilinear scale items, the responses to the items can be interpreted, using mathematical approximation. Therefore, the study adopted mathematical approximation techniques to interpret the mean scores. These were Strongly Agree (3.5 – 4.0), Agree (2.5 3.4), Disagree (1.5 2.4), and Strongly Disagree (1.0 1.4). The quantitative results on teachers’ perceptions of instructional effectiveness of distance trained teachers are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of CoDE trained teachers’ perception of perceived instructional effectiveness
Items Mean SD
Professional knowledge
3.29 0.76
Professional practice 3.21 0.74
Professional values and attitudes 3.19 0.73
Mean of all means (perceived instructional effectiveness) 3.23 0.74
Source: Field survey (2020) (N = 667)
Results from Table 1 showed that respondents perceived professional knowledge of teachers in positive terms (Mean = 3.29, SD = 0.76). The results suggest that distance trained teachers possessed knowledge of the curriculum framework and subject matter, and understood learners’ individual needs. The results from the Table further showed that respondents (CoDE trained teachers) perceived professional practice within the context of managing the learning environment, teaching and learning as well as assessment positively (Mean = 3.21, SD = 0.74). In all, the results seem to indicate that through the UCC distance programme, teachers demonstrated professionalism in terms of managing learning in the classroom effectively. The results revealed that teachers perceived themselves as effective in handling teaching and learning activities during lessons. In addition,
the results indicated that the programme equipped distance trained teachers with professional values and attitudes. They were able to appreciate the need to participate regularly in workshops/in service training, develop love for the teaching profession to serve as role model to their learners and the need to delegate work to both male and female learners in their respective classes. Meanwhile, the overall mean (Mean =3.23, SD = 0.74) signifies that largely CoDE trained teachers perceived themselves to demostrate professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional values and attidues in the discharge of classroom activites.
Analysis of interview data showed that 23 out of 25 headteachers appear to confirm teachers’ perceptions. Interview number 18 reflects the confirmation from headteachers.
Her output of work, in fact I would say is perfect. You go to meet her teaching then you realise that she has the technical knowhow of the subject that she is teaching. Sometimes you meet somebody teaching a particular topic then when you observe the person, you realise that the person doesn’t have the technical knowhow or subject knowledge [Interview 18, 11/3/2020].
Analysis of learners’ data showed that 21 out of 23 FGD corroborated teachers’ views concerning professional knowledge as for instance: Before he starts teaching, he reviews with us the previous lesson and talks briefly about what he will teach. He reviews the previous lesson because he thinks that we might forget what we learnt previously. This will tell him whether we are learning what he is teaching [Participant 5, 5/2/2020].
Again, teachers’ perceptions on professional practice with specific reference to managing the learning environment were confirmed by all the 25 headteachers
For example, interview 1 indicated: During lessons his classroom environment can be described as friendly. He teaches Mathematics and Ghanaian Language. Someone came and we gave Mathematics to him and now he teaches Ghanaian Language. And you know children want to identify with subjects they can easily relate with. Even when he was teaching Mathematics the same situation existed. So, it tells you that he is friendly. His approach to the subject is good [Interview 1, 4/2/2020].
Twenty one (21) out of 23 FGDs from learners were consistent with the perceptions of teachers concerning managing the classroom environment by CoDE trained teachers. For instance, FGD 5 affirmed teachers’ views: He is friendly so if he gives us exercise and you did not get all, he will find out the problem. If you are learning and it is not giving results, he will advise you what you should do to improve [Participant 5, 5/2/2020].
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More so, results from Table 1 showed that respondents (CoDE trained teachers) agreed that CoDE programme had helped them in boosting their professional values and attitudes (Mean = 3.19, SD= 0.73). This appears to suggest that through the CoDE programme, they were able to develop their professional attitudes and values towards the teaching profession. 18 out of 25 headteachers corroborated with what teachers said. Interview 7 reflects the general observation from headteachers:
If she is not interested in upgrading herself, she would not have enrolled on the UCC programme. For instance, I was there and she came to find out something on the net. For me, she is trying to find something to improve on herself [Interview 7, 7/2/2020].
Consistent with teachers’ perceptions, 19 out of 23 FGD indicated that learners perceived CoDE trained teachers as demonstrating professional values and attitudes. For example, FGD 1 reflected this: Our teacher is very enthusiastic about teaching and that enable us to enjoy his lessons. He does not want to waste his time or period in doing things that are not necessary [Participant 4, 4/2/2020].
Though thereseemedtobe positive ratingsfor CoDE trained teachers with respect to professional values and attitudes, there was negative reaction from one of the headteachers. It was revealed that the teacher didnot show interest in school wide activities such as PTA and SMC meetings:
I don’t think he is active in the participation of PTA/SMCs. I don’t because sometimes you organise and you want all teachers to be present and he would not come with no permission. I hope you are a teacher. You know the way teachers are. Someone may not even come to school, no call, no anything. How long would one keep on asking you? One can hardly see him around.
The head teacher’s comments showed that this particular teacher did not live up to expectation as a professional teacher. A professional teacher is expected to involve in all school wide activities and seek permission if one is to absent him or herself from these activities.
H10: There is no statistically significant difference in teachers’ perception about teacher effectiveness based on gender.
H2: There is a statistically significant difference in teachers’ perceptions about instructional effectiveness based on gender
Table 2 presents summary of teachers’ perceptions about instructional effectiveness based on their gender.
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Variables
Gender N Mean SD t value p value η2
Professional knowledge Male 399 3.345 .736 Female 268 3.203 .793 2.365* .018 .008
Professional practice (managing the learning environment)
Professional practice (teaching and learning)
Professional practice (assessment)
Male 399 3.238 .719
Female 268 3.125 .736 1.964* .047 .006
Male 399 3.250 .698 Female 268 3.141 .735 1.948 .052
Male 399 3.293 .716 Female 268 3.155 .759 2.389* .017 .009
Professional values and attitudes Male 399 3.215 .712 Female 268 3.142 .763 1.265 .206
Perceived instructional effectiveness Male 399 3.268 .685 Female 268 3.153 .720 2.085* .037 .007
Source: Field survey (2020) *p<0.05 df = 665 (N = 667) Where η2 = Eta Square, SD = standard deviation
Results from Table 2 showed that there was a statistically significant gender difference in male (Mean = 3.345, SD = .736) and female (Mean = 3.203, SD = .793) teachers’ perception regarding development of professional knowledge [t = 2.365, df = 665, p = .018]. Similarly, there was a statistically significant gender differences in male and female teachers’ perception regarding their professional practices in the area of managing the learning environment [t = 1.964, df = 665, p = .047] and assessment [t = 2.389, df = 665, p = .017]. In addition, the results showed that there was no significant difference in perceptions between male and female regarding professional practice (teaching and learning) [t = 1 948, df = 665, p = .052] It can be further observed that there was significant statistical difference in perception between male and female in terms of professional values and attitudes [t = 1.265, df = 665, p = .206]. Overall, the results revealed that there was statistically significant difference between male and female as far as their perceived instructional effectiveness is concerned. Based on the findings, the researchers reject the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in teachers’ perceptions concerning instructional effectiveness based on gender. This means that the perceptions of teachers on their instructional effectiveness differed from male to female.
The study sought to examine how headteachers, teachers and learners viewed instructional effectiveness of University of Cape Coast distance trained teachers Results from the analysis of data showed that UCC distance trained teachers were perceived by stakeholders as instructionally effective in the three domains namely, professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional values and attitudes. It was evident from the findings that CoDE trained teachers were perceived to possess professional knowledge since they demonstrated knowledge of learners, knowledge of the subject being handled and knowledge of curriculum
framework. Effective teachers use a variety of teaching methods to meet different learning needs of learners, and review learners’ previous knowledge to identify the learning needs. Again, effective teaching includes asking learners further questions for clarifications during lessons, having broad subject knowledge to relate lessons to learners’ real experience, and demonstrating deep understanding of topics.
The revelation that CoDE trained teachers were perceived to demonstrate professional knowledge is situated within the theory of self efficacy. This theory states that teachers who are self efficacious know their learners, create classroom environments that are conducive to motivate learners to learn (O’Connor et al., 2017), and are responsible for students with special learning needs (Laninga Wijnen, Ryan, Harakeh, Shin, and Vollebergh, 2018). Furthermore, it emerged from the findings that UCC distance trained teachers were perceived to possess professional practice because they demonstrated how to manage the learning environment, adapt appropriate teaching and learning strategies as well as conduct appropriate assessment.
The findings were situated in the theory of social constructivism which views knowledge construction as a social interplay of people, interactions that involve sharing, comparing and debating among learners while the teacher plays a facilitation role. Instructionally effective teachers used the social constructivist approach where group work is effectively used on to drive the teaching and learning process. Headteachers, teachers and learners in their responses indicated that they were encouraged to do class work together to boost their understanding Similarly, teachers’ demonstration of professional values and attitudes is very crucial for effective instructions in the classroom. Teachers who are effective demonstrate love for participating in professional programmes such as workshops, in servicetraining,andPTA activities. Theyare also expected tovalue policies and regulations that govern the teaching profession. Moreover, teachers are supposed to join colleague staff to undertake activities that bring about changes in their work place. During these events, new ideas and knowledge are shared which ultimately could improve teachers’ effectiveness. Results from the study showed that UCC distance trained teachers were involved in these activities and observe the rules and regulations governing the teaching profession.
It was also indicated from the study that UCC distance trained teachers were perceived to demonstrate characteristics that make them effective in their instructions. This was in line with what Stronge (2018) outlined as constituting qualities of effective teaching. He pointed out that effective teachers demonstrate professional knowledge, instructional planning, instructional delivery, assessment, and learning environment. The finding further agreed with the assertion by Ko and Sammons (2013) that effective teachers should possess good subject knowledge, classroom organisation, good questioning skills, and use of appropriate group work. The results that UCC distance trained teachers rated themselves positively aligned with Åhslund and Boström, (2018). Their study indicated that teachers perceived their teaching as positive. The finding corroborates the later study by Samkange (2016) who indicated that teachers
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trained through open distance education in Zimbabwe were perceived to be effective in the classroom. Also, the findings were consistent with Jangu’s (2015) study which found that headteachers perceived classroom performance of UCC distance trained teachers to be effective. The finding that learners described CoDE teachers as demonstrating effective teaching skills is also consistent with the earlier study by Fernandez Garcia, Maulana, Inda Caro, Helms Lorenz and Garcia Perez (2019) which revealed that learners perceived teachers’ classroom environment, classroom management, and instructional clarity, differentiation, and teaching learning strategies as sufficient. However, the finding was inconsistent with that of Iqbal, Ibraheem and Hussain (n.d) who found out that the professional competencies of distance trained teachers from education programmes do not meet the set standards of quality in Pakistan.
The results of the study further gave credence to the statement read on behalf of the former Minister of Education Prof. Naana Opoku Agyemang, that the distance education programme offered by UCC is comparable to that of the regular programmes (CoDE Digest, n. d). The then Executive Secretary to the National Council for Tertiary Education (NCTE) Prof. Mahama Duwiejua who read the minister’s statement added that “distance education is not inferior to the mainstream and by the time you complete the programme you would have developed some attitudes that would equip you for the challenge ahead” (p. 8). The programmeat theCollegeis designedby experts in theirarea of specialization to equip pre service teachers with the necessary teaching skills to be able to deliver the curriculum in the classroom. This means that graduates (teachers) from the College should demonstrate pedagogical skills similar to other graduates (teachers) from different teacher training institutions.
The study also examined whether gender of distance trained teachers had influence on their perceived instructional effectiveness. Drawing conclusion on whether gender has influence on perceived instructional effectiveness is difficult. This is so because gender and perceived effective teaching tend to be varried in different context. In some societies, there is the notion that women are the nurturing typeandtherefore suit caringfor children at the elementaryschool level while in other societies, men are considered to be better teachers. Analysis of data showed that apart from professional professional (teaching and learning), there was signifcant difference in the perceptions of teachers with regard to instructional effectiveness within the context of gender. Overall, there was a statistically significant difference between male teachers with regard to the perception of instructional effectiveness. Specifically, male teachers perceived instructional effectiveness more positively than female teachers. This shows that gender has an effect on the way teachers perceive their instructional effectiveness. The reason for the difference in perception between male and female distance trained teachers is difficult to ascertain. Some scholars have attributed the difference to the fact that male and female teachers possess different teaching styles (Islahi & Nasreen, 2013). The positive outlook in the perceptions in favour of male teachers is strange because the long held view is that teaching at the elementary school level is seen as female profession. This resurrects the raging debate whether teachers perceived differently the way they teach based on
gender. The finding that gender has an effect on the perception of teachers regarding instructional effectiveness supports El Emadi, Said and Friesen (2019); Ahmed, Ambreen and Hussain (2018) whose investigations showed that there was significant difference between the male and female teachers in terms of their instructional practices. On the other hand, it contradicts Singh and Attri’s (2020) investigation which found out that male and female school teachers do not differ significantly in their instructional effectiveness. So, clearly there seems to be no agreement whether instructional effectiveness can be influenced by the gender of the teacher.
This study explored perceptions of headteachers, teachers and pupils concerning instructional effectiveness of distance trained. We adopted mixed method design to undertake the study. The study revealed that headteachers, distance trained teachers and learners generally agreed that UCC distance trained teachers are instructionally effective. It showed that distance trained teachers possess professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional values and attitudes. The findings in this study therefore appeared to suggest that distance education programme had a positive influence on the classroom practices of teachers It further indicates that the UCC distance education programme is effective and as such could be used as an alternative to traditional mode of training teachers for the education system in Ghana. Moreso, the study revealed that gender had influence on perceived instructional effectiveness of teachers in the classroom This suggests that gender is a major variable within the context of teachers’ perceptions as regards their effective instruction in the school. It is recommended that stakeholders such as parents, prospective applicants and the Ghana Education Service should consider UCC distance education programme as an alternative to the conventional education. This is due to the fact that the distance programme is able to equip service teachers with the minimum instructional competences.
The outcome of the study has significant practical implications for distance education discourse, in general, and teacher education, in particular. Distance education institutions involved in training teachers pay attention to the three domains of teachers’ instructional competence. Literature indicated that if teachers possess these characteristics and demonstrate it in their instructions, learners make significant gains in their learning outcomes. Teachers need to apprise themselves of the curriculum they transmit to students, understand that learners are different, creating enabling environment, and assessing how learners progress. Moreso, teachers need to demonstrate enthusiasm and share knowledge within the school community. Distance training institutions equip teachertrainees with these essential characteristics to be able to function well in the classroom.
Limitation of the Study: A limitation of the study was our inability to carry out classroom observations to triangulate stakeholders’ perceptions. Our inability was due to the closure of schools close to a year due to COVID 19 pandemic, hence, the findings were based on perceptions.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 75 91, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.5
Received Apr 10, 2022; Revised Jul 23, 2022; Accepted Aug 12, 2022
Graduate School of Business and Leadership, University of KwaZulu Natal Durban, South Africa
Cecile
N. Gerwel ProchesGraduate School of Business and Leadership, University of KwaZulu Natal Durban, South Africa
Abstract. This research examined the role of middle management in executing strategic plans in two colleges in a South African higher education institution (HEI). Strategy execution is a complex operational process. Flawed sense making of the strategy could lead to strategy breakdown, and challenges may occur concerning understanding and executing the strategic plans. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to examine how middle management in the two colleges at the HEI engaged in the sense making of the strategic plan. The study set out to: examine how middle management participated in the sense making of the two colleges' strategic goals; determine how middle management communicated the strategy toemployees at the two colleges, and identify the challenges middle management faced with strategy execution at the two colleges. The research employed a qualitative research approach. Interviews were conducted with a purposive non probability sample of ten middle managers in the two colleges at the HEI. Primary data were collected through semi structured interviews. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. The interviews were conducted at the middle management’s offices and lasted between 20 45 minutes. The study findings revealed that each college engaged in the sense making processes differently and that there are different understandings of the role of middle management in executing strategic plans. The study highlights theneedformiddlemanagementinthetwo collegesintheHEI to engage in training in executing strategic plans. The findings may help us understand how middle management in the two colleges executes strategy and how sense making occurs. In addition, it could assist with role clarification of university service units in implementing the strategic initiatives, as most literature focuses on strategy formulation rather than execution.
Keywords: Higher Education Institutions (HEIs); middle management; South Africa; stakeholders; strategic plans and execution
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa were a major part of the post apartheid social transformation process that changed the landscape of the South African education system through mergers of various institutions in the higher education sector (Popescu, 2015). This transformation was implemented to fulfil the criteria for the sector to compete with higher learning institutions locally and internationally, thus contributing to the internationalization of the education system Badat (2017) states that post 1994, various transformative advantages have been pursued to transform South African institutions of higher learning. Transformation is an indication of social progress (Mzangwa, 2019). One of the changes in implementing strategic plans is to guide the transformation process. In delivering well structured strategic plans, universities align with the institutional annual performance plan, contributing to national higher education policy
Middle management in organizations are the primary drivers of strategic plans; however, they often do not execute these as they should because of misinterpretation of the objectives of a strategic plan, or sometimes having limited knowledge (Van Rensburg et al., 2014). Challenges exist regarding understanding and executing strategic initiatives by middle management in the two colleges. Consequently, misunderstanding and unguided descriptions of their role occur in each college institution. The misconception influences their ability to influence subordinates to comply. Previous studies indicated that a lack of direction and alignment of a strategic plan with higher education policy hinders progress and success, which are crucial in highlighting the role of higher education in national development (Van Schalkwyk et al., 2022) This study plays a vital role in contributing to the body of knowledge on management. It will assist in understanding how middle management in the university context executes strategy and how flawed sense making may lead to strategy breakdown
The South African HEI considered in this study embarked on a new strategic plan that builds on the HEIs historical strengths and allows for further improvements to be made. The latest strategic plan provides an aspirational and robust framework for the HEI to continue to thrive in the uncertain but exciting period that lies ahead for the higher education sector in South Africa. Furthermore, the plan is a basis for developing annual operational strategies in South African HEIs. Though, there are challenges faced in middle management’s understanding and execution of the HEI’ s strategic initiatives. A lack of contextualisation of strategy and validation of roles in middle management occurs These challenges call for new models of leadership that will withstand the changes in the higher learning institutions and intricate systems implemented.
Middle management executes strategy by interpreting established strategy into action plans and objectives (Van Rensburg et al., 2014). However, middle management translates the information top management gives and should make available the resources needed to execute the strategic plans properly. According to Davies and Davies (2004), there is a growing need for middle management to exercise a decisive influence on organizations. Middle management at the two colleges of the HEI comprises administrative and technical staff members who
run the university's strategic plans. Like corporate organizational structures, middle management is treated as front line supervisors in the two colleges (John et al., 2019)
Middle management’s lack of understanding and their inability to execute the HEI’s strategic initiatives influenced their ability to persuade subordinates to comply. The strategic goals might not have resonated with all staff members’ values (Sutphen et al., 2018), and it was suggestedthat the strategy lacked context. In addition, middle management could not validate their roles due to the challenges they faced during strategic execution, neither could they exercise vital power during strategic execution because executives held the power and dictated the strategic direction (Burgelman et al., 2018)
Strategic plans are implemented in all South African higher education sectors. Strategies are indicative of the differences between organizations and institutions, showing how competitive they are and highlighting the institutions' uniqueness (Burgelman et al., 2018). Higher education institutions need to indicate to their stakeholders their uniqueness through their strategic plans by outlining their objectives to take advantage of the opportunities that globalization and internationalization have to offer, and consequently increase global competitiveness. Internationalization was identified as the critical goal of the strategic plan linked with the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR).
Higher education institutions throughout the country are undergoing reorganization to align their strategic plans with globalization and internationalization. As a result, the HEI concerned has positioned itself by investing in initiatives that respond to the global changes and the economic landscape so that it can contribute in the form of research and resources. Although there are challenges with executing strategic goals, South African higher education has been striving to be visible in Africa and globally. The challenges also affect the staff in charge of strategy execution. In this light, strategic plans often look good on paper but fail at the execution level, because of lack of resources, poor participation from all stakeholders, and the lack of understanding of the reasons for the strategic goals (Adobor, 2019). This study is relevant because it exposed the roles of middle management in strategy execution as they are supposed to be part of the critical stakeholders for implementing strategic plans at higher education institutions
Therefore, the main aim of this study was to examine how middle management in two colleges at this South African HEI engages in making sense of the University’s strategic plan Middle management in HEIs generally executes strategy by interpreting established strategy and implementing action plans based on the strategy’s objectives. According to Netz et al. (2019), there is a growing need for middle management to make fast strategic decisions under extreme pressure in organizations Thus, challenges are experienced regarding understanding and executing HEI strategic initiatives by middle management, especially under the forms of pressure that may be experienced in HEIs.
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The definition of strategy has changed over the decades because of the evolution of organizations and their values to the point where the concept of strategy has now replaced policymaking and organizational behaviour. Moreover, scholars' lack of unanimity has led to ambiguity in defining strategy concepts. In addition, there is a lack of understanding and analysis in the evolution of strategy, especially in the HEI context, because the idea of strategy in the past was based solely on operational effectiveness.
There are generic modes of vital application tools to implement strategy, used differently based on the problem. Examples of strategic tools are resource based approaches, competitive analysis, balanced scorecards, and portfolio analysis models (Rengarajan et al., 2021) But, of course, a good strategic planning process does not guarantee success until it is implemented (Tawse & Tabesh, 2021). These vital tools encapsulate all the concepts, ideas, strategies, and techniques used for strategic decision making Making a long term strategic decision in the Volatile, Unpredictable, Complex, and Ambiguous (VUCA) environment requires ownership of the strategic goals (Putro et al., 2022). Strategic decision making also requires significant resources that relate to organizational changes.
Over the years, managers have adapted strategic tools, such as Mintzberg’s Five P’s and Porter’s Five Forces, to facilitate strategy interactions. “Strategic thinking is a distinct way of thinking that utilizes intuition and creativity, with the outcome being ’an integrated perspective of the enterprise’” (Shaik & Dhir, 2020). Porter’s strategy model is widely used because of the belief that competition is aligned with strategic decisions (Kemp, 2021). Further, Nurlansa and Jati (2016) discuss Porter’s model of strategy based on microeconomics, which, despite criticism from Mintzberg and others, is still used in HEIs. Porter’s five competitive forces model of strategy is grounded on understanding a firm’s business level strategy
One of the core roles of middle management is to implement organizational strategy; thus, a strategy is a practice made possible by middle management. According to Thompson and Wolstencroft (2018), corporate organizational strategy takes an operational view compared to when discussed within an HEI because of the level of accountability that middle management has to take on in the corporate workplace to the educational sector. Furthermore, middle management's role resonates more with the organizational expectations of what they are required to perform. In addition, middle management administers and focuses on systems, accepts the status quo, and takes a short term perspective (Thompson & Wolstencroft (2018).
Several perspectives of what middle management is, have been explored in the literature. According to Van Rensburg et al. (2014), middle management's roles depict them as potential strategy drivers and mediators between individuals from different organizational units. On the other hand, when strategic plans do not succeed, middle management is viewed as hesitant to change, despite their role in staff continuity and chaos prevention (Mair & Thurner, 2008). Furthermore, Kazmi and Naaranoja (2015) confirm that senior management’s inability to apply
strategic thinking may create issues with executing strategic plans; thus, these functions are delegated to middle management Despite their crucial roles, it is not common to find a position termed as ‘middle management’ in an organization; instead, the positions may be termed as ‘operational manager’ or ‘supervisor.’
Hambrick and Lovelace (2018) argue that the concept of sense giving was discovered after the challenges that face leaders in the organization in a change management task began to be recognized. Hambrick (2007, p. 335) explains sense giving as “the process of attempting to influence the sense making and meaning construction of others toward a preferred redefinition of organizational reality.” The meaning construction implies that how middle management's information is interpreted and communicated to subordinates is the organization's decision. Logemann et al. (2019) emphasize that leadership shapes and directs the interpretation of new strategies and realities.
Middle management’s roles involve communicating and translating the information from the organizational strategy to the organizational staff. Van Rensburg et al. (2014) state that the strategy often needs to be broken down and filtered to the team This includes using slogans and catchphrases to highlight the essential aspects of the strategic goals which guide middle management when presenting ideas to employees. Rouleau (2005) defines sense making as a method whereby middle management constructs and reconstructs strategy to make sense of it for themselves and then interprets the same to the staff. This definition suggests that middle management must first break down the themes from a strategy and then apply it to relevant areas of concern. Logemann et al. (2019) add that sense giving attempts to affect sense making and meaning construction of others towards a model redefinition of organizational reality. It is a crucial stage before the execution of the strategy If issues arise during implementation, middle management can resolve them efficiently because they would have understood the basis of the strategy.
Rouleau and Balogun (2011) argue that sense making requires not only middle management’s input and expertise, but multiple stakeholders are involved in sense making of the strategy. Therefore, stakeholder analysis should occur to understand how stakeholders make sense of strategy and how they affect middle management decisions during the sense making process. McKiernan et al. (2018) concur that stakeholders are essential in the strategy process and contend that stakeholders' impact and influence on strategy are not discussed thoroughly enough in the strategy research. While stakeholders can be invisible during strategic execution, McKiernan et al. (2018) argue that stakeholders are essential in strategic management and that their influence should not be ignored
Globalization has led to growth in interdependence, interconnectedness, and flexibility across global communities. Xing (2019) argues that HEIs must be innovative in addressing specialized skills and creating excellent research opportunities driven by private and public partnerships. Universities exist in changing environments with a need to be adaptive and to respond with
exceptional strategies to meet external pressures (Ahmed et al., 2015). Rotaru et al. (2019) state that managers know the importance of strategic objectives on performance
Strategic planning is about implementing organizational changes and creating a valuable environment to excel in a specific field. However, Vuorinen (2018) highlights limited literature on the strategic tools, models, frameworks, and methods used to form strategies. In addition, strategy execution is an even less researched topic than strategy development (Vuori, 2016). Organizational changes, the absence of relevant literature on strategy development, execution and middle management, and a lack of sense making skills are some of the main issues that lead to the failure of strategic plans
Organizational change can cause anxiety among employees and result in a reluctance to perform exceptionally towards the strategic plans. McKnight and Hawkrigg (2005) state that the lack of full participation from employees may be due to the lack of understanding of the strategic plans, where employees do not feel a sense of urgency in executing a strategy and thus do not feel inspired to work towards the strategy. Poor communication also may contribute significantly to the collapse of a strategic plan. Change management is crucial as it impacts sense making processes (Li, 2018). Middle management plays an essential role in change management because they are both recipients and implementers of change (Mair & Thurner, 2008)
The best way to execute a strategy well is to be transparent about the strategic intent. Strategic intent refers to the influential position an organization wishes to take in the industry and the ‘roadmap’ to achieve this position. Unfortunately, not all organizations deliver their intent clearly to the public because they miss the essential elements of strategic execution and may focus on reorganization and structural changes (Neilson et al., 2008).
The strategic intent needs to be supported by three critical aspects: vision, mission, and organizational values. In an organization, it is essential to clarify the decision flow to ensure that the information flows to all execution levels. Neilson et al. (2008) concur that strategic plans can be executed well if service delivery matches the competitors’ level. However, there may be a misalignment between the organization's objectives and the execution of the strategy, which would result in the organization not achieving the position it wants to.
Studies show that as middle management roles are redefined, the activities involved will require specific expertise, such as the sense-making process and how best to apply the available resources to communicate the strategy. Communication is the most significant part of strategy execution, and a lack of this skill can result in the collapse of the organization's strategic goals. Organizational changes may affect the strategy, and the inability to involve all stakeholders during the developmental stages of the strategic objectives may lead to failure.
For the study we employed a qualitative research approach, drawing on a case study A qualitative research approach was suitable as it aligned with the objectives of the study The aim was to determine the in depth views and opinions of participants. An interpretivist approach was followed. Semi structured interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of ten (10) middle managers at the relevant HEI, namely school operating managers, principal programme officers, and technical managers at their respective campuses in Durban. The interviews comprised open ended questions, which were developed after analysing the literature. Semi structured interviews permitted participants to express their opinions and views, and data collected from the interviews were analysed using thematic analysis Thematic analysis is a descriptive, qualitative approach to data analysis. The study also focused on identifying themes and patterns of behaviour when middle management executed strategy to gain insight into and an overview of specific areas related to strategy (McTavish, 2006) The first step in collecting data is to draw on transcribed conversations, either in the form of direct quotes or paraphrased.
Thematic data analysis was conducted, (cf. Vaismoradi et al., 2013), according to the following steps:
• Transcribe the interview and read the transcripts several times.
• Generate codes systematically across the data set according to the subcategories.
• Collate codes into relevant research themes; the term theme must be associated with a unit or domain.
• Generate a thematic map based on the codes.
• Define and name themes; additionally, discover themes and sub themes that are part of analysing the text (Ryan & Bernard, 2003)
• Select extracts relating to the objectives and research questions and draft a report.
A covering letter was obtained from the HEI, and the Research Office granted ethical clearance approval for this study at the university. All principles relating to ensuring participants' anonymity and confidentiality were strictly adhered to Interviews were recorded and then accurately transcribed, facilitating credibility and trustworthiness.
Four themes were identified, and patterns of behaviour were noted when the strategy was executed by middle management: (1) strategy; (2) position; (3) sense making; (4) training and development. Each of these themes is discussed below.
Knowledge of the strategy is a theme that was evident because participants could explain the strategic concepts and definitions and knew the details of the strategic plans Participants themselves needed to comprehend the strategy at the operations level.
The participants viewed the strategic plan as a vision, a five year plan, with the values of an institute for higher learning and operations aligned to the institution Participants did not feel the strategic plan belonged to them and they should own it. However, they acknowledged the multiple stakeholders involved in consultation before executing the strategy. Participants expressed the opinion that the more they knew about how the strategic goals fitted in with all employees, the better they could communicate these to the staff confidently. The participants’ knowledge of the strategic plan was technical and operational; they did not fully identify it with their positions.
Participation in strategic plans is a sub theme that emerged after the participants had explained their participation in and inputs regarding the strategic plan initiatives and projects. Middle management in the two colleges highlighted that they had to apply their skills to be full participants in the university's strategic planning, despite little training.
I support this one [strategic plan] because it encompasses both supports of professional staff and academic, previously [it] supported academics, and professional staff would not know how they fit in. (R2)
When the strategic plan was first drafted, the leadership of the university had not shown any interest in including professional service staff in the strategic plan engagements. Engagements related to the planning of the strategy had initially not included middle management; therefore, it was not easy for middle management to participate fully with enthusiasm and to know the roles they then had to play in executing the strategy
The overwhelming majority of participants indicated that discussing the strategy with staff was part of their job profile and a critical factor in strategy execution. While a process should be adopted to communicate the initiatives taken to implement the strategy between the two colleges, no consistent method was used. Most participants preferred to have meetings to discuss the policies and documents with staff input, using PowerPoint presentations provided by Human Resources, or created their PowerPoint presentations based on the policy documents. One of the respondents said: We had a meeting to present. Staff was allowed to internalize and ask where they fit in, as leadership, we then explained where each staff fits in and what it means to them. (R2)
Participants felt that the meetings could not be profitable if middle management did not understand the content of the strategic goals and, most importantly, how each staff member could participate in the strategy. Participants confirmed that each college understood the strategic goals' narrative differently and communicated separately to its staff members. Nevertheless, the standard means of communication in both colleges were engagement in different forums and thorough interrogation of the strategic plan with staff members.
Findings reveal that middle management in the two colleges emphasized specific strategic goals because of the drive that came from each college’s leadership team and their passion for a particular purpose Higher education changes are
revolutionary; globalization and internationalization are significant drivers for developing and executing strategic goals. Deans and heads of schools in the two colleges are driven by these trends of advancing research regionally and globally. However, other strategic goals involving professional service staff should also be operated with the same passion.
This subtheme emerged when participants spoke about the challenges middle management in the two colleges experienced during the strategy execution. Initially, challenges were encountered when the strategy was planned and introduced. One of these was that staff unions had opportunities for input and made their views known regarding some of the strategic goals, which posed a threat to the strategic plans. Afterward, participants also encountered challenges in selecting from the action list during execution of the strategy, because leadership of the two colleges did not consider how each member contributed to the strategic plan's success Participants indicated that the staff was only doing the bare minimum because there was mixed information from the unions and their line managers. For instance, one of the participants said: There are some members of staff that take it seriously, there is a staff who do the bare minimum, and those are problematic ones, they take it to the unions, and they are supported. (R3)
The theme was to show how much consultation was done across all middle management and how many participated in formulating and implementing the strategic goals. Institutions of higher learning are faced with challenges of delivering excellent service to all stakeholders: students, government, and communities. Participants mentioned that as drivers of strategic plans, they recognized that they were under pressure to participate fully in the plans to achieve the university's goals. All these plans spoke to the university landscape, which was unstable and problematic Participants added that full participation of middle management is integrally linked to teaching and learning excellence
Participants mentioned the leadership of the two colleges, as the core participants in the implementation of the strategy, and they revealed the role of leadership in the execution of strategic goals as paramount. They believed that college leaders should play the role of facilitators and guides in strategy execution. Participants assumed that for a strategic plan to materialize, leadership should have been visible and open about their plans. Also, the two colleges' leadership at the HEI needed to take centre stage in communicating and providing as much information and direction as possible for middle management to better execute the strategy. Transformational leaders act as a bridge between leaders and followers to develop a clear understanding of followers’ interests, values, and motivations. The strategy was well thought off because we were involved; the VC was more involved and did campus visits, and looked at the challenges… review company goals. (R7)
It was evident that participants understood their role, specifically school operations managers, and why they were part of the strategy execution. However,
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they felt much more responsibility than the college deans and heads of school who were part of the strategy development
As School Managers, we double as Dean’s assistants. Deans should run with the strategy, [as] I take the baton from the Dean and make sure there is buy in with the staff. He communicates with me as his assistant and [I] communicate to various schools. (R2)
Role clarification was a subtheme developed when it became clear that middle management endured extra workloads and a lack of clarity on how the service units contributed to the strategic goals. It was evident that participants understood their role, specifically school operations managers, and why they were part of the strategy execution. However, they felt that there was much more responsibility in their position compared to the Dean/HoS, who was part of the development of the strategy
Interpretation of the strategy was recognized because of the explanation of sense making as a concept and a process that middle management in the two colleges had to operationalize. Participants engaged in forums or cluster meetings during staff meetings to interpret what was communicated by top management. The participants in one of the colleges applied the same method of meetings and forums, during which they went through the strategic documents sent by human resources and corporate affairs. Nevertheless, they did not understand the concept of sense making.
I meet with my staff frequently at once and present whatever is important from the strategy because not all the information there is relevant to all staff. I then send emails and a reminder as we go over the year. Constantly, the staff needs to be reminded of what is happening in the University and how they can benefit and be of help to the strategy. (R9)
However, participants were expected to interpret a concept they did not understand. One of the participants indicated that they did not fully understand the viewpoint of the college is regarding the comprehensive university strategy. The respondent felt there was no indication of the link between the college specific strategies and the university strategy.
It is difficult, because most of the time they say, ’management said’ , so staff members lose sight from CHS, we should have the vision to support the university vision and filter it down to our school ………. Even though we have an overall strategy, CHS needs to have our vision aligned with the University. It must be unique from other colleges. (R7)
Most participants had to convince staff that the new strategy was inclusive across all staff. However, this was proven difficult because the communication or information provided was mainly geared to academic staff. Additionally, the emphasis on research outputs excluded professional staff in the two colleges, because they did not understand how it concerned them
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They felt like it is for academics, they do not know how they fit into the strategic plan, I tried to explain to them, but they feel not much is said about technical staff. (R1)
The participants mentioned a lack of training and development before executing the strategic plan. Training and development before the execution of the strategy would ensure efficiency in executing the strategic goals. The participants indicated that staff development was strongly linked to executing the college and the university's strategic plans. Middle management in the two colleges required adequate resources and information to execute the strategy efficiently. Participants emphasized the need for training to enable them to execute the strategy well in a standard manner across the university. The training was considered vital to prevent strategic goals from being misinterpreted or interpreted differently across the university Capacitate on how to do things and communicate the strategy. (R8)
The responses indicated that performance management in the two colleges was connected to executing the university's strategic goals. A few participants emphasized meeting their crucial performance area (KPA) targets linked to the university's strategic objectives. They stated that they would be viewed as poor performers if they did not meet these. They stressed that college leadership emphasized strategic goals, which put tremendous pressure on middle management to perform optimally.
It will affect performance management in a hard way. Listen, we are judged on how well you execute a challenge or a task. Therefore, I will not get any high scoring if I do not take this strategy seriously. I will not have performed to the expected level, and that can ruin my job in the University. (R9)
The study revealed that middle management in the HEI colleges was a strategy driver and had a strategic role in executing the strategy. Leadership in the two colleges, therefore, should, provide vision and direction to staff at the institution. However, the literature fails to highlight how middle management interprets and codes the information delegated to them by leadership. The study's findings indicate a high responsibility for middle management to excel at their operational duties and execute the university's strategic plans.
The research findings were contextualized by comparison with other studies on sense making and strategic plans available in the academic literature. This study further showed that the government's institutional arrangements shape how the institution should be structured, regulated, and financed. The concept of sense giving is mainly understood in an organizational context, with leaders providing a view of reality to their network (Mirbabaie et al., 2020)
It was found that the concept of ‘ sense giving’ came about after organizational change of management tasks because each time there was a change in leadership, new strategic plans were given to the organization. It was also found that sense giving changes how information is written and articulated. This information indicates that putting meaning into action needs a collective understanding and cognitive application. The findings further showed that there were planners and
doers in the organization and that a breakdown of information happens if there is no continuous learning and skills development. Failing of strategic plans might be caused by a lack of understanding by executors of the plan, namely middle management.
Communication channels, such as e mails and staff meetings, were available for middle management. However, understanding the strategic plan was more important, because this allowed the easy flow of information between middle management and staff during engagement sessions. As stated, strategy tools and frameworks are crucial for managers to navigate their business environment and formulate strategies. Middle management at the HEI did not use strategic tools; however, the leadership of the colleges used these when developing the strategic plan. Therefore, some scholars argue that there is a need for tools and decision making frameworks that would flow to middle management and are suited to these specific changes in the business environment (Rengarajan et al., 2021)
There was no motivation for the staff to participate fully in the strategic plans because they did not understand their roles and how they fitted into the execution of the university's strategic plans. Strategy development should be an inclusive process. Middle management in the two colleges had a big task, especially in explaining how each member was part of the bigger plan and how they could benefit from the strategic plan.
The study findings indicate that not only were the objectives set, achieved, but an understanding was gained of the workload that middle management faced. Further, the study revealed that all colleges differ regarding their information flow. The results showed how much responsibility middle management carried in executing strategic plans.
The study examined the role of middle management during the execution of the strategic plan at an HEI. HEIs throughout the country are undergoing reorganization; increasingly, their strategic plans are aligned with globalization and internationalization. As a result, HEIs have positioned themselves by investing in initiatives that respond to global changes and the economic landscape to contribute to research and resources. Although there are challenges with executing strategic goals, South African higher education has been striving to be visible in Africa and globally. The challenges faced in this reorganization affect staff in charge of strategyexecution. In view of this, strategic plans are often sound on paper, but fail at the execution level because of a lack of resources, lack of participation from all stakeholders, and, primarily, poor understanding of the reasons for the strategic goals (Adobor, 2019). This study is relevant because it investigated the roles of middle management in strategy execution in the HEI context. This study is especially relevant as universities have become more ‘corporatized’ over the years. Middle management should be part of the critical stakeholders in implementing strategic plans at an HEI.
5.1.1Contextualisingthe strategy and validating middle management’s roles
Middle management in the two colleges should attend the management committee meetings with the college deans and heads of school to get first hand information to pass down to the staff, and should not merely rely on what the college deans and heads of school have passed on to them. Further, middle management in the two colleges can provide insights to these committees on pressing matters, because they have first hand information on these issues. Middle management in the two colleges was found not to have a competitive mindset aligned with the strategic plans. They ought to be strategic executors based on their position at the university and their position as line managers of professional support staff.
This study revealed that a lack of top management support influenced the drive for executing a strategic plan. Strategic thinking should be applied a cultivated skill developed and mastered over time. Middle management should combine analysis, exploration, and understanding elements to solve complex issues and build planning capacity. Developing planning capacity guarantees teamwork across all teams and between the colleges' middle management and leadership. A strategy requires a new set of behaviour, resulting from training workshops and engagement with the strategic policy documents. Strategic plans are best executed if the behaviour change has not been initiated by middle management.
5.1.2
The communication of the strategic plans was conducted on online platforms, and no face was attached to the plans. Institutions of higher learning have advanced technology that can apply operational strategies to communicate with employees consistently. The staff could not identify who was part of the strategic plan. The strategic initiatives and projects are numerous, and employees, therefore, become confused about what other staff do and how they support these initiatives.
Strategic plans applied in different spheres and at different stages should be visible to all staff in the institution. The spheres are from the planning stages until the strategy's complete execution. The stages are embedded in the organizational culture and collective experience of previous and current strategies Strategies are based on position and resources; therefore, emphasis on objects and people working on particular goals should be visible and transparent. Leaders at HEIs must attach a face to the strategy by doing campus visits and roadshows to show that the strategy is happening. They should also emphasize that all the initiatives require full participation from everyone. However, in this study, there was not enough information provided to staff regarding at which stage the strategic plan initiatives in the colleges were. Some initiatives were not visible to all staff members because they were not communicated fully throughout the colleges.
Constant communication will prevent the challenges ensuing from unclear strategy. Added to the flawed strategic thinking, lack of top management support in the university initiatives, and unclear delineation of planning and executing the strategic goals hamper implementation. A perception exists that there are too many initiatives ensuing from different service units, re allocation of resources,
and a lack of understanding of the organizational structure and middle management role in the strategic plan.
The current study used a purposive non probability sample of middle management in specific colleges in a higher education institution For future studies, it will be beneficial to use a mixed methods approach. A representative sample could examine the role of middle management in other HEIs. There are several focused areas that this study did not address, and they include strategy development in educational institutions and sense making as a concept Future studies could be conducted at different universities in South Africa to investigate the main drivers of the strategy and the degree to which middle management is involved in driving the strategic plan.
It will also be valuable to research the importance of leadership visibility or presence during strategy execution. Linked to this is the need to examine how the various stakeholders (academics, administrators, and leadership) should work together during strategy formulation and execution. Finally, it will be worthwhile to research how organizations process the management of knowledge or practices to sustain a competitive advantage during the COVID 19 pandemic and other natural disasters (Mahdi & Nassar, 2021)
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1. What is the University’s strategy for the next five years?
2. How informed do you feel about the University's Strategic Goals?
3. Have you attended any of the presentations regarding the Strategic Plan? What are your thoughts?
4. How does the Strategic Plan fit into your current position in middle management?
5. Do you feel that leadership of the University communicates enough with you about your Strategic Plans?
6. How do you engage in the sense making of the strategic plan?
7. How do you communicate the strategy to employees?
8. What are the challenges that you face with strategy execution?
9. What recommendations can be provided for middle management to improve the strategy execution process?
10. What are the existing initiatives that are strategically aligned in the University?
11. Do you think the strategy aligned initiatives are clear to the Schools in your College?
12. What is the level of enthusiasm or participation from your staff in strategic initiatives of the University?
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 92 108, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.6
Received Apr 8, 2022; Revised Aug 11, 2022; Accepted Aug 23, 2022
University of Rwanda College of Education, African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (UR CE, ACEITLMS), Rwamagana, Rwanda.
Emmanuel Gakuba
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Rwamagana, Rwanda
John Sentongo
Makerere University, Department of Science, Technical and Vocational Education (DSTVE), Kampala, Uganda
Abstract. When engaging learners in searching and designing, the learning materials are of paramount importance, in order to help the learners in the achievement of academic goals and objectives. However, learners being the primary consumers of chemistry content delivered by the teachers, ought to beware of the learning materials that can facilitate their learning. This can well be done if learners participate fully in searching and designing learning materials that correspond with the lesson content. The purpose of this research was to use a Hands on Instructional Model (HIM) designed to help secondary school teachers actively to engage learners in searching, designing, and manipulating locally made learning materials, in order to facilitate the face to face learning of chemistry concepts. The study employed Design Based Research (DBR) in designing, refining, and implementing HIM, as well as the learning materials designed by the learners following a pragmatic philosophical world view. The data were collected and analysed by using qualitative research techniques; and the research instruments included Lesson Observation Protocol, semi structured interviews, and Focus Group Discussions The study involved three intact senior science classes deliberately selected from three Dar es Salaam community secondary schools. The results revealed that learners become actively engaged in the lesson, when the learning materials designed by themselves are used. They used materials, like empty water bottles of different sizes, syringes
* Corresponding author: Esther Samwel Kibga, jeyden.janell@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial Non Derivatives International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
of different sizes, rubber bands, and pegs to prepare locally made apparatus that served as beakers, burettes, droppers, and funnels in titration hands on activities. In this regard, we recommend teachers involve learners in searching and designing the learning materials to be used in the teaching and learning process, in order to enhance chemistry content mastery and the acquisition of soft learning skills
Keywords: community secondary schools; hands on activities; learners’ active engagement; learning materials
Learning materials have been used in the chemistry classrooms since ancient times. Learning materials are the tools that can be used by instructors and teachers within the classroom context, in order to facilitate the learning and understanding of concepts among learners (Arop et al., 2019; Khalil & Elkhider, 2016; Wang, 2021). These materials are mostly used to support teachers in achieving the objectives that are set for a particular lesson (Choppin et al., 2020; Kanellopoulou & Darra, 2018)
According to Hayat et al. (2017), these materials make learning real, enjoyable, practical, and pleasurable for the learners. Also, learning materials facilitate the illustration and reinforce the acquisition of skills, viewpoint, perspective, and ideas (Arop et al., 2019). Furthermore, research has indicated that a large number of learners are not interested in perusing science subjects at the secondary school level (Nbina & Mmaduka, 2014; O saki, 2007). One of the noted causes is the inappropriate and insufficient learning materials used to facilitate the learning of these concepts.
This may result in the inability to understand these concepts (Ko et al., 2013). Notwithstanding the need for learning materials, Mafumiko (2006), pointed out that the Tanzanian government supplies limited instructional resources to community secondary schools; and as such, there cannot be enough for all the learners in all the schools (Machumu, 2011; Nbina & Mmaduka, 2014). Therefore, there is a need to involve learners in designing locally made learning materials that are appropriate for teaching and learning chemistry. This would go a long way to improve the quality of chemistry teaching, as stipulated in SDG4 (Jackson et al., 2013).
Successful implementation of the chemistry curriculum is dependent on the learning materials available for both teachers and learners in lesson sessions. According to Khalil and Elkhider (2016), the term learning material means all theoretical, practical and skill oriented resources, which are accessible and available to facilitate the learning acquisition of various learning skills. In addition, learning materials bring the hope of delivering educational facts and experiences vividly and widely with realism that the printed media could hardly achieve (Arop et al., 2019)
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For instance, a chemistry teacher can barely explain and describe a pipette, burette or any other learning equipment in chemistry; but it is hard to tell the learners what exactly a pipette or a burette look like, without a picture or physical equipment for clarity (Choppin et al., 2020). The picture of a pipette or burette is considered a learning material that would help the students to comprehend the concepts behind their use. Also, these materials are among the materials needed by teachers and other instructors to assess the knowledge acquired by their learners from the lesson (Ko et al., 2013). Therefore, learning materials have a vital impact on the learning process and the acquisition of various skills.
Research in chemistry education has indicated that the introduction of modern and innovative methods and teaching learning have led to developments in the overall system of education (Aydin Günbatar & Demirdöğen, 2017; Stammes et al., 2020). However, it is assumed that using the hands on strategy motivates learners’ active engagement in the lesson by making learning a more realistic and exciting experience. Working through hands on in line with a popular proverb, which states ‘I hear, I forget’; ‘I see, I remember and ‘I do, I understand’. Besides, Cirenza et al. (2018) and Holstermann et al. (2010) identified experimentation, the manipulation of symbols and objects, as well as learners’ interaction, as being among thelearners’ hands on activities that can assist in the learning of chemistry.
According to them, the respective hands on activities reflect on how they can enhance learning. Schwichow et al. (2016) further highlighted that learning can be accomplished through a careful and thoughtful selection of appropriate teaching strategies that would help in promoting students’ ability to create the scientific and mathematical meaning of concepts rather than the passive reception of ideas. Therefore, the learning of the subject matter can be strengthened and emphasized when a learner experiences a learning activity as enjoyable, pleasant, stimulating, and relevant through the design process (Stammes et al., 2020)
Searching and designing learning materials increases learners' knowledge, thereby enabling them to learn how to think scientifically and understand how scientists work in natural life (Alkan, 2019). According to Ibe et al. (2021), deliberate practice and the continuous engagement of chemistry students in the design process are needed, so that learners become familiar with the content. According to Valdez et al. (2015), these practices are more effective when a learner is in an interactive environment and critically analyses the problem. An interactive classroom environment gives room for learners to exercise their ideas, knowledge and competencies (Holstermann et al., 2010; Wood, 2006). Wood (2006) asserts that group discussions create an active learning environment that improves students’ ability to work and communicate with others, as well as to develop awareness and control of their thinking. In addition, (Holstermann et al., 2010) highlighted that when learners work in groups, it is possible to predict various solutions for a given task; since they share experiences.
The fact that learners learn through their experiences is not new. John Dewey (1859 1952) in his pragmatic theory of education posited that the experiences brought by learners in a classroom setting, from the outside environment, have a
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great impact on their learning (Sikandar, 2016). For Dewey, the generation of knowledge takes place in real and meaningful situations, through the spontaneous activities done by learners (Rizk, 2011). Besides, Levy Vygotsky (1920s) in the socio cultural theory stated that learners' experiences are sharpened in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), in the presence of a mentor (Fani and Ghaemi, 2011; Lui, 2012).
The major idea is that learners learn best when working together with others in collaboration; and it is by such shared endeavours with more experienced persons that learners learn and internalize new concepts, and skills (Fani and Ghaemi, 2011; Glassman, 2001; Lui, 2012)
1.2 The statement of the Problem Chemistry, as a subject, is a real life science subject, based on the concepts that comprise it. By its nature, most concepts in chemistry are practically oriented and its teaching and learning really require the use of teaching and learning materials. However, the literature has shown that teachers have been depending on the excessive use of words to express and convey chemical ideas (Stammes et al., 2020; Udogu & Enukora, 2017), theories, principles and fact related skills and competencies to learners during teaching, which is completely teacher centred via the lecture method (Sevian & Talanquer, 2014)
Additionally, teachers have played a role in ensuring that learning materials are available in chemistry lessons, although not enough for all the learners, especially in classrooms with a large number of learners. This method of teaching denies learners their active engagement in learning chemistry, which makes some students consider it as a white man's "magic' (Udogu & Enukora, 2017), yet chemistry is the science that they experience in their everyday life. Also, the majority of individual learners in chemistry lessons only end up observing the learning materials, but not by using them to enhance their learning of various chemistry topics.
Nevertheless, the Tanzanian competence based curriculum emphasizes the involvement of learners in practical exercises during science teaching and learning, by using various kinds of material resources. But researchers like (Nbina & Mmaduka, 2014), have reported that there are inadequate materials for teaching chemistry in schools. The above assertion prompted us to acknowledge the need to try out the use of locally made learning materials during the teaching of concepts. The problem of this work is to find out whether secondary school learners can search and design learning materials by using the materials available in the environment, in order to enhance their active engagement in hands on activities during chemistry lessons
This research project answered the following questions:
1. How do learners engage s in searching and designing locally available learning materials through a Hands on Instructional model?
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2.1
In this study, a Hands on Instructional Model (HIM) was designed through Design Based Research DBR) when following a pragmatic philosophical view. A HIM prototype designed in this study guided chemistry teachers to lead students in designing locally made instructional materials that were used in the hands on activities of chemistry lessons. However, the four DBR stages suggested by Reeves (2000), which combine research, design, and practice (Bowler & Large, 2008) were preferred.
Bowler and Large (2008) highlighted that Design Based Research holds promise, as a research design thatcan bridge the theory/practice gap in the real educational world. The four steps helped to connect the learners’ class activities and the use of the designed materials, in order to meet the chemistry content outcomes.
This study was performed in three community secondary schools in Dar es salaam, Tanzania The sample for this study involved students’ purposely selected from three intact science classes from the selected community secondary, schools. Furthermore, the names of the students were not used in the data analysis, but rather they were identified by using pseudonyms. The implementation of this study was facilitated by three teachers (two females and one male), with an average teaching experience of five years.
This research was conducted from March to June 2019; and it employed a qualitative research approach. The research instruments for the data collection process included Lesson Observation Protocol (LOP), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) as guides for students (Appendix A), and semi structured interviews as a guide for teachers (Appendix B)
A total of 42 face to face lessons (14 lessons in each school) were observed in all three schools. The researchers acted as non participatory observers, in order to avoid influencing the process of data collection in the course of the lesson observation. Also, during each lesson observed, we identified the resources used by the teachers; and we observed the learners, as they were interacting with the instructional materials locally made by using the materials from the home environment during hands on activities.
Furthermore, the FGDs in each school were conducted once a week after lesson observation; and a total of 21 FGD interviews were conducted in all three schools, seven per school. Each FGD comprised six students; and it lasted for approximately 30 45 minutes on average; and this time was considered sufficient to reduce any initial anxiety. In addition, a total of 21 interviews with the teacher
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2. How do learners engage themselves in chemistry hands on activities by using learning materials designed from locally available learning materials?
were guided by the interview guide; and they were conducted, corresponding to seven interviews per school.
All the teacher interviews were conducted after every observation of a lesson, in order to evaluate the lesson and the trend of the designed intervention. All FGDs and the interviews were audio recorded; and this helped the researchers to elicit both students' and teachers’ experiences during the chemistry lessons.
The credibility of all the instruments was checked by two experienced science educators, in order to ascertain their ability to produce credible outcomes and their inter rater reliability was established. To establish the inter rater reliability, the external researchers were ‘raters’ that were familiar with qualitative research. They rated the instruments and recommended some changes. Their recommendations were effected after reaching a consensus before data the collection. Furthermore, the conformability of the information obtained was observed through member checking (Basit, 2003; Yin, 2009), in order to ensure that all the information obtained was based on the participants’ responses.
Furthermore, audit trials were done throughout the data analysis process, in order to ensure that the study’ s findings portray accurately the respondents' views (Yin, 2009). Also, triangulation of the research information obtained by using different instruments (Cohen et al., 2007; Creswell, 2014; Mertens, 2010; Yin, 2009) was done, to ensure the credibility and the ,accuracy of the research findings.
The analysis of the data collected in this study was done concurrently with the data collection process (Creswell, 2014) daily. Constant reflection on the information obtained from the interviews, the FGDs, and lesson observations were done to monitor the ongoing process of data collection and to identify those issues that needed clarity and follow up during the intervention process. Then, the analysis was performed thematically (Braun et al., 2016) in which the whole process began by transcription of the audio data, translation of some transcripts and field notes from Swahili to the English language, as well as organization of all the data, according to their types, thereby forming a database for the inductive coding process (Yin, 2009)
Generally, the entire coding was done by one of the researchers, and all the codes and the themes were assessed independently by two raters, who were part of the research team. The coded information was sorted and sifted through, in order to identify similar and coherent phrases (Braun et al., 2016), as well as the relationships between variables and patterns, in order to differentiate distinct and common sequences of categories in line with the research question (Basit, 2003; Baxter & Jack, 2008). Also, triangulation of information from lesson observations, teacher interviews, and students' FGDs was done, in order to capture the different dimensions of the same theme (Braun et al., 2016) and to minimize the researchers’ biases. Lastly, meaningful information that gave a better interpretation of the data about the research questions was obtained from the developed themes and sub themes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
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The analysis of the data from students’ FGDs, observation protocol, and teachers’ interview transcripts resulted in the generation of three themes for better presentation and interpretation of the gathered information. These themes included the lesson plan and presentation, the search and the design. As mentioned earlier, the questions were asked of both the teachers and the students; these focused on the active engagement strategies and resources, rather than on the chemistry content.
All the lessons were planned and presented, according to a competency based framework from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT). The teachers prepared a written lesson plan for each lesson that was to be observed. Additionally, the learning objectives (success criteria and the learning intentions) for each lesson were well stated in the lesson plan; and these were shared with students before and after every lesson. The sharing of the success criteria and the learning intentions was seldom done by the teachers before the beginning of the study.
The observations done at the beginning of the teaching and learning process using the designed intervention revealed that the teachers mostly preferred the lecture method. For example, it was observed that teacher A was largely using a textbook to teach; while teachers B and C used notes, which are not currently available. When they come to chemistry lessons they mostly talk, write on the board, and rarely involve any of the students. “……Surely with this number of students, I just use my Oxford textbook to prepare notes to at least cover the content in the allocated time. The preparation of the materials is a challenge for some reasons. …..Firstly, it consumes a lot of time, which could have been that of used to teach ….therefore, with this number of students in the class, the preparation of the learning materials is another disturbance. ….”again we have too much to cover” (Interview, Teacher C).
“ Frankly, I cannot pretend that it is not hard for us to prepare the lesson notes with their corresponding learning materials; since we have too much to cover. To do all those activities requires one to search from various sources, in order to understand those materials that correspond with the lesson content” (Interview, Teacher B).
The students were only involved when they were supposed to answer questions, such as “Are we together? Understood? Is it clear? Can I carry on? However, the answers given by the students were also general, which could not be enough to verify whether the concept was clear. However, the teacher could carry on with the lesson. The students in FGDs expressed a similar view, as the statements below demonstrate.
Carol: “Our teacher normally teaches and gives us notes to write”.
Jeff: “The learning style you introduced is new; I can say we are not familiar with it”
Halima: ”We are many in the class, so we cannot be involved in classroom activities”
Khauthal: “Our teacher normally talks and writes notes on the blackboard for us to copy…..It is very rare to be asked questions, or for us to get involved in discussions among ourselves.”
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However, with time, interactive teaching methods like group discussions, paired with some hands on activities, were adopted. Teachers allocated students in respective groups before the lessons based on students' needs, and abilities, as well as ensured gender balance. During the group discussions, students were observed to be able to design various learning materials and solve some problems in the given activities of the lessons within their groups; and they were sometimes told to answer directly, or to make attempts on the blackboard. “….first allocating students in groups makes them come together, and to combine their ideas to work for the materials and attempt various working activities that are given to them. These days, I don’t use much energy to engage the students in the lesson. Together in their groups, they prepare and present some concepts related to these topics that you have put more emphasis on in your work. In their groups, they co operated and used the learning materials they design to ensure the questions given to them are well prepared and ready for presentation to the whole class ” (Interview, Teacher C)
Also, students were able to freely move around to check on the materials prepared by other peers and how they were able to implement the prepared equipment Besides, individual students could collaborate with other group members to ensure that the equipment is designed, based on the learning intentions and the objectives of a particular lesson.
The learning intentions and the objectives for a lesson were always shared by the teachers before and after the lessons, in order to give students the prerequisite knowledge of content to be learnt in the coming lesson; and to be able to associate the content with the materials in their environment that could enhance their learning. The students prepared themselves for the next lesson by going through what was to be taught and searching for the instructional materials that corresponded with the specific chemistry content. However, as time went by during the intervention, both the teachers and the students seemed to enjoy the use of hands on activities; because they both realized that the teaching strategy was possible to implement; and it was fruitful. This means that there was a gradual paradigm shift; from being more teacher centred to becoming learner centred; and the students had great joy while searching for their instructional learning materials.
This matter is amplified in the teachers’ and students’ statements below “After the guidance given to my class during the orientation, searching for materials related to what is supposed to be learned has been engaging, especially when students are aware of what is going to be learned in the next lesson”(Interview, Teacher C).
“I have learnt that it is important for the materials used in teaching and learning to be interesting and to motivates learning in classroom sessions; and that it can continuously be used by students outside the classroom” (Interview, Teacher B).
“…if the objectives of the lessons are shared with the students, they normally take their time to search for appropriate learning materials….You see these days, the syllabus is
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available to the students; and they always know what is going to be taught in advance. Therefore, being familiar with the content, designing of materials does not become an issue to the students.” (interview, Teacher A)
To complement the two statements given by the teachers, Jeff and Vanesa (not real names) in different FGDs sessions said: Jeff: “….Normally at the end of each lesson, our teacher informs us about what is going to be learned in the coming chemistry lesson…. By doing that, we can easily look for materials that would facilitate active participation in the lesson and co operation in our specific groups ”
Vanesa: “…..Interestingly, these days you can pace on your own and interact with the content, while thinking of the materials that correspond with it….. Frankly, these days it is not a hustle to understand what the teacher teaches…..because when the teacher comes to the class, it becomes like repetition…… this kind of repetition strengthens our understanding.”
The lesson observations revealed that different materials obtained from the learners’ environment were partly used to engage learners in mole concept lessons and to design/prepare various volumetric analytical apparatus. It was also realized that when students get the proper teacher guidance, they fully engage themselves in hands on activities, as well as searching for quality learning materials.
The teachers said in the interview: “ imagine what happens when students, who are the major concern of the learning processs, are positioned in a role of a manufacturer…..this time manufacturing equipment that is going to be used for their learning. You would find them concentrating and they would dedicate much of their efforts to designing neat equipment. ….for instance, when you assign them to make a pipette from fabricated materials, students would do their best effort to make a well calibrated apparatus ” (Interview, Teacher A)
“ …when students are given a task to design learning materials, they take time to think, read, explore and come out with materials appropriate for their learning. Sometimes, the task of designing the materials is taken as competition between themselves, whereby each group desires to design better and more durable materials than any other group ” (Interview, Teacher B)
“……Well, if students are engaged in various activities in the lesson, they feel belongingness; and they tend to own the learning process, so, yeah, they seem to enjoy the making of learning materials; and they can show that they’ve participated in the process by looking at how they practically use those materials in hands on activities.” (Interview, Teacher C)
The students managed to make some apparatus on their own by using home based materials. They used materials like empty waterbottles of different sizes, syringes of different sizes, rubber bands, and pegs to prepare the locally made apparatus used during volumetric analytical lessons. Some of the apparatus
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served as beakers, burettes, droppers, and funnels. Some of these materials are published in (https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/10856 and https://doi.org/10.36681/tused.2021.93).
With the appropriate apparatus made by the students, teachers prepared solutions for simple titration experiments, which students used to perform the experiments in their respective groups. This was directly expressed in the FGDs excerpts as follows:
Katoto: “….I enjoy using materials, which I had used my own ideas to make.”
Marina: “…if the system like this continues, I think we will be able to design even complex equipment that could not be imagined, simply by using the materials we see around us.”
Niki: “….these days I ask my father a lot of questions, if I fail in some steps or I don’t get an idea that could guide me throughout the process. This is because I want to design good materials. Sometimes I ask my eldest sister; or I search through the internet until I succeed in designing the materials I want.”
Lincoln: I managed to make a burette, simply by using a transparent pipe, rubber, the tube of a pen and a clothes’ peg. I only faced some challenges in labelling the exact volume. But when I came to school I used the pipette in the laboratory to calibrate the volume.”
Considering the responses from both teachers and students, as well as the observations made in different lessons, it is clear that when students are well guided to engage in hands on activities, they can own the learning process and help each other throughout the lesson. Not only so, but they have also participated in lesson preparation by searching and designing learning materials.
This paper gives evidence that it is possible to successfully engage students in the chemistry lesson process by involving them in searching and designing the appropriate learning materials, in order to render the learning process active and engaging. Engaging students in searching for appropriate materials relevant to a particular subject matter makes the process of learning continuous. Teaching chemistry content should not only be the priority of learning; but chemistry teachers can value the design of learning materials as a way to present chemistry content knowledge to their students (Stammes et al., 2020)
Students can continue being in a learning mood outside the classroom environment, especially when they associate different materials in their immediate environment with the subject of interest. Searching and designing learning materials is a very useful and important aspect of the learning process, despite this not being included in the learning standards (Vos et al., 2010). For instance, thinking of what materials can be used to make apparatus like conical flasks, pipettes, burettes, and measuring cylinders remains a challenge in students’ minds all the time, until they successfully make such apparatus. In the context of this study, therefore, designing learning materials was considered to be a part of the learning process. (Stammes et al., 2020)
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Students who participated in the study had no previous experience in searching and designing instructional materials. Teachers used to design only a few learning materials that were only used for demonstration of the lesson content. The few learning materials designed by teachers could not be enough for all the students in one classroom session. This was evident at the beginning of the intervention. In the interviews and FGD conducted in the first week of the intervention, both the students and the teachers reported how, initially, they saw the intervention as an inconvenience, interference, and time consuming exercise. As the intervention progressed, both the teachers and the students became accustomed to the intervention; and eventually, they enjoyed the lessons.
However, researchers recommend the use of design to help students develop an understanding of any new concepts (Alkan, 2019). This has led to some countries dedicating effort to the design of learning materials, in order to stimulate context based chemistry education (Prins et al., 2018) During the intervention, students managed to prepare the apparatus used for titration procedures by using materials from their immediate environment. The locally made apparatus was a solution to the scarcity of laboratory equipment, which hindered students’ frequent experimentation (Galabawa, 2008; Machumu, 2011).
Previously, the available equipment was reserved for examination classes (Mafumiko, 2006). Therefore, with the locally made apparatus, titration activities were conducted practically, thereby making the process of learning a reality.
The findings from the lesson observation and FGDs indicated some improvement in the learners’ active engagement in the lesson, whereby learners seemed to be more active a few weeks after the intervention than at the onset of the intervention. Teachers should persist in traditional views of chemistry education concerning students’ chemistry content knowledge (Stammes et al., 2020), rather however. they should take a more contemporary perspective by valuing design as an approach to address soft skills like curiosity, creativity, meta cognition and problem solving skills (Ibe et al., 2021)
This is also consistent with previous research reports (by (Freeman et al., 2014; Jensen & Lawson, 2011; Prince, 2004). The research report by Freeman et al. (2014), indicates that the instructional method had a minute effect on the learners' achievement when measured by using Bloom's taxonomy. Some effects were detected on learners’ active learning, for instance, students gained the ability to learn independently, which was minimal before the intervention. Besides, it is clearly stated in ‘pragmatism’ by Dewey that the ability of the individual student is strengthened through shared experiences (Sikandar, 2016)
Engaging students in hands on activities enhances students’ active involvement in chemistry lessons at the individual level.
Also, with time, students gained the ability to search for learning materials, and to actively use them for learning the respective content during chemistry lessons. In addition to acquiring skills to search for materials and active engagement in the
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lesson, the intervention enabled students to improve their reasoning and ability to respond to given activities with confidence, as proposed by Khoiriyah et al., 2015; Pirttimaa et al., 2017. Thus, it can be noted from the findings that the intervention contributed to students’ reasoning, exploratory ability and active engagement in class activities.
Although all the teachers went through a similar orientation and the students from the participated classes went through training before the commencement of the intervention, the students from school C seemed to grasp the instructions given by the teacher more quickly than the students from the other two schools. As Prins et al. (2018) found, we saw some variation in the learning materials designed by the students. Perhaps, teacher guidance (Cirenza et al., 2018) might have been the cause of the difference in the quality of learning materials made by students from school C. Also, students’ active participation in school C was possibly due to close mentorship and scaffolding of the teacher, as suggested in Vygotsky’s ZPD concept of socio cultural theory (Fani & Ghaemi, 2011)
Proper guidance of the teacher enhances students’ collaboration with other peers and better interaction with learning materials (Fani & Ghaemi, 2011; Glassman, 2001; Lui, 2012) To the teachers, design and the searching of learning materials seemed to mean having the opportunity to address mentorship and scaffolding in chemistry education which highly motivated them to include design practices in their teaching (Stammes et al., 2020) Additionally, students can perform above their current level of knowledge, while collaborating with other peers of higher ability, rather than when they work independently (Fani & Ghaemi, 2011). Indeed, active learning takes place and less memorization is expected, when students collaboratively learn together with others (Jensen & Lawson, 2011) According to these authors, active learning is due to the helping behaviour to effect that which occurs within the groups. This finding is in line with the findings of this study, where the peers in the groups helped each other with the tasks done within the groups and showed less memorization.
Given the above differing empirical results and the theoretical perspectives employed in this work, we evaluated the success of the intervention in the use of home based learning materials designed by students to be used in hands on activities during chemistry lessons, to have an impact on the development of learners’ active learning and their acquisition of soft skills Furthermore, the findings of this study contribute to the improvement of educational practices, instructional designs, and other related literature in chemistry education.
Little work is evident on active engagement in searching and designing chemistry learning materials in the context of community schools. Therefore, this work adds to the literature to improve educational practice, as well as the need to engage students in activities, consequently putting them at the centre of the learning process.
Regarding the limitations of this research, the learning materials developed for this study and the content thereby facilitated, were based on two topics in the
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Chemistry senior three content syllabus. This is because an in depth understanding of the association between the learning materials and the content was required. The iterative nature of the DBR design used in the study also required developing prototypes of the same materials. Furthermore, since the study allowed successive reviews of the materials, it was possible to identify and overcome weaknesses in the design of the materials.
If the procedures to make these materials are clearly outlined, it would be easy to design more materials from other topics in the Chemistry syllabus and other science subjects. Additionally,, the study covered only hands on activities in Chemistry, particularly the learners’ ability to search and design learning materials. This is because many Chemistry concepts can be demonstrated through hands on activities, as well as both practical and theoretical concepts. Additionally, the study was limited to only three community secondary schools, in order to establish a deep understanding of the identified problem and to ensure that the research participants became accustomed to the designed intervention.
In this regard, future researchers should increase the population of the sample to improve the reliability and the generalizability of the research results. Thus, triangulation of multiple methods were utilised, in order to minimize the mentioned limitations.
With this study, a body of knowledge on searching and designing learning materials in chemistry has been built; because the learning materials designed were useful for chemistry learning in community schools. This study was carried out to enhance senior three chemistry students' ability to search for and design chemistry learning materials that could be used in hands on activities, to stimulate students’ active engagement in the learning process.
What differentiates the present study from others in the same field is the fact that the study focuses on students’ ability to work independently to make learning materials from home based materials. Other studies mostly engage teachers to enhance the learning process; and they rarely emphasize the need for the learners to work on their learning materials, especially in the context of community secondary schools.
From the results, we can conclude that engaging students in the process of searching and designing the learning materials to be used in chemistry lessons enhances learning to become a continuous process from the classroom to the outside environment; and it prepares the students for lifelong learning. Based on the key findings obtained from this research, it is recommended that more emphasis should be placed on learners’ abilities to search and design the learning materials not only in chemistry but also in other science subjects of a similar educational context to the research participants, as those of this study.
The study brought about a paradigm shift from teachers being the centre of all aspects of the learning process, by empowering learners to take control of their learning and to reduce the workload of the teachers. Consequently, making
learners the centre of the learning process can create a meaningful learning environment which in turn would enhance the nurturing of a generation of independent learners, equipped with skills essential for the fast growing 21st century world economy.
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The focus group discussion was mainly for students; and the following questions guided them throughout the discussion.
a. Introduction of the researcher and the students, who were involved
b. Researcher gives guidelines of the discussion
c. Are you taking chemistry and what do you think is the importance of studying chemistry?
d. What should teachers do to improve the way you are learning chemistry?
e. What can you say about this way of teaching, in which the teacher involves you in hands on activities? (Probe, depending on the answer)
f. Do you think it is good to search and for your own learning materials? (Why do you say that?)
g. In what ways can this strategy be used to help you acquire desired competences and learning skills?
h. What suggestions do you have for improving the next lessons?
i. What else would you wish to add?
Interviews for all teachers started with the introduction of each other, in order to establish rapport with teachers and to make them free to talk. Thereafter, the following questions guided the interview:
a. What can you say about this learner centred teaching approach, which involves learners in different activities during the lesson?
b. Has this strategy been helpful to you (probe; how)?
c. How do students perceive the issue of involving them in hands on activities?
d. What about being involved in searching and the designing of learning materials?
e. How are students interacting with learning materials?
f. What could be done to improve this instructional strategy and to make it more useful to your teaching practice?
g. What challenges have you encountered in using this instructional strategy?
h. Are there any other things related to chemistry, instructional strategy and instructional materials that you think are important to consider? (What are they?)
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 109 128, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.7
Received Apr 10, 2022; Revised Jul 23, 2022; Accepted Aug 12, 2022
Abstract. Technological education has changed lifestyles, and educational institutions need to prepare their learners with the necessary tools to be successful in real life. The objectives of the study are: 1) to explore learner’s achievements in reading comprehension with the use of e Reading and traditional teaching methods, 2) toanalyse the satisfaction of learners using e reading and traditional teaching methods, and 3) to observe the effects of the learner’s reading comprehension while using e reading methods versus traditional teaching methods based on a standard 80/80 criterion. The participants were sophomore learners enrolled in English courses. Thirty learners were selected by nonprobability sampling and divided into two groups, the experimental and control. The experimental group received lessons using an e Reading programme, the control group was taught using a traditional teaching method. The research tools were pre and post tests, lesson plans, learners’ perception questionnaires, and interviews. Data collected through quantitative means were analysed using a t test standard and average deviation programme. The interview data were analysed using a content analysis method. Data from the pre and post tests show that reading comprehension improved in the experimental group, who used the e Reading programme. They also showed a “positive” attitude regarding their learning satisfaction and self directed learning. The learners’ satisfaction and self directed learning were higher in the e Reading programme. Standard 80/80 criteria were met with an efficiency of 81.6/82.3 in the e Reading programme This research could be used as reference for further study and application of the e Reading programme
Keywords: e Reading programme; English reading ability; Self directed Learning; Thai EFL Learners; Motivation
Global communication is largely carried out through the internet, and the majority of users on the internet communicate in English. To be competitive in the global economy, individuals need to have proficient skills in English and,
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial Non Derivatives International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
especially, English reading comprehension. With a strong grasp of the English language, people in every country have access to larger audiences and potential business opportunities. English is also useful in the daily lives of most working individuals (Kruawan & Dennis, 2017).
With English being taught in almost every country, globalisation is fuelled by English as a world language and, in Thailand, English is the language most taught and studied because of its use throughout the world (Nagi, 2012). Since English is a foreign language (EFL) among Thailand learners, instructors need access to multiple teaching techniques. Thai language instructors need to find new and creative ways to teach English to their learners. As a doctor needs different types of medication to treat different kinds of ailments, so language teachers need different kinds of teaching techniques to motivate and improve their learners’ learning. Traditional Thai instructors have used a teacher centred approach to teaching English; however, a more learner centred approach is becoming more popular. Technology can help promote learner centred learning in and outside the classroom (Chen, 2010). Educators should try to employ technology in their classrooms whenever possible to help support learner centred environments.
Not only is reading in English critical for necessary for global communication, but it is also necessary for testing. Being able to read and to understand English text is very valuable (Ellis & Shintani, 2014) for Thai learners. A learner who is proficient in reading in English will be able to expand their writing, listening, and speaking skills more easily in English (Shang, 2015). Reading is one of the most valuable tools a learner can acquire for their educational and professional careers. Being able to analyse and understand textbooks, journals, and online material is important for Thai EFL learners, and reading in English is valuable for graduate learners because most research is published in English journals. Learners with strong reading comprehension skills can spend more time reflecting on English text rather than trying to piece words together to understand each word. Reading is one of the most valuable tools a learner can acquire for their educational and professional careers.
However, learners and instructors can find it difficult to learn and teach English as a second or foreign language. Thai university learners have been found to have low English reading skills, and even EFL learners struggle with English text. Thai learners struggle with remembering vocabulary and understanding sentence structures, which makes it difficult for them to understand what they are reading (Uamduang 2012; Kottong, 2014). Low reading comprehension makes it very difficult for Thai learners to rapidly skim and scan text for relevant information. When learners struggle with reading comprehension, they also have difficulty using teacher resources such as worksheets, short stories, and sentence structure lessons. One reason for Thai learners’ lack of reading ability is a limited vocabulary and understanding of sentence structure. Vocabulary understanding enables the learner to understand the meaning of words while understanding sentence structure helps learners recognise word order and patterns in texts. When learners encounter a text which is not relevant to their studies or personal life, it can be hard for them to feel motivated to try and understand the text thoroughly. All of these issues can affect a learner's reading comprehension. Self
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directed learning is a learner’s ability to successfully gain more knowledge about a topic or subject without the assistance of a teacher or colleague (Shakeri, 2012) and such self directed learning can also be influenced by a learner’s reading comprehension. For a learner to truly be autonomous, they need to be able to search out information on their own. If they lack reading skills it can be difficult for them to find relevant information.
This study aims to aid language instructors, to investigate learners' achievements in reading comprehension using e Reading and traditional teaching methods, to analyse the satisfaction of learners using e reading and traditional teaching methods, and to observe the effects of the learner’s reading comprehension while using e Reading methods versus traditional teaching methods, based on the standard 80/80 criterion. Accordingly, three research questions were formulated as follows:
1. How can an e Readingprogramme help learners improve their skills in reading comprehension?
2. What are the effects of the e Reading programme compared to a traditional teaching method regarding the learner's satisfaction?
3. How does the e Reading programme improve the learner’s reading comprehension?
Reading skills and attitudes toward reading with electronic text have become a popular research topic in recent years, one which has been investigated in many recent studies (Larson, 2010; Short, 2010; Anderson, 2012; Huang, 2013).
For EFL and ESL learners, reading is critical because most tests and evaluations in English courses are conducted by reading text and writing answers; further, being able to understand and interpret English text is a valuable skill for most jobs and careers (Khruawan & Dennis, 2017). Learners have a variety of strategies for developing their reading comprehension; those who find it difficult to improve their reading comprehension can seek guidance from instructors, but ultimately, it is only the learner’s discipline and motivation that can truly help them succeed.
The strategies approach has proved effective in improving learners’ reading comprehension (McNamara, 2004; McNamara, 2007; Zhang, 2008; McKeown, Beck & Blake, 2009;). Oakley (2011) describes cognitive strategies which can be employed by EFL or ESL instructors to improve reading comprehension in learners. These includesummarising,visualising,questioning, making inferences, and predicting. Connecting a learner’s background knowledge to the language lesson to make the lesson more engaging and personal, encouraging predictions, organising thoughts into visual charts, and answering questions are a few strategies that can be used.
Reading models can be used to explain what processes are taking place during reading and can explain how a learner perceives text with their eyes and then forms an understanding of the text. Educators need to be fluent in different types of theoretical models and approaches when trying to understand a learner's
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ability to read (Tracey & Morrow, 2012). Tracey and Morrow (2012) emphasise social constructivist, constructivist, behaviourist, and information processing cognitive theories. What learners are thinking and doing while reading can be shown in the cognitive processing theory. The way learners build from the text while interacting with it can be explained in the constructivist theory (Auer, 2016). Cognitive processing and constructivist theories will be used in this research paper regarding reading and can be used to describe EFL learners' cognitive reading aspects. The following table shows the learners reading models and strategies.
1. Participative Model 1. Drawing conclusions 1. Use world knowledge to identify the meanings of words
2. Construction Integration Model 1. Activating background knowledge 2. Identifying the main points
1. Think about prior knowledge to help to understand 2. Focus on the main points of the text
3. Schema Theory 1. Creating reading goals 1. Understand why reading is valuable
4. Metacognitive Theory 1. Organising and assessing 1. Identify key ideas, review while reading, and understand what you are reading
The tools used to interact with digital text such as electronic hardware and software are what this study refers to as e Reading technology. Computers, smartphones, tablets, and e Readers are some of the tools used in e Reading (Biancarosa & Griffiths, 2012). The e Reading programme and all the hardware can be used to create a convenient and practical way for learners to practise reading in English. A study by Mangen, Bente and Bronnick (2013) explains that text displayed electronically might be more useful than text displayed on paper. However, a text which is found online might be more complex for the learners to access than a printed text. Almekhlafi (2020) studied the use of e Reading books on EFL learners and concluded that e book reading projects had a positive effect on perceptions of the learners’ content learning, reading ability, and English learning.
The use of e Reading devices is becoming more common in educational institutions as English reading lessons that include e Reading technology can create better opportunities for learners that struggle with reading and help increase self directed learning (Pastore, 2008). The features present in e books can help promote processing and memory as well as increase the learner's motivation and attitude toward the reading lessons which employ reading technology (Ertem, 2010; Korat, 2010; Park & Kim, 2011; Chen, Chen, Chen & Wey, 2013;
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Eicker Nel & Matthee, 2014; Reid, 2016). Traditional reading lessons with drills are not as engaging as newer electronic reading lessons. With relevant and interesting text more widely available in online reading lessons, learners are more able and willing to expand their literacy and to engage more meaningfully in the language lessons (Ertem, 2010; Korat, 2010). Ciampa (2012) and Huang (2013) found that an e Reading programme increases the convenience for the readers and can improve the learners’ reading speed as well as their engagement. Recent studies have proved how reading speed, comprehension, and accuracy can all be improved with electronic reading devices and programmes. Studies by Mangen, Bente and Bronnick (2013) and Almekhlafi (2020) showed that digital text is more useful than printed text.
All these studies imply that teachers who implement electronic reading in their lessons will see improvements in learners' attitudes, engagement, and achievements. The 21st century is bringing newer and more affordable technology which can be used in the classroom. When technology is included in a language programme’s curriculum, the learners should be more successful in reading. For these reasons this study examines the impact of portable e reading programme use on EFL learners’ perceived reading skills (comprehension) and attitudes (enjoyment), and identifies the learners’ levels of satisfaction when using an e Reading instructional design programme
With all the new and affordable technology introduced each year, academic institutions have an opportunity to add reading technology to the classroom to promote learner literacy rates. Reading comprehension, motivation, and fluency have all been found to be affected by technology. Furthermore, Chen (2010) believes that using technology in the classroom can raise the learner's abilities. A wide variety of technology plays a part in most Thai learners’ daily lives. Most learners already have electronic devices that can access the internet, so enabling schools to create assignments and activities that can be done in the learner's home or anywhere the learner might find convenient. Using electronic devices in a learning context excites, interests, and motivates learners (Ciampa, 2012; Fox, 2014; Szabo & Long, 2016; Ingram, 2020). However, Sackstein, Spark and Jenkins (2015) explain that teachers must be able to use the technology themselves if they want to implement electronic devices in their classroom. The success of a lesson using electronic device hinges on the ability of the teacher’s knowledge of the technology and their creativity in using it in interesting and engaging ways.
Reading comprehension can be improved if electronic tools are correctly implemented in the curriculum. Different electronic applications can affect a learner's reading comprehension and background knowledge of the desired text (Crum, 2017). More access to computers and electronic devices can improve learners’ reading and writing skills and their motivation toward the language being studied (Linik, 2012). Many teachers prefer using electronic devices in their classrooms (Keengwe, Onchwari & Agamba 2014). Therefore, many technology based lessons and programmes have been created and studied to support reading in an academic environment. Technology can help replace a more teacher centred learning environment and allow the learners to become more autonomous.
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Self directed learning is a collaborative learning approach. The teacher must provide the learner with the tools and guidance necessary to learn and practise on their own although the learner should seldom have the impression that they are learning entirely on their own (Khodabandehlou et al., 2012). Many learners might have difficulty when reading, such as trying to find an answer, or not understanding what they are reading. Self directed learning can help learners to recognise their learning techniques and learn how to set goals for personal development and to improve their academic achievements.
Many factors can affect a learner's language ability such as learning strategies, motivation, social anxiety, and learning beliefs (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002; Osanai, 2000). In ESL and EFL classrooms, self directed learning should be promoted to encourage learners to become life long language learners. With regard to life long language learning, the learner’s interests and determination can be important indicators for future success and learning. Holec (1996) showed that language learning programmes need to encourage self directed learning as much as possible. When learners can learn on their own, they are more likely to be successful language learners and users. In the following figure, a comprehensive model shows how motivation can lead to self directed learning.
Figure 1: Self Directed Learning toward a Comprehensive Model (Garrison, 1997).
The current study employed experimental research. The research design of this study is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation used to find the solutions to the research questions. A system was created to study the potential of the e Reading course. This system was split into two parts. The first part of this system was devoted to reading strategies. The second part introduced ten reading activities with practice assignments. The learners then responded to questionnaires that detailed their experiences and thoughts. Finally, the selected learners were interviewed to elicit more qualitative data on their experiences. The goal of the interviews was to support data from the questionnaires. A more thorough picture emerges from examining both the qualitative and quantitative
data. Figure 2 shows the set up and steps implemented during the conduct of the study.
Group A: The e Reading Learning
Group B: Traditional Teaching
Group A Learners
1. Pre test and 10 reading topics start from W1 W.10
2. e Reading lesson plans created
3. Start the lessons
4. Scores are collected
5. Post test
6. Questionnaire
7. Interview: Learners’ attitudes
8. Data review
1. Pre test and 10 reading topics start from W1 W.10
2. Worksheets are developed
3. Start the lessons
4. Scores are collected
5. Post test
6. Questionnaire
7. Interview: Learners’ attitudes
8. Data are collected and analysed
Figure 2: The steps of the experimental and control groups
The researcher conducted the learning programme along the following lines:
Two types of lesson plans were created. Lesson plans for the e Reading programme were created first, then the traditional teaching lesson plans. The lesson plans in this study covered 15 classes with a focus on reading comprehension strategies, ten reading assignments with practice activities, and a reading test. Next, the steps taken to create the lesson plans are explained.
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The researcher divided the emerging e Reading instructional design approach into two parts. Lessons on reading techniques were covered in the first section, while reading passages with exercises were covered in the second. Five experts reviewed the effectiveness of the e Reading lessons once they were completed to check for material correctness, lesson design, and to make other suggestions for improvement. Finally, the e Reading instructional design model was tested with forty students to establish the validity and accuracy of content and the efficacy of the lessons.
The researcher created a perception questionnaire to gauge how happy the students were with their education and these various teaching strategies. There were two sections to the questionnaire: demographic questions were asked in the first section to learn more about the students, and students were asked for their thoughts and reactions to the various teaching strategies in the second section. Each question was answered by the learners using a five point Likert scale, with the options being ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. After completion, the questionnaire was given to the experts to review for correctness and suitability. Once the questionnaire had been piloted with the learners, the result of Item Objective Congruence Index by three experts showed a mean value at 0.93.
Interviews were used as an additional way to consolidate the data. The basis of interviews is a set of prepared questions that allow the researcher to delve deeply into the subject and provide a wealth of information for review. The data collected from the interviews were used to further support or explain the data from the questionnaires. Experts were used to review and edit the interview questions. Ten questions were created and used in each interview.
A reading section from the TOEFL test was used for the examinations. The test was designed to gauge the learner’s reading ability and understanding of the content. The pre examination was given to the learners before the lessons were taught, and the post examination took place at the end of the learning programmes. The findings of both tests are compared and evaluated by using the t test for independent samples to see whether this model enhanced the learners’ reading ability or not.
The learners who took part in this research were all second year English major students. Two groups were created with 30 learners in each group. A non probability sampling method was used. The first group, Group A, was the experimental group which was exposed to the e Reading programme. The second group (Group B) was taught using traditional teaching methods. Participants were chosen based on their weak performance in reading comprehension. All the learners took a reading proficiency test and completed a reading strategy
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questionnaire before being selected and put into groups to ensure that their English proficiency levels matched or were in the same range
The learners were exposed to both teaching methods for 15 weeks. Each week the learners took part in one session, for a total of 15 sessions. All the sessions took place in the second semester of the January 2020 to May 2021 school year at Huachiew Chalermprakiet University (HCU) which permitted this study to be conducted on campus. Data collection was done during the learning sessions. The results of the study did not affect the learner's academic report card. Each group spent the following amount of learning time:
1. The e Reading group (Group A) received 3 hours per week with a total of 45 hours using e Reading electronic programmes.
2. The control group (Group B) also received 3 hours per week with a total of 45 hours using traditional textbooks and paper worksheets.
In the first week of the programme, all participants in both groups took the pre test. Sections from the TOEFL test were used for both pre and post examination, with topics for the reading passages chosen based on the learners' preferences. When the students in Group A began their lessons, the ten reading topics were deployed using the e Reading instructional design programme. The conventional teaching approach was used to teach lessons to Group B students. Each learner's scores were recorded once they had finished all the tasks in their programmes. All of the students took the post test at the conclusion of their reading programme. It was explained to all the participants in each group that the scores from these programmes would not be included in their grades. The participants’ perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of learning English using these instructional approaches were then elicited using questionnaires. Learners were chosen at random to take part in interviews during the final lesson of each learning programme so they could share, express, or make comments about their experiences in the e Reading programme and the traditional teaching programme
Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the data were performed in this study. All data were analysed using the following steps.
1. A t test was used to compute and convert the pre test and post test scores into mean values. Each group’s mean and standard deviation were used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the pre and post tests.
2. The scores of the effectiveness of the e Reading instructional design programme were calculated with the efficiency of the exercises using the Efficiency Standard Criterion on an 80/80 basis (E1/E2).
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3. The scores of the perception questionnaires were analysed in terms of the mean ( X ) and standard deviation (S.D.).
4. Data from the interview questions were read, then read again, and finally coded. The raw data were coded into useful categories. The researcher rearranged the data into increasingly specific groups as the coding process went on. All the data were coded using the final list of codes.
The effect of e Reading programme on students’ achievement in reading comprehension were measured through pre and post tests
The pre test and post test results for the experimental and control groups are given in Table 4.1.1. As shown in the table during the pre test only 1 (3.3.%) in the experimental group reach an excellent level of performance while 3 (10%) in the control group. The data presented in Table 2 show that the control group performed better than the experimental group in the pre test since there are 2 (6.7%) in the experimental group in the ‘poor performance’ level. However, after exposing the two groups to the different methods of teaching, results in the post test scores reveal that both groups reach excellent (100%) level performance. This implies that e reading instructional material is of great help in improving the performance level of the experimental group, and the traditional approach did the same for the control group.
Table 2: Level of scores during pre test scores and post test of both groups Evaluation Lists Experimental Group Control Group
Pre test Post test Pre test Post test N % N % N % N %
Excellent 1 3.3 30 100.0 3 10.0 30 100.0
Good 16 53.3 20 66.7
Fair 11 36.7 7 23.3 Poor 2 6.7
Very poor
Total 30 100 30 100 30 100 30 100
To analyse in which particular exercises the experimental group improved their performance, each exercise was subjected to statistical analysis, as shown in Table 3
The experimental group learners had an average score of “ excellent” (40.80%), and the control group learners had an average score of “good” (39.83%). This difference was not statistically significant, but it cannot be denied that the experimental group performed better than the control group after they were exposed to e Reading lessons. Analysis of the association between learning groups and the various levels of the pre test and post test scores make it clear that the learners in both groups (experimental and control) had higher post test scores regardless of the teaching delivery method that they received. However, the experimental group and the control group had somewhat different mean scores for the 10 exercises, according to the average scores for all 10 exercises.
Covid 19 restrictions during the data collection affected the delivery of the teaching programmes. As a result, teaching and learning management was modified to an online format. Using traditional teaching methods in the control group’s classroom was not practical, so the control group’s data collection was adjusted to an online format. It was difficult to control or force learners to search for information from outside resources, so learners in the control group were able to search for knowledge and practise their reading skills using various types of technological media, which may explain the similarity of the control group’s scores to those of the experimental group. The average exercise scores of the experimental group were higher than the exercise average scores of the control group when each exercise is examined separately. This implies that the results of this study found that the e Reading programme approach can assist learners in improving their achievements in reading comprehension.
Table 3: The scores of each exercise for both groups
Exercise Experimental Group Control Group x SD. Meaning x SD. Meaning
Exercise 1 (5 Points) 3.20 1.424 Fair 3.37 .556 Fair
Exercise 2 (5 Points) 4.30 .988 Excellent 2.37 1.245 Poor
Exercise 3 (5 Points) 4.53 .860 Excellent 4.43 1.006 Excellent
Exercise 4 (5 Points) 4.77 .679 Excellent 4.43 .728 Excellent
Exercise 5 (5 Points) 3.20 1.215 Fair 3.87 1.042 Good
Exercise 6 (5 Points) 3.07 1.760 Fair 4.43 1.073 Excellent
Exercise 7 (5 Points) 4.23 .858 Excellent 4.33 1.124 Excellent
Exercise 8 (5 Points) 4.50 .572 Excellent 4.00 .947 Good
Exercise 9 (5 Points) 4.70 .535 Excellent 3.97 .928 Good
Exercise 10 (5 Points) 4.30 .596 Excellent 4.63 .669 Excellent
Total (50 Points) 40.80 9.487 Excellent 39.83 9.318 Good
The first segment described how students perceived the delivery method used to convey their instruction. Overall results in Table 4 show that the level of the learners’ satisfaction in the experimental group with teaching and learning courses had an average of 3.97. Similarly, the control group had a total average of 3.41, which was also a “good" level. These results are evidence that both groups experienced the same satisfaction with the teaching methods they were exposed to.
Table
Learners’ Satisfaction Experimental Group Control Group x SD. Meaning x SD. Meaning
1. Learners are satisfied with the teaching methodology.
2. The teaching methodology is suitable for learning English reading.
3. Learners often learn with their lessons and practise being responsible.
4. Learners like to practise reading with their teaching method.
5. Learners gain more academic knowledge with their teaching method.
3.93 .365 Good 3.57 .568 Good
4.17 .592 Good 3.43 .679 Good
4.10 .481 Good 3.57 .504 Good
3.73 .583 Good 3.30 .702 Fair
3.90 .548 Good 3.57 .679 Good
6. The teaching methods affect the learner’s study. 3.47 .681 Good 2.83 .986 Fair
7. Learners have no limit to study and can study any time and place.
8. It is convenient for learners to review the lesson outside the classroom using their teaching media.
9. Using this teaching media allows learners to meet their learning objectives.
4.20 .610 Good 3.47 .681 Good
4.13 .507 Good 3.57 .679 Good
3.90 .662 Good 3.23 .774 Fair
Learners’ Satisfaction Experimental Group Control Group
x SD. Meaning x SD. Meaning
10. Learners have the freedom to study from their teaching method.
4.20 .664 Good 3.60 .724 Good
Total 3.97 .569 Good 3.41 .698 Good
According to the overall results shown in Table 5, the level of the learners’ self directed learning in the experimental group towards teaching and learning had an average of 3.83, which was a “good” level. The control group had a total average of 3.42, which was also a “good” level. According to these findings, the level of self directed learning toward the instruction in the learners in the experimental group was, by a difference of 0.05, marginally greater than the control group.
Table 5: Level of learners’ self-directed learning in the two groups
Learners’ Self Directed Learning Experimental Group Control Group
x SD. Meaning x SD. Meaning
1. The teaching methods create self directed learning atmosphere.
2. Learners are happy and have fun in their learning.
3. Learners enjoy learning with the teaching media.
4. The teaching methods are suitable for learner centred learning.
5. The teaching methods motivate learners to improve reading skills.
3.83 .531 Good 3.43 .728 Good
3.60 .675 Good 3.30 .702 Fair
3.60 .621 Good 3.37 .809 Fair
3.97 .615 Good 3.67 .711 Good
4.13 .507 Good 3.33 .994 Fair
Total 3.83 .590 Good 3.42 .789 Good
The researcher used the Efficiency Standard Criterion on the 80/80 basis (E1/E2) to assess the effectiveness of the programme. The results are presented in Table 6 where E1 is the average score of the participants who were able to complete the class exercises with a score of at least 80%. The average score (E2) is that of the individuals who were able to pass the tests with a score of at least 80%.
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According to Table 6, the e Reading programme was effective on the efficiency standard criterion at 81.6/82.3. The efficiency value of exercises (E1) was 81.6% (Mean = 40.8) whereas the efficiency value of the test (E2) was 82.3% (Mean = 16.46). Thus, the e Reading programme proved efficient and allowed the learners to learn effectively on the efficiency standard criterion of 80/80.
Table 6: Effectiveness value of exercises and achievement test (n = 30)
Scores from exercises/ achievement test Total Scores X Percentage
Scores from exercises (E1) 50 40.8 81.6
Scores from the achievement test (E2) 20 16.46 82.3
During the interviews, the students were asked about their teaching and learning experiences with the e Reading software, and they reported that they had tailored learning opportunities, enhanced their English reading ability, and understood their reading processes. The e Reading programme not only brought greater learningaccess totheclassroom, but also enabledtheinstructortoadapt thelesson to each learner's learning style. The instructor could also customise lessons and homework to fit the learner's unique approaches and optimise their results. This helped turn traditionally dull subjects into interactive and fun activities.
e Reading can help learners to take responsibility for their education. In the future, learners will be able to use e Reading programmes to guide themselves through lessons, learn at their own pace, or identify areas of personal interest. The learners expressed their attitudes toward the e Reading programme in terms of helping them to study outside the classroom after they had finished the class lesson. Theyalso prepared for each lesson before theclass met, which helped them to understand the content before the class discussions.
The experimental group learners' exercise scores were higher than those of the control group students. These results are in line with the study by Biancarosa and Griffiths (2012) who believe that electronic tools in the classroom can lead to higher learner motivation and achievements. Teerapaksiri, Watanabut and Sopa (2017) agree that using technology can help learners increase their language abilities. Their findings showed that the learners' communication post test scores were, with a 0.05 difference, higher than their pre test scores. The e Reading programme was convenient for the learners to use in the classroom and at home, which is in line with findings by Ciampa (2012), Huang (2013) and Almekhlafi (2020). Reading programmes that use computers, phones, and other electronic devices proved to be more effective than traditional programmes, according to Ingram (2020). The findings show that technology is an excellent learning and teaching tool for reading. Nevertheless, some limitations of this study must be acknowledged; since the Covid 19 pandemic occurred during data collection, the teaching method was changed from a traditional teaching method to an online format.
According to the study's findings, students in both the experimental group and control group scored better on the post test than they had on the pre test.
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However, when the students in the control group were questioned about their experiences with the standard instructional delivery technique, they expressed negative feelings towards the traditional teaching method. First, the learners explained that they had wanted to get more learning experiences from this course, that it had been hard for them to gain more learning experience. Second, they had no idea how to create their learning atmosphere. Finally, the learners wanted more time to study and practise. In their opinion, the traditional teaching approach may not be appropriate for learners who take a passive approach to learning, where the instructor is in charge of everything in the classroom.
Additionally, they suggested that undergraduate students study online rather than with chalk, discussion and paying attention to their professors' instructions. During the Covid 19 pandemic, the learners had to study via an online channel, so paper based forms were not appropriate for them to study. The students offered their comments based on the improvement of the teaching strategy while concentrating on the advice from the traditional classroom. They advised the instructor to create an online course and use technology in educational instruction to hone their media teaching skills. In conclusion, traditional learning methods allow the instructors to decide how they convey information to their learners, but online learning provides more flexibility for the learners, especially during the Covid 19 pandemic. Most learners provided suggestions in terms of applying technological devices to the classroom and designing an online course.
In response to the secondresearch question, “What are the effects of the e Reading programme compared to a traditional teaching method regarding the learner's satisfaction?” the outcomes of the perception surveys and interview questions revealed the impact of the traditional teaching technique and the e Reading programme on learners' satisfaction and self directed learning. The experimental group's level of student satisfaction with the teaching and learning of the courses was higher than that of the control group, confirming that the learners were satisfied with the e Reading programme, which offered them learning benefits and reading comprehension practice. The findings of this study were similar to the findings of Vaish (2016) and Klauda and Guthrie (2015) who found that reading speeds, reading comprehension, and interest could all be improved with e reading programmes. Szabo and Long (2016) also found that electronic books and e reading programmes could be used to create positive feelings towards reading and improve the learner’s achievements. These are similar to the results found in this study. Confirming the results of this research was the research carried out by Fox (2014) and Sackstein, Spark and Jenkins (2015), who found that e Reading programmes were convenient and affordable for language learners.
Another study with similar results was that of Teerapaksiri, Watanabut, and Sopa (2017) which identified electronic books as effective at raising the satisfaction levels of learners. In their interviews, the students in the experimental group insisted that the e Reading programme promoted their self directed learning. The learners tended to find the idea of adopting technology assisted self directed learning in language classrooms to be difficult. New methods and technologies that fit learners' lifestyles and those things that attracted and motivated them to study independently were closely tied to innovations in teaching and learning. In
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this study, the learners were satisfied with the e Reading programme because it promoted self directed learning, and they had a great chance to study, think, and share knowledge with their peers. The learners also claimed that the e Reading programme helped them and their parents to save on textbook costs. During the Covid 19 crisis, any financial help towards learning and living was welcomed.
In the interview results, the learners expressed satisfaction in terms of independence for learning, reduction of pressure, suitable and useful learning media, and enjoyable learning. The learners claimed that the e Reading programme helpedthemto reduce stress and pressure duringtheir learning.They felt relaxed and spent more time studying and practising their lessons. Both inside and outside of the classroom, they felt free to study. Furthermore, the learners could share the learning experience with their peers. Therefore, in general, online reading programmes like the e Reading programmes instruct learners in key literacy areas within a one on one learning environment with instruction being inherently motivational and fun. The learners who participated in the e Reading programme achieved significantly higher learning outcomes over those in the traditional classrooms and were equally as satisfied with the learning environment.
Responses toResearch Question 3, “How doesthee Readingprogrammeimprove the learner’s reading comprehension?” showed the efficiency standard criterion on an 80/80 basis (E1/ E2) to find the effectiveness of the e Reading programme was discussed as follows: the e Reading programme was effective on the efficiency standard criterion at 81.6/82.3; it was efficient and allowed the learners to learn effectively, findings which were congruent with the study by Kongvimon (2016) who had looked into the production of instructional material for elementary level instructors using the Photoshop application to create electronic books (e Books). The findings found that the developed electronic book (e Book) with the Photoshop Programme had an efficiency of 91.17/90.00 which met the set 90/90 criteria. In similar research, a study by Singha o pas, Nuchmee and InThanin (2016) proved that an electronic book on Information Technology for education for undergraduate learners at Thaksin University showed an effectiveness of 88.00/89.11, which is in line with the set criteria. Another study by Teerapaksiri, Watanabut and Sopa (2017) showed that the index of the electronic book efficiency was 89.60/87.24 which was higher than the assigned criteria efficiency.
In summary, applying technological devices to teaching and learning might be a good way for learners tostudyfor several reasons: theapproach creates new paths for learners to search out knowledge and learn by themselves. The learners also mentioned that studying with the e Reading programme saved them the cost of textbooks. Furthermore, technology supports collaborative learning and aids in the individualization and personalisation of education as well as reducing the burden of learning for the learners and teaching for teachers. It makes education more interesting and creates a more fulfilling learning atmosphere. The learners in the experimental group expressed positive attitudes towards the e Reading programme which provided them a chance to study, to practise more on their own, and to improve their reading comprehension skills.
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The e Reading programme is a powerful tool for instructors in capturing the attention of today’s learners. However, the literature indicates that not many instructors are utilising e Reading programmes in the classroom, suggesting the need for more research to assess their value. It is recommended that there should be more research and development of e Reading media formats in other subjects as well. These could be in the form of online media which can be linked to other content resources on websites for dissemination of lessons.
The learning media should have a modern format that meets the needs of the learners. Current educational technology is considered important in teaching and learning and provides an opportunity for learners to learn at any time. Technology is an effective tool and very much part of language learning throughout the world at all different levels. Learners must use technology as a significant part of their learning process and in their careers. Additionally, when used properly and successfully, technology may be a useful approach to help learners create authentic and entertaining environments and enable them to actively interact while learning a language outside of the classroom. Modern technological learning systems, like the e Readingsoftware used in this study, can give students more engaging material and encourage better language accomplishment. These applications can also help educators interact with younger generations and provide pedagogical tools. Consequently, language instructors worldwide should try to incorporate modern technology into their curricula to promote technical skills and develop their learner’s language achievements.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 129 143, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.8
Received Jun 12, 2022; Revised Aug 11, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
Primary Education Department, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
Bachrudin Musthafa
English Language Education Department, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
Dadang Sunendar
Indonesian Language Education Department, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between language and literacy learning opportunities, early skills, socioeconomic status, and mother’s education in children’s early education. In addition, we attempted to determine the language domains needed for training as well as the ideal duration for language and literacy learning for children. We used a mixed methods design to assess early childhood language and literacy skills. The study involved 2550 early childhood learners, 235 teachers, and parents of learner participants from 112 kindergartens. The standard measure of language proficiency was used to measure the learners’ early language and literacy skills Mother’ s education and learners’ early abilities were positively correlated with learners’ language and literacy learning opportunities. Learners who have mothers with a high level of education receive significant opportunities to learn language and literacy compared to those with mothers witha low level of education. Therefore, their language skillsare superior. There are 12 language domains needed for training in early childhood and the ideal duration of language learning for children is 26 minutes per day or 182 minutes a week. The language domains are determining factors for obtaining reading skills in the future. Mother’ s education and child’s early skills really help children in language and literacylearning.Theimplicationofthisresearchisthatliteracyprograms are needed for early childhood learners who have low initial abilities and children with mothers with a low level of education.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: early skills; literacy and language learning; socioeconomic status; mother’s education
Early childhood education requires the introduction of various types of language knowledge in order to improve the oral language and literacy skills of children This includes knowledge of the alphabet, phonology, practical vocabulary, and printed letters. These abilities are a determining factor for children’s success in obtaining reading skills in the future (Beisly et al., 2020; Farley & Piasta, 2020). Evidence has reinforced that those children who show good early literacy skills have the potential to become good readers, whereas children who have poor early literacy skills tend to have difficulty in reading in the future. Children’s success in language and literacy learning at an early age is also influenced by several factors, including socioeconomic status. Aspects included in determining socioeconomic status are income, social class, occupation, and education (Aarnoutse et al., 2005; Aram, 2008; Hammer et al., 2020). This research related to language and literacy learning, parental education, and early skills of children is very important because it can assist stakeholders in drafting policy to support the success of children’ s language and literacy learning in the family. It also provides an overview of the role of parents in supporting the success of children’s language and literacy learning. The implication of this research is that teachers, parents, and stakeholders may know the standard measure of language learning and early literacy that must be possessed by early childhood. In addition, this standard measure might be useful for policy makers who will conduct literacy programs.
Several previous studies have proven that a better socioeconomic status of children contributes to their ability to learn language and early literacy (Alshatti et al., 2020; Hunkin, 2021) Children’s language learning difficulties can be observed from the pre school period and will continue until school age. As such, it is necessary to equip the parents with some early language recognition actions in a regular and patterned manner (Bailey & Bulotsky Shearer, 2022; Bohlmann & Downer, 2016). Several studies have examined language learning and early literacy in early childhood. These include the research of Cabell et al. (2021), which proved that the level of children’s early skills in spoken language and reading ability in early childhood greatly determines their writing ability when they enter elementary school in the early grades. In addition, Lee Hammond and McConney (2017) examined the impact of early literacy programs on early childhood in rural areas and compared it with the early literacy abilities of early childhood learners in urban areas. Their findings showed that children’s early literacy skills in literacy programs are superior for reading literacy and numeracy literacy despite living in rural areas (Bracken & Fischel, 2008; Hadianto et al., 2022). This proves that targeted interventions can be effective in improving children’s early literacy skills. Farley and Piasta’s research (2019) has also proven that early childhood literacy is positively correlated with maternal education. However, these studies did not explore the relationship of early childhood literacy with socioeconomic status and did not explore language skills in depth. The difference between the current study and previous studies is that the current study explored early childhood language and literacy skills that are associated with the ability of the
mother when considering socioeconomic status and education. In addition, this study also determined the standard measure of language learning and early literacy that must be possessed by early childhood. This standard measure is useful for policy makers who will conduct literacy programs.
The purpose of this study was to look at early childhood language and literacy skills as related to the mother’s education and the socioeconomic status of the family. This study reveals the components of language and literacy learning and the ideal duration that is needed for early language and literacy learning in early childhood. Several previous studies have shown that socioeconomic status contributes to children’s language and literacy skills, but in this study, we correlated it with the mother’s education variable. This provides knowledge to stakeholders in determining what early literacy skills should be conveyed to children and makes it easier for stakeholders to determine which children need early literacy programs. Several research questions have been formulated to address this problem:
1. What is the relationship between mother’s education, early abilities, and socioeconomic status with language learning abilities and early literacy in early childhood?
2. What are the domains of language learning and early literacy that need to be applied to children both at school and by their families at home?
3. What is the ideal duration for the ideal early childhood language and literacy learning to take place?
Many researchers have studied early childhood programs in various countries, finding that the programs have a positive impact on future academic abilities (Jones, 2014). One such program is an early literacy program that is applied to children of low socioeconomic status and has received government attention in developed countries. This program can improve the literacy skills of children whose language and literacy skills are delayed so that they have adequate abilities when they enter school age (Gibson, 2008; Shemwell & Furtak, 2010). The idea of learning opportunities first emerged in 1999 to assist children who are less academically capable. The term learning opportunities was then developed and applied in early childhood schools to increase students’ learning opportunities in addition to what they receive at home with their parents. Teachers should be able to adapt instructional learning in early childhood if learners have academic abilities that lag behind that of other learners (Bathgate et al., 2015; Cinici, 2016)
Educational institutions rarely ensure implementation of these different methods, making it necessary to equalize academic abilities in early childhood by providing many language learning opportunities at home.
Greater early language and literacy learning opportunities become very important for young children of low socioeconomic status considering they receive less language and literacy experience at home. This causes their abilities in school to be less developed than that of their peers who are of higher socioeconomic status (Gilles & Buck, 2020; Hadianto et al., 2021a, 2021b; Koffman
et al., 2017). Such cases often occur in schools in Indonesia, considering that there are still many people who are at a low socioeconomic level and parents who do not have the ability to acquire a higher education. This needs to be rectified with the literacy program for early childhood (Curenton & Justice, 2008; Gonzalez et al., 2017). Such literacy program needs to be supported by research to serve as a guide indicating the components of language learning and the ideal time by which learners in early childhood education must possess these and the ideal level they must be at. This concept is reinforced by research showing that children from families of lower socioeconomic status start kindergarten with fewer early literacy skills (Haak et al., 2012; Hartas, 2012). However, the standard deviation between these children and those of a higher socioeconomic status is 0.5 1 (Chatterji, 2006) It can thus be concluded that the intensity at which children learn language and literacy is based on the language learning they receive both in their school environment and at home with their parents.
Socioeconomic status refers to the social and economic level of the family in the community. This includes profession, family income, and education level of parents (Hu et al., 2019; Janus et al., 2019). The socioeconomic status greatly determines the pattern of language and literacy learning that mothers follow for their children’s education at home. Several previous studies have proven that socioeconomic status contributes to children’s academic abilities, including language skills and early literacy, showing that socioeconomic mapping of the community is an important component that the government must consider in implementing a literacy program (Kalia & Reese, 2009; Krahe et al., 2021).
Results of previous research that examined the provision of opportunities to learn mathematics and science to children of low socioeconomic status showed that children of high socioeconomic status performed better. This is due to the better teaching programs provided by parents of high socioeconomic status (Lee Hammond & McConney, 2017; Lewis et al., 2016). Other evidence has shown that children of low socioeconomic status receive limited language learning opportunities and that their learning is dominated by rote activities, so that their creativity and critical thinking abilities are not explored (Marcella et al., 2014; Mashburn et al., 2010). The research has also shown that language and literacy learning opportunities are highly variable, not only so between classes but also within the same class. Previous research has shown that learners can get 0 to 81 minutes of early language and literacy learning opportunities per day regardless of socioeconomic aspects. This is not impossible if educators provide language learning opportunities according to children’s needs. In different teaching frameworks, teachers are expected to be able to adapt teaching to the early skills of early childhood. Thus, teachers should provide more language learning opportunities for children who have low initial skills.
Early skills are early childhood language and literacy skills that are acquired naturally in the family. These early language and literacy skills include the ability to recognize the alphabet, phonological abilities, and early childhood oral language skills (Neumann et al., 2013; Poolman et al., 2017). Alphabet knowledge
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includes names and pronunciations, phonological abilities include the ability to pronounce letters and words, while oral language skills are children’s vocabulary knowledge. Several studies have specifically examined the differences in language learning opportunities and early childhood literacy provided to children of various levels of socioeconomic status or early skills (Reilly et al., 2020; Skibbe et al., 2013). This study examines the relationship between the variables of family socioeconomic status, mother’s education, and children’s early skills.
Other studies have shown that children from low income families are more likely to use individualized instruction in the learning process. These children usually receive fewer language learning opportunities than children in other socioeconomic groups in the class. Children whose mothers have higher levels of education tend to be able to follow group instruction and work independently. These children also tend to receive better teacher response and support. The same is true in the early literacy skills of children. Children who have lower initial skills are also more suited to individualized instruction. So, it can be concluded that the children who most need the opportunity to learn language are those who have fewer initial skills (Slot et al., 2018; Varghese & Wachen, 2016).
We used mixed methods research to study the relationship between the variables of language and literacy learning opportunities, mother’s education, and the child’s early skills We used mixed methods research to combine quantitative data strengthened by qualitative data. Quantitative data were gathered on the relationship between variables and are described by inferential statistics, while qualitative data were gathered from observations and questionnaires to strengthen and complete the quantitative data. This study involved 2550 early childhood learners, 235 teachers, and parents of learner participants. The early childhood learners who were involved in this study were 4 6 years of age and attended 112 kindergarten schools in the city of Bandung, Indonesia Sample selection of the early childhood learners was done using a purposive sampling technique mapped based on the variables that were to be studied. Teachers and parents of learners were involved in this study to assist us in analyzing language and literacy learning opportunities as well as the learners’ language skills both at home and at school. The average age of the teachers was 42 years (SD: 10.71) and their average teaching experience was 10 years (SD: 8.12). Regarding education level of the teachers, 20% had a diploma, 50% had a bachelor’s degree, and 18% had a master’s degree. The participating schools were from several areas in Bandung, including urban (30%), suburban (30%), and rural areas (40%). The learners had a median age of 5.4 years (SD: 0.42) and were almost equally divided according to gender (51% male; 49% female). The average family income was between IDR 2 million and IDR 10 million per month.
Classroom observations mere made to determine the opportunities to learn language in the classroom. In addition, a researcher made questionnaire was used to determine the mothers’ level of education and family socioeconomic status The instrument was made by adopting the language domains as presented in Table 1.
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The validity test was carried out through the judgment of five PhD qualified experts, while the reliability test was carried out through an empirical test on some learners who became research participants.
3.1.1 Opportunity to learn language and literacy
Observation of language learning opportunities was carried out in the classroom and at home. Observation at home was carried out by asking parents’ help in filling out an observation grid. Observation of the teaching process in the classroom was carried out directly and facilitated using a camera for two semesters within one year. Observations were made every day to obtain an overview of language learning practices. The scale used to measure the vocabulary of spoken language, ranging from vocabulary that is commonly used to that which is not commonly used by children, ranged from 1 to 5. The average score on this assessment was 5.21 (SD: 0.74). Each class had an average duration of one day (M: 82;27 minutes; SD: 22.57; range: 30 60 minutes) Our classroom observation was facilitated by using a camera to document teaching activities. In addition, we also used observation notes to observe language and literacy learning opportunities in the classroom. The components of the assessment of language learning and early literacy were taken from the theory showing what level of language learning and early literacy must be possessed by early childhood. We used these components as instructions to assess the outcomes of early language and literacy learning as a guide. Table 1 presents the components and instructions followed for the early language and literacy learning assessment.
Table 1. The language domains assigned for the teaching process and evaluation
Domain Method Example
Phoneme awareness Distinguishing the pronunciation of the letters individually or in words
Morpheme awareness
Introducing basic and compound words and affixes
Producing rhyming or alliterative phrases
Adding prefixes to alternate phrase meanings
Word identification/ decoding Spelling the letters in the word Reading sight phrases from a phrase wall
Word identification/ encoding Spelling the letters in the word Spelling through matching sounds and letters
Grapheme phoneme correspondence Listening or reading word for word
Fluency Practicing the quick pronunciation of words
Identifying letters related to a couple of sounds
Reading sight phrases with increased speed
Print and text concepts Writing printed letters and sounding them Modeling ebook orientation and directionality
Spoken language Speaking and introducing new vocabulary
Pattern vocabulary Writing new words and understanding their meanings
Using role play conversation to practice the use of vocabulary phrases that belong to the language domain
Defining homonyms and noting spelling patterns
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Understanding Reading text and understanding their meanings
Using earlier expertise to better recognize an ebook
Listening to an ebook on tape Writing Writing simple sentences from familiar words Participating in shared writing throughout class time
Text reading Reading text
After the observations had been made, the learning videos were analyzed by coding each action using the individualizing student instruction (ISI) coding scheme. The ISI code consists of 12 language learning and early literacy domains, namely phoneme awareness, morpheme awareness, word identification/decoding, word identification/encoding, grapheme phoneme correspondence, fluency, print and text concepts, spoken language, pattern vocabulary, understanding, text reading, and writing (see Table 1). We calculated the time used for early language and literacy learning that included the 12 domains in the classroom and at home of learners who were observed with the help of their parents and assessed the results at the end of the semester. This was done to determine whether the opportunity to learn a language within a certain timespan was ideally used and whether the results of the assessment were related to the socioeconomic status variables and the education level of the learners’ mothers
In this study, we used mother’s education level and socioeconomic status as variables that influenced the level of language learning ability and early literacy. As has been done in previous studies, the mother’s level of education is a variable that can predict the success of the child’s academic level and is more predictive than the level of family socioeconomic status. In this study, 10% of the mothers of learners who were participants were admitted to higher education but did not finish, 15% had a master’s degree, 40% had a bachelor’s degree, 30% had a diploma, and 5% had a doctoral degree.
3.1.3
To determine the learners’ early language skills, we conducted a series of tests in collaboration with participating schools. The components tested included knowledge of the alphabet and phonological and spoken skills. Each of these skills was analyzed and associated with the level of learners’ reading ability. The components assessed are in line with the components of the ISI scheme in the 12 standard domains of language learning and early literacy.
We assessed learners’ alphabet knowledge by testing their usage of uppercase and lowercase letters and pronunciation. The test sheet had the 26 letters of the alphabet arranged randomly, with one point awarded for each correct letter, for a total of 55 points for the maximum score. Internal consistency for the composite scale was high (0.98).
We assessed learners’ phonological abilities through rhyming and repetition word tests. Assessment was done by instructing the learners to identify a picture
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and give it a name. Learners were asked to choose words that do not rhyme and words that do not start with the same vowel during the alliteration test. One point was assigned for each correct answer and there were a possible twenty four points to be received in total. Internal consistency for each subtest was high (0.85).
Learners’ oral language skills were assessed through sentence, phrase, and vocabulary tests. For the sentence test, learners were asked to choose a picture that matched the teacher’s oral explanation. For the word structure test, learners were asked to complete the missing sentences. For the vocabulary test, learners were asked to identify the object and provide a description of the word that corresponds to the object. One point was awarded for each correct answer. The total score for the 3 subtests was 70 points. Internal consistency for the subtests ranged from 0.8 to 0.97.
To answer the first research question, we tested the relationship between mother’ s education level, initial skills, and opportunities to learn language and literacy, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Relationship between, mother’s education, early skills, and opportunity to learn language and literacy
1 2 3 4 5 n M SD Min Max Alphabet knowledge 2550 26.71 19.37 0 55 Phonological awareness .405** 1606 8.51 4.63 0 30 Spoken language .450** .465** 1732 40.16 11.51 0 70 Mother’s education .367** .245** .315** 1762 3.45 1.57 0 9 Knowledge opportunities .121** .086** .088** .051* 1754 15.07 9.31 0 65
Analysis revealed that the learners’ early skills showed a significant relationship with language learning opportunities. Likewise, mother’s education had a significant relationship with spoken language and knowledge opportunities. Language learning opportunities showed a significant relationship with mother’s education and early skills. On average, learners whose mothers had a higher education and who had better early skills tended to show better language skills (r2 0.02; see Table 3). Table 3 shows that mother’s education and child’s early skills greatly affect spoken language, alphabet knowledge, and phonological awareness. The results of this study indicate that although children are given the opportunity to learn language and literacy at school in the same amount and time, the results will vary depending on the mother’s education and the child’s initial skills that had been obtained at home.
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Table 3. Processing results based on the linear hierarchy model to predict language and literacy learning opportunities
Parameter
Oral language Alphabet knowledge Phonological awareness Coeffi cient SE Coeffi cient SE Coeffi cient SE
Intercept (b00) 15.12 *** 0.50 15.02 *** 0.50 15.19 *** 0.42 Classroom level Mother’s education (b01) _0.14 0.35 _0.06 0.32 _0.15 0.33
Early skill (b10) 0.05 ** 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.04 Mother’s education (b20) 0.22 * 0.11 0.25 * 0.11 0.24 * 0.12
Learner level ® 17.19 4.08 16.75 4.11 17.25 4.25 Classroom level (u0) 68.36 *** 9.22 71.36 *** 9.22 69.13 *** 9.15
SE = Effective contribution; *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05
For the second research question, data from observations in the classroom and at learners’ homes and combined with the theory of language skills and early literacy in early childhood were used. The data were used to determine the domains of language learning and early literacy that are needed to train learners both through literacy programs and learning patterns carried out at home. These domains were phoneme awareness, morpheme awareness, word identification/decoding, word identification/encoding, grapheme phoneme correspondence, fluency, print and text concepts, spoken language, pattern vocabulary, understanding, text reading, and writing. Learners’ ability to differentiate between phonemes can be improved by distinguishing the pronunciation of the letters themselves or in words. Improving the ability to identify morphemes can be done by introducing basic and compound words and affixes. The ability to decipher words can be improved by spelling the letters in the word. Similarly, the ability to identify words can be achieved by spelling the letters in the word. Grapheme phoneme skills can be practiced by listening or reading word for word. Fluency can be improved by practicing the quick pronunciation of words. To introduce the concept of print and text, learners can be trained by writing printed letters and sounding them. To improve spoken language skills, learners can be introduced to new vocabulary and practice speaking it Furthermore, written vocabulary can be increased by training learners in writing new words and understanding their meanings. Lastly, to enhance writing text skills, learners can be trained to write simple sentences from familiar words.
To answer the third research question, we observed opportunities to learn language and literacy in the classroom and at home. The learners had the opportunity to learn language while in the school environment for an average of 80 minutes per day, whereas their opportunity to learn language at home differed remarkably. Regarding language learning opportunities obtained while at home,
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the results showed that learners with mothers with a low level of education only received additional language learning opportunities of an average of five minutes per day. To improve spoken language skills, these learners received an additional 10 minutes of language learning opportunities per day. This is low when compared to learners with highly educated mothers, who received an additional 30 minutes per day, totaling 210 minutes per week. The average amount of time for language learning a child generally needs is 26 minutes per day or 182 minutes a week. Of course, it is not surprising that children with mothers who have higher levels of education have different language learning patterns that are applied to them every day.
This study sought to determine the relationship between the variables of language and literacy learning opportunities, mother’s education, and early skills by providing knowledge of language and literacy learning in schools and ending with an evaluation. The evaluation used included the 12 domains of language learning and early literacy that have been mentioned previously. The results showed that the mother’s education and the child’s early skills greatly affect the child’s language skills, even though the material and implementation method are the same. Learners with highly educated mothers tend to have superior language skills. This is due to the learning pattern applied by the mother at home. In addition, based on the questionnaire, the results showed that the duration of language learning for learners whose mothers are highly educated is longer than that of learners with mothers with lower levels of education. Based on the theory, learners have the opportunity to learn language both in the family and at school for an average of 85 minutes per day (Poolman et al., 2017; Reilly et al., 2020) This skills gap must be overcome by the pre school literacy program, which must be able to equip parents on how to train their children in language skills and early literacy in their home environment (Krahe et al., 2021; Lane et al., 2014). Of course, this can help better prepare children for school. Stakeholders must include children who have mothers with lower levels of education into the equalization program for language and literacy learning (Poolman et al., 2017; Reilly et al., 2020).
The results of this study also indicated that children with low levels of maternal education and early skills have more difficulty in understanding material and learning in the school environment (Meng, 2015; Neumann et al., 2013). Children’s oral language ability is another indicator of poor language skills. Oral language skills are basic skills and abilities that will greatly determine a child’s success in reading and other academic abilities. The results showed that children belonging to the lower socioeconomic groups tended to lag behind in their oral language skills. In addition, it also tended to be difficult to improve their oral language skills through classroom instruction (Skibbe et al., 2013; Slot et al., 2018). Of course, these skills need to be promoted through the learning pattern that must be applied by the mother at home. The findings of this study are in accordance with the real situation in society. Children with mothers who have higher levels of education and have a high ability for communication will have better language and literacy skills. The findings of this study are also in accordance with previous studies which reinforce that the mother’ s level of education has a very important role in
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the success of children in language learning (Gilles & Buck, 2020; Koffman et al., 2017).
The findings of this study are also in line with that of other studies (Mulyati & Hadianto, 2022; Slot et al., 2018). However, it should be noted that language and literacy learning opportunities in schools always favour children of higher socioeconomic status. One alternative to overcome this problem, as recommended by literature, is that pre school education should be done individually (Varghese & Wachen, 2016; Wasik & Hindman, 2010). Needless to say, this will require quite a lot of teachers. One alternative option is that pre school education should be grouped based on factors that greatly affect learners’ academic abilities, which factors include maternal education, learners’ initial abilities, and socioeconomic status (Weigel et al., 2006; Wickstrom & Pelletier, 2021). The aim here is to provide children who have fewer language skills with more intensive learning compared to other groups of children.
The 12 language domains used in this study also need to be considered as main focus areas in which children require training by their parents and in the school environment (Varghese & Wachen, 2016; Yazejian & Peisner Feinberg, 2009). The domain of language learning and early literacy is believed to be the most decisive component of children’s success in reading and other academic abilities when entering elementary school. The findings of this study concur with this, namely that children who have more opportunities to learn language have superior oral language skills (Reilly et al., 2020; Skibbe et al., 2013). These findings reinforce the fact that the more intensively children are introduced to language and literacy learning at an early age, the better their academic abilities will be at school age. These findings are reinforced by literature (Lewis et al., 2016; Meng, 2015). This research has the short term goal to strengthen and clarify the role of parents and teachers in supporting the success of children’s language and literacy learning in terms of domain, method, and duration. The long term goal is that the findings of the study provide guidelines for literacy program makers to improve the literacy skills of children starting from an early age. These programs will certainly have an impact on the literacy level of children when they reach adulthood.
Mother’s education, early skills, and socioeconomic status are determining factors in a child’s success in acquiring language and literacy skills. Therefore, it is necessary to map the mother’s education, the child’s initial skills, and socioeconomic status as material for implementing early education in schools and education through literacy programs outside of school. In language learning and early literacy, attention should also be paid to the 12 domains identified in this study, as these are the basis of children’s success in the future. The number of language learning opportunities also greatly determine children’s oral language skills; hence, individual instruction is needed that provides language learning opportunities for children with mothers with a low level of education. Promoting the language and literacy learning of children both in school and at home can instil character values in children. This can be done by the mother when giving advice, during study time, or through casual dialogue. Therefore, the mother’s role is very
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important in the success of children in language and literacy learning. Mothers must be active in providing language learning opportunities by paying attention to the language domains in this study. Opportunities can be created in various situations, whether through chatting, studying, or playing.
This study had several limitations, including linking children’s language skills with only the variables of mother’s education and socioeconomic status. Perhaps there are other factors that also determine the success of children’s language learning, so research can thus be expanded to include other variables. Furthermore, participants were from only one area in Indonesia, and it would have been better had children from various regions in Indonesia been involved. Third, it is possible that we excluded other important aspects of instructional opportunities in relation to mother’s education. Despite these limitations, the main finding of this study was that the language and literacy learning opportunities provided during early childhood are largely determined by the mother’ s level of education and early spoken language skills. In addition, through this study, we also formulated the language domains and estimated duration needed to assist parents in their children’s language learning. For future research, we recommend adding more variables and selecting a wider range of participants to identify the factors that determine the success of children’s language learning.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 144 162, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.9
Received Jun 15, 2022; Revised Aug 11, 2022; Accepted Aug 25, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda, Rwanda
Septimi Reuben Kitta University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Odette Umugiraneza Rwanda Polytechnic
Abstract. This study investigated the assessment techniques mathematics teachers use that integrate soft skills in secondary schools in Mazabuka District in Zambia. A total of 91 teachers, who were purposively selected, took part in the study, of which 81 completed a questionnaire and four observers evaluated 124 video recorded lessons which were taken of 31 teachers. A sequential multi phase design was used to collect data. The data were analyzed using frequencies, means, standard deviations and chi squarestatistics.Thefindingsrevealedthattheassessmenttechniques mathematics teachers used did not assess soft skills. In addition, mathematics teachers’ gender was not found to have influenced teachers’ choice of assessment techniques in the teaching and learning process but the type of schools where teachers were teaching, though the effect size was weaker. The consequence of this may be that secondary school leavers may not be good communicators, innovators, creators and critical thinkers. Therefore, it is recommended that mathematics teachers be upskilled on how to assess soft skills in the teaching and learning of Mathematics if the integration of soft skills is to be realized as espoused in the Zambia Education Curriculum Framework of 2013.
Keywords: assessment techniques; soft skills; integration; mathematics; mixed methods
*
Corresponding author: ChilesheBusaka,chilebusaka2006@yahoo.co.uk
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
1.1
Assessment is an essential part of the teaching and learning process. Through assessment evidence of an individual, student’s learning progress is collected, interpreted and later judgments are made about the students’ accomplishments following some set standards (Guevara Bazán et al., 2020). Guevara Bazán et al. (2020); the Ministry of Education [MINEDUC] and Rwanda Education Board [REB] (2015b) also concurred that the purpose of assessment is for monitoring students’ progress, providing feedback on students’ performance, guidance on future progressions, promotion, selection and certification. The Curriculum Development Centre [CDC] (2013e) and Tejeda and Gallardo (2017) stated that assessment must match the aims of the curriculum so that it supports teaching and learning. When this is achieved, teachers focus consistently on the intended learning outcomes, as opposed to teaching to test.
Assessing knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, in totality, are foundational to having students that will be equipped with relevant competences. However, the various forms of assessment used in mathematics education are reported to have failed to provide an insight into what students understand, know and can achieve (Gallego& Dandis, 2014).This is probably due to technological advancements that have increased the need for students to develop soft skills, such as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and the ability to analyze and present data orally and in a written format (Dochy, 2001; Gallardo, 2020; Schwab, 2017; Putra et al., 2020). This has brought about thinking of how to assess these skills, as they are not normally captured in the standardized tests commonly administered to measure students’ performance. Thus, mathematics teachers are required to use assessment techniques, such as rubrics, portfolios, concept maps, self assessments, and group assessments, to determine what students know and where they are in the learning process (Rebecca, 1998; Birgin, 2011).
Lesson observation in mathematics education research has become important partly because the researcher has an opportunity to get the actual teacher and student interactions which impact student learning significantly as opposed to what teachers claim to do in class (Bostic et al., 2021; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2014) Bostic et al. (2021) reviewed 114 peer reviewed articles that involved classroom observations between 2000 and 2015 using the cross comparative method of research. The authors concluded that to understand classroom interaction in Mathematics, researchers require methods like observation that would capture classroom events.
Furthermore, assessment practices are key in the integration of soft skills that contributes to the individual students’ achievements in all aspects of life. The Zambia Education Curriculum Framework (ZECF) of 2013 provides for the development of six soft skills of problem solving or critical thinking, cooperation, communication, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovations, and self management (CDC, 2013e). Thus, this study examined mathematics teachers’ assessment approaches to establish the extent to which they assessed soft skills in Mathematics in secondary schools in Mazabuka district in Zambia.
The following were the research questions that guided the study:
i. To what extent do the assessment techniques mathematics teachers use in secondary schools in Zambia assess soft skills?
ii. Is there any relationship between mathematics teachers’ demographic factors and the assessment techniques they used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics?
The assessment of soft skills proves to be a challenge in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Similar sentiments are affirmed by Care et al. (2018), who stated that it was a challenge to measure most human social and non cognitive capabilities directly and, hence, constructs such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication and collaboration can be measured with tools designed to capture indicators of these skills. Since most of the soft skills are seen through behaviors, the challenge is to capture them accurately. Similarly, Mahasneh and Thabet (2015) also admitted that it was difficult to develop and measure soft skills, despite it proving increasingly valuable.
The challenges of assessing soft skills in schools are linked with determining the suitable methods for assessing them. It is therefore imperative to scrutinize the appropriate strategies for assessing soft skills (Durowoju & Onuka, 2014). It is argued that the use of rubrics can help in assessing soft skills. In support, Bargainnier (2003) reiterated that rubrics are tools, which teachers can use to come to similar conclusions about soft skills. Further, the author contended that rubrics provide clear descriptions of the work associatedwith each component, at varying levels of mastery, and it is an appropriate tool for measuring outcomes or competencies. Hence, teachers must go a step further to try and address the challenge by trying different methods of assessing soft skills during teaching and learning of Mathematics.
It is an indisputable fact that teaching Mathematics to students helps enhance knowledge, skills, and positive attitudes. It also helps them to connect what they learn to real life situations. Furthermore, it enables students to acquire the competences needed for improved living in society (Holmes & Hwang, 2016; Moser et al., 1948). It is evident that when teachers adopt appropriate assessment approaches, it may help in developing students' mathematical soft skills (Gallardo, 2020; Stewart et al., 2020). It is essential for teachers to know when, how and what to assess. Teachers should choose the assessment that helps to develop students’ critical thinking and problem solving.
Subsequently, soft skills are seen through behavior and they therefore require appropriate assessment tools to test them. Assessment in formal education systems is undertaken through written tests and this is too narrow in scope to evaluate soft skills. However, REB (2015) and Care et al. (2018) advocated that soft skills can be measured by assessing the stages students go through to find solutions to a given task, establishing the reasoning behind resolving a situation,
and using evidence to determine the students’ advancement towards fulfilling performance tasks. In addition, the CDC (2013d) highlighted that soft skills are difficult to measure, and thus require tools designed to capture indicators of these skills, such as projects, portfolios and performance assessments. Therefore, the quality assessment of any performance depends on the accurate and reliable measurement of key performance factors.
2.2
Assessment is an important tool which is used to determine how teaching and learning had taken place. In this respect, various researchers and institutions acknowledge that, besides standardized tests, other forms of assessments are used to gauge students’ achievement, what they know or can do (CDC, 2013a; Hamilton et al., 2021; Mustofa et al., 2020). The 2013 revised curriculum framework in Zambia, other researchers and documents have also suggested performance tasks, rubrics, assignments, and standard based projects as alternative assessment strategies among others (CDC, 2013d, 2013c, 2013b; Danielson & Marquez, 2016; Perlman, 2003) Thus, the following paragraphs, present some of the suggested assessment techniques, particularly those that can be used to assess soft skills in the teaching and learning of Mathematics.
2.2.1
Performance assessment is a compilation of performance tasks, which are structured in such a way that stimulus materials and a demand for action are presented to a student,who generates responses that can be rated for quality using explicit standards (Stecher, 2010; Tejeda & Gallardo, 2017). In other words, performance assessment means an assessment that involves an evaluation of students’ writing, products, or conduct (Danielson & Marquez, 2016) Precisely, performance assessment includes all assessments except for multiple choice, matching, true/false testing, or problems with a single correct answer. Classroom based performance assessment includes all such assessment that occurs in the classroom for formative or summative purposes and is evaluated by teachers as distinct from large scale, state wide testing programs (Danielson & Marquez, 2016, p. 1)
Additionally, performance assessments provide an effective way to measure students’ abilities, such as communication, collaboration, thinking critically and solving problems (Perlman, 2003). Assessment tasks, such as oral presentations, projects, open ended Mathematics problems and those requiring a critical evaluation, are examples of performance tasks (Perlman, 2003)
Tejeda and Gallardo (2017) conducted a study in Mexico to establish students’ perceptions of performance assessment tasks in helping students reach good levels of skills and abilities. Interviews were used to collect data using a mixed methods design involving 20 students. The results were that performance assessment was an effective approach for understanding students’ strengths and weaknesses in teaching and learning. Furthermore, the authors indicated that the performance assessment technique helps to link what a student learns in school to real life situations.
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Rubrics appeal to teachers and students for many reasons A rubric is described as a “rule, guide, criterion, or description that is used to assess the progress of students in their academic subjects, as well as the grading system for assessing each criterion” (Cooper & Gargan, 2011, p. 54). Furthermore, several researchers have argued that a rubric is a powerful tool for teaching and assessment; improves students’ performance; makes teachers’ expectations clear; and guides students on how to meet what is expected of them (Gallardo, 2020; Goodrich, 1997; Stewart et al., 2020). Goodrich (1997) also argued that the use of rubrics permits teachers to accommodate classes that are heterogeneous and reduces the amount of time teachers would spend evaluating students’ work. Thus, the quality of students’ performance is marked by improvements and rubrics make it easier for teachers to share the students’ evaluations with various stakeholders
Rubrics can be used in different subjects, including Mathematics; what differentiates them is the purpose of the rubric the teacher wants to use. Guskey (1994) indicated that rubrics “are specific guidelines that can be used to describe students’ work in reading, writing, mathematics, and other content areas” (p. 25). Using rubrics provides teachers with a good context to give feedback on a student’s performance level and indicates the next course of action for improvement. Similarly, Ash and Levitt (2003) state that rubrics can be used to diagnose the students’ learning levels in the classroom, which provides teachers an opportunity to clarify learning targets by giving appropriate feedback to the students.
Mustofa et al. (2020) reported that among the various assessment tools used to measure and assess soft skills is the rubric. Furthermore, rubrics have been found to improve instruction, increase student achievement, evaluate courses and to assess soft skills (Khuzzan & Mahdzir, 2020; Reddy & Andrade, 2010). In addition, when rubrics are used as part of a student centered approach, they have the potential to help students understand the targets for their learning and the standards of quality for a particular assignment, as well as making dependable evaluations and judgments about their work that can inform revision and improvement (Reddy & Andrade, 2010).
Project based learning is a process where students work collaboratively to find solutions to the problems around them (Holmes & Hwang, 2016) Problem based learning is identified as promoting students’ skills in problem solving, decision making, and investigation (Thomas, 2000, p. 1). Project based learning is grounded on the constructivist theory where students attain a deeper understanding while actively constructing their ideas, and engaging in real and meaningful problem solving activities (Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006)
The NCTM (2000) and Remijan (2016) recommended mathematics teachers to provide classroom activities that are relevant, such as projects, which provide students with opportunities to engage in real life problem solving and allow for many avenues to demonstrate what they have learned. The project based learning technique assists students studying secondary Mathematics to be motivated to
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learn, and apply their content knowledge and skills, such as collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking (Holmes & Hwang, 2016; Thomas, 2000). In support, Hope and Allen (2009) reported that “When students are engaged in project based learning, which is rich in collaboration and problem solving, learning becomes more authentic” (p. 3853).
During project based learning techniques, students work in groups to deal with curriculum based, authentic, thought provoking problems and often students decide what activities to pursue in dealing with a problem (Solomon, 2008). Furthermore, Solomon (2008) stated that students benefit from this technique in gathering information from a variety of sources, synthesizing, analyzing and deriving knowledge. As a result, students learn how to demonstrate the knowledge they have acquired and what they have learned is judged by how well they can communicate that new knowledge. The teachers’ role is not to direct and manage students but to advise and guide them. These characteristics make project based learning an appropriate assessment technique for soft skills as learning is assessed by how much students can demonstrate what they have learned.
A study on project based learning conducted by Ravitz et al. (2012) employed a quasi experimental design with 60 teachers who were selected based on having published peer reviewed projects on problem based learning and soft skills. The teachers selected taught Mathematics, Science, English, or Social Studies from grades 4 to 11. The findings were that through project based learning, students gain more skills such as collaboration, communication and critical thinking, leading to learning deep content knowledge (Ravitz et al., 2012). Additionally, Ravitz et al. (2012) reported that teachers who used project based learning were reported to have managed to develop and assess soft skills. This was established through a study that explored the impact of this technique (project based learning) on the teachers’ capacity to teach and assess soft skills.
A study by Holmes and Hwang (2016) , in Holland, Michigan, USA, examined the benefits of project based learning to secondary mathematics students' skills development and techniques for learning. The study employed a mixed method, longitudinal design using a test, interviews and a survey to collect data. A total of 532 secondary students from grades 8 and 9 participated in the study. The findings were that project based learning intrinsically motivated the students in learning mathematics, and they showed an increase in their critical thinking abilities. The study further reported a decrease in the achievement gap among different demographic clusters and achievement levels in secondary mathematics among students. The study, which reviewed literature to address two subjects, regarding project based learning in Mathematics and its effect on developing and assessing soft skills, concluded that “topic specific assessments tended to show gains in achievement” (Jacques, 2017, p. 430).
Holmes and Hwang (2016) further reported that gains were noted to have been transferred to state assessments with the use of project based learning. Research has established that the use of the project based learning technique, depends on
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the subject area and grade level, as well as carefully planning, managing, and assessing the connection between academic content and soft skills (Ravitz et al., 2012). Thus, it is the teachers’ responsibility to determine the kind of projects appropriate to the grade level and how soft skills can be assessed.
2.2.4 The portfolio assessment model Students' work may also be evaluated through portfolios. A portfolio is defined as an accumulation of a student’s work collected over a period and varies in form, function and content (Cicmanec & Viechnicki, 1994) Applying the definition to Mathematics, a portfolio is “a showcase for student work, a place where many types of assignments, projects, reports, and writings can be collected as well as students’ progress in, attitudes toward, and understanding of Mathematics are monitored comprehensively” (Stenmark & NCTM., 2007, p. 35)
The student's portfolio isone of the assessment tools thatweigh the progressmade and the work that has been accomplished (Khuzzan & Mahdzir, 2020; Wilson, 2014). Over the years “mathematics teachers have used portfolios in their classrooms to make instructional decisions” (Wilson, 2014, p. 698). Also, Fukawa Connelly and Buck (2010) reported that "students have developed the ability to read and write about Mathematics through portfolios and have submitted more self directed, higher quality work on other assignments” (p. 650). Fukawa Connelly and Buck (2010) admitted that the use of a portfolio as an assessment tool is challenging and consumes time. However, the tool has enhanced students' ability to read and write in Mathematics. Hence, besides assessing the progress made and work accomplished by the students' portfolio, the assessment tool can be used to assess communication skills.
A study by Cicmanec and Viechnicki (1994) evaluated the use of portfolio tools for assessing students' learning in Mathematics and reported that there was a “weak support for claims that Mathematics portfolio assessments enhance student learning and promote effective communication among teachers, students, and parents” (p. 167). The authors recommended that a strong rationale needs to be established for selecting a portfolio as a tool for assessment in Mathematics. However, recent studies reported the contrary. For instance, it is argued in a study which investigated students’ mathematical thinking through the use of portfolio tools, that students' achievement proficiency improved in Mathematics and that the “portfolio assessments played a major role in the successes” (Fukawa Connelly & Buck, 2010, p. 650)
The process of generating portfolios to monitor students' progress raises their expectations, which attracts appropriate instruction and support from the teacher. It also shows that teachers do care about the students’ learning and that working hard was key to success (Fukawa Connelly& Buck, 2010; Khuzzan & Mahdzir, 2020). Therefore, mathematics teachers are urged to embrace the use of portfolios in teaching and learning Mathematics, to be able to assess soft skills like communications skills, which are not assessed through standardized tests.
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Therefore, assessing what students know and can do is not only done through standardized tests but also performance assessment tasks, standard based projects, rubrics and assignments (Care et al., 2018; Ministry of General Education, 2019) Nevertheless, even after the revision of the curriculum in Zambia, test items in the assessment papers for Mathematics and other subjects are still based on the cognitive domain (Ministry of General Education, 2019). The cognitive domain largely covers cognitive aspects of the student (Anderson et al., 2001), yet the revised curriculum covers a full spectrum of the students’ development, including soft skills captured under the affective domain developed by David Krathwohl (Krathwohl et al., 1964). This shows that the soft skills and competences on focus may not be adequately assessed when Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain is used as the assessment guide. Based on the reviewed studies, this study intends to examine mathematics teachers’ practices which involve the assessment of soft skills. Since the implementation of the ZECF of 2013, very little is known about how mathematics teachers assess soft skills in teaching and learning Mathematics. Therefore, this study was necessary since there had been no such a study conducted in Zambian secondary schools.
The control theory guided the study, which takes into consideration the vital concerns of the cognitive and emotional dimensions of learning in the soft skills assessment (Gibb, 2014) Carver and Scheier (1982) expounded that control theory provides a model of self regulation required to operate effectively and is useful in the analysis of human behavior. It is argued that when assessment is done well, it can reveal gaps and prompt curative measures to reduce the discrepancy (Gibb, 2014). The important aspect of self regulation in control theory is the feedback loop. The feedback loop is defined as “Information about the gap between the reference level and the actual level of a system parameter used to close up the gap” (Gibb, 2014, p. 8). The theory fits well with this study because it aimed at examining the extent to which the assessment techniques that mathematics teachers use in secondary schools assessed soft skills. This is because the sole purpose of assessment, among many others, is to diagnose student learning difficulties, provide feedback, help in planning how to carry out instruction, and maintain social balance in the learning process (Guevara Bazán et al., 2020) Gibb (2014) summarizes that in control theory, the assessor (teacher) can diagnose the lack of capacity in the attainment of soft skills on the part of the recipient (student) and adjust instructions and provide feedback to close the gap.
A sequential multi phase design, involving multiple phases of data collection and analysis by Saunders et al. (2016), guided the study. A sequential multi phase research design is a research process, which recognizes that mixed methods research is interactive, where one phase subsequently informs and directs the next phase of data collection and analysis (Ridenour & Newman, 2008; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
Data were collected in two phases. The first phase involved the collection of data through a questionnaire. The second phase involved the collection of data using a lesson observation schedule involving 124 videos.
The participants, purposively selected for the study, were mathematics teachers from secondary schools in Mazabuka District in Zambia. A total of 91 participants were drawn from 22 secondary schools, which included non public and public schools. Of the 91 participants, 81 returned the questionnaires after completing them and 31 had four of their lessons captured through a video recording. The distribution of the mathematics teachers according to the type of school, gender, age and experience is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of mathematics teachers according to their gender, age, teaching experience, qualifications and type of school (n=91)
Factors Description Frequency Gender Male 48 (53%) Female 43 (47%)
Age (in years) 25 ≤ X ≤ 34 36 (40%) 35 ≤ X ≤ 44 35 (38%) 45 ≤ X ≤ 54 20 (22%)
Teaching experience (in years) ≤ 10 50 (55%) ˃ 10 41 (45%)
Qualifications Diploma 46 (51%) Bachelor 45 (49%)
Type of school Non public schools 45 (49%) Public schools 46 (51%)
The gender of mathematics teachers, as indicated in Table 1, were 48 (53%) male and 43 (47%) female. Mathematics teachers who participated in the study were of ages ranging from 25 years to 54 years. The study took place in two different types of schools namely public and non public. There were 45(49%) from Non public schools and 46(51%) from public schools
A questionnaire and observation schedule were used in this study. The items in the questionnaire and observation schedule were adapted from a Validation of Modified Soft Skills Assessment Instrument (MOSSAI) (Aworanti et al., 2015) and the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol [RTOP](Piburn et al., 2000). The adapted items were measured using literature and standards set in the Framework for 21st Century Learning developed by the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) (Global Partnership for Education [GPE], 2020). In particular, the adapted items were the learning and innovation skills comprising creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration.
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The 5 point Likert scale used in the study was found to have a good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .725. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the scale used to establish the assessment techniques that mathematics teachers use to assess soft skills in Mathematics was slightly above 0.7. The scales were considered reasonably reliable based on the sample. For the data from the observations, inter rater reliability of the observers was done using Spearman’s rho to establish the level of agreement among the observers (Saunders et al., 2016). The results for the computed Spearman correlation coefficient are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Spearman correlation coefficient among the four observers on the extent to which the assessment techniques mathematics teachers used captured soft skills
Correlations Evaluator 01 Evaluator 02 Evaluator 03 Evaluator 04
Evaluator 01
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .989** .994** .983**
Sig. (2 tailed) Evaluator 02
Correlation Coefficient .989** 1.000 .994** .972**
Spearman's rho
Sig. (2 tailed) Evaluator 03
Correlation Coefficient .994** .994** 1.000 .977**
Sig. (2 tailed) Evaluator 04
Correlation Coefficient .983** .972** .977** 1.000 Sig. (2 tailed)
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed).
The data from the questionnaire and the observation schedule were analyzed and presented in frequencies, percentages, mean (M), standard deviations (SD) and chi square statistics, using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (IBM Corp., 2015)
The study explored assessment techniques that integrate soft skills in teaching mathematics in secondary schools in Zambia and were subject to a sample size limitation. This is because the 91 participants were not representative of all the teachers in the country. The implication is that the results may not be generalized.
5.1 Research Question 1
To what extent do the assessment techniques mathematics teachers use in secondary schools in Zambia assess soft skills?
5.1.1 Data from the self reporting questionnaire
The assessment techniques that mathematics teachers used to assess soft skills
To establish the extent to which the assessment techniques mathematics teachers, used in secondary schools in Zambia to assess soft skills, mathematics teachers were asked to put a tick (√) in the appropriate box that suited their response to the given statement in the self reporting questionnaire. Table 3 reports the frequencies, percentages, means (M) and standard deviations (SD) where SD, D, U, A and SA represent strongly disagree, disagree, uncertain, agree and strongly agree, respectively.
Table 3: Frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation according to mathematics teacher’s assessment of soft skills in Mathematics (n = 81)
SN Statement Frequency M SD SD D U A SA
1
2
I assess students’ development of soft skills through Mathematics long term tasks that I administer to the class.
I assess and monitor students’ progress in Mathematics by keeping records of the students’ development of soft skills
3 (4%) 4 (5%) 11 (14%) 46 (57%) 17 (21%) 3.86 0.93
1 (1%) 8 (10%) 34 (42%) 38 (47%) 4.35 0.71
3
4
I assess students’ performance by administering Mathematics assignments
I use Mathematics tailored rating scale in class to assess students’ development of soft skills.
1 (1%) 2 (2%) 2 (2%) 43 (53%) 33 (41%) 4.30 0.75
2 (2%) 2 (2%) 25 (31%) 44 (54%) 8 (10%) 3.67 0.79
5
I administer Mathematics quizzes to assess students’ performance. 3 (4%) 5 (6%) 5 (6%) 36 (44%) 32 (40%) 4.10 1.02
6
7
I assess students’ mathematical understanding by administering games. 4 (5%) 11 (14%) 17 (21%) 38 (47%) 11 (14%) 3.51 1.05
I administer mathematical activities to assess students’ critical thinking/problem solving skills
1 (1%) 1 (1%) 28 (35%) 51 (63%) 4.59 0.59
The analysis portrayed in Table 3 shows a high mean score on the assessment approaches mathematics teachers claimed to use in the integration of soft skills, ranging from performance tasks, project based learning, quizzes, rubrics, portfolio, and assignments. The mean score, on average, was between M ≥3.51 and M ≤ 4.59. The high mean score could indicate that mathematics teachers used the
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assessment approaches that allow the integration of soft skills in the teaching and learning of Mathematics. However, a variation in responses, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree may indicate a lack of clarity on the assessment approaches Mathematics teachers use as to whether they assess soft skills or not.
5.1.2 Data from the observation schedule
The study captured and evaluated 124 video recorded lessons from 31 mathematics teachers. Each of the 31 teachers had four of their lessons captured. The evaluation was done by the researcher and other three evaluators who together made 496 observations
5.1.3 The extent to which assessment techniques mathematics teachers used in Mathematics assess soft skills After establishing the Spearman correlation coefficient among the four observers which was ≥ .972, data were analyzed and presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Frequencies, percentages, Mean and standard deviation according to Mathematics teacher’s assessment of soft skills in Mathematics (n = 496)
Statement Frequency M SD Yes No
1. The teacher assessed students’ performance through Mathematics projects that he assigned to the class. 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
2. The teacher assessed and monitored students’ progress in Mathematics using portfolios. 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
3. The teacher assessed students’ performance through administering Mathematics class exercise 379 (76%) 117 (24%) 0.764 0.425
4. The teacher assessed students’ performance through administering Mathematics assignments 5 (1%) 491 (99%) 0.010 0.100
5. The teacher used Mathematics tailored rubrics in class to assess students’ performance. 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
6. The teacher administered Mathematics quizzes to the class to assess students’ performance. 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
7. The teacher assessed students’ mathematical understanding by administering games. 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
8. The teacher administered mathematical activities to assess students’ critical thinking/problem solving skills 496 (100%) 0.000 0.000
Table 4 indicates a comparatively low mean on the assessment approaches mathematics teachers used in the teaching and learning of mathematics based on the 496 observations made on the 124 videos. The results from the observations have shown a mean score on average between M ≥ 0.00 and M ≤ 0.76. The mean M = .76 was the class exercises the teachers administered during the teaching and learning of Mathematics which does not elicit high order thinking skills, such as problem solving, critical thinking and creativity and innovation (Minarni & Elvis, 2019; Ministry of General Education, 2019). The small mean indicates that from the videos observed the assessment techniques mathematics teachers use in secondary schools in Zambia do not assess soft skills.
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Is there any relationship between mathematics teachers’ demographic factors and the assessment techniques they used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics?
This research question was explored by examining the effect of teachers’ gender and the type of school where they were teaching based on the data from the observation schedule. To establish the effect of demographic factors on the teachers’ choice of assessment techniques, a chi square statistic was computed (Morgan et al., 2011).
5.2.1 Teachers’ demographic factors and the assessment techniques they used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics Gender
The study investigated whether male and female mathematics teachers differed in the assessment techniques they used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics (ref. Table 4). The findings suggest that there was no statistical difference between them (2 = 2.794, df = 1, N = 496, p value=.095).
Type of school where teachers were teaching
The study also examined the effect of the type of school where mathematics teachers who participated in the study were teaching and the assessment techniques they were using in the teaching and learning of Mathematics, as reported in Table 4. The findings showed that mathematics teachers from non public schools were likely to slightly differ from those from public schools (2 = 5. 163, df = 1, N = 496, p value=.023).
6.1 The Extent to Which the Assessment Techniques Mathematics Teachers, Used in Secondary Schools in Zambia to Assess Soft Skills
The results from the observations show a mean score on average between M ≥ 0.00 and M ≤ 0.76. The mean M = .76 was the class exercises the teachers administered during the teaching and learning of Mathematics, which does not elicit high order thinking skills such as problem solving, critical thinking and creativity and innovation (Minarni & Elvis, 2019; Ministry of General Education, 2019). The small mean indicates that from the videos observed, the assessment techniques mathematics teachers use in secondary schools in Zambia do not assess soft skills. This is not far from the results obtained by Blom et al. (2017), who reported that curricula in Zambia, Botswana and Lesotho presented little evidence that soft skills, such as problem solving, collaboration, entrepreneurship, and self management, were assessed in the teaching and learning. Similarly, a study by Mkimbili and Kitta (2019), that critically analyzed the assessment of competencies in secondary schools in Tanzania, reported that teachers were still using written tests as assessment tools, which did not develop competencies, such as soft skills, in students. The study recommended that attaining a better assessment level requires restructuring the assessment techniques to include portfolio assessments, oral examinations and projects (Mkimbili & Kitta, 2019). These techniques ensure that students are engaged in critical thinking skills (Mkimbili, 2018).
The teachers are well positioned to take up a very important role in developing students’ soft skills, which demands a high level of thinking (Soh et al., 2012) Although the ZECF of 2013 demands this, the assessment tasks in Mathematics at both school and national levels do not incorporate adequate tasks that demand high level thinking (Ministry of General Education, 2019). Thus, teachers are constrained to focus on integrating soft skills that enhance higher levels of thinking.
Mathematics teachers require knowledge on techniques that embrace student centered approaches to develop soft skills and employ performance based assessments. However, teachers have continued with the same assessment methods despite the curriculum being changed from content based to competency based. The consequence of not assessing soft skills could be that mathematics teachers may not see the need to focus on the development of soft skills.
The study investigated the relationship between mathematics teachers’ demographic factors and the assessment techniques they used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics. The results show in the choice of assessment techniques used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics, males are not more likely to differ from females. The phi was .075, indicating a weaker association between the two variables (Morgan et al., 2011). Furthermore, the results suggest that mathematics teachers from non public schools slightly differed in the choice of assessment techniques they were using in the teaching and learning of Mathematics from teachers from public schools. However, the phi was 0.102, showing a weaker association between the two variables (Morgan et al., 2011).
This study investigated assessment techniques mathematics teachers used that signify the integration of soft skills in secondary schools in Mazabuka District in Zambia. In conclusion, the study established that the assessment techniques mathematics teachers were using did not assess soft skills based on the data from the observation. The findings further suggest that mathematics teachers’ choice of assessment techniques used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics was not related to gender but to the type of school where teachers were teaching, even though the association between the two variables was weaker. These findings could be an indication that secondary school mathematics teachers do not focus on the assessment of soft skills. The consequence of this may be that secondary school leavers may not be good communicators, innovators, creators and critical thinkers. However, the results may not be generalized as the sample was not representative of the whole country. The importance of assessing soft skills cannot be over overlooked as it is the only way of confirming that soft skills are integrated in the teaching and learning of Mathematics. Therefore, it is recommended that mathematics teachers be upskilled in the use of a variety of assessment techniques such as performance based tasks, rubrics, assignments, observation, portfolio and standard based projects that would capture soft skills.
The authors would like to thank the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), the University of Rwanda, for financial support, and Opanga David (Lecturer) at St. John's University of Tanzania for proofreading the manuscript.
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INSTRUCTIONS:
Put a tick (√) in the appropriate box that suits your response to the given statement where SD (Strongly Disagree), D (Disagree), U (Uncertain), A (Agree), and SA (Strongly Agree)
SN Statement SD D U A SA
1 I assess students’ development of soft skills through Mathematics long term tasks that I administer to the class.
2 I assess and monitor students’ progress in Mathematics by keeping records of the students’ development of soft skills
3 I assess students’ performance by administering Mathematics assignments
4 I use Mathematics tailored rating scale in class to assess students’ development of soft skills.
5 I administer Mathematics quizzes to assess students’ performance.
6 I assess students’ mathematical understanding by administering games.
7 I administer mathematical activities to assess students’ critical thinking/problem solving skills
Part 3: Assessment approaches that capture soft skills in the teaching and learning Mathematics
Instructions: Tick (√) either YES or NO against the statements regarding the lesson observed concerning the approaches used in the assessment of soft skills. Give a brief description of the lesson observed concerning the assessment of soft skills
SN STATEMENT NO YES
1
The teacher assessed students’ performance through Mathematics projects that he assigns to the class.
2 The teacher assessed and monitored students’ progress in Mathematics using portfolios.
3 The teacher assessed students’ performance by administering Mathematics class exercise
4 The teacher assessed students’ performance by administering Mathematics assignments
5 The teacher used Mathematics tailored rubrics in class to assess students’ performance.
6 The teacher administered Mathematics quizzes to the class to assess students’ performance.
7 The teacher assessed students’ mathematical understanding by administering games.
8 The teacher administered mathematical activities to assess students’ critical thinking/problem solving skills
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 163 174, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.10
Received Jun 22, 2022; Revised Aug 2, 2022; Accepted Aug 16, 2022
Miguel A. Saavedra-López
Universidad Continental, Cusco, Perú
Xiomara M. Calle Ramírez
Universidad Nacional de Tumbes, Tumbes, Perú
Karel Llopiz Guerra
Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Marieta Alvarez Insua
Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Tania Hernández Nodarse
Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Julio Cjuno
Universidad Peruana Unión, Lima, Perú
Andrea Moya
Universidad Peruana Unión, Lima, Perú
Ronald M. Hernández*
Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo, Chiclayo, Perú
Abstract. Generic competences are considered to be the ability of people to adapt to changes, relate to others and work collaboratively. The objective of this study was to compare the generic competences of university students from Peru and Cuba. The study sample consisted of 248 female students from public universities with current enrollment in Peru (127) and Cuba (121). The data collection was carried out using the questionnaire on generic competences of university students (CCGEU), theCronbach'sAlphareliabilityvaluewas.979,showingahighreliability oftheinstrument. Theresultsshowthatthemeanofgenericcompetences in Peru is 3.88 and in Cuba is 3.84, which are adequate levels. In addition,
* Corresponding author: RonaldM.Hernández,ronald.hernandez@outlook.com.pe
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
the dimensions Systemic competence, Interpersonal competence and Instrumental competence show sufficient levels in both countries. It is concluded thatthegenericcompetencesinPeru andCubareachadequate levels, so they were developed in university students in a similar way. These results may be due to the fact that the evaluated samples have adequately developed these competences that promote the relationship, integrationand effective communicationamong peers ina constant social cooperation, teamwork and sense of leadership.
Keywords: generic competences, university students, higher education, learning, Peru, Cuba
At present, the higher education system worldwide is undergoing a stage of restructuring and transformation. Higher education is a fundamental space for training specialists to achieve the development of countries (Zahner et al., 2021). However, there is a gap between academic training and activity in the workplace. While it is true that it is important for higher education students to have a favorable attitude and skills towards scientific research in order to consolidate their profession as a science and perform well (Hernández et al., 2022), it is also important to have generic competencies related to collaborative work, interpersonal relationships and emotional management (Vélez et al., 2018).
In recent years, the term “generic competences” has been used in the university environment, therefore, it is necessary to understand this concept. For this reason, it can be said that when reference is made to competence in the professional environment, it refers to the capabilities, aptitudes, skills and abilities that the individual has to perform a task related to his/her profession (García Atarés et al., 2021). It also refers to people's performance, i.e., the ability to do, act or operate in a certain way in different areas of life (McClelland, 1973). Based on the above, some tests are conducted on students in order to evaluate these competences, as they serve to know how learning is taking place in the individual (Garrido et al., 2021). The generic competences also encompass the competences of the subject and increase the autonomy and learning that he/she has, on which the achievement of different objectives and solutions to problems typical of the university stage will depend (Garrido et al. 2021), in order to be able to adapt in the workplace, be flexible to change jobs and expand the knowledge learned (Yorke and Harvey, 2005).
Research studies on generic competences of university students were developed taking into account that the university education aims to enable students to transcend and strengthen their specific skills related to the profession and generic competences as a result of university experience and previous experience (Nabaho, 2017). A previous study conducted on medical students showed that the bidirectional feedback given through the tutor helps the development of generic competences (Godoy et al., 2021). Another study conducted on professors in Spain showed that methodological acceptance has an inverse relationship with the perceived competence construct (slope of 0.295), which indicates that the higher
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the values of the perceived competence construct, the less reluctant they are to accept and perform teachers tutoring (Donoso et al, 2021). Therefore, the professor's ability to adjust to the competences that the student needs to build is essential (Koster et al., 2005). In addition, a survey of 1272 students from Osijek Baranja County in Croatia concluded that there is a positive correlation between extracurricular activities and the entrepreneurial environment, and the level of entrepreneurial skills of the students (Perić et al., 2020).
In Colombia, an Academic Support Plan was designed based on critical reading and mathematics competences. The results showed that 22% of the students did not exhibit progress in their mathematical competences in contrast to 78% who had a significant contribution. In relation to critical reading, it was observed that 9.3% of the students did not show improvement in their reading competences in contrast to 90.7% who reached adequate levels of critical reading. Significant differences were also identified between the pre and post test. For example, in the pretest, 4 students obtained a grade lower than 1.0. below 1.0 and after the intervention intervention, the results of the post test the post test results show that only one student a grade lower than 1.0 (Castellar et al., 2021).
The generic competences can be better understood from three dimensions that explain this construct as instrumental competence which refers to methodological (environment management, such as problem solving or learning methods), cognitive (ability to control thoughts and ideas), linguistic and technological skills (ability to use technological devices), favoring the basic training of the student (Aguado et al., 2017; Amor, 2018). In addition, it is known that recent graduates think that the capacity for analysis and synthesis, basic general knowledge and knowledge related to their profession, computer skills and decision making, among others, are fundamental, promote liaison, integration and communication between two or more interlocutors, as well as social cooperation, specific or multidisciplinary teamwork and a sense of leadership (Corominas, 2001; Corominas et. al, 2006; Solanes et al., 2012). Finally, systemic competences include understanding, sensitivity and knowledge, autonomous learning, adaptation to changes and the creativity that the individual develops (Zabala and Arnau, 2008; Solanes et. al, 2012).
In Peru, the National System of Evaluation, Accreditation and Certification of Educational Quality aims that the profile of the graduate of higher education institutions is related to the needs of the country (SINEACE. 2017). In other words, professionals are trained with specific competencies related to the capabilities of the specialty and generic competencies related to the ability to relate optimally in the workplace. Likewise, Cuba's higher education institutions aim at the comprehensive training of higher education students, where the graduating student is competent, with scientific preparation and broad humanistic development and social commitment (Vega and De Armas, 2009). In both countries, the development of specific and generic competencies in higher education students is taken into account; however, in higher education, priority is given to specific competencies, considering them to be of greater relevance in professional training, so it is important to know the generic competencies present
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in university students in Peru and Cuba. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the generic competencies of university students in Peru and Cuba.
2.1
The research is cross sectional with a non experimental design since the studied variable was not manipulated. It is a comparative and descriptive study on the state of the studied variable in a given population (Hernández Sampieri and Mendoza, 2018). Moreover, it is basic research since it facilitated the collection of information on a reality that contributed to the increase of scientific knowledge and understanding of a specific problem (Barriga, 1971).
The variable “generic competences” of female students from public universities in Peru and Cuba was studied in this research.
The sample consisted of 248 female students from public universities with current enrollment in Peru (127) and Cuba (121), in this sense, the female population was considered, given that in Peru there is a higher percentage of women (17.2%) than men (15.5%) who reach higher education (National Institute of Statistics and Informatics [NISI], 2021). Due to the health emergency situation, the sample was a convenience sample by using technology (filling out a Google form).
The instrument applied is called Questionnaire on generic competences of university students (CCGEU, by its Spanish initials) (Villanueva, 2014). The instrument consists of 61 items distributed in three dimensions, in turn these dimensions are subdivided into subdimensions, as follows: 1. Instrumental competence: a. Organization and planning. b. Information management. c. Solution of critical situations. d. Decision making. e. Communication. Communication. 2. Interpersonal: a. Teamwork. b. Critical thinking. c. Self management. 3. Systemic: a. Learning orientation. b. Leadership. c. Motivation to learn. d. Leadership. Leadership. c. Motivation to quality. d. Flexibility. The instrument has levels of competence that are insufficient, sufficient and excellent. Regarding percentages (%) of response, those that are equal to or higher than 30% are classified as excellent according to frequency.
Finally, the Cronbach's Alpha reliability value was .979, which showed a high reliability of the instrument applied.
The statistical package Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS V. 25.0) and Microsoft Excel were used to process the study data. In addition, the analysis was carried out with tables of frequencies, percentages and mean. Finally, the Cronbach's Alpha reliability analysis was used.
The population of this study is female students from public universities. In relation to their professional careers, in Peru the majority of them belong to Social
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Sciences with 67.7% and in Cuba they belong to Others with 90.1%. In relation to the reasons they had for choosing the professional career they are studying, the response was “It is the one I like it” in both countries, 70.1% in Peru and 68.6% in Cuba. In relation to their age, more than 70% of the participants are between 18 and 21 years old, 78.7% (Peru) and 72.3% (Cuba). When asked about employment status, it can be observed that 70.9% (Peru) and 82.9% (Cuba) are dedicated exclusively to university studies. Finally, to get an idea of family conditions, the level of education of the parents was taken into account: in the case of Peru, 52.8% of mothers and 52% of fathers have basic education. In the case of Cuba, 68.2% of mothers and 43% of fathers have university education (Table 1).
Country of origin Peru Cuba
% fx % fx
The professional career belongs to:
Reasons for choosing the career:
Economic Sciences 7.1% 9 0.0% 0 Health Sciences 4.7% 6 0.8% 1 Other 9.4% 12 90.1% 109 Political Science 11.0% 14 0.0% 0 Social Sciences 67.7% 86 9.1% 11
It is a family tradition 2.4% 3 0.8% 1 It is easy 0.0% 0 0.8% 1 It offers good job opportunities 11.8% 15 5.0% 6
2.4% 3 13.2% 16
It is the one I like 70.1% 89 68.6% 83 I was not admitted to another professional program
No special reason 6.3% 8 7.4% 9 Other 7.1% 9 4.1% 5 Age: 18 21 78.7% 100 72.7% 88 21+ 21.3% 27 27.3% 33 Job: No 70.9% 90 82.6% 100 Yes 29.1% 37 17.4% 21
Mother's studies: No 7.9% 10 0.0% 0 Basic 52.8% 67 23.1% 28 Higher (university or high school) 37.0% 47 68.6% 83 Other 2.4% 3 8.3% 10
Father's studies: No 9.4% 12 0.0% 0 Basic 52.0% 66 42.1% 51 Higher (university or high school) 33.1% 42 43.0% 52 Other 5.5% 7 14.9% 18 %=Percentage; fx= Frequency
The mean of generic competences in Peru is 3.88 and in Cuba 3.84, which means that both countries show Good enough level. 38.7% of them in Peru are almost always, compared to Cuba, where 37% are always in terms of frequency of demonstrating their competences (Table 2).
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Peru Mean 3.88 Level Good enough % of response N 0.7 CN 6 M 26 CS 38.1 S 29.2 Cuba Mean 3.84 Level Good enough % of response N 2.7 CN 9.2 M 24.1 CS 27 S 37
%= Percentage; N=Never; CN=Nearly Never; M=Moderate; CS=Almost Always; S=Always.
Country Instrumental Competence Organization and planning Information management Solution of critical situations
Decision making Commu nication
Peru Mean 3.82 3.73 3.87 3.87 3.77 3.89 Level Good enough Good enough Good enough Good enough Good enough Good enough % of response N 0.4 0.47 0.63 0.49 0.26 0.00 CN 6.4 6.14 6.61 6.79 5.51 6.69 M 29.4 33.70 28.98 26.57 32.55 25.20 CS 38.2 38.98 33.07 37.89 40.42 40.55 S 25.7 20.71 30.71 28.25 21.26 27.56 Cuba Mean 3.73 3.56 3.67 3.79 3.60 4.02 Level Good enough Good enough Good enough Good enough Good enough Excelle nt % of response N 4.1 5.45 2.98 2.27 3.03 2.07 CN 10.7 11.24 13.22 10.74 11.29 7.02 M 24.5 29.26 28.10 27.17 32.78 19.42 CS 29.7 30.41 25.62 25.72 28.93 29.34 S 31.0 23.64 30.08 34.09 23.97 42.15
%=Percentage;N=Never;CN=NearlyNever;M=Moderate;CS=AlmostAlways;S=Always.
Table 3 shows that instrumental competence reaches a sufficient level, with a mean of 3.82 (Peru) and 3.73 (Cuba). Regarding the frequency of demonstrating instrumental competence, 67.6% of the Peruvian students answered “moderate” and “almost always”, compared to Cuba, where 60.7% answered “almost always” and “always”. 1. Organization and Planning subdimension: both countries present sufficient levels, with Peru showing percentages above 30% in moderate and almost always categories, compared to Cuba, which presents only 30.41% in almost always category. 2. Information Management subdimension: the level of
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this competence is sufficient in both countries. According to the percentages of responses, the frequency of demonstrating this competence in Peru is almost always and always, and in Cuba is always. 3. Solution of Critical Situations subdimension: the level is sufficient in both countries. The frequency of demonstrating the competence in Peru is almost always (37.89%) and in Cuba is always (34.09%). 4. Decision Making subdimension: the level is sufficient in both countries. Peru shows moderate (32.55%) and almost always (40.52%) and Cuba shows moderate (32.78%). 5. Communication subdimension: Cuba shows an excellent level in always category, with 42.15%, as opposed to Peru, which shows a sufficient level in almost always category, with 40.55%.
Table
Country Interpersonal Competence Teamwork Critical Thinking Self Management
Peru Mean 3.88 3.94 3.72 3.97 Level Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient % of response N 0.94 1.57 0.98 0.26 CN 6.09 5.51 8.17 4.59 M 26.45 22.64 31.79 24.93 CS 37.50 37.80 36.12 38.58 S 29.01 32.48 22.93 31.63 Cuba Mean 3.84 3.78 3.74 4 Level Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient
% of response N 2.74 2.89 4.24 1.10 CN 9.11 9.30 10.33 7.71 M 26.34 27.69 27.38 23.97 CS 25.05 27.48 23.55 24.10 S 36.75 32.64 34.50 43.11 %= Percentage; N=Never; CN=Nearly Never; M=Moderate; CS=Almost Always; S=Always.
Table 4 shows that the mean of interpersonal competence is 3.88 in Peru and 3.84 in Cuba, which means that both countries show a sufficient level. The frequency of demonstrating this competence in Peru is almost always (37.5%) and in Cuba always (36.75%). 1. In the Teamwork subdimension, students of both countries present a sufficient level. Frequency of demonstrating this competence in Peru is almost always (37.8%) and always (32.48%), and in Cuba is always (32.64%). 2. In the Critical Reasoning subdimension, both countries show a sufficient level. However, the frequency of demonstrating this competence in Peru is moderate (31.79%) and almost always (36.12%), and in Cuba is always (34.5%). 3. Self Management subdimension: both countries show a sufficient level, with the frequency in Cuba being always (43.11%) and in Peru almost always (38.58%) and always (31.63%).
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Table 5. Systemic Competence and subdimensions in Peru and Cuba. Country Systemic Competence Learning orientation Leadership Quality motivation Flexibility
Peru Mean 3.97 3.89 3.96 3.95 4.09 Level Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Excellent % of response N 0.73 0.98 0.79 0.94 0.20 CN 5.63 5.91 4.27 7.40 4.92
M 22.14 24.02 24.41 21.42 18.70 CS 38.78 40.94 39.71 36.06 38.39 S 32.73 28.15 30.82 34.17 37.80
Cuba Mean 4 3,88 3,91 4.09 4.11 Level Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Excellent Excellent % of response N 1.91 2.48 1.77 1.32 2.07 CN 7.66 8.06 9.56 7.44 5.58 M 21.58 25.62 23.02 18.68 19.01 CS 26.32 26.24 27.63 25.79 25.62 S 42.53 37.60 38.02 46.78 47.73
%= Percentage; N=Never; CN=Nearly Never; M=Moderate; CS=Almost Always; S=Always.
Table 5 shows that in the systemic competence dimension, the mean of the students in Peru is 3.97, and in Cuba the mean is 4. They show a sufficient level. In relation to the frequency of demonstrating thiscompetence, Peru almost always (38.78%) and always (32.73%) demonstrates this competence and Cuba always (42.53%) demonstrates this competence. 1. Learning Orientation subdimension: both countries show a sufficient level. There are marked differences in the frequency of demonstrating this competence. Cuba always has presented this quality (37.60%), while the frequency in Peru is almost always (40.94%). 2. In the Leadership subdimension, both countries show a sufficient level. In the case of Peru, more than 60% of the students almost always and always demonstrate this competence. In the case of Cuba, it is observed that the frequency is always (38.02%). 3. In relation to Quality Motivation, Cuba stands out with a mean of 4.09 and shows an excellent level. Always category has the highest percentage in terms of demonstration of this competence (46.78%). 4. In relation to the Flexibility Competence, both countries show an excellent level. It is also observed that more than 70% of the Peruvian students almost always (38.39%) and always (37.8%) demonstrate this competence. Finally, Cuban students always (47.73%) demonstrate this competence.
For the University, the integral formation of its students constitutes a challenge, taking as a priority challenge, by incorporating in its Educational Models the integral formation, declaring to the generic competencies those that are desired that all students of the institution work (Salazar Botello et al, 2019). Currently, higher educational institutions consider relevant the strengthening of competences for adequate performance in the labor market (Pukelis and Pileicikiene, 2012). Within the development of competences, the production of
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scientific knowledge through the publication of research papers (Hernández et al., 2021), as well as the training of competent human resources for the transition to knowledge societies and for socially sustainable economic development are fundamental (Hernández et al., 2021) (UNESCO, 2017).
The purpose of the study was to compare the generic competences of university students from Peru and Cuba. It was found that the mean of generic competences in Peru is 3.88 and in Cuba 3.84, which is sufficient. In addition, 38.7% of students in Peru almost always demonstrate the competences and in Cuba 37.0% of students always demonstrate them. These results may be due to the fact that the evaluated samples have adequately developed these competences that promote relationship, integration and effective communication among peers, in a constant social cooperation, teamwork and sense of leadership (Corominas, 2001; Solanes et al., 2012). Based on the above, generic competences also comprise the competences of the subject and increase the autonomy and learning that he/she has, on which the achievement of different objectives and solutions to problems typical of the university stage will depend (Garrido et al., 2021; Romaní Pillpe and Macedo Inca, 2022). The evaluation of generic competencies should contemplate thatstudents mobilize their previous knowledge in a realistic situation, categorizing the student's performance in levels, proposing progressively more complex activities and with more demanding criteria, which favor the acquisition and mobilization of learning (Villarroel Aand Bruna, 2014).
Another important result was that in the systemic competence dimension, the mean of the students in Peru was 3.97 and in Cuba the mean was 4, with a sufficient level in both countries. The fact that the results of generic competences in this dimension reach adequate levels can be due to the fact that both Peru and Cuba are developing countries, they are in the same Latin American region and therefore, the education policies and teaching are similar. This may have influenced the finding of similar results (Vargas, 2011). Regardless of the country, these generic competences are evaluated based on the graduate profile in public and private universities in order to meet the trends and demands of the company and the needs of the global market (Sandoval and Ormazábal, 2021). Huaiquilaf Jorquera et al. (2021) found that graduates were unable to attribute meaning to the generic competencies described in the graduate profile because they were not clear about what each one implies. It is important that within each subject, teachers can transmit to students the development of competencies at different levels and how they nurture the graduate profile.
Another important result reported in this study was in the interpersonal competence dimension where the mean was 3.88 in Peru and 3.84 in Cuba, which places both countries at the sufficient level. This means that university students in both countries have managed to develop adequate levels of interpersonal development, i.e., they have the skills to communicate effectively with their peers and achieve favorable outcomes in social interaction (Hsiao, 2021). A study that showed students with excellent social skills was conducted on university students from Osijek Baranja County in the country of Croatia and it concluded that there is a positive correlation between extracurricular activities, the entrepreneurial environment, and the level of entrepreneurial skills of the students (Perić et al.,
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2020), showing that the entrepreneurial attitude was more important in those university students with better social skills. Illesca Pretty et al. (2022) indicate that the students of the Nutrition and Dietetics course revealed greater importance to the generic interpersonal competencies, emphasizing teamwork, ethical commitment, critical capacity and self criticism.
In addition, this study has some limitations in the level of analysis, which is descriptive and comparative, so that it only compares and describes the main developments in generic competences. However, since these developments have not been reported in previous studies, it is important to highlight them as a pioneering study. Another limitation is that the variable is subjective in nature, so measurements are basedon the responses of the participants of the study that may or may not be honest. Thinking about it, in this study, at the beginning of the data collection, we asked each participant to be honest when answering, so the results maintain their scientific value. Additionally, this variable was collected with an instrument with excellent psychometric properties.
Finally, it is concluded that the generic competencies in Peru and Cuba reach adequate levels and were developed in a similar way in university students. Further studies should verify the factors that best predict the development of generic competences.
Likewise, it was found that the average of the dimensions of the generic competencies variable of students in Peru and Cuba are located in the sufficient and excellent levels, which could be due to the fact that both countries have similar policies in higher education, considering the development of generic and specific competencies to be important.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 175 201, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.11
Received Apr 30, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 27, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS),
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Rukara Campus, Rwanda
Lakhan Lal Yadav
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS),
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Rukara Campus, Rwanda Department of Mathematics, Science and Physical Education, UR CE, Rukara Campus, Rwanda
K. K Mashood
Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, TIFR, Mumbai, India
Abstract. For several decades, nature of Science (NOS) has been advocated as the fourth dimension of science teaching and is a fundamental source of in depth learning and teaching In addition to improving learning and teaching of science, the explicit inclusion of NOS in science curricula helps the creation of a responsible citizenry. Here, we analyze the representation of NOS aspects in science curricula, particularly in the physics syllabi in four East African Community (EAC) countries: Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda These EAC countries have been purposively selected because of sharing similar culture and history as neighboring countries. To compare NOS representation in the physics content, five major topic areas (mechanics, heat and thermodynamics, oscillations and waves, electricity, and atomic physics) were randomly selected from the syllabi used in advanced level secondary schools. The paper critically analyzes the representation of NOS aspects throughout front matter (introductions and rationales) and back matter (appendices and references), content, teaching methods, and assessment procedures proposed in these physics’ syllabi Based on the analysis of data, the findings reveal that NOS aspects are not explicitly represented in the four physics syllabi analyzed This study also found that in four syllabi reviewed, competencies were given much attention
* Corresponding author: JeanBoscoBugingo,bugingo2012@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
withoutanyovertconnectiontotheworkofscientists.Finally,wesuggest possible ways to improve NOS representation in the science curriculum
Keywords: East African Community (EAC) countries; The Nature of Science (NOS); NOS aspects; secondary schools; science curriculum
The nature of science (NOS) is considered a vital component in science education (Jenkins, 2013). Many science education reform documents around the world documented a strong correlation between scientific literacy and the understanding of the nature of science (NGSS Lead States, 2013). According to Das et al. (2019), understanding NOS is the cornerstone of informed views that can stimulate students’ understanding of science. Lederman et al. (2002) emphasized that understanding the NOS assures students’ abilities to assess scientific knowledge, which then acts as a driving force in engaging students in using inquiry skills (Liang et al., 2008).
A lot of efforts have been made in science education, but some challenges still exist, and they inhibit the quality of teaching and learning (Lederman, 2007; Hipkins, 2012). One of the challenges is that many science curricula give much attention to content (Cheung, 2020) rather than to the process of knowledge construction (McDonald & Abd El Khalick, 2017; Çetin & Kahyaoğlu, 2022). Second, a strange and persistent habit of viewing science as an irrelevant and difficult subject was reported as a strong obstacle to students learning science (Hipkins, 2012). In addition, the NOS content in the science curriculum is not yet represented in an informed manner (Vesterinen et al., 2013; Schrauth, 2009). Furthermore, lack of explicit NOS instructions, reluctance to the positive change toward NOS, and limited practical examples for easy NOS instructions in classrooms hold back science education progress (Boe et al., 2011).
Including NOS aspects in the science curriculum has been considered a practical solution to overcome the challenges mentioned above (Hipkins, 2012; Lederman, 2007; Martín Díaz, 2006). For example, science educators view NOS as a new lens to allow a type of learning that gives much attention to both active engagement and equity among students from different backgrounds. In addition, having the NOS component in the science curriculum create a responsible citizenry capable of making rational decisions and positively impacts students to pursue a career in science (Boe et al., 2011; Lederman et al., 2013). Furthermore, it can help or guide the development of teaching and learning packages such as textbooks and other learning materials (Olson, 2018) to support the advancement of science education. It is within this regard, that science curriculum developers from some Middle East countries (Yeh et al., 2019) and those from developed countries were inspired to develop a curriculum that clearly states how NOS aspects should be integrated and taught (Taber, 2008). Some recommendations were stated for the recognition and inclusion of NOS teaching in the national curriculum of England and Wales.
Science curricula are the principal teaching resources that play a big role in giving a clear direction to the teaching and learning process (Olson, 2018). Science
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curricula play a key role in defining what science teachers are supposed to teach and thereby guiding learning experiences (Chiappetta et al., 2006). In this regard, the modern science curricula should not only be focused on the content and practical work, but also on social, historical, and philosophical aspects, which are referred as NOS aspects (Childs, 2015). Therefore, effective teaching and learning of NOS aspects would be easier if NOS concepts were explicitly defined in science curricula.
Explicit teaching and learning of NOS, aspects have been advocated as important issues in the science curriculum at the different levels of education (Bell et al., 2011; NRC, 2012; NGSS Lead States, 2013). For example, after the development of the NOS benchmarks, the United States of America (USA), through its National Academy of Sciences, established standards on how NOS could be integrated into the science curriculum (Taber, 2008). Likewise, New Zealand also developed six strands of the science curriculum in which four strands discuss science content while the two remaining focus on incorporating NOS to develop scientific skills and attitudes (Hipkins, 2012). However, a number of researchers still claim that there is a lack of explicitely stated NOS aspects in science curricula (Caramaschi et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a need for clarification and specification of NOS aspects in science curricula and other educational documents to break down NOS content into a simplified form to allow easy understanding among teachers and students.
Although there are little literature interventions available on NOS in African science curricula, a few African countries have tried to refine their science curricula by introducing NOS components. For example, Ogunniyi (2006) reports that the 2005 South African natural science curricula was identified as one that may help learners develop NOS understanding However, the implicit approach was found dominating (Upahi et al., 2020).
Science curricula reforms were carried out in East African countries from around the 1960s after their independence (Mbonyiryivuze et al., 2018) Since then, science has continued to be a top school priority (Cairns, 2019), and it has been given much attention to facilitating the central goal of economic development (UNESCO, 2009). However, a few efforts to promote science in the region were put in place but could not last long due to the political instabilities, wars, destruction of infrastructures, a big loss of human capacity in the EAC (UNESCO, 2009), and the severe impact of Covid 19 on the education system (Tugirinshuti et al. 2021). In addition to this, efforts to promote NOS aspects in the science curricula in East African countries are very limited (Kinyota, 2020). This situation of very little literatureand limited interventions on NOS in teaching aids materials is worrisome, particularly in East African Community countries (Kinyota & Rwimo, 2022). Referring to the vital role of NOS in improving informed views among students, Ramnarain and Chanetsa (2016) urged that the current school science curricula should be designed to help students to learn NOS. Therefore, there is a need for study on representation of NOS in the learning and teaching materials used in the region.
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The purpose of this study is to investigate the representation of NOS concepts in advanced physics syllabi from East African Community (EAC) countries. Specifically, it sought an answer to the following research question: “How are NOS aspects represented in the front matter and back matter, learning outcomes, content being taught, teaching and assessment methods in selected physics syllabi in EAC countries?”
The main research approach used to get in depth understanding of NOS representations in this paper is document analysis (Bower, 2009) This research design is used to determine the NOS aspects that have been integrated into the front matter and back matter, expected learning outcomes of students, content to be taught, and methods of teaching and assessment of analyzed syllabi. The analytical framework in this review includes eight NOS aspects that have been documented in several studies (Lederman, 2007; Lederman et al., 2002; Chaisri & Thathong, 2014).
We reviewed the physics syllabi of grades 10, 11, and 12 from Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda, as these countries are neighbors and share similar cultures and history. The syllabi analyzed include an advanced level physics syllabus from Rwanda (REB, 2015); three physics teacher’s guides from senior four to senior six used in Burundi (Ministère de l’ Education, de l’ Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2016; 2017 and Ministère de l’ Education, de la Formation Technique et Professionnelle, 2018) [Ministry of Education, Higher Learning and Scientific Research, 2016; 2017 and Ministry of Education, Technical Training and Professional, 2018]; teaching syllabi for physics and mathematics, volume 2 from Uganda (NCDC, 2013); and Physics syllabus for advanced secondary Education, form V to VI from Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017).
The authors randomly selected five major topic areas from grades 10, 11, and 12 physics syllabi. Major topic areas selected to be analyzed for their NOS representation are mechanics, heat and thermodynamics, oscillations and waves, electricity, and atomic physics Google translate and experts in science education, particularly physicists with bilingual skills, were used to translate the French content of analysed syllabi into English.
We investigate the representation of NOS aspects in four physics syllabi that are used in East African Community countries. Three researchers/experts, participated in this study in which every researcher investigated and analyzed independently physics syllabi considered for allowing another opinions and discussion and come to consensus
Any statement that addresses process skills or competencies in the physics syllabi from EAC countries but does not make an explicit connection to the work of scientists was not considered a NOS statement. For example, engaging someone in using process skills like imagination and creativity without any connection to the scientific enterprise does not mean that he/she is knowledgeable about NOS aspects. In other words, to be counted the statements should reflect historical, philosophical, social, and psychological perspectives of science.
The NOS statement to be considered as explicitly represented had to meet the following criteria: (i) the statement should be an informed representation of NOS aspects, as described in current NOS reform documents in science education, and (ii) any statement has to be consistent throughout the whole physics syllabi in addressing the targeted NOS aspects. In other words, NOS statements were viewed throughout the whole physics syllabi in such a way that they are clearly defined in any section of the selected physics syllabi, and they were described as “explicitly presented and coded as (+)”. For any NOS statement to be viewed as implicitly represented in the selected physics syllabi, the following criteria were supposed to be met: (i) an informed representation of the NOS aspect could be inferred from the physics syllabi materials (e.g., statements from the front matter and back matter, content or any assessment tool that could infer the NOS representation) and (ii) for any NOS statement that possibly would be learned or taught as teachers teach normal content was taken as “implicitly presented and coded as (×).” Finally, any NOS aspect which does not appear either explicitly or implicitly was described as “not represented and coded as ( ).”
The front matter of physics syllabi analyzed in this paper is made up of backgrounds and rationales of the syllabi, competencies, general or broad aims of science education, particularly related to teaching physics. At the same time, back matters are extended parts such as references, additional readings, and appendices of these syllabi to help the user understand the content package of these syllabi The analysis found that NOS concepts are not explicitly represented in the analyzed documents.
Table 1 shows that there is very little representation of NOS aspects throughout the four physics syllabi analyzed. Few concepts and statements which can implicitly support teaching NOS aspects were identified, particularly in front matters and students’ learning outcomes sections, as shown in Table 1. Among eight NOS aspects that this study focused on, only six NOS aspects (tentative; observations and inferences; the relationship between theories and laws; creative and imaginations; scientific method and social and cultural embeddedness) were supposed to be taught effectively if these concepts and statements identified are explicitly linked to the work of scientists and supported throughout the physics syllabi analyzed. In addition, Table 1 also shows that no statement identified may support either explicit or implicit teaching of empirical and theory laden aspects.
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Table 1. Summary of NOS representation in the front matter, learning outcomes, and back matter of four selected physics syllabi from EAC (FM Front Matter, LO Student Learning Outcomes, and BM – Back Matter).
NOS aspects Burundi Rwanda Tanzania Uganda FM LO BM FM LO BM FM LO BM FM LO BM Tentative × × Empirical Observations and inferences × × Theory laden Creative and imaginations × Relationship between theories and laws
+ × × × Social and cultural embeddedness
× × × Scientific method × +: explicitly presented, : not represented, and ×: Implicitly presented
The NOS representation through the introductions of these syllabi revealed that they mainly focused on shifting from content based syllabi to competencies based syllabi. They also encourage a learner centered approach, cross cutting issues, and advocate the removal of outdated or irrelevant content for facilitating smooth and deep learning and teaching of physics subjects (REB, 2015; MoETV, 2017; NCDC, 2013 and Ministère de l’ Education, de l’ Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2017) The above description of the main purpose of the syllabi may be considered to promote the teaching and learning of NOS if mentioned content, competencies, and skills are explicitly connected to the work of scientists. Interestingly, it was not the case in the context of the four syllabi mentioned above
Although a few statements in front matter seem to show that NOS may be learned, but still, these statementsdo not contain NOS concepts as described in educational reform documents, and they are also not overtly discussed in the content to be taught or in students’ learning outcomes to assure smooth learning of NOS For example, “the ambition of the new Physics syllabus in Rwanda is to develop a knowledge based society and hence promotes science and technology” (REB, 2015, p. viii). In other words, this syllabus tries to link science, society, and technology together as NOS targets too. Tanzania’s A Level physics syllabus indicates that learners should focus “ on investigating natural phenomena and then applying patterns, principles, theories, and laws to explain the physical behavior of the universe” (MoEVT, 2017, p. iii. It appears, from this statement, that teaching and learning NOS may be possible if these natural phenomena and related theories and laws are linked to the scientific enterprise. However, there is no clear trace in proposed content and
student learning outcomes showing how knowledge of scientific enterprise would be integrated, so NOS was indicated as not overtly emphasized in this case.
In the physics syllabus of grade 11 from Burundi, a statement described in the preface section states that “integration of this reform will help the student to be a change agent and a source of social and scientific development through teaching and learning activities found in the learning package that is currently in place” (Ministère de l’ Education, de l’ Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2017, p. 3) In addition to this, another statement related to NOS representation was identified in the introduction section of the grade 10 physics syllabus, where it states that “physics is a study of the external world, how physics laws change and hence the evolution of physics” (Ministère de l’ Education, de l’ Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique in Burundi, 2016, p.5) In other words, the above statements give an impression of NOS consideration, but it is not the case because it is not supported throughout the syllabus.
In Uganda’s physics syllabus, a statement, which seems to implicitly promote NOS understanding, states that “one of the broad aims of education in Uganda is to promote scientific, technical, cultural knowledge, skills, attitudes needed to promote development” (NCDC,2013, p. viii). A major problem with physics syllabi analyzed from East African Countries is that they do not specify how these statements would be connected to the work of scientists throughout different sections made up of these syllabi of physics Analysis of the back matter of these syllabi shows that there is no appendix or additional reading which would support explicitly teaching and learning of NOS, and this confirms the low level of representation of NOS and no attention is given to NOS component in syllabi of physics in the East African Community region
In context of the East African Community countries, expected learning outcomes refer to the knowledge, skills, and aptitudes which every student should be able to demonstrate at the end of the physics curriculum.
Burundi (Ministère de l’Education, de l’Enseigneme nt Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2016, pp. 5 6; 2017, p. 1) [Ministry of Education,
By the end of the physics syllabus, the student should be able to:
• Analyze, interpret and solve problems related to states of matter, static solids, heat, fluids, cosmology, environment, vapor and humidity, viscosity, and light.
• Solve current and important problems related to electricity, electromagnetism, and mechanics (kinetics).
Observations related to the representation of NOS aspects
Curiosity, imagination, andcreativitywithanopen mind seemtobe linked toa NOS aspect, but it is not explicitly described how this aspect should be linked to the scientific enterprise while viewing the whole physics syllabi.
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Higher Learning, and Scientific Research, 2016, pp. 5 6; 2017, p. 1]
(Ministère de l’Education, de la Formation Technique et Professionnel le, 2018, p. 3) [Ministry of Education, Technical training, and Professional, 2018, p. 3]
• Solve current and important problems related to periodic phenomena, alternative current, fluids mechanics, atomic physics, and electronics
Candidates should also be able to develop the following attitudes and competencies:
• Observation and communication skills
• Curiosity, imagination, and creativity skills with an open mind
• Accuracy and precision
• Critical thinking skills
• Self respect and respect views of others
• Interest in scientific and technical development to serve society
• Awareness of food security laws
• Environmental awareness
• A citizen who can continue further studies
Knowledge and understanding
Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
• Relationship between physics and other scientific disciplines Rwanda (REB, 2015, pp. xix xxi)
• Scientific phenomena, facts, laws, definitions, concepts, and theories.
• Scientific vocabulary, terminology, and conventions (including symbols, quantities, and units).
• Scientific instruments and apparatus used in Physics, including techniques of operation and aspects of safety.
• Scientific quantities and their determination.
• Scientific and technological applications, with their social, economic, and environmental implications.
Candidates should be able to handle information and solve problems, using written, symbolic, graphical, and numerical forms of presentation to:
• Locate, select, organize and present information from a variety of sources.
• Translate information from one form to another.
• Manipulate numerical and other data.
• Usetheinformationtoidentifypatterns, report trends, and draw conclusions.
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Some concepts of NOS, such as scientific facts, laws, scientific processes, pattern recognition, observation, interpretation of data, prediction, etc., are weakly represented in learning outcomes, and the link between science and society is very weakly shown. Moreover, these are not coherently presented, and their link with the scientific enterprise is not explicitly made. So, there is a weak representation of NOS aspects.
Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, p. v)
• Give reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns, and relationships.
• Make predictions and hypotheses.
• Apply knowledge, including principles, to new situations.
• Demonstrate an awareness of the limitations of physics theories and models.
• Solve problems.
Experimental skills and investigations
Candidates should be able to:
• Observe, give feedback, and plan experiments and investigations.
• Collect, record, and present observations, measurements and estimates.
• Analyze and interpret data to reach conclusions.
• Evaluate methods and quality of data and suggest possible improvements.
• Use ICT in solving problems.
By the end of the physics syllabus, the student should be able to:
• Understand the language of Physics.
• Explain theories, laws, and principles of Physics.
• Understand the scientific method in solving problems.
• Promote scientific and technological knowledge and skills in management, conservation, and sustainable use of the environment.
• Promote manipulative skills to manage various technological appliances.
• Promote self study for self advancement in new frontiers of Physics.
• AppreciatetheroleofICT inthe process of learning Physics.
Few concepts of NOS, such as scientific theories and laws are mentioned. A scientific method has been identified, but it is not supported throughout the physics syllabus. In other words, it is not linked to the work of scientists
Uganda (NCDC, 2013, p. 6)
At the end of the Physics syllabus, the learners should be able to:
• Recognize problems that can be dealt with using methods, concepts, principles, models, and theories of physics
• Recognize the use of and manipulation of the apparatus and equipment common in a physics laboratory
• Design and carry out practical investigations and experiments,
A few concepts of NOS, such as scientific theories, models, scientific processes, investigation, and experimentation, are very poorly represented in learning outcomes, the link between science and society is not shown. Moreover, their link with the scientific enterprise is not made. So, there is a
describe and explain the procedures used as well as their effectiveness and limitations
• Handle all practical work with the accuracy required to obtain the desired results
• Definetermsrelatedtovariousconcepts inphysicsandexplain their relationship to materials and phenomena in the environment.
• Discuss the use and effectiveness of theories or models in explaining physicalphenomenaaswellaseventsin the laboratory and the environment.
verypoorrepresentationof NOS aspects.
Table 2 shows that the NOS component in learning is represented very poorly. For example, referring to NOS dimensions recommended to be in the science curriculum (Lederman et al., 2002) and expected learning outcomes (REB, 2015; NCDC, 2013 and MoEVT, 2017, it is very clear that NOS is not formally and explicitly recognized in these syllabi In other words, these expected learning outcomes mainly focus on understanding the content and practical work. In addition, it is also not easy to see clearly in any of the above mentioned learning outcomes how a student may be helped to develop skills related to scientific knowledge construction.
We randomly selected five topic areas from grades 10, 11, and 12 physics syllabi of all countries that have been considered in this paper. Major topic areas to be analyzed for their NOS representation are mechanics; heat and thermodynamics, oscillations and waves; electricity; and atomic physics. The analysis of the content throughout these four physics syllabi shows that there is very little representation of NOS aspects in almost all units discussed in those curricula (Tables 3 to 7).
We found that all physics students of grade 11 from Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania and physics students of grade 12 from Burundi are supposed to study ‘waves.’ For example, in Rwanda, the term wave is under a unit called “oscillations and waves, ” in Uganda, it is under a unit named ‘Waves’ while in Tanzania, the term “ wave ” is under a unit called ‘vibrations and waves ’ as shown in Table 5 below In Burundi, the term “wave” is described only in grade 12 under two units named: “interferences and stationary waves” and “sound waves. ” The topic of heat and thermodynamics is discussed to grade 10 students from Rwanda and Burundi, while the same topic is taught to grade 11 and 12 students from Tanzania and Uganda, respectively as shown in Table 4
Projectile motion is under mechanics, and is taught to all students of grade 10 from Rwanda and grade 11 from Tanzania, Burundi, and Uganda ( Table 3) The topic on electricity is taught to grades 10 and 11 students from Rwanda, grade 12 from Tanzania and Uganda, and grade 11 from Burundi ( Table 6). Atomic physics is taught to students of grade 11 from Rwanda and all students of grade 12 from Tanzania, Burundi, and Uganda (Table 7).
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Differences were noted during the selection of the topics included in this paper. First of all, it was noted that there is a difference in students’ levels. For example, in Rwanda and Burundi, the advanced level of secondary school is from grade 10 to 12, while in Uganda and Tanzania, students are in the advanced level of secondary school from grade 11 to grade 12. Second, it was identified that some topics were taught from grade 10 up to grade 12 in some countries but not all in other countries. For example, the topic of astrophysics and environmental physics is taught to advanced level students in Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania but not taught to the same level students in Uganda.
Table 3 Selected content of projectile motion to be taught to A level students from EAC
EAC Countries Topic areas Unit to be taught
Mechanics Projectile motion
• study the composition of two uniform rectilinear movements
• demonstrate that the range of the flight results from the composition of two movements
• calculate the horizontal shot range
• composition of two uniform rectilinear movements
• Derivation of projectile motion parameters
None of the NOS statements was identified
Unit objectives Content Observations related to the representation of NOS aspects Burundi (Ministère de l’Education, de l’Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2017, pp. 215 216) [Ministry of Education, Higher Learning, and Scientific Research, 2017, pp. 215 216]
Rwanda (REB, 2015, pp. 14 15 )
Projectile motion
• Define and explain terms used in projectile
• Relate projectile motion to linear.
• Appreciate applications of projectile
• Resolve projectile motion in horizontally and vertically components.
• Derive equations of projectile motion.
• Determine the maximum height and horizontal range in projectile motion
• Definition of projectile motion and related terms.
• Applications of projectile motion.
• Graphs of projectile motion.
• Expressions of projectile motion (horizontal range and maximum height).
None of the NOS aspects identified
Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, p. 6)
Uganda (NCDC, 2013, p. 28)
Projectile motion
• Describe projectile motion parameters
• Derive projectile motionparameters
• Describe the applications of projectile motion
• Projectile motion parameters
• Derivation of projectile motion parameters
• Applications of projectile motion
None of the NOS statements identified.
Projectile motion
• Define flight and range.
• Calculate time for flight, maximum height, and range.
• Describe the applications of profile motion.
• Projectiles (projectile motion on an inclined plane is beyond the scope)
• Time of flight, maximum height, and range (range along a horizontal plane only)
• Applications of projectile motion
None of the NOS statements identified.
It would be vital if students were helped to learn the history of mechanics from Aristotle to Newton’s period and understand why some of the scientific explanations given by different physicists were refuted. For example, it would be
better to discuss how projectile motion posed a problem to the second type of motion proposed by Aristotle, which is known as the “violent motion” of a body and was defined as a compulsory motion caused by an external influence (Rovelli, 2015) In addition, it was not easier to understand why a projectile continues to move while it is separated from its launcher (Barahona et al., 2014). Contrary to this, the unit objectives and content of projectile motion proposed by curriculum developers in physics syllabi from EAC encourage memorization of the content. For example, the verbs like define, calculate and derive, most of the time, help students cram how different mechanical concepts would be derived rather than linking these concepts to the work of knowledge construction, which in the end may help learners interpret or understand natural phenomena in mechanics in a better way
Table 4. Selected content of heat and thermodynamics to be taught to A-level students from EAC
EAC Countries Topic areas Unit to be taught Unit objectives
Burundi (Ministère de l’Education, de l’Enseignemen t Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 2016, pp. 167 168) [Ministry of Education, Higher Learning, and Scientific Research, 2016, pp. 167 168]
Rwanda (REB, 2015, pp. 19 20 )
Heat and Thermody namics
State of matter and Calorimetr y
• Interpret different temperature scales
• Distinguish different states of matter
• Differentiate different phenomena in changes in states of matter
• Explain the expansion in solids, liquids and gases.
Content Observations related to the representation of NOS aspects
• Temperatur es scales
• Specific heat capacity
• States of matter
• Changes in states of matter
• Expansion of solids, liquids and gases
Temperature scales might be used to teach NOS, however, it is not explicitly mentioned in this content.
Applicatio ns of thermodyn amics laws
• Differentiate the internal energy and total energy
• Explain the work done
• The state first, second laws of thermodynamics and their applications
• Solve problems related to Carnot
• Internal energy and total energy
• Work done by expanding gas
• First and second laws of thermodyna mics
None of the NOS aspects identified
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Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, pp 18 22)
cycle, Carnot engine, diesel engine, refrigerators,
• The applications of the first and second laws of thermodyna mics
• The efficiency of the heat engine
• Heat engine and climate change
Heat • Describe the thermometric properties of a substance and scale of temperature
• Explain ways of thermal heat transfer
• Explain thermodynamics processes
• Identify specific heat capacity of gases
• Establish the first law of thermodynamics and its applications
• Thermomete rs
• Heat transfer
• The first law of thermodyna mics
None of the NOS statements was identified
Uganda (NCDC, 2013, pp 73 74)
Thermody namics
• Definer internal energy of an ideal gas
• Derive the work done
• Explain thermodynamics processes
• Define principal specific heat capacities Cp and Cv of an ideal gas
• Define the first law of thermodynamics and its applications
• Internal energy
• Work done by expanding ideal gas
• Thermometr ic processes
• Principal specific capacities
• The first law of thermodyna mics and its applications
None of NOS statements identified
Looking at the proposed content in Table 4, it is very clear that this content may not help students to develop a philosophical background in thermodynamics. In addition, it has been identified that NOS concepts are not explicitly included. Although the topic does not define how content is linked to the work of scientists, such as the historical development of concepts of heat, calorific properties, as well as thermometers, temperature scales, such linking could be very useful in NOS teaching.
Table 5. Content of waves to be taught to grades 11 and 12 students from EAC EAC Countries Topic areas Unit to be taught Unit objectives Content Observations related to the representation of NOS aspects Burundi
Oscillations and waves
(Ministère de l’Educatio n, de la Formation Technique et Profession nelle, 2018, pp. 136 173) [Ministry of Education, Technical Training, and Profession al , 2018, pp. 136 173]
Interferenc
es and stationary waves
• Define and interpret the interference phenomenon
• Distinguish constrictive and destructive interferences
• Apply interference phenomenon
• Define stationary wave
• Interpret phenomena of stationary waves
• Identify different stationary waves
• Define sound wave
• Interference phenomena
• Constructive and destructive interferences
• Application of the interference
• Stationary wave
• Different stationary wave phenomena
None of the NOS statements identified.
Rwanda (REB, 2015, p. 28)
Sound waves
• Determine the longitudinal nature of sound wave
• Identify characteristics of a sound
• Identify properties of sound waves
Propagati on of mechanica
l waves
• Explain the wave concept.
• Explain the terms amplitude, frequency, displacement, wavelength, and wave phase.
• Explain the terms transverse and longitudinalwaves.
• Sound wave
• Nature of sound wave
• Characteristics of a sound
• Properties of sound waves
• Wave concept.
• Types of waves.
• Waves Terms.
• Characteristics of waves.
• Relationship between wavelength, frequency
None of the NOS statements identified.
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Tanzania
Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, p. 23)
Vibrations and waves Waves
• Explain the terms progressive and stationary waves.
• Explain the phase of vibration.
• Explain reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference of waves.
• Explain Young double slit experiment.
(Period), and velocity.
• Properties of waves (Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction).
• Young double slit experiment.
• Progressive and stationary waves.
• Equation of a progressive wave.
• Example of progressive wave on a vibrating string.
• Distinguish progressive and stationary waves
• Deduce the expressions for progressive waves and stationary waves
• Deduce the principle of superposition of waves
• Progressive and stationary waves
• Expressions for progressive and stationary waves
• Principle of superposition
None of the NOS statements identified.
Uganda (NCDC, 2013, p. 50)
Waves Waves
• Relate the different wave properties and use them to explain the different wave behaviors
• Explain the formations of stationary waves
• Explain the occurrences of resonance, beats, Doppler Effect and polarization.
• Concept of wave
• The terminology used in waves
• Relationships between frequency, period, wavelength velocity
• Transverse and longitudinal waves
None of the NOS statements identified.
As shown in Table 5, none of the NOS aspect was represented in content of waves in physics syllabi. It would be better if the developers of these syllabi added
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content elements related to history, sociology, and philosophy of science. For example, if students were exposed to historical aspects of waves, their social aspects, and empirical evidence leading to the evolution of the concepts of the waves, this could help them understand the philosophical view behind it and its application in daily life. In addition to this, the content presented under the wave unit encourages memorization of wave concepts rather than understanding the reason for learning these concepts. Therefore, the content provided in Table 5 is evidence of low representation of NOS.
to the representation of NOS aspects
Burundi
(Ministère de l’ Education, de l’ Enseignemen t superieur et de la Recherché Scientifique, 2017, p. 28) [Ministry of Education, Higher Learning, and Scientific Research, 2017, p. 28]
Electricity Nature of current electricity
• Identify factors of The conduction of electricity in metals
• Interpret the mechanism of electric conduction in metals, electrolytes, and gases
• Define a generator
• Determine the quantity of electricity
• Define and measure the current intensity
• Define and use a unit of quantity of electricity
• Factors influence conduction of electricity in metals
• Mechanism of electric conduction
• A generator
• Quantity of electricity
• Unit of current intensity
None of the NOS statements identified.
Rwanda (REB, 2015, p. 10)
Kirchhoff’s laws and electric circuits
• Recall sources of electric current, EMF electric, and receptors/appl iance.
• Describe components of a simple electric circuit.
• State Kirchhoff’s laws
• Review elements of a simple electric circuit and state the application.
• Definition of electromotive force.
• The voltage or terminal potential and electromotive force
None of the NOS statements identified.
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Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, pp. 37 38)
Electric conduction in metals and gases
• Explain the difference between potential difference and electromotive force.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to problems in electric circuits.
• Acquire practical skills
• Sources of electric current and electric receptors/applia nces.
• Internal and external resistance, the potential difference across a cell.
• Connection of electrical current source and resistors either in series or parallel or mix up.
• Kirchhoff’s laws (loop rule and junction rule).
• Application of Kirchhoff’s laws to simple circuits.
• Describe the mechanism of electric conduction in metals
• Determine the resistivity of a conductor
• Investigate the temperature coefficient of resistance
• Analyze electrical networks
• Investigate the conduction of electricity in gases
• Explore optical spectra for gases
• Identify the applications of conduction of electricity in gases
• Mechanism of electric conduction in gases
• Theresistivityofa conductor
• Temperature coefficient of resistance
• Electrical networks
• Optical spectra for gases
• The applications of conduction of electricity ingases
None of the NOS statements identified.
Uganda
Current electricity
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• Define the coulomb
• The coulomb
• Charge
None of the NOS statements identified.
(NCDC, 2013, p. 85)
• Define electric current
• Explain the concept and significance of the potential difference
• Define volt, emf, resistance, and ohm
• Stateandverify ohm’s law
• State Kirchhoff’s laws of electricity
• Solve circuits problems using Kirchhoff’s laws
• Potential difference
• Significance of potential difference
• The volt
• emf
• Resistance
• The ohm
• Verification of ohm’s law
• Kirchhoff’s laws
• Circuits problems using Kirchhoff’s laws
Table 6 provides another piece of evidence of the very low representation of NOS aspects in EAC physics syllabi. Both experimental observations and theories can be used to integrate the historical perspective of electricity and its evolution or develop imagination and creativity through building model of electrical circuits and electric concepts andphenomena. Contrary, unit objectives and contentunder electricity from East African countries’ physics syllabi lack explicit connection to the scientists’ work or the scientific enterprise. In addition to this, its content does not provide direction on how NOS aspects are shown in educational reform documents.
Teaching and learning electricity should always help students understand macroscopic level observations from microscopic level theories, which is the solid foundation of scientific reasoning skills and the current initiatives in technology. This may help them interpret complex ideas of electrical phenomena and models for understanding electromagnetic phenomena rather than defining, deriving, and calculating concepts in electricity. It may be a good stimulus to learn the evolution of electricity theories, which in the end lead to the advancement of the study of electricity. For example, “electric effluvia” was refuted due to its inability to give scientific explanations of electric repulsion or electric transmission (Barahona et al., 2014).
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Burundi
(Ministère de l’ Education, de la Formation Technique et Professionne lle, 2018, p. 307) [Ministry of Education, Technical Training, and Professional 2018, p. 307]
Atomic Physics Introducti on to atomic physics
• Define the objective and importance of atomic physics
• Distinguish the physics of an atom from physics with atoms
• Identify applications of atomic physics
• Get knowledge about the dimensions of the atomic nucleus and the constituents of matter
Content Observations related to the representation of NOS aspects
• The objective of atomic physics
• Physics of an atom and physics with atoms
• Application s of atomic physics
• Atomic nucleus Constituents of matter
None of the NOS statements identified.
Rwanda (REB, 2015, p. 36)
Atomic models
• Recall the duality nature of light.
• Explain the structure of the atom.
• Explain atomic radiation spectra.
• Explain evidence of energy levels in an atom.
Tanzania (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2017, p. 46)
Uganda (NCDC, 2013, p. 102)
Structure of an atom
• Describe the Rutherford and Bohr models of an atom
• Analyze atomic energy levels
• Structure of an atom.
• Atomic models (Rutherford ’s atomic model and Bohr’s atomic model)
• Energy levels and spectral lines.
• Rutherford and Bohr models of an atom
• Atomic energy levels
Charged particles
• Describe the discharge tube phenomena as pressure is reduced
• Describe the production of cathode rays and positive rays
• Discharge tube phenomena
• Production and properties of cathode rays
• Production and
Explanation of evidence of energy levels in an atom, and Rutherford and Bohr’s models may be used to teach some of the aspects of NOS. However, it is not mentioned explicitly. So, there is no or utmost very weak representation of NOS aspects.
Rutherford and Bohr’s models may be used to teach some of the aspects of NOS.
However, it is not mentioned explicitly.
So, there is no or utmost very weak representation of NOS aspects.
None of NOS the statements identified.
• State the properties of cathode rays and positive rays
• Define specific charge
properties of positive cathode rays
• Cathode rays and ion beams in electric and magnetic fields
• Specific charge
Even though most units’ objectives in Table 7 focus on memorizing concepts about the atom, two unit objectives under atomic physics were identified as the ones which might help in developing NOS knowledge among students either implicitly or explicitly taught. For example, the following unit objective: “explain evidence of energy levels in the atom” was identified in grade 12 physics syllabus from Rwanda and may help in the teaching of NOS aspects, such as tentativeness, empirical, and the role of observations and inferences in developing theories related to energy levels. Another unit objective which is “Rutherford and Bohr’s models” was also identified in physics syllabi of Rwanda and Tanzania and this statement may support development of creativity and imagination aspect. Table 8 shows that targeted NOS aspects in the study are almost not represented in the five topic areas selected from all four physics syllabi considered. Contrary to other topic areas selected in this study, atomic physics has been identified as an only topic that contains few statements which might help teachers teach tentative and empirical aspects implicitly, as shown in Table 8 below.
Table 8. Summary of NOS representation in the selected topic areas from physics syllabi from EAC countries (Topic 1: Mechanics, Topic 2: Heat and thermodynamics, Topic 3: Oscillations and waves, Topic 4: Electricity, and Topic 5: Atomic physics).
NOS aspects
Burundi Rwanda Tanzania Uganda 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Tentative × × × Empirical × × Observations and inferences
Theory laden Creative and imaginations
Relationship between theories and laws Social and cultural embeddedness
Scientific method
+: explicitly presented, : not represented, and ×: Implicitly presented
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Teaching and assessment methods are important in defining what relevant skills or knowledge a student may demonstrate and how. It is the role of curriculum developers to propose how intended concepts might be taught and assessed. Since, the teaching of NOS aspects combines psychology, history, sociology, and philosophy of science (McDonald & Abd El Khalick, 2017) as important skills a student needs to demonstrate, it is mandatory for any teaching package such as curricula or syllabi to describe how these NOS aspects would be taught and assessed. Contrary to it, the present syllabi in EAC do not explicitly specify how these important aspects should be taught and assessed. All four physics syllabi analyzed, proposed teaching methods that would help learner centered pedagogy as the best way of promoting competencies and skills. But these teaching methods lack explicit and reflective based pedagogy to explicitly improve students’ knowledge about the nature of science. Assessment methods discussed in these syllabi respond to the knowledge or content assessment rather than reasoning skills that may improve students’ understanding of the nature of science.
The analysis of the four A level physics syllabi indicates that the topics or units to be taught are good in respect of inclusion of NOS aspects. For example, topics such as atomic physics, astrophysics, environmental physics, mechanics, oscillations, and waves are good topics to teach NOS. If these topics are well linked to the works of scientists or scientific enterprise, it will help students acquire skills related to scientific knowledge construction.
In general, we found that there is a lack of NOS representation in both front matter and back matter and learning outcomes. The critical issue of low representation of NOS aspects in these syllabi comes out while looking in detail throughout unit objectives and content. In other words, it is not clearly defined how students may gain skills related to knowledge construction or how scientific enterprise operates. The representation of targeted NOS aspects is missing or poorly presented in the content of five topic areas selected from all four physics syllabi considered. Unlike other topic areas selected in this study, atomic physics has been identified as the only topic which contains a few statements which might help in teaching tentative and empirical aspects implicitly. The syllabi in EAC do not explicitly specify how these important NOS aspects should be taught and assessed. The results agree with that of Kinyota (2020), whourged that the NOS was not given much attention in Tanzania’s science curriculum, where the term “nature of science” was not identified throughout the whole curriculum analyzed. The findings are also consistent with the results with Arumit and Akerson (2022) where NOS aspects were reported as a negligible content in Turkey middle schools’ science curriculum.
According to Lederman and Lederman (2014), the teaching of NOS aspects would be helpful for deeper understanding of science rather than rote memorization. In addition to this, it is very important to have physics syllabi that would help students develop new ideas freely, innovate new solutions, free science from rigid
rules, and attract attention and curiosity among students and teachers to be engaged in the scientific enterprise (Al Abdali & Al Balushi, 2016). Therefore, it would be better if the proposed content under the atomic physics unit could support the teaching of aspects of NOS and hence promote a deep understanding of science.
Insufficient representation of NOS aspects in the teaching resources is not only an issue of this study, but it is widely known (Chaisri & Thathong, 2014; Yeh et al., 2019). For example, in a study by Taber (2008), it was identified that the national curriculum of England lacked a more explicit model to teach NOS aspects. Ferreria and Morais (2013) reported that science construction knowledge was mostly absent in the Portuguese science curriculum. In addition, a study of analysis of Turkey’ science curriculum reveals that there is not only a low representation of NOS aspects, but also a connection between the curriculum and textbooks is inadequate to support NOS teaching in the classroom (Izci, 2017). Similar results were reported in the study of Caramaschi et al. (2022), where the aspects of NOS in the Italian advanced secondary school curriculum are not explicitly represented. A recent study on representations of NOS in the science curriculum in Norway showed that social values and scientific practices are emphasized in the curriculum (Mork et al., 2022), which contrasts with other related studies. NOS aspects have also been included explicitly in the science curriculum in China, however, the majority of the NOS aspects are represented implicitly in five textbooks analyzed and the ‘scientific method’ is inconsistently or poorly represented in three of the five books (Zhuang et al., 2021).
Furthermore, Olson (2018) revealed that NOS aspects rarely occurred from standards documents of nine diverse countries (Australia, Canada, Colombia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Mexico, Thailand, South Africa, and the USA), with the notable exception of Australia. And these standard documents do not clearly define pedagogical support to break down NOS content into meaningful experiences for the students. Even though little attention to NOS representation in science curricula is known worldwide, this study shows that the situation is very scary and worrying in EAC countries.
This study reveals that, in general, NOS concepts are not explicitly represented in all statements from front matter and back matter (Table 1), learning outcomes (Table 2), and physics content (Tables 3 to 7) based on the analysis of four physics syllabi of EAC. The findings reveal that four reviewed physics syllabi mainly focus on shifting from content based syllabi to competencies based syllabi. In these syllabi, competencies were given much attention without an overt connection to the work of scientists. In other words, having a science curriculum that addresses curricular competencies, practical work skills, and good content does not necessarily mean integrating NOS. Proposed teaching and assessment methods in physics syllabi analyzed mainly focus on promoting competences and memorizing content rather than understanding the process of the scientific enterprise.
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This paper also identified that the physics syllabus from Burundi contains few NOS statements from its front matter compared to physics syllabi from Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. In addition, even though these few NOS statements might promote the teaching of NOS concepts, particularly in the physics syllabus from Burundi, these statements were not supported through learning outcomes, content, teaching, and assessment methods. Among five major topic areas considered, the atomic physics topic was identified as an area that may support implicit teaching of NOS aspects in EAC countries. Furthermore, tentative and empirical aspects were implicitly presented in the topics of atomic physics and electricity in physics syllabi in Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania. Other remaining targeted NOS aspects were identified as neither implicitly nor explicitly presented in all physics syllabi from the EAC countries. We found that both teaching and assessment methods do not explain how NOS concepts might be taught or assessed.
A low representation of NOS aspects and a notable decline of NOS aspects in many standards documents (Lederman & Lederman, 2014; Olson, 2018), is an indicator of losing an important stimulus that is an insight for learning science. It is now time for science educators to raise their voices to save this important aspect of science. Therefore, the recommendation to the curriculum developers from East African countries is to revisit current advancedphysics syllabi by integrating NOS concepts in an explicit manner. In addition, there is an urgent need for other related learning materials, such as physics textbooks which might awaken physics teachers to consider NOS components while integrating NOS concepts and to guide students for easy learning of NOS aspects without much support from their teachers.
Furthermore, due to little available literature related to NOS education in general in the region, we recommend that scientists and researchers from the East African countries study NOS representations in the different learning materials used in the region for good interventions which can overtly link the described contents from advanced level physics syllabi to the work of scientists or the development of knowledge construction.
Financial support from the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) is thankfully acknowledged.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 202 218, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.12
Received Jun 7, 2022; Revised Aug 14, 2022; Accepted Aug 23, 2022
Abstract. The adoption of commercial language teaching materials produced in the United Kingdom, or the United States, is a common practice in English language teaching (ELT) worldwide. This is due to the wide perception of British and American English as the standard, favorable models of the English language. This practice, however, does not support the increasing and urgent shift to the teaching English as an international language (TEIL) paradigm, and it further perpetuates the hegemony of these Western countries over the market of ELT materials. In this paper, we seek to not only problematize the adoption of global commercialmaterialsbutalsoproposeaconceptualmodel forcomposing effective local ELT materials for the Malaysian English language classroom. In doing so, we refer to the relevant literature and previous research. The proposed conceptual model embraces the TEIL paradigm as well as multimodality and executes them by utilizing oral history and the graphic novel as two powerful pedagogical tools. By combining these two pedagogies, the model accentuates the acknowledged pedagogical value of both oral history and the graphic novel and results in local context and culture based texts that are also consistent with the current nature of texts being visual and multimodal. Furthermore, the paper showcases some samples of graphic oral history texts composed by Malaysian English language teachers and student teachers in two projects.
Keywords: ELT materials; graphic novels; multimodality; oral history; teaching English as an international language (TEIL)
Language teaching materials are the nucleus of English language teaching (ELT) (Damayanti et al., 2018), contributing immensely to the teaching and learning of the English language (Bouckaert, 2019; Bouckaert et al., 2018; Tomlinson, 2016).
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
ELT materials, especially textbooks, constitute the primary source of the English language input and practice that the students receive within the classroom. Thus, it can be said that the quality of English language education is shaped, to a great extent, by the quality of the teaching materials utilized in the classroom. Accordingly, the Malaysian Ministry of Education endeavored to upgrade the quality of ELT in its public schools where English is taught as a second language. They decided to cease the use of local Malaysian textbooks and to import global English coursebooks designed and produced by renowned international publishers in the United Kingdom for both primary and secondary English language classrooms (Abdul Aziz & Makhtar, 2021; Abdul Aziz et al., 2019; Abdul Rahim & Jalalian Daghigh, 2019). The assumption underlying the government’s decision is that imported ELT materials from native English speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom or the United States, will expose Malaysian English language learners to content written in high quality, standard English superior to that of the local materials. Nonetheless, we agree with many of the critics of the government’s move and contend that the attempt involves many issues and is, in fact, problematic.
Similar to all commercial ELT materials, which are usually perceived as irrelevant and unsatisfactory (Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2013), the imported coursebooks disregard the Malaysian context and culture (Abdul Rahim & Jalalian Daghigh, 2019). That is not surprising, as commercial global coursebooks produced by international publishers are often considered as being designed for everyone yet satisfying no one (Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2004). They are designed to be useable by different groups of English language learners from all over the globe in diverse contexts and cultures. Thus, such coursebooks comprise content based on the cultural elements and aspects relevant to the English speaking countries without taking into consideration the local ELT settings where these coursebooks are going to be used Furthermore, the imported materials are imposed upon the teachers and the students. Teachers continue to bepassive consumers of materials, and students find difficulty in learning the language due to the foreign content and shy away from practicing the language or engaging in the English lessons (Can et al., 2020) What is worse is that the move reflects how we still consider ELT materials produced by native speakers as being of superior quality in comparison to locally developed materials. It also reflects our perception of native speakers as the sole and supreme authority of the English language. Those perceptions denote moving backward to revering the British culture and language and imply that Malaysians have not yet moved beyond the colonial mindset (Abdul Aziz et al., 2019).
This move by the Malaysian Government is, however, situated in a universal paradigm in ELT which favors Western perspectives and knowledge over local systems of knowledge (the perception of the West as the best!). They thus maintain the positioning of the West, especially the United Kingdom, as the global center of the English language dominating the field of ELT, while the rest of the world serve as the recipient and are center dependent The center perpetuates its domination over the English language by generating all the approaches, strategies, principles, and techniques regarding English language learning and
teaching. In addition, the center formulates the teaching materials based on the ideas and principles they have established and continues to monopolize the process of materials development (Pennycook, 2017). This hegemonic approach involves a form of linguistic imperialism The English language is utilized as a means to reproduce and perpetuate imperial power relations between the United Kingdom and its former colonies. This is achieved through a wide variety of ELT practices, such as the assessment criteria, curricular plans, teaching methods, and teaching materials, meant to perpetuate the hegemony of the center over the non native speakers (Kumaravadivelu, 2016). However, it is mainly through the center produced materials and teaching methods that the marginality of the vast majority is sustained (Kumaravadivelu, 2016). Therefore, many of the materials produced in these Western countries are considered no more than tools of imperialism or neo imperialism, with content romanticizing and promoting Western cultures and values while ignoring and repressing local cultures (Kanoksilapatham, 2018; Khodadady & Shayesteh, 2016; Lekawael et al., 2018; Pennycook, 2017).
What exacerbates the problem is the conformation of the non natives and ex colonies to the hegemonic paradigm and their submission to the subordinate dominated role. They keep devotedly and comfortably depending on the one way flow of information and the ready made prescriptions prepared and mandated by the “authority” of the English language. Their minds are, therefore, still colonized and cannot think that they can have their own new ideas and produce materials relevant to their own needs and contexts. In a country with a colonial history, such as Malaysia, there should be sincere efforts to effectively disrupt the hegemonic paradigm imposed by the West on ELT practices and knowledge production. Postcolonial Malaysia should adopt a decolonized mindset (Mignolo, 2007) that is free of the perceptions and attitudes of colonialism. They should adopt a decolonial mindset that is aware of the Eurocentric tendencies and is critical of mainstream commercial materials that are meant to propagate the domination of the native speaker model. We need to recognize the significance of English as the language of globalization and strive to teach it effectively without overlooking its historical realities as an instrument of colonial imperialism
Changing the mindset is not enough, though. Malaysian educators need to become proactive towards decolonizing ELT practices and materials by composing local ELT materials relevant to the goals and objectives of Malaysians and reflecting the richness of the Malaysian multicultural and multilingual landscape. Those materials should also be innovative and significantly contribute to effective English as aninternational language teaching. In response, we propose this conceptual model to serve as a guide for local professionals (materials designers and English language teachers) to develop compelling, home made ELT texts.
Producing effective ELT materials that contribute to the effective learning of English as an international language requires paying attention to not only the content of the materials but also the format of these materials. This conceptual
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model, shown in Figure 1, considers this aspect by espousing the TEIL paradigm (informing the content) and multimodality (informing the format)
The two sided model therefore addresses the lack of TEIL oriented materials (Lwin & Marlina, 2018; Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2018) as well as the still limited incorporation of multimodal texts in many ELT contexts (Ganapathy, 2011; Yusof et al., 2017). The TEIL paradigm reflects the need for local, culturally responsive materials that capitalize on students’ culture, identity, and communities. To operationalize the TEIL paradigm, oral history will be utilized as a pedagogical tool. By conducting interviews with local figures or community members who are relevant to a certain topic or phenomenon, we will create English content that capitalizes on students’ local culture and is more rooted in our everyday life and inner values. On the other side, the pedagogy of multimodality entails the use of multimodal texts The graphic novel as a multimodal text comprising words, pictures, and other conventions, such as panels, gutters, etc., will be used in the model to enact multimodality. Presenting the content redeemed by oral history in a graphic novel format will thus result in local visual narratives that can serve as effective, innovative instructional ELT texts responsive to TEIL and the visual multimodal world in which we live today. The following sections address each component of the conceptual model.
The supremacy of the native speaker as an ideal linguistic example or model is not adequate anymore; the vast majority of English language users and learners all over the world are bilingual or multilingual speakers. It is therefore unreasonable to subject the majority, who utilize English mainly as a language of expanded interaction and communication in conjunction with one or even more other local languages they speak, to the minority’s norms and particular linguistic features of the language. Kachru (1985) contended that the English native speakers have lost their entitlement or authority over the language as they are the minority. He further argued that it is incumbent upon the world community to recognize this sociolinguistic truth and its implication. The TEIL paradigm acknowledges that truth and perceives English as the world’s global lingua franca regardless of any political or cultural associations, and more importantly without much attention to which countries speak it as a first language. Moreover, it recognizes many different local versions of English, which are collectively known as World Englishes or WE (Kachru, 1985). In that context, English is no more a single, monomodal entity; it is an international polycentric tool of communication with a wide variety of lexis, grammatical structures, and other discourse conventions (Marlina, 2018). In such a way, the TEIL paradigm represents an ELT perspective that steers away from the idea of native speakerism embedded in colonialism. It also shifts the focus of ELT pedagogy from traditional Anglo centric standards and norms of English as a native language towards localized usages and varieties (Matsuda, 2012; McKay, 2012).
Postcolonial Malaysia needs to cease seeing the English language from the colonial perspective and teach it from a professional perspective by adopting the TEIL paradigm. The paradigm ultimately aims at helping students to communicate in English in a globalized world characterized by being culturally and linguistically diverse. Conveniently, the paradigm recognizes Malaysian English as a brand or a variety of World Englishes that has emerged in the postcolonial era and makes a remarkable contribution to the English language as a cultural resource with which people express their cultural values, perspectives, and worldviews (Marlina, 2018). McKay (2003) argued that the TEIL paradigm recognizes the significance of containing topics that represent the local culture and supports the use of a methodology relevant to the local teaching and learning contexts. By embracing the TEIL paradigm, Malaysians will confidently work towards localizing ELT practices and materials; they will recognize the contribution of its multilingual and cultural diversity to the English language and produce local content comprising their local version of English The local content will value the traditional indigenous knowledge over colonial global influences, and it will favor the day to day realities of Malaysians in their actual local settings. In doing so, we will capitalize on local knowledge and cultures and use them as pedagogical content to make the English language a vehicle for locals to communicate their worldviews, cultural values, and socio cultural realities.
The focus on the local context and culture in ELT entailed by the TEIL paradigm (Lwin & Marlina, 2018) resonates with the massive body of research and literature that advocates local ELT materials in comparison to materials that depend on the
target language’s culture. Global commercial materials might cause unnecessary difficulty to English language learners due to the social and cultural dissimilarities and this, in turn, can result in the learners’ inability to understand or engage with teaching materials (Grabe, 2014). For language teaching to be successful, ELT materials need to be associated with the learner’s home culture and provide them with authentic activities that enable them to communicate about their own real lives (Toledo Sandoval, 2020). Several studies (Can et al., 2020; Jabeen & Shah, 2011; Kanoksilapatham, 2018; Kirkpatrick, 2007) have shown that local culture based ELT materials have a more positive influence on the English language learners than foreign culture based materials and texts. In addition, some of these studies demonstrated that the learners’ cultural identity could be marginalized if they were to be exposed to ELT materials that solely focus on the culture of the target language. Therefore, by adopting the TEIL paradigm, the conceptual model seeks to develop local content for ELT materials; that local content will be obtained using oral history
Oral history is the collection of spoken stories, memories, and personal commentaries through recorded interviews of people who lived through a historical event or social phenomenon (Ritchie, 2003). The recordings of the interviews are transcribed, edited, and then placed in a library or archives and may be used for research, publications, documentaries, museum exhibitions, or any other form of public presentation. By recording and documenting the spoken stories of people who lived through past events or significant phenomena, oral history serves as a research method that plays a significant role in writing the histories of societies and communities (Ritchie, 2003) It enables us to learn about those past events and thus have a deeper understanding of them. Oral history has come to prominence as a tool in writing history due to the appearance of social historians such as Paul Thompson, who called for “history from below”. This type of history revolves around and gives priority to common people’s lives as part of their writing. This is opposed to conventional history writing, which focused mostly on the elite group of people with high social status, such as politicians and diplomats, while neglecting ordinary people, such as farmers, workers, and women (Boon Kheng, 2007). Thompson (2000), one of the pioneers of oral history as a research methodology in the social sciences, considered oral history as the history of ordinary people and marginalized groups. Utilizing oral history can be beneficial, especially to those individuals who are historically and traditionally marginalized within the dominant culture and society because of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, or religious beliefs. Therefore, by including the unheard and unseen within the great majority, oral history helps to constitute history that revolves around society as a whole. In doing so, oral history attempts to steer history readers away from what imperialism has left behind and represented as symbols of greatness (Yeoh, 2003).
Besides being a research method contributing to the construction of histories, oral history has been implemented in the classroom as an effective pedagogical tool for enhancing the study of history related topics and other important learning skills (Dutt Doner et al., 2016). It has been used extensively in classroom contexts
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as a significant teaching strategy since the late 1960s to enhance the teaching and learning of social studies and history at all school levels (Montero & Rossi, 2012)
In these contexts, students were exposed to oral history related to their immediate families and local communities Vodniza (2016) used traditional storytelling and oral history as an effective pedagogy in his classes to support students in discovering identities and traditional values. He found that oral history supported his teaching to a great extent, especially in terms of communicating indigenous traditional knowledge and cultural practices from generation to generation by helping students to learn stories from their parents, grandparents, and great grandparents. By connecting students to their traditional practices and fostering a deeper understanding of their community and culture, students learn to recognize and celebrate their culture and heritage. Therefore, oral history research can be a revolutionary pedagogical instrument (Ayers & Ayers, 2013) that is culturally responsive (Gay, 2018). It validates the students’ local cultural heritage, context, and prior experiences, and this results in the learning process being more adequate and successful
In the ELT context, Montero and Rossi (2012) argued that utilizing oral history leads to a culturally responsive pedagogy that legitimizes and endorses the learners’ lived experiences, stories, and histories to serve as content within the English language classroom. Jones (1998) conducted a study in an undergraduate course at the National Tsinghua University of Taiwan to investigate the significance of English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ drafting of oral histories in their academic writing. The study reported many pedagogical benefits of writing family oral histories in the EFL writing classroom and concluded that oral history is an excellent way to spark students’ interest and to teach them academic writing. Furthermore, a recent study was conducted in Saudi Arabia (Strachan & Winkel, 2020) to investigate the development of an oral project for undergraduate EFL students in a Saudi private university. The project aimed at reconnecting the undergraduates to their familial heritage while providing them with a distinctive educational experience. The project not only enabled the university EFL students to acquire a deeper understanding of their local heritage, but it also led to the improvement of their English language skills.
Therefore, given the potential of oral history as a powerful, culturally responsive pedagogy, we believe that it is the practical, ideal tool to redeem the local context and culture based content necessitated by the TEIL paradigm. Oral history will provide content based on local issues, familial lived experiences, and local communities of the learners, and that will motivate the learners and engage them in the learning process (Christodoulou, 2016). Use of oral history corresponds with research by Canagarajah (2016) and Kachru (1986), who were in favor of localizing the teaching content and utilizing ELT materials that are culturally responsive to the local learners’ needs by relying on their experiences in their local environments and settings. In the context of the proposed conceptual model, Malaysian materials designers or English language teachers will take on the role of oral historians and follow some of the procedures and best practices for conducting oral history research approved by the Oral History Association (OHA, 2022). They will study a local topic by conducting recorded (audio/video)
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interviews, based on a well prepared interview guide comprising relevant questions, with members of the local community whose experiences are specifically relevant to the topic. They will then transcribe the recording and, finally, convert the interview transcript into a narrative or story that will serve as the local content of the ELT materials. The question now is: How can we best present that local content?
To answer the previous question, the conceptual model considers the types of texts in which students are mostly engaged nowadays. Students are immersed in a visually oriented world where visuals are a crucial component in almost all sorts of communications. What we perceive as “text” is broader now and includes various blends of modes (print, images, etc.). This change in the nature of texts has, in turn, impacted how we now conceptualize literacy, with the foremost literacy of the 21st century being visual (Burmark, 2008). Therefore, it is no longer sufficient to solely rely on and use traditional printed texts; learners need to learn to comprehend and produce both words and images. To cater to this shift in how we now perceive texts and literacy and to help students develop the new set of competencies required to succeed in the classroom as well as in their everyday lives, the New London Group (1996) convened and introduced the document A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. The document reflected a change in the pedagogy of literacy It centered on the interplay between the various modes of meaning and brought about the transition from traditional print based texts towards acknowledging a more broadened and pluralistic concept of literacy that incorporates the many modes used in today’s communications.
The New London Group’s pedagogical approach to multiliteracies signaled the need for students to acquire new literacy competencies. That need has given rise to multimodality and multimodal approaches in the field of education and teaching curricula. According to Siegel (2012), multimodality is the concurrent use of more than one mode in a single text or event. Each of these modes, such as words, images, sound, movement, etc., has its affordances, or ways of creating meaning (Kress, 2009). While conventional literacy practices focused on the printed word, multimodal literacy recognizes the current dominance of technology and its reliance on image, sound, and animation along with the text.
To underscore the significance of multimodality in English language learning and teaching, Royce (2007) presented the term multimodal communicative competence, a concept concerned with how English learners can become proficient in terms of comprehending and composing meanings multimodally Therefore, to address multimodality within the English language classroom so that we teach useful literacy practices for today’s age, we need to use multimodal texts such as websites, picture books, graphic texts, and graphic novels.
To pedagogically address the current multimodal nature of texts, the proposed model utilizes the graphic novel as a multimodal pedagogical tool (Jamil & Abdul Aziz, 2021). A graphic novel is a fiction or nonfiction narrative presented in a comic book format, and it is also known as sequential art (Eisner, 2008). It
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integrates words with pictures, and thus represents a multimodal text that caters to both print literacy and visual literacy According to Gallo and Weiner (2004), a graphic novel presents the same reading experience of the traditional literary text in addition to images and words working cumulatively, making a graphic novel a text that one not only reads but also sees. It is worth noting that graphic novels are not a genre; they are a format for recounting a story or communicating information (Woolston, 2014). Moreover, they do not have to be novels; they include both fictional and nonfictional work, as well as full novel length and short narratives or stories. The way graphic novels integrate print and visuals provides an engaging reading experience in reading (Begoray & Fu, 2015). They are popular with teenagers (Griffith, 2010) and have gained more and more acceptance and respect as quality literature over the years (Pantaleo, 2015). An example of a popular graphic novel is American born Chinese (Yang & Pien, 2006). In this award winning graphic novel for excellence in young adult literature, the author managed to address some serious issues, such as racism against Chinese immigrants, culture, racial identity, and stereotyping.
The unique mix of the two abundant modes the linguistic mode and the visual mode in graphic novels have made educators realize their potential as a pedagogical tool (Seglem & Witte, 2009). A significant body of research has highlighted the significance and value of graphic novels as multimodal texts in the English language classroom. The novels have been found to provide motivation and engagement for struggling and hesitant readers (Brozo et al , 2013; Öz & Efecioğlu, 2015); improve learners’ language learning strategies, critical thinking, and comprehension (Basol & Sarigul, 2013; Öz & Efecioğlu, 2015; Sabbah et al., 2013); and aid teachers in teaching new lexical items (Basal et al., 2016; Öz & Efecioğlu, 2015) The appealing illustrations of graphic novels offer contextual clues to the written text; thus, they provide support and a sense of confidence to struggling or remedial readers. In that regard, Krashen (2004) considered graphic text materials an optimal instrument contributing to enhanced student engagement and self confidence in reading. He further indicated that the use of graphic materials could boost language learners’ interest in the language and thus increase their foreign or second language acquisition and learning
Furthermore, graphic novels cater to a wide variety of learners and their learning styles (Öz & Efecioğlu, 2015); they contain words and pictures, so they appeal to visual as well as verbal learners. Besides, these visual texts can be acted out or played by kinesthetic or spatial learners, who can also perform some of the actions in the novel. Teachers could also involve their students in activities by asking them to prepare and conduct interviews or role play some of the characters’ facial expressions in the graphic novel. To engage tactile learners, the teacher could ask them to sketch a drawing based on the theme or some of the actions taking place in the graphic novel. Teachers could also assign learners to design or develop a small representation or model of the setting in the graphic novel. Evidently, numerous activities can be fully used in the English language classroom based on a graphic novel, and they can all help to address the different learning styles and the individual needs of the learners. Therefore, considering the many advantages of the graphic novel as a pedagogical tool, materials designers or English language
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teachers will transform the local oral history narratives into a graphic novel format; they will combine multimodal resources (words, images, and graphic novel conventions) to construct meaning. The outcome of the model is graphic oral history narratives that could be utilized in Malaysian ELT contexts as instructional texts.
On its own, oral history is an innovative language pedagogy (Burgo, 2016). Using oral history will generate authentic local narratives founded on learners’ community, capturing some of the salient cultural elements from the many communities that form Malaysia. It provides a platform to assemble anecdotes, life experiences, and traditional knowledge from family or community members, which cannot be found in global commercial coursebooks (Abdul Aziz et al., 2019). The use of local cultural content in ELT materials provides learners with content familiar to their reading schemata and can enhance English proficiency and cultural awareness (Yahya et al., 2017). Moreover, as Harmer (2012) contended, the learners become involved in content that is based on themselves and their own real lives and in such a way they learn the English language better
Furthermore, since 21st century students are exposed to multimodal texts, the local content will be converted into a graphic novel format. The graphic novel is an innovative multimodal pedagogical tool (Kwon, 2020) that is popular, visual, motivating, engaging, and overall increases second language acquisition. By developing graphic oral history narratives and using them as teaching texts, we are meshing the two innovations and their educational strengths. The texts will not only appreciate students’ local culture and experiences They will also be consistent with the recent, updated content standards in English language arts and literacy, expecting all students to use a wide variety of modes beyond language. Pedagogically, graphic oral history texts will serve as effective ELT materials contributing to the effective teaching of English as an international language In conjunction with effective teaching practices, those texts will be delivering quality content in a multitude of modalities and will have strong pedagogical significance.
The first project was conducted in the context of teacher education with Year 3 teaching English as a second language (TESL) students in the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). The student teachers composed their narratives on the topic “Memorable high school experiences” . Then, they reconstructed the personal narratives into a graphic novel form. The outcome of the project was a published book containing 16 personal graphic stories that represent real, significant high schooling experiences (Abdul Aziz & Chang, 2021). The stories dealt with issues such as daydreaming in an uninteresting class, receiving undesired attention from the opposite gender, failing to live up to your parents’ expectations, and being subject to bullying by friends at school. By using the real lived experiences of Malaysian student teachers as ELT materials, English learners will be reading authentic familiar
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content to which they can relate. Besides, presenting this content in a graphic story format results in engaging multimodal texts. Teacher trainees’ written reflections on their perceived learning outcomes from the project showed that they valued the project as a practical, engaging activity that enhanced their writing skills, creativity, and self confidence in their ability to develop local multimodal ELT materials. Figure 2 shows a sample from the trainees’ graphic oral history narrative “The bitter taste of popularity” , in which the narrator recounted her inspiring story of being subject to bullying at school and how she managed to overcome that traumatic experience.
The second project was conducted in the context of English language teacher professional development with in service English language teachers doing their Master of Education in TESL, UKM. After receiving some input sessions on designing and evaluating ELT materials, oral history, and the conventions of graphic novels, 105 in service English language teachers were assigned to work in groups to develop and evaluate graphic oral history texts and teaching activities for their English classrooms The teachers conducted oral history interviews with Malaysian front liners (doctors, nurses, food delivery drivers,
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cleaners, etc.) who had been boldly battling against Covid 19. The teachers then presented the front liners’ Covid 19 pandemic accounts graphically Moreover, they cooperated with a reputable local animation studio and turned the graphic oral histories into 2D animations. The project could serve as an attempt to document this current global phenomenon from the local Malaysian perspective, and the produced graphic oral histories could be made available to the public to raise their awareness and appreciation of front liners. In addition, as the teachers reported in their reflections on the project and their developed materials, the project was an invaluable professional development experience. It actively engaged them with their community and led to the creation of interesting local multimodal ELT texts which, according to them, are more relevant and interesting to their students than the coursebooks they are currently using. Figure 3 is a sample from a group’s graphic oral narrative “Suffering in silence”. The narrative was obtained from a male nurse who recounted what he and other healthcare workers had been through during the pandemic
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Adopting commercial, globalized ELT materials, which are usually mass produced in the West, is problematic; those materials are generic and may contain cultural or social elements that may not be convenient for local students. Furthermore, those imported materials and coursebooks are usually Anglo centric and undermine the local varieties of English and have not satisfactorily conceptualized English as an international language. Therefore, Malaysians must not undermine the contribution of their local culture and languages to the English language, and they should not doubt themselves, their expertise, or their capability of developing efficient local ELT materials. They must strive to teach English effectively while maintaining the balance between the perceived importance of English as an international language and the passion for nation building and preserving its local cultural heritage Thus, the proposed conceptual model in this paper is of relevance here. It provides Malaysian materials designers and English language teachers with a guiding framework that enables them to develop effective local multimodal ELT materials in the form of graphic oral history texts. By developing graphic oral history materials, these professionals will be enacting the TEIL paradigm and multimodality in their English language classrooms. Even though this paper addressed the Malaysian context particularly, the proposed model could be beneficial and relevant to many other similar ELT settings and contexts that aspire to innovatively teach English as an international language.
We would like to thank UKM for its support for this research via its Grants GG 2021 008 Dana Khas Penyelidikan FPEND Pembelajaran Futuristik, TAP K017393 Tabung Agihan Penyelidikan (TAP), and GGPM 2017 126.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 219 234, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.13
Received May 31, 2022; Revised Aug 12, 2022; Accepted Aug 18, 2022
Abstract. The aim of article is toanalyse the remote teaching and learning experiences of students, as expressed in online discussions among first year students at a South African university, to enhance understanding of how learning remotely during Covid 19 lockdown affected students’ lives and their academic commitment. The article drawson datacollected from 45 students, mainly aged between 18 and 22, registered for an academic literacy course. These students came from diverse racial, socioeconomic and schooling backgrounds, although most were black students. These participants’ Covid 19 and remote learning experiences are used in this case study as qualitative datasets. To generate rich narratives, a set of open ended questions were designed and posted on the course’s Blackboard page. The questions focused on the socioeconomic, psychological and academic effects of Covid 19 during the lockdown At the end of the course, a thematic analytical approach was used to identify and categorise participants’ online discussions into key themes. The datasets were then interpreted through the lens of predetermined concepts such as resilience, resilience and agency. The data show that some students saw remote learning as an opportunity to be creative and innovative, but for others, their socioeconomic situation negatively affected their lives and academic commitment. Students’ remote teaching and learning experiences revealed moments of resilience and agency, but also adeepsense of resignation tothe socioeconomic and psychological burdens of Covid 19 Based on these findings, this article discusses some implications for the future of higher education in South Africa and recommends possibilities for further research
Keywords: Covid 19 lockdown; remote teaching/learning; resilience; resignation; South Africa
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Full remote teaching and learning under the Covid 19 lockdown in 2020 and continuing restrictions in 2021 has provided an opportunity for the academic community in South Africa to reflect on the state of the country’s higher education The pandemic also created, or rather enforced, an unprecedented opportunity for contact universities to devise innovative, flexible and inclusive ways of teaching and assessment (Hedding et al., 2020; Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020). As staff and students reconfigured their social lives to adjust to the “new normal” , there were ongoing conversations about the gains, opportunities and challenges of online teaching and learning during the pandemic. These conversations were driven partly by the uncertainties and unpredictability surrounding the Novel Corona virus (Covid 19) and the future implications of the shift to online delivery for higher education teaching and learning (Hedding et al., 2020; Le Grange, 2020b; Marongwe & Garidzirai, 2021; Motala & Menon, 2020).
As the debate on the use of different digital platforms grew, it became clear that the pandemic had “add[ed] a new layer of complexity and uncertainty to an already volatile and contested higher education” situation (Motala & Menon, 2020, p. 82). Moreover, the pandemic came at a time when South African universities are still grappling with several items of unfinished business, such as transformation and curriculum decolonisation Issues of inclusivity and social justice were again at the epicentre of these discussions, forcibly reminding us that South African universities are still spaces for both the haves and have nots, or to put it differently, they are learning spaces where the privileged and the less privileged co exist. Here, the familiar narrative of the rural South Africa students with no food and living in deplorable conditions, who have no digital devices and who can’t afford data dominated the conversations (Czerniewicz et al., 2020, Dube, 2020). The severity of the Covid 19 related teaching and learning challenges varied from university to university, with the most severely affected students based at the historically disadvantaged universities and in vulnerable communities (Le Grange, 2020b; Marongwe & Garidzirai, 2021; Mbhiza, 2021). Because these universities were under resourced to begin with, staff and students encountered more technological and infrastructural challenges when the higher education sector was unexpectedly forced to resort to remote teaching and learning by the pandemic (Alex, 2022; Mtshweni, 2022; Odularu et al., 2022).
The learning challenges of particularly black South African students are well known, and they resurfaced in the national consciousness as schools and universities grappled with the academic disruptions induced by Covid 19. The exacerbation of these long standing challenges suggests that these challenges have been approached and addressed in a very tokenistic style by South African universities (Angu et al., 2020; Czerniewicz et al., 2020). Therefore, when the non distance universities were forced to migrate to virtual teaching, the first concern of academic and support staff members, and university managements, was to lessen the Covid 19 burden on already vulnerable students. They used existing quantitative data to devise plans and to manage the challenges associated with remote teaching and learning, especially during the national lockdown (Agormedah et al., 2020; Hedding et al., 2020; Le Grange, 2020a; Motala & Menon,
2020). Consequently, many scholarly publications that emanated from these conversations neglected the voices of students, as they focused on how universities tried to navigate the Covid 19 induced emergency online teaching and learning landscape They also tended to focus primarily on the negative effects of Covid 19, often ignoring students’ ability to be resilient and the ways in which they exercised a sense of agency during this life threatening crisis (see Gumede & Badriparsad, 2021; Madiope & Mendy, 2021; Mtshweni, 2022).
Given that teaching and learning in higher education is negotiated between students, staff and university management, student voices are critical for our understanding of the impact of full remote teaching and learning during the Covid 19 lockdown on students’ academic journeys Against this background, this article uses qualitative data gleaned from online discussions with 45 first year students in a Health Sciences academic literacy course to understand how Covid 19 and online teaching and learning have affected the lives and academic journeys of this cohort of students It argues that while some of these students saw remote learning as an opportunity to be creative and innovative, epitomising moments of resilience and agency, for others, the socioeconomic demands that they faced had a negative effect on their lives and ultimately their academic commitment, resulting in a deep sense of resignation to the socioeconomic and psychological burdens of Covid 19
To make meaning of these discussions, I first review the literature on online teaching and learning during Covid 19 lockdown with a focus on South Africa. Then I explain how the data was collected and analysed, and discuss the key themes that emerged from the data. Finally, I consider the future implications for teaching and learning in South Africa and suggest possibilities for further research.
Covid 19 has produced a new body of knowledge in South African higher education about emergency online teaching and learning during a pandemic. The large range of articles published during the national lockdown in South Africa focused on different topical issues, such as the relationship between the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), the challenges and opportunities of emergency remote teaching and social inequalities in South African higher education during and after Covid 19 (Alex, 2022; Mhbiza, 2022; Mtshweni, 2022). These studies sought to make sense of how the pandemic has shaped social and academic lives, while inadvertently exposing the deepening social inequalities in South African universities and communities (Czerniewicz et al., 2020; Hedding et al., 2020; Marongwe& Garidzirai,2022; Motala & Menon, 2020; Mtshweni, 2022) Recurring references in these studies to the “new normal” suggest that the world will never be the same again, and predict that modes of teaching and research in the higher education landscape will change drastically after the pandemic. Many authors believe that, despite the devastating effects of Covid 19 on our mind and souls, the pandemic has provided an opportunity to reimagine, rethink and recreate the university space (Du Preez & Le Grange, 2020; Hedding et al., 2020). One has to
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continue to ask how, in finding ways to reimagine the South African university space, these institutions will address the social issues, which they have neglected for years, and which have resurfaced so clearly during this pandemic.
When the 2020 academic year in South Africa began, even though news of a new deadly virus spread globally, it was business as usual on university campuses. Lectures and social activities continued uninterrupted, as the government and university management cautiously monitored the rapid spread of the virus. However, the always buzzing campuses were deserted when the South African government announced a full national lockdown in March 2020 and students had to return home. Once it became clear that the lockdown would not end after the initial three weeks, universities resorted to full online teaching and learning to salvage the academic project amidst mounting fears, anxieties and uncertainties, as the virus spread insidiously throughout South Africa. The announcement of a national lockdown prompted university leaderships to respond speedily, as events from the recent past tell us that “higher education in South Africa is no stranger to crises, having experienced several of these at different junctures in its history” (Motala & Menon, 2020, p. 85). For example, the #Rhodesmustfall and #feesmustfall had already changed the higher education landscape in South Africa drastically, with universities investing large sums in educational technologies that can support massive hybridised teaching and learning, either synchronously or asynchronously.
Although these landmark student protests transformed the South African higher education landscape in unimaginable ways, it would be naive to compare these events to the unprecedented disruptions caused by Covid 19. Unlike with Covid 19, the managements of universities could predict that there would be explosive student protests because tensions had been simmering on campuses for years (Czerniewicz et al., 2020; Hedding et al., 2020; Madiope & Mendy, 2021; Motala & Menon, 2020). In the case of the #mustfall movements, the management of universities long ignored visible warning signs, but once the movements started at some universities, others could hurriedly prepare. However, because the emergence and spread of Covid 19 was so abrupt and unpredictable, universities were forced into emergency remote teaching and learning without adequate planning and preparation. This meant students and staff had to experiment with different technologies to teach, and universities chopped and changed strategies, requirements and expectations on the fly as more research evidence about the mutations of the virus and the likelihood of an extended international crisis became available (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Czerniewics et al., 2020; Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020). At some universities, especially those in the rural parts of South Africa, remote teaching and learning challenges were exacerbated by inadequate resources and lack of staff with the right skillsets (Alex, 2022; Marongwe & Garidzirai, 2021; Mtshweni, 2022).
In fact, staff and students at most universities had been using learning management systems such as Blackboard for years. However, they had mainly been used to complement contact teaching and learning. As a result, many academic staff members were not completely prepared for remote learning
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because “academic staff at contact universities typically have little, if any experience of training in the pedagogy or delivery of online learning” (Hedding et al., 2020, p. 1). In addition, students from both privileged and disadvantaged communities were left to struggle with access to devices, data and internet connectivity problems in urban and rural areas, without the quality of student support they were accustomed to, and these problems were more severe in vulnerable communities (Alex, 2022; Dison et al., 2022; Le Grange, 2020b; Mtswheni, 2022) To alleviate the burdens of emergency remote learning, many South African universities provided devices and data to students in need Despite such support from universities, many students found themselves at the intersection of social challenges such as structural poverty and inequality, as well as the continued emotional and psychological challenges related to Covid 19 (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Czerniewics et al., 2020; Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020).
On the positive side, the pandemic has definitely ignited a renewed passion to reimagine and rethink modes of teaching and learning in the South African higher education context. However, Le Grange (2020a) cautions that this process might open up space for the “uberfication” of the university: as South African universities shift towards online pedagogy, higher education studies will be commodified and students will become clients, choosing what to learn, how to learn and where to learn and “the lecturer becomes an on demand worker” (Le Grange, 2020a, p. 6). This means the university will become a marketplace and it will entrench an already corporatized leadership style aimed primarily at gratifying the clients while “academic staff members are increasingly subjected to forms of surveillance, including through performance management” (Le Grange, 2020a, p. 8). If the “uberfication” of the university becomes a reality, this will further deepen the social inequalities already prevalent in South African universities, as there will be no “equitable benefits from the affordances of new technologies” (Du Preez & Le Grange, 2020a, p. 90)
Thinking through the idea of “uberfication” of universities, one is again reminded that South African universities are still spaces defined by different forms of discrimination, often captured in the paradoxical learning experiences of students in impoverished townships and suburban homes. The class structures that have defined our universities for decades have been made increasingly visible, epitomising the disparate worlds of our students (Angu, 2019; Dube, 2020; Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020). Under Covid 19 conditions, some participated in remote learning, undisturbed, in the comfort of their homes, with unlimited data, a dedicated study space and reliable devices, but others had to study in shared communal spaces with family, with very limited data and out dated devices. This meant, according to several studies, that many students struggled with online learning because of the cost of data, poor connectivity or simply because they had no dependable electronic devices (Gumede & Badriparsad, 2021; Marongwe & Garidzirai, 2021; Mbhiza, 2021). For example, Alex (2022), Mtshweni (2022) and Odularu et al. (2022) argue that resource constrained and historically disadvantaged universities in rural areas have been affected more than those in urban areas, revealing clearly the digital inequalities in the South African higher education sector. Many students’ experiences during the national lockdown are
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therefore tales of those living on the fringes of survival the voices from the margins as well as tales of those living in luxury and comfort. These paradoxes tell us that South African universities’ “capacity to respond [to Covid 19] is thus uneven along the predictable fault lines of class, race and gender” (Manderson & Levine, 2020, p. 368). These experiences have had several implications for the academic performance of students during the national lockdown from March 2020.
The data used in this article emerged from online discussions with 45 students registered for an academic literacy course offered by a Department of Family Medicine at a South African university. They were mainly between the ages 18 and 22 and from different racial, social, economic, and schooling backgrounds However, the majority were black South African students. These students were therefore the project participants and constituted the unit of analysis for this case study. Their stories about Covid 19, the lockdown and remote learning are used in this article as qualitative datasets. To sustain participation and generate rich narratives during the online discussions, a set of open ended questions were designed and posted on the course Blackboard page and students were regularly reminded to participate through announcements. The questions focused on the social, economic, psychological and academic effects of Covid 19 during lockdown. The course convened once a week for one hour 40 minutes (a double period). The first hour was used for normal lectures and class activities. To enliven the lectures, the last 40 minutes were reserved for discussion. In addition, regular communication through announcements ensured that discussion continued after lectures.
At the end of the course, a thematic analytical approach was used to identify and categorise participants’ online discussions into key themes. The datasets were then interpreted through the lens of predetermined concepts: agency, resilience and resignation. This approach provided a prism to avoid generalising about the South African Covid 19 and remote learning experiences, and to access and make meaning from participants’ subjective perspectives on remote teaching and learning. The analysis and interpretation of these personalised experiences revealed that, although some of the participants saw remote learning during lockdown as an opportunity to be creative and innovative, for others, the social and economic demands of learning remotely during pandemic exerted various pressures on their lives Consequently, they could not cope with academic expectations, resulting in de registration (Angu, 2019; Dube, 2020; Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020). Drawing on these findings, the following sections have used the concept of resilience, agency and resignation as frames to analyse and make meaning from the data collected from the participants.
To use students’ online discussions as research data, ethics clearance was obtained from the university where the study was done. This clearance granted permission to use students’ learning activities and assignments for research purposes. In line with the ethical requirements, the participants have been anonymised and direct
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quotations from the online discussions are cited verbatim (in italics) in this article simply as “student response”.
The discussion forum on Blackboard provided a space for this group of students to share with their peers, without any restrictions, their Covid 19 and remote learning experiences. As the students navigated the challenges of full remote learning, this space became an outlet to share their frustrations, disillusionments or their impassioned commitment to their studies, driven by a sense of resilience and agency. The data collected from these online discussions provided an opportunity for different interpretations because of the uniqueness of their stories about Covid 19, lockdown and remote teaching and learning in South Africa (Angu, 2019; Motala & Menon, 2020)
Many scholars have represented Covid 19 as the “great equaliser”, arguing that the virus is race , class and ethnicity blind. However, the stories of this group of students tell us that it would be misleading to ignore intersections of race and class in trying to understand how the virus has affected the lives of students. For instance, in a country that was already grappling with different forms of inequality years before the viral outbreak, it is disingenuous to fail to focus on social structures that continue to drive inequalities in South Africa and how these affected student learning during lockdown induced remote learning (Angu, 2019; Czerniewicz et al., 2020; Sokhulu, 2020). The online discussions allowed students to remember, through the lens of their remote learning experiences, the digital/social inequality in South Africa, even though they were students at the same university. One student narrated her remote learning experience as follows: My worries regarding the online learning is that some of us live in a crowded space with many family members and there is a lot of noise which might deprive a person from focusing. We cannot go to libraries or any quiet place as a result of this lockdown due to Covid 19. Besides what I have aforementioned, data will be a problem and some of us live in places where network connection is not stable hence there will be chances of missing out on online teaching. But if it is the only option to continue with our academics then we might as well use it as it will benefit us, and if ever a person missed a session due to any problems then he/she can catch up with any friend who was in the online teaching. (Student response)
This student lives several kilometres from the university and her comment highlights the social differences between students who live in rural areas and those in urban areas, and how their social spaces became impediments to learning during remote learning. Also, because the student’s experience of remote learning happened in a vulnerable rural area, it can be read as a process of remembering “how issues of equity and inequality have played out in the ‘pivot’ to remote teaching and learning” (Czerniewicz et al., 2020, p. 947). In this testimony, two forms of inequality (digital and social) are shown to intersect to influence this student’s remote learning efforts. This student experience is not new in South Africa, but Covid 19 has helped to excavate memories of a post apartheid South
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Africa still reeling from different forms of inequalities (Du Preez & Le Grange, 2020; Motala & Menon, 2020).
Given that this South African university’s student population is demographically diverse, discrepancies in students’ lived experiences in rural and urban areas and how they affected their remote learning efforts featured strongly in the online discussions. In the following comment, one participant remembers poor living conditions, digital constraints and the learning disruptions caused by this student’s situation:
I would like to address how this pandemic is affecting my learning. Like I said before I'm in the village with my mother right now and she is currently sick so I have to care for her since there's only the two of us here. The connection is not stable and my phone does not have enough space to download all your slides. It's very painful what this pandemic is really doing but I hope for the best. I would like you to share everything on Whatsapp because it’s very easy to access it (Student response)
Here, we see how this student’s access to remote learning during a viral pandemic is hamstrung by broader societal problems that the South African government has failed to address in its grand transformative agenda designed to “redress inequalities of access, participation and success” (CHE, 2004, p. 24). This remote learning experience captures how Covid 19 and its wider effects feed on endemic structural vulnerabilities and inadvertently compromise students’ access to learning in remote environments (Angu, 2019; Team & Manderson, 2020)
For years now, the gap between rich and poor has continued to widen. The ANC led government is often criticised for failing to address social challenges, especially in vulnerable communities. For example, in the middle of the pandemic, the government was heavily lambasted “for its poor handling of emergency public procurement and the distribution of financial support as it became evident that the procurement had not been able to avoid endemic corruption in government” (Van Schalkwyk, 2021, p. 46; see also Baloyi, 2020). The handling of procurement processes exposed the government’s ineptitude, which provided a fertile ground for more corruption in government departments, delaying the provision of protective equipment and learning devices for learners in need(DuPreez & Le Grange, 2020; Van Schalkwyk 2021) Universities managed their own procurement processes, but the government’s inability to efficiently manage Covid 19 relief support and the implications for remote learning recurred in the discussions. One participant commented: The first thing that we should look at, is that the Covid 19 exposed our government We now know that our government didn't invest much into our education, they didn't have a backup plan for the nation to keep on with the school work during such outbreaks and now they have made a resolution whereby most of the students will get devices to use as a backup to learn which is a good thing and through this, the inequalities in the education system are fading bit by bit because even poor students will be able to get them and learning will continue. I believe that our government, universities and colleges have to learn their lesson that they should invest
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more in online learning and also covering every student poor or rich…. (Student response)
Several studies have documented the South African government’s failures, including a lack of political will to address educational inequalities in basic and higher education. It is well known that while schools in urban and opulent suburbs are resource rich, many schools in black communities are severely under resourced (see, for example, Alex 2022; Marongwe & Garidzirai, 2021; Mtshweni 2022; Shava 2022). In the above comment, the student’s memory of the school system in South Africa is a snapshot of the two disparate worlds that continue to influence the scholastic experiences of students and the failure of the state to address socioeconomic constraints in the schooling system. For this student, a dysfunctional schooling system and remote learning challenges during lockdown are symptomatic of an ailing state, which has failed to address its social problems (Czerniewicz et al., 2020; Motala & Menon, 2020).
The online discussion by students also contained vignettes of resignation or resilience as they grappled with emergency remote learning during the national lockdown. Here, this group of students displayed their personal dispositions, either to confront the challenges of remote learning or to allow their socioeconomic vulnerabilities to influence their determination to succeed (Chisadza et al., 2021; Mahendher et al., 2021; Vaugh, 2020):
I am trying to get used to these online platforms that I have never used and I am equally concerned that technology might fail me. But because of the Covid 19, we must do it, not only to complete the academic year but most importantly to protect lives (Student response)
Most of us are all worried about this whole online thing and if it will ever be fruitful because on my side, I am back in the village and the internet connection is very poor. I'm currently able to use my phone as a device to interact with everyone, no laptop or bigger device for the upcoming lessons. I am even scared of what is going to happen when it's time for tests and exams since they'll be conducted online because my phone is giving me problems as well. So, it is really overwhelming but I am trying my best to not miss anything because we cannot afford to lose the whole year because of this pandemic. (Student response)
Despite the multiple challenges associatedwith emergency online learning during lockdown, universities’ rapid pedagogical response to Covid 19 disruptions was construed as empowering for many students, regardless of their social backgrounds (Chisadza et al., 2021; Makgahlela et al., 2021). These responses expose a strong determination to succeed despite the challenges with devices and connectivity. Although many of these students experience different forms of exclusion, they still imagined their education as critical for their social transformation. For these respondents, losing an academic year would only worsen their material conditions in the aftermath of Covid 19. Here, we see students who have been emboldened by pre existing social conditions and are ready to endure the impact of Covid 19. In this context, students’ sense of
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resignation or resilience was influenced by individual motivation, self awareness and adaptive behaviour, as well as the physical and mental strength to study (Chisadza et al., 2021; O’Sullivan, 2006).
In the following two responses, the need to be resilient was driven by students’ sense of empathy, stemming from the recognition that Covid 19 is a human crisis that has affected both students and lecturers (Le Grange, 2020b; Mbiydzebyuy & Silungwe, 2020). The dominant narrative that someone’s race and class or privilege cannot shield the person from Covid 19 seemed to have instilled a renewed sense of survival and willingness to overcome the challenges associated with remote learning during lockdown: This pandemic is a first for many of us. It's overwhelming in many concepts for both lecturers and students. Online teaching and learning have its pros and cons. Many of us might have the data and means to connect to the internet but our signal in the area might not be good. In all honesty, Sir, I personally feel that at this point in time we can't say whether online teaching will have a positive or negative effect on both students, lecturers and the university as a whole and most importantly the effect it will have on those who move on to second year (following year of study). (Student response)
We are as equally concerned as you are regarding this online method of teaching but I believe we don’t have any alternative at this moment. Instead we need to be open minded towards it so that it doesn’t become tedious...I suggest we become patient with each other as this type of learning is new to all of us. (Student response)
There is a sense of collective pain and suffering in these responses, which serves as an additional incentive to resist remote learning challenges. The students’ acknowledgement of the lecturers’ frustrations and anxieties, as well as the impacts of the pandemic on university resources seemed to have provided an additional reason to be resilient
The collection of online discussions showed clearly that although South African students experience different forms of marginalisation, many come to university with knowledge and lived experiences that can be used to confront their challenges in higher education (see Clark et al., 2016; Luo et al., 2019; Vaugh, 2020). These online discussions became prisms through which we can understand how a group of students was able to exercise their sense of agency as they studied remotely during the national lockdown. Here, we see these students’ attempts to reimagine and rethink their learning strategies as they navigated the unexpected learning disruptions caused by the national lockdown. Students’ enactment of agency is captured in the following two responses: I think we should use this opportunity to familiarize ourselves with online learning as I think this will be an important part of studying in the future and this will help to digitalise some classes. Digitalization of classes will help a lot with time management and learning at your own pace. I am concerned that new test dates are not made readily available by
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all our subjects so I feel afraid that I would not have adequate time to prepare (Student response)
To succeed with online learning, one must be disciplined enough to not only attend the classes and passively absorb the information but to actively participate. In addition to self discipline, one must also have adequate time management skills so that you do not feel overwhelmed when classes and assignments start to pile up. (Student response)
In these discussions, the students cited above approached remote learning as an opportunity to remake their social identities, learning activities and digital experiences (Lindgren & McDaniel 2012; Vaugh, 2020). In the quotations, the students capture a shift to new and creative learning ideas employed to “give significance to the world in purposeful ways with the aim of creating, impacting and/or transforming themselves and/or the conditions of their lives” (Basu et al., 2009, p. 345). The display of student agency in these discussions was also evidenced in the way the students envisioned a future digitized higher education space and the role that Covid 19 remote learning could play in preparing them for the future higher education environment. Remote learning during lockdown is constructed here as an opportunity for students “to make choices, act on their intentions, and take actions in their efforts to develop their own stance in [this] learning context” (Vaugh, 2020, p. 116).
Emergency teaching and learning during national lockdown in South Africa meant students and lecturers needed more support to complete the set curriculum. Unlike the #mustfall movements, no one was physically, technically or emotionally prepared for full remote learning in a viral pandemic situation (see Du Preez & Le Grange, 2020; Laher et al., 2021; Mahlaba, 2020; Van Wyk, 2021).
In the online discussions, there was evidence of peer support and learning amongst students using different social media platforms. Students’ sense of agency in this context was shown in their ability to think collaboratively as they confronted different online learning challenges such as self motivation, time management and self discipline: Guys, first thing that you have to do is to set your own time table that literally works for you, but remember that a day is made of 24 hours you cannot make a time table whereby you gonna study for 4 hours and sleep, watch movies and Television for 20 hours. Try studying for more than 6 hours but with breaks in between just for brains to rest or you can even get some nap in those breaks, but you have to tell your siblings or parents to wake you up after how many minutes (Student response)
In this excerpt, agency is about sharing ideas and strategies for meaningful online learning with peers. It is about building a relationship of collaboration as students were able to use the discussion forums to reach out to their peers (Angu 2019; Clark et al., 2016). In the context of online learning during lockdown, effective learning was not restricted to this group of students independently taking ownership of their learning. In fact, the online space provided an outlet for collaborative learning and peer to peer support Here, agency is about collective
thinking and engagement with classroom activities, learning strategies and coping mechanisms (Angu, 2019; Luo et al., 2019; Vaugh, 2020).
As the Covid 19 virus continues to mutate in very unpredictable ways, this pandemic is expected to continue to disrupt the lives of South African students in the (un)foreseeable future. The economic and psychosocial effects of the pandemic have continued to influence teaching and learning, even after the national lockdown (Chisadza et al., 2021; Laher et al., 2021). As staff and students concluded the 2021 academic year, South African university campuses are yet to return to the old normal, although universities are no longer operating in an emergency mode The majority of South African students have continued to study remotely, but with relatively restricted support in the form of devices and data from universities, compared to the support they received during emergency remote learning in 2020 (Le Grange, 2020b; Mahlaba, 2020; Sokhulu, 2020). This means that in the context of widening social inequalities and the digital divide, many of these students are still struggling to access meaningful teaching and produce quality academic projects (Laher et al., 2021; Makgahlela et al., 2021; Mtshweni, 2022; Odularu et al., 2022).
As universities continued to operate remotely into 2021, there was an increase in scholarly publications on students’ perceptions and experiences of Covid 19 induced online learning. An increasing number of studies now focus on understanding the perspectives of students as universities grapple with the deepening effects of Covid 19 on the academic project (see Laher et al., 2021; Makgahlela et al., 2021). Although these studies seek to understand student experiences, their findings tend to focus on the dominant narrative of the vulnerable poor student, living in miserable conditions, which are not conducive for learning. These studies continue to perpetuate the familiar victimhood narrative, often neglecting the transformative power of destitution and under privilege shown in the multiple ways in which students have exercised their agency and resilience. Put differently, students from impoverished backgrounds are repeatedly portrayed as fragile, and therefore incapable of exercising any agency, while learning remotely (Makgahlela, 2021; Mtshweni, 2022; Odularu et al., 2022; Vaugh, 2020). There are several merits to this argument, if one considers the existential social equalities and the implications for teaching and learning in South Africa. However, history has taught us that the social ills of society are also catalysts of resilience and agency
Based on the data discussed above, this article makes two key arguments. Firstly, although the narrative of vulnerable poor students with no device, data and/or connectivity dominates in earlier publications on emergency remote teaching and learning, many of these vulnerable students in fact saw this mode of learning as an opportunity to reimagine and rethink their learning approaches (Dison et al., 2022; Mbhiza, 2021). This category of students was able to experience fully the transformative potential of online learning during lockdown. As a result, they attempted to exercise a form of resilience and agency as they grappled with the challenges of remote learning. Secondly, while students believed that every dark cloud has a silver lining, there were also some students who displayed resignation
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to the Covid 19 and remote learning challenges. This category of students capitalised on how the negative effects of remote learning and the Covid 19 lockdown, as well as the worsening socioeconomic problems in post apartheid South African communities did indeed affect their academic performance (Alex, 2022; Dison et al., 2022; Shava, 2022).
The #Rhodesmustfall and #feesmustfall experiences have shown that South African students, including those from poorer backgrounds, have learned to survive in disruptive learning environments. Although it would be naïve to compare the experiences of Covid 19 with these two critical moments in South African higher education, online discussions collected from this study’s sample of students have shown that students who have increasingly been regarded as fragile and vulnerable can in fact be extremely resilient. Although institutional and academic staff support were necessary during emergency remote teaching and learning in 2020, a key predictor of success during emergency remote teaching and learning was a strong determination to succeed against all odds This sample of students’ remote teaching and learning experiences epitomised moments of resilience and agency as they navigated the academic disruptions caused by the pandemic. However, online discussions also revealed some students’ sense of resignation to the economic andpsychosocial burdens of Covid 19 (Angu, 2019; Dison et al., 2022; Hemson, 2019; Holton, 2019; Mbhiza, 2021).
In the second half of the 2022 academic year, the South Africa university at which this study was done returned to full contact mode after the government lifted all Covid 19 restrictions. There is general excitement around its campuses, but students and staff have to readjust to socialising without wearing masks or maintaining social distance. For some first year students, it is an opportunity to participate in their long awaited “university experience” ; for others, it is an overwhelming experience with its own fears and anxieties. For university managements, Covid 19 has provided an opportunity to reimagine the idea of higher education, to respond to new, efficient and seemingly more productive ways of learning and working revealed by Covid 19 (Dison et al., 2022; Mbhiza, 2021; Shava, 2022)
Since this article is based on qualitative data gleaned from a non representative sample, the findings, analysis and discussions are not generalisable. Nor can they be used to make recommendations for the South African higher education context. With students back on campus, a large scale quantitative study on student experiences during and after the lockdown is likely to produce findings that can influence new teaching and learning policies as South African universities enter a post Covid 19 era
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 235 252, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.14
Received Mar 31, 2022; Revised Jul 29, 2022; Accepted Aug 8, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza, Rwanda
Alphonse Uworwabayeho School of Education, University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza, Rwanda
Gabriel Nizeyimana
School of Education, University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza, Rwanda
Abstract. Developing problem solving abilities is a major objective of learning mathematics at school. However, learners’ problem solving abilities are still critical. The main purpose of this study was to investigate how the problem based learning model could enhance learners’ problem solving abilities in mathematics. The study used quasi experimental research with one group pre test post test design. The population in this study consisted of fifty four grade eleven learners (aged between 16 to 19 years old) from one school in Kayonza District in Rwanda. Data were collected using mathematical problem solving tests and interviews and were analysed using paired t tests for dependent sample means and descriptive analysis. The study results indicate that problem based learning potentially impacts learners’ problem solving abilities. It is shown from learners’ work in problem solving that all indicators of problem solving abilities, namely understanding the problem, planning ways to approach the problem, monitoring the progress while tackling the problem and reviewing the solution process, emerged as being fairly well improved. In addition, based on the interview results from some learners and their teachers, they like the PBL model because embedded tasks helped them to apply the knowledge that can improve their reasoning, creativity and thinking capability. The study recommends that schools encourage teachers to adopt PBL for enhancing learners’ problem solving abilities. Additionally, researchers are urged to use findings from this study as a reference for further research. Furthermore, researchers could conduct similar research on a large scale using different methodologies.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: mathematical problem solving; problem solving abilities; problem solving processes; problem based learning; secondary school learners; Rwandan schools
The teaching of mathematics for problem solving has been central to mathematics education since the movement of curricula reform around the 1980s in the United States and has expanded worldwide (Rosli et al., 2013). The ultimate goal is to engage learners in conducting mathematical investigations by themselves and for them to be able to identify the application of mathematics they have learned in a real world situation (Stacey, 2005). The introduction of Rwanda's competence based curriculum (CBC) was meant to address this educational reform (REB, 2015). However, learners’ problem solving abilities still require attention. Research of international assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) shows that the levels of learners’ problem solving abilities are still weak, even in developed countries (Novita et al., 2012; Stacey, 2005). Therefore, the situation in developing countries such as Rwanda can only be imagined. Factors such as mathematics learning and the evaluation process contribute to low levels of problem solving Thus, it is essential to update the learning and evaluation process to ensure quality education is oriented to problem solving.
Problem solving refers to mathematical tasks that have the potential to provide intellectual challenges for enhancing learners’ mathematical development (Novita et al., 2012). These tasks are understood by learners but cannot be solved by an already established procedure because they have a hurdle that is not immediately realised. Learners must then think and reason through a situation. It is good to note that what seems a problem to someone is not necessarily a problem to others: it depends on the situation and the problem solver (Schoenfeld, 1992). The solving of problems can foster the development of 21st century skills essential for the workplace (Gravemeijer et al., 2017; Szabo et al., 2020) and stimulate the interest, motivation and curiosity of learners (Căprioară, 2015). In addition, having to solve an appropriate problem can affect the enhancement of learners’ problem solving abilities in identifying how they can use mathematics skills to solve daily problems they face in life. It is essential to expose learners to meaningful problems to practise sense making (Gravemeijer et al., 2017; Polya, 1945; Voskoglou, 2011; Yu et al., 2014)
Problem solving abilities are fundamentals of mathematics education in schools. The enhancement of problem solving abilities can equip learners to think logically, analytically, critically, and creatively (Surya et al., 2017) Therefore, learners’ problem solving abilities will be enhanced if real life problems are used in the classroom. Yu et al. (2014) contended that problem solving abilities are better cultivated when concrete problems are taught in the classroom. Klegeris and Hurren (2011) further pointed out that skills necessary to solve a problem from available knowledge and information are developed while critically analysing the contextual problems in a small collaborative group. Moreover,
Setiawan and Supiandi (2018) pointed out that successful problem solving abilities are emphasized when learners develop their own knowledge and apply concepts. In this regard, this study used problem based learning (PBL) as a learning model because it offers many opportunities for learners to work on solving concrete problems during learning. It has been used in an effort to help learners improve their problem solving abilities in mathematics (Prastiti et al., 2020; Setiawan & Supiandi, 2018)
PBL is a learner centred pedagogical model that offers a learning environment with a problem solving focus (Klegeris & Hurren, 2011). The general pattern of instruction with PBL is to present concrete real life problem (related to the content and the broader curricular goals) to learners at the start of the lesson Learners are then given time to work collaboratively in small groups to identify what they need to know to solve the problem while engaging in self directed learning (SDL) to look for answers and report back to the group and apply the new knowledge to the problem. Finally, groups present their proposed solution to the problem and conclude the activity by reflecting on what they have learned as well as the effectiveness of the strategies employed. The entire process of learning within PBL occurs around solving problems (Savery, 2019). Thus, PBL is used in this study to provide learners with plenty of opportunities to solve problems during learning.
Some studies documented the effectiveness of PBL model in different contexts (Astriani et al., 2017; Merritt et al., 2017; Savery, 2019; Siregar, 2017; Valdez & Bungihan, 2019). They have shown that PBL promotes conceptual understanding and improves higher order thinking skills, confidence, knowledge retention, motivation, academic achievement, and problem solving. Klegeris and Hurren (2011) point out that learners develop transferable skills while analysing the problem, constructing their knowledge and applying concepts in PBL (Setiawan & Supiandi, 2018). However, other studies have shown that PBL can lead to poor performance when it is practised in a fact based learning environment (Aksela & Haatainen, 2019; Craig & Marshall, 2019). PBL can also disengage learners unfamiliar with problems from participating in group activities.
Parallel to this, some studies have employed different learning strategies and focused on key factors to enhance grades five through to eight learners' problem solving abilities in mathematics (Bostic, 2011; Sigurdson et al., 1994; Verschaffel et al., 1999; Yu et al., 2014). These studies implemented teaching strategies that supplemented daily mathematics instruction with a problem solving focus for at least four weeks. The findings of these studies revealed enhanced learners' problem solving abilities in terms of understanding the problem, implementing the plan for solution and verification of the answer, as well as improved achievement and attitudes. Several other studies (Darma, 2018; Klegeris & Hurren, 2011; Setiawan & Supiandi, 2018) exposed learners to learning mathematics using PBL to improve problem solving abilities. The common outcome of their studies is a positive impact of PBL on learners' problem solving abilities. The latter show evidence of the suitability of PBL in
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mathematics for small and large classroom settings. However, to the authors' knowledge, few studies have applied PBL in upper secondary schools to enhance learners' problem solving abilities. Additionally, no study has used PBL to strengthen problem solving abilities in Rwanda. Thus, the current research will document literature in this aspect and add knowledge to the existing body of knowledge.
The reviewed literature revealed that the current learning and the evaluation process of mathematics hinders the provision of quality mathematics education. In addition, learning contributes nothing to learners’ problem solving abilities when tasks are meaningless. Consequently, learners will not be able to solve problems successfully in mathematics or beyond and will lack the significance of education in general, particularly mathematics. However, solving problems is the primary means of doing mathematics at school (Stacey, 2005). Thus, this study intends to investigate whether problem based learning can enhance the problem solving abilities of grade eleven learners in Kayonza District in Rwanda. The following research questions guided the study:
1. Will problem based learning models improve learners’ problem solving abilities?
2. What do teachers and learners experience while learning mathematics with PBL model?
According to Polya (1945), problem solving is an attempt to find a way out of the difficulty in achieving a goal which is not immediately achievable. The entire process of problem solving comprises identifying and understanding the problem, planning ways to approach the problem, monitoring the progress while tackling the problem and then reviewing the solution to the problem (Novita et al., 2012) Polya (1945) suggested four stages for problem solving: (1) understanding the problem (what is known and needs to be done, and then deciding what information is important and what seems unimportant); (2) devising a plan (reflecting on ideas that can be brought to the problem); (3) carrying out the plan (following through with the approach selected, carefully taking each step along the way) and looking back (verifying whether the solution makes sense or fits the given data). These processes are used in this study as indicators of problem solving abilities.
The PBL strategy in the classroom reflects the constructivism learning theory, specifically Vygotsky's social constructivism theory (Vygotsky & Cole, 2018) This theory states that knowledge is constructed and reconstructed socially between teachers and learners where learners learn from one another in small groups (Vygotsky, 1978). In this learning, the teacher acts as a facilitator or a guide and catalyst. Learners actively engage in the learning process while making interpretations and constructing new knowledge through teamwork and collaboration (Cohen et al., 2003). Social interaction support learners to learn concepts more quickly and efficiently than when working alone. This interaction creates a better opportunity for learners to build their problem solving abilities (Vygotsky & Cole, 2018).
In the PBL, learning opportunities are offered to learners at the beginning of the lesson because learners are not empty minded (Razieh, 2016). Learning is maximized in the so called zone of proximal development (ZPD). According to Vygotsky (1978), the ZPD refers to the distance between the actual and the potential development of an individual. This is why the ZPD could not be ignored in this study. Teachers should monitor individual learners to promote discussions that support interactive learning or conceptual understanding. PBL emphasizes collaborating and sharing of information, which positively impact learners’ problem solving abilities.
This study is a mixed method research of quasi experiment with one group pretest posttest design. Qualitative data were gathered from interviews while quantitative data were obtained from mathematical problem solving tests. The choice of mixed methods was guided by the belief of pragmatic philosophers that mono paradigm orientation research is not enough to interpret and understand human behaviours (Alise & Teddlie, 2010). More practical and pluralist approaches should allow a combination of research methods regarded as most appropriate to address the research questions (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). The epistemological and ontological views of the research problem support mixed research methods. Thus, for this study, mixed methods were considered appropriate.
Using non probability purposive sampling techniques, eighty two (82) grade eleven learners (45 females and 37 males) aged between 16 to 19 years old from one school in Kayonza District in Rwanda were selected. The school accommodates both core and subsidiary mathematics in the combinations and is situated in the district in which the University of Rwanda – College of Education (UR CE) operates These learners have one year left to complete their secondary education and were divided into two combinations; forty seven in Mathematics Economics Geography (MEG) and thirty five in Physics Chemistry Biology (PCB). These learners received a PBL intervention for 14 weeks. Therefore, their teachers could not be excluded from the study. They were given a test before and after the intervention. However, the study considered only fifty four learners (28 females and 26 males) who completed both pre test and post test
Tests comprised seven questions and were selected from a bunch of questions prepared for a large doctoral project by the first author based on their fit for enhancing problem solving abilities as this study intended. Researchers formulated questions based on the algebra content of grade eleven learners (see students’ book on REB website) on units of sequences, logarithmic and exponential equations, and solving equations and puzzle problems. To avoid bias, questions from the pre test were slightly modified or replaced in the post test (see Table 1).
Table 1: Pre and post test mathematics items arrangement Units Question number for pre test
Question number for post test
Comments
Unit 2: Sequences 1,2 1,5 The two questions were similar except that they were arranged in different positions.
Unit 3: Logarithm and exponential equations
7 7 These two questions were the same
Unit 4: Solving equations 6 2,3 Question 3 in the post test covered the unit of solving equations using concepts of matrices. Q6 and Q2 were different.
Puzzle problems 3,4,5 4,6 Puzzle problems for the pre test were completely dissimilar to those of the post test.
Two experts, both PhD holders in mathematics education, validated the tests before their administration. They rated the question items as very easy, easy, and difficult. In addition, they provided comments on whether they fit research objectives, and these were used to revise the questions. Additionally, a reliability coefficient was calculated using a test retest method. It was found to be .72 from a sample of 30 learners who were not part of the study in the actual data collection.
This research received an ethical clearance letter from UR CE through the research and innovation unit. This letter was used to seek permission to collect data from the district education office where the school is located. Before commencing the data collection process, participants were explained the purpose of the study to encourage their participation in the research. They were given time to ask questions and fill out consent forms to ensure voluntary participation. After that, a pre test was given to monitor learners’ level of problem solving abilities prior to the intervention.
Five mathematics teachers (1 female and 4 males) at the school of intervention attended a two day workshop on PBL. The workshop focused on PBL concepts, patterns of instruction within PBL and the formulation of PBL activities. At the end of the workshop, teachers prepared and performed two microteachings using PBL and reflected on their teaching in order to make better use of PBL
Two out of five teachers implemented PBL for 14 weeks and were assisted in refining the intervention during the intervention period. Teachers encouraged learners to identify and understand the problem presented to them, to plan ways to approach it, to monitor the progress while tackling the problem, and to review the solution. Learners learnt by doing problems before receiving input from the teachers (see introduction section for more detail).
Activity:
A father wants to build a tower of ten rows of blocks starting from the bottom. Each row will have two blocks fewer than the previous. He would like to know the total number of blocks he will need to purchase before starting with the bottom row comprising 1025 blocks. What is the total number of blocks he will need?
Steps followed:
The problem was presented to learners at the start of the lesson (the teacher wrote the problem on the chalkboard) (5 minutes). They were then given time to read the problem and brainstorm ideas critically, and difficult words were explained (10 minutes). The teacher assigned learners in small groups to analyse the problem (2 minutes). During group work, learners did research to identify what they needed to know to solve the problem (using textbooks), propose solutions (20 minutes), and then report back to the group to apply the new knowledge to the problem. The entire process of problem solving (1 understand, 2 plan, 3 implement, and 4 check the solution) was written on the chalkboard in one corner so that even those who might have forgotten the steps could verify them. Learners were given time to present their findings to the whole class, where reflections were given by classmates (15 minutes) (group presentation was given to those who solved the problem in different ways; not all the groups in the class). A decision was taken for the whole class, and the teacher linked the problem solution with the lesson's learning objective. The remaining time was given to learners to foster the concepts by working on various textbook exercises which the teacher indicated in their book.
Note:
*Many of the problems used during the intervention were designed based on the content, and textbooks were used as well. Questions were used for sequences (the lesson was designed for 80 minutes).
*The lesson's learning objective was to be able to apply a formula to determine the nth term of arithmetic sequences and find the sum of n in terms of arithmetic progressions.
*Learners had no idea about the formula for finding the sum of nth arithmetic progressions or even how to find any term of the sequence; it was a new lesson. The formulas were clarified (the general formula was given in case learners did not find that formula).
Every Friday, teachers in the intervention and researchers met to evaluate the intervention's progress, discuss difficulties, and prepare the next lesson by focusing mostly on the PBL activity. To recap, researchers made suggestions and contributed to lesson preparation at the end of the meeting. These meetings were organized and conducted for mentorship purposes. At the end of each week, researchers conducted semi structured interviews with teachers and FGDs with selected learners to hear their appreciation of the intervention. Field notes were also taken and were used to refine the learning material and improve teacher
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questioning strategies. After intervention, a post test was administered to the same group of learners to monitor their knowledge and skills gained in problem solving and any change in their problem solving abilities. Researchers supported learners to understand the language used in both pre test and post test. Each test was conducted for approximately 60 minutes.
Before data analysis, every question on the answer sheet of learners was checked and marked. Each question was allocated ten marks following indicators of problem solving abilities (see details in Table 2), as Szetala and Nicol (1992) suggested. The ability to understand the problem scored 0 to 2, the ability to plan the solution strategy scored 0 to 2, the ability to implement the plan was scored from 0 to 4, and the ability to check whether the solution makes sense scored 0 to 2.
1 Understanding the problem
If there is no identification of known, asked elements of the data needed and underlining of keywords in the question
If there is the identification of known, asked elements, or underlining of keywords but are incomplete
If there is the identification of known, asked elements, or underlining of keywords and are complete and adequate
0
1
2
2 Planning the solution strategy
3 Implementing the plan
There is no plan at all, or it is unclear, or it is erased 0 There is a plan with errors 1 There is a correct plan 2
There is no answer, or it is erased 0 Some solutions are following the plan but are wrong 1 Some solutions are following the plan with errors and are incomplete 2 There are correct solutions that follow the plan but are incomplete 3 There are correct solutions that follow the plan 4
4 Interpreting or checking the solution obtained
There is no conclusion or interpretation of the solution obtained 0 There is proof of the solution, or there is interpretation with errors 1 There is correct proof of the solution obtained and interpretations 2
Microsoft Excel was used as a tool to analyse data. Data from interviews were analysed using descriptive analysis (presented in text and quotes) while data from tests were analysed using charts and inferential statistics of the paired t test. The test was computed to determine whether learning mathematics with PBL has an impact on learners’ problem solving abilities. The authors wanted to find out whether there is a significant difference between means of learners' scores in the pre test and post test at a .05 level of significance. Finally, normalized learning gains were computed from pre test and post test results across each indicator of problem solving abilities.
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The results of the study are presented based on the order of the research questions examined.
To establish how learning mathematics with PBL improved learners’ problem solving abilities, data from the pre test and post test results for each question were analysed according to indicators of problem solving abilities described in Table 2 Learners’ problem solving performance on each of seven questions according to problem solving indicators is displayed in Figure 1. Results indicate an average improvement of learners' problem solving abilities from 37% to 61%.
Percentage of learners' performance % Pre-test Post-test
Qn 1 Qn 2 Qn 3 Qn 4 Qn 5 Qn 6 Qn 7
Figure 1: Percentage of learners’ problem solving performance on each question according to indicators of problem solving abilities (Qn: Question)
The performance percentage on each question according to problem solving indicators reveals that learners performed better in the post test than in the pre test. This means that there is an improvement in learners' problem solving abilities. Also, a paired t test for the dependent sample mean was computed (see Table 3) to explore whether there is a significant difference between the means of learners’ scores in the pre test and post test. The results revealed ���������� = 1208 <�������������������������������� =201, which means that PBL instruction affects learners' problem solving abilities positively, and the impact is significant with ��< 05
Table 3: t-Test: Paired two samples for means
Mean Variance N Pearson Correlation df t Stat P(T<=t) two tail t Critical two tail
test
37.50 54 0.27
76.85 54
12.08 0.00 2.01
Based on the results displayed in Figure 1, there is little impact on learners’ abilities for question one after the intervention. The figure shows that the first three indicators (understand, plan and implement) on question one are higher in the pre test compared to those of the post test. This could be because the question was too short, with few words embedded. Also, learners could have been accustomed to the type of questions which seem closed with few terms that generally provide an immediate procedure to apply for solving the problem. An example of a learner response in Figure 2 shows the application of looking for a pattern strategy to find a solution in the pre test. However, in the post test, the learner could apply more than one strategy for an answer, although s/he was not successful.
Based on responses shown in Figure 2, a learner made better progress in the post test than in the pre test of problem solving ability. The first attempt shows that the learner knew the formula and relied on it to find the solution. However, for the second attempt, the learner answered the question freely, showed all the workings, and performed better than on way to the solution
The effect of PBL on learners’ problem solving abilities was evaluated according to gender by minimum, maximum, quartiles, median, mean, range, interquartile range, p value, and learning gains (see Table 4).
Table 4: Effect of problem based learning on learners’ mathematical problem solving abilities
Pre test [All, N=54]
Post test [All, N=54]
Pre test [Female, N=26]
Post test [Female, N=24]
Pre test [Male, N=28]
Post test [Male, N=28]
Minimum 14% 30% 19% 30% 14% 31%
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Quartile 1 24% 43% 25% 43% 25% 46% Median 31% 51% 30% 49% 33% 59%
Quartile 3 37% 61% 38% 59% 39% 68%
Maximum 49% 77% 49% 74% 49% 77% Mean 31% 53% 32% 51% 32% 56% Range 34% 47% 30% 44% 35% 46% Intra Quartile Range 13% 19% 13% 16% 15% 22% p-value <.001 <.001 <.001 Learning gains 32% 28% 36%
The learning gain (N gain) for males is 36%, while that of females is 28%. The results indicate that the overall learning N gain is 32%; however, male learners outperformed female' learners in both pre test and post test. Table 4 presents the detailed results.
Furthermore, the average N gains across each indicator of problem solving abilities were computed. The results indicate an overall N gain of 38%, which shows to what extent changes occurred in learners' problem solving abilities. Results show a higher N gain of 43% of the "verify” indicator. This means that after PBL, learners learn to make sense of the solution to the problem. However, it was not easy to identify a high N gain for the "implement” stage because learners mostly combine the “plan” and “implement” phase when solving the problem. Thus, effort should be made to indicate the implementing phase during the problem solving process. Figure 3 shows the graph of indicators of problem solving abilities against percentages (values).
Pre-test Post-test N-gain
Moreover, the study compared indicators of learners’ problem solving abilities based on the question content, sequence, and series, solving questions using numerical methods, logarithm and exponential equations, and puzzle problems, as shown in Figure 3. The results indicates an improvement of learners’
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problem solving abilities in solving equations, puzzle problems, logarithms and exponential equations and a slight decrease of learners’ problem solving abilities in sequence and series.
0%
a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d
Sequence and series Solvings equations Puzzle problems Logarithms and exponential equations
Question two
Results from the interview data indicate some PBL benefits that support the enhancement of learners’ problem solving abilities. The first finding relates to the PBL environment which provides a learning atmosphere that can help learners to develop their understanding. Both teachers and learners indicated that they were able to value the importance of understanding a problem before they can solve it. The PBL activity requires learners to reason through the situation. An example of a transcript from Anna is given below: “Usually, the teacher gives us notes before learning, and we get tired before learning new knowledge, but with this learning style, we learn more meaningfully with understanding."
Anna continues: “Normally when you are given a challenging activity before learning, it first challenges you before getting the right answer…it requires us to use our brain as compared to how we usually do… normally we memorize the formula so that if they change the question a little bit, you cannot think deeply, but now we are required to think first so that once you face the similar challenge, you are not afraid to solve it”.
This finding indicates that PBL learning assisted learners in developing mathematical understanding. PBL learning offered a space for the learners to learn easily as they had enough time to reason and think without getting tired or bored. The second finding relates to PBL activity which can support learners in planning ways of approaching the challenge since the activity did not require them to use any readymade procedure. Many learners were of the view that the PBL strategy made the learning of mathematics more concrete and enjoyable than being abstract, where formula and rote learning are given less attention. Frank described this as follows:
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“Activities are severe and good because they reflect the real life situation that we are familiar with and are not forcing us to use the formula from the notebook, but the brain and different strategies” .
Many learners indicated that they had received different guidance from their teachers, which again encouraged them to think critically. This means that both teachers and learners could pay attention to processes; teachers could not expect short or final answers from the learners. Rather, they could shift their teaching to focus on problem solving. The usual teaching process was as follows:
“Teachers often give us exercises and homework sometimes and leave them uncorrected… consequently, engaged learners cannot know if what they have done is correct or know the wrong step; those unengaged learners get nothing” .
The results indicated that being given challenging activities helped learners to be engaged and reduced the teacher’s talking in the classroom. For instance, Hawah indicated: “I wish to learn in this way…. to learn first before taking notes and therefore we could take notes of what we understand well”.
Anna was referring to being given an engaging activity to think about and identify the learning gap. The teacher should intervene to fill the knowledge gap. Fausto complimented Hawah, saying the following: “Actually, we saw more content of what we are learning here in senior five (grade eleven); what we need most is little guidance from the teacher depending on what he needs us to achieve.”
Fausto continued: “Normally, when one learner takes the role of the teacher, or when we work in small groups, we are not afraid to ask questions than we can do to the teacher.”
The third finding relates to difficulties of learning and implementing PBL. Generally, participants reported positive experiences that are similar to previous studies such as the improvement of learners’ attitudes, longer retention of knowledge, improved self directed learning practices, enhanced problem solving abilities and critical thinking skills. They also developed a teamwork spirit as well as their presentation and communication skills. However, participants reported negative experiences of PBL, namely that it is time consuming, requires time, and needs infrastructure and equipment, as well as the Internet. Therefore, the PBL learning process could impact on teachers’ workload. Below is a transcript of a teacher interview Kalisa said the following:
“You see, you need to understand the content very well to design appropriate task… sometimes you need to search on the internet, and I have three classes to teach…. Besides, I cannot teach very fast the content I have to cover in 9 weeks of this term".
Kalisa added that:
"
The other is that when you give learners much time to talk in the classroom, they shout out. It becomes difficult to keep one conversation in the room.” He further said that: “you find yourself spending much
time managing the classroom instead of managing the 40 minutes of the lesson period.”
Kalisa was complemented by his colleague Kamana, who said: “PBL methodology is good to the extent I saw learners going beyond the planned learning expectations…but they may not achieve the learning objective, then you delay covering the content as planned on the scheme of work.”
The results of the mathematical problem solving test revealed that scores were higher in the post test than pre test, with average performance increasing from 37% to 61%, which confirms the value of the t test. This result demonstrates that PBL instruction was effective in assisting learners in improving their problem solving abilities. Across all questions, learners showed a significant increase in how they demonstrate understanding of the problem, plan ways to approach the problem, monitor their progress as they tackle the problem and review the solution to check whether all conditions of the problem had been met. These findings are in line with those of Padmavathy and Mareesh's (2013) study which found positive results in learners' understanding and abilities to use concepts in real life after learning with PBL. Sigurdson et al. (1994), Verschaffel et al. (1999) and Yu et al. (2014) pointed out that a problem solving focus should supplement daily mathematics teaching to improve learners’ achievement, attitudes and problem solving abilities.
In addition, the improvement of problem solving abilities using PBL models follows the social constructivism theory of learning (Purwoko et al., 2019). As Vygotsky (1978) stated, learning is central to students, and new knowledge is constructed owing to social interactions. Students engaged in and sharing the activity are facilitated by their teacher through appropriate tasks and monitoring productive discussions. Thus, students' experience when solving problems in small groups during learning improves their thinking and mental function.
The PBL model effectively cultivates students’ abilities to understand and analyse the problem then select and develop solutions. This is why other studies (e.g., Mukuka et al., 2020; Ukobizaba et al., 2021) have emphasized the need for teachers to turn their attention to instructions oriented to problem solving and assessment in order to address learners’ learning needs. The study revealed better results of learning, namely N gain of 32% of the participants. This finding shows that learners benefitted from the PBL method, especially the girls. Boys (N gain =28%) outperformed girls (N gain=36%) for both pre test and post tests. This finding is in line with the study conducted by Siregar (2017) who found a higher increase in the problem solving ability of male learners in both control and experimental group. This could be because mathematics is perceived as a male subject and difficult (Osman & Kriek, 2021). However, both male and female need problem solving experience in mathematics that encourages them to think differently since the labour market is open equally to both.
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Changes in learners' problem solving abilities were high (N gain=38%). Surya et al. (2017) point out that high N gain boosts learners' confidence, interest and motivation. A higher N gain was on the "verify” indicator with 43% compared to other indicators. This means that after PBL, learners are able to make sense of the solution to the problem. It helped them to value the importance of the process in problem solving. Learners showed their understanding rather than directly solving the problem; they showed their plan on the answer sheet rather than using another sheet as well as showing whether all the conditions to the problem had been satisfied. This indicates how learning mathematics with a problem solving focus should take place, with minimal attention and focus being given to short and final answers (Novita et al., 2012). The situation then calls for teachers to pay attention to problem solving processes to help learners to be creative. NCTM (2010) points out that exposing learners to meaningful problems fosters understanding and mathematical development.
To develop the learners' problem solving abilities in challenging tasks, guidance in feedback on the worked examples and scaffolding were of primary importance (Setiana et al., 2021). As in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky & Cole, 2018), this helped learners be engaged, reduced teacher talk in the classroom, and enhanced learning and cognitive development. The study conducted by Simamora and Saragih (2019) found that learning using culture context materials improved learners' problem solving ability and self efficacy. In addition, according to Szetala and Nicol (1992), paying attention to the process and explanations of learners’ solutions rather than focussing on the answers learners give will be more beneficial to learners’ communicative thinking. The PBL model accommodates these facilitations. During the problem solving activity, the teacher visited learners in their small groups to guide the problem solving process as an example of facilitation. In addition, learners presented findings to communicate their thinking on every step taken to other learners.
Through problem solving, learners can improve their reasoning. An improvement in N gain influences learners’ abilities, confidence, interest and motivation to learn mathematics (Surya et al., 2017). In other words, meaningful mathematical tasks can equip learners to think logically, analytically, systematically, critically and creatively. Results from interviews indicate participants have positively experienced PBL strategies that are in line with previous studies (Osman & Kriek, 2021; Setiawan & Supiandi, 2018). The PBL strategy made the learning of mathematics more learner centred and active while providing learners with the opportunity to develop interpersonal relationship skills, critical thinking and reasoning skills, improved attitudes, and enhanced self-directed learning. Also, PBL provided learners with the opportunity to associate academic life with their everyday experience, which substantively increased their awareness of the usefulness of mathematics.
Based on the findings and discussions, the study concludes that problem based learning impacts learners’ problem solving abilities positively in terms of understanding the problem, planning ways to approach the problem,
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monitoring the progress while tackling the problem and reviewing the solution process in order to check whether all conditions of the problem have been satisfied. In addition, the PBL learning activities provided learners with opportunities to apply knowledge. Furthermore, although PBL presents a negative experience, it nevertheless also has many positive experiences. Thus, teachers should apply the PBL model to prepare learners better for the future and develop their problem solving abilities. The focus is on how learners approach the problem at the initial stage. The study invites further research to explore the effectiveness of PBL on learners’ problem solving abilities using a different methodology on large scale.
The study was limited to two classes of grade eleven learners from one school in Kayonza District in Rwanda. It has used one group pre test and post test design. Therefore, there could be other factors that could have influenced the increase in learners’ problem solving abilities. This could have been avoided if an experimental and control group had been used
We acknowledge the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) for funding this research and Juliette Itangishatse for her assistance in data collection. We thank all research participants from Kayonza District for making this research possible
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 253 270, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.15
Received Jun 5, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 26, 2022
Faculty of Language and Communication, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Abstract. This systematic review was conducted to examine theories that were adopted or considered in the development of mobile applications for language learning. It aims to provide a holistic overview of major theoretical principles that underpin each developmental study to identify trends and gaps in the synthesised literature. The studies were collected from the Scopus and Web of Science databases as they were the main sources of reputable journals. Primary searches between 2011 and 2020 revealed approximately 158 studies related to the topic under investigation. After further filtering based on the inclusion criteria and removal of duplicates, 39 studies matched the research criteria and were used for further analysis. The analysis revealed that researchers tend to choose to solve problems pertaining to vocabulary learning and learners’ motivation through the development of mobile applications for language learning. They preferred to use constructivist based theories such as situated learning and collaborative learning in guiding their development though behaviourist principles are also dominant. However, very few studies used theories related to language acquisition and learning in the design and development process. Hence, this gap should be given priority in future developmental research within the same scope as the generic learning theories may not be accurately addressing the language learning problems.
Keywords: mobile applications; theories; language learning; mobile learning; mobile development
* Corresponding author: Kee ManChuah,kmchuah@unimas.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The advancement of mobile technologies has led the shift towards ubiquitous learning, where learning can occur anytime, anywhere. Over the past decades, mobile devices are no longer confined to communication purposes but are increasingly used as an essential learning tool across all levels of education (Crompton & Burke, 2018; Heil et al., 2016; Rajendran & Md Yunus, 2021; Shin et al., 2011). The same development can be observed in language teaching, mainly in the second language and foreign language learning contexts. As mobile assisted language learning (MALL) becomes more prevalent, it has motivated researchers to explore various mobile technologies for the purpose of simulating authentic language learning experiences (Adams et al., 2021; Chuah, 2014), elevating the opportunities to use the target language and increasing language gains (Kukulska Hulme, 2016; Persson & Nouri, 2018; Shadiev et al., 2020).
Studies about MALL have evolved from empirical investigations on the effectiveness of existing mobile applications to design based research that centred on the development of mobile applications to address specific areas of concern within language learning (Botero et al., 2018; Viberg & Grönlund, 2012). Despite the encouraging development of MALL, many studies on its implementation focused on short term pre and post test results (Gutiérrez Colón et al., 2020; Hsu & Liu, 2021). Burston (2015) highlighted this shortcoming, which could be a result of poorly designed research studies. There is also a commonly cited concern about the novelty effect of introducing mobile applications to learners as it often leads to biased positive results in most of the studies reported (Björkman et al., 2019; Jeno et al., 2019). In addition, previous studies on MALL (Heil et al., 2016) were predominantly incorporating mobile applications or tools which were not intended for language learning (e.g., social media, chat, and quiz applications). Some studies investigated the usefulness and effectiveness of commercially available language learning applications such as Duolingo (Garcia, 2013; Shortt et al., 2021) and Busuu (Shibata, 2020). This trend has prompted researchers to embark on design based or developmental research (Chuah & Kabilan, 2021) in creating applications that are more relevant to language learning, especially in recent years
In terms of development research related to mobile applications for language learning, researchers tend to emphasise the testing of diverse technologies such as multimedia, virtual and augmented reality, conversational agents and artificial intelligence based systems. Moreover, previous reviews on mobile assisted language learning were focusing on factors and effects of using mobile tools. For instance, Elaish et al. (2019) reviewed 69 papers on mobile English language learning according to constructs that included types of mobile learning technologies, language learning problems, sample information, purposes and assessment methods. Most of the studies selected were in the form of investigation or review. There is an apparent need to investigate further the development process by scrutinising the fundamental theories that were selected. As reiterated by Traxler (2017), the underlying problem in mobile learning is the lack of discourse on necessary theoretical considerations as the spotlight is often on the technological aspect.
There is currently very limited systematic review driven by the need to examine theoretical underpinnings of development research on mobile applications in language learning. Most studies were on the general overview of mobile learning adoption (Crompton & Burke, 2018; Osman, 2021). Existing reviews that cover theories and models in mobile learning are limited to integration and acceptance models (Alkhezzi & Ahmed, 2020; Kumar & Chand, 2019) or the general design of mobile learning (Churchill et al., 2015), which are not specific to developmental studies. As learning theories lay the foundation for any development, examining and comparing the most commonly used theories in the selected literature from 2011 to 2020 (a decade of literature) would be beneficial as the findings could guide future development Based on these gaps in the current related reviews and research reports, it is necessary to examine learning theories and principles that were considered in the development of mobile applications for language learning.
Hence, this systematic review aims to answer the following research questions: i. Which language learning problems were addressed in the studies on mobile application development for language learning?
ii. What were the learning theories or principles used in guiding the development of mobile applications for language learning?
A systematic review was conducted to answer the research questions. It was based on the procedures mentioned by Khan et al. (2003) and Sarkis Onofre et al. (2021) which followed the PRISMA review protocol The process consisted of the following four phases:
2.1 Formulation of inclusion and exclusion
In order to ensure the review covers relevant and accurate studies, this systematic review used the inclusion and exclusion criteria as shown in Table 1. These criteria were formulated in line with the aim and research questions set for this review. Each research article must have fulfilled all the criteria to be selected for further analysis.
• Explains the process of developing the mobile application for language learning/teaching (design and development)
• Includes explanations on learning theories or principles in guiding development
• Across all levels of education (K 12, higher education)
• Article was published in peer reviewed publications
• Article was written in English
• Article’s full text is accessible
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• Used commercial applications or readily available tools (e.g., Duolingo, Busuu) as this review focuses on development research
• Reporting only empirical findings (e.g., pre and post test results)
• Not related to language learning or teaching
• Article was published before 2011 or after 2020. This criterion is to focus on the decade period of the related works.
• Explanation on theories is too minimal and cannot be synthesised
Several key terms and combination of the terms were used and then shortlisted for better search results. The terms were “development of mobile applications”, “design of mobile applications”, “language learning”, “development studies”, “mobile learning applications”, “design based research”, “developing mobile applications”, “language learning apps”, “mobile apps”, and “language learning applications”. Using these key terms with Boolean operators such as AND, OR, and NOT (Jahan et al., 2016) as well as the database’s filtering function, the most relevant articles were able to be shortlisted. Quotation marks were also used to find the exact phrase. The chosen strategy focused on the article title, abstract or summary, and on keywords listed in the article so that relevant articles could be filtered efficiently.
The term “learning theories” or “learning theories for mobile application design” were not added to the search process as the intention of this systematic review is to derive those theories through the analysis of reports gathered on related mobile learning applications. The review of related language learning theories, however, was done separately in formulating the coding frame for the analysis.
Two main databases (Scopus and the Web of Science) were used to identify publications according to the criteria and search strategy defined in the earlier phases. These databases were chosen as they were widely accepted as the main sources of reputable journals that have a proper review process. The abstracts of articles obtained were carefully read and evaluated for relevance. If the title was relevant but the abstract provided had very limited information, the full text was skimmed, scanned and checked according to the inclusion criteria. This identification procedure was repeated twice to ensure no pertinent articles were left out. Articles from the same project or by the same authors were also filtered and only the one with the most information was included in the analysis.
From the initial search results using keywords, 158 studies were found to meet the scope for further screening. A total of 79 did not fulfil the criteria stated in Table 1, as the majority of these studies mainly reported empirical findings with minimal details on the design and development process. Some also used existing language learning applications though the titles seem relevant. Twelve studies were excluded as they were duplicates or related to the same projects. The remaining 67 were then screened thoroughly to ensure they met all the criteria in Table 1. However, 28 of those studies had to be excluded owing to the fact that the theoretical part lacked sufficient details or was unclear. Hence, the total number of articles included for further analysis was 39. The identification and screening procedures are illustrated in Figure 1.
In this review, the studies were first coded for essential information, namely publication year and rate of publication, the geographical distribution of the research area, and the research context or setting. To answer the research questions (RQs) of the study, the studies were read and coded according to the qualitative data coding guidelines suggested by Linneberg and Korsgaard (2019). A deductive coding approach was employed whereby codes were pre defined for the important elements included in the two research questions. These codes were theoretical concepts or themes derived from relevant literature. The codes were compared during the coding process, and elements that were not within this coding frame would then be added.
Table 2 shows the coding frame used in the analysis process. RQ1 covers linguistic competence and communicative competence that are accepted to be fundamental to language learning (Celce Murcia, 2001; Larsen Freeman & Anderson, 2013) and other related difficulties such as motivation, lack of exposure. RQ2 includes the three broad groups of learning theory (behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism) and their sub groups that could be in the forms of principles, models or approaches (Mowrer & Klein, 2000) as well as theories drawn from language learning, especially within second language acquisition (Mitchell et al., 2019), which are not part of the broad groups. The coding process was repeated three times to ensure reliability and validity.
Other issues
RQ2:
• Learner’s motivation
• Lack of authentic language learning opportunities
• Lack of support/guidance
Behaviourism
Cognitivism
• Direct instruction
• Programme instruction
• Attribution theory
• Elaboration theory
• Cognitive development
• Condition of learning
• Information processing theory
• Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Constructivism
• Activity theory
• Cognitive apprenticeship
• Contextual learning
• Collaborative learning
• Discovery learning
• Inquiry based learning
• Problem based learning
• Situated learning
• Personalised learning
Second Language Acquisition
• Connectionism
• Chomsky’s Universal Grammar
• Krashen’s input hypothesis
• Krashen’s monitor model
• Interactionist theory
• Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis
• Halliday’s systemic functional grammar (SFG)
For research papers that do not specifically mention the theories, the underlying principles explained in the papers were extracted and analysed. The researchers then categorised them according to the most relevant theory or approach. However, it is worth noting that there were only a few of these papers and only those with evident indicators were included in the analysis. Papers that contained insufficient details on the theories were excluded during the screening phase.
The primary aim of this systematic review is to provide an overview of the theoretical foundation chosen by researchers in their development of mobile applications for language learning. This section reports the results obtained from the analysis of 39 relevant studies, which are also discussed in relation to pertinent literature.
3.1 Distribution of Publication within the Selected Period (2011-2020)
Figure 2 shows the distribution of research papers by year of publication within the selected ten year period. The average number of studies reported per year is approximately four. As found by Elaish et al. (2019), studies in the area of mobile learning are dominated by the purpose of general investigation and review of
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existing applications. However, the number of development research studies related to mobile learning applications for language learning shows an increasing trend, perhaps due to the greater interest in developing applications for specific group of learners.
Figure 2: Number of Studies by Year of Publication
The studies selected for analysis covered four regions (Asia, Europe, North America and Africa) and 21 countries as shown in Figure 3. Researchers from Asia, particularly those from Taiwan, were active in reporting their developmental research related to mobile applications for language learning They were followed by researchers in Europe. However, the selected pool of studies still managed to represent a global view of the research questions investigated in this systematic review.
Figure 4 illustrates the number of publications by research contexts or settings. Similar to other systematic reviews that focused on mobile assisted language learning, much of the development research was conducted in higher education
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contexts. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note there were some development projects that were done specifically for the general public such as the one by Bradley et al. (2020), which focused on migrants. This seems to suggest that the development of mobile applications for language learning is no longer restricted to educational settings.
Table 3 summarises language learning problems mentioned in the selected studies. These problems were then used as the research problems to be addressed through the development of mobile applications. The researchers in the selected studies had given more attention to developing learners’ linguistic competence, especially in terms of vocabulary acquisition (n=21). As the building blocks of language, vocabulary mastery is regarded as very important and any means to promote it, including through mobile applications, is often welcome (Brahin et al., 2020; Wang & Suwanthep, 2017).
Another commonly cited problem across the selected studies is the lack of motivation among the learners to learn the target language (n=11), especially when conventional teaching strategies were used. There is also an excitement among learners to use mobile devices to increase the opportunities to learn the language by means of authentic tasks and resources (n=9). As mentioned by Hao et al. (2019), mobile applications enable learners to be engaged with language learning resources beyond the classroom. Furthermore, researchers focussed more on receptive skills (listening and reading) than productive skills since mobile applications are useful in displaying multimedia resources seamlessly. Writing skills were not the main focus of the studies, perhaps owing to the fact that it is a difficult skill to be taught via mobile applications. Li and Hegelheimer (2013) highlighted this issue when developing their application for second language writing (called Grammar Clinic), as they still focus on the grammar aspect. Only three studies mentioned the problem of intercultural communication, and they were embedded within the learning of speaking skills.
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Total Vocabulary
Ogata et al. (2011); Veenhof et al. (2012); Lu et al. (2014); Sandberg et al. (2014); Milutinović et al. (2013); Kim and Smith (2015); Chachil et al. (2015); Kidu (2015); Rosell Aguilar and Qian (2015); Böhm and Constantine (2016); Wang and Suwanthep (2017); Ou Yang and Wu (2017); Rawendy et al. (2017); Wilken et al. (2018); Samur (2019); Al Razgan and Alshaarri (2019); Jalaluddin (2020); Bradley et al. (2020); Lai et al. (2020); Brahin et al. (2020); Chen and Hsu (2020)
21
Learners' Motivation
Connolly et al. (2011); Ibáñez et al. (2011); Ogata et al. (2011); Hsu et al. (2013); Sandberg et al. (2014); Wang and Suwanthep (2017); Ou Yang and Wu (2017); Samur (2019); Hao et al. (2019); Bradley et al. (2020); Brahin et al. (2020)
Listening Ibáñez et al. (2011); Chachil et al. (2015); Rosell Aguilar and Qian (2015); Liu et al. (2018); Wilken et al. (2018); Shadiev et al. (2018); Hao et al. (2019); Wang et al. (2019); Bourekkache dan Kazar (2020); Chen and Hsu (2020)
Lack of Authentic Language Learning Opportunities
Connolly et al. (2011); Ogata et al. (2011); Fallahkhair (2012); Rosell Aguilar and Qian (2015); Wong et al. (2016); Böhm and Constantine (2016); Wang and Suwanthep (2017); Lee (2020); Hao et al. (2019)
Reading Ibáñez et al. (2011); Hsu et al. (2013); Chachil et al. (2015); Mustapa et al. (2018); Shadiev et al. (2018); Hao et al. (2019); Wang et al. (2019); Bourekkache dan Kazar (2020); Chen and Hsu (2020)
Grammar
Ogata et al. (2011); Li and Hegelheimer (2013); Haristiani et al. (2019); Al Razgan and Alshaarri (2019); Refat et al. (2020); Lin et al. (2020)
Speaking Ibáñez et al. (2011); Lu et al. (2014); Wilken et al. (2018); Shadiev et al. (2018); Hao et al. (2019); Bourekkache dan Kazar (2020)
Writing Ibáñez et al. (2011); Li and Hegelheimer (2013); Rosell Aguilar and Qian (2015); Shadiev et al. (2018); Hao et al. (2019)
Intercultural Communication
11
10
9
9
6
6
5
Ogata et al. (2011); Ibáñez et al. (2011); Bradley et al. (2020) 3
The outcome from the analysis on learning theories reveals that 25 of the 39 studies adopted constructivism in guiding their design and development of
mobile applications for language learning (refer to Figure 5). This finding is to be expected since 21st century learning has been extensively promoted for the past ten years. Technological advancement such as virtual and augmented reality and web based interactive tools has also contributed to the greater acceptance of constructivist principles. However, it is noteworthy that behaviourism still has a place in the development of mobile applications, especially in vocabulary and grammar drills. The application designed by Kidu (2015), for example, is based on structural programmed instruction that teaches learners the basic vocabulary and grammatical rules of a minority language in Ethiopia. It comprises many drills and exercises to enhance memorisation of the words and rules. Clearly, it serves its intended purpose though guided by the less popular behaviourist approach.
Apart from that, researchers were not paying much attention to adopting theories specific to language learning. Only six studies (Li & Hegelheimer, 2013; Lin et al., 2020; Mustapa et al., 2018; Moreno & Vermeulen, 2015; Shadiev et al., 2018; Wilken et al., 2018) selected theories within the scope of second language acquisition (e.g., interactionist, Halliday’s systemic functional grammar and Krashen’s input hypothesis). Four studies reported the use of the interactionist theory in which the communicative approach is the preferred choice among the researchers as it fits the scope of language learning.
In addition, contemporary theories related to the information age such as connectivism and challenge based learning were not mentioned at all in the reviewed studies. This preference could mean that researchers are inclined to rely on “tried and tested” theories in their developmental work rather than exploring uncharted zones of newer theories. It could also be due to the general belief that newer theories (e.g., connectivism) are essentially derived from the core principles of constructivism. Nevertheless, this finding means that there is room to investigate whether the theories or principles spawned from 21st century learning could be more useful in the process of designing and developing mobile learning applications.
Table 4 shows the overview of the main principles or approaches adopted in each study based on the selected learning theory. Within constructivism, situated learning, contextual learning, collaborative learning and game based learning are popular across the time period of 2011 to 2020. Activity theory and cognitive apprenticeship are rarely mentioned; however, Wang et al. (2019) and Hao et al. (2019) demonstrated how these two theories can be integrated in developing applications for language learning. For cognitivism, the information processing and mixed modality theory are commonly used in applications that contain multimedia elements as learning resources; however, they lack interactivity. As cognitivism deals with human working memory, the principles of this theory are useful in the development of applications that emphasise meaningful memorisation of vocabulary based on a given context.
Table 4: Learning Theories and Principles Mentioned in Each Study No. Study Learning Theory Main Principle/Approach
1 Connolly et al. (2011) Constructivism Situated learning
2 Ogata et al. (2011) Constructivism Situated learning; Metacognition
3 Ibáñez et al. (2011) Constructivism Situated learning; Collaborative learning
4 Fallahkhair (2012) Constructivism Collaborative learning
5 Veenhof et al. (2012) Constructivism Game based learning
6 Li and Hegelheimer (2013) Interactionist SLA Noticing hypothesis
7 Hsu et al. (2013) Constructivism Personalised learning; Collaborative learning
8 Lu et al. (2014) Constructivism Activity theory; RASE model 9 Sandberg et al. (2014) Cognitivism Information processing 10 Milutinović et al. (2013) Behaviourism Programme instructions; Drills 11 Kim and Smith (2015) Constructivism Situated learning 12 Chachil et al. (2015) Constructivism Contextual learning 13 Kidu (2015) Behaviourism Structural; Direct instruction 14 Rosell Aguilar and Qian (2015) Constructivism Personalised learning; Game based learning 15 Moreno and Vermeulen (2015) Interactionist Communicative approach; Task based language teaching 16 Wong et al. (2016) Constructivism Contextual learning 17 Chang et al. (2016) Constructivism Inquiry based learning; ARCS 18 Böhm and Constantine (2016) Constructivism Contextual learning; Personalised learning 19 Wang and Suwanthep (2017) Constructivism Contextual learning 20 Ou Yang and Wu (2017) Cognitivism Mixed modality 21 Rawendy et al. (2017) Cognitivism Information processing; Mnemonic 22 Liu et al. (2018) Constructivism Collaborative learning 23 Wilken et al. (2018) Interactionist Communicative approach 24 Mustapa et al. (2018) Krashen’s input hypothesis Narrow reading (NR) approach 25 Shadiev et al. (2018) Interactionist Communicative approach;
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Task based language teaching
26 Samur (2019) Constructivism Game based learning 27 Hao et al. (2019) Constructivism Cognitive apprenticeship 28 Haristiani et al. (2019) Behaviourism Programme instructions 29 Wang et al. (2019) Constructivism Activity theory model (Engestrom) 30 Al Razgan and Alshaarri (2019) Constructivism Game based learning 31 Jalaluddin (2020) Cognitivism Cognitive theory of multimedia learning 32 Bradley et al. (2020) Constructivism Situated learning 33 Refat et al. (2020) Cognitivism Information processing 34 Bourekkache dan Kazar (2020) Constructivism Situated learning 35 Lee (2020) Constructivism Game based learning; collaborative learning 36 Lai et al. (2020) Constructivism Contextual learning 37 Brahin et al. (2020) Constructivism Game based learning 38 Chen and Hsu (2020) Constructivism Situated learning; Game based learning 39 Lin et al. (2020) Halliday’s SFG Seven functions of language development
The findings from this systematic review seem to point toward the emerging concepts catalysed by constructivism. It is clear that as mobile technologies become more advanced, features that enable authentic learning of a target language become the key interest of mobile application developers. Related principles or approaches such as situated learning and collaborative learning are regarded to be effective in engaging learners while enhancing the mobile language learning experience.
This systematic review is restricted to studies published in journals indexed by the two databases (Scopus and Web of Science) pertaining to the development of mobile applications for language learning with a specific interest in the learning theories selected in each study. The review was limited to the articles screened according to the criteria mentioned earlier and may not cover all works published within the same scope as some could have been published in other languages or indexed by other databases. Furthermore, during the screening process, there were developmental studies that had to be removed from analysis as they did not mention the underlying theories in the published article (e.g. focusing only on the technical aspect). Despite this limitation, the results from the review have provided a sufficient overview of the popular theoretical frameworks adopted by researchers globally.
In addition, this review has also shown the emphasis on developing applications for vocabulary learning. The ubiquitous nature of mobile applications is seen as an excellent way to increase exposure to the target language by highlighting words in context (Ogata et al., 2011). There is, however, a shift of focus towards
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a more holistic approach in creating applications that not only motivate learners to learn but also simulate a meaningful environment for interactions. The development works by Lin et al. (2020) and Wilken et al. (2018) are among the examples of how language learning through mobile applications can go beyond the repeated memorisation of words and grammar.
Future research could examine the choice of theoretical underpinnings and its impact on other relevant variables such as learners’ satisfaction and learning gain so as to provide a clearer understanding of how a theoretical foundation can influence the outcome of development. Moreover, this systematic review also reveals that most of the studies were conducted in higher education contexts although mobile applications for language learning could benefit school students more, particularly at a younger age. This calls for researchers or developers to make school settings their priority in future developmental works to maximise the potential of MALL. During the review process, it is noted that some theories were used without proper mapping of how each design element can match the principles of the selected theory. Future research could therefore address this issue by investigating how each feature or element in the application is linked to the theoretical foundation.
This systematic review contributes to the related body of MALL research by highlighting the current trends within the development of mobile applications for language learning. It aims to address the gap in previous reviews by focusing on the theoretical underpinnings of each study. Out of the 39 studies screened for analysis, 64% (n=25) employed constructivism as their guiding theory in designing and developing mobile applications. The dominance of constructivism is anticipated; however, the lack of attempts to include theories related to language learning as well is surprising. Only six studies specifically made use of second language acquisition theories or at the very least, were guided by a general understanding of how language learning works. Since the applications were meant for language learning, it is a concern that the development process is guided only by generic pedagogical approaches such as situated learning and collaborative learning. Though these studies are beneficial in outlining how the application should function, they may not be accurately solving the problems identified in language learning. In conclusion, this systematic review has highlighted the need to document the inclusion of learning theories properly in the development of mobile applications for language learning, which can guide other researchers who intend to evaluate the most appropriate theories to be used.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 271 287, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.16
Received Jun 10, 2022; Revised Aug 12, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda
Jean Uwamahoro
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda
Imelda Kemeza Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda
Abstract. Professional training for in service teachers is at an utmost level to improve their teaching practices. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effect of professional training on in service secondary school physics teachers' motivation to use Problem Based Learning (PBL). A pre and posttest quasi experimental design was used to conduct the study. A two day professional training on PBL was delivered as an independent variable, while teachers' motivation to use PBL was conceived as the dependent variable. The study involved fifty (50) in service physics teachers (20 in control and 30 in the experimental group) from 25 secondary schools in four districts of Southwestern Uganda. Data were analyzed with SPSS v.23.0 using descriptive statistics, and paired, and independent samples t test. The findings indicated a high statistically significant (p<.05) positive change and a greater motivation to use PBL among teachers who received professional training in PBL compared to those who did not receive it. It was recommended that the Government, in conjunction with school administrators, regularly organize similar training and, if possible, for all teachers national wide.
Keywords: physics teachers; problem based learning; professional training; secondary school; Uganda
* Corresponding author: StellaTeddyKanyesigye;kanyesigyestella@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The Science policy in Uganda, which took effect in 2006, made the study of science subjects, namely: Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, compulsory for ordinary level secondary school students. According to Uganda National Examination Board (2017), the performance levels in all science subjects continuetobe low, with about 55% of the candidates unable to exhibit the minimum required competency to be graded; the worst performed science subject is Physics. Ugandan Ministry of Education and Sport (2014) attached 'students' poor performance and weak knowledge acquisition to 'teachers' employment of inappropriate pedagogical skills despite the introduction of a number of programs, including the Secondary Science and Mathematics (SESEMAT) program in 2005, to enhance the quality of teaching and learning science and mathematics in secondary schools.
Traditionally, teachers use direct instruction in teaching, which does not effectively promote 'students' understanding of the subject concepts (Samsudin et al., 2019) Mineo et al. (2010) emphasized that teachers must employ innovative teaching approaches that lead to observable and measurable positive changes in 'students' learning. In this regard, professional training becomes essential for the change of attitude of teachers since innovative methods such as problem based learning (PBL) are newer techniques in educational institutions, as observed by Singh et al. (2014). PBL is a teaching style that allows students to develop as learning engines. It is a learner centered pedagogy where students learn the subject by experiencing the solution to an open ended problem found in the trigger material. PBL uses complex real world topics as classroom material and encourages students to develop problem solving skills and learn concepts rather than simply absorbing facts (Dorimana et al., 2021).
Although using PBL as a method of instruction makes students active and enables them to develop cognitive skills (Sulaiman, 2010), the Ugandan physics syllabus does notreflect thePBLcomponents, leading tofew schools practicing it. Research by Mansor et al. (2015) showed that 'teachers' lack of experience in implementing PBL and limited knowledge of the PBL approach could contribute to their lack of motivation to use the pedagogy, which may affect the skills that students possess. Based on this background, the study set out to evaluate the effect of Professional Training on In service Secondary School Physics Teachers' Motivation to Use Problem Based Learning. The study was guided by one research question: What is the impact of professional training on in service secondary school physics teachers' motivation to use Problem Based Learning? It followed the hypothesis that there is no statistical difference in in service secondary school physics teachers' motivation to use Problem Based Learning between those who received professional training in PBL and those who did not.
Concept of Problem Based Learning (PBL)
Teachers and students in STEM tend to face challenges in formulating suitable classroom problems which promote critical thinking, scientific writing, communication, and problem solving skills (Sulaiman, 2010). Classroom problems presented in textbooks tend to be well structured with specific solutions that require the application of a limited number of rules and principles within
well defined parameters limiting 'students' involvement (Sterling, 2013). Involving students actively in classroom activities and enabling them to relate the concepts with real life make them find their concepts that impact improving learning achievements (Mansor et al., 2015). Real life problems are open ended and ill defined, with multiple solutions that require various paths to find a solution; they tend to have fewer parameters that can be manipulated and contain uncertainty about which concepts, rules, and principles that are necessary for the solution, or how they are organized and which solution is best (Christiansen, Kuure, Morch & Lindstraom, 2013). Designing such problems into learning in an authentic context is a key factor that distinguishes PBL from other instructional methods (Sterling, 2013)
In PBL, students learn a concept through the experience of collaborative problem solving achieved through interacting with peers and teachers to obtain a solution or clarify the problem (Christiansen et al., 2013). It was meant to guide students to become experts in their fields of study, identify existing problems, analyze them, and come up with appropriate solutions. During the implementation of PBL, hands on and inquiry are adopted as pedagogical techniques to build appropriate behaviors necessary for successful problem solving (Sterling, 2013). In PBL, students are organized into small groups as they solve a problem, discuss the results and find the best solution (Nikmah, 2018). They do not only need instruction but also access to the world to relate the knowledge already possessed with that in the real world setting (Sterling, 2013). The effectiveness of the use of PBL depends on several factors, including the knowledge teachers have about the whole teaching and learning process (Dorimana et al., 2021)
Improving teacher knowledge is important since teachers are the ones expected to improve 'learners' learning (Ndihokubwayo, Nyirigira, et al., 2020; Ndihokubwayo & Murasira, 2019). Carpendale and Hume (2020) emphasize the need to train teachers to sustain the content knowledge. Since students value expertise, the best teachers are the subject specialists who understand the curriculum and have excellent facilitation skills. Professional training is of great importance in such a way that: they not only provide them with the support, resources, and training needed to transform their courses to incorporate PBL and related active learning strategies; but also enables them to acquire skills in facilitating and managing group dynamics. Active learning, including the use of PBL, not only allows learners to work in small groups during class and interact with each other or their teacher (Lombardi et al., 2021) but also builds and improves teamwork (Chien, 2020) Weizman et al. (2008) pointed out that professional development and practice using PBL can help teachers develop the ability to apply their knowledge in real classroomsettings, assess the effectiveness of their actions, and revise plans according to the evidence they collect and interpret. In addition, PBL pieces of training help teachers develop effective group skills and experience
The study aimed at effecting change in knowledge of in service physics teachers in PBL through professional training. It targeted helping teachers to be conversant
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with PBL knowledge and willingly applied it during the teaching and learning process to improve students' academic achievements. It was hoped that the teachers would be self directing and innovative as they implement PBL in real classrooms with minimal supervision. PBL dwells on principles of adult learning theory which focus on motivating students, encouraging them to set their own learning goals, and allowing them to make decisions concerning their learning. Adult learning theory assumes that trainees have an existing base of knowledge and life experiences; they seek out continuous learning based on personal interests, wants, and needs; and they understand why they are learning. This theory calls for active participation and puts the learner at the center of the learning experience, emphasizing the teacher's role as purely that of a mentor; all these are key elements of PBL (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Prusko, 2021) Thus, the study was based on adult learning theory applicable to this study of in service teacher training.
A recent study has shown that teachers are motivated by being provided in service training, and such training improves their teaching practices. Oyo et al. (2017) have investigated the outcome after implementing the massive computer literacy open online courses (MOOC) through 'the teachers' e learning portal. The authors found that Ugandan teachers get interested and improve their performance. It was found that irrespective of age, when teachers are adequately supported internally by their schools and externally by a university, they can improve their digital literacy and subsequently engage in life long online learning. Likewise, the high percentage of teacher 'participants' completions and high volume of educational e content generated confirm an effective, attractive, and self sustainability for in service teachers. Therefore, the current study proves the in service 'teachers' change through PBL to sustain and improve classroom teaching and learning atmosphere.
In reference to Creswell (2014), a quantitative cross sectional survey design was used in this study in order to understand how professional training affects in service physics teachers' motivation to use PBL. Such design analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time; researchers measure theoutcomeand theexposures of thestudy participants at the same time. The study was conducted among 50 in service physics teachers hailing from four districts in the southwestern region of Uganda. The four districts included Bushenyi, Rubirizi, Mitooma, and Sheema. The schools were randomly selected from clustered districts, but the teachers who participated were selected purposively by the respective headteachers. There were two groups identified as experimental (n = 30; 60%) and control (n = 20; 40%) groups depending on whether they participated or not in the professional training in PBL organized by the authors. These participants were all exposed to both pretest and posttest.
Among the 50 participants, 14 were from Bushenyi district, 23 from Mitooma district, five from Rubirizi district, and eight from Sheema district; 26 teachers
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came from Government owned schools while 24 were from private owned schools; 12 came from single girls schools, 12 from single 'boys' schools and 31 from mixed (both girls and boys) schools; 13 were from schools which are boarding only, and 37 were from schools which are both day and boarding; 39 came from rural based schools while 11 came from urban based schools. Among the 50 participants in the study, 34% were females while 66% were males; their age was such that 12% were in the range of 20 24 years, 18% were 25 29 years, 28% were 30 34 years, and 32% were 35 039 years, and 10% were at least 40 years old. Sixteen percent had an experience of fewer than two years, 16% were 2 5 years, 38% were in the range 6 10 years, 22% were 11 15 years, and 8% had an experience above 15 years. Those with a diploma as their highest academic qualification constituted 6 % of the total participants, 82% had bachelor's degrees, while 12% had postgraduate degrees such as masters.
Among 50 participants, two groups were formed and identified as an experimental group with 30 teachers (teachers who participate in the professional training of PBL) and a control group with 20 teachers (teachers who did not participate in the professional training of PBL). This study used a survey questionnaire which was modified from the tool developed by Lee and Blanchard (2019) as the main data gathering tool. The modification was in such that Item 1, which initially was stated as 'The following statement best describes my training for PBL (1= none; 2 = informal; 3 = formal; 4 = informal & formal) was restated as 'I have previously had training for 'PBL'; item 2 which read as 'I have had the following amount of formal training PBL training (e.g., professional development): (1 = ≤ 1 day; 2 = 2 5 days; 3 = 6 10 days; 4 = > 2 weeks)'. All items were rated based on the scale of "1 Strongly disagree, 2 Disagree, 3 somewhat disagree, 4 somewhat agree, 5 Agree, and 6 Strongly agree." Section A of the survey investigated 'participants' demographic information such as school of origin, ownership of the school, category of the school, type of school, location of the school, gender of the teacher, age of teacher, number of years spent teaching, and the highest level of education. Part B of the survey looked at teachers' experience with PBL (items 1 and 2), 'Teachers' general concept with PBL (items 3 5), 'teachers' perceived competence in practicing PBL (items 6 10), the perceived value of PBL to teachers (items 11 15), the perceived value of PBL to students (items 16 17), and perceived cost of implementing PBL (items 18 29).
The survey items, after their modification (Appendix A), were first presented to two (2) educational research experts for review to assess their relevance to the study. The difference in agreement between the two experts was compared using McNemar Test and was found to be nonsignificant (p = 1.000) hence considering the instrument valid. For reliability of the instrument, the survey was pilot tested among ten (10) physics teachers who were also part of the final study to assess the correctness of the wordings. The results of the pilot study yielded a 'Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient of 0.92; hence the survey items were considered reliable.
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The survey was first administered to all participants a week before the commencement of the training to determine the 'teachers' competency gap in using PBL. Results from the first testing indicated a lack of competency and negative perception about using PBL. This necessitated a training which the authors organized (see appendix B for the training schedule) and was attended by 30 randomly selected in service physics teachers. After the training, the teachers went back to their schools with the determination to practice the knowledge and skills they had acquired. Two months after the trained teachers had gone back to their schools, a posttest (similar to the pretest) was then administered to include even teachers who had not trained.
A two day, six hour professional training was then organized on 7th and 8th February 2021, at Ruhinda Secondary School Mitooma district and was attended by 30 in service physics teachers mentioned earlier. The main purpose of the professional training was to enhance in service secondary school physics teachers' knowledge of what PBL is and how it can be effectively implemented in the classrooms; the following objectives guided it: (a) To provide background information on the origin and importance of PBL, (b) to provide skills on generating PBL questions, (c) To provide skills on presentation of a PBL lesson, and (d) to provide knowledge on the assessment of a PBL lesson.
The trainer for the Secondary Science and Mathematics (SESEMAT) program in the western region of Uganda served as a facilitator for the formed groups. The roles of the participants and the training leader were defined at the start of the training. Groups of five participants were constituted. In formulating PBL questions, the topic of waves was selected as agreed upon by all participants in the training based on the fact that it was among the most challenging topic to students. Since participants were taken as adult students, learning objectives were firstsharedwith themat thestart of thetraining,along with methods tobe utilized during the course of the training. Using a projector, literature on the history and importance of PBL was then presented to the participants. During the training, specific attention was put on elaborating and refining prior knowledge of participants on PBL, engaging them in self directed learning via hands on activities based on the topic of waves, and regularly reflecting on how to put PBL into practice. One of the formulated questions was: "Explain how a standing wave is formed."
We used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze data. Data was entered into the computer using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software, version 23.0, to compute statistical significance. Modal responses were determined, and bar charts were used to visualize differences in the pretest and posttest between experimental and control groups. Then, a paired samples t-test was used to find out if there was a statistically significant change in the use of PBL between the pretest and postest for teachers that attended the professional training and those that did not attend the professional training across all the subsections of the survey. An independent samples test was run to determine
whether there was a statistical difference in the responses between the experimental and control groups for each of the pretest and posttest. Thus, we computed inferential statistics on the p value. When this value is less than alpha significance, there is a statistically significant difference in favor of a group with a high mean score.
Theresearch proposal was ethically clearedbytheUniversity of RwandaResearch Ethics Committee, and thereafter, an authorization letter to do research in Uganda was obtained from the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education.
This study aimed to assess the effect of Professional Training on In service Secondary School Physics Teachers' Motivation to use Problem Based Learning. In the case of the pretest, we first considered the modal responses in each item for both the experimental and control groups (Figure 1), and the results indicated that the responses were generally similar for both groups. Most of the participants indicated that they had hardly had any training in PBL (item 1), which was mostly the reason they did not teach using PBL (item 2). They also lacked knowledge of PBL concepts in addition to low perceived competence in practicing PBL. They were not sure as to whether practicing PBL adds any value to either themselves or the students, and they also felt that practicing PBL is costly. Generally, they portrayed a low motivation to use PBL as their overall responses ranged from somehow agree to disagree.
Pretest Modal Response
Experimental group Control group
A paired samples t test was run (Tables 3 and 4) for the experimental and control groups.
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Item Experimental group (N=30) Control group (N=20) Posttest Pretest Posttest Pretest Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
1 5.47 0.507 3.37 0.964 3.25 0.910 3.25 0.910
2 5.57 0.504 3.63 0.765 3.05 1.146 3.05 1.146
3 5.50 0.509 3.73 0.640 3.80 0.410 3.65 0.489
4 5.53 0.507 4.27 0.450 3.80 0.410 3.80 0.410
5 5.40 0.498 3.83 0.531 3.65 0.587 3.65 0.587
6 4.03 0.183 3.80 0.484 3.55 0.510 3.55 0.510
7 1.53 0.507 3.50 0.682 3.60 0.598 3.60 0.598
8 2.20 1.031 3.50 0.682 3.45 0.686 3.45 0.686
9 5.47 0.507 4.10 0.305 3.40 0.503 4.10 0.308
10 1.87 0.629 3.53 0.819 3.65 0.671 3.65 0.671
11 1.67 0.479 3.00 0.910 3.00 0.973 3.00 0.973
12 5.30 0.466 3.13 0.629 3.30 0.923 3.30 0.923 13 5.37 0.490 3.80 0.484 3.90 0.308 3.90 0.308
14 1.53 0.507 2.10 0.481 2.10 0.553 2.10 0.553 15 5.40 0.498 3.27 0.640 3.85 0.587 3.85 0.587 16 1.40 0.498 2.23 0.679 1.95 0.224 2.30 0.733 17 1.57 0.504 2.97 0.320 2.75 0.550 2.90 0.447 18 5.57 0.504 4.03 0.183 4.00 0.000 4.00 0.00 19 5.50 0.572 4.10 0.403 4.05 0.224 4.05 0.224 20 5.63 0.490 4.03 0.414 4.00 0.324 4.00 0.324 21 5.63 0.490 4.07 0.254 3.95 0.224 3.95 0.224 22 1.57 0.568 2.83 0.461 2.85 0.489 2.85 0.489 23 2.03 0.615 3.37 0.490 3.55 0.510 3.55 0.510 24 1.63 0.490 2.70 0.535 2.95 0.224 2.95 0.224 25 1.90 0.712 4.07 0.254 4.10 0.308 4.10 0.308 26 1.77 0.626 3.47 0.776 3.45 0.605 3.45 0.605 27 1.53 0.507 3.10 0.662 3.50 0.513 3.50 0.513 28 5.60 0.563 4.03 0.183 4.05 0.224 4.05 0.224 29 2.57 0.774 3.90 0.548 3.95 0.224 3.95 0.224
From Table 3, it is observed that the mean values between the pretest and posttest, especially for the experimental group, were really different (inclined more to agree in posttest than in pretest strongly), and this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.00) for almost all items (Table 4) and the effect size for most of the items was high (d > 0.8). However, these results were almost similar and nonsignificant for the control group in almost all items (Figure 2), and as a result, a paired samples T test could not be computed for this group but was instead computed for the experimental group.
Table 4: The paired samples t test and effect size values for the experimental group
Ite m Paired Differences t df p d Mea n Std. Deviati on
Std. Error Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper
1 2.10 1.09 0.20 1.69 2.51 10.52 29 0.00 1.9
2 1.93 0.79 0.14 1.64 2.23 13.49 29 0.00 2.5
3 1.77 0.82 0.15 1.46 2.07 11.84 29 0.00 2.2
4 1.27 0.58 0.11 1.05 1.48 11.89 29 0.00 2.2
5 1.57 0.63 0.11 1.33 1.80 13.71 29 0.00 2.5
6 0.23 0.43 0.08 0.07 0.39 2.97 29 0.01 0.5
7 1.97 0.85 0.16 2.28 1.65 12.67 29 0.00 2.3
8 1.30 1.21 0.22 1.75 0.85 5.90 29 0.00 1.1
9 1.37 0.62 0.11 1.14 1.60 12.17 29 0.00 2.2
10 1.67 0.99 0.18 2.04 1.30 9.18 29 0.00 1.7
11 1.33 0.80 0.15 1.63 1.03 9.10 29 0.00 1.7
12 2.17 0.75 0.14 1.89 2.45 15.89 29 0.00 2.9
13 1.57 0.68 0.12 1.31 1.82 12.64 29 0.00 2.3
14 0.57 0.73 0.13 0.84 0.30 4.26 29 0.00 0.8
15 2.13 0.73 0.13 1.86 2.41 16.00 29 0.00 2.9 16 0.83 0.65 0.12 1.08 0.59 7.05 29 0.00 1.3 17 1.40 0.56 0.10 1.61 1.19 13.61 29 0.00 2.5 18 1.53 0.51 0.09 1.34 1.72 16.55 29 0.00 3.0 19 1.40 0.68 0.12 1.15 1.65 11.37 29 0.00 2.1 20 1.60 0.56 0.10 1.39 1.81 15.56 29 0.00 2.8 21 1.57 0.57 0.10 1.35 1.78 15.10 29 0.00 2.8 22 1.27 0.64 0.12 1.51 1.03 10.85 29 0.00 2.0 23 1.33 0.71 0.13 1.60 1.07 10.27 29 0.00 1.9 24 1.07 0.64 0.12 1.31 0.83 9.13 29 0.00 1.7 25 2.17 0.75 0.14 2.45 1.89 15.89 29 0.00 2.9 26 1.70 0.95 0.17 2.06 1.34 9.78 29 0.00 1.8 27 1.57 0.82 0.15 1.87 1.26 10.50 29 0.00 1.9 28 1.57 0.57 0.10 1.35 1.78 15.10 29 0.00 2.8 29 1.33 0.76 0.14 1.62 1.05 9.63 29 0.00 1.8
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0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
The difference in the posttest responses between the experimental and control groups can be visualized in Figure 3, where the modal response for each item was represented using a bar group.
Modal Response
Posttest
6
5
4
3
2
Mean Response Items Control group (N=20) Pretest Mean Control group (N=20) Posttest Mean 0
7 Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
1
Experimental group Control group
It can be seen fromFigure3 that even though thecontrol group's responsesrotated around somewhat agree for most of the items (implying little motivation to use PBL), the responses for the experimental group were in the range of agreeing to strongly agree to mean that this group had high motivation to use PBL.
Professional training motivates teachers to use PBL. It was found from the pretest that the teachers lack training in PBL; thus, they lack knowledge of the PBL concept and do not use PBL as an instructional approach since they perceive it as costly. The findings indicated that for the control group, the 'participants' responses in both the pretest and posttest were generally similar (Table 4 and
Figure 2) and maintained a somewhat low motivation toward using PBL. From Table 4, it is observed that attending the professional training increased in service physics teachers' motivation tousePBL since therewas a positive shift in all items. In addition, findings in Table 5 indicate that the change was statistically significant (p < 0.05) with a high effect size (d > 0.8). This positive effect could be related to the fact that during the training, these teachers were exposed to what PBL is all about, how it is implemented and assessed, and its advantages in enhancing 'students' understanding of various concepts as well as being aware that usingPBL is actuallynot time consuming as pointed out by Salam et al. (2009) and Weizman et al. (2008).
Our participants indicated their willingness to continue using PBL during teaching and follow the appropriate procedures for its implementation. This agrees with Shakoor et al. (2013) in their study about the effect of in service training on science teachers' working capacity and performance at the secondary level. They found that successful completion of in service training has a positive and far reaching impact on professional competence as it improves science curricula implementation and raises science 'teachers' attitudes towards the teaching profession. In the same line, Dorimana et al. (2021) found out that most participants, after attending the training, acknowledged having acquired knowledge such as simulation with the PBL process, researching learning topics, and active discussion of how research materials are applied to solve problems. This knowledge acquisition significantly changed 'teachers' initial negative perceptions of PBL and motivated them to apply its principles in real life scenarios (Zaidi et al., 2010). This motivation, according to Singh et al. (2014), was such that most participants, after attending professional training, were interested in changing their role from teacher to facilitator and were generally more enthusiastic about adopting PBL. Talvio et al. (2016) also observed that if teachers are motivated andfeel competent in teachinga particular pedagogy, theywill find ways to include the necessary content in their teaching. Likewise, Iqbal et al. (2020) collected data from TVET teachers in South Asia and found a significant effect of in service training and motivation on job performance.
Our results were in line with adult learning theory. Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro, et al. (2020) trained teachers on the usability of PhET simulations and YouTube videos for physics classrooms and later found the effect on 'students' performance (Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro, et al., 2020a) and conceptual understanding (Uwamahoro et al., 2021) of geometric optics. We can there say that the quality of education can be improved by prioritizing teaching methods and how teachers spend time in their classrooms, as observed by Junejo et al. (2018). Therefore, our results imply that Ugandan secondary school teachers were unaware of PBL but showed interest in its use. They should continuously implement it in the classroom to improve students learning outcomes.
The use of active learning methods, including PBL during instruction, has become a normat almostall levels of education across theglobe. In this study, it was found that teachers generally have low motivation for the use of PBL. However, those
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teachers who attended the professional training in PBL (experimental group) had increased knowledge of PBL concepts, were more competent in those PBL, had a greater perceived value for PBL, and generally looked at implementing PBL as being less costly, as compared those teachers who did not receive the professional training (control group). This study was limited to only 50 in service secondary school physics teachers (30 in experimental and 20 in control groups) selected from just four districts in southwestern Uganda, and the professional training in PBL was limited to only two days. Therefore, it is recommended that more PBL training should be regularly organized for all teachers, including school administrators. Such pieces of training should be funded by the Government where possible for the affordability of all. Teacher education institutions should design their curricula in such a way as to prioritizeadvanced methods of teaching, including PBL. It is hoped that the insights derived from the study should form a valuable baseline for conducting a longitudinal study to determine the extent to which PBL impacts student achievements, especially those in science, technology, and mathematics.
Our heartful thanks go to our instructors for their constant guidance and encouragement all through the way. We are so indebted to the management of Ruhinda Secondary School for providing space and other equipment at no cost for the training. Our African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science is also acknowledged.
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Appendix A. Teachers' survey on their motivation to Use PBL
Section A: Background information (Tick appropriate response)
School ownership: Government Private
School category: Single girls Single boys Both girls and boys
School type: Day only Boarding only Both day and oarding
School location: Rural based Urban based
Gender: Female Male
Age (years): 20 24 25 29 30 34 35 39 40 and above
Teaching experience (years): < 2 2 5 6 10 11 15 Above 15
Qualification: Certificate Diploma Bachelors Postgraduate
Section B: Concepts on motivation to use PBL
The scale interpretation: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somehow disagree, 4 = Somehow Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree
Item Response (Tick ) 1 2 3 4 5 6
I have previously had PBL.
I have been teaching using PBL.
In a PBL classroom, the teacher functions as a facilitator, and therefore, no content teaching is necessary.
PBL gives too much responsibility to students.
PBL is especially effective for students with low ability.
I will be able to implement PBL successfully.
I do not feel competent to teach with a PBL approach.
I may not persist with PBL if my students struggle.
I feel confident that I can successfully assess students' learning progress in a PBL setting.
I am not sure that I can teach with PBL in ways that meet state and district standards.
I am not interested in implementing PBL.
Teaching with PBL could be enjoyable.
Teaching well with PBL is important for my career.
Teaching with PBL is not important for my professional growth
The skills that I gain by implementing PBL may be useful beyond the classroom.
PBL does not help students to obtain a deeper understanding of the content knowledge than they do in a traditional classroom.
Using PBL causes students to have negative attitudes toward learning
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In PBL, students engage in issues relevant to their lives/communities
PBL stimulates students' creativity
PBL enhances students' collaboration and communication skills
PBL promotes students' critical thinking
I am concerned that PBL can lead to students missing out on learning important basic concepts
Preparing to implement PBL would require too much of my time
Implementing PBL will make classroom management more difficult
It will be too stressful for me to cover the mandated curriculum if I implement PBL
I worry that PBL might have a negative impact on how my students score on the end of course tests
I am concerned that implementing PBL might have a negative impact on my teaching evaluation
I believe that the overall benefits of implementing PBL would outweigh the costs
There are not many people at work who are willing to help me with implementing PBL
Appendix B. The two day schedule for the professional training in PBL
Time (Hours) Activity
Facilitator Supporting materials Day 1
8:00 8:30 Arrival and registration Research assistant Registration Forms
8:30 9:00 Individual introduction All members Attendance sheets
9:00 9:30 Opening remarks (sharing training objectives) Training leader Powerpoint slides
9:30 10:00 Pretest All Participants Survey forms
10:00 10:30 Commercial Break All members
10:30 11:30 Origin of PBL Training Leader Powerpoint slides
11:30 12:30 Importance of PBL in Teaching and Learning Training Leader Powerpoint slides
12:30 13:00 Open discussion
All members Flip charts
13:00 14:00 Lunch Break All members
14:00 15:00 Formulating a PBL question Training Leader Powerpoint slides
15:00 16:00 Class activity on Formulating PBL questions
Facilitated groups and SESEMAT trainer
Flip charts
16:00 16:30 Summary of the day' 's activities and closure Training leader Powerpoint slides
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Day 2
8:00 8:30 Arrival and registration Research assistant Registration forms
8:300 9:30 Steps followed in the presenting a PBL lesson Training Leader Powerpoint slides
9:30 10:00 Class activity drafting PBL lessons Participants and SESEMAT trainer Flip charts
10:00 10:30 Commercial break All members
10:30 13:00 Group presentations on PBL lessons Group secretaries Flip charts
13:00 14:00 Lunch break
All members
14:30 15:00 Assessing a PBL lesson Training Leader Powerpoint slides
15:00 15:30 Open discussion Participants Flip charts
15:30 16:00 Summary of the day's activities Training leader Powerpoint slides
16:00 16:30 Post test and closure Participants and Training leader Survey forms
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 288 306, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.17
Received Jun 7, 2022; Revised Aug 11, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
Abstract. Evidence based practices, including applied behavior analysis, have been used to manage behavioral problems among students with disabilities. Educators have found a lack of utilizing empirical practices in the classroom. The purpose of this study is to understand educators’ perspectives on practices used to manage behavioral problems among students with disabilities and to determine barriers that prevent them from utilizing evidence based practices in the classroom. This study examined the most effective learning opportunities rated by participants, educators who were voluntarily recruited from Midwestern U.S. state elementary public schools to complete an online survey about practices used to manage behavioral problems among students with disabilities. One hundred and seventeen educators (85 special education, 7 general education teachers, and 25 other educators) completed a questionnaire usingLikert typescalestodescribetheirexperiencedealingwithstudents with disabilities who have exhibited behavioral problems. The results indicatedthattherewasan association between educators’ specialtiesand their experience of the intensity of behavioral problems among students withdisabilities. The results showed a highpercentage of educators rated punishment as the most effective behavior management strategy among a variety of behavioral management and Applied Behavior Analysis strategies. The results showed that educators received more professional training during their in service as compared to their pre service period. Educators reported that shortages of supplies and support were the barriers that most prevented them from utilizing evidence based practices in the classroom. This study highlighted the most effective training methods preferred by educators, and implications and future directions are provided.
Keywords: evidence based practice; applied behavior analysis; professional development; student behavioral problems; pre and in service teachers
* Corresponding author: HajarAlmutlaq,H.almutlaq@mu.edu.sa
©Author
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The number of students with disabilities has increased dramatically in the last decades according to the National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] (2022a) In the United States, educators reported that disruptions including non compliance, verbal and physical aggression, out of seat, and disrespecting teachers have been the most common behavioral problems exhibited by students in the classrooms (Education Advisory Board [EAB], 2019). Another report has been released by NCES (2022b) displaying the percentage of students who attacked their public school educators; six percent of public school educators confirmed that they were attacked by a student from their school, and ten percent reported that a student threatened them with injuries. About half of public school educators face a variety of behavioral problems displayed by their students on a daily basis (Sutherland et al., 2019; Westling, 2010). These behavioral problems may include, but are not limited to, aggression, yelling, crying, not complying with teacher instructions, and off seat and off task behaviors (Almutlaq, 2021; Amstad& Müller, 2020; Westling, 2010). A high percentage of behavioral problems were exhibited by students with disabilities due to a number of reasons, including inability to determine the acceptable social behavior, lack of appropriate communication skills such as expressing their needs, and lack of self management skills such as controlling their temper tantrums (Amstad& Müller, 2020; Cooper et al., 2019; Crone et al., 2015).
A report published by NCES about the discipline problems in public schools (2022c) showed that approximately 50% of educators acknowledged that students’ behavioral problems negatively affect the classroom environment, and educators often spent more time trying to cope with such problems. Additionally, educators pointed out that students displaying behavioral problems in the classroom conflicted with their work during theirattempt to manage the situation. Approximately 40% of educators spend more time dealing with student behavioral problems than they do teaching, according to Public Agenda ]PA[ (2004). When students engage in behavioral problems in the classroom, this leads to a disruption in the learning process by negatively impacting the students themselves, as well as their teachers and peers. Displaying behavioral problems in the classroom forces teachers to take action to manage the behaviors; in addition, actions presented to intervene in the problem behaviors of one student can drive their peers to pay close attention to the situation. This eventually leads to a disruption in the learning process. Behavioral problems place great stress on teachers when they are trying to reduce these behaviors (McLean et al., 2019)
The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA] (2004) and the No Child Left Behind Act [NCLB] (2002) required highly qualified teachers to meet students’ different individual needs; thus, there is an urgent need for continuous teacher training and professional development. Inadequately prepared teachers could fail to cope with behavioral problems among students with disabilities (Alotaibi, 2015; Haimour & Obaidat, 2013; Westling, 2010). Student teachers (pre service teachers) during their education and before undertaking any official teaching, as well as in service teachers who are currently providing learning, are both in need of sufficient training to prepare them in
facing the variety of behavioral problems among students with disabilities. Educators have been encouraged to utilize Evidence Based Practices (EBPs), such as teaching and behavioral modification methods, over the decades
There is a wide range of Evidence Based Practices (EBPs), and these practices have been tested in many studies to prove their effectiveness in modifying behavioral problems or improving learning outcomes. Using EBPs increases the chance of implementing effective behavioral interventions or teaching methods, because the selection of a specific practice should be based upon backup data, and a rigorous process should be put into place (Pring & Thomas, 2004; Scheeler et al., 2016; Stahmer et al., 2015). Some of the EBPs have been proven to be effective in managing behavioral problems among students, such as differential reinforcement, response cost, the token economy, and punishment and error correction (Simonsen et al., 2008). In fact, these EBP practices and others used to manage behavior problems, such as shaping, modeling, positive and negative reinforcement, and prompting, are mainly derived from Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) principles (Cooper et al., 2019).
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is defined as “The science in which tactics derived from the principles of behavior are applied to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for the improvement in behavior.” (Cooper et al., 2019, p.20).
There are many positive behavior management strategies derived from ABA principles and used to enhance human behavior. ABA strategies are believed to be the most effective EBP practices in the field of education (Cooper et al., 2019; Wolf, 1978). ABA supports an individual's behavior in six different ways, including: (1) teaching new skills, (2) increasing appropriate behaviors, (3) maintaining behaviors, (4) changing or replacing responses, (5) decreasing inappropriate behaviors, (6) generalizing or transferring behavior from one situation to another (Cooper et al., 2019). ABA is one of the most effective strategies used to manage students with disabilities and behavioral problems, and has become used in school wide strategies all over the world (Behavior Analyst Certification Board [BCBA], 2014). The importance of utilizing ABA strategies has led to several studies that explore teachers’ knowledge and their experience in utilizing ABA strategies in the classroom (Reeves, 2017). Another study has investigated the implementation barriers and preferred future training methods among special education teachers (Alotaibi, 2015). Teachers rated the observing and mentoring teachers implementing the exact same behavioral strategy as the most effective learning opportunity that they could receive in a training (Alotaibi, 2015). On the other hand, teachers were found to have a lack of knowledge and utilization of ABA strategies (Alotaibi, 2015; Reeves, 2017), and lacked support and supervision to implement ABA and other EBPs in the classroom (Alotaibi, 2015; Khaleel, 2019).
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After reviewing the previous studies, it is critical to understand to what extent educators use EBP and ABA strategies as well as the barriers to its implementation (Alotaibi, 2015; Reeves, 2017; Westling, 2010). Few studies have examined the professional training received during the pre service period and compared to this the in service period (Khaleel, 2019; Kodak et al., 2018; Schloss & Smith, 1998). Knowing the professional training that teachers have received could help to focus on the quantity and quality of designing a future training program for both pre service and in service teachers. In addition, there is a need to design a suitable training program for educators in Midwestern U.S. state public schools by identifying their knowledge of EBPs implemented to manage students with disabilities’ behavioral problems, the received training programs during their pre and in service periods, the barriers, and the preferred learning methods.
This study aims to investigate the association between educators’ specialties and their experience of the intensity of students’ problem behaviors. This study rates the educators' perspectives of basic behavior management strategies, which are EBPs, including ABA. The sufficiency of the training that pre and in service educators receive to deal with students with behavioral problems is highlighted in this study. This study identifies the possible barriers faced by educators that prevent them from fully utilizing EBP practices, including ABA. In addition, this study aims to effectively provide practical suggestions from the educators’ perspectives about their preferences for future learning opportunities, and to provide future suggestions to support the skills needed to manage students’ behaviors. This study contributes to understand the educators’ perspectives, in order to assist building a professional training program in the future that fits both their abilities and their needs by considering the reported barriers and then by employing the most effective learning methods during training. Therefore, this study examines the following questions:
1. Is there an association between the participants’ specialties and their experience of intense student behavioral problems?
2. What are the educators’ perspectives on utilizing basic behavior management strategies, including applied behavior analysis?
3. Do pre and in service educators receive appropriate training to deal with their students with behavioral problems?
4. What are the barriers that educators face that are relevant to managing their students with behavioral problems?
5. What are some future learning opportunities that can be effectively used, from the educators' perspectives?
To collect the needed data, this study used a questionnaire that employed a web based Qualtrics survey method to target participants. The questionnaire partially adopted the questionnaires from previous studies by Alotaibi (2015) and Reeves (2017) and were modified to suit the purpose of this study in order to gain more information about the support needed by the educators in a Midwestern state in the United States regarding behavior management strategies for their students with disabilities.
Participants in the study include 85 teachers in special education, seven general education teachers, six principals and administrators, and 19 specialists in other related services (such as school psychologists and special education directors). The educators were recruited from different elementary public schools in a Midwestern state in the United States and were constituted using convenience sampling to represent a useful source of data in this exploratory research (Holton & Burnett, 2005). The study gathered information about the support needed by a certain population and generalized the findings. All of the participants were volunteers who were entered into a draw to get a monetary reward for completing the questionnaire. More information about participants is provided in Tables 1 and 2. (Table 1 displays gender, ethnicity, professional position, years of experience, education level, school district, school location; Table 2 shows type of classroom, number of students exhibiting behavioral problems, and number of teachers in the classroom.)
Table 1: Demographic information of the participants (n = 117) Variables N Percentage Gender
Female 109 93.2 Male 8 6.8 Ethnicity/Race
African American 6 5.1 Hispanic/Latino 2 1.7 Native American 9 7.7 White 100 85.5 Professional Position Gen. Ed. Teacher 7 5.2 Special Ed. Specialists 85 73.3 Related services specialists 19 16.2 Admin/ Principal 6 5.2 Years of Experience 0 1 years 2 1.7 2 3 8 6.8 4 5 3 2.6
More than 5 years 104 88.9 Academic Degree
Doctor 2 1.7 Master 68 58.1 Bachelor 47 40.2 School District Urban 40 34.5 Suburban 35 30.2 Rural 42 35.3
Location of School
Central 47 40.5 East 12 10.4 West 14 11.3 North 12 10.4 South 32 27.4
Table 2. Summary of educational units, number of students and teachers in classroom Variables N Percentage Type of the Classroom
Gen. Ed. Classroom 13 11.1 Self Contained 15 12.8 Autism Class 3 2.6 Resource Room 47 40.2 Severe Profound 2 1.7 Other 37 31.6
Number of Students Exhibiting Behavioral Problems Per Class 1 3 33 28.7 4 7 40 34.8 8 9 17 14.8 More than 10 27 21.7
Number of Teachers 1 49 41.8 2 8 6.8 3 6 5.1 4 4 3.4 6 and more 33 28.2
The questionnaire employed in this study was partially adopted from studies by Alotaibi (2015) and Reeves (2017), in order to meet the purpose of this study by allowing participants to report their perspectives on students’ behavior management strategies, including using some ABA. In addition, this questionnaire provided participants with an opportunity to share their preferred practical suggestions and future learning opportunities to support the skills needed to manage students’ behaviors. A questionnaire entitled “Educators' Knowledge in a Midwestern State”, was initially created using Qualtrics online software and allowed participants to report their perceptions, through Likert type ratings, on four dimensions related to the educators' perspectives of behavioral management strategies, evaluating basic behavior management strategies including ABA, barriers to its implementation, and suggestions for future learning opportunities. Some of the questionnaire items were illustrated in Table 3.
Dimension Tittle No. of Items Examples or Description of Items
Section 2
Educators' perspective of behavioral management strategies
Barriers to implement behavioral management strategies
Section 2 Item No. 5
It is important to collect data on inappropriate behaviors
Provide class wide rewards when the class as a whole demonstrates good behavior (e.g., extra recess time, pizza party)
Section 3 Item No. 3
Feedback/guidance for using the behavior strategy
Response Type
5 point scale ranged from: (1 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree)
5 point scale ranged from: (1 always 5 never)
Suggestions for future learning opportunities
Section 4 Item No. 7
Watching and reflecting on videos that show the implementation of behavior strategies.
3 point scale ranges from: (1. never a barrier to my use of behavior 3. very often a barrier to my use of a behavior strategy)
4 point scale ranged from: (1. I never experienced this learning opportunity in my teacher training or any other training 4. I experienced the learning opportunity and it was very effective)
Information about sections of the questionnaire requiring participant responses. The questionnaire was divided into four sections:
1) Section 1: Demographic Information
In this section, questions were asked about gender, ethnicity, position, years of experience, academic degree obtained, rating the severity of students’ problem behaviors that the respondents have encountered, and educators’ formal training in managing students’ problem behaviors and ABA.
2) Section 2:
In this section, there were three subsections including behavior management strategies, applied behavior analysis practices, and the effectiveness of a variety of behavior management strategies and ABA practices. The respondents answered the questions regarding their opinions toward their knowledge upon using basic behavior management strategies. The scales were ranked from strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, and disagree, to strongly disagree.
3) Section 3: Possible Barriers to the Use of Behavior Management Strategies
In this section, possible barriers to the use of behavior management strategies that the respondents faced were asked, and the rating scale was never, rarely, occasionally, often, and very often.
4)
In this section, the respondents were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of learning opportunities and rated them as never experienced, experienced but it was not effective, it was somewhat effective, or it was very effective.
Alotaibi (2015) and Reeves (2017) reported that their questionnaires were created based on a review of relevant literature in the evidence based practices. Alotaibi (2015) reviewed and revised the questionnaire with faculty members in the field of special education, while Reeves (2017) used a modified questionnaire found in previous studies (Martin & Baldwin, 1993; Martin et al., 2007; McCormick, 2011; Musgrove,1974; Randazzo, 2011; The Incredible Years, 2012). Thus, the modified questionnaires used in this study were developed and validated in previous studies (Alotaibi, 2015; Reeves, 2017).
The draft questionnaire was created based on a review of the relevant literature (Alotaibi, 2015; Martin & Baldwin, 1993; Martin et al., 2007; McCormick, 2011; Musgrove, 1974; Randazzo, 2011; Reeves, 2017; The Incredible Years, 2012). The questionnaire was sent to collaborators, parties, and a faculty member in the special education department who were experts in the field of behavior management strategies and applied behavior analysis was used to review the survey's items. The reviewers provided a few recommendations regarding the survey’s duration and terminology, and the author revised the survey's items based on their comments.
The recruitment process for participants began by using convenience sampling. Cooperation between the author and other professional agencies was established to deliver the questionnaire to potential participants who met the inclusion criteria and who volunteered to respond to the survey items. The survey's link was sent to the Director of Special Education Teachers in a Midwestern state, and the survey's link was sent to an Educators List found in the Special Education Support Center in the authors' university. Because of the length of the questionnaire, educators who volunteered to complete it were told that they would be entered into a draw, and that five of them would be paid $10 for the time required to complete the survey. Educators who were willing to volunteer were asked to sign a consent form on the first page in order to proceed to the following items of the survey. The participants were not asked to provide names or any other personal information, in order to protect their personal privacy. All of the questionnaires were distributed and collected during September through October 2021.
Data were exported from the online Qualtrics survey software into SPSS (version 21) for statistical analysis. Qualtrics and SPSS software were used to descriptively
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analyze the data. Incomplete responses and information from respondents who declined to participate in the study were excluded.
3.1.1 Demographic Information of The Participating Educators
Tables 1 and 2 present the demographic characteristics of the participants. The majority of the participants (93%) were female and 85% were white. Most of the participants (73%) were special education teachers, 89% with experience of over five years, and 58% of the participants had earned a master degree. Approximately 47% of the educational units were resource rooms, with about 35% reporting an estimate of 4 to 7 students per classroom.
3.1.2 Participants’ Specialty and The Intensity of Student Behavior Problems
A chi square test was performed to examine the relationship between the specialties of the educators and the intensity of the students' problem behaviors experienced by those educators. The relation between these variables was significant, at 235.148. The p value is < 0.00001 and the result is significant at p < .05. There was significant association between educators' specialties and their experience of rating their students' behavioral problems intensity. More details can be found in Table 4 and Figure 1.
Table 4. Percentage of participants’ specialties rating the intensity of student behavior problems Intensity of problem behavior
Special education teachers (n = 85)
General education teachers (n =7)
Related services teams (n =6)
Psycholgists or directors (n =19) Total Severe 46% 43% 8% 3% 100% Moderate 40% 50% 86% 22% 198% Mild 14% 7% 6% 75% 102% Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 400%
or directors (n = 19)
services specialists (n = 6)
education teachers (n = 7)
education teachers (n = 85)
Figure 1. Educators’ specialty and the intensity of student behavior problems
3.1.3 Participants’ Perspective of Basic Behavior Management Strategies Including Some of Applied Behavior Analysis Strategies
Table 5 shows the percentage of educators who rated the items regarding the basic behavior management strategies including applied behavior analysis as strongly
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agreed or agree. As can be seen in Table 5, the majority (96%) of the educators indicated that they considered punishment to be an effective behavioral management strategy, with negative punishment at 91%. It is noteworthy that educators rated making intervention plans and reinforcing specific positive behavior as strongly agreed or agreed by a majority of 87%. A range of 40% to 48% of the participants rated the items regarding behavior management strategies, such as differential reinforcement, ignoring, and interdependent group rewards, as strongly agreed or agree. The percentage of educators who reported strongly agreed or agreed about the basic behavior management strategies including applied behavior analysis in specific strategies such as positive reinforcement and negative punishment (time out) was low, at 4% to 6%.
Table 5. Percentage of participants who strongly agreed or agreed with items from different sections of the questionnaire
Specific items Educators (n = 117)
Making intervention plans for repeated behavioral problems 87
Collecting data on inappropriate behaviors 83
Understanding the underlying cause of a student’s behavioral problem 75
Positive Reinforcement 4
Reinforcing specific positive behavior 87
Reinforcing students who are following the expected rules in the classroom 11
Differential reinforcement 48
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior 76
Identifying preferred rewords to a student 85
Token Economy 29
Ignoring student’s behavioral problem when it is possible 40
Punishment (as the most effective way to change a behavior) 96
Negative punishment 91
Negative punishment (time out) 6
Interdependent group rewards 41
Note: Items from questionnaire are paraphrased.
3.1.4 Pre and In Service Teachers Training
Table 6 shows that the majority of educators (63%) had taken behavior management courses prior to graduation from school. Pre service teachers who had not received training in appropriate behavior management strategies such as ABA were at 61%, compared to those in their in service period at 56%.
Table 6. Summary of responses on the professional development section by pre and in-service teachers
Professional Development Yes No Behavior Management Course 63.2% 36.8%
Pre service training in ABA 39.3% 60.7%
In service training in ABA 43.6% 56.4%
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Table 7 shows that the most frequent barrier that teachers experience (18%) was the supplies needed to use a behavior management strategy. The second most significant barrier that teachers experience was support from colleagues (15%) to use a behavior management strategy, followed by support from administrators (14%). Colleagues’ experimentation found to be ineffective was considered as a barrier by 12%. On the average, teachers reported that all the barriers somehow affected teacher strategies to cope with student problem behavior or to apply behavior management strategies.
1. My knowledge or skill regarding the behavior strategy
2. Support from administration for using the behavior strategy
41 (35.3%) 69 (59.5%) 7 (5.2%)
55 (47.0%) 45 (38.5%) 17 (14.5%)
3. Feedback/guidance for using the behavior strategy 49 (41.9%) 56 (47.9%) 12 (10.3%)
4. Supplies for using the behavior strategy 28 (24.1%) 67 (57.8%) 21 (18.1%)
5. Support from colleagues to use the behavior strategy 36 (31.3%) 61 (53.0) 18 (15.7%)
6. My general approach does not help me 63 (53.8%) 52 (44.4%) 2 (1.7%)
7. Takes too much time and effort to use the behavior strategy
57 (48.7%) 52 (44.4%) 8 (6.8%)
8. Perception that the behavior strategy is not effective 49 (42.2%) 59 (50.9%) 8 (6.9%)
9. Other teachers have tried the behavior strategy and they thought it was ineffective
10. The behavior strategy would not help me achieve my work goals
11. The behavior strategy was not appropriate for the students in my class(es) and their specific problems
12. Other factors that influence your use of the behavior strategies described in this survey (explain and rate those factors)
53 (45.3%) 49 (41.9%0 15 (12.8%)
60 (51.7%) 51 (44.0%) 5 (4.3%)
42 (35.9%) 63 (53.8%) 12 (10.3%)
41 (39.0%) 61 (58.1%) 3 (2.9%)
Almost 47% teachers reported that observing mentors, or supervisors dealing with behavior problems using behavior strategies offered the most effective learning opportunities. The second greatest learning opportunity (40%) was receiving feedback in implementing behavior strategies. Two learning opportunities, completing a portfolio related to behavior (5%) and using other instructional techniques (5%), were found to be the least learning effective opportunities, as shown on Table 8.
1 Reviewing case studies of students with behavioral problems
Options* 1 2 3 4
10 (8.8%) 13 (11.5%) 54 (47.8%) 36 (31.9%)
2 Listening to lectures about behavior strategies 11 (9.7%) 21 (18.6%) 58 (51.3%) 23 (20.4%)
3 Reading books/articles about behavior strategies 6 (5.3%) 15 (13.3%) 68 (60.2%) 24 (21.2%)
4 Observing mentors, teachers, or supervising teachers dealing with behavior problems using these behavior strategies
5 Receiving feedback on how I implement behavior strategies
16 (13.7%) 6 (5.3%) 37 (32.7%) 54 (47.8%)
23 (20.4%) 9 (8.0%) 35 (31.0%) 46 (40.7%)
6 Reflective journal writing about behavior strategies 44 (38.9%) 23 (20.4%) 28 (24.8%) 18 (15.9%)
7 Watching and reflecting on videos that show the implementation of behavior strategies
22 (19.6%) 13 (11.6%) 50 (44.6%) 27 (24.1%)
8 Role playing scenarios about using behavior strategies 35 (31.0%) 24 (21.2%) 35 (31.0%) 19 (16.8%)
9 Completing group projects related to behavior strategies 41 (36.3%) 27 (23.9%) 37 (32.7%) 8 (7.1%)
10 Completing portfolios related to behavior management
11 Other instructional techniques you’ve experienced (describe them and rate them)
62 (54.9%) 23 (20.4%) 22 (19.5%) 6 (5.3%)
62 (54.9%) 23 (20.4%) 22 (19.5%) 6 (5.3%)
*(1) I never experienced this learning opportunity in my teacher training or any other training. (2) I experienced the learning opportunity, but I don’t feel the learning opportunity was effective. (3) I experienced the learning opportunity and was somewhat effective. (4) I experienced the learning opportunity, and it was very effective.
Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency reliability (Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire items, based on the results of the participants in the present study. The internal
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consistency of the four sections in the survey was α = 0.720 to 0.840, as seen in Table 9, based on which an acceptable to good level of reliability is indicated (George & Mallery, 2003).
Scale Items Number of items Cronbach Alpha
Section 2 (A): Basic Behavior Management Strategies Including Applied Behavior Analysis
Section 2 (B): Basic Behavior Management Strategies Including Applied Behavior Analysis
Section 2 (C): Basic Behavior Management Strategies Including Applied Behavior Analysis
Q16 Q29 14 .720***
Q30 Q36 7 .787***
Q37 Q43 7 .742***
Section 3: Barriers Q44 Q55 12 .792*** Section 4: Learning Opportunities Q56 Q66 11 .840*** ***p 0.7
The first research question concerned the relationship between the participants’ specialty and their experiences of intensive student behavior problems. In this study, a positive relationship was found between participants’ expertise and their experience of more student behavior problems. Consistent with other studies (McLean et al., 2019; Sutherland et al., 2019; Westling, 2010), who found that half of the educators were struggling with students with behavioral problems, over 46% of the participants with a specialty in special education reported that they experienced a severe level of student behavior problems in the classroom, while 50% of the general educator participants reported that they experienced a moderate level of students with behavioral problems in the classroom. Special education teachers tended to have more students with severe disabilities and problem behaviors in their classroom. Students with mild to moderate disability and behavioral problems are more likely to be integrated into the regular classroom with typically developing peers. Eighty six percent of related services team members reported they had experienced a moderate level of students’ problem behaviors. Related service providers such as psychologists and special education directors often are present in the classroom for a short period of time for supervision purposes (Scheeler et al., 2016). Due to the lack of interaction between students and related services teams on a daily basis, specialists may have an insufficient description of students’ behaviors, which require frequent observation and recording data to describe accurately.
The second research question highlighted the educators’ perspective upon utilizing some of the basic behavior management strategies, including ABA. The result indicated that 90% and above of the participants reported punishment as an effective behavioral management strategy. The result was consistent with other studies that indicated that teachers preferred punishment (Almutlaq, 2021; Alotaibi, 2015; Khasawneh, 2020; Koh & Shin, 2014; Reeves, 2017).
Teachers in the US and in other developing countries still favor punishment as a way to cope with an undesirable behavior among students by removing a favorable stimulus. This results in a decrease of the likelihood of a behavior occurring; however, ethical considerations need to be considered before using punishment (Cooper et al., 2019). In fact, students have the right to safe and effective behavioral treatment and it is the professionals’ responsibility to use the least restrictive procedures. Some teachers may mistake identifying the suitable behavioral intervention for a student's behavior problem and implement a sort of punishment as a primary strategy. On the other hand, the results indicated that, at 87%, a high percentage of educators reported making intervention plans and reinforcing specific positive behavior. This showed that educators agreed with the significance of developing behavioral intervention plans for students in need and also showed that they supported the positive behavior strategies. This is consistent with Alotaibi (2015), who found that a high percentage of teachers rated training on developing behavioral intervention plans as a desired future training. Educators believe in the importance of developing intervention plans which can be suitable for a specific behavioral problem that a student might have. Koh and Shin’s (2014) study found that teachers in the US are directed to implement positive behavior management strategies, similar to the result arrived at in this study, which showed that a high percentage of educators rated reinforcing specific positive behavior as desirable.
The third research question highlighted pre and in service training on ABA and behavior modification courses that educators had received. Most of the participants reported that they had enrolled in behavior modification courses during their graduate or undergraduate academic programs, although 71%of pre service and 66% of in service educators reported that they had not received training in ABA. The findings are consistent with other studies that recommended providing educators with appropriate training on empirical and EBPs (Almutlaq, 2021; Scheeler, et al., 2016; Westling, 2010) such as ABA to cope with student's behavioral problems (Khaleel, 2019). Studies indicate that training teachers to utilize EBP through implementing behavioral interventions or teaching methods can decrease the level of stress and increase their skills to successfully manage the classroom environment (Khaleel, 2019; Scheeler et al., 2016; Westling, 2010).
Participants reported some of the barriers that they face in service relevant to managing students with behavioral problems. The results indicated that 18% to 57% of the participants reported that a lack of supplies and professional support in their school is, sometimes to very often, a barrier that prevents them from effectively managing students with behavioral problems in the classroom. This could be a significant reason that prevents educators from implementing EBP
strategies. Lack of support from colleagues and administrators was rated as a frequent barrier by 15% of the participants. This is consistent with Scheeler et al. (2016) who found that administrators and supervisors observe educators twice a year only for the purpose of the teachers’ evaluation, and this results in educators reporting a lack of feedback and support from professionals; hence, they are more likely to be unmotivated to implement EBP.
The fifth research question concerned the future learning opportunities, and educators reported the efficacy of each learning opportunity. Approximately half of the participants who experienced observing professionals dealing with student problem behaviors rated this item as a very effective learning opportunity. This indicates that observing other professionals who are modeling appropriate responses to cope with students with behavioral problems could be an appropriate training method used to teach educators Forty two percent of participants reported that receiving feedback on how to implement a behavior strategy was a very effective learning opportunity that they had experienced. In fact, educators reported a lack of supervision and feedback to implement EBP successfully (Scheeler et al., 2016). The results indicate that educators prefer direct training such as modeling and receiving direct feedback and support to implement an evidence based practice such as ABA. Among other learning opportunities, such as listening to lectures or reading books about behavior management strategies, 50% 53% of participants reported these as moderately efficacious learning strategies. Also, 48% to 42% of participants reported that reviewing case studies, watching, and reflecting on videos that show the implementation of behavior strategies were somewhat effective learning opportunities that they had experienced. However, 35% of participants reported that they had never experienced working in a group to complete a project related to behavior strategies, while a similar percentage had experienced that and reported this strategy as a moderate learning opportunity. In addition, 31% of participants reported that they had never experienced role playing scenarios about using behavior strategies. Results suggest that those educators can effectively learn from direct observation, feedback, and support provided by professionals, while less interactive learning strategies, such as listening to lectures, reading books, and reflecting on case studies, were deemed to be insufficient training strategies.
EBPs are proven to be successful in managing student behavioral problems including ABA strategies (Amstad & Müller, 2020; Scheeler et al., 2016; Westling, 2010). Special education teachers are in need of additional support and guidance to implement EBPs to successfully cope with students with behavioral problems and to build a safe and effective learning environment for all. Professional development and training provided for educators during their pre and in service periods are recommended, to enhance teachers’ knowledge and skills to fully utilize EBPs. Barriers and future learning opportunities rated by educators should be considered in order to provide suitable and effective training and support.
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5.1.
There are several limitations that affect this study. First, it was conducted in a specific geographic location in a Midwestern state in the United States with a non random, convenience sample. Thus, it is difficult to determine whether or not the population of respondents is an appropriately representation due to the specificity of the geographic location and its inability to be generalized to educators across different geographical areas. Another limitation which must be considered is that educators may interpret some of the items in the survey differently, even though the reliability of this study was computed. However, these results are also useful, since they provide an overview of the educators’ understanding of EBP and applied behavior analysis, and they determine the barriers that prevent educators from utilizing EBP in the classroom. These results identify possible future learning opportunities that educators rate as effective training methods. These results assist in building a suitable training program based on the educators’ needs in a particular area.
According to the results in this study, it is proven that special education teachers experience a high to severe level of students’ behavioral problems. This study indicates the need, for special education teachers in particular, for support and supervision to utilize EBP practices in the classroom. In addition, this study explicitly describes those educators who reported that the lack of support and supervision are barriers that prevent them from appropriately utilizing EBPs in the classroom. Thus, the results indicate the specific needs for direct support and supervision that the educators need in order to utilize EBPs in their classrooms. This study showed that pre and in service teachers receive insufficient training on EBP, which leads to inappropriate utilization of EBP in the classroom. This study provides implications that can be considered by policy makers and researchers to improve teacher support programs. In fact, these results provide specific training methods that are rated as effective by educators, such as training participants using group strategies, including role playing scenarios and completing group projects.
5.3.
These results only provided an exploration of the perspectives on the EBP among educators in a particular geographic location. Future study could be done to determine the universal support needed by educators across a wide variety of locations. Future teacher training programs could utilize direct and live training methods in order to acquire and to generalize the target skills.
The author extend her appreciation to the deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number (IFP 2020 19).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 307 325, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.18
Received Jun 15, 2022; Revised Aug 16, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
Abstract. This study aims to analyse teaching capacities exhibited by survival swimming instructors applying virtual reality (VR) devices in the education field. We conducted in depth interviews with swimming instructors to obtain research data, which was then qualitatively analysed Based on the research results, the following capacities were derived. First, as the VR and simulator based survival swimming classes utilise educational equipment, the ability to skilfully handle educational equipment is considered a vital teaching capacity. Second, strong communication skills are required to accurately explain the class objectives and contents To achieve the class goals, teachers should practice using educational equipment before class, answer students' queries during and after practice, and prepare the necessary materials so that the class is well organised Finally, the principal lecturer needs to be able to quickly improvise in various situations as needed to ensure students remain focused. Under the circumstances where survival swimming education was restricted due to the COVID 19 pandemic, the researchresultsindicatedthatsurvivalswimmingeducationapplyingVR and simulation devices allowed students to indirectly gain experience, interest, and pleasure. Therefore, it is expected that VR based education can increase students’ interest and learning performance in survival swimming. Finally, VR based teaching capacities were derived based on the research results.
Keywords: teaching capacity; virtual reality based teaching; physical education; elementary education; survival swimming
In South Korea, due to continuous drowning accidents, there is an increasing social consensus that learning survival swimming is necessary. The Korean government therefore recently revised the national curriculum to include survival
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swimming education as part of water leisure safety and to facilitate mandatory implementation of survival swimming education (Ministry of Education, 2016). However, most schools avoid providing survival swimming education due to several limitations in their surrounding environments such as possible accidents and injuries, lack of swimming facilities, and transportation to get there (Jeon & Cho, 2007). Accordingly, although practical training should form the core of survival swimming education, teachers have had to utilise audio visual materials due to teacher’s insufficient swimming skills (Kwon & Jung, 2021). Moreover, since swimming pool operations have been repeatedly halted and resumed due to the COVID 19 pandemic, elementary schools have converted survival swimming education to theoretical education to protect elementary school students from exposure to the disease.
In response to these concerns, many people have expressed an increasing interest in methods for providing physical education based on virtual reality (VR) hardware and software to ensure the health and safety of students while also providing appropriate education (Cheng, 2021). VR is a human computer interaction technology in which people use computer software to mimic real world experiences. This technology and relevant simulations have practical applications in the education field to exert positive effects on learner motivation and increase learners’ interest in and enjoyment of education (Bae et al. 2018; Elmqaddem, 2019; Kavanagh et al., 2017). These tools also allow users to experience situations that cannot be explored in the real world (Clark, 2006).
Given this perspective, this study analysed whether VR based survival swimming education could create positive changes in the learning attitudes of students toward survival swimming, especially for students who fear water and are reluctant to participate in such classes. VR based swimming education can also be applied as an alternative learning method to overcome the limitations of in person survival swimming education owing to the spread of COVID 19. VR technology has been used mainly in physical education and safety experience education, and multiple studies on the application of this technology have been carried out in various fields (Araiza Alba et al., 2021; Zhu & Kou, 2021; van Duijn et al., 2021) Thus, applying VR technology in an education setting was evaluated as an alternative method to increase the effectiveness of survival swimming education policies formulated by the Korean government (Park, 2020).
To teach VR based survival swimming classes, teachers need to develop the necessary teaching capacities, which differ considerably from the skills required for practical training. In addition, the instructors might struggle to access VR based survival swimming education reference. It may also be challenging for them to receive in service training designed to increase their teaching capacities as such training programs have not yet been developed. Due to these issues, the instructors have constantly struggled to develop their own teaching methods and apply them directly and practically in classes, thus depending on trial and error to determine effective strategies
Therefore, this study conducted in depth interviews with a focus on survival swimming instructors who had been recognised by organisations, students, and other teachers (in terms of their teaching capacities) and who had expanded their teaching fields to include VR learning during the COVID 19 pandemic. This study
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analysed their motivations for specialising in VR based survival swimming education and examined their capacities including goals, targets, and methods employed to teach.
2.1.
It might appear that mutual circulation between the virtual world and the real world can be facilitated using a display. However, even though the virtual world can include objects from the real world, they are never identical. (Milgram & Colquhoun, 1999). In other words, virtual objects that are produced to mimic actual objects cannot exist as real objects and vice versa. VR refers to an artificial environment that effectively or essentially exists in the same or a similar way to the real world (Lee, 2004). VR enables people to perceive the same or a similar experience as they would in the real world. A VR experience can therefore be a direct experience of human beings despite ongoing discussions about the state of practical existence of VR from an ontological view.
Prior to the active development and spread of immersive VR technology, researchers performed several studies on experiential learning based on partial VR application. These studies reported that people considered VR experiences to be equal or similar to actual real world experiences (Kamarainen et al., 2013; Klopfer et al., 2005; Perry, 2014; Squire & Klopfer, 2007). Dunleavy (2014) analysed previous studies on partial VR application and found that they adopted constructivism and situated learning theory, which focused on social interactions that play an important role in constructing knowledge (Cobb & Bowers, 1999), as theoretical grounds. Partial VR application provided similar situations to the actual environment and enabled users to form knowledge and meanings through their virtual experiences (Dunleavy, 2014). The latest VR technology, which has advanced in terms of lifelike interactions and vividimages, can provideusers with similar experiences to real life based on a strong sense of presence beyond the simple VR experience of the past. Furthermore, users will more clearly recognise the VR experience provided by the most advanced VR technology as direct experience.
The existing experiential learning theory, which emphasized physical experience and action learning, described the predominance of dichotomous thinking based on direct and indirect experience obtained in the field and from media, respectively (Dewey, 1938:13 27; Kolb, 1984:20) However, in recent times, people find indirect experience obtained through media to be more vivid, realistic, and similar to direct experience due to the development of virtual environment technology, such as VR and augmented reality. For this reason, the difference between direct and indirect experience has been gradually obscured. In general, a sense of presence serves as a crucial element that enables people to consider indirect experience to be similar or equal to direct experience (Parong et al., 2020; Lackey et al., 2016; Servotte et al., 2020; Slater, 2018). A sense of presence refers to someone feeling like they are still in a real space when they are actually in a virtual environment without physical contact. It also indicates a perception of virtual objects in the real space as real objects. Factors affecting a sense of presence include interactions and vividness (Kim et al., 2021; Kim & Ko, 2019). Immersive VR technology has advanced based on interactions and audio visual vividness as
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head mounted displays (HMD) have become popular. In addition, researchers have developed and commercialised methods that facilitate direct interactions with virtual objects or simulate their movement. It is therefore expected that future VR technology will enable users to more strongly perceive virtual experiences as direct experiences.
VR technology can offer learning opportunities for users in artificially created situations similar or equal to real situations by using visualisation and a sense of interaction with learning targets (Piovesan et al., 2012). Sacks et al. (2013) reported that a VR based education method was more effective than existing education methods. Some of the potential advantages of VR application in education and training are as follows (Velev & Zlateva, 2017):
• Virtual platforms and headsets are the new tools for inspiring creative learning
• Education that is not possible in reality, will be possible in VR.
• Virtual game based experience increases students’ motivation.
• Collaboration in the VR classroom fosters leaners’ social integration.
• Learning is achieved by direct interaction, not by mouse clicks.
• The results from the learning process are truly assessed.
Several researchers have conducted research on survival swimming instructors. Kang et al. (2021) assessed social interest in the instructors and suggested a systematic approach to support them. Kwon et al. (2019) pointed out the lack of experienced survival swimming instructors. Lee and Kim (2020) investigated the core capacities of instructors who provided survival swimming education based on practical training and examined the elements and priorities of these core capacities. Kim et al. (2018) investigated qualitative improvement of educational contents on survival swimming rather than teaching capacities. Sun (2020) examined whether female teachers in elementary schools were aware of survival swimming. There have been few studies, however, that analyse the teaching capacities required for survival swimming instructors who provide VR based survival swimming education, which is currently being implemented in the education field.
Park (2020) conducted an experiment where students who had previously gained experience through a physical learning session learnt survival swimming based on instant interactions, a characteristic of VR, in a VR based survival swimming class. Students also learnt survival swimming in stages based on the active use and manipulation of controllers in virtual space instead of passive video watching. The experimental result indicated that students gained objective and successful experience perceived in the staged survival swimming learning processes. Accordingly, based on these students’ objective experiences, VR based survival swimming education increased students’ awareness of risks related to water safety accidents in a VR environment that was similar or equal to real environment. Furthermore, experience based education on preventing water safety incidents, which encouraged students to actively protect their own safety, positively influenced learners’ perceptions of how to prevent water safety accidents (Park, 2020).
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To expand the research scope of previous studies, this study analysed the motivation of survival swimming instructors who had recently added VR based lessons to their previous experience as survival swimming teachers. This study also obtained information on how instructors specialising in VR based survival swimming education survived competition against numerous other instructor applicants after they began working as survival swimming instructors applying VR devices. Furthermore, this study investigated the pedagogic capacities of survival swimming instructors who were applying VR devices to teach students and compared these capacities with those of existing instructors to intensively analyse how the differences in capacities affected students’ learning.
The theoretical basis for the qualitative method is phenomenological research. It describes the experiential meaning of a concept or phenomenon that all research participants have in common while experiencing the phenomenon (Neubauer et al., 2019). For data collection, in depth interviews were used to draw people's thoughts, knowledge, and perspectives in more depth. Lastly, thematic analysis was used to classify common themes among the collected data (Vaismoradi et al., 2013).
To select research participants in qualitative research, researchers should prioritise whether the candidates can obtain sufficient appropriate data to meet the research objectives (Creswell, 1998). This study selected four research participants through the following process. First, we recruited candidates who had recently worked as survival swimming instructors in elementary schools located in different regions. As these experts had worked in swimming related fields for several years, they were regarded as “professional swimming instructors.” Among the candidates, four were selected whose capacities as instructors had been recognised by both peer instructors and students and who had put forth consistent efforts to improve their personal teaching capacities, including guiding students, developing and applying teaching contents and methods, and evaluating teaching performance. Moreover, the selected research participants possessed various types of swimming related certificates. All participants had acquired a lifeguarding certificate. Finally, they are 20 30s females living in the metropolitan areas. Table 1, shown below, provides brief information on the research participants. Detailed information on these participants is described in the following sections.
Table 1. Personal characteristics of research participants and their personal information
Name (pseudonym) Sex Teaching experience (years) Details
Hahn Female 3
This instructor worked as a general swimming instructor and a survival swimming instructor in a swimming pool after her retirement as a professional fin swimmer
Ham Female 8
Ahn Female 6
Byeon Female 8
This instructor worked as a general swimming instructor and a survival swimming instructor for several years after her retirement as a professional fin swimmer
This instructor gained experience in the field of water safety after beginning work as a lifeguard in her early 20s.
This instructor taught general swimming and survival swimming for several years based on her previous experience as a swimmer while she was a student.
In depth interviews were conducted with the participants. In these intensive interviews, participants provided responses to questions on their direct and practical experience as survival swimming instructors, awareness of problems, and methods for solving them. The selection process of participants in qualitative research should prioritise whether they can properly exchange their information with researchers (Lee, 2003). Thus, we selected four survival swimming instructors who were already acquainted with the researchers, had established a rapport with them, and satisfied research objectives and criteria as participants. The individuals were contacted directly, provided explanations about the research objectives and methods, after which they submitted their written agreement to participate in the study.
The entire interview contents were transcribed, and the transcription result was stored and managed as research data. Four individuals participated in this interview processes for a total of three or more times from October to November 2021. During this period, the researchers contacted participants 12 or more times.
To carry out the full course of in depth interviews with each participant, the researchers directly visited participants’ workplaces. Each interview lasted approximately 50 90 minutes.
The feasibility of the data collection processes and procedures was reviewed by an expert group consisting of two employees of organisations related to survival swimming and three elementary school teachers. While conducting the feasibility analysis of data collection procedures from in depth interviews, the expert group considered whether the interview contents reflected the purposes and objectives of this study and if there were any problems with the content. When certain interview data were found to be problematic (e.g., contents irrelevant to the research topic, involuntary participation, participants' identity exposure etc.) during this process, the researchers and the expert group discussed the exclusion of the data.
The data analysis procedure in qualitative research refers to the process of determining the order and significance of the data collected. Qualitative research is also a process of reducing the amount of data based on theme based elements and verifying and correlating analytic categories to identify the themes and
significance (Dey, 1993). This study analysed the data collected from in depth interviews based on inductive analysis (Patton, 2002).
During the transcription process, the participants agreed to have the interviews transcribed to prevent data loss. Interviews were recorded electronically, and the recorded data were coded and analysed. In the case that there were insufficient contents, additional interviews were conducted. The data collected from each participant was coded by considering characteristics of the educational attempts they had made during their work as survival swimming instructors. The minimum unit newly derived in the coding process, was registered in a node. Accordingly, this study integrated similar words and removed duplicated words in the coding process. The researchers had multiple discussions to inspect words of the minimum unit that should be newly registered or integrated. The expert group formed for this study reviewed whether the initial extraction process and assumptions applied in the processes of adding and integrating words was adequate. Through these processes, research data were classified into four large areas and five medium areas. Table 2 describes the categorisation of the research data.
Large areas Medium areas Small areas
Motivation for becoming a VR based survival swimming instructor
Operation of survival swimming classes
Becoming a teacher
Advantages of applying VR and simulators in survival swimming classes
Acquisition of a teaching certificate, expansion of a range of teaching methods, and motivation for having newly become a VR based survival swimming instructor
Work as a survival swimming instructor
Differences between VR based and general survival swimming classes
Educational evaluation Analysis of educational contents and methods for education evaluation
Self feedback on teaching in classes Analysis of weaknesses and self reflection
Factors as an instructor
Necessary capacities as an instructor
This study conducted a review (Kim, 1997; Guba, 1981; Nelson, 1990) to increase the research integrity by considering various characteristics of the research processes applied. Specifically, during the review process, participants,
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researchers, and the expert group revisited discussions on whether the data collection process and data analysis result reflected the intended research purpose Specifically, it examined whether the raw data collected had been accurately classified and analysed to evaluate the validity of the obtained data and analytic results and if the data had been analysed from different perspectives. In the first verification stage, the analytic results of the raw data were shown to participants to confirm the results. In the second verification stage, the expert group consisting was formed to review the analytical results.
To ensure research integrity and ethics, participants agreed to participate after being clearly informed about the research purposes and subsequent use of the research results. Participants were also assured that the interview contents would only be used for research purposes. The interview contents were recorded after considering the schedules of the individual research participants. They were also checked for errors related to the researchers’ subjective judgments. Participants’ privacy was protected by disguising their personal information and allowing them to use pseudonyms.
The results indicated thatthe swimming instructors who participated in thisstudy demonstrated sufficient teaching capacities to implement effective survival swimming education about educational goals and teaching and evaluation methods. Schools have recently begun to prefer to provide survival swimming education in indoor classes rather than swimming pools due to the COVID 19 pandemic. As a result, instructors who participated in this study had also held survival swimming classes using VR and simulation devices. For this reason, the capacity to handle various devices required for survival swimming education was evaluated as a significant competence of the instructor. Participants also used creative methods to teach students and implement an adjusted educational goal according to the newly revised curriculum. Moreover, they constantly reflected on their own teaching methods and attempted to improve them. These capacities of participants were recognised as significant for instructors based on their association with the establishment of educational goals, selection of educational contents and methods, and educational evaluation and feedback processes
If instructors in different types of sports, including survival swimming, begin playing a certain sport related to their interests, hobbies, or athletic career while they were students, they tend to continue to play the sport as adults. This makes them more likely to work as instructors in their chosen sport. According to an interview with Byeon, a participant survival swimming instructor, she developed her athletic career as a swimmer as a student and began working as a swimming instructor in a sport centre at the age of 20 based on her previous experience with and affection for children. As she began working as a swimming instructor without a university degree, she was concerned about her life. However, peer instructors supported her in adapting to the position of a swimming instructor and she was employed as a swimming instructor at the time of the interview. I really like children, so I began working in a swimming pool for children when I was 20 years old. When I just worked as a swimming instructor, I
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did not know anything about this job, but other instructors in the swimming pool helped and taught me a lot. In fact, I was too young around that time… I thought, “I am going to start a new job now but is it right to work like this?” I just got this job at that time because I found it fun to teach someone else and a teaching job matched my personality well. The position of a swimming instructor has put a great amount of physical pressure on my body, but I find this job is suitable for me. That is why I have worked as a swimming instructor so far. (Byeon)
Participant Ahn stated that she showed an extraordinary interest in water activities beginning in high school. Consequently, she wondered whether she should be a swimming instructor and a lifeguard as an adult. She was offered the position of swimming instructor by chance at a place that she visited to attend a training session on teaching swimming. She began working as a swimming instructor after accepting their offer and was able to constantly accumulate knowledge of teaching methods.
I really wanted to be a swimming instructor from when I was in high school. I worked as a lifeguard for a long time, but I kept thinking about whether I should change my job to be a swimming instructor. Then, one day, someone I knew told me about a place that provided a teacher training in swimming. I went to that place to take the training, and a person there suddenly asked me to swim. After watching me swimming, this person unexpectedly offered me the position of a swimming instructor. I had just come to take a training and I got offered to teach there. The place was a swimming pool in a hotel. At first, I studied teaching methods intensively for a week. I had also studied teaching methods a lot since high school. So, it was not a problem for me to instantly start working as an instructor.
(Ahn)
Most research participants responded that they had begun swimming based on their interest in it as students and that swimming experience naturally drove them to work as survival swimming instructors as adults. In general, they exhibited a high level of job satisfaction working as survival swimming instructors Participants, who were in their late 20s on average, indicated that they began working as swimming instructors as soon as they retired as professional swimmers. They designed their career paths based on jobs in the fields of water activities from high school. As such, they considered that their tendencies and talents matched the necessary capacities of a swimming instructor.
As instructors provide general survival swimming education in swimming pools, they should exert great efforts to manage students in every step of the way from taking a shower to entering the water. According to Ham, VR based survival swimming education has the advantage of reducing class preparation time because indoor education is possible. Moreover, survival swimming education based on VR experiences can create greater interest and more effective outcomes for students who fear the water compared to classes based on blackboards and theories.
It truly brings comfort for instructors. This type of education is so comfortable that it can be called a class for instructors. It is really
uncomfortable to hold a survival swimming class wearing a swimsuit or a wetsuit. It is also stressful to let tens of students enter a swimming pool and watch them during a class. A swimming class performed in a swimming pool is turmoil. Should I take a shower with children in the shower room and take care of them at the same time? However, VR survival swimming education is performed in an indoor class and teaching contents for each class are established. I like this neat type of education. It is also advantageous that I can use both VR contents and various types of audio visual materials to increase students’ level of understanding. I find these theoretical contents necessary. Children who are not comfortable with the water might learn survival swimming more effectively by experiencing it based on VR contents in advance and later entering a swimming pool than by simply watching videos and learning contents written on a blackboard in a class. VR contents might increase the children’s level of interest when they are provided such contents. (Ham)
Byeon stated that VR based survival swimming education performed in an indoor class can alleviate instructors’ fatigue because they can speak comfortably at a normal volume and use VR devices to deliver educational contents based on experience instead of physically delivering them. Moreover, students tend to focus on what the survival swimming instructor says more intensely in a VR based survival swimming class than in a general swimming pool due to their curiosity about VR.
The advantage of this type of education is that we instructors can speak at a low volume. When I teach survival swimming for more than two or three hours per day, my throat hurts. However, a VR based survival swimming class definitely provides comfort for instructors because students can learn survival swimming based on VR contents. Children also tend to be quiet and follow what I say so that they can experience VR contents more quickly… The atmosphere of a VR based survival swimming class is more pleasant than that of a general survival swimming class.” (Byeon)
According to an interview with Ahn, students used to have difficulty concentrating when they learnt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in general survival swimming classes. However, when she taught CPR to students using simulators in a VR based survival swimming class, students were able to monitor information on the number of compressions, number of effective compressions, number of compression failures, probability of revival, and depth of compression in real time. As simulation devices can increase students’ interest in a topic, the need for the instructor to control students may also be minimised.
I used to conduct CPR classes using only animation contents, but students did not concentrate in these classes at all. On the contrary, when I teach CPR by using simulators, students focus on these classes very well. When I give them feedback, such as “press it more strongly” and “take your pose like this,” they listen to my words carefully to increase the number of their effective compressions for CPR displayed on a monitor. I do not need to control external things outside of the class. (Ahn)
When instructors hold survival swimming classes in swimming pools, they must speak to students at a comparatively higher volume to deliver educational
contents. For this reason, instructors who teach survival swimming in swimming pools for a long time are likely to experience throat pain and eventually suffer from vocal fold nodules. In contrast, survival swimming classes based on VR and simulation devices can increase students’ interest in the lesson as well as the quality of education. All participants agreed that VR based survival swimming education effectively improved the perceptions of students who feared the water by allowing them to virtually experience survival swimming before entering an actual swimming pool. Moreover, CPR classes based on VR and simulation devices maximised educational effectiveness because these classes allowed learners to monitor their scores in real time. In this regard, VR based CPR classes were evaluated to be more effective than general CPR classes where students were asked to simply use animated contents.
4.3.
Ham discussed how she conducted educational evaluation based on VR experience in the form of quizzes after students finished learning. She controlled the level of quiz difficulty according to students’ level of knowledge. At the end of her classes, she emphasised that students can practically apply survival swimming education contents that they have learnt based on VR experience to other water related places such as swimming pools and beaches. She assessed that survival swimming education applying simulators had the advantage of increasing students’ interest in the topic and the disadvantage of harming the nature of survival swimming classes (i.e., the possibility of the class focused on fun and interest rather than learning). To overcome this disadvantage, she reminded students about the order of CPR and precautions when performing chest compressions
I let students undergo VR experience and solve quizzes. I show only questions and select multiple students to ask them to answer the questions and draw students’ attention. Children are not familiar with survival swimming, so I evaluate their knowledge based on questions that are not extremely difficult. Then, at the end of the class, I highlight that they will guarantee their own safety and even save other people by recalling and applying what they have learnt in the class when they go to beaches or swimming pools in the future. I finish my class by emphasising that they can save other people by remembering only the order of CPR beyond the significance of finding the accurate location to do chest compressions. (Ham)
Byeon also mentioned that she conducted educational evaluations based on quizzes after students underwent the VR experience. She said that she provided students detailed explanations about the quiz choices, specifically the reasons for both correct and incorrect answers. When students had a high percentage of correct answers for the quizzes, she allowed themto freely experience VR contents during a break time of approximately three to five minutes. When students solve quizzes and ask, “what is underwater swimming?”
I try to describe underwater swimming according to their level of knowledge and clearly explain why this choice is a correct or incorrect answer. Then I tell students that I will hold a VR class again when they solve quizzes successfully. I reckon that quizzes are important. When
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children follow my instructions well, I allow them to freely experience VR contents for about three to five minutes.” (Byeon)
Students independently participate in a VR based survival swimming class where each student can use their own device. As teachers cannot check the learning attitudes of students in real time in a VR based survival swimming class, the educational evaluation process is significant. Each participant employed quizzes, including simple questions, to perform their educational evaluations of students’ knowledge after completing their VR experience. The participants completed quizzes with students and helped them understand relevant contents more deeply by providing detailed explanations of the answers. In addition, the use of VR and simulation devices has an advantage of triggering student curiosity. However, when these devices are used without appropriate controls, instructors might fail to deliver educational contents that should be included in a VR based survival swimming class. However, all participants were aware of the problem that VR based survival swimming classes were mainly conducted based on experience. To solve thisproblem, they completed a VR based survival swimming class by summarising the educational contents that had been covered in that lesson.
For survival swimming classes in schools, instructors are generally required to teach for 35 to 40 minutes per class period. However, the required teaching time for survival swimming education per class period might change depending on the school schedule In survival swimming education applying VR and simulation devices, instructors must spend a few minutes setting up and installing these devices. For this reason, they encounter situations where they should teach classes continuously without a break time. In addition, survival swimming instructors are required to hold classes in different schools every day. Accordingly, they must adapt to relevant factors such as the building arrangements and the atmosphere of the schools in which they hold classes. Hahn indicated that she was once affected by the movement and character of a homeroom teacher of the class in which she was supposed to teach students. As a result, she works to quickly identify the mood of the homeroom teacher and students in the corresponding class.
When I hold a 40 minute long class, I tend to be unconsciously anxious for about five minutes in the beginning of the class. My voice shakes, and I try to read the mind of the homeroom teacher. I hold classes in many different schools, and the homeroom teachers in classes show different preferences for teaching styles. When I first worked as a survival swimming instructor, I was concerned about these issues a lot. It was the time when I taught survival swimming education in an elementary school located in Paju. The principal of the school told instructors including me that we should not eat something or even drink water indoors. As the principal had established an atmosphere like this, I was overwhelmed by the atmosphere and could not speak well for about ten minutes. It is the greatest weakness of my personality that I am easily affected by my surroundings. (Hahn)
It has been less than a year as of this writing since survival swimming education applying VR and simulation devices was practically implemented in schools. Thus, the number of survival swimming instructors that have applied VR and simulation devices, including the research participants, was significantly low. Moreover, it can be reasonably assumed that most of these instructors had less than one year experience as a VR based survival swimming instructors. Before these instructors began using VR and simulation devices, they would have also taught students in swimming pools. After the beginning of the COVID 19 pandemic, they would have held indoor classes using monitors and audio visual materials. Ahn, who had maintained her previous teaching method for survival swimming education for several years, encountered considerable difficulty in converting this teaching method to a new one based on VR and simulation devices. She stated that she spent a significant amount of time helping certain students remain focused in her classes when they showed half hearted learning attitudes. She selected this characteristic as her simultaneous strength and weakness.
I used to apply a standardised teaching method in classes, and it was very difficult to convert this teaching method to a new teaching method. But I should be aware of such difficulty all the time. I think that I should study more in the future, and I am so meticulous that I cannot bear students behaving half heartedly in my class. Other instructors might pass over certain problematic behaviours of students flexibly if these behaviours are not too serious, but it is not the story of my life. In general, students cannot perform even what they have learnt perfectly as soon as they have a swimming class in general. They need more time to do so. Nevertheless, I have a tendency of informing students about a great and sufficient number of educational contents within a limited time. It is my concern that students might lose interest in the subject that I teach because of my tendency. (Ahn)
4.5.
Experience based on educational devices is the core of survival swimming education applying VR and simulation devices. However, the effects of such experiences can be doubled only when students are clearly aware of the class objectives and class contents prior to experiencing the VR contents and simulation. Ham selected the capacity of an instructor to express opinions as a necessary competence of a VR based survival swimming instructor, given the need to inform students about contents related to his or her class and methods for experiencing VR contents. The instructors had recently taught students in indoor classes due to the COVID 19 pandemic. However, Ham addressed a need for survival swimming instructors to be flexible in responding to questions from students regarding survival swimming classes and methods for using VR and simulation devices.
Instructors’ tone of voice and accent are important. Instructors should speak clearly enough to help students understand what they say well. Students find it more difficult to understand what I say these days because I have to wear a mask in a class. Instructors should also have the capacity to flexibly manage a situation when students ask weird questions or when a certain issue arises in a class. Instructors should develop their own
teaching strategies for helping students concentrate in their classes and controlling students. (Ham)
In South Korea, certificates for survival swimming instructors are issued by organisations such as the Republic of Korea National Red Cross and the Korea Survival Swimming Association. To obtain these certificates, instructor candidates must complete various types of theoretical education and practical training and pass evaluation processes. In addition to possessing certificates, they should also spend an appropriate amount of time analysing teaching methods to help students understand what they learnt in class and increase students’ interest in the class. In this way, they can facilitate smooth class operation in the practical survival swimming education field. Ahn commented that instructors should constantly conduct research on contents to be taught in classes and class operation methods so they can respond swiftly to questions from students about the class contents and establish a desirable class atmosphere.
I think that I should study relevant certificates and teaching methods by myself. When I watch other instructors teaching students, I find a difference between these instructors in detailed aspects. Experienced instructors have a different range of capacities for responding to students’ questions from that of inexperienced instructors. Experienced instructors are used to providing more satisfactory answers and solutions based on their experience. For example, in CPR classes, experienced instructors show similar CPR performance regardless of the surrounding conditions. On the other hand, inexperienced instructors perform CPR at irregular speeds. The speed of their CPR performance will inevitably increase or decrease. (Ahn)
The research results can be summarised as follows. First, research participants began swimming to develop their career or hobbies as swimmers and naturally came to work as survival swimming instructors in adulthood. Second, research participants believed that using VR and simulation devices significantly contributes to teaching survival swimming and the educational operation of their classes. Third, research participants provided self feedback on their classes and analysed factors they should develop as instructors.
This study derived the following implications based on the research results. First, as VR and simulator based survival swimming classes utilise educational equipment (VR, simulator), the ability to adeptly handle educational equipment is considered a vital teaching capacity. If the focus of the VR devices is out of focus or the field of vision is not clear, the instructor needs to set up the VR devices so that the students can participate in the class.
Second, communication is a key capacity for instructors to effectively explain the class objectives and contents. Solid communication skills are required to achieve class goals and explain the use of educational equipment before commencing practice, answer students' questions after the practice, and organise the class. Practice education is conducted with one device per person due to the nature of the class. Therefore, if the time lag for completing the experience increases, there is a strong possibility of a setback in the class progress.
Third, instructors should possess the flexibility to deal with various unexpected or uncomfortable situations. For example, due to the nature of the survival swimming class, classes proceed in the classroom in the presence of homeroom teachers. In general, the homeroom teacher does little to intervene in the class However, sometimes the homeroom teacher exerts a considerable influence in the class compared to the principal lecturer. In this case, it may disperse the children's attention. Therefore, theprincipal lecturer needs to be able to improvise to address unexpected situations within a short time and reorient students so that they concentrate on the class again.
The theoretical implication of the research results is that the use of VR devices induces interaction and indirect experiences so that students can expect similar learning effects without direct experiences. This has meaningful implications for situated learning and experiential learning theory. In addition, the practical implication is that by using VR devices, instructors can expect learning effects while securing safety. (Araiza Alba et al., 2021)
This study analysed the teaching capacities of survival swimming instructors applying VR devices. In depth interviews were conducted with four instructors applying VR devices who described their motivations for having begun working in this field and various cases from their experiences. Detailed interviews focused on examining participants’ capacities for teaching survival swimming. An inductive analysis of the research data obtained from these interviews was carried out to classify the data into the categories of motivation for having begun working as a survival swimming instructor and strategies for teaching survival swimming. The research results showed what teaching capacities were required for effective VR based swimming lessons. The result also indicated that survival swimming education applying VR and simulation devices indirectly provided students with VR based educational contents and allowed them to gain similar experience, interests, and enjoyment to what they obtained in previous traditional training classes for survival swimming. Therefore, it is expected that VR based survival swimming education can boost students’ learning performance and interest in survival swimming education
There are several limitations to the research method used in this study. Based on the analytical results, this study presents several suggestions for follow up studies in relevant fields.
First, although random selection was employed, this study was carried out based on only a few participants who were all female and working as survival swimming instructors in metropolitan area. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised to all survival swimming instructors using VR devices. Follow up research should pay attention to participant selection by matching the characteristics of a group of participants with research purposes.
Second, this study intensively analysed the teaching capacities deemed necessary according by the participants. However, this study did not collect or analyse research data regarding teaching capacities for survival swimming instructors
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who are not applying VR and simulation devices. Future studies could compare swimming instructors using traditional methods with the research participants of this study.
Finally, future studies should evaluate the practical performance of survival swimming learners in actual swimming pools after the end of the COVID 19 pandemic to verify the effectiveness of VR based survival swimming education.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 326 344, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.19
Received Jun 29, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
Nagham Anbar , Lavinia Cheie and Laura Visu-Petra* Babeș Bolyai University, Department of Psychology Research in Individual Differences and Legal Psychology (RIDDLE) Lab Republicii Str. 37, 400015, Cluj Napoca, Romania
Abstract. This study explored the math anxiety (MA) level and math achievement of primary school children and the association of these variables to their gender differences and parents’ math anxiety. Also, we investigated the potential interaction between child MA and parental variables on child math outcomes. The sample consisted of 230 students in the 3rd and 4th grades (Mean age = 8.9; SD = .59), including one parent for each child. The Scale for Early Math Anxiety, The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale, The Children Test Anxiety Scale, and the parental involvement survey was used for data collection. Palestinian children reported lower levels of MA compared to previous research, and the expected negative relation between students’ MA and their math achievements was confirmed. Girls reported higher levels of both MA and test anxiety than boys. A positive correlation was found between mothers’ MA and daughters’ MA, while no association between fathers’ MA and sons’ MA was found. Moreover, child MA, parental MA and trait anxiety were found to significantly predict children’s math achievement. This study contributed to a better understanding of some factors affecting mathematics achievements and future career orientations, such as Math anxiety, Test anxiety, and possible gender differences. We suggest implementing new strategies to reduce math anxiety, improve math achievement, and enhance females' contribution to math related fields in the Palestinian community.
Keywords: Math anxiety; math performance; primary school children; parental influence; gender differences
A core target of the educational system is to equip students with the essential skills needed in their studying phase and afterward. Although schools are considered the key vehicle for building children’s academic competence and life
* Corresponding author: LauraVisu Petra;laurapetra@psychology.ro
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
aptitudes, parents also play a critical role in their children’s success (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). Parents are their children’s first and long term teachers, but what if parents are themselves anxious about the subjects their children are studying? Studies suggest that this is fairly common when it comes to mathematics (Chang & Beilock, 2016; Maloney et al., 2015) and that children’s math performance can be hindered by both their own specific anxiety toward mathematics and by their parents’ MA (Maloney et al., 2015). Additionally, children’s math attainment varies as a function of both cultural (Daches Cohen & Rubinsten, 2017), and gender related differences (Devine et al., 2012). Consequently, our study set out to explore both parental influences and gender related differences in Palestinian children’s MA and math achievement, in a society with inequitable gender norms.
According to the results of the international men and gender equality survey, Palestine represents a predominantly masculine society and displays inequitable gender attitudes. For instance, 80% of men believe that a "woman’s most important role is to take care of the home and to cook for the family", while 83% of men reported that "when work opportunities are scarce, men should have access to jobs before women" (El Feki et al., 2017). Moreover, 87% of women stated that Palestinians need to do more to promote gender equality.
During the last 30 years, many studies have reported small or no actual gender differences in math outcomes (Devine et al., 2012). According to the annual national evaluation of primary schools’ students in Arabic, Math, and science (2017 2018), the findings reported that the success percentage in mathematics for the 4th grade was only 38%, meanwhile, mathematics average score was 47 for girls and 42 for boys (the full score is 100). Also, according to the Palestinian statistical centre, girls outperformed boys in the high school general examinations for the last 5 years. For example, in 2018 the success percentage was (91.8 % vs. 98%) in the scientific pathway, (77.7% vs. 91.2%) in the commercial pathway, and (82.8% vs. 96.9%) in the vocational, for males vs. females, respectively. However, as reported by the Palestinian Statistical Centre (2017) females’ percentage of graduated with a diploma or bachelor’s in educational sciences was 21%, compared to 6.5% of their male counterparts, while in engineering it was 3%, compared to 9% of their male counterparts.
2.1.
Across all ages, a widespread apprehension about mathematics is noticeable, termed MA. It is defined as an overwhelming feeling of tension and worries accompanied by negative thoughts that occur as a response to math related activities, and a corresponding tendency to appraise math as threatening stimuli and to react with rising levels of anxiousness (Lyons & Beilock, 2011). A large body of literature views MA as a subject specific manifestation of test anxiety (Ho et al., 2000; Ma, 1999), with the test anxiety defined as a set of negative emotions and worries that occur especially during any evaluation context (Hembree; 1990).
Devine et al. (2012) conducted a study to investigate the relations between mathematics anxiety, test anxiety and math performance. The results showed a positive correlation between MA and test anxiety, while a negative correlation was found between MA and performance. Test anxiety was also negatively correlated with math performance. Moreover, Joseph (2009) revealed a positive correlation between MA and test anxiety. Another study conducted by Ashcraft and Moore (2009), revealed a positive correlation between MA and trait anxiety. As reported by Xie et al. (2018), MA was found to be positively correlated with both test anxiety and with general anxiety, while it was negatively correlated with math performance.
Numerous studies have indicated the negative impact of MA on math performance (Rubinsten et al., 2018). Math anxious students score significantly less in mathematical exams compared to their non anxious counterparts (Ramirez et al., 2018), they tend to avoid math related activities (Carey et al., 2017) and are underrepresented in STEM domains (Maloney & Beilock, 2012).
Gender differences in math competence and MA have been frequently investigated, with several findings reporting that females are more anxious than males in math related situations (Ashcraft, 2002; Else Quest et al., 2010; Hopko et al., 2003). In 2012, as stated by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the data showed that in the majority of (OECD) countries girls reported stronger MA than boys. For instance, Devine et al. (2012) study among secondary school students in England, revealed no differences in mathematics performance, although girls scored higher on the MA scale. Similarly, findings were reported for German students (Frenzel et al., 2007) and also for Chinese students (Huang et al., 2019) revealed that boys reported less MA, while no significant gender differences were found in mathematics self efficacy.
On the other hand, Erturan and Jansen (2015) showed a significant effect of gender on test anxiety, with girls reporting higher levels of test anxiety, while math scores and MA did not differ based on gender. A similar finding has been reported about the gender differences regarding test anxiety, with males obtaining lower scores than females on evaluative tests (Popa et al., 2019). The same results were also reported by Kavanagh et al. (2016), revealing higher levels of test anxiety among females, compared to males. Trait anxiety was also found to differ based on gender, according to Macher et al. (2011) study, higher levels of trait anxiety among female students than males were confirmed. In addition, many studies indicate that women tend to report higher trait anxiety scores than men do (Putwain & Daly, 2014).
2.3. Parental Math anxiety Research has confirmed that home the environment including parents’ feelings, attitudes, and perceptions about their children has a notable impact on children’s emotions, attitudes, self esteem, and even their cognitive abilities (Jameson, 2013; Mohr Schroeder et al., 2017; Anbar & Visu Petra, 2021). It is also noted that parents’ own perception of the value of mathematics has a significant
impact on their children’s motivation to pursue related fields in the future (Soni & Kumari, 2017).
Math anxious parents are more likely to pass their MA to their children, particularly when trying to help their children with math homework frequently (Maloney et al., 2015). Parental expressed attitudes toward math, such as ‘Oh, I used to hate math as a child’ or 'doing math is difficult' are negatively related to children’s success and attitudes toward math (Chang & Beilock, 2016). In contrast, studies suggest that children who are more engaged in home math related activities (e.g., board games, play with puzzles, cards) report more positive attitudes and better math achievement than those involved in fewer home math related activities. Indeed, parents who try to enhance positive math attitudes as much as possible in the home environment, regardless of their emotions or their comprehension of math, are more likely to improve their children's achievements in math and establish positive behaviours toward math learning (Wilder, 2015).
A study conducted by Batchelor et al. (2017) indicated that children's MA is related to parents' MA. More specifically, a positive association between parents' MA and sons’ MA was identified, while no association between mothers’ and daughters’ MA was found. The authors suggested that this could be justified by the mediating effect of parental involvement in the child's homework. Studies have investigated parental influences on children's math achievements, for instance, parents' MA is considered a strong predictor of children's math achievement (Casad et al., 2015; Maloney et al., 2015). Direct forms of parental involvement were sometimes negatively related to children’s math achievement (Vukovic et al., 2013). Indeed, children’s success in mathematics is not contingent upon parents' help, given that most parents haven't received formal teaching training. Besides, parents’ involvement doesn’t require parents to show high skill in math, rather, they can promote children’s math performance by simply adopting positive attitudes about math learning (Pugsley & Jill, 2018; Vukovic et al., 2013).
To sum up, the role of parental involvement in children's achievement is still debatable. Most findings reveal that parental involvement is positively related to children’s math achievement and suggest that it may limit negative attitudes toward mathematics (Mohr Schroeder et al., 2017). However, other meta analytic findings suggest that at home parental involvement is negatively related to children's achievement, as a negative correlation was found between students’ academic performance and homework parental assistance (Wilder, 2015). Moreover, the gender gap in terms attitudes and anxieties transmission has been investigated in several studies, findings emphasizing the role of gender stereotype threats among adults and children (Chang & Beilock, 2016). For instance, parents reported that girls need to do more effort in math learning than boys do, while girls declared less confidence and less efficiency in their math abilities than boys, following many years of exposure to this type of math stereotype (Batchelor et al., 2017). It is very challenging to identify parental influences on the relation between academic achievement and MA, due to
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various several factors, such as family structure, parent educational level, family income, parents’ occupation, and the history of parents’ performance in mathematics (Soni & Kumari, 2017).
3.1.
The current study extends the existing literature on the relationship between children’s MA and math achievement in several directions. For the first time, to our knowledge, we measured both parents’ and child’s MA in the Palestinian community, investigating potential gender differences in relation to their mathematics achievement and the congruence with other forms of anxiety (trait and test anxiety). Also, we explored the possible predictors of child mathematics achievement. Finally, we attempted to investigate the possible interactive effects of child MA and parental variables, such as parental involvement in children’s math homework, parental history of parents’ math performance, and parental MA on child math outcomes. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the interaction effect of parental variables on the relations between child MA and child math performance.
* Is there a positive association between various forms of anxiety e.g., Math anxiety, Trait anxiety, and Test anxiety?
* Are there significant gender differences in Test/Math anxiety/Math achievement, for children and in Math anxiety for parents?
* Is there a negative relation between child Math achievement and both Math anxiety and Test anxiety?
* Is there a positive relation between a child's Math anxiety and parents' Math anxiety?
* Does Math anxiety, Test anxiety, Trait anxiety, Gender, or Parental variables play a role as a predictor of child's Math achievements?
* Are there possible interactive effects of child Math anxiety and parental variables, such as parental involvement in children’s math homework, parental history of parents’ math performance, and parental math anxiety on child math outcomes?
First, following evidence regarding the common ground of these anxiety subtypes, a positive correlation among all forms of anxiety (math, test, and trait) was expected. Second, following evidence showing gender related differences in MA, we predicted that female participants would report higher levels of MA, trait anxiety and test anxiety. Third, in accordance with recent meta analyses revealing a moderate negative association between MA and math performance (e.g., Barroso et al., 2021; Zhang, Zhao, & Ping Kong, 2019), we predicted a replication of this result in our Palestinian sample. Importantly, regarding the influence of parents, we expected parental MA to be positively related to children’s MA and negatively predict children’s math achievement. Finally, parental involvement, parents’ MA, and the history of parents’ math
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performance during their own childhood were hypothesized to be moderators of the relation between children's MA and their mathematics achievement.
4.1.
Participants were 230 students from four primary schools in Ramallah city (151 girls; Mean age = 8.9 years; SD = 0.59 Years) and from all students’ parents (N = 230, 74.8% mothers). From the total sample (N = 230), 104 participants (37 boys, 67 girls) were enrolled in the third grade, whereas 126 (42 boys, 84 girls) in the fourth grade. All children were Palestinian, had intact or corrected vision, and had Arabic as their primary language. Most children had a middle class background, with 88.8% of parents earning the average to above average wage per capita, 37.4% of the mothers and 25.3% of the fathers having a high school diploma, while 41.8 % mothers and 28.7% fathers had a college or university degree.
4.2.
4.2.1.
The Scale for Early MA (SEMA; Wu, Amin, Barth, Malcarne, & Menon, 2012) was used. Via its 20 items, children are asked to indicate on a five point scale how nervous they would feel if (1) they would have to answer certain math questions (e.g., “George bought two pizzas that had six slices each. How many total slices did George have to share with his friends?") and (2) in certain math related situations (e.g., "You are in class doing a math problem on the board"). Hence, the first 10 items assess children’s anxiety related to numeral processing and the last 10 items assess their situational and performance anxiety (e.g., "You are in class doing a math problem on the board"). The total score range is from 20 to 100, while the range of each subscale is from 10 to 50. A higher summed score indicates greater MA. In the present sample, this scale had good reliability, Cronbach’s α = .87.
We used the trait version of the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI TC; Spielberger, 1973). It consists of 20 items measuring children’s trait anxiety via items such as “I am afraid to do things wrong”. Items are rated on a three point scale (1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often), with higher scores indicating higher levels of trait anxiety. The scale showed high internal consistency in the current sample, Cronbach’s α = .85.
The Children Test Anxiety Scale (CTAS; Douglas & Jeri, 2004) is a 30 item self report questionnaire used to assess children’s test anxiety A four point Likert scale is used to measure children’s frequency of autonomic reactions (physical anxiety, e.g., “My heart beats fast”), off task behaviours (e.g., “I play with my pencil”), and worrisome thoughts (e.g., “I think about how poorly I am doing”) while taking tests (1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, 4 = almost
always). Higher scores indicate greater test anxiety. The scale showed good internal consistency, Cronbach’s α = .88.
For students’ math achievement, we used the teachers’ final evaluation math records at the end of a semester. Hence, these records represent students’ objective evaluation in math achievement at the end of the first school semester. Performance scale range was between 0 100.
The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS; Suinn &Winston, 2003) consists of 30 items, with the first 15 items assessing math situational performance anxiety (Math Test Anxiety) and the last 15 items assessing numerical processing anxiety (Numerical Anxiety). A five point Likert scale was used to indicate how nervous the individual would feel (1 = I'm not nervous at all, 2 = I'm a little nervous, 3 = I'm somewhat nervous, 4 = I'm very nervous, 5 = I'm very nervous) during certain math related situations, such as reading a cash register receipt. The total score was the sum of answers on all items. Higher scores indicate higher anxiety levels. In this sample, the scale showed a very good internal consistency, Cronbach’s α = .93.
We used the Parental involvement survey used by Maloney et al. (2015). Parents completed a survey of five items, indicating how often they engage in certain behaviours in order to help their child with their math homework (e.g., “Check out the homework at the end”). A seven point Likert scale was used to indicate involvement frequency (from 1 = never to 7 = more than once a day). Total scale score was computed summing all points received on the five items; hence, higher scores are indicative of high involvement. In the current study, the Cronbach’s α = .93.
To investigate parents’ history of school performance, parents were asked to complete a nine items form about their performance in mathematics, Arabic language, and general school performance in primary, middle and high school. A five point scale was used to indicate their level of performance, (1 = Poor to 5 = Excellent) for each subject (i.e., mathematics, Arabic, other) during each school period (i.e., primary, middle school, high school). A higher score on indicated higher school performance. The Cronbach’s alpha for the nine items scale was .94.
After permission was granted from the school authorities, written informed consent was obtained from the parents whose children were in the 3rd and 4th grades. While children's consent was obtained verbally, and their participations were voluntary. Consequently, we organized a meeting during school hours with the students whose parents provided their informed consent. Children were also informed and assured about the confidentiality of their responses.
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They were then asked to fill in the Arabic questionnaire in the following order: MA, test anxiety, trait anxiety. The researcher collaborated with two teachers during these meetings with the children, all children's questions were answered, and the ones who needed help in reading were helped, while no time restrictions were applied Parents who accepted to participate received the questionnaires via their child or while they were picking the child from school, they completed the forms in the following order: demographic information, parental involvement, parental history of school performance, and the MA scale. The researcher's contact details were provided for any clarifications.
The SPSS statistics 25th version was used to process our raw data, the obtained results are in section below
5.1.
Descriptive statistics regarding children’s MA, trait anxiety test anxiety, math academic achievement, as a function of gender are displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: Means and standard deviations for children’s measures N = 230 Boys Girls n= 79 n= 151 t test (228) Cohen’s d M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Math anxiety 29.09 (10.32) 26.92 (8.36) 30.20 (11.07) 2.32* .33
Trait anxiety 30.18 (7.27) 28.55 (6.73) 31.03 (7.41) 2.48* .35
Test anxiety 52.39 (14.83) 50.72 (14.72) 53.26 (14.86) 1.23
Math achievement 84.70 (12.12) 85.99 (11.81) (12.26) 1.34
Note. **p < .001, *p < .005
Looking at gender related differences in parental reports, mothers reported higher levels of MA, t (169) = 2.43, p = .016, Cohen’s d = 0.40, while nonsignificant differences were found between mothers and fathers in terms of parental involvement and history of math performance. Means and standard deviations as function of parents’ gender are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Means and standard deviations for parents’ measures
Fathers Mothers n M(SD) n M(SD)
Parents’ Math anxiety 74 71.23 (25.69) 124 81.26 (23.40)
Parents’ involvement in homework 57 27.15 (6.13) 168 27.82 (6.28) Parents’ history of math performance 47 10.61(2.90) 146 10.90 (2.98)
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Pearson correlations revealed positive moderate correlations among the three forms of anxiety measured in children: MA, trait anxiety, and children test anxiety (see Table 3), suggesting that while they all tap the same general concept, they measure different faucets of anxiety. Negative correlations were found between children's math achievement and their MA, and test anxiety, respectively. Moreover, children’s math achievement was also negatively associated with their parents’ own MA, but positively associated with parental involvement in children’s math homework and history of math performance. Nevertheless, the correlation between parents' MA and their children's MA did not reach significant levels. Additionally, we found a negative moderate correlation between parents’ MA and their own math performance history.
Table 3: Correlations among study variables
Measures 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Math anxiety
2 Trait anxiety .55**
3 Test Anxiety .55** .52**
4 Math achievement .25** .08 .14*
5 Parents' Math anxiety .13 .07 .09 .27**
6 Parents’ involvement in homework .04 .03 .04 .15* .07
7 Parents’ history of math performance .15* .01 .06 .37** .55** .23**
Note. **p < .001, *p < .005
To check for potential different associations between the same gender parent child dyads, additional zero order correlations were calculated between same gender parents' MA and child MA. Correlations computed between mothers and daughters and between fathers and sons revealed a significant positive association between mother’s MA levels and daughters’ levels of MA, (r = .25, p = 0.02). In contrast, nonsignificant associations were found between fathers’ MA levels and sons’ MA (p = .98)
5.3.
To analyse contributions of individual characteristics, parental factors, and specific math anxiety factors to children’s math achievement variation, a three step hierarchical multiple regression was conducted with children’s math achievement as the criterion. Potential baseline individual differences (gender, grade, trait anxiety, test anxiety) were entered Step 1. Based on previous results and current correlations, parental variables (parents’ MA, parental involvement in children’s math homework, and the history of parents' math performance) were added in Step 2. To test whether children’s own MA levels contribute to variations in math achievement over and above the influence of parental history with math and homework involvement, children’s MA was added in Step 3 (see Table 4).
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Predictor B ꞵ t R R2 ΔR2 p
Step 1 .23 .05 .05 .07 Gender 2.83 .11 1.42 Grade 3.12 .12 1.54 Trait anxiety .17 .09 .94 Test anxiety .16 .19 .04*
Step 2 .40 .16 .11 .00 Parents' history of math performance .77 .14 1.47
Parents’ Math anxiety .10 .12 2.12* Parents’ involvement in homework .28 .17 1.69
Step 3 .46 .21 .05 .03 Gender 3.54 .13 1.83 Grade 3.14 .12 1.67
Trait anxiety .41 .21 2.11* Test anxiety .07 .08 .92 Parents' history of math performance .55 .09 1.08
Parents’ Math anxiety .09 .19 2.12* Parents’ involvement in homework .25 .12 1.57
Math anxiety .38 .29 3.32*
Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p< .001
The hierarchical multiple regression revealed that baseline individual differences predictors had no significant contribution to the regression model. Introducing the parental variables explained an additional 11.1% of variation in children math achievement and this change in R² was significant, F (3,158) = 4.35, p < .001. As visible in Table 4, parents’ MA was a significant predictor of children’s math achievement, with higher levels of parental anxiety predicting lower math achievement scores in children. On the other hand, parental history in terms of math achievement and parental involvement with the child’s math homework did not prove to be significant predictors of the child’s math achievement. Adding children’s own MA to the regression model explained an additional 4.6% of the variation in the dependent variable, F (1,157) = 5.14, p < .001. When all independent variables were included in this third step of the regression model, the significant predictors of children’s math achievement were: baseline differences in children’s trait anxiety, parents’ MA, and children’s MA. This final model accounted for 20.7% of the variance in children math achievement.
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5.4. The potential interaction effects between children’s Math anxiety and parental variables on children’s math outcomes
Additional models analysing potential interaction effects between children’s MA and parental variables (parent’s MA, parent involvement in child math homework, and the history of parents’ math performance) revealed nonsignificant interaction effects of child and parental MA on children’s math outcome, b = 0.01, p = .08, BCa CI [ 0.001, 0.011], of children’s MA and parents’ involvement in math homework, b = 0.01, p = .28, BCa CI [ 0.01, 0.04], and of children’s MA and parents’ math performance, b = 0.05, p = .16, BCa CI [ 0.02, 0.13].
The study aimed to investigate the prevalence of MA and identify gender differences among primary school students and their parents, and explore the relation between MA and math achievement as a function of parental factors. The main findings included confirming higher levels of MA among girls/mothers than among boys/fathers, a negative relation between children’s MA and their math achievement, also a negative association between children’s math achievement and their parent’s MA. In addition, we uncovered the possible predictors of math achievement and the possible moderating role of parental variables in the relation between children's MA and their math achievement. Next, we will discuss these results, integrating them in the growing body of literature on factors generating or minimizing MA in primary school children.
6.1.1.
The results showed significant gender differences in MA, as girls reported higher scores compared to boys, consistent with many previous studies conducted in China, Poland, England, and Uganda (see Xie et al., 2018; Schnell et al .2013; Devine et al .2012; Hunt et al., 2021). Similarly, mothers reported higher MA compared to fathers (Else Quest et al., 2010). Our findings are in line with the results of a meta analysis of 151 studies (Hembree, 1990), which found that females tend to have higher levels of MA than males do, which may account for some of the gender gaps in math achievement and math related professions.
A similar finding was reported by Carey et al. (2017), among British children aged 8 13, where a significantly higher levels of MA among girls compared to boys were found. A study was conducted by Ho et al. (2000) among 6th grade students from the USA, China, and Taiwan revealed that there were significantly higher scores of MA among Taiwanese girls, while no MA gender differences were found among Chinese and American students. On the other hand, Birgin et al. (2010) or Tapia (2004) reported no significant difference between boys and girls in MA.
One potential explanation for girls/females generally experiencing greater levels of MA than males may stem from the gender differences in socialization practices. In particular, women are socialized to express their feelings and emotions, this may result in the inclination for women to admit their fears more
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than men do (Devine, 2012; Kavanagh et al., 2016). Another potential reason is that math is traditionally seen as a male domain, so females may be socialized to perceive their mathematical skills as less competent and therefore may even avoid mathematical activities. It was expected for females in this study to report higher levels of MA compared to males, according to the Arabic culture that imposes such gender roles, where boys are raised to be tough and brave, which can lead them to report lower levels of MA. Not surprisingly, females may be more willing to admit their worries and anxiety (Kavanagh et al., 2016). Also, there is less recent research examining the gender biases in the Palestinian school mathematics textbooks indicating these textbooks are male biased, with females being less likely to be represented by names, pictures, verbs (actions), pronouns and professions (Karama, 2020). Women’s underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields emerges from these gender biases, Palestinian women avoid math related positions due to their beliefs that these areas are unimportant or even damaging to their self image as females (Rube & Ehrenfeld, 2020).
6.1.2. Gender differences in other forms of anxiety
Girls reported higher levels of trait anxiety than boys, confirming many similar findings in the literature across various age groups (Macher et al., 2011; Putwain & Daly, 2014), while no significant gender differences were found in test anxiety. The results among Australian, American, Romanian, and Chinese students confirmed our previous findings of no gender differences in test anxiety (Kavanagh et al., 2016; Popa, 2019; Xie, 2018). However, our results are not in line with previous studies that did find gender differences in test anxiety in favour of boys (Erturan & Jansen, 2015) or in favour of girls (McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Daly, 2014).
A cautionary note refers to the overall lower levels of test anxiety found in our sample. In the Palestinian educational system, primary students during 1st to 4th grades are not exposed to formal examination sessions, but teachers still have to evaluate children's performance using many strategies such as team or pair work, homework, and class evaluative papers. The absence of standardized tests or formal examination environments could explain the lower levels of test anxiety compared to Wren and Benson (2004) findings, who used the same scale of children's test anxiety.
6.1.3. Gender differences in Math achievement
Although the results indicated that girls were more math anxious than males in math related situations, no significant differences in math achievements were documented. This result is confirming many previous findings suggesting that the gender gap in math performance has been significantly minimized in the last decades, especially within primary school students (Devine et al., 2012; Schnell et al., 2013). One possible explanation for girls outperforming or performing equally in math is that girls are more self disciplined than boys, in general girls tend to study longer hours and do more homework, while boys need more monitoring to do their homework (Duckworth & Seligman, 2006). On the other hand, our results do not confirm previous findings suggesting that males outperform females in math (Else Quest et al., 2010, see also, Erturan & Jansen, 2015; Osborne, 2006). Although many recent studies showed the gender gap
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minimizing across the years (Gunderson et al., 2011; Hyde et al., 2008; Schnell et al, 2013) fewer girls end up pursuing math courses or math related career paths (Eccles, 2009), a tendency visible in Palestine as well (Rubel & Ehrenfeld, 2020).
6.2. Correlations among study variables
6.2.1. Congruence between anxiety measures
Findings revealed a positive moderate correlation between the MA and the Trait Anxiety. Similar findings were revealed by Ashcraft and Moore (2009), who reported a positive correlation between MA and trait anxiety. Although we confirmed this consistency among the mentioned scales, it also appears that each one of them still measures different aspects of anxiety. A positive correlation between MA and Test Anxiety was found, also a positive correlation between Trait Anxiety and Test Anxiety. Similarly, Devine’s et al. (2012) study among secondary school students in England, and Joseph (2009) study among secondary students in Singapore also reported positive correlations between MA and test anxiety. In fact, MA was conceptualized as a situation specific anxiety demonstrated in mathematics related activities (Rubinsten et al., 2015), while Test Anxiety was seen as a situation specific personality trait, which specifically arises in evaluative situations (Schnell et al. 2013).
6.2.2.
The results also found a negative correlation between child math performance and child MA. In this respect, Hembree's meta analysis (1990) showed that MA negatively correlates with math achievement and math grades. Later, a similar finding was confirmed by Ma (1999) in his meta analysis. Also, Cipora et al. (2015) and Schnell et al. (2013) findings revealed a negative association between MA and math performance among Polish and German students, respectively
6.2.3.
On parent child math anxiety results indicated that parents’ MA and child math achievements were negatively correlated. Similar results were found by Berkowitz et al. (2015), who conducted a study about math at home and child achievements. Such results suggested when parents are more math anxious, their children learned less math during first grade compared to children of less math anxious parents. Another study reported that children's math performance was negatively associated with high parent MA, but only when both mothers and daughters or when fathers and sons had high MA (Casad et al., 2015).
The results also showed significant associations between mothers' MA and their daughter’s MA, while no correlation was found between fathers and sons. A possible explanation for this gender effect arises from the fact that mothers and girls in this study are found to be more math anxious compared to males. Also, the gender stereotype threat of math as a male domain may negatively affect female’s MA levels across the lifespan.
In the line with the present findings, Casad et al. (2015) carried out a study among students in the 6th to 8th grades. Their results confirmed that parents' MA was related to children's MA and both variables interacted to predict mathematics outcomes. Also, in a sample of Indian children aged 10 to 15 years,
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Soni and Kumari (2017) confirmed that parents' MA was positively associated with children’s MA and negatively affected their math attitude. In contrast, Jameson (2013) examined the environmental factors relating to MA in 2nd grade students (aged 7 9 years) and found no significant correlation between parents' MA and their children's MA. Another study conducted by Batchelor et al. (2017) indicated that children's MA is related to parents' MA, more specifically, a positive association between parents' MA and sons was calculated, while no association with daughter’s levels of MA was found.
A weak but positive correlation was found between parental involvement in child math homework and child math achievement. Similar findings were reported by Fan’s and Chen’s (2001) meta analysis in which a positive association was calculated between academic achievement in young children and parental involvement at home and school. Our findings are not in line with other studies indicating home parental involvement to be negatively related to children's achievement (Wilder, 2015).
In order to identify the main predictors of child mathematics achievement, a hierarchical multiple regression in 3 steps was conducted. The regression analysis showed that child MA explained 4.6% of the variance in the math achievement score, while parental variables (parent's MA, parent involvement in child math homework, and the history of parents' math performance) explained 11% of the variance in children math achievement. Test anxiety was a predictor of child mathematics achievement only in the first stage of the regression model, while after controlling all other variables in the last stage, the ultimate predictors of math achievements were children’s MA, parents’ MA, and child trait anxiety.
Findings revealed that children’s MA and parents’ MA were both predictors of children’s math achievement, being consistent with the Maloney et al. (2015) study, which confirmed the role of parents' MA as a predictor of children's math achievement but only for children whose parents were involved in math homework. Similar results were reported by Casad et al. (2015) who suggested parents’ anxiety as a predictor of children’s math education outcomes. In addition, a meta analysis proposed that students’ MA levels can significantly predict their mathematics performance (Ma, 1999). However, Hembree’s meta analysis (1990) revealed that MA was more predictive of math performance in boys than in girls.
In contrast to our findings that are not revealing a predictive role of parents’ involvement in child math homework for their math performance, other studies confirmed the suggestion of parental involvement as an important predictor of math achievements (Harackiewicz et al., 2012; Hill & Taylor, 2004). Interestingly, the way parents interact with their children and their spontaneous reaction to math is a better predictor of children’s outcomes than the level of school parental involvement (Wilder, 2015).
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A moderation interaction analysis was run to examine if parental variables (parent's MA, parent involvement in child math homework, and the history of parents' math performance) moderate the relation between child MA and child math performance. Findings of this study showed that none of them was playing a moderator effect on the relation. It is important to note that regardless of causal direction, parental variables didn’t moderate the relation between anxiety and performance. In fact, a majority of parents in our sample tended to rate themselves as highly involved, so there was little variation in the levels of parent's involvement that could be a reason for making parental involvement moderate the relation between child MA and child math performance. Due to the self reported measure used in this study, parents may have provided socially desirable responses about their level of involvement in their child's math homework, rather than indicating their actual parental involvement level (Warren et al., 2018).
The findings of this study substantially contribute to the growing body of literature addressing several factors affecting mathematics achievements and future career orientations: Math anxiety, test anxiety and possible gender differences. Moreover, the potential interaction between child MA and parental variables on child math outcomes revealed significant gender differences in Math levels, young girls in primary school and also their mothers, reported higher levels of MA. In addition, the study showed that MA levels significantly and negatively affected mathematics achievements. Both child’s MA and their parent's MA were found to be strong predictors of children's math achievements. With this, the current study offers the first systematic investigation of MA in Palestinian primary schools, offering valuable insights into the relation between math achievements and MA and gender differences, in addition to parental role in the transmission of MA. Its results offer valuable avenues to monitor and enhance the female presence in math related fields in the Palestinian workforce. Thus, it is recommended that further investigations of the barriers to females' participation in the Palestinian STEM workforce could be conducted.
The study findings need to be interpreted in light of some limitations. The use of self report measures for children and parents, which may result in systematic response distortions is considered the first limitation of the current study. A second limitation is that child's math achievement was based on teachers' records and, since the data are obtained from several schools, although the grading system was identical, this can mask different standards of performance for math achievement between schools. A third limitation refers to the sample composition, since the majority of the participants were females such as girls (65.6%), mothers (74.8%), the male sample size was rather small for the effect we wanted to observe.
We would like to express our gratitude to everyone who contributed to the realization of this work, teachers, children, parents, colleagues, and colleagues at Babeș Bolyai University. Our research was funded by a Romanian state doctoral scholarship awarded to the first author (Contract no. DGRIAE 875/III/54/CMJ/28.09.2017) and a Young Teams Project, PN III P1 1.1 TE 2016 2170, awarded to the supervisor (https://www.minimanx.com/).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 345 367, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.20
Received Apr 16, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 24, 2022
Md Nurul Anwar*
English Language Institute (ELI), School of Humanities and Social Sciences, United International University (UIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md Nurul Ahad
Department of English, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Asia Pacific (UAP), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Kamrul Hasan
English Language Institute School of Humanities and Social Sciences, United International University (UIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abstract. The benefits of CollaborativeLearning have been emphasized in the ELT literature; however, its positive implications have remained few andfarbetweenatthe highereducationalinstitutionsinBangladesh.CLT has been introduced in Bangladesh; however, the majority of Public Universities and Madrasa Systems conspicuously lack trained ELT professionals who are aware of collaborative learning. Thus, the practical use of CLT in classrooms still remains a myth let alone the implementation of collaborative learning. The current study sought to identify the impact of collaborative learning on students’ performance rate in their presentation test results, and to identity their overall perspectival response rates to (CL). The study analyzed three hundred and ten responses relating to their experience of studying incollaboration with their fellow classmates during the preparatory stages of knowledge production and gathering information that involved gathering ideas and having discussions on social media (i.e. Facebook) towards the accomplishment of their project assignments. Then, the study compares students’ previous presentation test results derived from presentations conducted in the pre collaborativestage to the test results derived from the post collaborative stage. Finally, the study ran several statistical tests, and found that students responded positively to collaborative learning, and they made significant improvements in the post collaborative test.
* Corresponding author: MdNurulAnwar;nurul@eli.uiu.ac.bd
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: collaborative learning; pre collaborative state; post collaborative stage; communication skills
After the British left Indian Sub Continent, India was divided into two dominions, the East and the West Pakistan. Throughout the Pakistani period, English was a second language in Bangladesh as a result of British control. In the business, professions, school, and other contexts, people who were educated or even marginally educated were compelled to use English as English was a link language between the West and East Pakistan (Hamid, 2016, p.28). The English language, however, was downgraded to the status of a foreign language in independent Bangladesh following the liberation battle in 1971. Almost everything is done in Bengali in this monolingual country, and English is not utilized in regular discourse. When they were forced to communicate in English, they began to struggle. (Akbas, 2016)
In the late 18th century, a group of British people brought English education to the subcontinent, establishing a number of English medium schools. However, it was formalized in 1835 by Lord Macaulay's Minute. The approval of this Minute by Lord William Bentinck formed the foundation for British education policy in then British India. After the liberation of Bangladesh, the status of English as the second language was declined and remained unidentified. It was rather neglected in the offices and educational institutes.
Bengali replaced English in all official communications except those in courts, foreign missions, and armies which still use English as the official language. To stress the individuality of “Bengali” in 1972, English was omitted from the primary and tertiary level of education. Bengali became the only medium of instruction in secondary and higher secondary schools; all schools including the English medium institutes were brought under a general order to switch to Bengali with immediate effect (Islam, 1975). But it was still taught as a subject in the secondary level. Azam and Tatsuya (2018) stated, “a huge wave went on in changing the names of places and institutes into Bengali and translating books into Bengali” (p.107). This is owing to ardent nationalism that everybody instantaneously grew animosity towards learning and using English almost dramatically
Without a doubt, Bangladesh has seen the prevalence of many streams of education, such as Bengali medium, English medium, Madrasa education, and other medium where discrete teaching learning of English has been seen for a long time. Because there are no defined instructions from the authorities, particular implementation of appropriate methods such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is exceedingly challenging under these diverse streams. Looking at Bengali medium schools and colleges, it is clear that CLT is rarely employed due to a variety of factors such as current materials, experienced teachers, and technological assistance (Ahmed, 2016, p.98). Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the implementation of
collaborative learning, and making the teachers aware of its benefits in developing English language skills, particularly speaking.
The definition of collaborative learning is "the use of small groups in which students work to accomplish shared objectives and maximize both their own and others' potential" (JONY, 2019).
The teacher's duty is to foster an atmosphere in which students are eager and able to collaborate. The setting must also provide many chances and interesting situations for learners to collaborate with others, as well as a safe space for them to share their growing ideas and insights (JONY, 2019, p. 94).
Students frequently learn about things that are previously known in the classroom. They only have to figure out how to make these discoveries when they have a project of their own (Davis et. al., 2006). In order to promote teaching and learning, educational institutions are continually integrating cutting edge technologies into their instructional strategies. SNS (Social Network Services) have evolved into online learning environments for collaborative learning and knowledge exchange in the current era (Qureshi et al. 2021)
As students today are much more advanced with the use of technology and social media tertiary institutions such as mine have officially adopted Google Meet and Facebook as one of the most potential communicative tools to ease learning processes by posting dates of tests and quizzes, important events and other class related notices, lecture notes and materials etc. In this line, Collaborative learning or CL is one of the methods that is now used to get students to work in togetherness so as to create such an environment in class as to help them not learn what is ready for them but to stimulate their thoughts towards learning through inquisitiveness and discoveries. However, collaborative learning in Bangladeshi tertiary education system has not seen a rampant spread and wide acceptance among students.
Although there is limited literature on the relationship between collaborative learning and students' cognitive development or development of critical thinking (Loes & Pascarella, 2017), the study has revealed that there is still much to learn from the relationship between these two entities that help students be critical and make critical decisions during discussions with peers. The goal of this study is to demonstrate that collaborative or group study has a positive impact on students' speaking abilities as judged by presentation test scores.
In order for the phrase to serve a wider familiarity, the term Collaborative Learning (CL) has been substituted with group work, as group work is the term researchers have frequently chosen (Nguyen, 2013; Jabbarova, 2020; Herrmann, 2013 in Novitasari, 2019). It is now widely used as a legitimate and catalytic technique for engaging kids in speaking, writing, and, in some cases, reading assignments (Remedios et al., 2008; Wiener, 1986; Sembiring, 2018; Aloisi et. al. 2016; Pattanpichet, 2011; Ibrahim et. al. 2015). Collaborative learning activities vary, but the majority focus on students' inquiry or application of course
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information rather than the teacher's presentation or explanation (Smith et al., 1992).
Collaborative learning makes students more active, and it helps students share and communicate their ideas and they can solve the difficulty of the given materials easily (Tampubolon, 2018; Kelson & Distlehorst, 2000; Sembiring, 2018; Murda et. al. 2015; Almajed et. al., 2016; Laal & Ghodsi, 2012; Awerbuch & Kleinberg, 2008). The subjects of the current study are taking Intensive English 1 where the course instructors emphasize speaking over the other skills since the majority demonstrates weakness and difficulty in speaking rather than in other skills. The status of English in Bangladesh is far more than a foreign language but less than a second language. Though much emphasis is put on English from the elementary level, many students fail to achieve the target level of proficiency (Shuchi & Islam, 2016). Implementing the strategy's main purpose is to track learners' cognitive growth as they learn by sharing knowledge, comparing and contrasting old and new knowledge, and correcting misconceptions (Marsico et. al., 2013).
Collaborative learning thus has a strong bearing on and indeed capitalizes on constructivism and Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (i.e. quoted in literature) (Harland, 2003) with the goal of servingthe same purpose of comparing and contrasting prior learning with newly acquired knowledge to test and measure degrees of improvement in any given area of learning.
The collaborative learning model presupposes students’ active engagement in an interactive way of learning where they get the opportunity to share ideas and engage in critical thinking. It refers to the formation of such a learning environment where they happen to capitalize on shared ideas and skills invested by the participants in the learning group. Learners in collaborative learning understand the connectedness and presence of their peers, which stimulates inspiration in them to get involved in group tasks. The collaborative model is a way of anticipating active discussion and shared instructions from all the participants that facilitate active processing of course material and activate fruitful learning.
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of technology
Teacher’s instruction during the process of collaborative learning ensures students’ active and organized engagement in learning, which ultimately ensures better performance and satisfactory outcome towards the end of the activity.
4. Literature Review on Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is a substantial departure from the traditional lecture or teacher centered environment found in college classes. The lecture/listening/note taking process may not fully vanish in collaborative classrooms, but it coexists with other processes that are built on student conversation and active engagement with the course material. Teachers who employ collaborative learning strategies often consider themselves to be professional intellectual experience designers for their students rather than expert knowledge transmitters coaches or midwives of a more emergent learning process. The benefits of using collaborative learning method is evident, and often reflected through its popularity among researchers.
“Johnson, Roseth, & Shin, 2014; La Rocca, Margottii, & Capobianco, 2014 suggest, when university students work in collaborative groups, compared to students who study individually, motivation and achievement increase, as evidenced in university achievement tests” (Weinberger & Shonfeld, 2020, p. 128).
Method of Collaborative Learning CLM is the most effective method for involving students in group work and conversation, as well as motivating them to engage in more discussion based cooperative learning (Murda & Flora, 2015; De Hei, Strijbos, Sjoer & Admiraal, 2015). The idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) first came into being in the 1930s by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, is frequently used as a synonym for and related to the theme of Collaborative Learning (Beheshti et. al., 2000 in Rezaee & Azizi, 2012; Harland, 2003; De Marsico et. al., 2013).
The ZPD is the difference between a learner's current degree of progress and what he has already mastered. The ZPD is thought to highlight the difference between
a child's ability to solve problems on his own and his ability to solve difficulties with help. (Schutz, 2004 in Rezaee, et al., 2012). Furthermore, “Vygotsky’s educational model includes a strong bent towards social and collaborative learning” (De Marsico et. al., 2013, p.12).
Likewise, the collaborative learning has been used here to determine the difference between the learning and production of knowledge by students’ individual level of regular development reflected in the pre test result and the level reflected in the post test results derived from the collaborative studies driven by the support from the peers. Vygotsky’s ZPD can be used to pinpoint a pivotal development in between two stages.
Vygotsky's views on the nature of human development and the interrelationship between learning and development are clearly reflected in the ZPD concept. Learning, which is not the same as development, can lead to development, and ZPD is the term for the mechanism and possible effect of learning on growth (Rezaee & Azizi, 2012).
Students are put in a collaborative atmosphere where they are encouraged in finding ways to express themselves and share ideas, thereby refining their own ideas, according to the constructivist theory, which is widely acknowledged as one of the most successful techniques of learning (De Marsico et. al., 2013). This is expected to increase motivation and active collaboration during learning activities, as well as improve learning efficiency and overall student satisfaction (De Marsico et. al., 2013). “Bangladeshi students become quite demotivated in speaking or practicing English for which they are gradually becoming hesitant and afraid to speak before a large audience” (Suchona & Shorna, 2019, p.36). To this end, there remains a great deal of necessity to rethink a more diplomatic and student friendly teaching method. In this respect, collaborative learning appears to be the robust host. “Peer collaboration has also been largely studied in the L2 literature” (Nguyen, 2013, p.64).
The ambiguous status of English, as well as the vagueness of language policy, hindered English teaching and learning. The most major hindrance to improving the English teaching situation has been a serious shortage of English instructors, which has resulted from the neglect of English instruction during the post liberation decades. Students who progress to higher education may have improved their math or science skills, but they continue to struggle with English and, in some ways, join higher education programs unprepared. “As a result, they are unable to cope with the English necessary for Madrasa level” (Golam, 2018, p. 108).
“To support EFL teachers and learners in taking advantage of peer support in developing learners’ spoken English ability, there needs to be more research data in this area to inform practice” (Nguyen, 2013, p.64). It is understood that there is a need for further research on collaborative learning to see its scope and strength in connection with the development of students’ interaction and discussion and proficiency in speaking. From a developmental point of view, it is social action in groups that is primary, with working alone being a particular and derivative case.
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Going further in this direction, Crook (2013) has argued that “the desire to ‘share’, to achieve ‘mutuality’ is a basic and defining drive of human beings; being motivated to ‘share’ our experiences with others, and sometimes taking pleasure in this for its own sake, is part of what it means to be human, and not only a more or less efficient strategy for achieving a task” (in Baker, 2015, p.3).
Johnson & Johnson (2009) and Stahl (2006) cite “Despite the widespread influence of social constructivism that supports CL methods, in education teachers’ perceptions of their students' learning processes are not always indicative of a concomitant internalization of these ideas” (in Weinberger& Shonfeld, 2020, p. 128). However, Weinberger & Shonfeld (2020) find that the students' grasp of collaborative learning is shown in their active participation in conversations and conversational processes, which allows them to construct new knowledge and aids in the generation of meaning through speech. Thus, the recognition of the signs of reliability of collaborative learning methods has been fully manifested.
The current study applied quantitative data analysis method as the study used questionnaire with multiple choice questions and numerical numbers. Current study considers speaking skill as a befitting term to replace the term presentation in the title; however, the term presentation will be interchangeably used with speaking from time to time. The study bases its findings on two popular theoretical frameworks, Constructivist Approach and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development in order to demonstrate collaborative learning in the line of the central hypothesis of this study discussed in the Significance of the Study section. Literature highlighted the positive impact of collaborative learning as opposed to self study or individual learning with specific focus on speaking.
The current study has, thus, put students in contextual and collaborative learning process to contrast their individual prior knowledge with their recently acquired knowledge under the rubric of collaborative learning and thereby their own corrective measures.
As Bangladesh is a Muslim country and a developing country, people from middle and lower middle class families prefer sending their children to Madrasas as a means to a spiritual sacrifice to their God. A significant body of students earns education in a number of Madrasas around the country, and the number increases every year. A total of 1.4 million pupils have been enrolled in the country's 13,902 Qawmi madrasas.
According to a study, Dhaka division has the most madrasas with 4,599, while Barisal division has the fewest with 1,040. The research, published by the Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) in response to Prime Minister's Office orders, is the first such study of Qawmi madrasas in
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Bangladesh (Correspondent, 2021). In addition, a lot of students are studying at Public Universities where English is rarely practiced.
“In Bangladesh, the education system is divided into three sections Bangla Medium, English Medium, and Madrassa System” (Suchona & Shorna, 2019, p.34). Chowdhury found, English is a compulsory course in the syllabi designed for school, college, and university level. In the public universities the non English major students are offered one or two compulsory English courses, whereas, in the private universities the students need to do two to four English courses (2012, p.43).
Yet, Madrasa or Arabic Institutions and Bengali Medium Institutions like public colleges and universities do not have trained ELT teachers, and these teachers are not familiar with collaborative. Most teachers follow grammar translation method in which students are exposed to formal structures rather than a mixed communication environment where students can share their thoughts and ideas and can generate context based language output.
In Public colleges English is taught as a mandatory subject, while Bengali is used as the primary language of instruction in class across all disciplines. English medium (A Levels) schools and colleges deliver mixed modes of lectures both in Bengali and in English, while English is highly encouraged in and outside the classroom. “As theuse ofEnglish is increasing dayby day in differentforms, there is significant evidence of use of English along with Bangla as code mixing and code switching” (Banu & Sussex, 2001 in Rahman, 2005, p. 29 55).
According to Hamid (2009), the government funds and oversees this instruction through a national board of religious education. In this stream, Bangla is the medium of teaching, with Arabic and English as required courses. Madrasa education students are mostly drawn from lower and lower middle class households, and it serves around 16% of the school age population (in Hamid, et. al. 2016, n.p.).
Finally, there is the Madrasa, or Arabic Medium, where English is practically never taught as a primary language. As a result, university students come from a diverse range of backgrounds, and the majority of them are unwilling to talk in English because they are shy, scared, or intimidated. Instructors are supposed to employ the communicative approach as an antidote to such difficulties as worry, fear, and psychological stress in order to minimize these problems with pupils. (Suchona & Shorna, 2019).
The Grammar Translation Method is still used by the majority of academics at Bangladeshi universities, although others aim to combine more student centered instruction CLT Communicative Language Teaching. “One of the strongest criticisms leveled at the higher education system, and particularly at teacher education, is that it does not provide students with the relevant professional expertise demanded of their profession” (Libman, 2014 in Weinberger& Shonfeld, 2018, p.127).
The current study has capitalized on students’ collaborative study as a potential candidate in order to facilitate such a student friendly ambience that can minimize fear and anxiety. “There are a number of benefits that are associated with the concept of collaborative learning (CL)” (Laal & Ghodsi, 2012, p. 486).
Collaborative learning not only allows students to express themselves, but it also allows them to better understand their own strengths while also valuing their peers' contributions and abilities. However, some studies have been done on collaborative learning, and the majority of the research on the outcomes related to collaborative learning has been done at the primary and secondary levels ofschool (Johnson, & Smith, 1991 in Loes & Pascarella, 2017).
Aside from the literature demonstrating collaborative learning's overall positive impact on a variety of student outcomes, there is a smaller body of evidence suggesting collaborative learning may influence college students' cognitive development in general and critical thinking skills in particular (Loes & Pascarella, 2017).
Students from both Public Universities and Madras System participated in a two week long workshop on collaborative speaking practice following by formal presentation. Students were led through a pre lesson activity before their active engagement in Active Task with their peers. Students were introduced to individual work and group work and peer discussions and to using their previous knowledge to collect ideas on their assigned topics. Students were instructed by the instructor through email correspondence and Google meet video conference sessions.
The samples used as subjects in the current study are first year undergraduate students from 3 Arabic Medium or Madrasas and from 2 Public Universities. Students from Madrasas are studying towards earning Fazil Degree, equivalent to Bachelor’s Degrees at universities, in which English is a compulsory subject. Students from public universities participated in the survey include the Department of Business Administration (BBA), the Department of Economics (BSECO) and the Department of Engineering (BSEEE) who are required to take at least two English courses as foundation courses.
A total of 310 students participated voluntarily in the survey in a given period of 20 days. Survey has been conducted with Survey Questionnaire provided through Google Drive link to the subjects. Among 310 students, 210 students from the public universities filled out questionnaire; whereas, 100 students from madrasas filled out the questionnaire.
“
In order to develop a survey/questionnaire first the researcher should decide how to collect the required data” (Taherdoost, 2018 in Taherdoost, 2019, p.3). Data was collected with 310 questionnaires through Google Class as “questionnaire is the most considered the most effective tool by researchers to collect survey data” (Taherdoost, 2019, p. 2). A fixed time frame was given for the questionnaire to be filled out with attention and carefulness and returned to the researcher. The main purpose of the survey questionnaire was to collect date on open ended and close
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ended questions. Students filled out the questionnaire providing responses in accordance their personal perspectives. As this research conducted a quantitative method, questionnaire was a useful method of data collection.
Teachers provided feedback on their individual work on the collection of ideas on the given topic in the first three days of seven day session followed by individual presentation that was assessed on 10 points each. Then, a similar session was executed guiding them through first 3 days followed by their group activities of collecting information and the final group presentation assessed on 10 points each. After the two sessions were successfully conducted, students were given feedbacks on their sessions. Then, the students were given their respective individual and group presentation test scores after three working days. In both cases, in group and individual evaluations students were evaluated separately to show their individual performance.
The Likert Scale has been used as an efficient measurement tool to assess the numerical values of the responses by the study participants during the initial phase of data collection. The Likert Scale is considered one of the most fundamental and common scaling methods in social science research. (Taherdoost, 2019). “It is also the means to collecting data with NON FORCED choice” (Polland, 1998, p. 11) using measurement scale.
Likert scale has been used as the measuring tool to scale the weight of responses from Strongly Agree (SA) Strongly Disagree (SD) using numeric values on 1 to 5 scale where 5=Strongly Agree, 4=Agree, 2=Disagree & 1= Strongly Disagree with 3=Neutral in the middle as per the degree of intensity in opinion and feelings of the subjects on a given question. As there is no substantial standard on how many points to be put on the Likert scale code [1 5] has been used to denote the degree of intensity under the measuring
Data have been presented in numbers and percentages using graphs appropriate for the representation and analysis. The following table demonstrates that among the students taking part, 67.7% are from public universities while 32.3% are from madrasa system.
Table 1 Total number of participants and the ratio of Public and Madrasa participant
Institutions
Number of Participants Ratio
Public University 210 67.70% Madrasa System 100 32.30% Total 310 100.00%
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Chart 2 demonstrates the graphic representation of the above table. The subsequent table-2 has exhibited all the responses from the total participants, which have been represented on Likert Scale, Rensis Likert (1931), has been used to measure the numerical values worth specific ranges from SA(5)=Strongly Agree to SD(1)=Strongly Disagree and N(3)= Neutral has been used to determine the midpoint to represent Neither Agree nor Disagree.
A Likert type scale “requires an individual to respond to a series of statements by indicating whether he or she strongly agrees (SA), agrees (A), is undecided (U), disagrees (D), or strongly disagrees (SD)” (Jamieson, 2004; Croasmuns & Ostrom, 2011, p.19). “A Likert rating scale measurement can be a useful and a reliable instrument for measuring self efficacy” (Maurer, 1998 in Croasmun, & Ostrom, 2011, p.19).
Chart 2 represents the total number of participants [n=310] in the current survey where [Public=210] & [Madrasa=100]. 310 questionnaires were dispatched to the subjects of the current study and the study has received full attendance, 310 data on the questionnaire.
Table 2. Representation of the variables and percentage of dependent variables
Variables Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.5 Q.6 Q.7 Q.8 Q.9 Q.10 Q.11 Q.12 Q.13 Q.14 Q.15 Q.16 SA
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Table 2 consists of variables on the extreme left vertical and the questions on the top row labeled as Q.1 to Q.16. The subjects of the current research were delivered a set of 16 questions covering different aspects of collaborative learning related predominantly to its predicted positive and negative impact on students’ performance on speaking / presentation tests. Students have been divided into six different groups with five general members working under a selected team leader towards accomplishing the assigned presentation project followed by a presentation test. Table 2 represents the response ratio in percentile on the scale of [1 5] on each and every 16 questions. The first two questions have been omitted from the above table which has been displayed at a later stage.
According to the responses on Table 2, it is clearly evident that subjects of the study have responded enthusiastically enough to get their voice heard. Some of the major research questions from among the 16 have been discussed here. The first question is about whether a collaborative learning environment creates a better opportunity for learning. Among the total participants 44% responded (SA) and 56% responded (A), while 0% students responded SD & DA.
For the second and third question Collaborative learning helps you better understand, and Collaborative learning improves students/ increases a student's desire to excel most students acknowledged the positive impact of collaborative learning on their cognitive development (i.e. Zone of Proximal Development) which helps them understand their peers who come from culturally different backgrounds and they believe that collaborative learning improves or increases their desire to excel in their work. For, Q.2& Q.3 45% & 33% said (SA) and 55% &67% responded (A), while 0% students responded (D) & (SD) for both the questions respectively.
Survey questions [Q.6, Q9, and Q.10. & Q.11] have been intended to determine whether collaborative learning helps students develop better communication skills, speaking skills, think of new ideas, and create a better environment for speaking practice. 48%, 52%, 59%, &48% students responded positively as they have strongly
agreed with the statements, while only 3% students think that collaborative learning does not help them develop better communication skills and speaking skills, while none disagreed with the statements.
According to Table 2, we can make a strong case that most students are in favor of collaborative learning and they understand that collaborative learning helps perform better in their speaking and presentation. At this stage, the research has undergone a number of tests to determine the data consistency and reliability and to extract more elaborate analysis of different variables in the data.
In addition to the fundamental questions to Collaborative Learning and its impact, two introductory questions have been asked to measure the level of familiarity and students’ overall preference to collaborative learning. The results on the two questions have been generated below.
Table 3. Students’ familiarity and preference to Collaborative Learning Responses Institutions Familiarity Presences
Yes PublicUniversity 74.4% 93.5%
No MadrasaSystem 22.6% 6.5%
Chart 4 Public and Madras students’ familiarity and preference to collaborative learning
Table 3 corresponds with Chart 4 as both are representing students’ reflection on the questions, Are you familiar with collaborative learning or group learning. And do you prefer studying in groups? In response to these questions, 77.4% and bulk 93.5% Public University students have confirmed that they are familiar with collaborative learning, and they prefer collaborative learning, as they love studying in groups rather than individually.
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Table 4. Comparative Test Scores and their sum total, mean value and standard dev.
Test Scores** Sum Mean* Standard Deviation*
Individual Test Scores 1694 5.464516129 1.328198632
Collaborative Test Scores 2281 7.358064516 0.928442791
Chart 5. Graphic representations of the comparative test score
Chart 5 displays graphical representation of table 4 both of which demonstrates the total score earned in the individual test and in the collaborative test by Madras students as well as Public University students. It also shows the mean difference and standard deviation between the two test scores. It is evident that scores earned in collaborative test outweighs the scores earned in the individual test. The mean difference between the two tests is also remarkable together with the standard deviation 0.92844 between the test scores of all students in their collaborative test, which means that all students in the collaborative learning and collaborative test scored equally consistently compared to 1.328 (standard deviation) between all the scores earned in individual test scores both by Public university students and Madrasa Students.
It is evident that students from both Arabic and Bengali medium institutions show similar improvement upon collaborative learning. The study also suggests positive improvement in students’ English language learning through collaborative learning.
Numbers instead of texts have been used on Excel and SPSS Spreadsheet for the analysis of data at different phases of the data incorporation and analysis at different sections. A reliable validity testing tool has been adapted to test internal consistency of the data. First, a validity test has been conducted following Cronbach’s alpha to measure “internal consistency” reliability as “Cronbach’s alpha is the most widely used tool to measure consistency in scientific research” (Bonett & Wright, 2014, p.3). Lee Cronbach in (1951) provides a measure of the internal consistency and reliability of a test or scale; it is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. Internal consistency describes the extent to which all the items in a test measure the same concept or construct and hence it is connected to the inter relatedness of the items within the test.
A two sample F test, Correlation, and Regression analysis also have been run to see the internal correlation and variance between two sets of data variables (i.e. in between dependent variables as well as between test scores of individual performance & test scores of collaborative performance) gathered from students’ responses and test scores generated by individual effort and the post test scores.
A two sample T test has been conducted to test [t stat] and the distinction between M=mean values between two different variables. The T test is followed by the significant correlation and regression testing on ANOVA hypothesis tool to determine r values (reliability coefficient) and p= (probability) of the positive or negative relationship between two variables.
The primary collection of data samples has been tested to see internal consistency of the data against Cronbach Alpha (α ≥.75) and KR 21 formula see Reliability Coefficients. It is common to see the reliability of instruments used in published science education studies framed in terms of a statistic known as Cronbach’s alpha (Taber, 2018) Cronbach’s alpha has been described as “one of the most important and pervasive statistics in research involving test construction and use” (Cortina, 1993, p. 98 in p.1275).
N %
Cases Valid 310 100.0 Excluded 0 .0 Total 310 100.0
Above table 5 displays a case processing summary of the number of participants with 0 excluded. At first, the collected data has been set in excel spreadsheet and then transferred to SPSS for final testing. The raw data has been renamed with specific numerical values in order for them to fit SPSS criteria. Data labels have been put properly. For the first two questions on students’ familiarity and preference numerical values Yes=1 and No=0 have been used on the SPSS spreadsheet.Likewise, Public University=1 and Madrasa=0 have been put along with 5=Strongly Agree, 4=Agree, 3=neither Agree nor Disagree, 2=Disagree and 1=Strongly Disagree have been set as data to run a reliability test on all the variables.
Following table 6 shows the Cronbach’s Alpha α=*.897 on N=19 items put on SPSS. It is clear that the data set has successfully passed the important critical point of Cronbach Alpha in order for the data to be recognized as statistically reliable. Alpha value is considered Excellent at (0.93 0.94), strong (0.91 0.93), dependable (0.84 0.90), robust (0.81), quite high (0.76 0.95), high (0.73 0.95), good (0.71 0.91), somewhat high (0.70 0.77), moderate (0.61 0.65), satisfactory (0.58 0.97), acceptable (0.45 0.98), sufficient (0.45 0.96), not satisfactory (0.45 0.96) (0.11) (Taber, 2018).
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As α=*.897 is higher than 0.81 set by (Taber, 2018) and fits within [0.84 0.90] we can consider it reliable. Hence, the internal consistency of the collected data is proven at this stage. Table 6 measures the item means and inter item correlation summary which shows that the average correlation between items is at significant level = *.377 which suggests that all the respondents responded positively towards collaborative learning.
Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's AlphaBasedon StandardizedItems N of Items α = *.897 .920 19
Table 7. Demonstration of internal consistency and variance
Reliabilitytestresultsshowing Cronbach’s Alpha SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
FAM/CL 310 24 0.774194 0.180645 PREF/CL 310 29 0.935484 0.062366
CL/BETTERLERENVIRON 310 132 4.258065 0.464516
CLLERCULTURE 310 135 4.354839 0.369892 CLLERDESIREEXCEL 310 129 4.16129 0.406452
CLRESPONSIBLE 310 130 4.193548 0.494624
CLIMPORTANCETEAMWORK 310 141 4.548387 0.322581
CLBETTERCOMSKILLS 310 134 4.322581 0.55914 CLCHAOS 310 109 3.516129 1.258065
CLHELPSCRITICAL 310 120 3.870968 0.716129
CLIMPSPEAK 310 135 4.354839 0.569892
CLNEWIDEAS 310 139 4.483871 0.391398
PRACTSPEAKCL 310 136 4.387097 0.378495
CLMOTIVATIONMORE 310 138 4.451613 0.455914
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CLACTIVE 310 134 4.322581 0.425806
CLINTERESTNEWIDEAS 310 125 4.032258 0.898925
CLENERGY 310 127 4.096774 0.690323
CLMOREENGAGED 310 124 4 0.733333
CLPRESTEST 310 208.5 6.725806 1.813978
Table 7 demonstrates inter item consistency along with mean variance in between variables. Column on the very left (Groups) represents the shortened forms for the each and every survey question with CLPRESTEST=Presentation Test after Collaborative Learning at the very bottom. On the extreme right column variances are presented. There is no significant variance among the variables except the first two variables which are outstanding items with close ended questions (Yes/No). The reason perhaps is because for the first two items only two options / two numerical values 1 & 0 were put in the processing sheet.
Study shows that ANOVA single factor P value is (p<0.05) we can say that there is no significant difference between the variables, which means that there is internal consistency in the responses from all the subjects of the research. Smaller (p=8.3E 148) suggests that the data is statistically significant and it allows us to reject the null hypothesis to accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a significant relationship between the given variables. Hence, the data has been proven reliable according to Bowling (2009) that “the reliability in quantitative research as synonymous to dependability, consistency, reproducibility over time, over instruments and over groups of respondents” (in Oluwatayo, 2012, p. 391).
At first, the two sets of data collected on students’ individual performance in the test scores [INDVPRESTEST] and the presentation test scores generated by collaborative preparation and performance [CLPRESTEST). These two sets of data have undergone a reliability test on SPSS to measure internal consistency and reliability on the basis of Cronbach’s Alpha.
Table: 8 Reliability and Consistency testing of Individual Test and Collaborative Test Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items *.991 .992 2
Above table 8 demonstrates reliability and internal consistency between two test results by the students. The testing results of Cronbach Alpha stands (α= *.991) and the number of items (N=2). According to statistics the Alpha complies with and stands higher than Excellent = (0.93 0.94) set by Taber (2009). Therefore, both the data
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sets are statistically reliable to conduct correlation and regression with other variables. It also suggests that the students’ performance in both individual and collaborative tests have consistency. In order to determine the points of fluctuation, an F test was conducted. In addition, a Regression analysis was done on the two sets of results to pinpoint variance in data.
Regression analysis shows that the correlation between the two variables is statistically significant as the P= possibility of null hypothesis that two variables are different proves wrong and (p=0.0000) is obviously very small and p<0.05 which suggests that we can easily reject the null hypothesis that these two variables are different. Hence, there is no significant difference observed at this level.
It can be said that students in both cases performed quite well. However, the current findings require a different test to measure the degree of improvements in the collaborative test score in order for the responses to match the test results. The table also demonstrates important clues for us to reject the null hypothesis and form an alternative hypothesis at this stage. Table 10 which is part of table 11 also shows the similar signs of correlation between these two items, where R square =*0.968464389 which is statistically significant, which means that there is significant correlation between the two items.
To determine any significant variance between the test after individual performance and test after collaborative performance a T test and an F test have been conducted to highlight the mean difference, which can provide an important sign of difference between the two tests.
T-test exhibits the statistics found in t-test, which shows that (p=0.38252) which is (*p>0.05) which is larger, and it suggests that we cannot reject the Null Hypothesis. Also, t stat is smaller than t critical value which suggests that there is no significant difference;however, there is a difference in meanin the t test as well as in F test which suggests otherwise. Though the difference is small, students have performed better and made better improvement in collaborative learning by contrast.
F test shows the same test results where there is a marked difference between the two sets of tests-data, which suggests that though the p-value suggests otherwise there is still a sign of better performance in the Collaborative performance results made possible by students’ participation in the collaborative learning process. Hence, the findings of table13 match with students’ responses on the Likert scale. The tests also demonstrate the relationship between dependent variable CLPRESTEST and other independent predictors that predict the improvement in performance and test scores after collaborative learning. Inter item correlation has been displayed as a valid manifestation of the positive impact of collaborative learning according to the findings.
At this stage, the research has succeeded in replicating the kind of context the Constructivist Approach of learning suggests through learners’ immersion in collaborative engagements and sharing and refining their ideas reflected in chart-8.
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In other words, “a research can be deemed valid if the extent to which a research instrument consistently has the same results, if it is used in the same situation on repeated occasions” (Heale, R., & Twycross, A., 2015, p.66).
In order to prove further consistency in the data the current study has represented several other tests, and the following correlation test on SPSS has been conducted to measure +/ relationship between Collaborative Test Score and other indicators. For Salvucci, Walter, Conley, Fink, and Saba, in terms of the range of reliability measure, when the r value is less than 0.50, the reliability is considered low; if the r value is between 0.50 and 0.80, the reliability is regarded as moderate whereas the r value is greater than 0.80, the reliability is treated as high (1997, p. 121). The data have also undergone a regression test to determine the p value to see whether p</>.05 to reject the null hypothesis and reach an alternative hypothesis.
The correlation between the significant indicators and their consistent relationship with CLPRESTEST=Collaboration Presentation Test. Based on the correlation statistics, we see there are negative and positive correlations between the variables, which will be further interpreted below; however, the correlations between inter items are statistically significant at (P<0.01) level and (P<0.05) level.
To further clarify the correlations one by one, the correlation between Collaborative Presentation Test (Individual performer) and CLMOREENGAGED= Collaborative Learning and More Engagement in lesson, CLINTERESTNEWIDEAS= Collaborative Learning and More Interest in New Ideas, PRACTSPEAKCL= Collaborative Learning and Practice Speaking, CLIMPSPEAK= Collaborative Learning and Importance of Speaking, CLBETTERCOMSKILLS= Collaborative Learning and Communication Skills, CLHELPSCRITICAL Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking show that the correlations are not statistically significant as the P value is larger than (P≥0.05) at (P=0.312, 0.603, 0.423, 0.933, 0.398, and 0.126) respectively.
Though the test displays negative Pearson (r= * 0.188, * 0.097, * 0.149, 0.016, 0.157, 0.281) respectively it suggests that the correlation is still statistically significant and has bearing on the test results. According to Taylor (1990), the correlation's strength is independent of its direction or sign. A negative correlation denotes an inverse relationship, in which one variable rises while the other falls. One of the reasons for the negative association is that the numerical values assigned to test scores are higher than those assigned to other indicators, such as the Likert Scale options. (5 1).
Regression analysis demonstrates the findings on the regression analysis between INDIVPRESTEST and other predictors, where INDIVPRESTEST is considered Dependent Variable. Coefficient R2=*0.1 and R=*316 prove that the correlation between the items is statistically at close variance and there is a relationship among the items. Whereas, (P>.842) is not statistically significant. We can make a case that the earlier between the two tests shows better statistically significant P value than the latter, which suggest that students’ performance on CLPRESTEST is better than on INDIVPRESTEST. That means students in collaborative learning perform better than
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in individual learning. The study hence is ready to suggest collaborative would very likely ensure better results.
The current study provides strong, positive implications for both Public University students and Madrasa students that they are more active and responsible in collaborative learning than in individual learning. “While the effectiveness of collaborative learning cannot be negated or questioned, limitations to implementing its full force is often ascribed to students’ inability to communicate effectively (i.e. language) and unequal individual participation in group tasks not to Collaborative Learning” (e.g. Freeman & Greenacre, 2010; Janssen et. al., 2007 in Le, Janssen, & Wubbels, 2018, p. 104).
Thus, the current study provides successful data on ZPD together with a reflection on students’ engagement in dialogues through contextual learning process as suggested by Constructivist Approach. This study strongly suggests that the collaborative learning method can facilitate more productive and ensure much better learning compared with other methods and provide learners student centered learning environment in both Public Universities and Madrasas.
Collaborative learning can be used as a universal communicative teaching method where both adults and children can get a proper ambience to learn through their shared interests and previous knowledge. The study has shown that collaborative learning is more productive if properly enacted irrespective of Bengali medium universities and Arabic education systems. It not only helps school children do better on exams but it also helps tertiary level students and help them develop their critical thinking skills. “Students are not only expected to speak well but also expected to address complex scientific and social issues, greater involvement of students in dialogue, and an increased emphasis on collaborative discourse and argumentation, have become essential modes of engagement and learning” (Harney, Hogan, & Quinn, 2017 in Weinberger et. al., 2020, p.127).
Collaborative learning supports ZPD by allowing students to learn in context. Collaboration is also mentioned, if indirectly, in UNESCO's document from the summit on rethinking learning in the digital era (Shonfeld et al., 2017 in Weinberger, 2020). Yet, “despite the widespread influence of social constructivism that supports CL methods in education” (Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Stahl, 2006), “teachers’ perceptions of their students’ learning processes are not always indicative of a concomitant internalization” (Weinberger et al., 2020, p. 28).
However, the data from the present study has several limitations. 310 students from two distinct universities, each using a different teaching method and academic structure, participated in this study. This study demonstrates not just the advantages of collaborative learning but also highlights parallels between
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madrasa and university students' perceptions. To that aim, this study suggests further research among college students at various levels from other schools in order to acquire more information and develop a more comprehensive grasp of the subject.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 368 383, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.21
Received Apr 16, 2022; Revised Jul 29, 2022; Accepted Sep 1, 2022
Caleb Moyo University of Central Nicaragua Managua, Nicaragua.
Selaelo Maifala Cape Peninsula University of Technology Faculty of Education, Department of SP & FET, Mowbray, South Africa.
Abstract This inquiry sought to explore the teachers’ and students’ challenges and attitudes concerning mandatory online instruction at the beginning of the pandemic in March 2020. Using a qualitative case study, a single international school in Doha, Qatar was sampled to participate. The data was generated from interviews with seven teachers who participated in one on one in depth interviews and from six groups of students who participated in focus group discussions An inductive data analysis approach was employed to analyse the data. The findings revealed various technical, pedagogical, and social challenges experienced by both teachers and students The participants’ attitudes to online learning were mixed as others preferred this mode of learning while some preferred learning in physical classrooms. The implications point toward the need for teacher professional development that targets the use of online teaching platforms. They further point to the need for teachers and school administrators to find strategies to make online learning more interactive and to assign work that reduces the amount of time spent on the screen.
Keywords: attitudes; challenges; Covid 19; online learning; teacher professional development
The novel coronavirus of 2019 (Covid 19) first broke out in late 2019 in the city of Wuhan in China’s Hubei province (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2020a).
By March 2020, the WHO declared the virus to be a pandemic after it had spread to over 140 countries and territories (WHO situation report 55, 2020b). To curb the spread of the virus, social distancing and lockdown measures were undertaken and governments in over 110 countries resolved to temporarily close their schools
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
In the state of Qatar, as the number of confirmed cases rose to eighteen on the 9th March 2020, the government announced the suspension of schooling (State of Qatar Government Communications Office, 2020). Furthermore, because of the turmoil caused by the virus, the government could not say when the schools would reopen and mandated that schools go online. Other affected countries in the region like Iran and Egypt shut down their schools with no apparent plan for online education which can safely be attributed to a lack of financial backing and infrastructure. Contrarily, Qatar is the richest country in the world according to its GDP per capita (World Bank, 2022) with a population that has easy access to technology in their homes and classrooms.
Furthermore, the government views education as a powerful tool in driving social and economic changes in the country (Abou El Kheir, 2017).
In its vision for 2030, the government envisages that the education provided in the country will be compatible with the best education systems in the world (General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2008). Consequently, billions of dollars have been invested in various education reform programmes such as Education City (Khodr, 2011). Therefore, while the challenges experienced in other countries may include a lack of infrastructure for such endeavours, we anticipated that these would not be challenges found in Qatar.
However, while infrastructure is one thing, implementation is another. For instance, a study by Al Jaber and Dutta (2008) which sought to investigate the implementation of the ICT Qatar government programme of 2004 revealed various difficulties with implementation. Some of the difficulties included resistance to change by parents, teachers and communities, the attitude to technology, government censorship, and a lack of trained teachers.
In the context of the pandemic, there have not been any studies focusing on both teacher and student challenges and attitudes to the mandatory emergency move to online learning. Related studies include the inquiry by Chaaban, Sawalhi and Du (2021) which sought to investigate teacher leadership during the same period. Their findings revealed that the participants were adequately supported by their schools and the Ministry of Education. Conversely, increased workloads were a hindrance to professional learning in that period. Others, including the inquiries by Newsome et al. (2022), focused on the experiences of students and lecturers in higher education. As such, little is known about the challenges and attitudes of learners and teachers in primary and secondary education at the beginning of online learning. The lack of empirical evidence from Qatar could mean that Qatari policymakers and practitioners make decisions for future planning and practices based on the experiences and attitudes of the students and teachers in other contexts. The objective of this study was therefore to bridge this gap in the literature by responding to the following research questions:
• What are the challenges experienced by teachers and students during their transition to online learning?
• What are the attitudes of teachers and students about using online learning in the future?
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Studies conducted in other contexts have revealed a multitude of technical and pedagogical challenges.Notably, there are technical challenges that relate to a lack of digital competency which was a major challenge in the literature reviewed (Alea, Fabrea, Roldan & Farooqi, 2020; Adenoyin & Soykan, 2021) Furthermore, the unavailability of digital devices and the lack of reliable internet connection also posed a challenge (Ferri, Grifoni & Guzzo, 2020; Ramij & Sultana, 2020).
Another common obstacle is the heavy workload and fatigue experienced by teachers (Ferri et al., 2020; Hermanto & Srimulyani, 2021; Adeboyin & Soykan, 2021). While this challenge was perceived negatively in many of the studies reviewed, the inquiry by Seabra et al. (2021) showed that some teachers perceived the heavy workload to be an opportunity for development. Moreover, it was found in the same study that teacher ages did not influence their attitude to online learning.
Research on the experiences of students during the transition indicates that a lack of proper digital devices and poor internet connection were one of the major challenges (Adnan & Anwar, 2020; Famularsih, 2020). Furthermore, similarly to the teacher challenges, a lack of digital skills when it comes to participating in online classes was also an obstacle. For instance, the study by Ferri et al. (2020) found that one of the reasons for low attendance in online classes could be attributed to the students’ lack of digital skills in those between the ages of 11 and 17 years old
In addition, students also lamented their lack of motivation to carry out the assignments (Hermanto & Srimulyani, 2021) along with a decreased focus and being distracted (Hussein et al., 2020) These findings are consistent with the assertion by Zhang et al. (2020) who argued in March 2020 that working from home could pose challenges as there would be plenty of distractions for students Conversely, other students blamed increased workloads rather than their motivation to keep up with the work assigned since the transition to online learning (Famularsih, 2020; Hussein et al., 2020). Moreover, the lack of social interactions that come with studying online was also found to be a challenge by students. For example, a study by Gustiani (2020) found that despite students being motivated by wanting to pass their courses, they found online learning uninteresting because of the reduced opportunity for interaction.
The study was underpinned by the interpretive paradigm which accepts reality as subjective. It also relates to an understanding that what is considered true varies from one individual to the next (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) Thus, the researchers had no desire to quantify the experiences of participants or generalise
the findings to other contexts, but to have an understanding of the phenomenon as lived by the participants. From these assumptions, a qualitative case study was utilised and a single international school high school in Doha, Qatar was sampled to participate.
Seven teachers, three male and four females, were sampled using purposive sampling to participate in the study. The criteria for sampling the teachers was that they had to be high school teachers working in the sampled Kindergarten to Year 13 (K 13) school. Knowing that age can influence one's experiences with technology (Blank & Dutton, 2012), we aimed to include teacher participants from different age groups. Thus, the participants ranged from 26 to 55 years. Their teaching subjects were not a criterion for selection, thus those who participated taught across different subjects in the school.
The student participants were also selected using purposive sampling. The criteria for selection was them being in Key Stages 3 and 4 (Year 7 to 11). We chose not to include Key Stage 5 (Year 12 and 13) as we assumed that their challenges of having to take their International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) and Advanced Level General Certificate of Education (A Levels) in the same academic year of this turmoil could be better understood in a different study. Thus, a total of 94 students between the ages of 11 and 16 participated in six focus group discussions.
The data was generated in the second week of April 2020, three weeks after the start of online learning. The teacher data was generated through one on one, semi structured interviews while the student data was generated through focus group discussions. In both instances, the data was generated virtually using the video conferencing application, Zoom Focus group discussions as opposed to one on one interviews for the students were selected with the knowledge of the power of interactions facilitated by group settings when discussing a similar lived experience. Interacting with each other allowed the participants to think, debate, reflect, and even remember details that would otherwise be forgotten or neglected, thus enhancing the validity of the findings (McMillian & Schumacher, 2010). Furthermore, because we sought to understand the experiences of students, we valued hearing more student voices as opposed to sampling a smaller group through focus group discussions, which therefore became the best data generation method. While some of their experiences were unique to each student, we were able to identify patterns in the responses from one focus group to the next which led to the findings. We asked standard questions which elicited the student and teacher experiences in terms of computer efficacy, prior preparedness, workload, navigation issues, and whether in the future they would prefer learning online compared to traditional classroom settings.
After the completion of the documentation of the data, the inductive analysis approach was undertaken in which all data was read, collated, coded, and sorted
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out into clusters, patterns and categories. This sorting led to the themes that were presented as the findings (McMillian & Schumacher, 2010).
Permission was sought from the principal to use the study in the research. Consent was also sought from teacher participants and granted. We also approached students in writing and verbally to explain the nature of the study and their participation. Because the students were minors, from those who showed an interest, we also sought permission from their parents.
The two modes of facilitating online instruction in the school during the initial online learning were Zoom and Google Classroom. The teachers also revealed that the last day of school for students was the 9th March while the first day of online classes was the 16th of the same month. The findings in response to the first research question revealed various challenges that the teachers and students encountered. The similarities and differences in the challenges experienced by the two groups are depicted in Figure 1 below.
The teacher interviews indicated that apart from one participant who teaches ICT, the teachers had either never heard of the platforms chosen by the school to deliver the online lessons, or they had never used them before. The teachers also indicated that between the last day of the physical classes (9th March) and online classes (16th March), there had been no workshops to prepare them for the task. Rather, they had been encouraged to try out the platforms to acclimatise
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themselves with them before the first day which led to various technical challenges in the implementation stage. One teacher who teaches Information Communications Technology (ICT) stated that while she was one of the lucky few who were familiar with one of the platforms, she experienced challenges still. She stated:
I was confident in using Google classroom but not so much Zoom. It was very disturbing and we have had to figure everything out ourselves and we’ve had some issues with inappropriate behaviour during live lessons, like a student annotating on the screen. I had one of my students write the word vagina on one of my slides and I had no idea how to remove that or disable it. (Teacher 1)
Teacher 2 also concurred, indicating: We were ambushed and there was no transition period. I had never heard of Google Classroom. So I found that teachers like myself who had not been exposed to IT and all the gadgets struggle more. I was not aware for example, that with Zoom the recording is only 40 minutes long and I would be in the middle of my lesson when I get cut off. (Teacher 2)
However, it must be stated that while it is apparent that the teachers believe that they could have been better prepared by the school, there was an acknowledgement of the nature of the crisis and the awareness that the mitigation efforts were taken on without too much time to deliberate beforehand. While responding to the question of what the school could have done better, Teacher 5 commented:
The school did the best they could. Nobody anticipated this; they just found themselves in this situation which involves making quick decisions in a short period of time on behalf of a very large community of people (Teacher 5)
The lack of prior training and technical skills as experienced by the teachers in this study led to a negative experience for them and their students. It can be concluded that if the teachers were better prepared, they would have had a better experience and subsequently, the students may have also had a better experience and attitude towards online learning.
In addition to the challenge of the students writing profanities on the shared screen as indicated by Teacher 1, the other participants also indicated that they had experienced classroom management challenges, especially in the first few weeks as they were still learning how to use the platforms. For instance, two teachers commented:
I found it difficult to manage the classroom at the beginning because I didn’t understand the technology. Students would talk out of place and I didn’t know how to mute them. I didn’t know that you could kick a student out of the class. (Teacher 3)
Students can act out because they know that there are no sanctions you can give them. You are not in school and cannot give them detention. To a certain extent, you lose authority. (Teacher 2)
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About the first challenge discussed, the teachers felt that the impersonal nature of the online instructions meant that the students could not always access help and the teachers could not immediately identify challenges with learning and address them right away. For example, Teacher 7 explained: You cannot monitor students' facial expressions to see if they are following the lesson. It is only until you ask a question, which you cannot do with all of them all the time. So that means you can easily lose track of students who are not engaged in learning in a virtual classroom as opposed to a face to face classroom. (Teacher 7)
Similarly, Teacher 7 also stated: What makes online teaching most difficult for me is not being able to see students’ work as they are doing it and help them right there and then. (Teacher 7).
Another assessed challenge was the originality of the students’ work which was experienced by most of the participants. For example, Teacher 2 asserted: Another thing I discovered is that some parents are doing the work for their children. Actually sitting on the computer and doing the work for them. Brilliant answers that I know for a fact could not have come from the child (Teacher 2)
The teachers also found that online teaching increased their workload significantly. In their perspective, online instructions meant more teacher assessments and more planning. Furthermore, the teachers indicated that they spent more time even outside of their standard working hours responding to emails from both students and parents on matters that, during face to face classes, could have been clarified to all students. In addition, the teachers found that marking work that had been submitted online took more time. For instance, Teacher 3 indicated:
It takes a lot longer to mark on Google Classroom than by hand, therefore increasing the amount of time I spend working. The platform does not allow annotating on the student’s paper or putting ticks. So I have to record them on paper so as not to lose track of their scores. (Teacher 3)
Another aspect of online learning was where the teachers perceived that their workload had increased due to the administrative tasks and planning they had to carry out in addition to also trying to figure out the new mode of teaching. For example, Teacher 2 expressed: I struggled in the last three weeks. There has been lots of admin work and I’ve never been a paperwork person so I really struggled. Plus, with virtual teaching, there is a lot more planning to do and working much later hours than before.
Moreover, due to how sudden the move to online learning was, the teachers found that the level of communication and instructions from the school administrators had increased, thus increasing their workload. For example, Teacher 2 said: Teachers had volumes of information coming in at the same time that they had to process and implement without proper direction which normally is not the case so our workload increased significantly. (Teacher 2)
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It is clear then that navigating a new system of instruction, new communication demands, and expectations from the management contributed to an increased workload for the teachers.
4.2.1
It is apparent from the focus group discussions that despite being commonly known as digital natives, many of the students struggled with using the platforms. For example, one student stated: “I’m a slow typer so it takes me a very long time to finish work than I did when I was writing.” (Student 1)
Connectivity to the internet was also cited by the students as one of the struggles that they experienced in their first few weeks of online learning. For example, two students indicated: Sometimes the internet connection is really bad like exhibit A, right now I was just disconnected and had to rejoin the meeting. (Student 4)
If the internet is good, then the microphone works. However, when it is bad then the microphone does not work and I cannot participate in discussions (Student 5)
4.2.2
Similar to the teacher participants, the students also complained about the heavy workload. For example, Student 6 stated: I see that teachers give us much more work. When we were at school we didn’t have as much work. I feel that online learning has brought more pressure on us. (Student 6)
Other students also indicated that when the prospect of online learning came up, they had anticipated less work but were surprised that the teachers were assigning even more. As such, the students expressed that they were under more pressure in terms of schoolwork since moving online. Two students expressed: When the online school started I thought teachers might be a bit lenient with the work so that’s why I didn’t expect much. However, I was bombarded with so much stuff that for two days I didn’t know what to do. (Student 3)
Everyone thought if we start online school the pressure would drop, but I feel like it has doubled for almost every subject Even though we are at home there are still only 24 hours. (Student 15)
Further to the two challenges alluded to above, the lack of immediate feedback and clear guidelines proved a challenge for some students. The students felt that reaching their teachers was often difficult as the teachers did not always respond promptly This finding was thought provoking when compared to the one determined from the data collected from the teachers stated that they found it hard to respond to the ceaseless student questions sent outside working hours. In addition, they felt that the teachers often assigned them work without clear instructions.
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The voices of two students are captured below:
In normal school we had teachers explain things to us if we didn’t understand. Teachers could also see our facial expressions and know that we didn’t understand. (Student 9)
Sometimes we get slides that we do not understand and when we ask some teachers questions they write a whole paragraph about how they are disappointed in us. (Student 4).
It is clear from these findings that in addition to the lack of immediate feedback and clear guidelines, miscommunications that can be attributed to online learning also occurred. This is seen in how the teachers complained about the incessant emails adding to their workload while the students feel that the teachers were not always available to respond to their questions.
4.2.4
The complete shift from face to face classes to online learning has meant a change in activities such as group work, physical education, class presentations, and other classroom activities to doing most tasks on the computer. This unavoidable increase in screen time came with perceived adverse physical effects on some of the students who complained of sore eyes, headaches, and stress. For example, two students stated:
Sir, don't your eyes hurt? Mine have been hurting so much from sitting in front of the computer all day long. (Student 11)
I end up spending too much time on my laptop that it makes my eyes hurt (Student 12).
As a result of the increase in workload discussed in section 4.2.2, some of the students reportedly experienced another adverse physical effect stress. For example, Student 4 stated:
I get more stressed now. It is difficult to get used to the amount of homework (Student 4).
4.3
Based on the challenges that we anticipated the novelty of online learning would bring, we sought to understand what the teachers’ and students’ attitudes would be towards online learning. The word ‘attitude’ as understood in this study comes from the Meriam Webster Online Dictionary (2022) which defines it as “a mental position with regard to a fact or state” (4a) or “a feeling or emotion toward a fact or state” (4b). Therefore, by asking this question, we wanted to understand the emotions that the teachers and students had regarding online learning based on how they were experiencing it at that present time. Furthermore, to understand their position about whether in the future they would prefer studying online or face to face classrooms. Data from both students and teachers on their willingness to embrace online learning revealed mixed attitudes. It was clear that while among the two groups most found that being at home had various benefits, many also held the perception that there are important aspects of learning face to face that online learning cannot replace or address.
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Most of the teachers held the view that they would prefer to incorporate aspects of online learning into their teaching as they had acquired some relevant skills. However, most insisted that this would only work if it was blended with face to face classes rather than working completely online. Their reasons varied but some perceived online learning to work better with high ability and/or older students, as well as being impractical for some subjects, and there being the inability of online teaching to replace human interactions. For example, Teacher 5 stated: I don't mind blended learning but now that I've had the opportunity to teach virtually, I feel like it is more suitable for older students because when you are there you can see them learning. It is also good with high ability students. So if I were to do it I would do it with high ability students. (Teacher 5)
Teacher 7 also stated his apprehension about teaching practical subjects like the sciences through online learning, stating: Online learning is great for some subjects but not all, I'm sure in English it's easier to discuss works of literature with students but with mathematics, you have to show students each step as you work, it just doesn't work. (Teacher 7)
Furthermore, the lack of interaction, as discussed earlier, influenced the participants' attitudes towards online learning. The physical interactions meant that teachers could build rapport g with their students which they viewed as important to teaching and learning. Physical interactions were preferred when it came to allowing the teachers to provide guidance they deemed more practical in a physical environment.
In addition, it was also evident from the findings that some teachers had fears about their privacy and online security. For example, Teacher 6 stated: I also don’t think they considered our privacy and we were a bit naïve in not considering these factors. Our videos could be circulated on the internet and we are made laughing stocks. I never take a video with my face on it because I don’t want to and I have that right. (Teacher 6)
Contrary to the doubts and concerns expressed by most teachers, Teacher 4, who is also the youngest among the teacher respondents, preferred online teaching over face to face teaching. She stated: The time that I save on commuting to and from work is great. The systems of submitting work are also a lot easier to manage than having students hand in work physically. (Teacher 4)
4.3.2
Among the students, it was evident that attitudes were even more polarised than those of the teacher respondents. For those who had a positive attitude towards online learning, some felt that learning online allowed them a degree of independence and the ability to learn new skills For instance, one stated: Working online makes me feel almost like a businesswoman which I want to be when I grow up. It is just cool because I sit at my desk and have all my work laid out. So it brings the atmosphere of growing up closer. (Student 24)
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Other students preferred working online as they felt that it allowed them to work at their own pace. Student 7 indicated: In school, one is forced to stay there for 7.5 hours while here I can finish my work in ten or thirty minutes. But also I can go to the mall when I want to. I have more time; I’m not forced to sit in one place (Student 7)
Conversely, for those who perceived online learning negatively, it was evident that the biggest influence was human interaction. This included the interactions with their peers which they deemed important in collaborative learning and friendships. Furthermore, the students deemed interactions with their teachers to be vital to their understanding of taught content. For example, Student 16 expressed: “I know it is my house and everything but I just feel better being with my friends”
Another student also stated: Studying alone is not fun. We had a lesson where a teacher said we should discuss with a partner but we were not going to do it because we can't communicate. (Student 3)
The findings of this study indicate that teachers and students experienced numerous challenges in the sudden move to online instruction as a response to the Covid 19 pandemic. Because schools had to move online so suddenly, it is also clear from the findings that the lack of time and perhaps consideration when teachers were preparing before the first day, led to some of the negative experiences of both teachers and students. It appears that the school administrators had confidence that because the curriculum had not changed, and because teachers already had some knowledge of technology, asking them to go home and try out Google Classroom and Zoom would be sufficient. However, teachers ended up struggling with the use of both platforms. This negation of their obligation to provide teachers with effective professional development during this transition reveals a lack of effective instructional leadership (Leithwood, Harris & Hopkins, 2019; Harris & Jones, 2020). It is also evident from the findings that while the teachers did not report having connectivity problems, some of the students struggled. These findings are in line with the findings from other studies which indicate that particularly in developing countries, connectivity issues are common (Ramij & Sultana, 2020; Adnan & Anwar, 2020). As such, schools need to consider that even though the teachers may not have connectivity challenges, the students may. As such, it is vital to work with the parents to find solutions.
It is also apparent from the findings that online learning demands new classroom management strategies. It is also clear that the surge in online learning has undermined the tech companies’ abilities to protect online users. For instance, teachers struggling with students speaking out of turn and others writing profanities on the screen is consistent with other studies and media reports. The video conferencing platform Zoom, for example, did not initially have security measures such as waiting rooms that would allow the meeting host to admit participants into meetings. Studies (Khan, Brohi & Zaman, 2020; Fudge & Williams, 2020) and media reports (Hodge, 2020; Navarro, 2020) have shown that
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these lead to various security threats. Therefore, schools must train teachers to be proactive in their use of these platforms and come up with new rules for classroom management, as well as sanctions for the students during online learning.
Another important finding discovered by this study was that of a lack of effective assessment and immediate feedback. The teachers’ perspective revealed that they feared that because learners could not be seen, some were presenting work they could not have done by themselves. Furthermore, some of the teachers also lamented not being able to help students who needed it while doing work. Similarly, findings from the student participants also indicated that they too found the lack of immediate feedback a challenge in addition to finding that some of the instructions sent were unclear These findings are consistent with other studies suggesting that the lack of immediate feedback and interaction is perceived as a challenge by both teachers and students using online learning platforms (Gay, 2016; Kite et al, 2020). In terms of the reliability of the online assessments, teachers need to explore other ways of assessing that do not threaten the integrity of assessments. Furthermore, teachers should also seek out ways of making their online learning platforms more interactive to allow students to ask questions and gain feedback.
Another challenge experienced by both the teachers and students in this study was increased workloads. Teachers complained that the number of instructions that came in requiring action were incessant in addition to the emails from parents and students who were also evidently struggling and needing reassurance. However, while the students stated that their workload had increased, teachers also confirmed that they were assigning more work and having more marking to do. It is not clear why going online resulted in an increased number of assignments However, these findings are consistent with other studies which showed that both students and teachers experienced an increase in their workload once online (Hussein et al., 2020; Hermanto & Srimulyani, 2021). As a result of the increase in workload, in addition to also attending lessons in front of the screen, the students spent more time online which led to adverse physiological effects such as headaches, eye strain, and stress. It is vital that moving forward, school stakeholders can work together to find ways of reducing the workload without negatively affecting the quality of teaching and learning.
When it comes to the second research question which sought to understand the attitudes to online learning, the findings showed mixed attitudes. Most teachers felt that they would incorporate some of the online learning strategies in conjunction with face to face classes. This attitude for most teachers was influenced by the perception that online learning is more suitable for high ability students. This perception is consistent with the findings by Xu and Jaggers (2013) who found that online learning was more suitable for academically inclined students. In addition, other teachers feared that having their videos online could lead to an invasion of their privacy and lead to them being made a mockery of online. This insecurity could be attributed to a lack of prior training and having been threatened online before. Moreover, it was also clear that they appreciated the human interactions that come with face to face classrooms and that this influenced their attitude towards online learning. Only one teacher, the youngest
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participant, preferred teaching online over face to face classes. She indicated that it meant she saved time getting ready and commuting. It is not clear if age is what is influencing her attitude as in other studies such as the one by Seabra et al. (2021) which revealed that age does not influence the attitude towards online teaching during the pandemic.
Referring now to the student participants, most also had a negative attitude towards online learning because of the experiences they had. While a few indicated that online learning provided them with the freedom to work at their own pace and the ability to finish early and do outside of school activities, the majority longed for human interactions which they believed supported their social and academic needs. Many studies have also indicated that one of the main challenges of online learning is lack of interaction (Gustiani, 2020; Kite et al, 2020). Despite these negative experiences, the findings also show that the participants are not completely against online learning, thus dealing with some of the limitations experienced could change their attitude towards this mode of learning.
The findings of this study have revealed that the sudden migration to online instruction undermined the school’s ability to train teachers to implement the move successfully. This led to challenges such as a lack of technical skills, new demands for classroom management, heavy workloads, and a lack of immediate feedback and proper assessment. The challenges for students also mirrored those of their teachers such as a lack of technical skills, a lack of feedback, and a heavy workload. In addition, the students were also challenged by problems with their internet connection and unclear instructions from the teachers. The challenges experienced by both groups influenced their attitude towards online instruction and their willingness to embrace it in the future. Some teachers felt that they would rather teach through blended methods, mostly through classroom teaching with elements of online learning such as posting assignments online. Equally, the students mostly preferred going back to school due to the perceived impersonal nature of online learning. These challenges and the subsequent negative attitude to online learning are evidence that more work needs to be done before online education is successful.
This study has resulted in multiple implications for teachers and school administrators to use to enhance the effectiveness of online learning. First, teachers must empower themselves and learn about the latest technologies used in education. This will improve their general practice as well as better prepare them to deal with the unpredictable demands of teaching in the 21st century. Secondly, it is also imperative that both teachers and school administrators find ways of making online learning more interactive for students to mitigate the loss of social interaction that occurs when schools move online. In addition, solutions must be sought regarding effective assessments in online spaces as well as finding ways of assessment that reduce the amount of screen time for students.
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This was a small scale inquiry which sampled a single school to participate. Thus, the findings, while consistent with findings in other contexts, may not be generalisable. Furthermore, because it was conducted at the beginning of online learning, the attitudes of the teachers and students may have changed over time.
Two years have passed since the data was generated for this study. Since that time, various developments have occurred including blended learning and going back to face to face classes. Therefore, we encourage other researchers to study how the attitudes may have changed towards online learning once teachers and students got over the initial hurdles reported in this inquiry.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 384 406, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.22
Received Apr 16, 2022; Revised Jul 29, 2022; Accepted Sep 1, 2022
Abstract While the Examination Council of Lesotho (ECOL) is burdened with a huge workload of assessment tasks, their procedures for developing tests, analysing items, and compiling scores heavily rely on the classical test theory (CTT) measurement framework. The CTT has been criticised for its flaws, including being test oriented, sample dependent, and assuming linear relationships between latent variables and observed scores. This article presents an overview of CTT and item response theory (IRT) and how they were applied to standard assessment questions in the ECOL. These theories have addressed measurement issues associated with commonly used assessments, such as multiple choice, short response, and constructed response tests. Based on three search facets (Item response theory, classical test theory, and examination council of Lesotho), a comprehensive search was conducted across multiple databases (such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed). The paper was theoretically developed using the electronic databases, keywords, and references identified in the articles. Furthermore, the authors ensure that the keywords are used to identify relevant documents in a wide variety of sources. A general remark was made on the effective application of each model in practice with respect to test development and psychometric activities In conclusion, the study recommends that ECOL switch from CTT to modern test theory for test development and item analysis, which offers multiple benefits.
Keywords: classical test theory; item response theory; Examination Council of Lesotho; item development; item analysis
The Examinations Council of Lesotho (ECOL), the central body for all examinations and assessments in Lesotho, is located right in the heart of Maseru,
* Corresponding author: MusaAdekunle,Ayanwale; ma.ayanwale@nul.ls
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
the capital. The Examinations Council Regulations were enacted in 1986. It was then configured as a unit of the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), responsible for conducting public examinations at the national level. ECOL is a non profit organisation that undertakes various functions, including the control and arrangement of public examinations, the issuance of certificates to all successful applicants, and any other things necessary or incidental to the proper administration and functioning of the Council (Exam Council of Lesotho, 2018)
In 2003, the ECOL's mandate was further expanded to include assessing the educational system's performance and developing continuous assessments for usage by providing school materials to facilitate the assessments. Therefore, seeking to become the world's premier assessment institute offering high quality services, maintaining high standards of quality in professional education, and ensuring that integrity is maintained in executing their core responsibility of internationally recognised certifications to students at the pre and basic levels. However, ECOL's responsibilities encompass a range of activities, including the development, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of an appropriate, fair, and reliable education assessment system for elementary and secondary schools, as well as awarding internationally credentialed qualifications that become part of the education system (Exam Council of Lesotho, 2018).
ECOL also administers level evaluations at specific points in the education system, such as in Grade 7 when students take their Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), in Junior Secondary, Form C (Junior Certificate Examination), and in Senior Secondary, Form E (O'Level/LGCSE). Furthermore, it conducts the National Assessment Survey in partnership with the National Curriculum Development Center at the elementary level (Grades 4 and 6). Every two years, these surveys are conducted to evaluate the educational system's performance throughout the country in numeracy and literacy. It is worth noting that the Cambridge International Assessment accredits the O' Level curriculum and examinations. As well as administering exams, the Council acts as an agent for other international testing bodies, such as the University of London and the Management College of Southern Africa (MANCOSA). Despite the overwhelming assessment tasks that ECOL is saddled with, experience and mode of operation show that their procedures for test development, item analysis, and scoring framework are heavily reliant on the classical test theory (CTT) method of measurement, which has been criticised for its shortcomings, such as test oriented rather than item oriented, assumes linear relations between latent variables and observed scores, hence it is impossible to estimate the true score directly, or without making strong assumptions, item parameters such as discrimination and difficulty of the test items depend on the sample used, and the standard error of measurement, a function of test score reliability and variance, is universal for all examinees. These limitations can pose several challenges when used in high stakes exams such as ECOL. For instance, CTT fails to account for observed distributions of test scores that have the floor or ceiling effects, in which a large proportion of examinees score near the low or high end of the range (Demars, 2017; Jabrayilov et al., 2016; Rusch et al., 2017) Due to difficulties in resolving these problems within the framework of classical measurement theory, the measurement community and assessment
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organisations have switched to a modern theory known as item response theory (IRT) (Embretson & Reise, 2013)
CTT's shortcomings were addressed with the development of modern theory, which allows for non linear relationships, estimation of the true score independent of the sample used, sample invariant estimation of parameter values, and gives an assessment expert the ability to select items that are in accordance with the desired model and applies internal consistency and reliability concepts to derive more information about how measurements are conducted. IRT has also been established as an essential tool for test development, item analysis, and evaluation, which leads to precise, valid, and relatively less burdensome instrument responses (Edelen & Reeve, 2007). The plethora of studies have confirmed that the IRT framework offers a multitude of advantages that have sparked the interest of educational assessment institutions, test developers, and policymakers in the assessment industry, who have adopted it for valid and reliable decision making (Ayanwale et al., 2019; Cai et al., 2016; Embretson & Reise, 2013; Ewing et al., 2005; Ganglmair & Lawson, 2010; Hambleton & Swaminathan, 1985; Lang & Tay, 2021). To date, ECOL has yet to embrace and integrate the potential of IRT in educational assessments and testing despite its promising development. The purpose of this paper is to fill this gap by encouraging ECOL to incorporate IRT into their existing methodologies by providing an overview of each measurement theory, its assumptions, its models, weaknesses, and strengths to improve the assessment and scoring procedures currently used by ECOL, which in turn enhances the validity of the certificate awarded.
Imagine examinees are given 20 questions. Sixteen of the 20 questions are equally hard; two are difficult while two are easy. The two examinees get 18 test items correctly. Both get 90%. Examinee "A" has made two simple mistakes, while examinee "B" has made two very complicated ones. How can we determine which examinee has more ability? This scenario highlights a significant flaw in the CTT method of testing. Historically, CTT refers to a theory of test scores in which three elements (observe, true, and error scores) are introduced (Hambleton & Jones, 1993; Steyer, 2001). Models of various forms have been developed within the theoretical framework.
In the classical test model, two unobservable variables are linked to an observable test score (X), true score (T), and error score (E), that is: X = T + E. True score cannot be observed directly; It can only be estimated from an examinee's responses to a set of items whose responses correspond to the actual abilities that particular examinees possess, though there are inherent errors in estimation. Factors such as fatigue, guessing, or stress can cause random errors (Bovaird & Embretson, 2012). Examinees' observed scores represent their total scores on a test. It would have been the true score if not for the error score. Standard error of measurement (SEM) plays a major role in CTT, which are standard deviations of measurement errors for each group of examinees. A test's variability or spread can be determined from its measurement errors. In X = T + E, the true score equals the average of a person's observed scores and accounts
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for measurement error. Because measurement error cannot be determined, every standardised test has an SEM. SEM is measured in standard deviations. In this way, the reliability of the test is determined. Precision and reliability of measurements are higher with a smaller SEM. The error in CTT is conceived as random and non systematic. Several factors, internal or external to the examinee, may account for it. Test items created poorly or tested under poor conditions are examples of external errors. Internal errors are those caused by the examinee, such as fatigue, stress, and a lack of concentration (Ayanwale, 2019)
Item and test level statistics are part of CTT. Item difficulty and discrimination are analysed at the item level. Item difficulty index is represented by ‘p’ and indicates the proportion of correct answers. The item discrimination index is indicated by a ‘D’; it tells us how distinct the item is between those with high and low abilities. CTT looks at the reliability of parallel tests (Demars, 2017). A parallel test measures the same latent ability with the examinees having the same true score and errors on both tests. Many items are generated that represent a single content domain for parallel tests. Ideally, this set should have twice the number of items intended for a single test form (Brown, 2013).
In CTT, three assumptions are made. First, the correlation between the error and true scores is zero. In this case, the variance of a true and error score is equal to the variance of the observed score, which is true if ƔTe = 0 (Steyer, 2001). In the equation Var(X) = Var(T) + Var(E), Var(.) is the variance, while the reliability Rel(X) is defined as Rel(X) = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( E Var T Var T Var X Var T Var + = Eqn. 1
Consequently, correlation coefficients between two parallel measurements determine the reliability of the CTT test. Adedoyin (2010) argues that error variance decreases as measurement reliability increases. When the error variance is small, the observed score of test takers is close to the true score. However, when error variance is large, observed scores do not always reflect true scores (IResearchNet, 2022). The second assumption says errors have a zero mean. Thus, these random errors are expected to cancel out over many repeated measurements, resulting in a zero expected mean error rate. The observed score equals the true score once an error is zero, (X=T),∑ E N =0 �� ��
A third assumption is that measurements from parallel are uncorrelated. A parallel test is defined in classical test theory as two measures of X and X1 that have the same true score (T=T1) and the same observed variances δ2(X) = δ2(X1). Ojerinde (2013) suggests that two tests can be considered parallel if the expected values of X and X1 are equal (that is, E(X) = E(X1)). There is typically an equal error variance for the two parallel scores if X ║ X1 if X1 = X2 = Ti + Ei for every population of tests.
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Test items are analysed quantitatively and qualitatively to determine their characteristics. To facilitate instrument improvement, the purpose is to revise or discard items that do not meet minimally acceptable standards. In item development, it is crucial to consult experts who possess a mastery of relevant materials. Experts and review boards find it difficult to determine the quality of "poor" items because of the test content's multidisciplinary nature and examinees' demographics (Krishnan, 2013). Data analysis helps identify issues that slipped experts' attention. The goal of item analysis is to select items that maximise reliability. Matching what is taught with what is assessed is crucial. There should be a mixture of basic and advanced knowledge in any exam. Examinees become frustrated if items are too difficult, while overconfidence and a decline in motivation are consequences of too easy assessments (Esmaeeli et al., 2021). Creating item banks that are reusable is important through item improvement. Ayanwale et al. (2019); Crocker and Algina (1986) defined item analysis as evaluating test items for test construction and revision. This is a technique for improving test items. In addition to identifying biased or unfair items, item analysis can also identify poorly worded questions (Grand et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2013). Results of item analysis are then used to refine the items of interest. Revision is needed for items that are more difficult or too easy. In addition, test scores can be observed to enhance item analysis by observing their reliability, although the literature on measurement discusses item analysis separately from reliability. To establish test scores' reliability, item difficulty and discrimination are essential components of item analysis(Elgadal & Mariod, 2021; Toksöz & Ertunç, 2017).
Item difficulty is an important concept in CTT. For DeVellis (2006), it is the percentage of examinees who answered an item correctly. In CTT, item difficulty is sample based. These values are invariant only for groups of similar level examinees. CTT often refers to item difficulty as a p value. Divide the number of respondents who selected a particular answer by the total number of respondents in the sample to find the percentage of those deciding to pick that response, and you get a p value for each response and the correct answer. The p values can be expressed mathematically as: p = number of an examinee who got the item right
total number of an examinee who attempted the items
The proportion of examinees that got the item wrong can be expressed as: q = number of an examinee who got the item wrong
total number of an examinee who attempted the items
Hence, pq is the variance, and (SD = √pq) is the standard deviation. The item difficulty index (p) ranges between 0 and p ≤ 1. A value of 1 is considered to be very simple if all members of the sample correctly answered the question, while a p value of 0 is indicative of none of the respondents in the sample answering the question correctly; such an item is said to be hard (Cappelleri et al., 2014; Kline, 2014) For Courville (2005), Items with dichotomously scored items have a
greater item variance (that is, σi2 = piqi), indicating the importance of the item difficulty (p) in the variance measure, while (q) indicates the significance of the item type (difficulty). The items variance and the total variance of the result are thus representations of item difficulty.
Further, Crocker and Algina (1986) pointed out that the item difficulty of a norm referenced test usually falls between 0.60 and 0.80. The reason is due to the item format typically used on such tests. Open ended questions have a remote or zero likelihood of being answered correctly. The probability of guessing correctly increases when the test format is multiple choice. As a result, p is the proportion of respondents who know the answer (p), and 1/m is the number of responses that reflect how many of those who didn't know the answer but correctly guessed (m) responded. As a multiple choice test, we do not aim to maximise item difficulty at p=0.50; instead, we aim to maximise item score variability. Hence, item difficulty should optimise item score variability. The proportion of correct answers is 1/m, which is known. In addition, item variation at 0.50 is the optimal level; the p values of items with maximum true score variance also vary due to examinees' random guessing. This can be written
as p1= m 5 0 0.5 + , where p1 is the observed p value, and m is the number of alternatives or distracters.
However, the item difficulty index that maximises item variance is (p1=0.5+0.125) = 0.63 for multiple choice items with four (4) options, and (p1=0.5+0.1) = 0.60 for five (5) options (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2009; Cohen et al., 2013; Filgueiras et al., 2014; Hill et al., 2013). Items in a test with a difficulty level higher or lower than 0.60 and whose difficulty level exceed or fall below 0.63 should be deemed inappropriate. In traditional norm referenced testing, items with a difficulty index greater than 0.70 or less than 0.30 are considered bad items (Adegoke, 2013; Hambleton & Jones, 1993).
Item discrimination is another CTT parameter. It indicates that the examinee's ability differs. Generally, high, average, and low scores are expected. Among the purposes of analyzing test items is selecting items that can separate examinees into different categories with respect to their abilities. High ability examinees should be able to score a test item correctly, while low ability examinees will score it incorrectly. Test items that have such properties are discriminatory by nature. Criterion scores place examinees in upper or lower groups based on their total test scores. This grouping of examinees makes the discrimination index controversial (Algina & Swaminathan, 2015; Rusch et al., 2017) The lower group had 50% participants, while the higher group had 50%. A criterion of interest is easily distinguished between very high and very low scores.
For Kelley (1939), cited in Ayanwale (2019), suggested that instead of 50% 50%, the item discrimination statistic would function correctly with a 27% 27% split since it would omit 46% of the data. As the sample size increases, the same statistic becomes as stable and useful when using a 27% 27% split (Crocker & Algina, 1986). A high score on a particular item usually indicates an examinee who has done well on the test. Hingorjo and Jaleel (2012); Vyas and Supe (2008)
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suggest that items with negative discrimination should be revised or discarded if they are selected by a larger percentage of the lower scoring group than the higher scoring group. If an item is high or low performing, item discrimination can be calculated as D = pu pl, where pu is the proportion of correct answers for the upper group, and pl is the proportion of correct answers for the lower group. After identifying the top 27% and bottom 27% of examinees, the percentage passing for each item is calculated for each group. The item discrimination index is obtained by subtracting the 'p' of the lower performing group from the top performing group. The index ranges from 0 to 1. A classic interpretation of item discrimination is provided by (Ebel, 1965):
1. If D ≥ 0.40, very well functioning item.
2. If 0.30 ≤ D ≤ 0.39, reasonably well functioning item.
3. If 0.20 ≤ D ≤ 0.29, marginal items need to be revised.
4. If D ≤ 0.19, a poorly functioning item needs to be expunged or fully revised.
More importantly, a discrimination index provides information about how an item differs on a certain criterion. This is problematic since it ignores a lot of data. For example, several examinees are omitted (46% of respondents), and information regarding examinees in the higher and lower groups (Courville, 2005). The product moment correlation coefficient is applicable when the total and item scores are interval scales. A point biserial correlation between dichotomous scored items and the total score is employed to resolve the problem (Adegoke, 2013). It measures the direction of the linear relationship of one factor with another that is continuous (Privitera, 2012). In point biserial notation, pbis = q p x
x y ) ( with μy is the criterion score mean for the
proportion of respondents answering the question correctly, while μx is the overall criterion score. A correlation coefficient between an item's performance and an examination's performance is also used to establish item discrimination (Brown, 2013; DeVellis, 2006). As a result, p bis represents the correlation between items and total scores. The correlation should be positive since it demonstrates that correct answer holders scored higher and incorrect answer holders scored lower. If negative, you should revise or discard the items. The higher the value, the stronger the discrimination.
The reliability of a test is the ability for identical scores to be achieved over a specified period whenever the same population of test subjects is examined (Demars, 2017). A reliability coefficient is expressed numerically, and any value around 0.70 and above is a good estimation of the reliability coefficient for an instrument (Preston et al., 2020). Tests with perfect reliability are seldom available, that is, tests capable of reproducing the same scores when administered to the same group. The observed results of a highly reliable test are close to its true scores. Therefore, using the square of the correlation between the observed and true score, the reliability coefficient can be calculated (Birnbaum,
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1968). For Dent et al. (2001), true score variance is considered when determining reliability. Reliability estimates are based on random measurement errors and can be categorised into different types (Gay et al., 2011)
Using the test retest method of reliability has two shortcomings. It is costly and time consuming to administer the instrument for the first time, let alone for a second time. The resulting higher cost is far more concerning. If the sample population is high in mortality, it is more difficult to assess the reliability (Crocker & Algina, 1986). Secondly, the test retest method can cause reactivity, as described by (Downing, 2003). Reactivity occurs when repeated testing eventually leads to a substantive change. In testing, memory is the main cause of reactivity. The memory may impact performance on the second test from the first test. Alternative reliability tests have been developed to solve these issues. A correlation is established between two similar tests administered to the same group (Crocker & Algina, 1986)
The test retest method has reactivity problems which the alternative form method solves but has its problems. This method has a significant flaw because it is impossible to guarantee that each test samples the same content. This happens whenever you use two tests. To solve this problem, a single test reliability coefficient was developed. One administration of a single test is a method of estimating reliability. As a method of assessing reliability, internal consistency relies on the extent to which items within a single test are consistent with each other and the test overall. Split half reliability is appropriate for long or hard tests, and Kuder Richardson reliability (KR 20) is only appropriate for items with dichotomous scores, like selection response tests. By using the split half method, a test is given to all samples at once, then the test is divided into two parts, and the parts are compared (Crocker & Algina, 1986; Jabrayilov et al., 2016) claimed that splitting the test in many ways won't produce a unique estimate of reliability. This caused an important issue in reliability. Spearman (1910) developed the Spearman Brown formula to estimate the reliability coefficient for the scores on the whole test to correct the pitfalls associated with split half correlation.
For reliability estimation, item covariance methods are the most commonly used. The Cronbach alpha coefficient is the main method used to measure the internal consistency of a test or scale in the psychology and education fields (Demars, 2017). Alpha is merely a measure of precision and is not a measure of stability (Crocker & Algina, 1986) Kuder Richardson 20 (KR20) is the second item covariance analysis. Each item in the test is rated between 0 and 1. This score indicates how items in a given test measure the same construct or concept the alpha coefficient increases when test items are highly correlated. Testing reliability and alpha are not only affected by correlation, but also depends on the length of the test. Therefore, a low value of alpha may reflect poor inter item correlation or a long test. Mona (2014) recommends eliminating items with poor correlation or revising them.
CTT remains popular among educators despite new approaches to measuring proficiency (De Champlain, 2010). Its basic concepts are straightforward. Among its advantages, it makes relatively weak assumptions. The assumptions in CTT enable it to be applied to a wide variety of data. Anyone with basic mathematics skills can quickly grasp the concepts, as they aren't mathematically demanding. Cronbach's alpha measures reliability. CTT can be used to conduct the analyses with the common statistical packages. Psychometricians in education and psychology find it more acceptable.
Further, CTT based measurements of instruments easily fit into underlying models, thus yielding desirable results. CTT is appealing because individual items don't have to be optimal, even if they relate only partially to an underlying construct; the concern can be alleviated by creating several items that assess the construct. Researchers have found that reliability can be improved to any desired level by increasing the number of items on a specific test concerning a variable (Wells & Wollack, 2018)
For Rusch et al. (2017) noted that the assessed sample of examinees influences both item difficulty and discrimination indices. The study of Kolen (1981) found that the difficulty index is higher for examinees with high ability. In CTT, item difficulty has a bearing on examinee ability scores. Observed test scores are higher if the items are easy and lower if they are difficult. Another flaw in CTT assumes that all examinees have the same measurement error. A test's type influences test scores and true scores. The items on the test determine what students' scores will be. It is still possible to score lower on difficult tests and higher on easier ones, even though one has the same ability. Depending on each student's ability level, scores differ in error amounts. CTT also has the limitation that the same items must be used to compare examinees' performance. Parallel forms are difficult to achieve in CTT, further aggravating this limitation. Test reliability depends on parallel testing, which is based on a sample provided by the examinee.
For Traub (2015) argues reliability is a useful index of a test score's quality. Such an indicator depends on the characteristics of the group of test takers. It is also test oriented, making it difficult to predict examinees' responses to a test item (Crocker & Algina, 1986). Test developers cannot predict a test taker's performance on a particular item based on the CTT model. Examinee and item dependence is the most significant limitation of CTT. They are both affected by changes in the other's characteristics. Hence, comparing the characteristics of different tests and items taken by different groups of students is difficult.
Several new measurement methods are being developed due to the limitations discussed above. In CTT, the group dependence, item examinee ability mismatch, weak assumptions, and parallel testing problems present limitations. As an alternative, item response theory (IRT) or latent trait theory provides a solution to CTT's shortcomings (Bovaird & Embretson, 2012). Many other
models focusing on measurement issues developed an alternative model. Since IRT focuses on the item, all statistical analyses are done at the item level. It is one of the greatest advantages over CTT. Numerous studies in the fields of education and psychology have highlighted the same concept (Cappelleri et al., 2014; Embretson & Reise, 2013; Tay et al., 2015). The evidence demonstrates that IRT is widely used in these fields, and medical education is no exception (De Champlain, 2010; Downing, 2003; Preston et al., 2020)
Moreover, IRT is widely used to develop valid and accurate data about students' learning competencies in testing centers worldwide. The CTT assumptions were challenging to test and apply to practical problems, leading to alternative measurement models. The models are essentially extensions and liberalisations of conventional test theory. In addition, IRT is a necessary tool that has to be available in any large scale testing center that requires a valid and reliable instrument.
IRT is a statistical model that describes both examinee items and test performance and further explains how the test results relate to the abilities reflected in the items on the test (Embretson & Reise, 2013). Responses to items may be discrete, continuous, or dichotomous. A score category may be ranked or unranked. One or more abilities may explain test scores. A variety of models can explore the relationship between item responses and underlying abilities. IRT has established and applied several models to test data. Hambleton and Swaminathan (1985) analysed the characteristics of item models as follows: the model should describe how observed responses relate to underlying non observable constructs, the model should provide an estimation of the underlying construct, the examinee's scores must help estimate the construct, and the performance of an examinee must be completed predicted or explained by the underlying constructs. According to item response theory, an examinee has some unobservable, latent abilities that cannot be studied directly. IRT is used to develop models to relate latent traits to observable characteristics of an individual, especially their abilities to correctly answer questions in a test (Baker & Kim, 2017; Magis, 2007).
IRT employs mathematical functions, unlike classical test theory (CTT), which uses the model X=T+E. Based on Hambleton and Swaminathan (1985), IRTs are characterised by a strict relationship between responses and traits. Further, IRT is based on the assumption that one or more examinees' abilities can be predicted from theta (θ), which constitutes one of the parameters. Additionally, Crocker and Algina (1986) found that the observed score and the ability parameter are related to the observed and true scores. Their study highlighted that item difficulty and discrimination do not depend on examinee characteristics. Additionally, the ability estimates are likewise independent of the items and can be described as item free, while the ability parameters are person free.
IRT models are fitted to data based on assumptions about the data (Edelen & Reeve, 2007). Assumptions in test theory state that an examinee will answer the question correctly if they know the correct answer. Without this assumption, testing is not justified. Other assumptions include local independence, dimensionality, and monotonicity. The assumptions should hold regardless of the latent trait method employed. These assumptions must be met for a test set to be meaningful when estimating latent trait models (Bichi & Talib, 2018; Zhu & Lu, 2017)
A set of latent traits can explain test performance. A vector of ability scores can describe an examinee's ability in n dimensional (θ1, θ2, θ3….. θn). Items responding to the test with more than one latent trait are called multidimensional items, while items responding to the test that assumes one latent trait are known as unidimensional items. Only one area of knowledge, ability, or construct is measured in the items (Tay et al., 2015). The items on a one dimensional test reflect only one dimension. One score tests implicitly imply that the items share an overarching primary construct. In this model, each examinee is assigned single theta *, and uncontrolled variables can affect item responses as nuisance dimensions unique to the item and not shared by other items (Adewale et al., 2017). A test or ability scale containing all its items must measure a single latent attribute of an individual. Violating this assumption may lead to misleading results (Immekus et al., 2019)
In their study, Ojerinde and Ifewulu (2012) identified multiple methods for testing unidimensionality, such as the Cronbach analysis test, exploratory factor analysis, eigenvalue test, random baseline test, biserial test, factor loading test, congruence test, congruency or part to whole test, and vector frequency test, as well as confirmatory factor analysis. Various methods exist for assessing the unidimensionality of test data, depending on the nature of the test data. Predictive continuous and normally distributed data are tested for unidimensionality through parallel analysis, which VistaParan and MPLUS implement, or confirmatory factor analysis based on Pearson's correlation matrix (Adewale et al., 2017; Kline, 2005) implemented in AMOS or LISREL. Generally, polychoric correlation can be used parallel (implemented in FACTOR; Vista Paran ) when the data is ordinal (Metibemu, 2017). In dichotomously scored data, nonlinear factor analysis implemented in normal Ogive harmonic robust moment (NOHARM), parallel analysis based on tetrachoric correlation matrix (implemented in Vista Paran), full information item factor analysis (implemented in EQSIRT, MIRT R package, and TESTFACT), bootstrap modified parallel analysis test (implemented in Itm R package), and stout essential dimensionality test (implemented in DIMPACK package) can be used (Ackerman, 2010; Finch & Monahan, 2008; Finch & French, 2015; Reckase, 2009) The next IRT assumption is local item independence.
4.1.2
Local item independence means that the chance of an examinee getting an item right is not affected by how they answered other items on the test. The fact that
students perform independently on different items does not mean they do not correlate; their abilities determine their performance. An examinee's probabilities are associated with a set of items related to the probability of a response pattern on that set of items. An ability is constant at a particular measurement time when it influences responses to a set of items. Therefore, the relationship between the two items should be as close as possible to zero. The responses may, therefore, be influenced by factors other than what the instrument was designed to measure. Given an individual's score on the latent trait, the observed items should be independent of each other (Debelak & Koller, 2020; Song et al., 2019). Independent means are statistically independent. Statistically, independent items exhibit their qualities and consider examinees' abilities to unfold their characteristic functions about them (Behavior et al., 2012; Yen, 2006).
Several approaches assess whether local item independence is valid (Debelak & Koller, 2020; Kim et al., 2011). These methods include the likelihood ratio G2, the power divergence (PD) statistic, the Q3 statistic, Fisher’s r to z transformed Q3, the Wald test, the likelihood ratio test in logistic regression (LR G2), the absolute value of mutual information difference (Tsai & Hsu, 2005), the mutual information difference (MID), the modification index (MI) in structural equation modelling (SEM), and the use of the residual correlation from the factor analysis (FA). Among the methods, only the likelihood ratio G2 method is implemented in a popular IRT computer program such as item response theory Patience response outcomes (IRTPRO). For Chen and Thissen (1997); Tang et al. (2020) proposed that the local dependency (LD) χ2 statistic be computed by comparing the observed and expected frequencies in each of the two way cross tabulations between response to each item and each of the other items. Standardised χ2 values (roughly Z scores) become large when a pair of items indicate local dependency (Chen & Thissen, 1997). Additionally, an LD number greater than 10 signals local dependence (Adewale et al., 2017; Gay et al., 2011). The study (Yen, 1993) suggested Yen's Q 3 statistic as an effective measure for assessing local independence; after controlling for person location estimates, the Q3 statistic is the correlation of residuals between two items. The next IRT assumption is monotonicity.
A normal ogive is the item response function (IRF). Item response curves have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Item response functions are also known as item characteristics curves. Items characteristic curves (ICC) relate the probability of success on items to the ability measured by the item. In Birnbaum (1968); Lord (2012), ICC is invariant across groups of test takers, resulting in the invariance of item parameters that produce the item characteristic curve. This aspect is a prominent distinguishing feature of IRT compared to CTT.
The study of Hambleton and Swaminathan (1985) argues that invariance of item characteristics and ability parameters means that characteristics of an item do not depend on the abilities of examinees, just as characteristics of examinees do not depend on test items. ICC represents non linear regressions between item score and latent trait. Because the variable and probability are unbounded, the
relationship will be nonlinear. It shows the probability of answering a question correctly as a function of ability. No matter the distribution of examinees, the probability is constant. In this case, the ICC will take the shape of a normal ogive since the probability remains the same no matter how many other examinees are nearby. The ICC has three sections: the lower asymptote, the upper asymptote, and the middle part. An ICC might require several parameters depending on the logistic model, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: ICC showing parameters
Source: (Ojerinde & Ifewulu, 2012)
ICC curves are characterised by difficulty and discrimination. The b parameter represents item difficulty as measured on a particular axis whose values range from ∞ to ∞; traditionally, the values are 3 to +3 when θ has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Nevertheless, examinee ability over ±3 isn't common. Item difficulty value is high when the items are hard to answer. Low ability examinees are less likely to get the correct answer. Easy items are those with low difficulty. Candidates with lower ability values are the potential to answer test items correctly. As for discrimination, that is also called "a" parameter. This information relates to whether an item may discriminate between examinees with abilities below and above the item location. The discriminating index parameter is calculated by tangentially connecting the curve to the difficulty level (b) parameter (Baker, 2001; Baker & Kim, 2017). A discriminating index parameter ranges from ∞ to ∞, with a typical value of ≤ 2.0. Hence, the steeper the curve is, the more discriminative the item is. (Baker, 2001; Bichi et al., 2019; Clark & Watson, 2019; Pliakos et al., 2019) indicates that low 'a' values are not useful for discriminating between ability levels. IRT's third parameter is guessing, called the 'c' parameter. Examinees of low ability respond correctly to an item when this parameter is lower than the asymptote parameter. When the three parameter model is used, the parameter ‘c’ has the theoretical range of 0 ≤ c ≥ 1.0, however, values above 0.35 are considered unacceptable (Ayanwale, 2019). Therefore, θ ≤ c ≤ 0.35 is usually used.
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IRT items can be scored dichotomous or polytomous. Four models are usually used for dichotomous items. They are classified into one, two, three, and four parameter logistic models (Cai et al., 2016; Cappelleri et al., 2014). However, the three most frequently used parameters are difficulty (b), discrimination (a), and guessing (c). Before each model can be used, it must meet all the necessary assumptions. The simplest of the three models, the one parameter logistic model, is also called the Rasch model (Crocker & Algina, 1986; Hambleton & Swaminathan, 1985; Nataranjan, 2009). A logistic function between an examinee's ability (θ) and the difficulty of the question (b) is assumed to determine the chance that a correct answer will be provided. This is illustrated below. ) 1( exp 1 1 ) ( b b P + = …………………Eqn. 2
Furthermore, the two parameter logistic model is a dichotomous IRT, in which the shape of the item response function is governed by two parameters, discrimination (a) and difficulty (b). The item response function increases monotonically when 'a' is positive or negative. However, as 'a' increases, the slope steepens. Positive item response functions are located with the larger value of 'b.' Examinees with the ability (θ) have the following likelihood of answering test items correctly. This is illustrated below. ) ( exp 1 1 ) , ( b a b a P + = ……………..Eqn. 3
A parameter “c” calculates a lower asymptote parameter of the three parameter logistic model, especially useful for multiple choice and true false tests. As c increases, the lower limit of the item response function also increases. The expression is as follows: 1) (0 exp 1 1 ) (1 ) , , (
Fourth parameter ‘d’ logistic models are dichotomous IRT models in which an upper asymptote parameter is added to the three parameter model. As ‘d’ increases, the upper limit of the item response function (IRF) increases. Even with extreme levels of a trait, some items are so difficult that students cannot answer them all. The item's upper asymptote doesn't equal 1. The model fit will be improved by including a lower and an upper bound for the item response (Reise & Waller, 2009). A common use is to assess disorders that lead to extremely rare behavior. Hence, it is possible to expect that adding parameters will lead to an increasingly complex and well fitting model. A mathematical expression for the model is:
Its advantage over CTT is that only adequately scored IRT can detect the significant differences between individuals whose scores are slightly different. When trait scores are incredibly high or low, they are out of the normal range. The IRT method solves this problem. Reise and Waller (2009) stipulate that items should be "difficult" enough for the levels of the trait in question. As a result, the four logistic parameter model, which incorporates time and slowness time responses, has yet to be fully integrated into conventional IRT models (Zhang, 2012)
The process of item analysis consists of assessing an item's quality in a test and the test as a whole based on the test results (Sim & Rasiah, 2006). In this way, items can be improved for future use, while those that are inadequate can be discarded. IRT analyses a scale at the item level by calculating item difficulty, discrimination, and test information function. Further, it computes the standard error (SE) for parameters "a" and "b" for each item and estimates the relationship between items and the constructs. Items may be positioned around theta (θ) or distributed uniformly from ∞ to + ∞, depending on the purpose of the analysis. The location parameters of the instrument should be as close to the cut off as possible when used to identify examinees for remedial measures or grouping them. For IRT models to be fully effective, item parameters must be calibrated with the right model.
The IRT model that best fits the data determines the model for item calibration of a test under development. An analysis of model data fit is the only way to determine the right choice of item response theory models, as proposed by (Lee & Ansley, 2007) The model data fit of item response theory models is critical when applied to real data. Estimated parameters may be compromised when a model does not fit the data (Bovaird & Embretson, 2012; Cai et al., 2016). To validate item response theory applications, fit tests of models need to be performed (González & Wiberg, 2017). According to Embretson and Reise (2013), checking item fit involves some issues. Item fit analyses can be used to identify a test model that retains the integrity of observed data, to identify extraneous dimensions that affect test item responses, and as a method of identifying faulty item construction, that is, incorrect keying and item fit, that is, those that indicate calibration errors during test development.
An item that does not fit a specific model is considered a poor fit (Hambleton & Jones, 1993). Comparing the observed performance of individual items with the predicted performance under the chosen model is a common way to assess model data fit (Lee & Ansley, 2007; Yu et al., 2007). Based on Courville (2005), plots of observed and predicted score distributions or the chi square test may be used to compare observed and predicted data. In Embretson and Reise (2013), examinees are first ranked according to their estimates (θ), then grouped into fixed or subjective categories. According to an item response function or item
characteristics curve, the proportion of examinees that answer an item correctly is calculated. A literature review on chi square research shows that no chi square fit index is preferred over another (Hambleton & Swaminathan, 1985). In Reise (1990), expressed chi square as follows: ( ) ( ) 2 1
ij ij j E E E O N ……………………..Eqn. 6
2 1 =
= H j ij ij
'i' is the item, 'j' describes the interval based on examinees' ability estimates, 'H' represents the number of examinees within any interval, 'Nj' indicates the number of examinees with (θ) estimates within a given interval, and 'Eij, 'the expected proportion of keyed responses for intervals using an item response function evaluated at the median (θ) estimate within an interval. Chi squares with high estimates diagnose items that do not fit the model, that is, those items performing differently than expected.
The likelihood ratio (G2) is a chi square statistic representing two tests of overall fit when items on a test are ten or less and twenty or more. (Rupp, 2003; Tuerlinckx et al., 2004) calculate the chi square (χ2) statistic as follows: =
i e i P N r r G 2 1
2 log 2 …………………Eqn.7
= n i i i
Where 2n represents the number of possible patterns for each ‘n’ binary item scoring, ‘ ri’ is the observed frequency of pattern 'i', 'N' is the number of respondents, and ‘Pi ’ is the estimated marginal probability. The number of degrees of freedom is 2n Kn 1, where K is the number of parameters in the response model. Thus, if 'G2'>a critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, and the ICC is expected to fit the item (Rupp, 2003)
4.4
Test development and evaluation benefit from item information functions when lCC are fitted to test data. The corresponding item statistics and item information functions (IIF) will be incorrect if the ICCs do not fit the data well. It may be hard to use an item in all tests even when the fit is good if the parameter is low and the parameter is high. Additionally, an item may provide considerable information at one end of the ability continuum but be of no use on another end of the continuum. The information functions indicate how each item and the test estimates ability over the scale. IRT considers the test information function as a reliability coefficient since the variance measures the precision of measurement (Alagoz, 2005). Asymptotic distribution of the maximum likelihood estimator θˆ has mean θ and variance ( ) I 1 2 = , where ( ) I is the amount of information. The ability estimate will be less precise, and the available information about an examinee's ability will be less when the variance of an estimator is large. The information function for the test with n items is defined as:
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Therefore, CTT's reliability coefficient and item reliability correspond to the test and IIF (Alagoz, 2005). An important element of IRT is the test information function (TIF). It shows how well the test estimates ability across a broad range of scores. A test is used to assess a person's ability so that the amount of information obtained from the test at any level can also be obtained (Birnbaum, 1968). In a test, there are items; therefore, the test information consists of the item information at a given level of ability. Each item contains a specific amount of information. The mathematical definition of item information may differ depending on the item characteristic curve model employed. The test information function therefore is: ��(��) = ∑ ���� (��) �� ��=1 ………………………………………….Eqn.9
��(��) is the amount of information in a test at any ability level ��, ���� (��) is the amount of information in each item, and N is the number of items in the test. Specifically, the TIF predicts the degree of accuracy at which we can measure any value of latent ability. Generally, the level of information in a test will be higher than that in a single item test (Baker, 2001). When several items are included in a test, the greater the amount of information is revealed. More extended tests better measure test takers' abilities than shorter tests. A test information function may be used to balance multiple alternate test forms for the same exam. TIF values should be the same across all alternate forms (Song et al., 2019).
The present article discusses CTT and IRT in ECOL's test development and item analysis. Educational assessment includes the performance of tests; their results are used to inform various educational decisions. Tests are therefore widely regarded as an important part of education. Testing is a method of evaluating a candidate's ability in a previously defined knowledge or skill domain. To better understand the relationship between the observed (or actual) score on an examination and the unobserved proficiency in the domain, we need a test theory model. CTT and IRT are commonly used models. The CTT calculates statistics such as correlations among items, covariance’s, difficulties, discrimination power, reliability coefficients, variance/standard deviation of the sample, measurement errors, etc., to improve the reliability and validity of measurement tools. The theory deals with important measurement problems from a constant perspective. Due to several weaknesses of CTT, the need for another test theory emerged. These include item and test statistics that differed
across tests and groups; a single error estimate was produced for individuals of all skills levels, and the weakness in test equating. A significant innovation in educational assessment and psychometrics has been the development of IRT. Models of IRT have been used extensively in test development and assessment over the past several decades, attesting to their importance. The IRT models analyse items, assemble test forms, and equate. Despite being helpful in many situations, IRT models use strong assumptions and are mathematically more complex than CTT models used in ECOL. In conclusion, the study strongly recommends that ECOL shift its test development and item analysis modus operandi from CTT to modern test theory, which has numerous benefits.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their time and efforts in reviewing the manuscript. The manuscript has been improved by all valuable comments and suggestions, we are deeply grateful.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 407 424, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.23
Received Jun 2, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 28, 2022
Valentyna I. Bobrytska*
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine
Leonid V. Bobrytskyi
Donetsk State University of Internal Affairs, Ukraine
Andriy L. Bobrytskyi
Main Directorate of the National Police in Poltava Region, Ukraine
Svitlana M. Protska
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine
Abstract. Finding ways of implementing civilian control in the activity of the armed forces and law enforcement agencies has been a challenge in Ukraine. The purpose of this study was to identify the international bestpracticestoestablishrelationshipsbetweenthecivilinstitutionsand the military so that those could be adopted in Ukraine. It also sought to update the refresher course for civil servants by introducing two modules that are based on the shortlisted best practices We used case study research based on the exploratory research strategy and a pilot study to evaluate the feasibility of the updated refresher course for civil servants. The course was delivered offline to 358 civil servants in 2019 and 246 in 2020, and online to 119 in 2021. Forty five randomly selected students who had completed the course responded to a course satisfaction survey. It was revealed that the process of building civil military relationships in Ukraine was in the transitional stage. In addition, there was a need for educating and training civil servants in developing legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks for building civil military relations and exercising civilian control over the military and law enforcement agencies. The novelty of the study is in updating the curriculum of a refresher course for civil servants and providing recommendations to the government and the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine. Further researchis needed in identifying how the public media could contribute to educating citizens on civilian control of the military and law enforcement bodies.
* Corresponding author: ValentynaI.Bobrytska, bobrytska@ukr.net
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
civil military relationships; democratic civilian control; educational measures; military and law enforcement agencies; Ukraine
The implementation of democratic civilian control in the activity of the armed forces and law enforcement agencies has been one of the crucial challenges that Ukraine, seen as an emerging democracy or democracy of the “third wave”, faces on the way to transition from a military dominated post soviet authoritarian regime to a democratic government (Koziy & Polyakov, 2018; Zadubinny, 2020) The establishment of this kind of control in Ukraine is increasingly accelerated by the international commitments related to the integration of Ukraine into the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (Gusev et al., 2018) The above implies that there is a need for developing mechanisms to fulfill the commitments. Using educational measures to address the problems related to establishing cooperation between civilian institutions and the military to allow the former to control the activity of the armed forces has been proven to be a feasible option (Kuehn, 2016; Tagarev, 1997) Although there is literature on the evolution of civilian control and civil military relations in post soviet Western European and Middle East countries, the Ukrainian case is underrepresented in research (Demir & Bingöl, 2020; Kuehn et al., 2017).
Furthermore, there is still a gap in research and a loophole in governmental and educational policies regarding the design and implementation of instructional models to address the issues related to involving civilian institutions in the control of the military Thus, this research aims to identify the international best practices to establish relationships between civil institutions and the military so that those could be adopted in Ukraine. It also seeks to update the refresher course for civil servants by introducing two modules that are based on the shortlisted best practices. Furthermore, the research seeks to identify whether there is an observable influence of that course on the civil students’ awareness of addressing the inconsistencies that occur in implementing civilian control in the activity of the organizations of the national defense sector and law enforcement system in Ukraine. The research questions were as follows:
1. What does the relevant literature reveal about civilian control of the military in emerging democracy and educational measures for building civilian military relationships?
2. How did the participants of the professional refresher course perceive the introduced modules and a project assignment.
Literature has indicated that civilian control over the military and law enforcement agencies involves institutional and structural perspectives (Koimaru, 2016) Koimaru (2016) referred to the institutional perspective as the interaction between the representatives of military and civilian officers within one institution. Contrarily, the structural perspective focuses on the objective civilian control, which is seen as the voluntary subordination of the military and law enforcement agencies to civilian institutions to avoid the military from taking over (usurping)
power and civilian order. According to Kuehn (2018), democratic civilian control is supposed to be performed by three actors, namely government, society, and armed forces (law enforcement agencies). The government adopts the law, shapes security policy, and exercises law based protection. Society influences the armed forces and law enforcement agencies through educating the citizens, financial supervision, and public debates. The armed forces ensure self control to comply with the legislation and protection of the rights of the citizens. Importantly, educational measures are supposed to incorporate a new security culture in both civilian and military communities (Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces [DCAF], 2008). These measures are expected to promote democratic values, human rights, and international humanitarian law to the society members, mainly focusing on civil military interaction and better integration of military and law enforcement agencies within society. Consistent with Croissant et al. (2013), educational measures can be the causal mechanism that is currently necessary for the authorities and society to apply civilian control strategies, thus establishing the status quo It will be a starting point for building a strong civil society, consolidating the institutions, implementing democratic reforms, and dealing with internal and external security threats.
We used the case study research design based on the exploratory research strategy to answer the first research question. We also used a pilot study for the second research question to evaluate the feasibility of the updated refresher course for civil servants. Qualitative research methods were mainly used in the pre intervention phase of the study, whereas quantitative ones were utilized in the intervention phase. The pre intervention phase relied on the non systematic review of scientific and non scientific texts; “gray literature” texts such as national newspaper articles, blog posts, and media content in Ukraine; and a survey questionnaire (Cook, 2019) Local and national media coverage were analyzed to specify the patterns of civilian control in Ukraine. Descriptive content analysis was also used to examine and evaluate the retrieved texts. The corpus of literature was analyzed using software for quantitative text analysis using certain software tools. First, Voyant Tools was employed to specify the keywords in the shortlisted texts and correlations (Sinclair & Rockwell, 2020). Second, the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) application was utilized to identify the emotional tone of the texts (Pennebaker Conglomerates, 2020). The qualitative method was used to answer the research question focused on identifying the instructional models aimed at training people in building civilian military relationships. The same method was utilized to analyze the feedback obtained from the participants of the professional refresher course updated to address the questions of exercising civilian control of the activity of the organizations of the national defense sector and law enforcement system in Ukraine The course satisfaction survey questionnaire was utilized to identify how the participants of the professional refresher course perceived the introduced modules.
The study was cooperatively conducted by the Department of Social Philosophy, the Philosophy of Education and Educational Policy for National Pedagogical Dragomanov University (Kyiv, Ukraine) and the Department of Criminal Law
and Criminology, Faculty №1 for the Donetsk State University of Internal Affairs (Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine). The Training Institute of the State Employment Service of Ukraine was the host organization to run the updated refresher course for civil servants Its objective was to examine and collect evidence and cases to design and pilot the refresher course that trains the civil servants in dealing with the problems in civil society control of the army and police. The research methodology and materials were approved at a meeting with the above departments before the intervention stage Five external experts in sociology, civil military relations, behavioral psychology, and education were involved in analyzing the results of the survey questionnaire. The purpose of involving experts was to avoid researcher bias (Almeida & Goulart, 2017)
The procedure of the non systematic review relied on the keyword combinations as recommended by Bethel and Rogers (2018). This review attempted to shortlist and evaluate relevant literature publications through their description. It focused on what has been discussed in scientific and non scientific texts, such as local and national media reporting on cases or changes in participating civilian institutions in exercising control or supervising the activity of the armed forces and the police. The review sought to determine how the practical issues of implementing the control or supervision were addressed The keywords were linked to broad or generic subjects that revealed cases or practices of exercising or training people to perform the civil control of the armed forces and police in Ukraine. The keywords were grouped into two domains, namely “civilian control of the military in emerging democracy” and “educational measures for building civilian military relationships” The search strings were in English, Russian, and Ukrainian. The web search was performed using different databases, archives, and websites, such as SCOPUS, Google Scholar, CrossRef, Supreme Council of Ukraine (Verkhovna Rada), OSCE archive, RAZUMKOV CENTER archive, European Truth (internet newspaper), and Deutsche Welle (DW). This also included the YouTube channel for the “UA|TV” International Broadcasting Multimedia Platform of Ukraine and the YouTube channel for the “Breeze TV and Radio Studio” of the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine. The search strings used in this phase of the study are presented in Table 1
Keyword based string
Google Search TI and/or TW = (civilian control of military in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes OR implementat* of civilian control of military in emerg* democrac* OR building civilian military relationships OR educational measures OR initiatives for building civilian military relationships OR educational measures for building civilian military relationships in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes)
SCOPUS AB and/or KW and/or ID (TITLE ABS KEY) = (civilian control of military in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes OR implementat* of civiliancontrol of military inemerg*democrac* ORbuilding civilian
WoS categories: social sciences
military relationships OReducational measures for building civilian military relationships OReducational measures for building civilian military relationships in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes)
AB and/or KW and/or ID (TITLE ABS KEY) = (civilian control of military in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes OR implementat* of civiliancontrol of military inemerg*democrac* ORbuilding civilian military relationships OReducational measures for building civilian military relationships OReducational measures for building civilian military relationships in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes) (subcategory: Education and Educational Research) AND (Articles OR Reviews), Indexes: Social Science Citation Index 1988 present)
Note.: TI = title; TW = text words; AB = abstract; KW = keywords; TITLE ABS KEY = title abstract keywords
The search and retrieval of the relevant texts lasted almost half a year, from September 2020 to the end of January 2021. The goal in the search and retrieval phase was not to develop an exhaustive search of all the texts that address our research questions. It was to reveal the general trends in the current state of scientific research, media coverage, and practice of promoting the civilian supervision of the army and police in Ukraine through building the civil military relationships. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting relevant texts were as follows: 1) the period when the text was published or released (over the last 30 years); 2) regional relevance (Ukraine); 3) conceptual or analytical or propositive narration; and 4) educational purpose of the initiative to have been revealed The relevance, quality, and validity of the texts were assessed using a critical appraisal checklist (CAC) that was purposefully adopted from Bobrytska et al. (2020) and Greenhalgh et al. (2005). The instrument relied on the five grade scale with values for judgments that could range from 1 = low relevance to 5 = high relevance The assessment of the texts was performed by two colleague volunteers. Following this, the researchers and colleagues held a consensus meeting to settle any disagreements through discussion. The number of text publications that were found for each keyword based inquiry is presented in Table 2
The non systematic review included four phases, as revealed by Moher et al. (2015). These were: 1) identification, 2) screening, 3) identifying eligibility, and 4) inclusion for the review. The first phase focused on the evolution of the number of publications in scientific and non scientific sources and public media covering the context of Ukrainian or post soviet countries or former authoritative regimes In the screening phase, the emotional tone of narration, key ideas and concepts, and message framing type (gain framing and loss framing) were identified. Following this, the texts were selected using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, the selected texts were evaluated by experts for relevance, quality, and validity using the CAC. In the screening phase, the randomly selected texts, from different periods, were summarized and translated by hired student volunteers (n = 55) who were enrolled in philology and translation studies at the National Pedagogical Dragomanov University (NPDU). The texts shortlisted for the final review were also translated by the NPDU student volunteers.
ntotal of texts n of shortlisted texts
civilian control of the military in emerg* democrac* 791 219 civilian control of military in Ukraine 391 89 civilian control of military in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes 886 137 implementat* of civilian control of military in emerg* democrac* 338 39
building civilian military relationships 279 43 educational measures for building civilian military relationships 148 11
educational measures OR initiatives for building civilian military relationships in emerg* democrac* OR in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes
175 21
educational measures OR initiatives for building civilian military relationships in Ukraine OR in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes
163 19
155 17 educational measures OR initiatives for building civilian military relationships in post soviet countries OR in former authoritative regimes
Two modules were introduced in a professional refresher course for the civil servants who did the course at the Training Institute of the State Employment Service of Ukraine in 2020 and 2021. These modules were aimed at educating civil servants in defense and security areas to be aware of building the partnership between civilians and the military Furthermore, the structure of the refresher course was updated using the curriculum for the educational program titled “State Educational Policy”, run at NPDU, as the best practice (Vashkevich et al., 2020) The modules were based on best practices found in the reviewed publications
The two modules covered the following eight topics:
• The concept of civilian control.
• The concept of democratic control of armed forces.
• International best practices and prerequisites that govern the relationship between the society and armed forces along with the police.
• The use of best practices and prerequisites of social control as approaches to building nationwide confidence.
• Civilian control strategies
• Setting up the epistemic communities or expertise based networks of professionals or former military officers engaged in security sector reform.
• Subordination of military and police to the political institutions that are supposed to perform supervision and whose members were chosen by democratic election.
• Measuring the extent of democratic civilian control.
The course included a project assignment prompting students to develop recommendations to the government, the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, and public media on how to build and exercise democratic civilian control over the armed forces and law enforcement agencies, and how to build the relationship between them.
We used the convenience sampling technique. The updated refresher course was delivered offline to 358 civil servants in 2019 and 246 in 2020, and online to 119 in 2021. Forty five randomly selected students who had completed the course responded to the course satisfaction survey.
Since ethical inconsistencies could occur in the refresher course assignment and survey, the participants were asked for informed consent before the intervention. The anonymity and privacy of the data provided by the participants were given paramount importance.
The CAC (see Appendix A), Voyant Tools, LIWC application, and the course satisfaction survey questionnaire were the instruments used for the study. The numeric data were calculated using jamovi statistical software (version 2.0.0) (Jamovi project, 2021).
The CAC was validated by Bobrytska et al. (2020). The item content validity index (I CVI) was < 0.85. The Fleiss’ k coefficient was < 0.83. The value for the scale level content validity index (SL CVI) was 92%. The above values implied that the CAC was a valid tool and that it could be used in the study
The Voyant Tools software is open source software and is designed to analyze the text corpus in terms of patterns of words/concepts (Sinclair & Rockwell, 2015). It is increasingly used for research purposes and has been used in research published in peer reviewed journals (Boyle & Hall, 2016). The LIWC software is also used to analyze the text corpus. It uses a 100 point scale and reveals the analytical or formal thinking in the narration style, clout taps writing, text authenticity, and emotional tone.
The course satisfaction survey questionnaire (see Appendix B) relied on two scales, course effectiveness and course satisfaction, and consisted of five questions It used a 5 point Likert scale for effectiveness and satisfaction (1 = very ineffective or very dissatisfied up to 5 = very effective or very satisfied). The participants had to express their judgments concerning the course design, assessment system, and the intellectual gains that occurred in them due to participation in the course. The questionnaire was administered online and the output data were processed manually. Three experts were hired to assess the inter rater reliability of the questionnaire following the recommendation of Rodrigues et al. (2017). Before using the questionnaire, reliability analysis was performed. The Cronbach’ s �� for the entire questionnaire was .883, which is considered a sufficient value for internal consistency (Cortina, 1993)
To address the research questions, the results of the study are discussed in two sections, that of the non systematic review and course satisfaction survey.
The review showed that the number of relevant texts has increased dramatically since 2014, which can be associated with Russian military aggression against Ukraine. Table 3 and Figure 1 illustrate the increase of the overall number of texts by source in the context of Ukrainian or post soviet countries or former authoritative regimes.
As can be noticed in Table 3 and Figure 1, the public media in Ukraine produced a greater volume of literature on the issues of establishing civilian control of the military through building civilian military relationships compared to scientific and non scientific military sources. This implies that society tried to influence the government to accelerate the process of resolving these issues through legislative and executive measures and bodies.
Table 3: Publications on the civilian control of the military in emerging democracy and educational measures for building civilian-military relationships distributed by year/s and source
Year/s Source
91 95 96 00 01 05 06 10 11 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 % Mean SD
SCOPUS 0 0 0 0 3 4 7 11 13 19 22 1.81 7.18 7.63
GS 0 0 1 4 3 6 9 17 23 30 56 3.41 13.54 16.45 CrossRef 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 28 117 139 7.19 28.36 48.36
SCU 1 2 6 9 5 38 51 68 91 112 146 12.2 48.09 48.16 OSCE 0 0 7 6 5 27 33 42 59 83 176 10.1 39.81 50.08
MDU 1 3 16 9 7 21 39 48 56 63 84 8 31.54 26.75 RC 0 0 3 4 8 9 17 35 41 75 94 6.59 26 30.73 ET 0 0 0 0 0 4 21 61 154 181 194 14.19 55.9 76.22 DW 0 4 8 16 7 15 66 73 79 127 296 15.95 62.81 83.59
UA|TV 0 0 0 0 0 2 38 75 118 125 147 11.66 45.9 56.44
Breeze TV 0 0 3 9 4 8 22 34 67 93 143 8.84 34.81 44.78
Note. GS = Google Scholar; SCU = Supreme Council of Ukraine; MDU = Ministry of Defence of Ukraine; RC = Razumkov Center; ET = European Truth; Breeze TV = “Breeze TV and Radio Studio”
In the screening phase, based on the analysis of 104 randomly selected texts from different periods (that were summarized and translated by hired student volunteers), the emotional tone of the texts and the key implications to be drawn from them were identified. Table 4 presents the keywords used in the texts and correlations of terms analysis that were identified using Voyant Tools.
Table 4: Keywords used in the texts and correlations identified using Voyant Tools
Before the Russian military aggression During the Russian military aggression Keywords �� Keywords �� civilians strategies 0.984 reform Ministry of Defence 0.971 civilians consolidation 0.951 Ministry of Defence Parliament 0.963 analysis attempts 0.917 outside control military 0.929 society prerogatives 0.893 approach public 0.884 society powers 0.865 education restructuring 0.868 institutions new 0.838 education providing 0.827 civilians military 0.639 data public 0.797 civilian military relations 0.611 defense transparent 0.788 civilian military security 0.584 information media 0.757
As can be seen in Table 4, the keywords used in texts were different in the periods before and during the Russian military aggression against Ukraine. In the period before the aggression, the literature revealed this topic from the perspective of analysis, giving power to the society and consolidating the society, which is illustrated by high correlation values (�� > 0.7). Interestingly, the correlation between terms that implied building civil military relationships was lower than 0.7, signifying the low importance of this matter. Additionally, it was found that texts used tentative and hesitant language with verbs such as “ seem ” , “could” , “might” , and “would be”. This proved that establishing civilian control of the
military and building civilian military relationships was not a top priority task in Ukraine in the period before the Russian aggression. The keywords found in publications in the period between 2015 and the present illustrated the growing importance of these tasks for the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, public government, and society. This was proved by the high correlation between terms such as reform Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence Parliament, outside control military, and approach public. It was important that educational measures related to civilian control of the military were found one of the priorities in the literature. Additionally, the language in the literature used more call to action verbs, such as “must focus” , “should do” , and “need to be” .
Table 5 presents the results of analyzing the texts for the emotional tone using the LIWC app. The texts were divided into two periods, namely before the Russian military aggression against Ukraine and during it. The values in Table 5 suggest that, when comparing the two periods, the narration style of publications became less analytic (BA = 95.61; DA = 74.83) and confidence and leadership projecting increased, as can be seen in the values for the clout variable (BA = 53.81; DA = 83.29). In addition, honesty and negativity increased (BA = 35.89; DA = 64.98). The values for the emotional tone (BA = 53.92; DA = 43.81) suggested the growth of pessimism in the narration style of publications.
Table 5: Results of the analysis of the emotional tone of the corpus of texts
Variable BA DA Reference value Analytic 95.61 74.83 56.34 Clout 53.81 83.29 57.95 Authenticity 35.89 64.98 49.17 Emotional tone 53.92 43.81 54.22
Note. BA = before the Russian military aggression; DA = during the Russian military aggression
The above values for characteristics of the narration style of publications indicated the importance of finding a solution to address the issue. In the final review phase, seven texts were selected by the experts using the CAC. These are outlined in Table 6
As can be drawn from Table 6, the key suggestions are related to educating and training civil servants in developing legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks for building civil military relations and exercising civilian control over them. Some authors suggested reorganizing and restructuring the military to join NATO. However, the review did not yield a precise description of any educational measure that could be adopted.
Author(s), year of text Regional relevance (Ukraine)
Conceptual/ analytical/ propositive
Koziy and Polyakov (2018) Relevant Conceptual/ analytical
Gusev et al. (2018) Relevant Conceptual/ analytical
Key idea/ Educational measure revealed
Improvement of defense management and planning through educating civil servants and implementing transparent and accountable democratic systems
Updating and implementing education systems and career programs that comply with civilian and military democratic systems
Bobritsky (2020) Relevant Analytical/ propositive
Fluri and Badrack (2016a) Relevant Analytical/ propositive
Upgrading the education of civil servants and encouraging them for the continued development of legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks with a focus on the roles and responsibilities of the civilians and military
Increasing the degree of institutionalized civilian oversight over military affairs, training civil servants to exercise this control
Mean CAC score
3.5
3
4
Fluri and Badrack (2016b) Relevant Analytical/ propositive
Involving non governmental experts, activists, and professionals from civil society in the discussion of important documents and concepts on the development of legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks
3
Ukrainian military TV (2016) Relevant Analytical/ propositive
Perepelitsa (2002) Relevant Conceptual/ analytical/ propositive
Establishing the balance between the outside control of the military and their autonomy. Training officers in building relations with a civil community.
Reforming the military to reduce its force and restructuring legislation and governance with priorities on joining NATO
3.5
3
3.5
The lecturers’ observations showed that the introduction of two modules that were based on the shortlisted best practices in the professional refresher course for the civil servants brought a complimentary change in the civil students’ awareness. This involved addressing the inconsistencies that occur in
implementing civilian control in the activity of the organizations of the national defense sector and law enforcement system in Ukraine.
As a project assignment, the students were supposed to develop recommendations to the government, the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, and public media on how to build and exercise democratic civilian control over the armed forces and law enforcement agencies and how to build a relationship between them Below are the topics covered:
• Increase the share of civilians in the management of the armed forces
• Non involvement of the military in dealing with civil pickets or incidents of civil unrest.
• Reshaping or updating legislation to comply with NATO requirements.
• Using a bottom up approach (citizens societies state) to the management of national security of Ukraine.
• In terms of its armed defense, the Constitution should be applied through direct democracy in its entirety at the basic management levels
• The formation and implementation of a general defense policy should be a part of national security policy (direct use of the power of the people [community and individual citizens]) due to the need to put up armed resistance to the aggressor to ensure state sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.
The survey results suggest that participants perceived the updated course and assignment positively. Table 7 presents the descriptive statistics of the course satisfaction survey.
Table 7: Summary of the data drawn from the student satisfaction survey (N = 45)
Q1e Q2e Q3e Q4e Q5e Q1s Q2s Q3s Q4s Q5s
Mean 4.22 4.11 4.09 4.04 4.02 4.29 4 4.11 4 02 4.2 SD 0.85 0.775 0.848 1.07 0.988 0.757 0.769 0.859 0.753 0.786 Skewness 0.918 0.504 0.642 0.682 0.637 0.545 0.314 0.446 0.370 0.963 Std. error skewness 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 Kurtosis 0.256 0.229 0.176 0.876 0.672 1.04 0.381 0.923 1.2 1.02 Std. error kurtosis 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695 0.695
As displayed in Table 7, the values for skewness and kurtosis were skewed right, implying that the judgments of the participants were positive about the course’ s effectiveness (NIST/SEMATECH, 2013). The mean values suggest that the participants were satisfied with the refresher course design, content, assessment system, and intellectual gains it provided them.
The study sought to identify the international best practices to establish relationships between the civil institutions and the military so that those could be adopted in Ukraine. It also sought to update the refresher course for the civil
servants by introducing two modules that were based on the shortlisted best practices. Furthermore, it wanted to identify whether there is an observable influence of the course on the civil students’ awareness of addressing the inconsistencies that occur in implementing civilian control in the activity of the organizations of the national defense sector and law enforcement system in Ukraine. The above goals were addressed via answering the following two research questions: 1) What does the relevant literature reveal about civilian control of the military in emerging democracy and educational measures for building civilian military relationships? and: 2) How did the participants of the professional refresher course perceive the introduced modules and a project assignment? The novelty of the study is in updating the curriculum of a refresher course for civil servants and producing recommendations to the government, the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, and public media on how to build and exercise democratic civilian control over the armed forces and law enforcement agencies. In addition, the study elicited information on how to build the relationship between civilian government authorities and the armed forces as the outcome of the refresher course.
The findings revealed that the number of relevant texts has increased dramatically since 2014, which can be associated with Russian military aggression against Ukraine. The public media in Ukraine produced a greater volume of literature on the issues of establishing civilian control of the military through building civilian military relationships compared to scientific and non scientific military sources. This implies that society tried to influence the government to accelerate the process of resolving these issues through legislative and executive measures and bodies. The keywords used in texts were different in the periods before and during the Russian military aggression against Ukraine. In the period before the aggression, the literature revealed this topic from the perspective of analysis, giving power to the society and consolidating the society, which is illustrated by high correlation values (�� > 0.7). Interestingly, the correlation between terms that implied building civil military relationships was lower than 0.7, indicating the low importance of this matter. Additionally, it was found that publications used tentative and hesitant language with verbs such as “ seem ” , “could” , “might”, and “would be”. This proved that establishing civilian control of the military and building civilian military relationships was not a top priority task in Ukraine in the period before the Russian aggression.
The keywords found in texts in the period between 2015 and the present illustrated the growing importance of these tasks for the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, public government, and society. This was proved by the high correlation between terms such as reform-Ministry of Defence, Ministry of DefenceParliament, outside control military, and approach public. It was important that educational measures related to civilian control of the military were found one of the priorities in the literature. Additionally, the language in the literature used more call-to-action verbs, such as “must focus” , “should do”, and “need to be”
The narration style of publications, when comparing the two periods (BA and DA), became less analytic (BA = 95.61; DA = 74.83) and confidence and leadership projecting increased, as can be seen in the values for the clout variable (BA = 53.81;
DA = 83.29). In addition, honesty and negativity increased (BA = 35.89; DA = 64.98). The values for the emotional tone (BA = 53.92; DA = 43.81) suggested the growth of pessimism in the narration style of texts. The above values for characteristics of the narration style of publications indicated the importance of finding a solution to address the issue.
The final phase of the literature review found that the key suggestions were related to educating and training civil servants in developing legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks for building civil military relations and exercising civilian control over them. Some authors suggested reorganizing and restructuring the military to join NATO. However, the review did not yield a precise description of any educational measure that could be adopted. The results of the above literature review agree with Kenwick (2020) and Gonzalez (2022), who concluded that military institutions should be controlled by giving access to decision making in the military to avoid the risk of losing government power because of interstate disputes and in wartime. The authors emphasized the importance of civilian leadership which can be trained in civil servants using educational initiatives. The findings of this study align with that of Gusev et al. (2018), who stated that democratic civilian control should rely on government run educational campaigns to address societal concerns and doubts. Solving this task also requires trained people.
The results of the course satisfaction survey suggest that participants perceived the updated course and assignment positively. The values for skewness and kurtosis were skewed right, implying that the judgments of the participants were positive about the course’ s effectiveness. The mean values suggest that the participants were satisfied with the refresher course design, content, assessment system, and intellectual gains it provided them.
The findings are consistent with the relevant literature. The study agrees with Travis (2019), who held that wartime consolidated the efforts of the military and civilian institutions within the national security policy and this consolidation makes both institutions equally important. The findings also concur with Pantev et al. (2005), who explained that the professional background of civil servants, members of parliament, and political appointees is insufficient to deal with the increasing complexity of the tasks in the security sector and needs training. Furthermore, the findings align with Kuehn et al. (2017), who stated that there remains a need for the development of the mechanisms and conditions for making this kind of civilian control efficient and there is a need for the institutions of civilian control and educated and trained people to exercise it.
The study sought to identify best practices for establishing civilian control over the armed forces and police in emerging democracies that could be implemented in Ukraine. The shortlisted practices were utilized to update the refresher course for civil servants. The output of the study was drawn from the non systematic literature review and feedback of the civil servants who did the updated professional refresher course. As revealed in the literature review, the process of
building civil military relationships in Ukraine is in the transitional stage. There is a need for educating and training civil servants in developing legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks for building civil military relations and exercising civilian control over them. It was made clear that establishing civilian control over the army and developing the strategy of building mutually trustful civilian military relationships was not a top priority task in Ukraine in the period before the Russian aggression. However, this task has recently become an urgent policy action for the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, the public government, and society
The above was proved by a high correlation between terms such as reform Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence Parliament, outside control military, and approach public in the corpus of shortlisted texts Educating and training civil servants in developing legal, regulatory, and procedural frameworks for building civil military relations and exercising civilian control over them were the key findings of the literature review. This study proved that the above instructional solution could be feasible and effective. The results of the course satisfaction survey suggest that participants perceived the updated course and assignment positively. The participants reported that they appreciated the refresher course design, content, assessment system, and intellectual gains it provided. Further research is needed in identifying how the public media could contribute to educating citizens on civilian control of the military and law enforcement bodies.
We express our gratitude to the experts and students for their contribution to the study. We would also like to express our gratitude to lecturers and students for summarizing and translating the publications and for collecting the raw data.
No conflicts of interest related to affiliations are declared
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Appendix A. Critical appraisal checklist
Reviewer____________________________________ Date ________________
Author(s)____________________________________ Year ________________ Record number ___________________________
# Item Yes No Unclea r N/A
1 Is the publication relevant to the first research question?
2 Is the rationale for the study relevant to the purpose?
3 Does the study comply with recent theory and best practices of establishing and managing democratic civilian control of the military and law enforcement agencies in the country?
4 Does the study reveal any relevant project or initiative whose purpose is to rain or inform those who are involved in building civilian military relationships?
5 Does the study provide a clear description of the project or initiative?
6 Is the project or initiative output relevant to the training of civil servants?
7 Does the study provide a doable implementation plan for a project or initiative or intervention?
8 Does the study discuss the actions taken (the change or the intervention or initiative) and the methods used to evaluate them clearly?
8 Does the study use a conceptual or analytical or propositive narration?
Overall appraisal: Include ❒ Include for full text reading ❒ Include for final review ❒
Exclude ❒ Comments: (reasons for exclusion):
Appendix B: Two scales based student satisfaction survey questionnaire
Effectiveness Question Satisfaction
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
1. How do you rate the refresher course effectiveness?
2. How do you rate the design of the refresher course?
3. How do you rate the course content in terms of civilian control?
4. How do you rate the course assessment system?
5. How do you rate your intellectual gains from the course?
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 425 445, August 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.8.24
Received Jun 2, 2022; Revised Aug 18, 2022; Accepted Aug 28, 2022
Ali Ahmad Al Barakat* University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Rommel Mahmoud Al Ali
King Faisal University, Al Ahsa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Mu’aweya Mohammad Al Hassan Ministry of Education, Irbid, Jordan
Omayya M. Al Hassan
The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in the specialization of early childhood education.The participants were 155 student teachers enrolled in the education field training program at Yarmouk University in Jordan. To achieve the purpose of the study, a questionnaire was developed, after insuring its validity and reliability. The findings showed that, according to the means and standard deviations of the questionnaire items, cooperative teachers did not fulfill their supervisory roles in improving the professional preparation of student teachers during the education field training. The findings also showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers due to gender, academic qualification and teaching experience. This indicates that these variables do not affect the cooperative teachers' supervisory role in improving student teachers' preparation. This study contributes to a better comprehension of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers. It is suggested that the teacher education program at Yarmouk University should pay attention to improve student teachers' preparation during the education field training phase.
Keywords: cooperative teachers; field training; supervisory roles; student teachers; teacher education
* Corresponding author: Prof.AliAhmadAl Barakat,aalbarakat@sharjah.ac.ae
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Education occupies a great importance in human societies, being the main vehicle through which these societies seek to build the personality of individuals in all aspects of humanity (Confesor & Belmi, 2022; Ennab et al., 2020; Fraihat et al., 2022; Zhilgildinova et al., 2022). The process of teaching and learning represents the means on which educational goals depend in achieving that goal (Fraihat et al., 2022; Radovan & Kristl, 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2018). Al Kandari (2002) pointed out that education is a right of the individual in the society and a necessity to achieve its national security. Therefore, the teacher has a role in achieving the goals of the educational process. According to Podgornik and Vogrinc (2017) and Poom Valickis et al. (2012), no educational system can achieve its goals without the presence of the teacher, who is considered one of the central elements in the educational system.
Reviewing educational studies showed that there is a growing interest in the process of preparing and qualifying teachers (Ennab et al., 2020; Radovan, 2011; Singha & Sikdar, 2018). Thus, it is essential to prepare distinguished teachers’ capabilities to perform their roles effectively, where most countries around the world have sought to focus on student teachers' preparation programs. In developed countries, it was found that all educational reform movements considered preparing student teachers as the best method to achieve the educational objectives (Al Kandari, 2002; Podgornik & Vogrinc, 2017; Poom Valickis et al., 2012; Radovan, 2011; Radovan & Kristl, 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2018).
For instance, in the Arab countries, the notion of developing teacher preparation programs goes along with the emergence of the dominating conception in the public discourse, which states that “There is a weakness in the outcomes of education at different levels of educational stages”. These results are due to the poor level of the academic and supervisory qualifications of teachers, the low level of professional satisfaction and the widespread sentiment that teaching is a profession for those who have no profession (Al Kandari, 2002).
Previous ideas have positively affected the process of reconsideration of teachers' preparation programs in countries that already have programs and those working on developing programs in countries that do not have ones (Al Barakat & Alhassan, 2009; Alhassan et al., 2012; Fraihat et al., 2022). In Jordan, teacher preparation programs received attention by the government and the Jordanian educational reform movement in 2014 was a distinctive starting point, which included all the elements of the educational processes of teacher preparation programs (Fraihat et al., 2022). For instance, the preparation of teachers is an essential component for the success of the educational system to achieve its objectives.
In hindsight, Jordanian universities have started to develop special programs for preparing teachers in line with the recommendations of the Jordanian educational reform movement. These programs have sought to provide student teachers with appropriate knowledge, skills and tendencies that would contribute to the preparation of the teacher (Makovec, 2018; Fraihat et al., 2022; Gardee & Brodie, 2022), because there are essential things considered to ensure a high level for the teacher to participate in developing the teaching and learning
process (Makovec, 2018; Verde & Valero, 2021). Teacher preparation programs accompanying the educational development process have been characterized by the inclusion of the so called education field training, which is a transitional stage between academic and behavioral education and the practicality of the teaching profession in order to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Verde & Valero, 2021; Zega & Lase, 2021).
This confirms that education field training is an important component of teacher preparation programs in consideration of its great role in helping teachers understand their future profession (Jin, 2022; Nagro et al., 2020). Subsequently, is represents one of the important criteria for the success of teacher preparation programs (O’Doherty et al., 2020; Zhang, 2020). The importance of education field training stems from the fact that theoretical knowledge which lacks practicality is valueless, because it is far from reality and objectivity (Nagro & deBettencourt, 2019). Alhassan et al. (2012), Zanting et al. (2003), among others reported that education field training forms a core aspect of pre service in teacher education, being regarded as the main focus of the educational reform movement.
The success of education field training programs, which are prominent in preparing pre service teachers, depends on an interlocking and interactive set of components influencing and being influences by one another (Nathans & Brown, 2022). The cooperative teacher is considered as an important element on which the student teacher preparation process depends during education field training (Anderson, 2009; Ballinger & Bishop, 2011; Maes et al., 2022). Studies by Caires et al. (2012) and Tasdemir et al. (2007) emphasized the importance of preparing and training cooperative teachers according to specific programs, while adopting various training models which assist them to be prepared and qualified as distinguished teachers. All of these require the cooperative teacher's awareness of preparing student teachers.
Considering the significant importance of the cooperative teacher in achieving the objectives of student teachers' preparation, modern educational perceptions have identified a set of supervisory roles that improve the quality of student teachers' preparation. Various educational studies, such as those conducted by Altan & Sağlamel (2015), Clarke (2014), Harrington & Enochs (2009), Office of Teacher Education (2022), Özdemir Yılmazer (2021), and Sung (2007) defined a set of supervisory roles that contribute to the success of student teachers' preparation, which are:
Collaboration with the supervisor in helping student teachers according to the proper professional manner;
Selecting the appropriate learning environment for the purposes of education field training;
Informing student teachers about the objectives of the education field training; Encouraging student teachers to benefit from the education field training Monitoring the training process;
Evaluating the performance of student teachers on a continuous basis; Providing school facilities necessary to implement the educational and learning settings.
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The role of the cooperative teacher should focus on training student teachers on instructional skills in various academic subjects in accordance with contemporary educational perceptions centered on the concept of the child centered learning process. However, the above mentioned assertions are based on various studies, (Haciomeroglu, 2013; Mutlu, 2014; Zhao & Zhang, 2017; Zhilgildinova et al., 2022) which showed that the supervisory role of the cooperative teacher should be based on a set of standards, which are not limited to directing student teachers, but rather focus on training them on the teaching skills in various learning situations, based on contemporary educational perceptions that revolve around the concept of the student centered learning process. In addition, the supervisory role of cooperative teachers should help student teachers organize, plan, perform and assess the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, cooperative teachers should monitor student teachers with regard to the school's policy, philosophy, regulations, and facilities, as well as observing their performance in various teaching and learning settings and helping them solve the difficulties that they face in a logical and educational way (Haciomeroglu, 2013; Mutlu, 2014; Office of Teacher Education, 2022).
Previous studies conducted by Haciomeroglu (2013), Hudson, et al. (2009), Zhao & Zhang (2017), and Zhilgildinova et al. (2022) showed that the cooperative teacher might contribute to the student teachers’ preparation by directing them to participate in meetings with the teaching staff and participate in social activities. Supervisory role of the cooperative teacher, Grant and Zeichnar (2002) and Zhao & Zhang (2017) found that the supervisory role of the cooperative teacher is mainly through observing the student teachers’ performance in the learning environment and then holding a meeting to provide them with feedback that can contribute to improving their instructional performance.
A set of studies conducted by Anderson, (2009), Hancock and Gallard (2004) and O'Sullivan and Conaill (2022) revealed that the cooperative teacher has a significant role in developing positive beliefs among student teachers towards teaching practices based on learner centered learning from kindergarten to high school stage. This depends on the learning opportunities available to student teachers to develop themselves as constructive teachers. This role requires the cooperative teacher to assist student teachers in identifying the school's philosophy, policy, instructions and activities, including monitoring teaching performance with the aim to improve, develop and assist the cooperative teacher and the university supervisor in solving problems facing student teachers. Considering the importance of the supervisory role of the cooperative teacher in preparing student teachers, the education Field Training Program at Yarmouk University (2019) reported its instructions for participation of the cooperative teacher in the process of assessing the performance of student teachers during the semester according to a model prepared for this purpose. These included the roles that contribute to the preparation of the teacher. These centered mainly on the supervisory role of the cooperative teachers in training student teachers to become the main controllers of the learner based learning approach (Bayrakc, 2009; Hudson, et al., 2009).
As illustrated above, despite that it is apparent how important the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers are in improving the quality of student teacher
preparation, rare studies have attempted to determine the nature of the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers. Previous studies (Al Barakat & Alhassan, 2009; Alhassan et al , 2012; Payan & Murphy, 2012; Maes et al., 2022) found that cooperative teachers the greatest influence on how student teachers employ new have instructional strategies and classroom management techniques. However, they did not find out whether cooperative teachers have a strong influence in performing their supervisory roles which are concerned with assisting student teachers in their professional and personal development, thus improving the educational process (Bayrakc, 2009; Zhilgildinova et al., 2022).
The cooperative teacher’ s role in improving the quality of student teacher preparation is regarded as one of the most effective components in preparing student teachers to be effective future teachers during the instructional practices. It is worth noting that the way in which student teachers are successfully prepared depends on the extent of cooperative teachers’ understanding and awareness of their supervisory roles as a part of the training program, because the cooperative teacher who is able to perform supervisory roles efficiently will be able to influence the quality of preparing future teachers.
Hence, the great importance of the cooperative teacher in the student teacher preparation process cannot be denied, as it is an essential component of education field training programs. However, there is a lack of information related to the extent to which cooperative teachers perform their supervisory roles in the preparation of student teachers. Hence, the practical experience and field observations of the faculty members in education field training programs reveal shortcomings and weaknesses in improving the preparation of student teachers. However, the study seeks to provide decision makers at Yarmouk University with the needed feedback related to the actual performance of cooperative teachers’ supervisory roles during field experience. As mentioned, the study problem stemmed from the scarcity of studies in the Jordanian environment that dealt with the effectiveness of supervisory performance of cooperative teachers during education field training periods. This was supported by the study undertaken by Al Hassan & Al Barakat )2013(, which recommended the necessity of conducting research on the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers at Yarmouk University and the Hashemite University in Jordan.
Based on the above, the current study aims to:
Investigate the extents to which cooperative teachers perform their supervisory roles in improving the quality of student teacher preparation. Determine whether there are any statistically significant differences in the degree of effectiveness of supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers based on gender, academic qualification and experience of cooperative teachers
Specifically, the study attempts to answer the following questions:
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
1. What is the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in the specialization of early childhood education as assessed by students?
2. Are there any statistically significant differences in the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers attributed to the cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience?
The population for this study consisted of all student teachers (155), who train in the early childhood education classes in public and private schools affiliated to the Directorate of Education in Irbid district in Jordan during the first semester of the academic year 2021/2022. With regard to the sample of the study, it consisted of the population itself (155 student teachers). This means that the sample represented the total population of the study; the questionnaire was distributed to the total population. After data collection, one hundred and forty six questionnaires were considered, with a return rate of 94.19%.
With regard to the study variables related to cooperating teachers, which were obtained through official records in the Office of Education field training program at Yarmouk University, the results of the study data analysis, as mentioned in the first part of the questionnaire, showed that the number of male cooperating teachers was 56 (38.35%), while female cooperative teachers were 90 (61.65%). The reason that the number of females is more than that of males is attributed to the tendency of the Jordanian Ministry of Education to feminize education in early grades. With regard cooperative teachers’ experiences and qualification, the number of those with a teaching experience of less than 10 years was 75 (51.37%), while those with a teaching experience of more than 10 years was 71 (48.63%). As for their qualification 88 (60.27%) were bachelor degree holders and 58 (39.73%) were postgraduate.
4.2
In this study, the quantitative research methodology was adopted to find out the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers in improving instructional performance of student teachers during the education field training phase. To achieve this, a questionnaire was developed according to Altan and Sağlamel (2015), Clarke (2014), Kastens (2004), Harrington and Enochs (2009), Özdemir Yılmazer (2021) and Sung (2007). The questionnaire consisted of two parts:
4.2.1 Data related to the cooperating teacher:
This part includes three questions related to the gender of the cooperative teacher, his/her teaching experience and his/her academic qualification. Each student teacher answered these questions through official records in the Office of Education field training program at Yarmouk University.
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The questionnaire, in its first version, consisted of 33 items. These items be related to the supervisory roles of the cooperative teacher, which must perform by directing and guiding student teachers to the procedures of teaching in the childhood education stage, according to a guide directed to cooperative teachers by the Office of Education field training program at Yarmouk University Participants were asked to rate items on a 5 point Likert scale, where (very high = 5, high = 4, moderate = 3, low = 2, very low =1).
To verify the validity of the questionnaire, eight experienced and specialized moderated the questionnaire items, and agreed on the item measures. After the moderators submitted their comments, which included the exclusion and modification of some items, as well as the addition of some new items, all the modifications and suggestions were implemented. The study instrument, in its final version, consisted of (26) items (see appendix 1)
To assure the reliability of the instrument, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculation was performed to assure the internal consistency of the questionnaire, which amounted to 0.93, indicating that the questionnaire is appropriate to achieve the purpose of this study.
Three weeks before commencement of the study, the questionnaire was applied twice to an exploratory sample of (25) student teachers who were excluded from the main sample, with on interval of two weeks between the two applications (test retest). Pearson's correlation coefficient of the instrument was calculated and found to be 0.91, which is appropriate for the purpose of this study. This gives an indication that the degree of consistency of test scores from one test administration to another was high.
One hundred and fifty five questionnaires were distributed to the sample of the study during an official meeting of student teachers. The participants’ agreement was obtained to participate in the study. All respondents were informed about the purpose of the study and assured of the confidentiality of the data that they will provide in their responses. Anonymity was assured, so that respondents could express their responses freely. The subjects of the study were given enough time to answer the questionnaires; they were given a period of one month to return the questionnaires by themselves. The questionnaire was administered to all student teachers in the specialization of childhood education. A total of 15S questionnaires were distributed, 9 invalid questionnaires were excluded and 146 valid questionnaires were returned, with a return rate of 94.19%.
With regard to data analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used, as means and standard deviations were calculated to identify the degree of effectiveness of cooperative teachers' supervisory performance for each item of the questionnaire as assessed by student teachers. In addition, three way ANOVA was used to reveal the effect of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience on their supervisory roles as evaluated by student teachers. This test was used, because it reveals the main effect of each of the three independent variables separately.
The results of the study will be presented in two parts, based on the research questions.
5.1
This question aimed to determine the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in the specialization of early childhood education from student teachers’ point of view. Then, to answer this question, means and standard deviations for all of the questionnaire items were calculated. Data were presented and organized in descending order, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Means and standard deviations of student teachers’ responses to the effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers
No. Item
Mean St. Dev. My assessment of the effectiveness of the performance of cooperative teachers is as follows:
1 Assigning the student teacher for planning. 3.91 0.81
2 Assigning the student teacher to perform some teaching tasks. 3.90 0.79
3 Providing the student teacher with feedback on his/her teaching performance. 2.15 0.83
4 Monitoring the performance of the student teacher in the classroom environment. 2.15 0.73
5 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to attend a variety of teaching models. 2.14 0.75
6 Choosing practical lessons according to certain standards. 2.14 0.79
7 Supervising and monitoring the student teacher about his/her training role. 2.14 0.74
8 Watching lessons for the teacher/student. 2.13 0.90
9 Monitoring the student teacher lesson preparation notebook 2.12 0.90
10 Giving the student teacher a chance to apply various alternative assessment strategies. 2.12 0.73
11 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in the creation of educational aid means. 2.11 0.88
12 Informing the student teacher of contemporary trends in developing teaching performance. 2.11 0.69
13 Attempting to understand the problems that the student teacher faces in teaching. 2.11 0.68
14 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in school activities. 2.10 0.71
15 Participating in supervisory meetings between the university supervisor and the student teachers 2.10 1.01
Table 1: Means and standard deviations of student teachers’ responses to the effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers
No. Item
Mean St. Dev. My assessment of the effectiveness of the performance of cooperative teachers is as follows:
16 Introducing the student teacher to the laws of managing the educational environment. 2.09 1.11
17 Helping the student teacher solve his/her problems. 2.09 1.09
18 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in social activities. 2.08 1.08
19 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to use educational technologies in teaching. 2.07 0.69
20 Directing the student teacher to attend typical classes with more than one teacher. 2.06 0.98
21 Simplifying the student teacher's task in conducting activities outside the classroom. 2.05 0.91
22 Encouraging the student teacher to use modern teaching methods. 2.02 1.07
23 Providing a school environment concerned with creating human relations with the teacher/student. 2.01 0.89
24 Providing the necessary materials and tools for the student teacher to produce educational aids. 2.00 0.90
25 Treating the student teacher as a part of the teaching system. 1.98 0.99
26 Informing the student teacher of the importance of his/her teaching role 1.96 1.03
Total 2.18 0.67
Table 1 facilitates the results' interpretations and determines the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers for each item included in the questionnaire. The grading was calculated according to the following: Highest score on the response scale Lowest score on the response scale/ 3.This means 5 1/ 3 = 1.33 (Odeh, 2018), so the grading becomes as follows: The mean scores below (2.33) indicate a low degree of effectiveness. The mean scores within (2.33 3.66) indicate a medium degree of effectiveness. The mean scores within (3.66 or more) indicate a high degree of effectiveness
According to the above grading, Table (1) shows that Items (1) and (2) got high mean scores within (3.91 3.90), which indicates a high degree of effectiveness among cooperative teachers in improving the quality of the student teachers’ preparation in terms of directing them to perform plans for teaching and perform teaching tasks.
Moreover, Table 1 reveals that Items (3) to (26) got low mean scores, within (2.15 1.96), which indicates a low degree of effectiveness of the supervisory
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performance of cooperative teachers with regard to the implementation of teaching and assessment of learning.
Thus the results indicate that the majority of the supervisory roles of the cooperative teachers were not effective, since 24 items got low mean scores. Therefore, this showed an ineffectiveness of the supervisory performance in improving the teaching performance of student teachers.
The second question aimed to reveal whether there are differences in the degree of effectiveness of the supervisory performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in light of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience. To achieve this aim, three way ANOVA was used to reveal the effect of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience on performing their supervisory roles as evaluated by student teachers. The findings of three way ANOVA are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Means and standard deviations of the effect of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience on their supervisory roles
Variable Category No. Mean Standard Deviation
Gender Male 56 3.95 0.61 Female 90 4.01 0.64 Experience less than 10 years 75 4.02 0.69
More than 10 years 71 4.10 0.45
Academic qualification Bachelor 88 4.02 0.57 Post graduate studies 58 4.14 0.60
Table 2 shows that there are apparent differences between the mean scores of the participants’ responses in terms of the degree of effectiveness of cooperative teachers' supervisory role performance in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in light of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience. It defines the significance of the differences. Three Way ANOVA was calculated. Table 3 show a summary of three way ANOVA calculations.
Table 3: Three way ANOVA results of the effect of cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and experience on their supervisory roles
Variable Sum of squares Degrees of Freedom Mean of Squares Value of (F) Significance
Gender 0.258 1 0.258 0.397 0.368 Experience 0.397 1 0.397 1.132 0.235 Academic qualification 1.005 1 1.005 2.715 0.080
Error 48.922 142 0.345 Total 50.496 145
* Significant at p = 0.05
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Table 3 shows that the value of (F) was 0.397 for the responses of the study sample in light of the gender variable. This indicates no statistically significant differences at (p = 0.05) in the degree of effectiveness of cooperative teachers' supervisory role performance in improving the professional preparation of student teachers due to cooperative teachers’ gender.
The results found that the value of (F) was 1.132 for the responses of the study sample in light of the experience variable, which indicates no statistically significant differences in the degree of effectiveness of cooperative teachers' supervisory role performance in improving the professional preparation of student teachers due to cooperative teachers’ experience (under 10 years; 10 years and more). This shows that the variations in the teaching experience among the subjects of the study did not affect the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers.
As per academic qualification (bachelor; postgraduate studies), Table 3 confirms that the value of (F) was 2.715, which is less significant. This indicates that the differences in academic qualification among the respondents of the study did not affect their supervisory roles in improving the professional preparation of student teachers
The discussion of the results was divided into two parts based on the study questions, as follows:
The results of the first study question revealed that despite the existence of an effective supervisory role of cooperative teachers regarding assigning student teachers to plan and perform real learning situations. Contrarily, the role is not based on prior preparation for the student teachers, because they did not receive sufficient training and guidance on how to plan and implement teaching and learning settings. These results reflected an ineffective supervisory role of cooperative teachers in terms of guiding student teachers to acquire and apply the best teaching and learning practices related to managing learning environments, using contemporary teaching strategies and methods appropriate to children, as well as assessing children's learning.
These findings might negatively affect the student teachers' attitudes towards the education field training, since the study revealed that student teachers did not receive feedback from cooperative teachers during their co assessment meeting regarding planning, implementing and evaluating learning. As per previous report by educational researchers (Al Mamun et al., 2020; Iqbal et al., 2021; Keiler, 2018; Watson et al., 2017), this confirms lack of attention from cooperative teachers in providing student teachers with feedback related to their teaching performance. The respondents of the study indicated a weaker role of cooperative teachers in providing necessary feedback, which indicates the lack of active follow up of the teaching performance of student teachers. These findings contradict with the global trend that emphasizes giving student teachers critical and conclusive feedback of all teaching and learning practices
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(Darling Hammond et al., 2020; Janelli & Lipnevich, 2021; Maes et al., 2022; Panadero & Lipnevich, 2022)
Moreover, the findings of this study revealed that cooperative teachers did not encourage student teachers to attend different models of effective learning and teaching situations, as well as inviting them to organize extracurricular activities in cooperating schools. This can be attributed to the existence of traditional perceptions among cooperative teachers with regard to the teaching and learning settings. The results emphasize the fact that cooperative teachers lack sufficient knowledge in the field of professional preparation based on contemporary educational perceptions, since they still apply traditional methods in teaching. More clearly, this could be attributed to the fact that cooperative teachers are unaware of contemporary methods and trends in improving the student teachers’ instructional performance, since they are not regularly following up the latest developments in the professional preparation of student teachers.
This is inconsistent with the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers that emphasize that student teachers should be given feedback by attending and observing a variety of exemplary lessons in order to develop instructional experiences (Gonzalez Torres et al., 2022)
The current study findings concur with previous studies conducted by Altan and Sağlamel (2015), Hamaidi et al. (2014), Izadinia, (2013), among other which reported that cooperative teachers use traditional teaching methods, such as providing children with information. Subsequently, the study of Miqdadi (2003) indicated that cooperative teachers deny student teachers the opportunity to use modern teaching methods, as perceived to differ from familiar ones, which led to the creation of student teachers’ confusion and embarrassment in front of students due to lack of adaption with traditional methods. Generally, the outcomes of this study concur with the study of Lee and Walker (2000) previous studies, which reported that cooperative teachers recognize the use of modern teaching methods as an undesirable behaviors, since cooperative teachers prefer the calm classroom environment instead of the active environment that depends on the learner as the focal point of the learning process in the using modern methods and tools to create an active learning environment.
Furthermore, the current study showed a weakness in the supervisory roles of cooperative teachers in providing a school environment concerned with creative human relations with student teachers, as well as treating them as a part of the educational system, by making them aware of the importance of their teaching role.
The study reflected on the student teachers' sense of weakness in human relations prevailing at the school environment, noting that weakness can never contribute to improvement of student teachers' preparation. This result can be attributed to the existence of misperceptions among some cooperative teachers who believe that the student teacher is an additional burden in the school They do not regard the student teacher as an integral part of the teaching staff because she/he is not an official teacher in the school.
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Obsolete practices do not provide a school environment that enhances creating human relations with student teachers. Thus, such practices are considered among the most important obstacles which affect the student teachers’ preparation process. Educational studies, such as those conducted by Al Bandari and Al Atoum (2002), Cascio et al. (2019) and Luis et al. (2022) pointed out the importance of human and personal relations among the teaching staff, being the most influential factor in the educational process, as well as their impact on achieving adaptation among school staff. This result contradicts with psychological and social theories that emphasize the importance of integrating the student teacher into social and human interactions, as this effectively contributes to the development of personality and the development in the field of professional growth (Han & Huang, 2022; Hoppler et al., 2022; Stafford et al., 2011; Tamir & Hughes, 2018).
Based on the results, it is worth noting that cooperative teachers did not show sufficient interest in the development of critical supervisory practices by focusing on the student teachers in the professional development process. The current study recognizes the weaker roles of cooperative teachers, which contradicts with previous studies, such as those conducted by Großschedl, et al. (2014), Kastens (2004) and Thema et al. (2017) that the existence of an experienced teacher with student teachers inevitably leads to the refinement of personality to become experienced teachers, since the student teacher does not have sufficient sources of pedagogical knowledge to apply the practices of contemporary learning.
6.2 Discussion of the results of the second question The findings of the second study question revealed that there are no statistical significant differences at (p = 0.05) in the degree of effectiveness of cooperative teachers' supervisory role performance in improving the professional preparation of student teachers with regard to cooperative teachers’ gender, academic qualification and teaching experience. This can be attributed to the lack of high interest among cooperative teachers in performing their supervisory roles to improve the quality of early childhood teachers' preparation during the education field training. Regardless of their gender, academic qualification and teaching experience, they are not aware of their supervisory roles related to considering and following up the teaching performance of the student teacher. This result also indicates lack of cooperative teachers' awareness of the importance of their supervisory roles in guiding the student teachers, as well as lack of incentives and rewards for cooperative teachers to perform supervisory roles in preparing student teachers during the education field training phase. Generally, these results do not conform to the role of cooperative teachers in training and supervising student teachers. This indicates that cooperative teachers were improperly selected based on specific criteria. Heinz (2013), Klassen and Kim (2019) and Sawyer (2005) asserted that selecting the most qualified cooperative teachers can perform the student teachers’ training process, which represents a positive contribution to the education field training program. The reason behind these results are attributed to the lack of knowledge of cooperative teachers about the phases of pre service teachers’ education field training. Student teachers must acquire their experiences through the
observation of various classes and teaching processes, then through the partial training phase for some of classroom settings, and finally through the total practice of integrated classroom settings. Failure to provide student teachers with the opportunity to attend exemplary lessons of more than one teacher contradicts with the instructions of the field training as a basis of field education. Moreover, these results are inconsistent with the actual supervisory roles of cooperative teachers, which include organizing and directing student teachers in order to perform their roles. They are also inconsistent with the modern approaches, which give cooperative teachers a conclusive role in following up the student teachers during the education field training.
The findings of the study gave an indication that many cooperative teachers are unaware of their supervisory roles. Miqdadi (2003) indicated that supervising the student teacher should be a collaborative and complementary effort between the university supervisor, the school principal and the cooperative teacher, with the aim of increasing the effectiveness of supervision. Thus, this is anticipated to contribute to achieving better objectives in the education field training program, as well as contributing to developing educational climate experiences for student teachers, being considered as an important source of experience.
The current study has certain limitations. The specific context is a central one. Certainly, hundred forty six respondents participated in the study from the same training institute in Yarmouk University. Future research should expand the target population to contain the majority of education field training programs in Jordan to generalize the results more widely. This study was limited to a questionnaire to collect data from the student teachers’ point of view. It is therefore required that future research should focus on the qualitative researches instruments such as semi structured interviews and focus groups, which will be fitting to such studies.
The period spent in the field of education training is one of the most important components of teacher preparation programs. One of the main objectives is to provide student teachers with the opportunity to acquire knowledge, life skills, attitudes and beliefs. This, summarizes the success of teacher preparation related to practical preparation. Based on the significance of preparing future teachers in the field of childhood education, the current study was designed to find out the effectiveness of the supervisory role performance of cooperative teachers in improving the professional preparation of student teachers in the specialization of early childhood education.
The study recognizes the importance of developing these practices in line with contemporary educational trends of preparing future teachers to assist children in building their own knowledge and experiences through partaking active roles in learning environments. The importance of developing these practices is to eliminate the practices of transmission learning model that focuses on the teacher and the academic content as being central to the learning process rather than student centered learning.
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Despite the importance of the great role of cooperative teachers in improving the teaching performance of student teachers, the current study concluded that cooperative teachers did not impetus in directing student teachers to employ the proper learning practices. This contradicts with the orientations of the psychological and educational learning theories which seek to prepare teachers who have distinctive abilities in employing various methods to develop young children’s learning (Maes et al., 2022)
In light of the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: Providing brochures to inform cooperative teachers of their duties and tasks during the education field training phase, noting that student teachers at the beginning of the training process must take these duties and tasks into account at different classroom environments. Then, they start the partial practice phase under the supervision of the cooperative teacher and finally comes the total practice phase where cooperative teachers and the principal give student teachers the opportunity to be alone in the class to implement the teaching methods.
Selecting highly qualified cooperative teachers to perform their supervisory roles toward student teachers.
The necessity of selecting cooperative teachers based on the availability of school equipment.
The necessity of involving student teachers in school committees, which might develop their initiatives and creativity.
Holding training programs for cooperative teachers to inform them with their supervisory roles.
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No. Item very high high moderate low very low My assessment of the effectiveness of the performance of cooperative teachers is as follows:
1 Assigning the student teacher to perform some teaching tasks.
2 Assigning the student teacher for planning.
3 Supervising and monitoring the student teacher about his/her training role.
4 Informing the student teacher of the importance of his/her teaching role
5 Monitoring the student teacher lesson preparation notebook.
6 Directing the student teacher to attend typical classes with more than one teacher.
7 Watching lessons for the teacher/student.
8 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to use educational technologies in teaching.
9 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to attend a variety of teaching models.
10 Giving the student teacher a chance to apply various alternative assessment strategies.
11 Informing the student teacher of contemporary trends in developing teaching performance.
12 Choosing practical lessons according to certain standards.
13 Encouraging the student teacher to use modern teaching methods.
14 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in the creation of educational aid means.
15 Monitoring the performance of the student teacher in the classroom environment.
16 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in social activities.
17 Simplifying the student teacher's task in conducting activities outside the classroom.
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No. Item very high high moderate low very low My assessment of the effectiveness of the performance of cooperative teachers is as follows:
18 Participating in supervisory meetings between the university supervisor and the student teachers.
19 Attempting to understand the problems that the student teacher faces in teaching.
20 Providing the student teacher with opportunities to participate in school activities.
21 Helping the student teacher solve his/her problems.
22 Introducing the student teacher to the laws of managing the educational environment.
23 Providing a school environment concerned with creating human relations with the teacher/student.
24 Providing the necessary materials and tools for the student teacher to produce educational aids.
25 Treating the student teacher as a part of the teaching system.
26 Providing the student teacher with feedback on his/her teaching performance.
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Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of
Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa
Dr. Giorgio Poletti
Dr. Chi Man Tsui
Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad
Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna
Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh
Dr. Abu Bakar
Dr. Eglantina Hysa
Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween
Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati
Dr. Selma Kara
Dr. Michael B. Cahapay
Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan
Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou
Dr. Meera Subramanian
Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan
Dr. Wahyu Widada
Dr. Som Pal Baliyan
Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish
Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo
Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot
Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez
Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela
The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.
