International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 10 (October 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 10
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Digital Leadership of School Heads and Job Satisfaction of Teachers in the Philippines during the Pandemic 1 Jem Cloyd M. Tanucan, Crislee V. Negrido, Grace N. Malaga
Unpacking Determinants of Middle School Children’s Direct Nature Experiences (DNEs): An Island Perspective
................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Faruhana Abdullah, Nor Asniza Ishak, Mohammad Zohir Ahmad
A Conceptual Model of Culture Based English Learning Materials in Indonesia 50 Muhammad Lukman Syafii, Ghulam Asrofi Buntoro, Alip Sugianto, Nurohman ., Sutanto
Alternative Digital Credentials: UAE’s First Adopters’ Design, Development, and Implementation Part (1) 64 El Farra Samar
Academic Dishonesty and the Fraud Diamond: A Study on Attitudes of UAE Undergraduate Business Students during the COVID 19 Pandemic 88 Omar Al Serhan, Roudaina Houjeir, Mariam Aldhaheri
Through the Lens of Virtual Students: Challenges and Opportunities 109 Joseph A. Villarama, John Paul E. Santos, Joseph P. Adsuara, Jordan F. Gundran, Marius Engelbert Geoffrey C. Castillo
EFL Pre service Teachers' Online Reading Strategy Use and their Insight into Teaching Reading 139 Anita Fatimatul Laeli, Slamet Setiawan, Syafi'ul Anam
Pre service Teachers Reflection on their Undergraduate Educational Research Experience through Online Instructional Delivery 161 Marchee T. Picardal, Joje Mar P. Sanchez
Validating the Component of E Learning Antecedents, Digital Readiness and Usage Behavior towards E Learning Performance: A Pilot Study 178 Mohamad Aidil Hasim, Juhaini Jabar, Atirah Sufian, Nor Fauziana Ibrahim
Exploring Challenges to Inclusion of Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Early Childhood Development in Mutoko District, Zimbabwe 195 Mercy Ncube, Mabatho Sedibe
Motivational and Perceptual Factors for Choosing Teaching as a Career in Chile: Sex Differences 212 Álvaro González Sanzana, Katherine Acosta García, Jorge Valenzuela Carreño, Jorge Miranda Ossandón, Lidia Valdenegro Fuentes
Exploring Learners’ Experiences of Receiving Formative Written Assessment Feedback in Business Studies as a Subject in South Africa 228 Preya Pillay, Raudina Balele
The Analysis of Natural Science Lesson Plans Integrating the Principles of Transformative Pedagogy 249
Wiets Botes, Emma Barnett
The Impact of Metalanguage on EFL Learners' Grammar Recognition 265 Abuelgasim Sabah Elsaid Mohammed, Abdulaziz B Sanosi
The Implementation of Assistive Technology with a Deaf Student with Autism 280 Asma Alzahrani
Student Perceptions of Covid 19 Induced E Learning in State Universities In Zimbabwe 296 Ashton Mudzingiri, Sanderson Abel, Tafirenyika Mafugu
Exploring Numeracy Skills of Lower Secondary School Students in Mountainous Areas of Northern Vietnam . 309 Thi Ha Cao, Huu Chau Nguyen, Xuan Cuong Dang, Cam Tho Chu, Tuan Anh Le, Thi Thu Huong Le
Innate Mathematical Characteristics and Number Sense Competencies of Junior High School Students 325 Raymundo A. Santos, Leila M. Collantes, Edwin D. Ibañez, Florante P. Ibarra, Jupeth T. Pentang
Exploring the Educational Value of Indo Harry Potter to Design Foreign Language Learning Methods and Techniques 341 Mega Febriani Sya, Novi Anoegrajekti, Ratna Dewanti, Bambang Heri Isnawan
Bridging Culture and Science Education: Implications for Research and Practice 362 Izzah Mardhiya Mohammad Isa, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin, Fatin Aliah Phang
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as a Teaching and Learning Tool: A Study of Students’ Readiness and Satisfaction 381 Rozaini Ahmad, Usha Nagasundram, Mohamed Nadzri Mohamed Sharif, Yazilmiwati Yaacob, Malissa Maria Mahmud, Noor Syazwani Ishak, Muhamad Safwan Mohd A’seri, Ismail Ibrahim
Gender Differences in High School Students’ Beliefs about Mathematical Problem Solving .................................. 395 Edgar John Sintema, Thuthukile Jita
Teachers’ Perceived Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Biology at Selected Secondary Schools in Lusaka 418 Thumah Mapulanga, Gilbert Nshogoza, Ameyaw Yaw
The Influence of Socio Affective Learning and Metacognition Levels on EFL Listening and Speaking Skills in Online Learning 436 Titis Sulistyowati, Januarius Mujianto, Dwi Rukmini, Rudi Hartono
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 1 18, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.1
Received Au 4, 2022; Revised Oct 8, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines
Crislee
V. NegridoTalisay City National High School, Talisay City, Cebu, Philippines
Grace N. Malaga
Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines
Abstract. This study examines school heads' digital leadership as a predictor of teachers' job satisfaction in the Philippines during the pandemic. A total of 520 public school teachers across the 16 regions of the country answered the validated online survey questionnaires between March and May 2022. With the descriptive predictive research design, descriptive statistics, and regression analysis, the study finds that school heads have a satisfactory level of digital leadership as perceived by their teachers. This finding suggests that Filipino school heads can, at least to a satisfactory level, guide their schools and stakeholders toward digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a rapidly changing digital and social media landscape. Furthermore, Filipino teachers experienced satisfactory job satisfaction during the pandemic, which suggests that they continue to cope with and adapt to the new work and educational changes despite the plethora of challenges and transitions.Finally, thisstudyrevealsthat schoolheads'digital leadership predictsteachers'jobsatisfaction.Whenleadersarecompetenttoleadand model in the digital age, their subordinates become more satisfied with their work. Therefore, training programs for improving school heads' digital leadership are necessary to enhance their teachers' job satisfaction, especially since technology plays a significant part in diverse educational activities.
Keywords: digital leadership; job satisfaction; Philippines; school heads; teachers
* Corresponding author: JemCloydM.Tanucan,tanucanj@cnu.edu.ph
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The COVID 19 pandemic has overwhelmed the education system with changes in the teaching and learning process, professional development, communication, and management (Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). The abrupt use and integration of digital tools and platforms, especially in countries with technological gaps, have complicated the teaching and learning process. Nevertheless, learning and work continue amid all the issues and challenges, and everyone in school has to utilize the necessary technologies and other tools for digital communication in their daily activities. Digitalization became the answer to addressing the inability to hold face to face classes effectively and efficiently as well as improving the administration and supervision of schools (Babacan & Dogru, 2022). The role of school heads in this situation is crucial. They must fill in whatever knowledge and skill gaps they may have to be more equipped to achieve digital transformation in schools (Aksal, 2015). They must also take on the mantle of more technologically inclined leadership to help teachers and stakeholders utilize digital tools and other technological platforms in their educational activities (Karakose et al., 2021). Furthermore, they must act as digital leaders to provide the necessary skills and knowledge for a 21st century education to harness digital transformations in schools (Veguilla Martinez et al., 2022). This situation instigated the discussion on digital leadership, especially since education and administrative practices are increasingly technologically integrated.
Digitalization in schools is deliberately becoming the norm (Ainslee, 2018). Among many other efforts towards digitalization, schools' roadmap includes utilizing various online learning platforms, digital textbooks, and digitized administrative activities. This period of transformation lays the foundation for a world where education becomes more accessible and available as long as digital and technological infrastructure and resources are prepared (Tanucan, 2019; Tanucan & Hernani, 2018). With this change comes the concept of digital leadership that can thrive in a digital environment where technology oriented abilities support effective management and teamwork (Abbu & Gopalakrishna, 2021; Bresciani et al., 2021). According to Waldron (2021), digital leadership is a new management approach that supports and propels digital change in organizations to enhance the flexibility, efficiency, and effectiveness of transactions and procedures. This idea corroborates the explanation of De Araujo et al. (2021) that digital leadership is the ability of leaders to develop an insightful vision for the application, adoption, and promotion of technology at work. Likewise, it exhibits the ability of leaders to develop, manage, guide, and apply information and communications technology (ICT) for further improvement of institutions (Chin, 2010). Furthermore, digital leadership can initiate sustainable change (Trenerry et al., 2021) as it is known to be a cross-hierarchical, teamoriented, and suitable type of leadership (Oberer & Erkollar, 2018). Hence, school leaders with digital leadership can guide schools and their stakeholders toward digital transformation to be adaptable and remain competitive in a rapidly changing digital and social media landscape. In this situation, school leaders have to be guided by a set of standards of digital leadership so they can benchmark good practices and develop the essential abilities to harness digital transformation in their respective institutions.
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has been conducting international level research on the standardization of technology oriented skills for the successful and long lasting integration of technology in education for various groups (students, educators, coaches, and educational leaders) (ISTE, 2022). The ISTE standards have been acknowledged by various researchers in different nations, as seen in their studies that integrated the concept (e.g., Baek & Sung, 2020; Gomez et al., 2022; Kimm et al., 2020; Vucaj, 2020). More specifically, the latest standards for educational leaders of ISTE involve five areas: Equity and Citizenship Advocate, Visionary Planner, Empowering Leader, Systems Designer, and Connected Learner (ISTE, 2022). These standards serve as a framework for the digital education age, no matter where school heads are on the journey to integrate and promote technology in education. With the standards set for school heads to embrace (Van Wart, 2017), they would be more capable of defining and executing a radical change strategy to harness digital transformation in their institutions rather than simply digitizing their work and operations. Defining the standards for using technology in education would provide teaching and learning that are more creative and successful for the twenty first century (Sam, 2011). It would also help school leaders set expectations for technology use and support rapid cycle evaluation of technology benefits in teaching, learning, and administrative functions (Arinto et al., 2020). However, studies that use the latest ISTE standards to examine school heads' digital leadership are scarce. Thus, one of the objectives of this study is to respond to this matter.
In the Philippines, digitalization has slowly been changing the landscape of the country's education. During the pandemic, education from the primary to tertiary levels employed variousteaching and learning methods that involved technology, which helped ensure the continuity of students' learning and employees' work. In particular, the Department of Education (DepEd) implemented the Learning Continuity Plan (LCP) at the basic education level (DepEd, 2020). The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) also fortified the inherent academic freedom of higher education institutions to adopt the necessary learning strategy to continue education at the tertiary level (CHED, 2020). These initiatives have integrated e learning, distance learning, and other alternative delivery methods into education.
Additionally, the country is beginning to digitalize its educational practices with the launch of numerous initiatives such as DepEd Commons, DepEd TV, DepEd Radio, DepEd Learning Management System, and DepEd Mobile App, among others (Ponti, 2021; Hernando Malipot, 2021). Such initiatives have helped mobilize the utilization of digital platforms and other technologies in classrooms. Likewise, they have been instrumental in supplementing the modular learning adopted by public schools to enhance student learning in various subject areas during the pandemic (Cho et al., 2021; Potane, 2022). Accordingly, the country's education is starting to focus on using ICT through the Digital Rise Program which equips classrooms, teachers, and students with online learning resources (Llego, 2020). Filipinos are among the world's most active Internet and social media users (Baclig, 2022), which are vital components for digital transformation in education.
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With the country’s efforts toward digitalizing schools, school heads must point the way forward in establishing a digital culture in schools to utilize their digital opportunities fully. Creating a digital culture in schools needs digital resources, such as leaders with developed digital leadership skills, to move it toward its successful implementation (Pendry & Salvatore, 2015). However, this endeavor could be a challenge, particularly in light of the numerous obstacles that prevent the country from fully utilizing and integrating technology in education. Without the necessary digital infrastructure and school leaders with the skills to use and model technology use and integration, schools and their stakeholders could hardly imbibe a culture of innovation and collaboration.
The study by Dotong et al. (2016) identified insufficient financial and infrastructure support, human capital, management support, and behavioral and environmental factors as barriers to using and integrating technology in education. Tanucan et al. (2021) also identified that age is a significant factor for teachers conducting remote digital teaching. Hence, there is a need for substantial training for senior teachers who are not technologically inclined or adept. The Philippines' inadequate digital infrastructure, outdated technology, and slow Internet connectivity (Salac & Kim, 2016; World Bank, 2020), coupled with the traditional mindset of school principals, were significant factors for the lack of technical staff for maintaining computers and computer networks, and providing support for Internet related activities (UNESCO UIS., 2014). This finding corroborates the study by Hero (2020) citing that principals' technological leadership does not influence teachers' technological leadership, implying that principals fell short in modeling and empowering their teachers in integrating technology into their functions. This situation would help explain why only a meager 23 percent of leaders in the Philippines considered themselves influential leaders in the digital era, as indicated in the Global Leadership Forecast 2018 (Development Dimensions International, 2018).
In light of these convoluted concerns, training programs that aim to improve school heads' digital leadership are justified. The problem is that the country's programs to capacitate or improve school leaders, particularly in their digital leadership, vis à vis identified standards such as the ISTE standards for education leaders, have not been deliberately emphasized. The recent study by Arinto et al. (2020) recommended the same idea, emphasizing the need for school leaders in the country to take the lead in setting expectations for technology use and supporting rapid cycle evaluation of technology benefits following a set of standards determined by the national office of education. Failure to do so may adversely impact teachers' job satisfaction, the significant rise in stress and burnout (Zhai & Du, 2020), and the digital divide in the academic community (Talandron Felipe, 2020).
Teachers' job satisfaction plays a crucial role that can affect the completion of various curricula regardless of the learning platform (Li & Yu, 2022). It is also crucial for students' overall learning (Devi & Soni, 2013) and schools' attainment of their objectives and overall growth (Jun, 2015; Sahito & Vaisanen, 2020).
Compared with traditional face to face teaching, teachers' situations become more challenging owing to their complex professional roles, disturbed job satisfaction levels, and lack of digital literacy during the pandemic (Li & Yu, 2022). Recently, several studies have started examining teachers' job satisfaction, with some primarily concerned with the predictors, variables, and degrees of job satisfaction (e.g., Gómez Leal et al., 2022; Hewett & La Paro, 2020; Richards et al., 2019).
However, recent studies have examined digital leadership's role in job satisfaction. Matriadi et al. (2021) found that digital leadership positively and significantly affected employee job satisfaction in an energy company. Srimata et al. (2019) alsofound that school heads' digital leadership components significantly influenced teachers' school climate and engagement, suggesting that teachers experienced a degree of satisfaction in their job. Pasolong et al. (2021) explained digital leadership's role in inspiring employees to innovate and defend their ideas, making them feel satisfied in their jobs The concept of Frederick Hertzberg's two factor theory (also called Motivator Hygiene Theory) also explains the value of satisfaction in the workplace, particularly the role of leadership or management in engendering employee satisfaction (Lee et al., 2022). Other related studies described how employees' perceptions of digital leadership positively and significantly affected their work behavior, giving them more favorable job satisfaction and improved performance (Hamzah et al., 2021; Marbawi et al., 2022; Muniroh et al., 2021). Altogether, the literature points to the idea that digital leadership is a way of supporting employees, including teachers, to appreciate what they have been doing.
The Philippines is already on its way to digitalizing its education practices and operations. However, it needs substantial studies to help educational leaders craft training initiatives that will hone the digital leadership of school heads. To the researchers' knowledge, there is a gap in the literature that examines the level of digital leadership among school heads in the country and its link to teachers' job satisfaction. Hence, this study aimed to examine the digital leadership of school heads as a predictor of the job satisfaction of teachers in the Philippines. The objectives below guided the researchers to achieve the aim mentioned above.
1. Determine the level of digital leadership of school heads; 2. Ascertain the level of job satisfaction among teachers; and 3. Examine the digital leadership of school heads as a predictor of teachers' job satisfaction.
This study followed a descriptive-predictive design as the analysis of the variables relevant to the aim of the study was carried out by employing descriptive and predictive quantitative methods. The study specifically sought to describe school heads' levels of digital leadership and job satisfaction among teachers. Furthermore, it examined the digital leadership of school heads as a predictor of teachers' job satisfaction. The data collection was done between March and May 2022, two years after COVID 19 had been declared a pandemic.
The respondents were the 520 public school teachers across the 16 regions of the Philippines. They were selected based on convenience sampling, as this study employed data collection via online platforms, making it difficult to control the population parameters fully However, this sampling method effectively achieved the study's objectives, as it allowed for the widespread dissemination of the questionnaire during the pandemic when direct contact and social interaction were discouraged. Additionally, theuse of the Internet has significantly increased, making it easier to reach the respondents of this study. The computed sample size using the Raosoft® software for the unknown population was 377 after calculating the 95% confidence interval, a 50% response distribution rate, a 5% margin of error, and 20,000 pre set numbers for the unknown population. However, there was a high turnover in the survey, which led the researchers to prefer 520 respondents as their sample size. Table 1 presents the distribution of respondents from the country's different regions.
Table 1: Distribution of respondents by region
Demographic Variables
Number of Respondents Percent
Region I Ilocos Region 29 5.58
Region II Cagayan Valley 28 5.38
Region III Central Luzon 26 5.00
Region IV A Calabarzon ALABARZON 26 5.00
Region IV B Mimaropa IMAROPA 30 5.77
Region V Bicol Region 28 5.38
Region VI Western Visayas 32 6.15
Region VII Central Visayas 40 7.69
Region VIII Eastern Visayas 29 5.58
Region IX Zamboanga Peninsula 31 5.96
Region X Northern Mindanao 34 6.54
Region XI Davao Region 41 7.88
Region XII Soccks OCCSKSARGEN 31 5.96
Region XIII Caraga Administrative Region 33 6.35
Cordillera Administrative Region 40 7.69
National Capital Region 42 8.08
Total 520 100
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On the other hand, Table 2 shows the demographic profiles of the respondents. In terms of gender, the distribution of the respondents has a male population comparable to its female counterpart. Moreover, most of them are between 25 to 35 years old, with a bachelor’s degree as their highest educational attainment, and with at least five years of teaching experience.
Table 2: Demographic profiles of respondents Demographic Variables Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 262 50.38 Female 258 49.62
Years of service
1 5 years 208 40.00 6 10 years 210 40.38 10+ years and above 102 19.62
Highest Educational Attainment
Bachelor's degree 335 64.42 Master's degree 120 23.08 Doctoral degree 65 12.5
Age
25 35 years old 208 40.00 36 44 years old 151 29.04 45 54 years old 121 23.27 55 64 years old 40 7.69 n = 520
The data gathering procedure followed five phases: Phase 1: Identification of questionnaires that measure the variables of the study; Phase 2: Validation of the identified questionnaires guided by three education experts; Phase 3: Pilot testing of questionnaires to determine their internal reliability consistency; Phase 4: Implementing the questionnaires through an online survey in a Google Form distributed via social media groups and institutional websites; and Phase 5: Screening of gathered data. In Phase 1, the study used two questionnaires: the ISTE standards for education leaders (ISTE, 2022) to measure school heads' levels of digital leadership; and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale of Pepe et al. (2017) to measure teachers' level of job satisfaction. In Phase 2, the identified questionnaires underwent a series of reviews by three education experts to ensure that each item aligns with the intended concepts of the study's variables and the respondents'
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context and culture. In Phase 3, the computation of the questionnaires' Cronbach's alpha ratings commenced after the pilot testing. A total of 30 respondents, who were public school teachers, were invited to participate in the pilot testing of the questionnaires. The ISTE standards for education leaders' questionnaire achieved a Cronbach's alpha rating of .87, and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale had a Cronbach's alpha rating of .86. Both ratings indicate high internal reliability consistency. In Phase 4, the prospective respondents answered the questionnaires distributed online via social media groups and institutional websites. Before answering the questionnaire, the respondents had to read the essential ethical protocols to which the study adhered, which include the purpose of the research, informed consent, and respect for autonomy and confidentiality. The respondents could choose whether to participate in the study or not. In Phase 5, screening of the gathered data commenced by excluding incomplete surveys and those whose responders were not legitimate, regular DepEd teachers. The responses were kept private in a computer file that could only be unlocked using a password.
The SPSS software version 26 (SPSS 26.0 IBM Corporation, Armonk, New York, USA) analyzed the data, particularly the descriptive statistics and the regression analysis. The p < .05 was considered statistically significant.
The findings in Table 3 showed that teachers have a satisfactory level of perception regarding the digital leadership of their school heads. Accordingly, all the five areas of digital leadership, such as Equity and Citizenship Advocate, Visionary Planner, Empowering Leader, Systems Designer, and Connected Learner, received a satisfactory rating.
Table 3: Teachers’ level of perception of their school heads’ digital leadership
Digital Leadership of School Heads Min. Max. Mean SD
Equity and Citizenship 1.25 4.00 3.506 0.436
Visionary Planner 1.60 4.00 3.332 0.420
Empowering Leader 1.40 4.00 3.482 0.443
Systems Designer 1.06 4.00 3.266 0.614
Connected Learner 1.00 4.00 3.486 0.437
Total Mean Score 3.41 = Satisfactory
Note: n = 520. Confidence interval; 3.51 4.00: Very satisfactory, 2.51 3.50: Satisfactory, 1.51 2.50: Unsatisfactory, and 1.00 1.50: Very unsatisfactory
On the other hand, the findings in Table 4 showed that teachers have a satisfactory level of job satisfaction, with satisfaction with co workers having the highestmean score (M = 3.775, SD = 0.378) and satisfaction with parents having the lowest mean score (M = 3.075, SD = 0.566).
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Table 4: Teachers’ level of perception of their school heads’ digital leadership
Job Satisfaction of Teachers Min. Max. Mean SD
Satisfaction with Co workers 2.00 4.00 3.775 0.378
Satisfaction with Students' Behaviors 2.00 4.00 3.627 0.484
Satisfaction with Parents 1.00 4.00 3.075 0.566
Total Mean Score 3.49: Satisfactory
Note: n = 520. Confidence interval; 3.51 4.00: Very satisfactory, 2.51 3.50: Satisfactory, 1.51 2.50: Unsatisfactory, and 1.00 1.50: Very unsatisfactory
Finally, as shown in Table 5, the regression analysis is statistically significant on the grounds that the F ratio = 47.601, R2 = 0.562, ΔR2 = 0.316, p < 0.05. Additionally, the value of R2 is 0.562, demonstrating that this model accounts for 56% of the variance of teachers’ job satisfaction. The regression analysis displayed that all five areas of digital leadership were found to be predictors and have a substantial positive influence on teachers’ job satisfaction. Among these predictors, Systems Designer (SD) (β = 0.243, B = 0.140, SE = 0.026, CI = 0.089 0.191, t-value = 5.398, p < 0.05) was indicated as the strongest predictor, followed by Equity and Citizenship Advocate (ECA) (β = 0.132, B = 0.108, SE = 0.038, CI = 0.032 0.183, t value = 2.798, p < 0.05), Connected Learner (CL) (β = 0.128, B = 0.103, SE = 0.040, CI = 0.025 0.182, t value = 2.601, p < 0.05), Visionary Planner (VP) (β = 0.125, B = 0.106, SE = 0.040, CI = 0.027 – 0.184, t value = 2.655, p < 0.05), and Empowering Leader (EL) (β = .103, B = 0.082, SE = 0.037, CI = 0.010 0.155, t value = 2.223, p < 0.05) respectively.
Table 5: Regression analysis indicating the role of school heads’ digital leadership in predicting teachers’ job satisfaction Model Unstandar dized Coefficients Max.
Standar dized Coefficie nts T Sig
95% Confidence Interval for B ���� ∆���� F Sig.
B SE Β Lower Upper (Consta nt) 1.658 .131 .132 12.645 0.000 1.401 1.916 0.562 0.316 47.601 0.000
ECA .108 .038 .125 2.798 0.005 .032 .183 VP .106 .040 .103 2.655 0.008 .027 .184 EL .082 .037 .243 2.223 0.027 .010 .155 SD .140 .026 .128 5.398 0.000 .089 .191 CL .103 .040 .132 2.601 0.010 .025 .182
Note: n = 520. ECA Equity and Citizenship Advocate; VP Visionary Planner; EL Empowering Leader; SD Systems Designer; and CL Connected Learner
An analysis of the survey showed the digital leadership of school heads and teachers' job satisfaction during the pandemic. It also showed the regression analysis, which examined the school heads' digital leadership as a predictor of teachers' job satisfaction.
The findings in Table 3 indicated that teachers have a satisfactory level of perception about the digital leadership of their school heads. Accordingly, all five digital leadership areas have a satisfactory rating. This finding suggests that school heads in the Philippines can, at least to a satisfactory level, guide their schools and stakeholders toward digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a rapidly changing digital and social media landscape. Since the start of the COVID 19 pandemic, the digitalization of the education sector has become indispensable with the rapid adoption of digital and distant work setups (Tanucan et al., 2021; Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). School heads in this situation have had to fill in whatever knowledge and skill gaps they may have to be better equipped to achieve digital growth in schools (Aksal, 2015). They also have taken on the mantle of a more technologically inclined leadership to help teachers and stakeholders utilize digital tools and other technological platforms (Karakose et al., 2021). Furthermore, they served as digital leaders to their subordinates, providing the necessary skills and knowledge for a 21st century education to harness digital transformations in schools (Veguilla Martinez et al., 2022). However, having a sufficient level of digital leadership would need more enhancement, particularly in light of the numerous obstacles that prevent the country from fully utilizing and integrating technology in education.
The study by Dotong et al. (2016) identified insufficient financial and infrastructure support, human capital, management support, and behavioral and environmental factors as barriers to using and integrating technology in education. Tanucan et al. (2021) also identified that age is a significant factor for teachers’ conducting remote digital teaching. Hence, there is a need for substantial training for senior teachers who are not technologically inclined or adept. The Philippines' inadequate digital infrastructure, outdated technology, and slow Internet connectivity were also significant issues (Salac & Kim, 2016; World Bank, 2020). The traditional mindset of school principals also hampers the full integration of technology in schools as they tend to devalue the role of ICT in education, leading to a lack of technical staff for maintaining computers and computer networks, as well as user support for Internet related activities (UNESCO UIS, 2014).
In light of these convoluted concerns, training programs that aim to improve school heads' digital leadership are justified. The problem is that the country's programs to capacitate or improve school leaders, particularly in their digital leadership vis à vis identified standards such as the ISTE standards for education leaders, have not been deliberately emphasized. The recent study by Arinto et al. (2020) made the same recommendation, emphasizing the need for school leaders in the country to take the lead in setting expectations for technology use and
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supporting rapid cycle evaluation of technology benefits following a set of standards determined by the national office of education. Failure to do so may adversely impact teachers' job satisfaction, the significant rise in stress and burnout (Zhai & Du, 2020), and the digital divide in the academic community (Talandron Felipe, 2020). Nevertheless, helping school heads strengthen their digital leadership would open up new prospects and opportunities in the education sector while also providing solutions to existing and emerging issues when harnessing digital transformation in schools (Karakose et al., 2021).
The findings in Table 4 showed that teachers have a satisfactory level of job satisfaction, with satisfaction with co workers having the highest score rating and satisfaction with parents having the lowest score rating. This finding implies that teachers in the Philippines are coping and adapting steadily to the new work and education despite the plethora of challenges and changes. Many reasons could contribute to the teachers' satisfaction. One could be the sense of networking and support they receive from their co workers, as indicated in the findings Numerous studies have stressed the value of having support from co workers to combat feelings of isolation, mainly when working remotely (Mulki & Jaramillo, 2011). Sewell and Taskin (2015) also added that regular team communication was necessary to minimize any possible drawbacks of working remotely. In the Philippines, many public school teachers started physically reporting to school after a year of the pandemic, enabling them to work together and socialize.
Another reason could be the various interventions and innovations to address the challenges of the pandemic and to capacitate teachers in using and integrating the necessary technologies and other tools for digital communication in their daily activities. The diverse in service training provided to the teachers on topics such as capability building training, use of technology, and student counseling was vital to respond to the academic challenges and meet several demands, including the socio emotional demands of students and teachers alike (Darling Hammond & Hyler, 2020; Tanucan & Uytico, 2021). The flexible learning options implemented by DepEd and CHED have also been relevant to continuing the education services of schools and universities while considering the health and safety of teachers, students, and other stakeholders (CHED, 2020; DepEd, 2020).
This flexibility in education also considers each student's unique demands, learning preferences, rate of progress, and technology in education, thereby helping the teachers in the process. Moreover, the pandemic relief measures of the Philippine government such as the Bayanihan to Recover as One Act (Bayanihan 2) contributed the lion's share of the money for educational initiatives in the public education sector, freeing up additional funds for the purchase of necessary instructional materials and the construction of pertinent infrastructure. Assistance was also given to teachers and students during the epidemic under the provisions of the Act mentioned above. Notably, the coming together of concerned agencies and individuals, whether from the government or private sector, has been instrumental in the survival of many Filipinos (Canete et al., 2021) and the continuation of education amid and beyond the pandemic (Dayagbil et al., 2021).
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Nevertheless, much work must be done for the country's education system to remain relevant, flexible, and resilient. A strong parent or stakeholder partnership with schools is crucial to this endeavor. As previously mentioned, this study's finding indicated a lower level of teachers' job satisfaction with parents compared to other job satisfaction constructs. This finding indicates that issues around parent teacher or parent school partnerships exist. According to De Dios (2022), Filipino parents seldom offer support or direction to their children in the remote learning environment because of their low educational background, limited subject knowledge, and low self confidence in the teaching the learning process. Several technological and Internet related constraints and difficulty in managing the work home balance were also the common problems for parents (Palos Simbre, 2021). Further, the lack of preparedness of parents for home based learning is also a significant obstacle. In other countries, parental involvement in remote learning, including interventions to enhance parent teacher communication, was necessary for the success of remote learning (Chen & Rivera Vernazza, 2022; Knopik et al., 2021; Ricker et al., 2021). This shift in education from traditional teaching methods is a complex process that requires mutual communication and cooperation among various stakeholders, including parents (Tocalo, 2022). Hence, including parents' experiences and perspectives in decision making, particularly in digitalizing education, is essential.
The findings in Table 5 show that each area of the school heads' digital leadership significantly predicted teachers' job satisfaction. This finding demonstrates how school heads' ability to guide their schools and stakeholders toward digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a digital and social media landscape could influence teachers' job satisfaction. This finding concurs with the study of Matriadi et al. (2021), which demonstrated how digital leadership positively and significantly influenced employee job satisfaction in an energy company. Likewise, it also conforms to the study of Srimata et al. (2019), which described how school heads' digital leadership components significantly influenced teachers' school climate and engagement, suggesting that teachers experienced a degree of satisfaction in their job. It also corroborates the finding of Pasolong et al. (2021), which explained the role of digital leadership in inspiring employees to innovate and defend their ideas, making them feel satisfied in their job. The finding also supports the concept of Frederick Hertzberg's two factor theory, which explains the value of satisfaction in the workplace, particularly the role of leadership or management in spurring employee satisfaction (Lee et al., 2022). Finally, this study also corroborates related studies that describe how employees' perceptions of digital leadership positively and significantly affect their work behavior, giving them more favorable job satisfaction and improved performance (Hamzah et al., 2021; Marbawi et al., 2022; Muniroh et al., 2021).
Teachers' job satisfaction should be highlighted in decision making as it plays a crucial role that can affect the completion of various curricula regardless of the learning platform (Li & Yu, 2022). It is also crucial for students' overall learning (Devi & Soni, 2013) and schools' attainment of their objectives and overall growth
(Jun, 2015; Sahito & Vaisanen, 2020). School heads in this situation should harness their digital leadership skills to satisfy their teachers at work, especially since educational activities, including administrative functions, involve technology for more efficient and effective operations.
Creating a digital culture needs digital resources that will move towards its successful implementation (Pendry & Salvatore, 2015). Such resources include the leaders who have exhibited qualities of digital leadership. School stakeholders could hardly imbibe a culture of innovation and collaboration without the necessary digital infrastructure and school leaders with the knowledge and skills to use and model technology use and integration. With the rapid move to remote work, organizations must facilitate simplified communication channels between geographically dispersed teams, often in different time zones (Waldron, 2021). The Philippines, being an archipelagic country, will ultimately benefit from having a pool of leaders with digital leadership skills. Moreover, the country is already on its way to digitalizing its education practices and operations by adopting e learning, distance learning, and other alternative methods of delivery (CHED, 2020; DepEd, 2020). Likewise, the country is beginning to digitalize its educational practices with the launch of numerous initiatives such as DepEd Commons, DepEd TV, DepEd Radio, DepEd Learning Management System, and DepEd Mobile App, among others (Ponti, 2021; Hernando Malipot, 2021). These initiatives have been instrumental in supplementing the modular learning adopted by public schools to enhance student learning in various subject areas during the pandemic (Cho et al., 2021; Potane, 2022) Moreover, the country's education is starting to focus on using ICT through the Digital Rise Program, which equips classrooms, teachers, and students with online learning resources (Llego, 2020). Furthermore, Filipinos are among the world's most active Internet and social media users (Baclig, 2022), which is a vital component in the digital transformation of education.
The study revealed that Filipino school heads have a satisfactory level of digital leadership as perceived by their teachers. This finding suggests that school heads can, at least to a satisfactory level, guide their schools and stakeholders toward digital transformation to remain adaptable and competitive in a rapidly changing digital and social media landscape. Furthermore, Filipino teachers have satisfactory job satisfaction during the pandemic, which suggests that they are coping and adapting steadily to the new work and education despite the plethora of challenges and changes. Finally, this study reveals that school heads' digital leadership predicts teachers' job satisfaction. When leaders are competent to lead and model in the digital age, their subordinates will become more satisfied with their work. Therefore, training programs for improving school heads' digital leadership are necessary to enhance their teachers' job satisfaction, especially since technology plays a significant part in diverse educational activities. For future research, examining the socio demographic profiles of school heads and teachers as a predictor of digital leadership may also substantiate the study's findings.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 19 49, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.2
Received May 31, 2022; Revised Oct 14, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Faruhana Abdullah
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Maldives National University, Republic of Maldives
Nor Asniza Ishak* Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Mohammad Zohir Ahmad
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
Abstract. This study aimed to explore and understand the contextual factors that influence nature experiences amongst 11 12 year old children in their local island environments of the Maldives. The study adopted a qualitative phenomenological approach using semi structured focus group interviews, held online, with seven groups, one per island environment. A total of 34 children participated in the interviews, with 4 6 children per group, recruited purposively based on inclusion criteria. The interviews were transcribed, and a thematic analysis was carried out. The analysis demonstrated that children’s nature experiences were primarily influenced by preferences, opportunities, constraints, and freedom, of which opportunities have the greatest influence. Similarly, constraints deter the use of available opportunities, regardless of where children live. Females appear to have more constraints on their nature experiences than males. Children must be facilitated with meaningful opportunities for DNEs to overcome constraints and motivate nature engagement. Schools must play a proactive role in facilitating these experiences to foster nature connections to ensure the success of their sustainability targeted curricular objectives. While the subject of DNEs has a wide place in the literature, the lack of studies in the field of education for sustainable development (ESD) increases the importance of this study. The findings can guide the promotion of ESD as a pathway to a sustainable future in the country. Future research should examine barriers to children’s DNEs at the school level.
Keywords: children; contextual factors; direct nature experiences; island environments; Maldives
* Corresponding author: NorAsnizaIshak, asnizaishak@usm.my
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
A deficit of direct nature experiences (DNEs) and its consequences is the subject of current scholarly concern. DNEs, which involve direct contact or physical, multisensory engagements with natural elements (Beery & Lekies, 2021; Gaston & Soga, 2020) in childhood, are especially pivotal for establishing lasting human nature relationships that underpin several of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Thus, efforts towards attaining sustainability must also focus on reconnecting people with nature (Charles et al., 2018; Ives et al., 2018). In particular, Goal 4 of the SDGs stipulates the necessity of inclusive and quality education for all and the promotion of lifelong learning; Goal 4.7 targets promoting sustainable development (SD) through education for sustainable development (ESD). Thus, “this education and lifelong learning must necessarily be connected to the living earth” (Charles et al., 2018, p. 41).
ESD embraces a transformative approach to teaching and learning that strives to equip learners with the competencies necessary for lifelong sustainable behaviours. Thus, schools in many countries including Germany, Macau, the United States (Müller et al., 2021), Sweden and Japan (Fredriksson et al., 2020) are embracing this approach to education. Promoting ESD is especially crucial for small island states such as the Maldives, which are the most vulnerable to the accelerating climate change crisis. In the Maldives, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) provides a comprehensive framework for promoting ESD through its key competencies, learning areas, and pedagogical approaches (Di Biase et al., 2021) Particularly relevant to this study is its key competency, Using Sustainable Practices, which aims “to raise awareness to engage in sustainable practices and learn conservation for the future” (National Institute of Education [NIE], 2014, p. 19) It is envisaged that through this key competency, learners will acquire the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes necessary for taking care of their environment and will be motivated to become future stewards of the natural world. Meanwhile, scholars strongly recommend the improved application of learner centered approaches as a basis for transitioning towards ESD in the Maldives (Di Biase et al., 2021) However, successful ESD also requires revising educational curricula with a view to increasing nature experiences to redress waning human nature relationships (Ives et al., 2018; Selby, 2017). Yet, environmental education in the Maldives lacks experiential learning and a sense of place related to children’s local natural environment (N. Mohamed & Mohamed, 2021)
Historically, rich everyday experiences with abundant natural surroundings have enabled Maldivian children to learn and connect with nature in a myriad of ways. This contextualized, experiential learning laid the groundwork for sustainable practices in the country. In contrast, disturbing trends towards a reduction in DNEs among children are emerging. For example, children learn about nature and its values primarily through schoolbooks that emphasize global knowledge (M. Mohamed, 2012) Generations of children are becoming separated from their traditional island lives, subsequently reducing their nature interactions. Observed unsustainable practices, including abuses of nature by today’s youth (M. Mohamed et al., 2019), suggest a progressive state of decline. Importantly, the frequency of children’s DNEs has been found to differ significantly based on
where they live, with children outside the capital city tending to experience nature more frequently (Abdullah et al., 2022a). While such trends have been attributed to factors such as migration to the capital for better childhood education (M. Mohamed, 2015; M. Mohamed et al., 2019) and differences in available opportunities (Abdullah et al., 2022a), the true determinants of DNEs among Maldivian children remain uncertain. Thus, this study aimed to explore and understand the contextual factors that influence nature experiences amongst 11–12 year old Maldivian children in their local island environments.
Regular DNEs, particularly with children’s daily environments, can establish baselines of nature conceptions A lack of positive DNEs or continuous exposure to nature destruction can cause negative shifts in the baselines of accepted nature norms, such as increased tolerance to environmental degradation that can worsen over time or with each generation (Papworth et al., 2009; Soga & Gaston, 2018). Thus, the progressive decline in human nature interactions, or an extinction of experience in many countries, is deeply concerning (Colléony et al., 2020; Gaston & Soga, 2020; Soga & Gaston, 2016). Evidence supporting a decline in DNEs among children includes a reduction in time spent outdoors (Larson et al., 2018; Skar et al., 2016; Soga & Gaston, 2016), less free play in and use of nearby nature places (Gundersen et al., 2016) and reduced frequency of DNEs (Soga et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). While this change is not always evident (Muslim et al., 2017), trends in nature experiences often depend on where children live. For instance, children in less urban areas tend to engage in more frequent DNEs than those in urban areas (Abdullah et al., 2022a; Muslim et al., 2019; Soga et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014) Furthermore, perceived negative trends may be related to the types of experiences rather than their frequency (Larson et al., 2018; Novotný et al., 2021). Concurrent with these debates are calls to increase childhood DNEs as a means to tackle the widening disconnect between people and nature and to ameliorate the ensuing negative effects (Charles et al., 2018) In order to do so meaningfully, it is first necessary to understand what factors influence children’s DNEs.
The main determinants of children’s DNEs are sometimes broadly categorized as opportunities or orientations (Soga et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016). Opportunities constitute possibilities for interactions with nature in terms of time and space (Soga et al., 2018) that tend to decline with urbanization (Imai et al., 2018; Muslim et al., 2019; Mustapa et al., 2018; Soga et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). Urbanization imposed barriers to DNEs include a loss of access to nature due to a depletion of wildlife (Kai et al., 2014), increased distance to nature spaces (Colléony et al., 2020; Soga & Gaston, 2016), logistics of city design and spatial barriers (Kellert et al., 2017). Although cities can typically present more barriers to DNEs (Freeman et al., 2018), some may nevertheless offer ample opportunities for DNEs (Almeida et al., 2018; Charles et al., 2018; Freeman et al., 2018) Such findings demand serious consideration, given the long term impacts of DNEs on learning and future global conservation (Kellert et al., 2017). In fact, the latter may increasingly depend on city dwellers’ connections with nature through interactions with urban species
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found within city limits, a concept coined as the “Pigeon Paradox” (Dunn et al., 2006 p. 1814)
Opportunities for children to experience nature are often hindered by the restrictions of everyday life, regardless of their natural surroundings. In this regard, parental involvement poses a primary deterrent to children’s DNEs by restricting children’s autonomy of movement ranges, destinations, time spent outdoors, and personal lifestyle (Freeman et al., 2018; Hand et al., 2018) as well as close supervision (Larson et al., 2011). These constraints may be related to traffic and safety concerns (Skar et al., 2016), socio cultural values (Evans et al., 2018; Freeman et al., 2018, 2021; Soga et al., 2018) or both Contrasting findings suggest contextual differences in restraints. For instance, time pressure due to organized activities and increased homework presents major barriers for Norwegian children’s DNEs (Skar et al., 2016), but not for Japanese children (Soga et al., 2018).
Orientations involve feelings or emotions (Soga & Gaston, 2016) that can dictate how opportunities are utilized (Hand et al., 2018; Larson et al., 2018; Soga et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016). A decline in DNEs among children is sometimes driven by a loss of orientation towards engaging with nature, rather than a loss of opportunities. A loss of orientation reflects a disconnect with nature that decreases motivation (Soga et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016) or biophilia that discourages engagement with biodiverse spaces (Hand et al., 2017). Notably, the latter view has been contested (Fattorini et al., 2017)
The loss of orientation is often associated with manifestations of modernization, particularly increasingly sedentary lifestyles (Kellert et al., 2017) and substitution of DNEs with digitally mediated engagements (Ballouard et al., 2011; Kellert et al., 2017). Sometimes, children prefer to engage in screen based activities (Larson et al., 2018) or sports (Mustapa et al., 2018) rather than DNEs, even while outdoors Nonetheless, children’s use of screen based media is not always negatively associated with the extent of their DNEs (Soga et al., 2018). Other studies not only support a greater inclination towards indirect and vicarious nature experiences but also show that such experiences contribute more to children’s connectedness to nature (CTN) than DNEs (Mustapa et al., 2019). Additionally, family members’ attitudes, gender differences (Soga et al., 2018), and fear for personal safety, danger, and crime (Adams & Savahl, 2015) can influence children’s orientations towards nature.
Undoubtedly, several contextual factors either impede or promote children’s DNEs. Identifying barriers is important as they often have deep seated origins in children’s daily lives that marginalize DNEs and may be difficult to break down once they are established (Moss, 2012). However, to mitigate the reduction of nature experiences, it is also imperative to identify drivers that motivate children to engage with nature (Soga et al., 2018). In particular, culturally rooted transformations must be identified in order to optimize nature connections (Novotný et al., 2021).
Unpacking the determinants of DNEs is particularly crucial in the Maldives for several reasons. Limited studies suggest emerging negative trends in DNEs and
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relationships with nature among Maldivians, entwined with transitioning from rural to urban areas and modern lifestyles that conflict with the intrinsic culture of the Maldives (M. Mohamed, 2012, 2015; M. Mohamed et al., 2019) Subsequently, the perceived value of nature is changing from sustainable resources to extractive uses or recreation (M. Mohamed, 2015). Unlike in the past, current nature interactions take a more formal route based on the NCF, aimed at inculcating robust pro conservation competencies from childhood as a step towards attaining SD (NIE, 2014) However, engaging children in stimulating DNEs in formal, non formal, or informal contexts can be particularly challenging considering the ever increasing congestion, societal issues, and human altered environments prevalent on most islands. As already noted, environmental studies in the Maldives lack direct, contextual experiential learning from local nature, which is critical for building children’s nature connections, knowledge, and values associated with local environments (M. Mohamed, 2012; N. Mohamed & Mohamed, 2021) Indeed, children’s DNEs have significant direct effects on their biodiversity knowledge and attitudes, which influence their willingness to conserve biodiversity. These effects can have implications for future biodiversity conservation (Abdullah et al., 2022b). Therefore, identifying the determinants of DNEs among Maldivian children is urgently needed to facilitate impactful DNEs, to bring about effective changes to current practices in an educational context, as well as to harness other benefits of these experiences. This study adds new knowledge to the understudied area of children’s DNEs in the context of small islands, especially the Maldives, which face multiple challenges to SD. In particular, while the subject of DNEs has a wide place in the literature and is an essential requisite for SD and ESD (Charles et al., 2018; Ives et al., 2018; Selby, 2017), the lack of literature from the perspective of children following a curriculum structured around ESD, as in the Maldives, increases the importance of this study. This study identified contextual determinants of DNEs among Maldivian children that are not well documented in literature. This information can contribute to enabling DNEs in nature spaces within everyday use areas through pedagogical shifts and informal means to foster strong connections with nature to achieve the sustainability targeted goals of the Maldivian NCF as well as long term SD.
This study, being part of an in depth study of children’s DNEs in the Maldives, is primarily supported by the modified Experiential Learning Theory (Morris, 2019) and the model of modes of nature experiences and learning in childhood development (Kellert, 2005), both of which emphasize the importance of contexts of experiences in learning and outcomes. In this framework, the island environments where children reside provide the contexts of experiences and are expected to determine how children experience nature. The emphasis on contextually rich experiences is further supported by the philosophy of place based education. Advocates of this philosophy recommend that place based education should form the basis of environmental education, in which children are immersed in personal, real world experiences of the local environment to enable them to truly understand, connect, and engage with local environmental problems for a sustainable future (Di Biase et al., 2021; N. Mohamed & Mohamed, 2021; Ontong & Grange, 2014).
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This study employed a qualitative phenomenological approach to explore and understand the contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences among middle school children in their local islands of the Maldives. Children’s nature experiences are often influenced by their natural surroundings and personal circumstances and are subject to personal interpretation (Adams & Savahl, 2015; Freeman et al., 2018) To examine such phenomena, authors recommend using qualitative, open ended approaches to data collection and analysis (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This study used focus group interviews (FGIs) to gather data. FGIs involve a series of carefully planned open ended, face to face interviews with a selected group of participants, aimed at eliciting personal views and opinions on the chosen topic (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Krueger & Casey, 2015) and gathering a large amount of rich data within a limited time frame (Krueger & Casey, 2015).
This study was conducted on seven islands in the Maldives Each island represents a different island environment (IE) type The Maldives was chosen for this study, considering the lack of experiential learning of nature among Maldivian schoolchildren (N. Mohamed & Mohamed, 2021) and the significance of these experiences for successful ESD and SD. The island types were based on a combination of local natural spaces, island area, population density, and developmental criteria. The codes for the islands, their names, and their locations are shown in Figure 1. The codes are in order of decreasing population density and increasing natural spaces. Each island was expected to present specific contextual factors that influence children’s regular nature experiences.
Note: IE Island Environment or Island types
Figure 1. The Study Sites in the Maldives
The sample for this study consisted of 34 children (15 males; 19 females), aged 11 12 years, from public schools in the seven IEs. Public schools were chosen to ensure a common national curriculum and minimize the effects of pedagogical differences
Middle childhood (6 12) years are particularly suitable for studying DNEs because children of this age are the most responsive to nature experiences. They can interact with nature in multiple ways and levels that enhance positive outcomes (Little & Derr, 2018) Furthermore, responses increase from 7 10 years, peak at around 10 years, level off from 10 14 years and then decline (Otto et al., 2019). The age range of 11 12 years was chosen due to the assumption that children at the higher end of middle childhood would have greater independence to enjoy some unsupervised nature experiences. This is an important factor that influences positive outcomes (Freeman et al., 2018; Hand et al., 2018). Also, they may communicate more comprehensively than younger children.
According to the literature, the recommended number of participants for focus group interviews (FGIs) varies from 4 to 12, depending on the study. Authors recommend including 6 8 (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) or 5 8 (Krueger & Casey, 2015) participants per group However, the purpose and nature of the study determines the sample size and type in qualitative research, rather than the numbers. Furthermore, since the aim of FGIs is to understand and gain insights regarding a situation rather than making generalizations, group composition is also often determined by the nature of the study. In this study, each focus group consisted of 4 6 children chosen purposively from one school on each island, based on inclusion criteria. The sample was homogenous in terms of age, fulfilling the most important inclusion criteria for children in FGIs (Krueger & Casey, 2015). Other inclusion criteria included knowledge, cognition, and communication levels (Gibson, 2007) These criteria were explained to the appropriate teachers in the schools, who screened and selected the participants.
3.3
Data for this study was gathered using semi structured focus group interviews. The interview guide (see Appendix 1) consisted of seven key questions, which were mainly open ended, aimed collectively and primarily to elicit subjective information on the contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences on their island. One question used photographs of local nature places that children may encounter. The questions focused on what the children most commonly like to do with their time; favourite living things; favourite places to visit; surrounding nature places; what children do while in natural places; best things about natural places; and visits to specific places. Follow up questions and probes were also used for clarification and detail.
3.4
Validity and reliability in qualitative research center around trustworthiness, or the confidence of readers in the findings of the study. The most widely used criteria to assure trustworthiness are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability, which were introduced by Lincoln and Guba in 1985. Each of
these criteria may be met using several strategies, which may overlap (Korstjens & Moser, 2018; Nowell et al., 2017). Credibility ensures the accuracy of findings (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). To this end, Leung (2015) recommends determining the suitability of the tools, processes, and data. Hence, prior to the interviews, the content validity of the interview guide was established by two independent experts who assessed the appropriateness of the questions for the targeted objectives. A pilot study was run to determine the suitability of the questions for children of this age and assess time requirements. This also gave insights into the researcher’ s limitations as an interviewer and helped to ensure better engagement during the data collection. The interview transcripts were read repeatedly to become immersed in the data, thereby enhancing the credibility (see Korstjens & Moser, 2018)
To ensure transferability, or its application in other contexts, rich, contextual descriptions of data and details of the study can be provided (Korstjens & Moser, 2018), as in this study. Dependability, which is closely linked to credibility, includes aspects of consistency or reliability. Dependability can be ensured through clear, logical documentation, while confirmability can be ascertained by establishing credibility, transferability, and dependability (Nowell et al., 2017) To enhance reliability, deviant cases were included (see Leung, 2015), and the data, process of data analysis, and product were rigorously verified for appropriateness and accuracy through constant comparison. To ensure trustworthiness, an audit trail of the coding process, including the derivation of themes and interpretation, was maintained along with definitions and exemplars (see Leung, 2015; Nowell et al., 2017) The quality of this process was further confirmed by two independent experts in the field. Because the data analysis was guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2013) thematic analysis framework, the experts used a checklist of 15 criteria, compiled by the same authors in this external audit.
This study was approved by the ethics committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia. Permissions were also obtained from the Ministry of Education, schools, participants, and parents in the Maldives. Verbal assent was obtained from the children to record video of the interviews
Although face to face interviews were preferred, the interviews for this study were conducted online using Google Meet, due to the restrictions of the COVID 19 pandemic. The platform and meeting time were chosen by the responsible teacher in each school One FGI was held per IE, with four to six children in each group. All interviews were conducted by the first author, using the interview guide prepared (see Appendix 1) and following a protocol based on the guidelines for FGIs by Krueger (2002) In summary, this protocol included introductions; explaining objectives; establishing ground rules; providing instructions; and discussions based on the interview questions as well as ensuring that all participants were engaged in the discussions. The interview guide questions helped to create a more focused pathway for exploring the topic. Questions were rephrased and repeated as required, and probes were used where necessary to maintain a continuous flow of conversation. Most children communicated well and freely expressed their thoughts, although a few showed some hesitancy,
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possibly because the interviews were online and were being recorded. Children were made to feel as comfortable as possible and were assured of confidentiality being maintained The responsible teacher was available throughout the interviews to ensure the safety of the children and to address any issues that arose The interviews were conducted in English, as preferred by the children, although they were free to speak in their first language Video recordings of the interviews were made, and notes were written. There were limitations to visual observations because some children were shy and preferred to keep their video switched off. Every effort was made to involve all participants in the discussion. Each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes. Interviews were stopped when no new information was being generated (i.e., saturation was reached), as recommended (Krueger & Casey, 2015)
The focus group interview data was analysed based on the six step framework of Braun and Clarke (2013). This framework is particularly suitable for thematic analysis due to its clarity and flexibility The analytical steps included (i) transcribing, reading, and familiarizing the data; (ii) generating initial codes; (iii) identifying patterns (themes); (iv) reviewing and refining themes; (v) defining and naming themes; and (vi) writing the final analysis. The process applied is summarized in Figure 2.
Figure 2. A Summary of the Thematic Analysis Process Used in the Study Note: The figure is adapted from Ghasemy (2019).
For the thematic analysis, the interview recordings were first transcribed verbatim into word files by listening to the recordings and checking repeatedly against the recordings to ensure accuracy. The transcripts were imported to Atlas.ti 9 for analysis, including coding, generating themes, maintaining notes, and creating network diagrams. A network diagram created using Atlas.ti 9 is shown in Appendix 3. This visual map enhanced understanding of the relationships among all codes, subthemes, and themes.
The data set was comprised of seven transcripts, one per island Each transcript was read repeatedly for familiarization with the data corpus as well as to identify points of interest and generate initial codes. The coding process, for the most part, was researcher derived, in that there were no pre set codes and it focused on identifying and understanding contextual factors that drive children’s nature experiences based on meanings of data Since a few codes were also identified
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from the data itself based on their explicit meaning, the analysis was also partly data driven (see Braun & Clarke, 2013)
Following initial coding, codes that represented similar concepts were collapsed. After meticulous comparison of codes against the transcripts, revisions, and refinements, some codes were combined into broader subthemes based on the similarity of their underlying concepts. Similar subthemes were collapsed into themes. Each subtheme captured a specific aspect of the central organizing concept of a common theme. Upon confirming themes, names were finalized and defined to specify the focus and boundaries of the theme (see Braun & Clarke, 2013) To illustrate this process, the sources of the codes and the ways in which they were merged into subthemes for the theme, opportunities, are shown in Figure 3. This process was utilized to derive all the factors. Details of codes, definitions, and related information were maintained in a Microsoft Excel 2010 matrix for ease of sorting and cross checking, as well as to maintain a transparent and comprehensive trail to ensure consistency in the analysis process. The theme derivation process and analysis were constantly verified through constant comparison and finally vetted by independent experts to ensure trustworthiness. A summary of the analysis with examples of quotes is presented in Appendix 2.
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The demographic profile of the participants and Island Environment (IE) Codes are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic Profile of Participants Island Environment (IE) Code for IE Island Name No in school chosen Gender No of children Boys Girls IEs of Male’ (Capital City)
IE1 ML Male’ 187 3 1 4
IE2 VM Villimale 66 3 2 5
IE3 HM Hulhumale 147 1 4 5 IEs outside Male’ (Capital City)
IE4 KF Kulhudhuffushi 74 1 5 6
IE5 AC Addu City 94 2 2 4
IE6 FM Fuvahmulah 111 3 2 5
IE7 G Gamu 63 2 3 5 Total 742 15 19 34
The thematic analysis identified four overarching themes, namely preferences, constraints, opportunities, and freedom. Each theme represented a broad category of contextual factors that influence children’s nature experiences. Figure 4 shows a simplified illustration of all the subthemes and themes. Details are provided in Appendix 2.
The subthemes can be considered as dimensions of factors. The network diagram connecting all themes, subthemes, and codes, as shown in Appendix 3, was used in understanding patterns and relationships among the factors. For contextualization, clarity, and depth of discussion, pseudonyms assigned to participants (island code and number given to the participant) and gender were
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sometimes used. In the discussion, capital IEs refer to those islands in the capital city (see Table 1 and Figure 1). Only exemplary quotes are included in the findings.
Theme 1: Preferences
Preferences captured what children liked to do during their free time while in nature places (NPs) or outdoors. Preferences included five sub themes: favorite visit nature places; activities in nature places; non nature based pastimes; nature based pastimes; and mental well being.
Favourite visit NPs included places children liked to visit. On all islands, most children mentioned marine NPs, particularly the beach. A few children chose to visit the reef and underwater, as voiced by a child from Villimale: “I like to go to the coral reefs because they are very colourful, and they are host to various sea creatures.”
Some children from outside the capital IEs mentioned mangroves or lakes [locally synonymous with mangroves] and woods as their favourite non marine NPs. Within the capital IEs, children liked to visit gardens and parks: “I like to go to the beach as well and also gardens and parks.” (ML1)
“They [children living in flats] can have a lot of garden space when they have a flat.” (HM3)
Activities in NPs captured what children liked to do while in NPs. Children often named nature based activities, including swimming, fishing, and exploring; exploring often involved looking for animals and plants: “I just usually go for swimming.” (FM5)
“
[I] Like to find new fishing spots.” (KF6)
“[I] Like exploring that, the place." (AC4)
“Observe all the new types of plants I haven’t seen, [and] see the different insects and animals in the beach.” (ML2)
Children also liked to interact with plants, collect pebbles or rocks, play with sand, climb trees and fish:
“I smell some flowers… give water to plants.” (ML1)
“Pick flowers and small pebbles.” (KF4)
“Build a sandcastle bigger than Mount Everest.” (HM4)
“When I’m in my island near big trees I’d climb on trees.” (HM2)
“[I] Like to find new fishing spots ” [KF6]
Another child explained, “If it was an animal, I don’t touch it but if it is a flower and stuff, I touch it.”
A few children mostly enjoyed relaxing in nature, while some removed trash: “I like to just sit on the bench and feel the breeze.” (ML2)
“I usually pick up the trash underwater ” (VM)
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Pastime activities examined time use patterns routinely, rather than on occasions when they visited nature places. Some children preferred non nature based activities while in natural paces. These revolved around enjoyment rather than an interest in nature itself. Examples include taking photographs, canoeing, walking around, playing, riding bikes, and sightseeing, often with friends or family: “I’m taking some photos of the trees, and animals.” (G5)
“We rode bicycles. We go there [to the park] for breakfast in the club, like a family, so we have a lot of fun there.” (HM1)
“I was with my family venturing [in woods], you know sightseeing the place a little.” (HM4)
Many children spend their free time doing non nature based pastimes Reading books was common on all the islands. Others enjoyed sports, hobbies, time with family or screen based games:
“I do a lot of craftwork during my free time.” (AF4)
“I kind of like dabble in photography a little.” (FM1)
“I have a really extended family. Most of the time I play with my cousins.” (HM3)
“Play Minecraft.” (AC1)
Some girls in the capital IEs engaged in family responsibilities during their free time.
“I normally like read books and in my sometimes free times I just take care of my little sister. She’s just a little baby so I thought of taking care of her while my mom is working. Just like help her a lot. That’s why.” (HM, girl)
Nature based pastimes characterized children’s preferred nature engagements during their free time. Playing with pets was the most favoured activity on all islands. Others include fishing
“I mostly play with my pet birds and let them explore around my house.” (KF5)
“I like to go fishing, because it is my hobby.” (KF6)
A few children in the capital IEs liked to visit islands or sandbanks; others preferred garden related activities. Examples include, “I go outside with my family to a trip; to someplace like a little island or sandbank and stuff.” (HM3)
“There are potted plants in my house, I water them.” (VM5)
Mental well being considered children’s enjoyment of nature because of an underlying feeling of freedom or well being. A child from one of the most diverse islands said that he liked camp so much because “we can do whatever we want” (FM2). Some children visited NPs “To have a peaceful mind” (KF2) or because “I feel better” (KF1) or “it is so relaxing” (ML1). The emotional expressions below, made by children from the capital IEs, are especially noteworthy: “I like open spaces, not crowded spaces, so like... I just like to run around and stay or walk in open spaces, like open spaces and natural spaces.” (HM5)
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“Mostly, I prefer being by myself. I live in a very crowded family, so I prefer being alone you know. Looking out the window" [ because] “I can see the ocean. And the moonlight. I mostly enjoy being by myself admiring the world around me.” (HM4)
This theme encompassed elements that enabled nature experiences in various ways and contained four sub themes: nearby nature, visit other islands, organized activities, and expense.
Nearby nature incorporated children’s accounts of neighbourhood NPs, or life forms that facilitated nature experiences. The most frequently mentioned neighbourhood NP was the beach on all islands. However, children living outside capital IEs described more indigenous wild nature spaces, as illustrated by: “We have two lakes.” (FM4)
“Our mangrove is the biggest mashi [clay] mangrove in Maldives.” (KF4) “Futtaru.” (Rocky inter tidal area) (KF1)
Nearby nature also favoured opportunities for independent explorations such as “Going into the woods myself” (AC1). This setting also provided interesting experiences for children, such as, “I also did catch a chicken and five chicks” (FM1) Indigenous species in children’s neighbourhoods enabled valuable observations about local biodiversity, such as the white tern, [a unique bird in Addu] and snails in Gamu: “[white tern] sleep on trees… eat raw fish … they are always migrating. They live at a lot of places.” (AC4)
“Snails [are found] in the roads, when it’s raining” [G3] [and] “In the bandharu [harbour], also lot of them live near the beach.” [G1]
Another memorable experience: “It’s [mangrove] very muddy… but sometimes you feel like you are going down in the mud. You can’t stay up. There are a few places where you can tend to get stuck. It won’t drag you down, but it will just stop you from moving too much.” (FM1)
Unlike children outside the capital IEs, for children in the capital neighbourhood, NPs commonly include managed nature, such as parks or home gardens: “There is a park near my house and there’s a lot of like gardens, even my mum plants stuff in the balcony, and also, behind our house there is a park and a lot of trees.” (HM5)
Nearby nature may facilitate opportunities for frequent DNEs: “I’m able to go as much as I like ” (HM5)
"One time a day. For fishing ” (KF6)
Although there were a few exceptions, a common form of nearby nature on all islands was pets.
“I have pigeons and budgies.” (KF5)
“Ringnecks and macaws.” (G5)
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“Goldfish, carp, angelfish, fighter fish.” (AC3)
“I have many fishes. Like around 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 tanks.” (ML3)
“I have 12 rabbits and 2 ducks and 3 chicken.” (KF3)
Visiting other islands provided exceptional and momentous opportunities to experience pristine nature outside of children’s resident islands:
“I often go to sandbank with my family and stuff, and islands and stuff. Now I often go to there to the beach and like sandbank and islands. I actually didn’t know what it.. actually exists. My aunt told me that we are going to the sandbank; I really didn’t know what it was. I thought it will be a bank with sands actually (laughs). Then when I wented there, it was really beautiful. It’s like a beach but there are no stuffs. It’s full with sands. And when the sun goes down its really beautiful view.” (HM3, boy)
The quote above also exemplifies organized activities, i.e., opportunities for experiencing nature facilitated by adults. Other examples include a scout trip and a fieldtrip organized by the children’s school, although the school facilitated nature based activities mentioned were rare.
Another subtheme of opportunity was expense Although mentioned only once, regarding a visit to the neighbouring Nature Park by a child in Fuvahmulah, the quote below suggests that taking part in activities involves renting resources; hence, expense was important enough to retain as a subtheme. “The person in the counter gives us a certain time to rent anything and then they give us a time for the activities.”
The underlying pattern in constraints was barriers to children’s nature experiences. The sub themes included restrictions, time limitations, safety, past experience, family values, and trust. Restrictions encompassed adult imposed limits on children’s experiences. Parental influences were prominent in many explanations by some children about visiting nature places:
“I always ask my parents and if they give permission, I always go with them, or either one of my family members. I don’t go without everyone else.” (ML2)
“I can go to some places alone, sometimes” but "I can’t go to like faraway places without my parents." (G4)
The extent of parental influence is well portrayed in this interesting exchange between two children from Fuvahmulah:
FM1: “I never did try [to go out by myself] because I know I’ll ultimately fail.”
FM2: “No. Parents are always worried.”
FM1: “Yes and that’s why I’ll ultimately fail. My parents will get worried.”
One child mentioned “My mother doesn’t like me touching animals ” (FM4)
Time limitations included instances where children occupied their time in activities over which they had no choice. These constraints were sometimes linked to everyday life events, such as studying, having busy working parents or family responsibilities, for instance:
“I use it [my time] to study.” (VM2)
“I can't go most of the times because as sometime my mother and my family’s really busy doing their jobs.” (HM3)
“As for me, I normally babysit and when I’m free I do a lot of many things, like cooking, eating, cleaning and stuff. I go very rarely because I have a lot of small siblings and it takes a lot of time to make them ready to go somewhere and when once my mom gets my little sister ready and goes to make my little brother ready, my sister’s gonna make a big mess and it’s gonna take a long time to do all that.” (HM2, girl)
Remarkably, none of the boys on any island mentioned family responsibilities.
Another constraint to children’s nature experiences was safety, which embodied elements of risk of injury or harm, fear, danger, or avoidance. Most safety related constraints were levied by adults. For instance, children were not allowed to go alone to NPs “for our safety reasons” (ML2), because “it’s dangerous” (AC2) or “we might get hurt” (ML3)
Personal fears, worries or negative perceptions also added to constraints: “I’m personally scared to go to picture 3 (woods) cause of the insects.” (AC3)
“Some of them [insects] are poisonous, also dangerous.” (AC4)
“I don’t like to touch, you know, like random animals and things because they might bite me.” (ML2)
“It’s scary being alone.” (VM2)
Another contributor to constraints was past experience. For example, a child was afraid of spiders because “A spider bit me.” Another child explained her fear of street cats:
“I think they are dirty or might scratch me…It happened to my stepsister once and I do not want it happening to me.”
An interesting finding that is not common in literature was acrophobia, which also prevented nature experiences, specifically climbing trees:
“I would really love to climb trees but I’m really afraid of heights, so I’m really scared to.” (HM1)
Family values and trust, with just one code each, represented important constraints on children’s autonomy of experiences. Illustrating that parents’ trust influences children’s independent nature engagements, a child simply stated that he can go far by himself because “They [parents] trust me.” Family values can also impose such limits:
"I mostly go out [to nature places] with my dad because if I did go out with my mom, she’d probably take us to the store to go thrift shopping.
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So, I mostly go out with my dad. He and my brother always decide together and if we bring someone like let’s say my stepsisters or my cousins then we would all decide someplace fun where we can all be together." (HM4)
Freedom captured patterns where children intimated having some free choice in their experiences. There were only a few examples of this factor; usually it was in the form of a simple response of “ yes” to the question asked. The quote below illustrates a typical scenario of the extent of freedom:
"Mostly my uncle and aunts tell everyone to go somewhere, and they decided as a family when there is a meeting. They come to my house, everyone comes to my house and decided and decide where and when we are going. And that’s how we decided. We decide like a family." (HM3)
The present study aimed to explore and understand the contextual factors that influence nature experiences amongst children in local island environments (IEs). Based on the findings, children’s nature experiences are determined by four broad contextual factors: preferences, opportunities, constraints, and freedom. Earlier studies have identified opportunities and orientations (Soga et al., 2018) as broad determinants of children’s nature experiences The contextual basis for these factors is supported by many past studies (e.g., Almeida et al., 2018; Larson et al., 2018; Mustapa et al., 2018; Soga & Gaston, 2016).
Preferences primarily influenced children’s nature experiences in terms of their favourite nature places (NPs) visited, activities in NPs, pastimes, and reasons for visits. The literature identifies such determinants as orientations towards nature (Larson et al., 2011, 2018; Mustapa et al., 2018; Soga et al., 2016) In the Maldives, “sandy beaches are the everyday playground for young children” (p. 39), while walking on the reef is a form of recreation (M. Mohamed, 2012). True to this culture, the most popular NPs were marine, specifically the beach and the reef, regardless of the specific island. Importantly, the natural features of reefs, such as their colours and creatures’ habitats, motivated children’s preferences. Outside the capital IEs, some children favoured visiting non marine NPs such as mangroves. These preferences support an intrinsic love and connection to nature (CTN) that should be harnessed at a young age for future sustainability. However, the preference for visiting parks (built environments with green spaces and play areas) by some children in the capital suggests that available forms of nature may also influence their choices. Nevertheless, choosing less diverse greenspaces may have more influential factors (Fattorini et al., 2017; Freeman et al., 2018). In other countries, children of this age have been found to prefer urban settings (Meidenbauer et al., 2019), while city children tend to associate nature with parks and recreation more than their non city counterparts (Collado et al., 2015). Hence, elements of fun or activity affordances could incentivize children to choose to visit parks in the capital
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Unlike some studies (Larson et al., 2018; Mustapa et al., 2018), children in this study favoured nature based activities while in NPs. Though this discrepancy may arise from methodological differences, the results lend further support to the argument that Maldivian children are still intuitively connected with nature. Notably, some activities commonly preferred by children, such as swimming and fishing, and associated recreations, are fundamentally connected to the roots of Maldivian culture (M. Mohamed, 2012), as are children’s pro conservation behaviours such as cleaning NPs. Children’s preferences for relaxing, enjoying open spaces, and spending solitary time in nature must be encouraged because restorative experiences can motivate children’s pro environmental behaviour (Collado et al., 2013)
Some children preferred non nature based activities such as photography, playing with friends, and riding bicycles in NPs. While these activities revolve around enjoyment and family time, they nevertheless require serious attention because such engagement by the beaches and lagoons “imparts a different meaning and value to the reef and resources” (M. Mohamed, 2012, p. 25). Furthermore, recreational activities have been observed to improve nature connections (Schlegel et al., 2015; Szczytko et al., 2020)
The fact that a child claimed to be happy to touch plants but not animals suggests that children could be selective in their interactions with species, possibly founded on phobias. The literature associates some phobias with biases related to prejudice or culture (Breuer et al., 2015) and a lack of DNEs (Albo et al., 2019; Ballouard et al., 2012; Soga et al., 2020). Since appropriate DNEs can reorient phobias through better understanding of species (Albo et al., 2019; Breuer et al., 2015; Soga & Gaston, 2020), nature based, experiential education is indispensable to alleviate negative feelings towards nature
Children’s routine pastime activities also provided some insight into the way in which preferences can determine DNEs. Many children preferred non nature based pastime activities, such as reading, and screen based engagements rather than nature experiences. Notably, domestic responsibilities, such as taking care of the family, were more common in the capital IEs, especially for girls, than outside of them. Although noted as a pastime activity, these may be choices enforced on girls, suggesting that some girls may be unwillingly deprived of opportunities to experience nature.
While children seemingly spend more time on non nature based pastimes, the findings suggest stronger inclinations towards nature based experiences when opportunities are available. For instance, some children went fishing, a customary and common recreational activity in the Maldives (M. Mohamed, 2012, 2015) even nowadays, on all islands. Playing with pets was revealed to be a popular pastime on all islands, while spending time in gardening related activities was common in the capital IEs. While these trends suggest differences in opportunities, they may also represent changing patterns in preferences at the island level. Encouraging such interests would be a good way to nurture positive CTN in the congested capital. However, a child’s association of living in a flat with lots of garden space indicates troubling signs of shifting baselines regarding nature
concepts that scholars (e.g., Papworth et al., 2009; Soga & Gaston, 2018) warn about. Already, adults exhibit questionable concepts of development, with many aspiring to develop their islands in the manner of the capital (M. Mohamed, 2012) Such conceptual shifts are worrying as they may influence children’s nature conceptions through cultural transmission. Therefore, children must be encouraged to interact more with native biodiversity to create appropriate perceptions, knowledge,and memories regarding the natural island environment. Nonetheless, “culturally driven transformations” (p. 18) in nature experience related concepts must also be given due attention for optimum outcomes (Novotný et al., 2021)
Children’s nature preferences are sometimes related to their mental well being as they can make children feel peaceful or improve their mood. The narratives of children from the capital IEs reflected the crowded conditions in which some of them live and revealed their yearning to immerse themselves in nature. Surprisingly, a child from one of the most diverse islands also associated nature with freedom. Both instances reveal the similar restrictive circumstances in which children live, regardless of residence. This is concerning because studies show that nature play is crucial to children’s mental well being (Skar et al., 2016), while solitary time in nature is the strongest predictor of children’s CTN (Szczytko et al., 2020).
Opportunities influenced children’s nature experiences in many ways, but may be interconnected with several other factors. Similar to some countries (e.g. ,Almeida et al., 2018), and in contrast to others (e.g., Adams & Savahl, 2015; Gundersen et al., 2016; Hand et al., 2018), nearby nature was key to enabling DNEs for children on islands. Nearby nature enables opportunities for DNEs, often through places or life forms that differ between islands. Each opportunity allows for insightful, interesting experiences that can favour learning about local biodiversity and form strong relationships with it.
On all the islands, the most common opportunity for DNEs was the beach. However, it must be noted that for many islands, beaches especially in the capital are human modified. Children living outside capital IEs can experience more indigenous wild nature spaces than those in them, where built parks are more common. Nearby indigenous species can cause subtle differences in children’s DNEs that are specific to each island. For instance, children in the most diverse islands encountered local species, such as mangrove plants in Gamu and the white terns in Addu, which few children in the capital IEs were able to experience first hand. These encounters can translate into knowledge and positive predispositions towards conserving local biodiversity. In contrast, children in the capital IEs had more experience with garden plants in terraces and home gardens. Such domesticated settings can be important opportunities for nature engagement in this gridlocked city environment.
Nearby nature also promoted independent and frequent engagements with nature, such as going to the woods by oneself. The frequencies of DNE in the diverse islands are indeed greater than in less diverse ones (Abdullah et al.,
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2022a). Studies confirm that independent mobility immensely impacts nature experiences and knowledge (e.g., Freeman et al., 2018). The feelings elicited during certain experiences, such as sinking in muddy mangroves, catching chickens, or watching sunsets, can lay a strong foundation for deep connections with nature that can impact future actions.
A common form of nearby nature in all islands was pets. Although most pets are non native, they represent an important avenue for close and personal interactions with nature within safe spaces. Given the absence of terrestrial megafauna and the manifold restrictions on enjoying native nature in the Maldives, pets can be crucial to awakening children’s innate curiosity and learning. Additionally, handling pets may help children reduce biophobia and enhance biophilia, as evidenced by interactions with animals (Albo et al., 2019; Soga et al., 2020). These experiences can ultimately foster positive emotions towards nature, which is crucial to reap optimal benefits from nature experiences (e.g., Ballouard et al., 2012)
Another exceptional opportunity for children to experience native nature, particularly in the capital IEs, is trips to islands and sandbanks. Such visits are a unique form of nature experience in this country. Yet, these opportunities are rapidly declining, with most uninhabited islands allocated for tourism (M. Mohamed et al., 2019) and many sandbanks reclaimed for this purpose. The social and recreational aspects of such trips may be the prime motivators for children and adults alike, but their potential for pro conservation impacts (M. Mohamed, 2012; Schlegel et al., 2015) should be further considered.
The findings strongly indicate that schools do not play a noteworthy role in facilitating opportunities for DNEs among children, despite the emphasis in the curriculum on promoting sustainable habits in children through experiential learning (NIE 2014). Possibly, today’s lifestyle, pressures to excel in school, and societal issues do not support this ambition Nonetheless, facilitated experiences such as visits to nature places may be the only way for some children, especially those in capital IEs, to truly engage with native biodiversity and form close connections with it, following the cultural norms of the Maldives. The feelings of awe reflected in the description of a child’s visit to a sandbank for the first time suggest that these experiences can have long lasting emotional impressions. Studies show that the implementation of active lessons in the Maldives is hampered by multiple barriers, including a lack of knowledge and confidence among teachers, a lack of resources and space in and around schools, time constraints, and large classes (Abdulla et al., 2021). Such barriers may hinder children from engaging in DNEs and therefore require deeper investigation.
An unexpected determinant of opportunity revealed in this study was expense. Considering that many children live in nature modified neighbourhoods, facilitating experiences is often necessary. Many families are not able to afford this additional expense; hence, this is also a constraint to using opportunities that children are usually not aware of. Expenditure has been found to deter DNEs and contributes to a disconnect from nature in both children and adults in the United States (Kellert et al., 2017)
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Constraints were another contextual factor that influenced children’s nature experiences. Constraints on all islands were similar, in that adults set boundaries to children’s personal freedom through mandatory parental approval, prohibiting unaccompanied outings, limiting the frequency of experiences or distance travelled alone, and prioritizing schoolwork. Even on the most diverse islands, this limitation can be extreme, as exemplified by the child from Fuvahmulah who claimed to have given up all attempts to take solitary outings because of inevitable failure. Yet, contextual differences at personal levels are implicated, as a child in Gamu, the most diverse island, explained that he can travel short distances by himself but not to faraway places. Contextual, cultural, and societal underpinnings observed in this boundary setting, especially those of parental restriction on children’s independent mobility and free choice DNEs, reflect the results of other studies in many ways (Freeman et al., 2018, 2021; Skar et al., 2016; Soga et al., 2018) In addition, parental attitudes towards nature may limit the ways in which children experience nature, exemplified by the child who claimed not to touch animals because the mother does not like it.
For some children, time spent studying or family responsibilities can restrict DNEs. Excessive study time could be due to demands to excel at schoolwork, as found in some studies (Skar et al., 2016). Family responsibilities may be imposed by working parents because they cannot afford domestic help, forcing children to step in. Gender disparities at the island level are implicated since only girls from capital IEs mentioned family responsibilities. The findings resonate with earlier reports that a high percentage of Maldivian children, particularly girls, engage in domestic work for several hours every day (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2013). Many children living in the capital are from families that were forced to migrate in search of better lives (M. Mohamed, 2012, 2015). Therefore, persistent and unresolved societal issues may force greater restrictions on girls.
Constraints on children’s nature experiences are often rooted in concerns over safety. Parental concerns over danger, which cause them to forbid lone ventures, can be justified, given the problems of modern society. Personal concerns over safety, such as fear or negative perceptions of insects, may stem from biophobia (see Albo et al., 2019) or past experiences. An interesting and uncommon finding in the literature was acrophobia, which also prevented nature experiences, specifically climbing trees.
While parents’ trust allows children to gain independent nature experiences, it may conversely limit such experiences. Likewise, family values can also limit or enhance children’s nature experiences.
Children’s nature experiences were influenced by freedom. Only a few children could visit NPs as often as they liked, while others could choose their experiences while in a NP determined by adults. In hindsight, freedom may be better positioned as a dimension of constraints.
This study demonstrated that children’s DNEs are shaped by preferences, opportunities, constraints, and freedom, each underpinned by multiple sub factors. Differences exist based on each island’s context. Usually, children prefer experiencing diverse nature places over less diverse ones and engaging in nature based activities while in nature places. However, there is an inequity in opportunities for experiencing local nature in terms of its quality and quantity as well as gender. Opportunities are greater on the most biodiverse islands than in the capital, and for males compared to females. Overall, these findings suggest that the strongest determinant of nature experiences for these children is opportunities, especially those that are nearby. Regardless of the island, or opportunities potentially available, constraints and limits to freedom set boundaries for children’s nature engagements. In particular, parents stand out as boundary setters, shaping how children experience nature. While differences exist in constraints at personal levels, safety issues, phobias, and gender biases that deter nature experiences must be addressed. Yet, adults also facilitated experiences, though schools did not play a noteworthy role as facilitators. Clearly, authentic nature experiences that are also sensitive to changing cultures and children’s interests must be facilitated to counter the changing islandscapes, particularly in the capital.
The findings suggest that even in the presence of abundant nature spaces in the habitual environments of children, facilitating nature experiences is necessary Given the increasing societal obstacles to DNEs, especially on the capital islands, and considering the curricular targets towards experiential learning and moulding sustainable minded generations, schools are in the best position to enable meaningful DNEs for children. It is recommended that schools play a more proactive and creative role in empowering children to experience nature through formal, non formal and informal means, using opportunities that are available even in the concrete jungle of Male’ city. Pedagogical shifts are necessary to engage children in nature experiences they love, be it pets, gardening or exploring their surroundings. Further work is necessary to investigate barriers to children's DNEs at the school level and strategies for creating nature based lessons to expedite this process.
The main limitation of this study was related to the interviews being conducted online, which caused some children to behave shyly. Consequently, some children’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviour were not observed as much as hoped at the start of the study. The delineation of factors was also challenging as it was felt that there were some overlapping patterns.
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Note: Factor: broad variable investigated; Purple: themes, i.e., factors; White: subthemes, i.e., dimensions; Label F with numbers: Codes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 50 63, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.3
Received Aug 10, 2022; Revised Sep 14, 2022; Accepted Oct 21, 2022
Universitas Muhammadiyah Ponorogo, Indonesia
Ghulam Asrofi Buntoro and Alip Sugianto
Universitas Muhammadiyah Ponorogo, Indonesia
SMK PGRI 2 Nganjuk, Indonesia
Sutanto
Universitas Bina Sarana Informatika, Surakarta, Indonesia
Abstract. The purpose of this research was to create a culture based English learning model for use in junior high schools. This study was part of a larger research project that used a research and development (R&D) design. In the first year, the project aims to create a conceptual model of culture based English learning materials. This study was conducted at Muhammadiyah 1 Junior High School in Ponorogo, East Java province, Indonesia. Muhammadiyah is one of the biggest Islamic non governmental organizations in Indonesia. We chose this school due to its easy access and low motivation levels of its students in learning English. Sample selection was conducted using a multi stage sampling technique. The data were collected using questionnaires, document analysis, and interviews, and triangulated using expert judgment. The results of the data analysis led to the production of a conceptual model of English learning material which contains core competencies, basic competencies, themes, or materials of English for junior high school students. The result of the interviews with the students and teachers during need analysis indicated that it is necessary to include local culture in English learning materials to increase students’ engagement and knowledge about their culture. The results of the product try out showed that students are motivated because they are familiar with the culture based learning materials. As such, this conceptual model will be the basis to develop similar modules of English learning materials for junior high school students.
Keywords: conceptual model; culture based; English learning
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Culture based English learning plays a crucial role in assisting students in junior high school to learn English, because it provides a new learning atmosphere for students and convenience in learning English as a foreign language. In addition, in culture based learning, the themes and subthemes of the learning material are adapted to the local culture of students. Furthermore, the learning materials are adjusted to the level and capacity of students to eliminate any difficulties during the teaching learning process (Fatihaturosyidah & Septiana, 2019). To achieve maximum learning outcomes, the teacher’s role in providing culturally loaded material is very important. Teachers need to be able to present fun learning so that learners will enjoy learning more (Torro et al., 2021). In other words, it is hoped that teachers will be able to choose appropriate and effective learning strategies to organize and regulate the course of the learning process to make learning persuasive, active, creative, empathic, and interesting (Fakhrurrazi, 2018).
Second or foreign language learning strategies for beginners ought to be directed at the achievement of competence and reliance (Nurchasanah, 2017) Moreover, the target of language learning is acquisition and not simply learning the language (Kholid, 2017). Language acquisition is a process of acquiring and mastering a language naturally, because humans need to communicate with others (Oktora, 2015) This means that learners (mainly those who are at the novice level) perceive learning as pleasurable so that it instills in them a desire to study constantly in sundry contexts (not just in the classroom) and not just under the supervision of the teacher (Febriana, 2021) Mainly, the English learning materialsused at schools ought to be able to encourage learners to keep on learning and expand their learning process outside the classroom by employing culture based aspects with real life experiences (Husain, 2016). Competence in English at this first level is very important and strategic because it is the basis of learning for English language learning at further levels In addition, mistakes that might occur because of deviations in the learning process will be carried along by learners for life and influence their subsequent English learning (Syahputra, 2015).
Culture based English learning for children in Ponorogo, Indonesia is very beneficial, yet such learning models which can be used by teachers for instruction in the teaching learning process are unavailable. Considering this, and the importance of such model, this study aimed to develop a conceptual learning model based on Ponorogo culture (Besral, 2016) We expected that this study were to yield meaningful benefits not only for teachers but also for other stakeholders so that English language learning can gain its proper place professionally (Alim, 2017).
One of the positive values that needs to be instilled in learners in junior high school is love for the motherland (Ikhsan, 2017). The current reality shows that many of the young generations today have begun to lose their sense of love for the homeland (Atika et al., 2019), a state attributed to the negative influence of Western culture (Nuryani et al., 2020) Adoration of the motherland mirrors feelings of glory, fidelity, concern, and high honor for aspects such as language, culture, economy, and politics to prevent persons from being lured by what other
countries can offer, which can threaten love for the motherland (Erviana, 2021). The main cause of the loss of love for the homeland by the Indonesian people is that the values of Pancasila (Indonesia’s five principles) are only perceived and used as history (Suraya et al., 2020). The majority of Indonesian citizens just memorize the Pancasila orally but do not practice its values in their daily life (Marhayani & Indraswati, 2020).
Students need to be exposed to values such as love for their motherland from an early stage so that the next generation can manifest good attitudes and behaviors that are beneficial for the community to avoid social deviations that damage norms (Baginda, 2018). Deviations can harm society and even the feeling of love for the motherland Deviations can threaten the nationalism that people feel and the pride of being part of Indonesia with its varied culture (Saputra et al., 2019). If young generations do not care about their culture, for example Reyog Ponorogo (a performing art dance with a lion headed person with peacock feather decoration), people from other countries will probably claim it as theirs. The young generations must thus prevent this from happening and should therefore know it better than thosefrom other countries (Asri, 2018). In essence, all members of society, including junior high school students, are expected to be prudent in loving the local culture of their community, especially for the sake of preserving culture (Dinarti et al., 2021)
In the Indonesian context, junior high school is the level of formal basic education after going through the elementary school level (Bafadhol, 2017). In general, students of this level of education are 13 to 15 years old (Wardah, 2018) Teaching and learning at the junior high school level focus on establishing generations that are ready to take on a progressively complicated era (Kristi et al., 2020) This is in line with the Law on the National Education System (No. 20 of 2003) Article 17 concerning basic education, which consists of elementary schools and junior high schools (Bhara, 2020). If a country wishes to go forward in the sector of education, it has to give a chance to and provide enough facilities for students to develop their skills and interests (Mustaghfiroh, 2020) The potential and skills of learners can be developed through a learning process in which the learning materials are interesting for students. In addition, teachers should have a suitable teaching strategy to convey the learning materials (Lena et al., 2020). This will help learners to obtain knowledge and skills to tackle future challenges in a good and fun learning atmosphere (Mardhiyah et al., 2021)
Since Ponorogo is one of the tourist destinations in Indonesia, the children of Ponorogo need to have better English language competence than children living in other areas (Kusuma, 2018) They also need to learn many things related to their culture and the tourist spots of Ponorogo. One way to achieve this objective is to create culture based learning materials for English classes. However, several factors hinder students to achieve this objective. These include the absence of Ponorogo culture-based learning materials, the broad themes existing in students’ textbooks, students’ low motivation, and teachers’ incapacity to develop the needed learning materials (Utiarahman, 2020).
To achieve this, core competencies and basic competencies need to be adjusted to the cultural conditions in Ponorogo because attaining foreign language competence will be very effective if it is carried out based on culture (Abusyairi, 2013) Nonetheless, in Ponorogo, English language competence and understanding of Ponorogo culture have not yet been implemented in English learning materials (Ahmad & Mardiana, 2014).
Through the development of this culture based English learning conceptual model, it is hoped that junior high school students can learn not only English but also their own culture. This study also supported the study excellence of the Muhammadiyah University of Ponorogo in the field of developing local cultural arts and education so that it is included in the prominent applied research schemes of universities. As such, the objectives of this study were to:
• determine the process of developing a culture based English learning conceptual model as a means to instill love for the motherland for junior high school students;
• develop a conceptual model of culture based English learning as a medium to instill love for the motherland for junior high school students; and
• determine the effectiveness of a conceptual model of culture based English learning as a medium to instill love for the motherland for junior high school students
Previous studies related to culturally loaded learning materials have shown that the presence of students’ culture in textbooks has a positive impact on students’ motivation. Students enjoy the learning materials because they feel that they are familiar with the contents, even though it is not written in their native language. As a result, culturally loaded learning materials can enable students to think critically to improve performance of English language learning and increase classroom interaction (Prayati et al , 2020). Other research has indicated that teachers must provide learning materials that can trigger students to be proud of their local identity (Elshadelin & Yumarnamto, 2020). Therefore, culture based learning materials are necessary to help students achieve their learning objectives.
This study used a modified research and development (R&D) design of the ADDIE model, which consists of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating phases (Branch, 2009). The analyzing phase aims to identify a certain problem and its causes that affect students’ poor English proficiency. The designing phase aims to verify the desired performances and appropriate testing methods. Next, the developing phase is used to generate and validate the learning resources that will be required during the process of arranging learning material. The next phase, the implementing phase, gives a chance for learning material developers to prepare the learning environment and engage the students. The last phase, the evaluating phase, is needed to assess the quality of the instructional products and processes, both before and after implementation. Overall, this study is part of a larger research project that is being conducted for three years and consists of three stages, namely theoretical assessment of English language competence and model development,
development of textbooks, and field testing. This study is the result of research that yields a conceptual model in the first year of the larger project, which will later be developed in the form of a textbook in the first stage
The study population consisted of Muhammadiyah junior high schools in the Ponorogo Regency A “multi step sampling technique” was adopted by considering schools in urban and rural areas. On the whole, because of time and energy constraints, the sample included six schools, two in each subdistrict, consisting of schools in urban and rural areas. The schools were SMP (junior high school) Muhammadiyah 1 Ponorogo, SMP Muhammadiyah 2 Ponorogo, MTs (Islamic junior high school) Muhammadiyah 1 Babadan, MTs Muhammadiyah 2 Jenangan, MTs Muhammadiyah 3 Yanggong, and MTs Muhammadiyah 4 Jetis.
In this study, data were collected by using questionnaires, document analysis, and interviews. The questionnaires and interviews were administered to students and teachers to investigate the need analysis and their opinions and suggestions after the process of product try out. Document analysis was conducted to determine the availability of suitable textbooks and the students’ performance in learning English. Furthermore, to verify the data, an expert judgment process was carried out using a designated expert. The expert judgment phase included the validation from an expert in English learning materials and an expert in graphic design. A senior experienced English teacher examined the developed learning materials in terms of language, content, and presentation appropriateness. The other expert, a computer lecturer, examined the developed learning materials in terms of layout and graphic design.
The obtained data were analyzed descriptively and qualitatively The data were then used as basis to develop a model whose conception follows the concept of Castleberry and Nolen (2018) Therefore, in this research, the obtained data were processed by implementing five steps: compiling, disassembling, reassembling, interpreting, and concluding. In the compiling phase, we collected data from the interviews, questionnaires, and observations to obtain a full picture of the conditions and situation.Next, the obtained data were separated into theirspecific classifications. In this phase, the findings can be identified more easily and in detail. After that, the data were compiled again. This is necessary to do to obtain a full description of the research evidence. After analyzing the data in detail and as a whole set, several important findings were derived. Finally, we drew conclusions related to the findings of the research.
As stated earlier, to obtain valid and effective results, and to confirm the reliability and validity of the results, the data were tested by experts in a related field. The result of the conceptual model contained the following factors: (1) competency standards for English language learning in junior high schools, (2) core
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competencies, (3) English learning themes, (4) approach, (5) English learning methods/techniques, and (6) assessment. The results are elaborated below.
3.1 Competency
Competencies for Learning English Competency standards are competencies that can be performed or displayed for a subject or competence in certain subjects that must be possessed by students; or competencies that must be possessed by graduates in a subject (Prihantoro, 2014).
According to Sellar et al. (2018), competency standards refer to the minimum competencies in certain subjects that must be possessed by graduates.
Regarding the competency standards in the Indonesian school context, data analysis revealed that for semester 1, Class VII had two competency standards and twenty one core competencies, consisting of two core competencies for listening skills, four for speaking skills, two for reading skills, and two for writing skills. In the second semester, the competency standards consisted of two core competencies for listening skills, five for speaking skills, two for reading skills, and two for writing skills. In Class VIII, for semester 1 and 2, there were two competency standards and twenty six core competencies, comprising three core competencies for listening skills, five for speaking skills, two for reading skills, and three for writing skills. In Class IX, for semester 1, there were two competency standards and twenty five core competencies, consisting of four core competencies for listening skills, four for speaking skills, two for reading skills, and three for writing skills. Semester 2 had three core competencies for listening skills, four for speaking skills, three for reading skills, and two for writing skills.
The theme is the main idea. The themes and subthemes of the subject matter are the main ideas used as the basis for learning in certain subjects that are associated with culture based English learning to create a teaching and learning process that is suitable for expected learning objectives.
Themes and subthemes are taught at the junior high school level of the participating schools to achieve the competency standards and core competencies as stated above. These are shown in Table 1. Cultural elements are inserted into the relevant sections by incorporating material with local culture content into the lesson theme. The insertion process is carried out in such a way by using the “melting pot” paradigm (Arend, 2003), that is by fusing local culture content into the topic of the core material so that it does not feel like material separately inserted.
Class VII
Class VIII
Class IX
It’s English time Congratulations! Who I am We can do it, and we will do it Let’s live a healthy life! Telling the time We know what to do Be healthy, be happy My daily activities Come to my birthday, please! This is how you do it! A nice day I’m so happy for you! Everybody is always in the middle of something
Greetings
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Let’s like what we do Our busy roads
We have been to an orphan home.
We went there last Sunday. I’m proud of Ponorogo My uncle is a zookeeper Sangkuriang (Name of an Indonesian folktale character) That’s what our classmates should do What are you doing? They are made in Indonesia
Bigger is not always better What is it? When I was a child Come and visit us! Yes, we made it! You can always come back home
Don’t forget, please! We got a lot of histories
All the themes in the list above relate to things that are around students in the context of their lives. Piaget (1936), a child developmental psychologist, explained that learning for children is a product of self adaptation to the environment that occurs on an ongoing basis This statement reflects that children will learn effectively if they see the continuity or relevance of what they are learning in real life contexts. There are two basic concepts in children’s learning, namely assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process whereby children adopt something new (seen, heard, or read) in a real context or combine something new (knowledge, information, or image) with something that they already have. Conversely, accommodation is a process of empowering the mind to understand something new either by creating an image or comparing something new with prior knowledge. By using materials related to themselves and the surrounding environment, the processes of assimilation and accommodation of concepts become easier for students, thus making English learning more effective for teachers and students.
An approach is a procedure used by teachers to direct students’ activities towards the goals to be achieved. A method, on the other hand, is a systematic way of working to simplify the application of activity to reach designated purposes (Quested et al., 2017) The method includes procedural, systematic, and logical elements and planned activities to achieve the targeted goals. The method also comprises the choice and definition of teaching materials, the probability of obtaining solutions, and expanding these teaching materials.
Several approaches and methods were used by teachers in teaching the junior high school students. Teachers chose one or more methods according to the characteristics of students, teaching materials, the environment, and other learning resources. Based on the results from the data analysis, a suitable approach to use is a communicative approach that can be described through several specific learning methods. Principally, all of the methods train and invite students to use language in the form of real communication in real life. With the principle of communicative learning, teachers can develop various kinds of
activities according to learning objectives, topics, and subject matter so that students can gain experience by communicating in English. Students can do several activities to improve their language skills, all of which provide opportunities for students to use English in a real and communicative way. Some of the methods that can be used are total physical response, presentation practice production, three phases of listening, three phases of reading, games, and songs.
All of these methods endorse student centered learning (often associated with discovery learning, inquiry learning, or inductive learning), which places greater emphasis on the role of learners in the learning process (Brookes et al., 2020). In student centered learning, the teacher does not give complete freedom to the students. On the contrary, the teacher still makes plans, but their role in and control over the teaching and learning process are greatly reduced. The philosophy underlying the student centered approach is that the focus is on the students. When planning their lesson strategies, teachers first formulate outcomes and then design instructional activities to suit learners’ background knowledge, motivation, and level of readability (Neumann, 2013). They assess obtainable materials and select presentation strategies to connect with their students’ characteristics and level of English proficiency. For this process, teachers are also required to transform their ideas continually based on the responses and try to maintain stability between providing learners the information they require and the freedom they desire.
The emphasis of learning is on students. When planning their lesson strategies, teachers must first determine the outcomes to be achieved, and then design learning activities that are suitable for their students’ understanding, prior knowledge, motivations, and interests. Teachers must examine and evaluate the learning materials and choose the right strategies to transfer the knowledge to their students Teachers must also change their ideas on an ongoing basis based on the input received and attempt to strike a balance between providing the guidance and assistance students need and the freedom they desire. If the learning outcomes of the objectives are to be achieved, it is necessary to select the right learning strategy. For this, teachers must determine how to organize their students’ learning environment so that their learning experience can direct them to achieve the desired learning outcomes. Therefore, teachers must be able to select the most suitable teaching strategies for their students to achieve their learning objectives optimally.
No strategy is better than any other strategy in all respects. Therefore, teachers must be able to select the appropriate teaching strategy and make rational decisions if the selected strategy is effective. Teachers may have a favorite strategy, but importantly, no strategy is right for all situations, so variety and flexibility in teaching will help teachers hold their students’ attention and improve their learning outcomes (Chalmers & Fuller, 1996). To choose the right strategy, teachers should ask themselves two questions: What do I want the students to do as a result of my teaching? and: What is the best way to help the students learn? These questions will direct teachers to reflect on the outcomes that must be achieved by the students, the content or learning materials that students must
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learn, and the learning process they will undergo. This refers to the philosophy that knowledge is a form, not something that is discovered. The teacher’s role is to introduce new ways to acquire knowledge through the process of social learning (Pritchard & Woollard, 2010). Teachers should facilitate their students to learn through a set of experiences rather than simply giving them experiences.
Assessment is defined as a procedure used to obtain information about a person’ s achievement or performance, where the results will be used for evaluation. Assessment is done to determine the level of a person ’s performance or achievement. The required information is obtained from data through test and non test activities (Maman & Rajab, 2016). The assessment used in learning English in junior high schools is competency based (in the form of tests and non tests). Competency based assessments differ from other assessment methods in several ways and generally have specific characteristics These are: (1) a focus on competence, (2) carried out for each individual, (3) not comparing individuals’ success with one another, (4) allowing students to conduct self evaluation, (5) being open, holistic, integrative, and authentic, (6) graduation is obtained if all the main competency standards or criteria have been achieved, and (7) graduation is categorized into one of two categories, namely competent or incompetent.
In a competency based assessment, a person is declared to have passed if they have mastered all the required competencies. If one (or more) of the main competencies has not been mastered yet, the person concerned is declared incompetent.
In the assessment process in the classroom, authentic assessment is used as one of a variety of assessment forms that reflects the student’s learning progress, motivational abilities, and attitudes towards relevant learning activities in the classroom (Aliningsih & Sofwan, 2015). The term authentic assessment, which includes the idea of assessing learners in implementing knowledge and skills in the same manner as they experience in the obvious realm outside the classroom, was first introduced by Sumirattana et al. (2017) The types of authentic assessment include performance assessment, portfolio, and self assessment.
Assessment also involves the different forms of assessment used to assess students’ competencies. The test as a form of assessment is a set of questions or tasks planned to obtain answers or provisions that are considered correct. In other words, a test wishes to establish whether students consider information true or false. The non test technique involves using an instrument intended to elicit an opinion about a certain topic. Although the results of the data analysis showed that competency based assessments in the form of tests (which are performance tests) and non tests are considered the most appropriate for use in junior high schools, assessment in the form of objective tests can still be used. According to Adom et al. (2020), objective tests are not good at judging a person’s knowledge but they are not bad at doing so either. The objective test is thus not the best at measuring students’ abilities and is thus not a suitable assessment form to be used. Nonetheless, it can still be used in certain situations
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The aforementioned discussion shows that learning English for children requires teachers’ serious attention and special skills. In this study, Ponorogo cultural elements were inserted into English language learning material according to learning themes. This was done so that students can appropriately and professionally learn English language with the nuances of the Ponorogo culture.
This study showed how a culture based English learning model can be developed by inserting local culture elements into the learning material. Conceptually, the insertion of local culture elements is not explicitly visible because the insertion is adjusted to the theme or learning materials being taught. The inserted learning material is melted in (with the melting pot paradigm) so that the material will not be presented separately. However, the inserted material will become clear and real at the applicative level, actualized in textbooks (which will be done in the second year) and in the implementation process in the classroom. Culture based English learning materials will play a crucial role in English learning for junior high schools and provide a new atmosphere for learners and convenience in learning English as a foreign language. This is because the material in the themes and subthemes is adapted to match the local culture of students. In addition, other learning components are also adjusted to the level and capacity of students.
To obtain maximum learning outcomes, the teacher’ s role in providing culturally loaded material is very important. Teachers need to be able to present fun learning activities so that learners will enjoy their learning more. In other words, it is hoped that teachers will be able to choose appropriate and effective learning strategies to organize and direct the course of the learning process to present persuasive, active, creative, empathic, and interesting learning.
This research was entirely funded by the Directorate of Research and Community Service (DRPM) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia through the Higher Education Applied Research Grant Program (PTUPT), with contract number: 149/VI.4/PN/2022, on 12 May 2022. We are grateful for the trust placed in us and hope that this research will benefit junior high schools in Indonesia. Our gratitude is also conveyed to Universitas Muhammadiyah Ponorogo for facilitating the implementation of this research. Lastly, many thanks go to all the teachers and students who assisted us to do this research, and to all the researchers as well.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 64 87, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.4
Received Aug 12, 2022; Revised Oct 12, 2022; Accepted Oct 17, 2022
El Farra Samar Higher Colleges of Technology Emirates Medical Association Radiographers Society of Emirates, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Abstract. The global skills gap and lack of a verified volunteering capacity for pandemics and catastrophes, amongst other factors, have compelled higher education to consider validated alternative credentials. However, alternative credentials are in the infancy stage, so universities are tailoring frameworks and curricula in the absence of a global standardization. Recently, calls to develop “soft”/non technical skills like empathy among healthcare students are increasing. However, the current healthcare non technical skills curricula do not account for the clinical aspects as they have originated from aviation programs adopted since the 1970s after high profile plane crashes were mainly attributed to errors in non technical skills. The aim of this paper is to address all these gaps by performing curriculum analysis, design, development, and implementation to lay the foundation for subsequent research to evaluate the outcomes. The developed curriculum was offered in an alternative credential format for a pilot group of seven undergraduate medical imaging students. This paper describes the development and implementation of five pedagogical interventions, and the subsequent paper shall review seven assessment and evaluation tools and requirements related to competency within entrustable medical imaging professional tasks. This paper is unique as we are unaware of any publications on deployed or awarded alternative credentials combining technical and non technical skills within entrustable professional tasks. As such, the work presented can provide educators with practical curriculum development approaches to address the educational paradigm shifts.
Keywords: alternative digital credentials; health sciences education; non technical skills; medical imaging; entrustable professional tasks
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Due to disruptions like the declined interest in full and lengthy credentials and the gap between graduation and employment rates, higher education institutions are expected to offer quality Alternative Digital Credentials (ADC), including micro credentials and digital badges (International Council for Open and Distance Education, 2019; Kato et al., 2020). In our previous work on the ADC provisions within higher education institutions as the heartland of academia, the model of provision accounted for the suitable representation of competency based work placement related training in a digital badge format with linked students’ artifacts as evidence of attainment. In comparison, campus related didactic and laboratory Simulation‐Based Training (lab SBT) were branded as micro credentials. This reported pilot implements an ADC composed of a Micro credential and two digital badges in the medical imaging of the human thorax and extremities. Despite the wealth of literature on the ADC technological aspects, to our knowledge, no case pilot studies with a focus on the educational part of implementation have been published (El Farra et al., 2022).
In healthcare systems, COVID 19 has revealed a severe lack of qualified volunteers in catastrophes or pandemics. Verified undergraduate capacity can positively impact the recruitment of verified students to volunteer in supporting the frontline human resources. However, ADC offered by universities can reasonably address issues like verified competencies in undergraduates or adult lifelong learners returning for reskilling/upskilling. The concept of ADC is challenged by the lack of trust of employers and learners (El Farra et al., 2022; Chakroun & Keevy, 2018). Our framework addressed significant risks of ADC offerings through an outcome focused quality assurance model. It was reviewed in conjunction with a case study which is the focus of this pilot. The designed case study was within an undergraduate radiography / Medical Imaging (MI) context, suitable for a low risk, low cost pilot. The model was intended to lead the nationwide application and constitutes a blueprint for the future of the ADC landscape. The piloted ADC reviewed in this paper comprises didactic and lab SBT micro credentials, integrated with an implemented clinical preceptorship digital badge. The program was delivered over two consecutive academic semesters.
This research is unique as we are unaware of any MI specific ADC offerings. Also, combining “soft skills” or “Non Technical Skills” (NTS) in the healthcare lingua franca (Thomas, 2018) with technical skills within an integrated credential is unfamiliar. Furthermore, we are unaware of any MI application of the “Entrustable Professional Activities” (EPA) concept. An entrustable professional activity is an essential task that an individual can be trusted to perform without direct supervision within the health care context (Englander et al., 2017). Besides, existing NTS Training programs (NTSTs) came out after high profile air crashes in the 1970s, which were attributed directly to human errors like teamwork (Prineas et al., 2021). Also, 70% of high profile flight accidents stemmed from communication failures. In response, aviation NTST “Crew Resource Management” was developed by the aviation industry to enhance NTS (Thomas,
2018). Within the healthcare context, NTSTs were derived from aviation with minor adjustments to reflect the specifics of clinical settings (Thomas, 2018). To our knowledge, no NTSTs are published to address MI specific performance tasks.
In high risk industries such as health care or aviation, NTS are directly related to safety. Goldman and Wong (2020) emphasize the importance of core NTS in quality improvement and patient safety, which promotes the rapport between health care professionals and the patient (Pollard et al., 2019). Further, NTS are a constellation of cognitive and social skills needed to reduce error and improve human performance in complex systems (Prineas et al., 2021). The NTS list varies across domains, and so does the terminology. In the designing phase of the pilot, three main NTS were identified as the focus of this ADC pilot provision: communication, collaboration, and empathy. The complexity of patient care depends heavily on the quality of communication (Blackmore et al., 2018, Kaplonyi et al., 2017). Failure to communicate sparks patient dissatisfaction (Gude et al., 2020). In a systematic review of 59 studies analyzing 88,069 patient complaints, the most common complaints were communication related (Reader et al., 2014). Correspondingly, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported a high proportion of patient safety incidents directly linked to miscommunication between health care professionals. Hence, improving communication between health care professionals and patients is crucial for preventing millions of adverse events (WHO, 2021). Finally, communication is a vessel for expressing other NTS like social awareness and empathy (Kwee & Kwee, 2021). Moreover, collaboration across clinical settings is essential in high acuity time critical emergencies and stressful environments. Effective collaboration and communication are critical for safe patient care (Amaniyan et al., 2020; Kenwright & Wilkinson, 2019).
In healthcare, empathy is principally a cognitive attribute that originates from an understanding of the suffering of an individual patient and being able to communicate this understanding to help a patient (Hojat, 2016). Patients’ outcomes and experience in more sophisticated MI procedures like CT scans are heavily affected by NTS, such as empathy and effective communication (Bwanga & Kayembe, 2022).Empathy is an essential emotional and cognitive resource that can directly affect patients’ well being beyond the effects of prescribed drugs or treatments and interventions (Decety, 2020) Also, patients report that communication and empathy are the most important skills used to judge radiologists (Kwee & Kwee, 2021). Problems in communication and empathy counted for 29.1% of 88069 patient complaints, and 33.7% of complaint issues were related to the safety and quality of clinical care, including collaboration deficiencies (Reader et al., 2014).
Academics are socially accountable for meticulously training and validating their graduates' skills and professional values to care for society’s most vulnerable individuals (Kenwright & Wilkinson, 2019). Furthermore, it is critical for MI professionals to ensure the patient is treated compassionately and not objectified in a process that is primarily focused on the production of a medical
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image (Bolderston, 2016). Yet, severe gaps in NTS capacity are evident. For example, medical students scored similar or less social emotional skills than the average population (Meirovich et al., 2016). Therefore, NTS evaluation and/or training systems are increasingly incorporated within undergraduate curricula (Prineas et al., 2021). Integrating NTS within curricula places the rather abstract NTS into a more meaningful context (Gude et al., 2020). Ostensibly, students who completed an embedded NTST in the pre clinical curriculum reported the relevance of NTST content to their careers and desired more similar experiences (Kaplan Liss et al., 2018). Furthermore, in a cross sectional study performed 12 years apart, students who attended communication training reported higher levels of a tendency toward acquiring communication skills (Gude et al., 2020). Yet, research examining the effectiveness of NTSTs has only surfaced within the last few decades, rendering a lack of a single ‘best practice’ with only a few studies being validated. Also, high risk industries NTSTs are designed with aviation context dependencies that lack MI specific adjustments (Thomas, 2018). Accordingly, the need to deploy an NTST specifically targeting the ADC learning outcomes and EPTs is evident. The participants enrolled in the pilot belong to the existing undergraduate program designed to explicitly focus on MI technical skills with an implicit NTS focus. In response to those challenges, we reviewed the relevant literature that best informs the design, development, and implementation of a previously analyzed dedicated NTST in an ADC offering based on the ADDIE model. This work will lay the foundation for the subsequent work on evaluation and assessment by providing a road map for MI specific ADC curriculum development and implementation. Figure 1 lists the acronyms used in this paper.
The method is carried out to lay the foundation for the subsequent work on evaluating and assessing the proposed ADC. We investigated and implemented adult and NTS theories, relevant frameworks, and approaches to ADC curriculum development within the EPT context to provide a roadmap of the main factors to consider when analyzing, designing, developing, and implementing ACD based on the ADDIE (Analyze, Design, Develop,
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Implement, and Evaluate) model as one of the most fundamental instruction design models (Snell et al., 2019). The developed ADC was implemented on a cohort of seven undergraduate MI students as a pilot study. In response to the scarcity of similar work in MI, this work is intended to present a guide for ADC development in healthcare professions for educators and curriculum planners.
The analysis process was initiated and published as a framework under quality assurance, scope identification, and integration with the existing undergraduate curriculum. Finally, the NTST standards were identified to form the cornerstone linking the pedogeological components.
The proposed model was designed to address learners’ and employers’ scepticism over the quality and value of ADC. The Value, Resources, Standards, Validation, Accessibility, Support (VRSVAS) model provides an outcome focused dynamic ADC provision that can mitigate the reluctance to accept ADC in general (El Farra et al., 2022). The alignment of the pilot with the VRSVAS model was achieved as follows:
1 The piloted ADC value was directly relevant to an employment opportunity. This was achieved through the endorsement of the Radiographers Society of Emirates and the alignment with the International Standards Classification of Occupations (ISCO 08) (El Farra, 2021).
2. Resources availability was accomplished by recruiting a faculty subject matter and curriculum developer expert to develop and execute the program while tapping into the existing laboratory and clinical sites with no extra costs.
3. Standards for ADC were identified and made available for all stakeholders, including students, assessors, and potential employers.
4. Life long documented validation processes involved assessments verified by faculty and clinical sites while maintaining evidence artifacts under student records at the institutional learning management system.
5. Incorporating individualized accessibility and offering learner support are more prominent in upskilling/reskilling. However, students had the flexibility to change class hours to fit into their schedules and other assessments. Moreover, online sessions were offered whenever pedagogically warranted. Also, due to the unfamiliarity with ADC, extensive orientation and consultation/mentoring sessions were provided at the beginning of the semester and as needed.
The scope of any NTS training should be balanced so the overall extent of the generic principles and skills can be applied to a range of specific scenarios. Principally, broad scopes impose difficulties in making meaningful training and inferences in particular situations. Contrary to this, excessively narrow scopes render inferences and training outputs challenging to transfer to other conditions (Thomas, 2018). To identify a balanced NTS scope, two MI faculty members who maintain licensures of practicing MI in Canada and the United Kingdom with ten and eighteen years of clinical and academic experience, respectively, have reviewed the academic/professional profile using the ISCO
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08. Faculty agreed on a list of highly relevant NTS within the EPA. Cimatti (2016) emphasized the critical role of industrial engagement in determining the most pertinent NTS. As such, the list was surveyed in industrial focus group discussions for the NTS list for the top three NTS priorities to be established. The final top listed NTS were communication, collaboration, and empathy.
The ADC is a novel offering with an existing “parent” curriculum that incorporates NTS that are embedded but not isolated in assessment and/or training. Consequently, the exact NTS scope identification and precise “dissection” was performed during the analysis and design phases to best inform the subsequent development, implementation, and evaluation. A mapping schema was developed to link the accredited MI curriculum with the ADC constituents while maintaining the embedded alignments with courses on MI positioning and procedures and patient care in MI. The concept of EPAs is common in competency based education in medicine, but we are unaware of any straightforward MI application of EPA. However, we debate that an entrustable professional task, defined as an essential task of a specialty or subspecialty that an individual can be trusted to clinically perform without direct supervision (Englander et al., 2017), is relevant to the ADC in MI as “entrusting” a student to perform MI specific tasks under no supervision and satisfies the quality assurance expectations. Performing an entrustable task requires integrating knowledge, skills, and attitudes to independently execute an activity with observable and measurable outputs within a given time frame (Englander et al., 2017). The ADC was conceptually broken down into EPA that are aligned with the course learning outcomes of both didactic courses and verified by the two digital badges aligned with the clinical preceptorship I course in the subsequent semester, and those are:
EPA 1: Practice effective and safe communication and collaboration while demonstrating empathy in performing extremities MI accurately and independently.
EPA 2: Practice effective and safe communication and collaboration while demonstrating empathy in performing thorax MI accurately and independently. Both EPAs incorporate MI specific knowledge and skills, competencies like pathology, emergencies, and patient care. Finally, the weekly implementation plan was designed to integrate with the “parent” curriculum, so the concurrent courses are synchronized with the NTST learning events. Thus, students are first exposed to the prerequisite technical/clinical knowledge before being exposed to the NTST components. Figure 2 depicts the overall ADDIE summary of the ADC offering.
To develop an NTST, standards are required to translate the EPA expectations into measurable and describable achievement elements. However, a standard setting for healthcare curricula is unavailable (De Champlain, 2019). For example, while MI faculty value and understand constituents of empathy like caring, they remain unclear about the implications on the MI curricula and the applications within the MI specific professional practice. Consequently, consensus on competence standard requirements for caring is important to clarify the meaning and identify caring behaviors as an integral part of MI practice and education (Kammies & Archer, 2022). Further, there is an urgent need to investigate and to develop a healthcare explicit definition of NTS like
healthcare compassion to facilitate implementation into practice (Taylor et al., 2017).
Standards are intended to guide the learning activities and the assessment processes, yet, setting standards is controversial, especially in assessments (Schuwirth & Vleuten, 2019). Subsequently, we used the Australian Society of Medical Imaging and Radiation Therapy (ASMIRT) Professional Practice Standards (PPS) as a reference. The relevancy of those PPS is attributed to many aspects. Firstly, when the MI curriculum was revamped for accreditation, it was mapped against those PPS. Also, PPS are relevant in academia because they have been developed by incorporating academic, clinical, and professional elements that support the principles of practice (ASMIRT, 2018). Moreover, the PPS review precise professional activity requirements to be demonstrated in the clinical setting, which can be expressed as an EPT. Finally, if PPS were modified to address the purpose of the ADC, they could constitute a reliable checklist that can be used to train and assess students as they perform both EPTs.
However, when the curricular mapping was completed in 2017, it only had the NTS covertly implied and embedded. Another challenge was that although the PPS was intended to provide a resource for students, they were conversely 1) lengthy and intended to have elements of repetition, so extracting a practical checklist was a challenge, and 2) developed to be suitable in the context of a graduate practitioner rather than an undergraduate stackable ADC. To overcome those challenges, we performed a top down extraction process through the relevant PPS elements, indicators, and cues to produce the PPS modified checklist (PPS modified) following the below steps:
1) An example is the exclusion of PPS that require high dependencies on high order NTS like decision making and critical thinking
2) Inclusion of PPS suitable for sophomores.
3) Reduction of repetitions when possible.
The PPS modified has fourteen elements of relevancy to the three NTS translating into twenty four indicators. Fifty eight possible cues were identified to provide additional clarification on performance indicators. To accommodate the complexity that might arise at the clinical sites, we considered cues as flexible and non extensive. Considering the overlap across different NTS, for example, the dependency of empathy on communication skills (Hojat, 2016), segregating some of the NTS like decision making and critical thinking was not entirely possible without compromising the context of practice in real life. Consequently, we accepted six of the twenty four cues that were beyond the three NTS but with an interdependency with patient safety. For example, the indicator “respond effectively to emergent needs” might require elements of decision making and critical thinking in addition to communication, collaboration, and empathy. A summary of the PPS modified used to integrate PPS with NTS for scope identification is in table 1. It is noteworthy that this PPSmodified was equally used for training and assessment, as described in the following sections.
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Table 1: PPS modified used to integrate PPS with NTS for ADC scope identification
Elements (n) = 14
1. Uses sound communication methods
2. Adjusts communication technique to suit the situation
3. Provides effective communication throughout a procedure
4. Ensures documentation is accurate
5. Demonstrates respect for colleagues and other members of the interprofessional team
6. Ability to work collaboratively within the organization
7. Evaluation of the appropriateness of the clinical information provided
8. Demonstrates empathy
9. Applies strategies to support patients and support persons.
10. Demonstrates appropriate skills for managing conflict within the workplace
11. Advises colleagues and members of the healthcare team about individual patient needs
12. Collaborative approach to decision making
13. Applies reasoning and problem solving skills to determine appropriate clinical decisions
14. Identifies problems and applies systematic and logical approaches to their resolution
Indicators n=24
Communication (n)=17
Collaboration (n)=10 Empathy (n)= 9
Decision Making (n)=3 Critical Thinking (n)=3
The development of the NTST events was completed before the beginning of the semester, and implementation was conducted over two consecutive semesters. Instruction adjustments were applied for an individualized student centered approach. For example, the intended one on one mentoring sessions were impractical and time demanding, so consultations replaced pre scheduled bi weekly mentoring.
Considering the cohort’s characteristics, curricular design theories for technical and NTS overlap; nonetheless, the adult learning theory is the most relevant to the design of NTST within the high risk industries’ context (Thomas, 2018). Moreover, within an English medium instruction environment, students’ capacities to perform NTS tasks overlap to a certain extent with the level of English language mastery. To minimize this effect, native and English conversations were equally acceptable in the lab SBT and clinical training. Many clinically encountered patients speak the native language of students, so this bi lingual communication freedom catered for an authentic NTS learning experience.
In the first week of the semester, seven eligible students were voluntarily enrolled based on individually expressed written interest after attending an
awareness session with faculty and employer. In the first semester of delivering the micro credential components, the average extra student engagement time was 2 3 hours per week, and grades set or homework assignments were avoided. Finally, the timeline was based on sequential delivery so that NTST activities would relate to the previously gained technical knowledge from both curricular courses of the ADC. At the same time, the second semester involved top up requirements with extra contact hours to obtain both digital badges.
The NTST was categorized into didactic pedagogy and clinical competency based pedagogy. Putting the adult learning theory checklist described by Thomas (2018) into practice, the pedogeological activities were designed to:
1) motivate the students; for example, an early on set meeting with the potential employers was conducted, so the learners could recognize their need for developing NTS.
2) be authentic competency based training with pre determined taxonomy of competencies and criterion referenced assessment as evident in Problem Based Scenarios (PBS) and clinical training, for example.
3) consider individual needs and development requirements. For example, in the early weeks, one on one coaching sessions were offered, and weak points were identified halfway through the semester to inform personalized laboratory training sessions.
4) diversify the activities to have both didactic and competency based activities catering to pedogeological experiences within and outside learners’ preferred learning styles.
5) plan activities that fit the purpose. For instance, knowledge was developed through discussions and videos, skills acquired through lab SBT and clinical training, and attitudes were developed through facilitated discussions and reflection.
6) maintain a reasonable cognitive load by carefully monitoring contact hours, assignments, and assessments.
7) expose students to good versus poor NTS performances, errors, and near misses so those NTS can be modeled or avoided in PBS, lab SBT, and clinical training activities.
The first week was allocated to orienting, coaching, and allowing for the material of the domain specific knowledge in the curricular courses to pave the way for the NTST components to be delivered effectively. The NTST has four didactic micro credential activities: a performance checklist, thought provoking videos, an NTS toolkit, and fourteen different PBS. Examples of the activities and more information can be reviewed in the appendix.
Checklists were initially developed within the WHO’s global patient safety challenge (WHO, 2021). Moreover, performance checklists are the most frequently used assessment method, as they provide an operational definition of the goal for learning and the satisfactory level of performance expected. Also, the heterogeneity in measurement instruments used to assess NTS limits their reliability across different examination settings. Consequently, using similar
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rubrics for training and assessment allows the observation of individual progress across academic years (Setyonugroho et al., 2015). The specific criteria stipulated in a checklist help to reduce observation biases and they can increase reliability among different trainers (Schmutz et al., 2014) Finally, the unified checklist was used for lab SBT, clinical training, and assessment, serving as an alignment reference between goals for learning, content, and review, enhancing faculty confidence in teaching and evaluating NTS.
Consequently, the same PPS modified previously used to anchor the alignment across the constituents of the curriculum was also utilized as the checklist provided for the students in the third week of the first semester. An initial orientation and explanation of the PPS modified components were delivered. Afterward, the PPS modified was used as a training reference tool for learners to understand the expectations and be better informed about their progress during lab SBT discussions and clinical assessment.
Videos followed by reflective questions are reportedly beneficial in developing NTS (Dolev et al., 2021). In general, multimedia is invaluable in modeling high risk industries’ complex systems as it extends the flexibility of repetitive own pace learning. Critical reflection, reasoning, and behavioral modeling through observing expert performance are also benefits of multimedia (Thomas, 2018).
To lay the foundation for the subsequent activities, thought provoking videos displaying a set of technical and NTS were carefully selected as discussion starters. For example, the story circle and interviews of COVID 19 survivors were used to enhance empathy. Videos of critical COVID 19 survivors who posted their experiences were played for this activity, followed by a “flash back” activity in groups. Students took turns sharing a five minute story from their own personal or close COVID 19 experiences. To monitor the effectiveness of those videos, discussions were initiated using an audience response system to establish the baseline and post video students’ conception of the NTS in question.
4.1.3.
To provide a quick cheat sheet for students during their clinical experience, an NTS toolkit was developed describing seven different tactics that can be used in real life. The toolkit trains the student to address communication and collaboration through five tactics described by Prineas et al. (2021): situation awareness; specific communication; direct communication; loop closure of communication; assertive communication when a patient/individual is in danger. Further, the following three tactics were incorporated for empathy: standing in someone’s shoes (Hojat, 2016); handling disagreement by the “yes and” rule (Kaplan Liss et al., 2018); and aggressive patient communication strategies in reference to the Schulz von Thun’s communication square model (Altabbaa et al., 2019). Serving as a “mental cue,” students used the toolkit during the PBS, lab SBT, and clinical training activities and assessment. Figure 1 depicts the toolkit.
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In conjunction with lab SBT activities, which will be discussed in the following section, PBS that mimic situational context are powerful NTS training tools (Cimatti, 2016). Introduced to health sciences education in the 1980s (McMillan & Dwyer, 1989), PBS facilitates learning from understanding a problem or working towards resolving one (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). We also introduce foreseeing a protentional problem and pre emptive actions as an additional value of learning through PBS. Also, NTS like empathy can be better trained through realistic, relevant scenarios which reflect the reality of the clinical environment (Naidoo et al., 2020). For example, MI academics facilitate a culture of empathy by utilizing empathy specific diverse learning opportunities (Kammies & Archer, 2022) such as authentic pedagogy simulation based teaching, role playing, reflective learning, and peer discussion (Naidoo et al., 2020). Additionally, when students practice deep and high level group discussions, their communication and collaboration skills tend to improve (Deep et al., 2019, Latif et al., 2018). Similarly, feedback exchange and the application of previous knowledge are added values of group PBS discussions (McCrorie, 2019).
The PBS applied for the pilot was purposefully designed to be fit for the subsequent lab SBT. To ensure standardization, the PPS modified was used to guide the scenario discussions, so all standards have been addressed. A weekly scenario discussion covering the key issues was conducted to address the scenario aspects, the challenges and risks foreseen, and the proposed management of the scenarios. The fourteen PBS were developed to address both MI and patient perspectives to perform both EPTs accurately and safely.
To improve the fidelity of the PBS, they were designed to have concealed problems and challenges caused by suboptimal NTS like language barriers, awareness of patients’ implicit special needs, and addressing aggressive/uncooperative patients or staff.
The PBS implementation was a three stage progressive release process, as follows:
Stage 1:
▪
Trigger of an MI request descriptive of a hypothetical patient’s encounter (including patient’s data and clinical history).
▪ Interaction narrative (including non verbal cues description) between the hypothetical radiographer, patient, teams, etc.
▪ The resulting radiographic image and documentation.
▪ A blinded error outcome (to be released in the subsequent session).
Stage 2: Groups review the information and identify room for improvement, pitfalls, errors, risks, and a better dialogue/action. Discussions are facilitated to appreciate different perspectives. To offset language barriers, discussions in the mother tongue were allowed. Once completed, each group presented a better dialogue/action scenario applying the toolkit.
Stage 3: Progressive release the second version of PBS is shared, including the exposed pitfall, and the scenario had to be re written based on the new information.
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Stage 4: This stage is a duplicate of stage 2 with the PPS modified to verify the standards/cues behind the error/pitfall shared.
It is noteworthy that only towards the end of the semester, only in one out of fourteen scenarios was the exact blinded outcome correctly predicted by a group, which indicated a reliable collection of PBS.
Competency based education focuses on graduate competencies and can be translated into an EPT (Carraccio et al., 2017). Two activities utilized as competency based pedagogy are lab SBT and clinical training
4.2.1.
Sessions of lab SBT were held in the first semester before joining the clinical practicum course in the subsequent semester. To address the numerous clinical training limitations, lab SBT has gained popularity across the healthcare professions as an instructional strategy. This is primarily attributed to the capacity of lab SBT events to authentically replicate situations that prompt learners to practice their relevant technical and NTS within a simulated real life event (Thomas, 2018). Moreover, lab SBT facilitates are reliable, scalable, and offer safe learning opportunities. Also, well structured lab SBT events reflect the social context within realistic environments, attitudes, and values that contribute to safe and efficient patient care. Similarly, lab SBT can be designed to portray how experts manage challenging real world problems, facilitating NTS development (McCrorie, 2019) through reflective practice (Thomas, 2018).
Implementing lab SBT through students alternately playing the patient's and health care professionals’ roles is a cost effective method that can improve students’ communication skills (Dalwood et al., 2020, Gelis et al., 2020). Role play allows students to practice safely while correcting mistakes (Kaplonyi et al., 2017) within unusual scenarios (Xu et al., 2016). Moreover, playing different roles invokes reflection on one’s own and other people’s perspectives (Dalwood et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2016). When video recorded, learners playing the health care professional role get the opportunity to observe their body language and interaction and improve future encounters (McCrorie, 2019). Further, lab SBT discussions promote NTS like critical thinking and communication (Latif et al., 2018) Those findings that promote Lab SBT are also confirmed in MI settings. In an MI specific literature review, Lab SBT were reportedly linked to consistency in enabling building students’ confidence in a safe environment. Also, NTS like communication, collaboration and decision making can be practiced without consequences. Further benefits are relevant to feedback and improvement while reflecting on learning from mistakes (Hazell et al., 2020).
While designing the lab SBT activities, a balance between the method, modality, and assessment of student learning should be maintained. High fidelity lab SBT is relevant in NTST as it represents the complexities of clinical practice (Battista & Nestel 2019). The previously designed PBS was suitable for lab SBT training as it was designed with fidelity and relevant problem oriented constituents. We employed simulated participants as a compatible modality, allowing the students to practice the different roles, improve their NTS, and model the
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experts as they perform in complex situations. Also, this modality has cost effectiveness considerations. Finally, students’ learning was formatively assessed with non grade bearing assessments including self reflection, peer feedback, and expert feedback discussions using the PPS modified for consistency. Sessions of lab SBT were four stage consecutive events as follows:
Stage 1: students are assigned alternate roleplay of patient, radiographer, or observer video shooting the encounter while using the student’s device playing the role of a patient for privacy considerations.
Stage 2: the EPT was carried out in the laboratory using the MI equipment while performing the accurate and safe position and procedure as prescribed in the requisition form.
Stage 3: To establish empathy importance, the student in the patient’s role is the first to reflect on the encounter from a patient’s standpoint, followed by feedback by the student in the observer’s role.
Stage 4: Debriefing is the final stage commonly regarded as the most critical learning step (Keskitalo, 2022) Group structured feedback debriefing and a hands on demonstration by faculty on how experts might address challenging situations are utilized to conclude the activity.
Table 1 summarizes the NTST pedagogical interventions compared to the “parent” curriculum.
Table 1: Summary of the NTST pedagogical interventions
Pedagogy
Parent Curriculum Micro credential enhancements
Direct contact hours per semester 60 36 extra ( total = 96 hours) Performance rubric/criteria
Thought provoking videos.
None used for NTS PPS modified derived from (ASMIRT, 2018)
None used for NTS NTS clinically specific videos were used with pre/post polls that confirmed students’ mind shifts.
NTS Toolkit None used A practical seven tactics “mental cue” was used for PBS discussions, lab SBT, and clinical training
PBS None used 14 different PBS using the most common NTS related errors in real clinical MI situations.
lab SBT. Demonstration /training sessions
Dedicated lab SBT of the role played PBS with structured feedback using the PPS modified toolkit to inform individual training plans.
4.2.2. Clinical training digital badge components. Extending communication training into work experience can potentially promote NTS (Cimatti, 2016) Clinical training constitutes the foundation of competency based education, which supports evidence for EPA attainment while enhancing reflective practice and self efficacy. Also, clinical training motivates students and facilitates
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indirect learning by modeling the expert’s performance as they perform in real clinical situations (Morris, 2019). Although students frequently perceive in teractions with health care professionals as an influencing factor in the development of their skills, modeling can either reinforce theoretical learning, or it can influence convincing students to avoid unprofessional practices.
The existing clinical preceptorship credit of 160 contact hours over 15 weeks was maintained with adjustments to accommodate the ADC requirements by introducing the below:
1) The original clinical site rotation over the average of 12 different clinical sites was fixed to one hospital to increase the reliability of the assessment and training opportunities.
2) The quota of MI patient exams per BD was increased from 28 to 70 per EPT.
The clinical implementation was a three‐stage process
Stage 1: Students were offered an orientation and assigned to work on the clinical site. Concurrently, students received feedback from the clinical tutors and attended follow up discussion sessions with the faculty.
Stage 2: Extra laboratory training was offered based on individual performance.
Stage 3: Five different assessments were conducted by faculty, the clinical instructor, and clinical tutors.
The evaluation step was conducted at the individual student assessment level and at the ADC’s program level. From a curricular standpoint, the ADC assessments and requirements were divided into three main categories based on the deviations from the parent curriculum. The first category was the unchanged course requirements. The second was replaced or waived as an ADC requirement due to lack of relevancy or compatibility. Finally, the last category included added and/or altered assessment tools or requirements and those are:
1. Patient training quota was doubled from 34 to 70 per EPT.
2. Four clinical assessments per EPT
3. A summative structured viva voce.
4. Two reflection journals
5. Empathy score using Jefferson’s Scale of Empathy (JSE) test (Hojat, 2016)
6. Patient satisfaction and critical incident report reviews
7. E portfolio
Finally, the program was evaluated using the Kirkpatrick method: reaction, learning, behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Part 2 of this paper will delve more deeply into the assessment, evaluation, and evidence of attainment.
Due to the novelty of the concept, an abundance of caution has limited our pilot project to a small cohort, leaving statistical inferences inapplicable. However, many assumptions were valid and informative for future piloting and complete fledge plans in other divisions in our institution. Human resourcing is essential
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for ADC offerings, yet, identifying academics with curricular and clinical expertise could be challenging. The ADC pilot faculty who performed the ADDIE steps is an academic expert who leads MI programs accreditation and maintains clinical licensures of practicing clinical MI. Secondly, language is a substantial barrier to NTS pedagogy, so consideration of this at the early designing stages is imperative. Since the graduates that will serve the population are native language speakers, allowing bi lingual training was an acceptable and efficient tactic that eliminated possible language rather than NTS deficiencies.
Third, many ethical considerations arose around the detrimental grade effects on students, so we applied the following mitigation approaches:
1. Institutional ethical approval permission to conduct the research was granted by our institutional Research Ethics and Integrity Committee (REIC2 113)
2. Informed consent which included an explanation of the study was voluntarily obtained from each student. Also, the participants had the choice to withdraw at any point in time without penalty
3. Faculty co teaching the parent curriculum components were blinded to the measurement tools and the teaching material to minimize biases that might affect students’ graded tasks that contribute to the Grade Point Average (GPA)
4. Cognizant of the extra time demands and cognitive load, only undergraduates with a minimum of 2.8 GPA were eligible to enrol.
Lastly, we conclude that the role of industry and clinical partners is unequivocally essential for ADC offerings as per our suggested framework and taxonomy.
Due to the novelty of ADC offerings and the subsequent lack of employability or possible job promotion linkage, no upskilling/reskilling seekers were enrolled, limiting our findings and recommendations to undergraduates within small group dynamics. Also, the scarcity of research on ADC and NTST within MI and the lack of a single ‘best practice’ imposed the need for vigilant and extensive MI specific adjustments throughout the ADDIE steps.
All healthcare professions, including MI specific NTST and verified attainment of NTS like effective communication, collaboration, and empathy, are paramount for employment prospects and patient safety considerations within high risk clinical conditions In combination with the adult learning theory, the ADDIE model is a plausible match to deliver a range of dedicated NTSTs within the MI context with reasonable confidence of applicability across healthcare higher education. Using existing PPS and articulating competency/clinical based EPTs to guide NTST development is a practical approach to provide alignment between existing full graduate higher education curricula and an intended NTST. Furthermore, when considering ADC for upskilling, it is advised to pilot it on undergraduates to assess low impact on employability prospects and cost considerations. Finally, ADC for undergraduate students as
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they proceed with full credential academic progression is potentially valuable in building volunteering working forces in cases of pandemics and catastrophes per the EPT scope described in this framework. Nonetheless, an evaluation of the intervention suggested in this work is required. Transparent and trustworthy research is needed to identify the employability outcomes, long term comparative retained competencies, and MI stakeholders’ acceptance and involvement worldwide
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1. PPS-modified performance checklist sample Used for 1. Standards identification and mapping 2. Training checklist 3. Evaluation and assessment.
4. Example of problem based scenarios triggering a progressive release outcome (also used for lab SBT).
A) Trigger
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 88 108, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.5
Received Mar 14, 2022; Revised Jul 22, 2022; Accepted Oct 15, 2022
Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Roudaina HoujeirHigher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Mariam Aldhaheri
Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Abstract. This paper examines academic dishonesty by business undergraduate students in the United Arab Emirates, using the lens of the fraud diamond theory, during the Covid 19 pandemic. The study used a survey of 305 students from the college of business in a major public university in the UAE, from August 2020 to November 2020 to investigate the extent of academic dishonesty. Results revealed H1 (p<0.001; p value=0.73), H2 (p<0.001; p value=0.52), H3 (p<0.001; p value=0.76), and H4 (p<0.001; p value=0.53) resulting in acceptance of all the hypotheses The findings indicate that pressure to maintain a scholarship status and having achieved a previous academic award are positively and significantly related to the likelihood of committing academicdishonesty.Furthermore,therationalizationfactorsofthe fraud diamond theory are significantly and positively related to the reported incidences of academic dishonesty. Similarly, the opportunity and capability factors of the fraud diamond theory significantly predict the incidence of cheating. As a result, the study recommends that administrators should implement academic dishonesty codes, reduce the opportunity to cheat, invest in new technology for reducing cheat.
Keywords: academic dishonesty; cheating; business students; fraud diamond theory; United Arab Emirates
Academic dishonesty amongst the student body at the tertiary level of education is a constant problem for administrators globally (Chiang, et al, 2022; Noorbehbahani et al., 2022). This issue is more prevalent among students studying business (Hendy & Montargot, 2019; Khalid, et al., 2020) Technology
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
has impacted the rate of plagiarism as accessing data is much simpler and quicker. Although there are inherent benefits to the extensive use of technology in education, it enables more students to cheat. The Covid 19 pandemic highlighted the reliance educational organizations have on new forms of technology for learning to take place, without it teaching would have been impossible (Golden & Kohlbeck, 2020; König et al., 2020). Although numerous studies in the West have explored the theme of undergraduates cheating in an online context, few studies in the Arab World have researched this area (Hendy & Montargot, 2019; König et al., 2020; Parks Leduc, et al., 2021). More so, there has been minimal research focusing in business students.
There is ample evidence that the high level of plagiarism in business majors is increasing which is cause for concern for faculty and administrators (Perkins et al., 2020). Cheating students think that operating in the business world requires unethical actions. At the same time, a high percentage of students admit to academic dishonesty in their course assessments (Chala, 2021; Hendy & Montargot, 2019). Believe that people in the business world act in an unethical manner; while, at the same time, a large number of students admit to having been involved in academic dishonesty, by cheating on exams and plagiarizing in term papers. Cheating has not only become a troubling phenomenon for many business undergraduate universities around the world but a very familiar and accepted part of the lives of many students (Ebaid, 2021).
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country with a considerable number of institutions of higher learning. Many of these institutions are universities offering undergraduate and graduate degrees (Wilkins, 2020). These universities compete to attract students to their academic programs. Academic dishonesty is a serious problem for universities in the UAE (Khan et al., 2019) Of particular interest is the UAE business students who are involved in academic dishonesty and do not perceive their actions as problematic (Pacino, 2021).
Academic dishonesty remains a serious issue among university students and a burden for administrators (Chala, 2021; Hendy & Montargot, 2019) Students taking business related courses have a high propensity to teach compared to their peers in other disciplines (Khalid et al., 2020; Parks Leduc et al., 2021). Further, business students are likely to find cheating problematic Thus, understanding the phenomenon of cheating among business undergraduate students is of critical importance (Hendy & Montargot, 2019). These are the students who will become future business leaders. In addition, the frequency of scandals in the business world places a burden on business schools to seek strategies to reinforce the importance of ethics. Unfortunately, the persistence of academically fraudulent behaviour such as cheating potentially diminishes the value of learning. Further, there is an emerging body of evidence indicating that academic dishonesty is increasing because of an increase in tuition, advancement in technology, and increase in online education (Chiang et al., 2022; Khalid et al., 2020; Williams & Oyesoji, 2019)
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The practice of student cheating in higher education is an extensive problem (Djokovic et al., 2022). Academic dishonesty also referred to as academic fraud is the actions taken by students through devious means for personal gain (Djaelani et al., 2022) Most of the research conducted on academic dishonesty has focused on examining its prevalence than the relationship between student attitudes within the academic setting and the need for ethical behaviour in the real world (Abel et al. 2020; Hendy & Montargot, 2019; Parks Leduc et al., 2021) Combined with the exponential growth in technology students now have more access to different tools to aid cheating (Djokovic et al, 2022). Plagiarism is among the most common forms of academic dishonesty practised by students (Perkins et al., 2020).
For this review, plagiarism is defined as any deceitful or fraudulent attempt to evade rules, standards, practices, customs, mores, and norms to gain an unfair advantage or to protect someone who has done so. The scope of cheating includes possessing, communicating, using data and materials and study aids and devices which are not permitted by a lecturer in an academic task.
Higher education institutions have policies and procedures to deal with incidences of cheating yet this does not deter students from it (Chiang et al., 2022).
On the contrary, there continues to be an increase in the trend of academic dishonesty. Some methods of the common academic dishonesty practices by students include buying assessments, answer sheets for exams, using texts in examinations, taking pictures of assessment materials and facilitating distribution to students (Chala, 2021; Ebaid, 2021; Hendy & Montargot, 2019). A major point of concern is business students cheat more compared to students in different majors (Parks Leduc et al., 2021). This view is further supported by research which suggests business students have lower ethics than other students in other fields of study (Hendy & Montargot, 2019).
Several studies find a connection between the theme of cheating at college and unethical practices at work (Chala, 2021). For instance, the inclination to cheat at work was firmly correlated with the frequency of cheating in college (Mulisa & Ebessa, 2021) Hence, there is a simultaneous relationship between unethical workplace practices and student academic dishonesty.
There are several implications to the problem of academic dishonesty of students for business schools. The first implication regards ethical value (Susilowati et al. 2021). It is crucial university degree programs inculcate students in the hope that students will internalise ethical behaviours and be better prepared for future employment (Mulisa & Ebessa, 2021). Therefore, designing and delivering ethical courses is a priority to due to the significant number of business students who cheat on tests, quizzes, or assignments compared to other students (Arefeen et al., 2020; Penaluna & Ross, 2022). This high rate of cheating is not limited to undergraduates which raises questions about the effectiveness of ethics course design.
Another concern for business schools is the ramifications of fraud in general on a vast number of people in society because of cheating students (Mulisa & Ebessa, 2021). This is a concern further supporting the urgent need for ethical instruction for students before graduation A demonstration of this issue is the relationship between the public and financial professionals (Druică et al., 2019). The public relies on accountants to manage a range of financial interests, submit taxes and protect individuals from legal mistakes and there is an expectation that financial professionals conduct themselves honestly in their dealings. These expectations are reinforced in the ethics rules and expectations for professionals in these fields. To highlight the far reaching consequences of fraud, recent events such as the 2008 financial meltdown, which affected millions of people across the globe, coupled with numerous business scandals over the past decade, have upset the public's trust in both accounting and finance professionals (Ebaid, 2021). In turn, this has discredited the effectiveness of business college programs.
An additional reason for concern is the increasing body of evidence indicating that despite the inclusion of ethics courses, business students are inclined to plagiarize more than other students (Arefeen et al., 2020; Parks Leduc et al., 2021) Business majors have a minimal level of ethics compared to other disciplines (Khalid et al., 2020). Cheating among business students is higher in comparison to students in the programs such as business, engineering, science, and humanities.
A final reason for concern is the damage to the reputation of educational institutions (Arefeen et al., 2020). If a business school experiences incidents of cheating it brings into question the quality of its programs. When students are relaxed about academic dishonesty and reasons for cheating this becomes a more challenging issue to address and raises questions concerning the tolerance of cheating by business cohorts when compared to other students (Ebaid, 2021; Hendy & Montargot, 2019). Overall the extent of academic dishonesty by all business students remains appalling.
The majority of research conducted on academic dishonesty over the last three decades has concentrated on recognizing the common actions of students who cheat and creating solutions to address it. Parks Leduc et al. (2021) found that business students cheat more often than non business students, which confirms studies by Hendy and Montargot (2019) and Ebaid (2021). Similarly, Khalid et al. (2020) note that business students' perception of academic dishonesty is less rigid in comparison to students in other fields of study
The perception of what constitutes “cheating” varies from one individual to another. However, the body of evidence has identified what types are more prevalent. Some of the most common forms of academic dishonesty that many institutions of learning are experiencing based on literature are highlighted as follows The findings of Abel et al. (2020), Chiang et al. (2020) and Dendir and Maxwell (2020) identify several practices by students going against the academic honesty policies of universities including copying homework or assignments; facilitating copying of your assignments; collaboration on individual
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assignments; collaboration on take home exams; looking at or copying from another students exam Djokovic et al. (2022), Purwatmiasih et al. (2021), and Valizadeh (2022) identify cheating practices among students to include: a student allowing someone else to copy their exam; sourcing exam details before the exams; informing a student about exam content; using research material by others and submitting it as your own; using programming devices in an assessment; copying a source without proper citation; copying from the web without correct citation Further, the behaviour perceived by students as the most common forms of academic dishonesty are: using crib notes on exams; copying in an exam; and obtaining someone else’s work from the internet and using it as their own (Dendir & Maxwell, 2020; Williams & Oyesoji, 2019)
The literature further explores the reasons behind cheating among students (Chala, 2021; Dendir & Maxwell, 2020). The most commonly cited reasons reported for cheating were fear of exams, a desire to increase GPA, and limited time for study. Conversely, the main reasons for not cheating were to avoid feelings of guilt, trepidation about being caught, self respect, and religious beliefs. Another major area of cheating is on examinations in academic institutions. Cheating is when a student obtains or attempts to gain some advantage by being dishonest or deceptive. Consequently, plagiarism is the biggest concern for higher education institutions (Perkins et al., 2020). Many other researchers have also appraised the studies on cheating in college/university as they provide insight into the most common ways of cheating and motivations which in turn can inform better policy in this area (Allehaiby & Al Bahlani, 2021; Dendir & Maxwell, 2020)
To better understand tertiary students' motivations for cheating, research in the area of fraud theory is a useful model. The fraud triangle paradigm first used by Cressey (1953) explored the criminality of 250 convicted embezzlers who were interviewed to determine the motivations for their actions. This paradigm presents a method to analyse potential white collar criminals, referred to as trust violators, who are rarely sociopathic, but rather act on financial motivations and justify these illegal behaviours cognitively. This ground breaking study categorizes committers of fraud and explains their actions. Wolfe and Hermanson (2004) enhance Cressey’s paradigm by further explaining the conditions that exist for fraud to occur. This is referred to as the fraud diamond theory. Unlike the fraud triangle paradigm by Cressey (1953) it is argued that although a non shareable pressure exists along with the chance to commit fraud and a justification, fraud can only take place if the fourth element of capacity is present.
To explore Cressey's triangle fraud paradigm and diamond fraud theory, a consensus of key terms is required. Firstly, the definition of fraud within these constructs and what conditions exist for fraud to be committed as opposed to an error is necessary Sujana et al. (2019) define fraud as the action taken intentionally, knowingly, and consciously to misuse everything owned jointly or the deliberate concealment of truth to gain an unfair advantage. This practice is different from a mistake which is absent a calculated motivation to be dishonest
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for personal gain (Marfuah et al., 2022). Therefore, the main denominator in all fraud is the premeditation to cheat for self serving purposes.
To explore students’ academic dishonesty through the lens of fraud theory, Wolfe and Hermanson (2004), have expanded on Cressey’s original paradigm, to include a fourth construct of capacity. Triangle fraud explains incidences of cheating in terms of rationalization, motivation, and opportunity, however, the diamond fraud theory includes this fourth element capability which identifies individuals who can execute fraud.it is argued that fraud can only be executed if a person has capability due to their access or position. Figure 1 below presents the complete construct of the fraud diamond theory.
2004)
The first element of the fraud triangle is pressure, which is classified as an individual's desire to cheat either internalised or from external factors. Wolfe and Hermanson (2004) refer to the first element as incentive, whereby there is a desire or need to commit fraud This kind of pressure leads an individual to commit unethical behaviour. Further, pressure is the motivation to carry out and hide the committed fraud (Umar et al., 2020) According to Utami and Purnamasari (2021), the pressure that students feel when committing academic fraud is the strong urge that exists in the students feeling from the self or the environment to maintain specific goals. Thes goals include maintaining a high GPA, sponsorship, or remaining within a given course. The anxiety that some students feel increases the pressure to commit academic fraud. Marfuah et al., (2022) explain that the high number of assignments, lack of study time, and difficult questions urge students to seek solutions to cope including committing fraud. The higher the pressure the students feel the more likely they commit fraud. Therefore, based on this description the first hypothesis of this study is:
H1: The propensity to cheat is positively correlated to pressure.
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Deceitful behaviour requires the presence of a rationalization before its execution. This construct in the fraud theory can be based on an attitude or moral value. Rationalization enables students to view plagiarism as being compatible with their personal beliefs. For example, acceptable practices may include, limited consequences for plagiarism, unclear parameters, and plagiarising other ideas when writing papers. Another element demonstrating rationalization is remaining consistent with an individual's code of ethics. This view is further supported in another study that revealed students justify cheating when they convince themself that fraudulent behaviour is worth the risk. Additionally, the students will rationalize fraudulent behaviour when faced with unfair situations, or if they believe it is acceptable (Smith et al., 2021). Thus, it is important to acknowledge that fraud committers often rationalize their behaviour as ethical before the fraud occurs. As a result, rationalization allows the deceiver to view their actions as legitimate. A person can cognitively bypass any concerns about engaging in unethical practices. Based on this description the second hypothesis of this study is:
H2: The propensity to cheat is negatively correlated with rationalization.
The second element of diamond fraud theory is opportunity A weak control offers the opportunity for committing fraud (Umar et al., 2020). This is because the perpetrators perceived that their actions will not be detected. Some students seek the opportunity to plagiarize when lecturers are lax about academic policy guidelines, or if the lecturer does not clarify the policy punishments for cheating during exams (Perkins et a., 2020) This view is supported by Wolfe (2004) who states that opportunity from lack of compliance in the system can be exploited by the right person. In other words, fraud is possible where the situation affords a chance for fraud to be carried out. When opportunity presents itself it is considered to have a key influence on a person ’s independent undertaking to be fraudulent (Wulansuci & Laily, 2022). In this context, opportunity refers to both environmental and individual characteristics that facilitate (or do not discourage) unethical behaviour. Further, a person’s perception of an opportunity due to ineffective monitoring coupled with the power to execute the activity enables fraudulent activities to take place. The opportunity is a perception so it doesn't have to be tangible, an individual only requires faith to commit the deceitful action. Based on this description, the third hypothesis of this study is: H3: Propensity to cheat is positively correlated with perceived opportunity.
In light of the vast technological changes that haveoccurred since the original 1953 fraud triangle paradigm study was published, Wolfe and Hermanson (2004) added a fourth dimension to the traditional fraud triangle. Capability refers to the ability of the criminal to conceal the crime and includes both the technological capacity to commit fraud and get away with it, as well as the sophistication (intelligence and creativity) to recognize potential opportunities to commit fraud (Wolfe & Hermanson, 2004). Furthermore, capability encapsulates personality traits such as self aggrandizement and narcissism, the charisma or persuasiveness to convince others to participate in or cover up the fraud. Wolfe and Hermanson
(2004), identified a person who commits fraud must possess essential characteristics and abilities to succeed in pulling off fraud (Wulansuci & Laily, 2022). These are referred to as recognized vital traits related to individuals’ aptitude to undertake fraudulent activities Based on this description, the final hypothesis of this study is:
H4: Propensity to cheat is negatively and positively correlated with capability
One main motivator for cheating is the availability of the opportunity. Although this is minimized in examination sessions because the students are physically proctored, this explanation is more applicable to situations where students are accessing online resources (Dendir & Maxwell, 2020). Therefore, faculty members need to implement a range of strategies to reduce cheating opportunities in online sessions (Chiang et al., 2022). Some examples of activities to reduce cheating in online sessions include: providing helpful resources on digital platforms, giving students more freedom to pace their learning and conducting focused discussions weekly to monitor their progress. Another motivator for cheating is the need to succeed at all costs. This largely emanates from the pressure to succeed. Some students experience immense pressure to achieve especially in an environment where there is a fierce competition which often leads to students cheating. Another explanation for the motivation for college students to cheat is the lack of effective punishment. When academic dishonesty is committed some instructors do not enforce consequences. Because of not making the students face consequences for their actions leads to the passing of mixed messages to the students by colleges and teachers (Chala, 2021). A common possible explanation for not taking up proper action to address cheating is the reluctance of faculty to accuse students of cheating. Faculty members struggle with determining whether there is enough evidence of cheating and have the institutional procedures have been met to tackle cheating. A final factor acting as a motivator for cheating is the moral code. The moral code explains the reason for students refraining from cheating while others cheat. Arefeen et al. (2020) found that the concept of moral reasoning was a significant variable and offered reasons for actions.
There is an exhaustive list of other reasons for students’ cheating illustrated in literature such as time management issues, the difficulty of the subject, competition with others, anxiety, difficult exams, no deterrents, increasing grades, peer pressure, fear of failure, parental pressure, the lecturer does not care, high course load; and not understanding questions (Al Shbail et al., 2021; Zhang, 2019). Other factors that contribute to cheating are modelling of dishonest practices from society, ineffective teaching, lack of a positive learning environment and inferior facilities, education that is only focused on excellence above all else, lack of time management , absence of study habits, and technology (Chiang et al., 2022; Valizadeh, 2022; Patnayakuni et al., 2021)
Plagiarism during examinations is influenced by peers and leads every learner to know what should not be done (Perkins et al., 2020). More importantly, the effect on the learning process as any form of academic dishonesty in test situations undermines the purpose of understanding content, applying knowledge and
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creating ideas which are important skills in learning (Dendir & Maxwell, 2020). Interestingly, students who didn't engage in forms of academic dishonesty were perceived to be effective learners who showed more respect for themselves than students who cheated.
Online learning uses internet networks to facilitate various types of learning. Certain aspects make online learning popular such as the ease of access, connectivity to different devices (mobiles, notebooks and iPad) and its flexibility. Delivery of content is conducted using learning applications and social networks through the media of both print (module) and non print (audio/video), computers/internet, radio, and television broadcasts (Purwatmiasih et al., 2021). As a tool for education, it is used in a distance learning system, where learning and teaching activities are not carried out face to face (Rohman et al., 2020). According to Tampubolon et al., (2021) the categories of online learning include:
• Controlled by other means.
• Controlled by the system
• Used in real time
• Connect to a system in operation.
• Functional and ready to serve.
During online learning activities, students have the freedom to study at their convenience anywhere and anytime (Dendir & Maxwell, 2020). The traditional constraints of classrooms don't apply. Students engage with teachers and their class via video calls, live chat, or web based meetings. While there are numerous advantages to online, there are challenges such as difficulty reading students' work, and providing access to accounting tools such as Excel and resources (accounting or auditing standards) that can facilitate more authentic test design (White, 2021). On the other hand, time is saved by not having to grade physical papers or enter marks from exam scripts into spreadsheets or Learning Management Systems (LMS). In general, online exams are more cost effective, multiple questions are graded automatically which reduces marking time for teachers (Ebaid, 2021). The bonus for educational administrators of programs is that online assessments are quicker than paper based exams and reduce the workload for the whole organization.
A quantitative research design was used to investigate the research problem. Therefore, this encompassed the use of statistics to explore the research issue of academic dishonesty among students pursuing business related undergraduate degrees. Therefore, this study entailed the use of statistical data to determine the main reasons behind students engaging in academic dishonesty.
The participants were undergraduate students selected from two prominent higher education institutions in the UAE. Potential participants were recruited for the study via their email listings using random sampling. This sampling technique
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helped to reduce bias because it provided each potential participant with an equal opportunity for selection (Mohajan, 2021) The participants were informed about the volunteer nature of the study. A total of 305 students completed a survey designed to enable the collection of data from undergraduate students at the two higher education institutions.
A survey questionnaire was used as the best tool to collect data in terms of ease of distribution, and completion and stored for data analysis. This method of data collection allows for the gathering of data from a relatively large number of people in a short time (Einola & Alvesson, 2020). The questionnaire was prepared to capture the key variables of this study, propensity to cheat, motivation, rationalization, perceived opportunity, and capability. The questionnaire was tested for consistency before its distribution to the selected students. Accordingly, the Cronbach’s Alpha of the questionnaire was set from 0.76 to 0.88. Data collection was from August 2020 to November 2020.
Once collected data was uploaded to the latest available SPSS software and analysed using several statistical tests including correlational tests, comparison of means tests and regression tests. The ordinal logistic regression model was utilized to test the research hypotheses. Because of the quantitative nature of the study, there was the use of numerical format tables and figures to summarize collected data. Tables and figures in a quantitative study help to summarize data and aid in its presentation allowing for ease of understanding (Hameed, 2020) In further conducting the data analysis, the Univariate analyses entailing the use of chi square tests for the categorical variables were applied and one way ANOVA tests for the continuous ones.
This was a primary study involving the use of human subjects. For this reason, there were several ethical issues considered. Informed consent was a major issue considered. Only, students that provided explicit permission by signing a consent form were included in this study. Consent was acquired after the participants received adequate information concerning the study and their role. Another ethical issue considered was confidentiality. The identity of the research participants was not revealed in this study. Therefore, this entailed the use of pseudonyms in place of the real names of the participants. An additional ethical issue considered in this study was beneficence. Accordingly, it was essential to ensure that no harm came to the students because of taking part in this study.
4.1 The dependent variable and the ordinal logistic regression model In all analyses, the dependent variable is the propensity to cheat as measured in the designed and distributed questionnaire on cheating behaviour section “Have you ever engaged in academic dishonesty?” The resulting distribution is shown in Table 1 below.
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This is a categorical variable and testing hypotheses using this variable and more than one independent variable entailed the application of the ordinal logistic regression model. This model is an extension of binary logistic regression. In this model, let Pj=P(Y ≤ j) denote the cumulative probability of the dependent variable Y being at mst equal to j, j =1,.., k 1 where k is the number of levels of Y. Of course, Pk=1, so the last level (the reference level) is left out. The odds of these cumulative probabilities are then: ��1 1 ��1 , ��2 1 ��2 ,…, ���� 1 1 ���� 1 . The results are given in the form of logit functions, which express thenatural logarithms of these odds as linear functions of the independent variables X1,…,Xp:
����( ��1 1 ��1)=��01 (��1��1 +��2��2 +⋯+��������)
����( ��2 1 ��2)=��02 (��1��1 +��2��2 + +��������) …
����( ���� 1 1 ���� 1)=��0,�� 1 (��1��1 +��2��2 +⋯+��������)
In the above, b01, b02, …, b0,k 1 are the estimates of the intercepts (“thresholds”). The coefficients b1,b2,…,bp are the (beta) coefficients of the independent variables. These are the same in all equations (an assumption known as the proportional odds or parallel lines assumption). The minus sign on the right hand side makes positive values in the beta coefficients indicating higher odds of moving to the next higher ordered category for higher values of the independent variables. In other words, larger beta coefficients indicate an association with larger values of the dependent variable. For example, in the case where X1 is a binary (0,1) variable, it can easily be shown that, by increasing X1 by one unit and keeping everything else constant, the odds of Y being at a higher level rather than being at the same or lower level increase by a factor of ����1 . But ����1 is larger than one only if b1 is positive.
The following Table 2 summarizes the transformations of the variables and the results of the Univariate tests for association with the dependent variable Cheating. When the results of these tests indicate a statistically significant association, there is a comment (… ��) in the 4th column showing which direction of a variable is associated with a higher likelihood of cheating. The Univariate analyses were chi square tests for the categorical variables and one way ANOVA tests for the continuous ones.
Index Variable(s)
Transformations
Univariate results associations with Cheating
Q1 Gender Set one case (“prefer not to say”) as missing significant association (males ��): Χ2(2,N=276)=13.32, p=0.001
Q2 Age Merged two sparsely populated levels (25 34, 35 44) into one No association
Q3 Business major Tested as is and also after recoding into two levels (Accounting and Other) No association
Q4 Year in college
Q5 Current GPA
Reduced levels to two: 1st 3rd year and 4th year or more Significant association (4th year or more ��): Χ2(2,Ν=277)=6.00, p=0.05
Reduced levels to three: 0.0 3.0, 3.1 4.0 and no GPA No association
Q6 Sponsored student No transformation
Significant association (yes ��): Χ2(2,Ν=271)=13.55, p=0.001
Q7 Academic awards No transformation Significant association (yes ��): Χ2(2,Ν=270)=22.29, p < 0.001
Q9 Difficulty of cheating Reduced levels to two: Very low to low, High to very high
Q10 Specific behaviours Not used
Q11 Attitudes towards academic dishonesty
Merged ‘disagree’ with ‘strongly disagree’. Used factor analysis and extracted two factors
Significant association (very low to low ��): Χ2(2,Ν=171)=7.51, p = 0.023
Means of one factor significantly different in levels of Cheating (higher values ��): F(2,142)=3.44, p=0.035
Q12 Non shareable pressure Used factor analysis and extracted three factors No association
Q13 Opportunity to cheat
Selected four statements and took the mean of the replies
Q14 Rationalization of cheating A Used factor analysis and extracted two factors
Means significantly different in levels of Cheating (more opportunities ��): F(2,143)=6.71, p = 0.002
Means of both factors are significantly different in levels of Cheating: F(2,129)=11.96, p < 0.001 (lower values ��) and F(2,129)=4.99, p =0.008 (lower values ��)
Q15
Rationalization of cheating B Took the mean of the replies Means significantly different in levels of Cheating (rationalization ��): F(2,140)=10.54, p < 0.001
Q16 Peer Attitudes toward cheating Took the mean of the replies
Q17 Penalties
Means significantly different levels of Cheating (in favour of cheating ��): F(2,140)=5.10, p = 0.007
Took the mean of the replies No association
Gender and the grade point average (GPA) were used as control variables and incidentally, gender and GPA are also correlated. However, as was shown in the tests of the hypotheses, through the calculation of the appropriate diagnostics (GVIFs generalized variance inflation factors), this correlation did not create multicollinearity problems. This means that the correlation did not affect the statistical significance of the independent variables.
Propensity to cheat is positively correlated with pressure (H1)
For the tests with the (non shareable pressure) set, factor analysis was applied and extracted 3 factors explaining 65% of the total variance1. Although the model fit was good, there was no indication of the association of cheating with the pressure factors.
Concerning the three statements in (peer attitudes towards cheating) set, an association of the mean of the numeric levels of the replies was found to be significant in the Univariate analysis (see Table 2). The application of the ordinal logistic regression model with this variable as an independent variable (named Peers) and gender and GPA as control variables verified this association (Table 3). Of the cases entering the analysis were 141.
Table 3: Ordinal regression with the peer attitudes score as an independent variable
95% Wald Confidence Interval Hypothesis Test
Parameter
B Std. Error
Lower Upper Wald Chi Square df Sig. Threshol d [Cheating=1] 2.283 .9111 .497 4.069 6.277 1 .012 [Cheating=2] 3.339 .9333 1.510 5.168 12.799 1 .000 Peers .476 .1799 .123 .829 7.001 1 .008 [Gender=1] 1.243 .4632 2.150 .335 7.197 1 .007 [Gender=2] 0 [GPA=1] .813 .8160 .786 2.412 .993 1 .319 [GPA=2] .666 .9201 1.137 2.470 .524 1 .469 [GPA=3] 0
Comparison with the baseline model: X2(4)= 21.89 (p < 0.001). Consistency of observed data with the fitted model: Pearson’s and deviance goodness of fit values 1.07 and 0.82, respectively. Test of parallel lines (H0: assumption holds): p value = 0.73
As it can be seen in the notes under Table 4, the model fit was good. As a result, we can accept the significant positive effect of the peer variable on cheating. Since higher levels of peers indicate favouring of cheating, this is translated into a significant positive effect on cheating of the peers’ attitudes favouring cheating.
A most significant effect is also observed with the sponsored student variable (1=Yes, 2=No), presumably because sponsored students feel the pressure of justifying
1 The Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.86, a good value, and Bartlett's test of sphericity rejected the null hypothesis of no correlation at p < 0.001.
their sponsorship. The results in the following Table 4 show this as a significant negative effect when going from 1=Yes to 2=No. This analysis was based on 270 cases. Finally, an analysis with the previous academic awards variable (1=Yes, 2=No) yielded very similar results with 268 cases.
Table 4: Ordinal regression with the sponsorship as an independent variable Parameter B Std. Error
95% Wald Confidence Interval Hypothesis Test Lower Upper Wald Chi Square df Sig. Threshol d [Cheating= 1] .072 .7704 1.438 1.582 .009 1 .926 [Cheating= 2] .868 .7752 .652 2.387 1.252 1 .263 [Sponsored=1] 1.651 .4419 2.518 .785 13.962 1 .000 [Sponsored=2] 0 [Gender=1] 1.261 .3788 2.004 .519 11.090 1 .001 [Gender=2] 0 . . . . . . [GPA=1] .618 .6573 .670 1.906 .884 1 .347 [GPA=2] .638 .7585 .849 2.124 .707 1 .400 [GPA=3] 0 . . . . . .
Comparison with the baseline model: X2(4) = 26.08 (p < 0.001).
Consistency of observed data with the fitted model: Pearson’s and deviance goodness of fit values 1.29 and 1.56, respectively. Test of parallel lines (H0: assumption holds): p value = 0.52
The propensity to cheat is positively correlated with rationalization (H2)
To reduce dimensionality in the first set of 10 statements (Q14) we applied factor analysis with these variables. We extracted two factors, RATA_FAC1, and RATA_FAC2, which explained 73% of the total variance2. Next, we tried an ordinal logistic regression model with Cheating as the dependent variable, the two factor variables as the independent ones and gender, and GPA as control variables (131 cases). This model, shown in Table 5, had a good fit and showed the significant negative effect of the two factor variables, RATA_FAC1 and RATA_FAC2 on cheating. This means a significant positive effect of rationalization on cheating, in line with hypothesis H2.
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Table 5: Ordinal regression with rationalization factors as independent variables Parameter B Std. Error
95% Wald Confidence Interval Hypothesis Test
Lower Upper Wald Chi Square df Sig. Threshol d [Cheating= 1] 1.244 .8495 .421 2.909 2.144 1 .143 [Cheating= 2] 2.375 .8708 .669 4.082 7.440 1 .006
RATA_FAC1 .734 .2122 1.150 .318 11.969 1 .001 RATA_FAC2 .564 .2006 .957 .170 7.890 1 .005 [Gender=1] 1.282 .5251 2.311 .252 5.957 1 .015 [Gender=2] 0 [GPA=1] .786 .8514 .883 2.455 .852 1 .356 [GPA=2] 1.073 .9608 .810 2.956 1.248 1 .264 [GPA=3] 0
Comparison with the baseline model: X2(5)= 34.39 (p < 0.001). Consistency of observed data with the fitted model: Pearson’s and deviance goodness of fit values 0.93 and 0.83 respectively. Test of parallel lines (H0: assumption holds): p value = 0.61
The propensity to cheat is positively correlated with perceived opportunity (H3) For this hypothesis, we first used the set of six statements in Q13 (“Opportunity to Cheat”). These were replied on the scale “Strongly agree”, “Agree”, “Disagree”,” Strongly disagree”, coded to 1 4, with higher levels indicating more opportunities to cheat. The perceived chance of being caught and the severity of penalties from four statements in Q17 “Penalties” (“Very High”, “High”, “Low”, “Very Low”, with higher levels indicating larger perceived risk) can also be examined as part of this hypothesis. See Table 6
Table 6: Ordinal regression with opportunity score as an independent variable
95% Wald Confidence Interval Hypothesis Test
Parameter B Std. Error
Lower Upper Wald Chi Square df Sig.
Threshold [Cheating=1] 1.148 1.0562 3.218 .922 1.182 1 .277 [Cheating=2] .182 1.0537 2.247 1.884 .030 1 .863 Opport .974 .2819 1.526 .421 11.937 1 .001 [Gender=1] 1.322 .4656 2.235 .410 8.066 1 .005 [Gender=2] 0
[GPA=1]
1.158 .8198 .449 2.764 1.994 1 .158 [GPA=2] 1.127 .9265 .689 2.942 1.478 1 .224 [GPA=3] 0
Comparison with the baseline model: X2(4)= 27.67 (p < 0.001).
Consistency of observed data with the fitted model: Pearson’s and deviance goodness of fit values 0.89 and 0.68, respectively.
Test of parallel lines (H0: assumption holds): p value = 0.76
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Based on Table 6 above, the composite opportunity score undermines cheating. Given that larger values correspond to more opportunities, we conclude that perceived opportunity is positively correlated with cheating, in line with the Univariate analysis results, verifying hypothesis H3.
The propensity to cheat is positively correlated with capability (H4). One aspect of capability is the trust in new technological methods to cheat. The results of the ordinal logistic regression are shown in Table 8 below. Lower values in this statement indicate agreement, therefore the significant negative effect of opportunity 6 coded as (rOpport6) on cheating is translated into a significant positive effect of trust in the new technological methods of cheating, Table 7. The conclusion is therefore that knowledge of weaknesses in the environment which can be exploited is positively correlated with the propensity to cheat.
Table 7: Ordinal regression with the technology question (Q13.f) as an independent variable
95% Wald Confidence Interval Hypothesis Test
Lower Upper Wald Chi Square df Sig. Threshol d [Cheating=1] 1.462 .4609 .558 2.365 10.057 1 .002 [Cheating=2] 2.457 .4914 1.494 3.420 25.000 1 .000 [rOpport6=2.00] .849 .3812 1.596 .102 4.956 1 .026 [rOpport6=1.00] 0 . . . . . . [Gender=2] 1.502 .4684 .583 2.420 10.275 1 .001 [Gender=1] 0 . . . . . . [CollegeYear=2] .718 .4108 .087 1.523 3.057 1 .080 [CollegeYear=1] 0 (Scale) 1
Parameter B Std. Error
Comparison with the baseline model: X2(3)= 23.70 (p < 0.001). Consistency of observed data with the fitted model: Pearson’s and deviance goodness of fit values 0.69 and 0.83, respectively. Test of parallel lines (H0: assumption holds): p value = 0.53
The findings of this study indicate that academic dishonesty is a prevalent problem among business students. One of the factors that facilitate this dishonesty is the pressure that the students feel emanating from several reasons. For instance, this study found that peer attitudes were pressure factors for students to engage in cheating. This indicates that students tend to influence each other to engage in cheating behaviour in their academics because their peers find it acceptable or are also engaging in this practice. Further, the state of being a sponsored student is yet another source of pressure for students to engage in cheating. This is a situation emerging from the fact that sponsored students feel the pressure of justifying their sponsorship. Consequently, these students will do anything to prove they deserved their sponsorship by maintaining high grades including cheating. These findings are in tandem with those of Purwatmiasih et al (2021) who show that pressure is a motivation directing perpetrators to undertake
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unethical behaviour. This is something that may have taken place in the personal life of the individual motivating them to commit fraud. Additionally, these findings are similar to those of Juliardi et al. (2021) which indicate, that academic cheating emanates from the family environment or that which the students interact with the most. Thus, some of the reasons for students cheating are pressure from parents, attaining a good grade, and requirements for getting scholarships.
The findings of this study indicated that students will cheat as long as there is some rationalization behind their actions. This means that students will cheat as long as they can convince themselves that what they are doing is okay. Rationalization is what will make even those who do not want to commit fraud become tempted to do so. This means that students who commit academic dishonesty will seek rationalization by providing several reasons for their actions. These findings align with those of Purwatmiasih et al (2021) who explain, that students use a myriad of reasons to justify cheating.
As per the findings made, students will engage in academic dishonesty as long as there is an opportunity. Opportunity, in this case, represents the system weaknesses that become exploited to commit fraud. In most instances, the fraudster will know the possibility of fraud. Therefore, students that commit academic dishonesty always have insight concerning the possibility of doing so. These findings show similarity with those of Juliardi et al. (2021) who opine, that the existence of situations and the lack of strict sanctions will encourage students to cheat. Additionally, these findings align with those of Purwatmiasih et al (2021) who note that many students identified the opportunity to commit academic dishonesty during the COVID 19 pandemic because of the online assessment.
This study also found that students will cheat because of their capability. Business students are using their power and capacity to commit academic dishonesty. While opportunity opens the door for committing fraud, and rationalization provides the attraction to do, the capability is what will enable people to realize that there is a door in the first place. Thus, the capability is a major issue that institutions of higher learning face enabled by the emergence of new technological methods of teaching and learning. Therefore, students are using their capability as tech savvy to commit academic dishonesty. Similar findings are made by Purwatmiasih et al (2021) who find, capability impacts the possibility of students committing academic fraud. The findings of Juliardi et al. (2021) align with this and indicate, that those who commit fraud tend to perceive their actions as right as long as they do not cause harm to others.
In this study, the findings indicated a strong positive association between sponsorship and previous academic awards with academic dishonesty. Presumably, the pressure to stay in the top position in class and keep receiving benefits associated with sponsorships led to students cheating. Rationalization was also shown to have a significant positive effect on cheating. This association
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was demonstrated using two sets of relevant questions. This statistically tested the significant positive effect of rationalization on cheating
There is sufficient evidence from this investigation of more opportunities to cheat being associated with a higher propensity of cheating. Hence, reducing the opportunity to cheat, or weaknesses with internal controls is key to preventing fraud in business colleges. Finally, in capacity/ capability, trust in the new technological methods facilitates cheating. More generally, perceived weaknesses in the prevention of cheating were found to have a significant positive effect. This is an important component of the Fraud Diamond Theory (Figure 1). This is especially with the advancement in technological capability available to academics and students alike. Furthermore, an increasing number of higher education institutions are relying on online platforms not only to deliver lessons but also to conduct exams. These platforms just like any other online platform are receptive to hacking and misuse.
The findings of this study lead to the following recommendations regarding the mechanisms through which administrators and educators can reduce incidences of academic dishonesty among business students in institutions of higher learning. First, departments can implement academic dishonesty codes and set clear guidelines regarding the consequences of cheating. This can include the establishment of a zero tolerance policy for academic dishonesty.
Second, faculty and administration should take steps to reduce the opportunity to cheat. This includes using standardized sets of rules for exams across departments. Other opportunities are using more aggressive proctoring of exams, lockdown browsers, and verification of student identification.
Third, regarding the capability factor, the administration should invest in new technological methods to reduce the incidence of cheating. Faculty should be trained to use controls during online exams, including screen sharing and lockdown browser systems to detect cheating. This practice may include the use of plagiarism detection software such as TurnItIn.
As for the limitations of this study, one of them was the sample size. This study used only 305 participants which are relatively small to represent business students at the undergraduate level prone to academic dishonesty. Therefore, future research should involve the use of a larger sample size that will offer more coverage and generalizability. However, this was not possible for the present study because of the amount of time and resources needed for using a larger sample size. An additional limitation of this study regarded the language used to formulate the survey questionnaire questions. The questionnaire was formulated in English to be used by non-native speakers. There is the possibility that some of the respondents may not correctly interpret the questions which can bring about bias. This is despite the great efforts in designing the questionnaire, piloting it and then providing direct contact details for those who may need help in filling it Accordingly, the results should be read and interpreted with care by the readers,
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taking into account these limitations. Further, future research should involve the availability of the questionnaires in the native language of the research participants.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 109 138, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.6
Received Aug 7, 2022; Revised Oct 11, 2022; Accepted Oct 17, 2022
Abstract. Quarantines and virtual learning became necessary as a result of the COVID 19 pandemic. This study investigates the challenges and opportunities in virtual classes; and how they affect the academic goals. There were 150 secondary students from Junior and Senior High School levels ofeducationinthePhilippines, whoweredeliberatelyselected;and they participated in the quantitative online survey that used a 62 item self made 4 point Likert scale questionnaire, with 0.81 reliability coefficients The data were evaluated by means of the percentage, the mean, and the standard deviation. Sex and secondary education levels were used, in order to compare the students’ challenges and opportunities. One way ANOVA compared the male and female respondents’ perceived challenges and opportunities. The results revealed that junior high school (JHS) girls highlighted academic satisfaction; while school life balance, and virtual learning helped as challenges and opportunities. The females found school life balance, communication(F(1,149)=11.098;F(1,149)=8.430,p<0.01),academicfulfilment, self directedness, and time management (F(1,149)=4.224; F(1,149)=4.470; F(1,149)=4.030, p<0.05) more difficult than did the males. Senior high school (SHS) students were less satisfied with the virtual teaching (F(1,149)=14.391, p<0.001), technology use (F(1,149)=7.342, p<0.01), and communication (F(1,149)=3.934, p<0.05) than JHS students. Males were more satisfied with school and teachers’ assistance (F(1,149)=7.482, p<0.01) Some viewed virtual learning more favourably; and they regard themselves as being adaptive; they think the subject matter and learning tasks are interrelated; and they viewed virtual feedback more positively (F(1,149)=6.438; F(1,149)=5.900; F(1,149)=5.183; F(1,149)=4.470, p<0.05). The JHS students reported subject matter and the virtual learning tasks as being interrelated; and they valued virtual feedback, school and teacher support, and the adaptability to change. Challenges and opportunities may serve as the foundation for establishing a more inclusive policy on virtual learning implementation, with school and stakeholders’ cooperation needed to sustain learners’ holistic development.
* Corresponding author: MariusEngelbertGeoffreyC.Castillo,megccastillo@clsu.edu.ph
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: virtual learning; virtual learning opportunities; virtual learning challenges; secondary students; Coronavirus disease 2019
The Coronavirus 2019 (COVID 19) has alarmed the global community Particularly students were greatly affected. Learners, being the heart of the teaching learning (T L) process, must be considered in terms of looking at possibilities amid the challenges brought by the pandemic. Operations at schools were hampered also (Toquero, 2020; Garcia & Weiss, 2020). While being challenged by the pandemic, people participated in online education, in order to continue with teaching and learning (Cellini, 2021). Due to the abrupt adjustments, students had no free time, because of the need to learn, in spite of the pandemic (Layton et al., 2021; Neuwirth et al., 2021). As the new academic year begins, institutions prepare to welcome students, in spite of their fears (Dhawan, 2020). Other schools choose virtual learning, even if classes resume (Pelletier et al., 2022). Poor vaccination rates, new virus strains, and age limits have led to virtual learning in the Philippines and elsewhere (Gherhes et al., 2021). Pupils who went virtual during the pandemic have received most attention (Schwartz et al., 2020). Other learning approaches can cause higher levels of concern (Khalil et al., 2020).
Closing schools has posed issues for teachers and kids (Kruszewska et al., 2022), especially when considering public health and budgetary concerns (Williamson et al., 2020). COVID 19’s effects on academic performance and abilities are clear (Dhanda et al., 2020; Braund, 2021). Many struggled and experienced disruptions (Baticulon, 2021). In several cases, training was lacking (Choi et al., 2021). Since many schools are still closed, the Philippines’ reaction to its health and academic challenges is uncertain (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Critically, it’s important to determine who struggled most and missed out on learning (O’Sullivan et al., 2021); and the factors preventing them from learning have required a virtual academic setting (Ezra et al., 2021), in order to avoid disturbances (Sarkis et al., 2020), teachers to perform efficiently in an educational system, and to meet its vision and mission (Thomson, 2021).
Recent studies on basic education curricula and virtual learning (Hussain et al., 2021) have shed light on these difficulties (Lassoued et al., 2020). Virtual students performed worse than did in person ones (Raes et al., 2020). Studies reveal that a shift to virtual learning has reduced the level of academic completion (Garbe et al., 2020). Studies indicate the virtual learning benefits, also (Olatunde Aiyedun et al., 2021; Wut & Xu, 2021)
This study investigates the challenges and opportunities in virtual classes, and how these have affected the attainment of academic goals. The outcomes aim to help students achieve in virtual communities by offering administrators, teachers, and curriculum experts a greater image to develop and implement activities and instructional materials in the current academic setting.
Several readings were made to assess the theories on the conduct of virtual learning, on the challenges encountered, and the possible opportunities gained
In the 1940s, theoretical underpinnings for effective virtual learning were introduced (Fung, 2022; Simonson et al., 2019). Virtual learning is based on Charles Wedemeyer’s (1981) independent studyphilosophy, which stresses using modern technology. He thinks that student teacher interactions are the key for distance learning. Based on Moore’s (2013) Transactional distance theory, the gap generated by student mentor separation must be patched, in order to minimise these issues, even when quarantines permit learning (Treceñe, 2022). Creating virtual learning activities that allow self directed learning is the key (Moore & Diehl, 2018). In classrooms, belonging and co operation lead to academic success (Dirksen, 2022). Holmberg’s guided didactic dialogue (2020) emphasises the need for linkages. Academic satisfaction and connections promote this motivation (Martin & Borup, 2022).From these foundations, there have been many studies conducted in the realm of virtual learning, which assisted more in the light of the pandemic.
Virtual learning has risen since the COVID 19 pandemic (Szopinski & Bachnik, 2022). Avila and Genio (2020) maintained that pupils can be encouraged to learn by way of proper support. Two Philippine schools were studied by Oducado and Soriano (2021). Most thought that virtual learning lacked interaction. Oducado and Soriano (2021) observed no statistically significant variations in schools, gender, reliability, or internet usage Students’ attitudes on virtual learning were both mixed and negative (Oducado & Soriano, 2021). Gomez (2020) assessed virtual learning readiness and showed a lack of preparedness. Khobragade et al. (2021) offered virtual student aid. Smaller classes and professors directing activities reduced the obstacles to learning (Khobragade et al., 2021). In the Philippine research on virtual learning, students found self paced learning, convenience, and accessibility, as they accepted responsibility for learning, improved internet literacy, and boosted time management abilities (Manalo et al., 2022). Indeed, multiple studies on virtual learning have been reported in the last three years across the globe; yet there still are many challenges reported by students and teachers.
Students have problems participating (Anthonysamy, 2022), which lowers the focus (Giray et al., 2022), rejected virtual lessons (Rodrigo & Ladrido, 2022), and actively participated in dialogues (Tiria et al., 2022). COVID 19 requires instructors, in order to develop techniques to maximise learning (Neuwirth et al., 2021). Learners confronted many barriers, including the absence of a quiet place to study at home (Gamboa, 2022), no child-care (Dy et al., 2022), nearby distractions (Espiritu et al., 2022), and noise (Neuwirth et al., 2021). Virtual learning saves parents and students money (Tate & Warschauer, 2022; Gu, 2022). It has its downsides; and it is expensive for households without the internet or desiring stronger connection (Makarova et al., 2022; Madhav & Tyagi, 2022).
Multiple child homes need equipment (Greenhow et al., 2022). Due to the rapid migration to virtual learning in the past two years, some parents needed to quit their jobs (Branaccio et al., 2020; Reid et al., 2022).
Teachers and students embraced virtual learning (Reid et al., 2022). Education suffered (Debnath & Chetia, 2022). As COVID 19 worsened, schools closed, causing dissatisfaction and stress (Debnath & Chetia, 2022). Despite extensive efforts to help children, educators became frustrated (Fox & Langner, 2022). Self directed learning directs education; it sets goals, selects learning methods. and analyses outputs (Knowles, 1975). Independent learning emphasises pro activity and autonomy. COVID 19 has affected students. Many have struggled with the internet and with various tools. Virtual learning has enhanced students’ independence through various schedules. Teachers and institutions need students without the necessary in class time to finish their homework alone. COVID 19 requires autonomous study (Xu et al., 2020). Institutions have lacked preparedness, internet connectivity, and resources. Many have reported burnout, demotivation, anxiety, and despair (Wang et al., 2021).
Schools globally prioritise the importance of well being, due to the importance of life balance. Well being leads to stress reduction, class engagement, and happiness (Flinchbaugh et al., 2012). It includes motive identification, self esteem, self efficacy, and self regulation (Rossier et al., 2021). It enhances participation, connections, autonomy, and competence (Sortheix and Lönnqvist, 2015; Cox and Brewster, 2021). Students’ well being depends on school balance. COVID 19 pupils have encountered turbulences that have affected their well being, academics progress and life. Students have experienced social and productivity limits (Wood et al., 2018), family, work, and school obligations (Moate et al., 2019), and societal marginalisation, language challenges, and cross cultural disparities (Daddow et al., 2019). Many felt tired, and therewith decreasing learning, and happiness levels (Flinchbaugh et al., 2012). Pandemic impacted schooling. Education system must adapt, integrating internet access and technology (Hermanto & Srimulyani, 2021). Virtual learning requires resources and technology (Hermanto & Srimulyani, 2021). Most towns lacked well managed technical infrastructure, and consequently students studied at home (Dubey & Pandey, 2020). Low income populations have less broadband than do cities (Dubey & Pandey, 2020). Access to technology does not guarantee efficient use (Dey et al., 2020; Nuere & De Miguel, 2021). Assuming that every youngster has the necessary virtual tools is unrealistic (Foley & Curtin, 2022). Filipino students utilizing prepaid phones and laptops for learning have faced an unreliable internet, equipment shortages, power outages, and financial obstacles (Chavez, 2022).
When COVID 19 prevention actions were adopted, time management skills were challenged (Tabvuma et al., 2021). Jordanian students liked virtual learning, but distractions hindered their time-management abilities Universities stressed time management for virtual learning (Jaradat & Ajlouni, 2021). Its flexibility increases screen time and time disorientation (Syahputri et al., 2020). Most reported poor
time management, including mealtimes, bedtimes, and housekeeping (Syahputri et al., 2020).
Communication is vital to teaching learning (Petrila et al., 2022). Unaddressed worries cause frustration (Hagedorn et al., 2022). Elshami et al. (2021) found students liked virtual learning’s flexibility and communication. Co operation, technology, and engagement were problems (Elshami et al., 2021). Lack of involvement and imprecise virtual learning objectives cause dissatisfaction (Elshami et al., 2021). Virtual learning success depends on instructor accessibility (Cidral et al.,2018). When schools give enough resources, students have positive experiences (Cidral et al., 2018). Few virtual learning studies examined teachers’ practices (Smith & Hill, 2019; Taylor et al., 2019). Studies backed students’ virtual learning (Halverson & Graham, 2019; Manwaring et al., 2017). Martin and Borup (2022) discovered integrating virtual learning modalities increase engagement.
Nebrida and Bangud (2022) identified the challenges of virtual teaching and learning, including uneven opportunities, platform problems, insufficient equipment, the absence of readiness, and an unstable internal environment. Despite the pandemic, schools have employed repetition for the mastery of audio visual learning (Nebrida & Bangud, 2022). Conrad et al. (2022) revealed that to digitalise education, institutions must restructure virtual learning experiences and evaluate pedagogical techniques; however, this entails more than merely digitising the course materials. It is evident that virtual learning has presented challenges; however, successive reports have shed light on the issue of virtual learning by focusing on the opportunities gained by teachers and students.
The Opportunities of Virtual Learning Audience feedback is studied in communication (Zhang & BU, 2022; Bhavsar & Patil, 2022). Learners improve through feedback (Allaymoun & Shorman, 2022). Virtual learning feedback often bothers students and teachers (Sukmawati et al., 2022), which is true with poor internet and limited resources (Luy, 2022). Tanis (2020) found virtual learning feedback to be valuable. Virtual consultation hours increase communication. To engage students in virtual learning and to compensate for face to face connection issues, teachers must provide outstanding feedback. Better conversation is linked to performance feedback (Elshami, 2017). The Pandemic has brought problems, including the need for pupils to build family ties, quarantine, and poor resources. Given pandemic’s negative effects, it is unclear whether it helps or hinders life. Students encountered financial challenges, mental health issues, and confinement related stress (Prime et al., 2020), driving them to rapidly adopt neoteric habits.
The examination of COVID 19 virtual posts has indicated social hazards and bad feelings, such as despair, which increased; while happy feelings and life satisfaction decreased. Health and family trumped leisure and other relationships (Li et al., 2020). Home-schooling provides benefits, yet it leads to loss of control and inefficiencies (Fu et al., 2012). Pressures affect perspectives. Schoolwork, separation, and infection fears are distractions. Key student co operation reduces stress. Parents, teachers, and communities motivate students best (Martin & Borup, 2022). Teachers and family members encourage learning (Bacomo et al.,
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2022). Emotionally supported students are more optimistic about studying (Manca & Meluzzi, 2020). Support boosts motivation, while it validates efforts.
Attitudes, teacher , and family emotional support are vital (Liu et al., 2022; Affuso et al., 2022). Parents and instructors provide most emotional support by praising academic efforts (Cosso et al., 2022). Effective policy affects many types of support (Men et al., 2022). Teachers and families must know how to support virtual learning (Miller, 2022). Teacher and student attitudes towards virtual learning differed (Pronenko et al., 2022). Teachers found problems with virtual learning communications and information, but not with the students (Pronenko et al., 2022). Pandemic’s intellectual roller coaster boosted tolerance (Wang, 2022). Conrad et al. (2022) discovered interactions that eased virtual learning by lowering fear and addressing uncertainties. Prasetyanto et al. (2022) discovered that learners liked virtual learning and schools improved it.
Students learn at their own rate, when using virtual learning (Buxton, 2014). They engaged more (Shahba et al., 2022; Stein et al., 2009). Virtual learning is increasing prominence in linked society, especially during the COVID 19 pandemic (Gupta & Prajapati, 2022). Overwhelming subscriptions to technological solutions needed understanding; while interactions with virtual classrooms took place (Wani et al., 2022). Students felt its value, despite lacking emotional intensity and engagement (Wani et al., 2022). Despite pandemic issues, people in general, and Filipinos in particular, are intrinsically motivated to see and seize opportunities to improve situations and make them more meaningful and fulfilling.
COVID 19 has affected teaching in the Philippines (Oducado, 2020). Virtual learning has supplanted instruction throughout the pandemic (Lapitan Jr. et al., 2021; Dann, 2018). It promotes student centeredness, adaptability, and better student connection (Adnan & Adwar, 2020); however, studies show students also confront academic adjustments (Baczek et al., 2021), academic satisfaction (Duffy, 2011), self directed learning (Brookfield, 2009), balancing school and life (Martinez et al., 2013), time management, communication, and instructional methodologies (Sutarto et al., 2020), and opportunities.
This study has aimed to understand students’ virtual learning experiences and to examine how respondents felt about virtual learning’s opportunities and challenges. Objectives included:
3.1.Determine challenges faced by students during virtual learning in terms of: (a) Expenses; (b) Academic Satisfaction; (c) Self directed Learning; (d) School life Balance; (e) Internet Connectivity and Technology; (f) Time Management; (g) Communication; and (h) Teaching strategies
3.2.Identify opportunities gained by students during virtual learning in terms of: (a) Feedback; (b) Changes in One’s Life Situation; (c) Support; (d) Attitude towards Virtual Learning; and (e) Relevance.
3.3.Differentiate the perceived level of challenges faced by students during virtual learning when grouped, according to sexes and secondary education levels
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3. 4. It has served to differentiate the perceived levels of opportunities gained by students during virtual learning, when grouped according to sexes and secondary educational levels.
This section presents the approach to study, population and sample, the research instrument and its validity and reliability report, as well as the method of gathering the data, and the statistical treatment of the data.
The investigation was quantitative. The data were obtained online. Two variables sex (male, female) and educational level (Junior and Senior High Schools) were used to compare students’ virtual learning challenges and opportunities.
Purposively, 150 secondary students from the Philippines were selected, specifically 100 from the Junior High School and 50 from the Senior High School for the online survey in May 2022. These Junior and Senior High school students were all virtual learners, comprising 62% female and 38% male students (see Table 1)
Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents Variables Category Count Percent
Sex Male 57 38% Female 93 62% Secondary School Level Junior High School 100 66.67% Senior High School 50 33.33%
A 62 item self made questionnaire on opportunities and challenges in respective domains were used in the data gathering procedure The respondents were asked about their expenses, feedback, academic satisfaction, self directed learning, school life balance, internet connectivity, life changes, support, attitude towards virtual learning, time management, relevance, communication, and teaching strategies, as they engaged in virtual learning or online classes. Each domain was assessed on a 4 point Likert scale (1 Strongly Disagree, 2 Disagree, 3 Agree, and 4 Strongly Agree), since the absence of the scale midpoint reduces the social desirability bias that causes respondents to frequently choose the middle option (Garland, 1991).
Validity and reliability were established through content validation and pilot testing, respectively. After the pilot testing, the scales were validated to ensure accuracy. Applying Cronbach’s Alpha first ensures reliability and internal consistency. Initially, the participants were asked whether the statements were appropriate and that the gathered items comprised the data. This collection’s Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was 0.81, which reveals internal consistency. The Instrument underwent content validation with five evaluator
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judges, who assessed the instrument, based on its linguistic clarity, workable ability, theoretical implications, and ethical consideration. It presented good and excellent agreement
The entire data collection was online. Using Google Forms, linked to the survey, were disseminated on each class’s Facebook page throughout AY 2021 2022. Before the poll began, students were told about the study’s purpose and informed consent. Email addresses were not gathered to protect privacy. Respondents completed the survey in 20 minutes.
Raw data were evaluated by percentage, mean, and the standard deviation (SD); and one way ANOVA was used to compare the perceived challenges and possibilities with respect to gender, and how Junior High School (JHS) and Senior High School (SHS) respondents saw virtual learning’s opportunities and challenges.
This study examined the challenges and opportunities facing secondary students in the Philippines. Descriptive statistics were utilised to assess the challenges and opportunities of virtual learning for Filipino secondary students (mean and standard deviation). Descriptions of the means were referred to a set of intervals with uniform differences,in order to reduce or eliminate any bias (Pimentel, 2010).
5.1. Challenges faced by students during virtual learning Table 2 presents and describes students’ virtual learning challenges.
Table 2: Challenges faced by secondary students during virtual learning Challenges
Mean SD Description Expenses
1.77 0.40 Disagree Academic Satisfaction 2.53 0.39 Agree Self directed Learning 2.35 0.49 Disagree School life Balance 2.69 0.53 Agree Internet Connectivity and Technology 1.95 0.55 Disagree Time Management 2.42 0.57 Disagree Communication 2.43 0.57 Disagree Teaching Strategies 2.41 0.51 Disagree
Note: 1.00 1.74=Strongly Disagree; 1.75 2.49=Disagree; 2.50 3.24=Agree; 3.25 4.00=Strongly Agree
As shown in Table 2, academic satisfaction (��=2.53, SD=0.39) and School life Balance (��=2.69, SD=0.53) had the greatest means (Agree). This suggests that student respondents see virtual learning as a challenging area for teaching and learning. Managing personal and academic tasks at home lowered virtual learners’ satisfaction. Prifti (2022) found a positive relationship between students’ satisfaction and virtual learning, as well as the Learning Management System (LMS) of self efficacy. If students have convenient access to the virtual learning management system, they will perform better academically, put in less effort to
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complete chores at home, and pursue ambitious goals, even when outside the virtual classroom. Furthermore, the results show student respondents (see balancing schoolwork and domestic responsibilities as challenge in the virtual learning environment. Meristo (2022) found one student; saw it as a challenge to face various duties at home, such as virtual learning activities, and other family problems at hand.
5.2. Opportunities gained by students during virtual learning Table 3 presents the students’ opportunities in virtual learning terms of: (a) Feedback; (b) Changes in One’s Life Situation; (c) Support; (d) Attitude toward Virtual Learning; and (e) Relevance.
Table 3: Opportunities gained by secondary students during virtual learning Opportunities Mean SD Description Feedback 2.34 0.44 Disagree Changes in One’s Life Situation 2.32 0.40 Disagree Support 2.70 0.45 Agree Attitude toward Virtual Learning 1.74 0.64 Strongly Disagree Relevance 2.47 0.50 Disagree
Note: 1.00 1.74=Strongly Disagree; 1.75 2.49=Disagree; 2.50 3.24=Agree; 3.25 4.00=Strongly Agree
As shown in Table 3, support (��=2.70, SD=0.45) has the greatest mean; and it iis rated as Agree. Students perceived instructor assistance in the virtual learning environment as deemed necessary to facilitate learning virtually. Students notice potential to get instant support from teachers when using the Google Classroom. Strong academic and teaching community support could improve the adoption of virtual educational platforms (Almaiah et al., 2022). Lu and Wang (2022) found positive reinforcement and assistance from teacher who boosted academic achievement, even in virtual learning settings. Meanwhile, they disagreed that they gained opportunities, such as feedback, change in life situations, and relevance in virtual classes.
This implies that their teachers failed to meet some of the opportunities in classes. Likewise, students both from JHS and SHS tend to strongly disagree (x =1.74, SD=0.64), that they gained opportunities to support their attitude on virtual learning. This could be influenced by technologically handicapped students and teachers, as well as internet connectivity and the availability of technology to be used in virtual learning.
It can also be deduced from the findings that the students view virtual learning less favourably than in person classes. Most prefer traditional learning during the pandemic (Iskandarova et al., 2022). Joji et al. (2022) found that while some chose virtual sessions for lab task discussions, the majority preferred face to face meetings. Sukmawati et al. (2022) noted that the teachers and students hunger for face to face instruction, despite the ease of virtual learning.
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5.3. Perceived level of challenges faced by students during virtual learning, according to sex and school-grade level
Table 4 shows the results in terms of different perceptions of students on virtual learning when grouped according to sexes; and Table 5 shows the perceptions of the respondents on virtual learning, according to educational levels.
Table 4: Difference between perceived level of challenges faced by secondary students during virtual learning, when grouped according to sexes
Challenges Mean SD df F p Expenses
Female 1.751 0.398 1,149 0.617 0.433 Male 1.804 0.410
Academic Satisfaction
Female 2.579 0.361 1,149 4.224* 0.042 Male 2.447 0.413
Self-directed Learning
Female 2.417 0.484 1,149 4.470* 0.036 Male 2.246 0.480
School life Balance
Female 2.803 0.514 1,149 11.098** 0.001 Male 2.518 0.502
Internet Connectivity and Technology
Female 2.000 0.513 1,149 2.428 0.121 Male 1.855 0.610
Time Management
Female 2.495 0.583 1,149 4.030* 0.047 Male 2.303 0.544
Communication
Female 2.534 0.548 1,149 8.430** 0.004 Male 2.263 0.566
Teaching Strategies
Female 2.457 0.519 1,149 1.957 0.164 Male 2.338 0.485 Note: *p<0.05 **p<0.01
One way ANOVA was run at 5% significance. Preliminary assumption testing on normality and homogeneity of variance identified no severe infractions. Sex differences were detected on how the respondents viewed school life balance (F(1,149)=11.098, p<0.01) and teacher communication (F(1,149)=8.430, p<0.01). Female respondents (��=2.803, SD=0.514) saw balancing school and home as more difficult than did the males (��=2.518, SD=0.502). Ishtiaq Khan et al. (2022) observed that most freshman girls had trouble situating activities at home and in virtual classrooms. Females are more cautious and apprehensive about combining roles at home and online (Zeqiri et al., 2022).
In this study, female secondary students (��=2.534, SD=0.548) found virtual learning environment communication more problematic than did the males (��=2.263, SD=0.566). Wang et al. (2022) observed that females find it tougher to communicate socially and digitally due to the various digital platforms. Young
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women were twice as likely to feel depression in an environment with a notable lack of in person connection and engagement, as did young men (Davis et al., 2022). Tests also identified gender variations on how students assess academic satisfaction (F(1,149)=4.224, p<0.05), self directedness (F(1,149)=4.470, p<0.05), and time management (F(1,149)=4.030, p<0.05) during virtual learning. Female secondary students (��=2.579, SD=0.361) are less happy with virtual learning than males (��=2.447, SD=0.413). Findings are similar to those of Baytak (2022), when females claimed academic programs were not appropriate for virtual learning, due to the abrupt move to virtual learning; so they were dissatisfied with the mode and the quality of education received from virtual learning despite improvement in the grades. Females who were less satisfied with performance depended more on virtual tutors than on virtual platforms, networks, and fora (Di Malta et al., 2022).
Females (��=2.417, SD=0.484) found self directed learning more demanding than did males (��=2.246, SD=0.480). Students favour classic pandemic strategy (Iskandarova et al., 2022). Due to technical issues, insufficient in person engagement, poor home learning environments, and attention loss, females recognised learning alone in virtual classroom settings as being tough (Iskandarova et al., 2022). On average, ladies (��=2.495, SD=0.583) had more difficulty than did males (��=2.303, SD=0.544) when managing time in virtual learning settings. Virtual learning issues are one of the contemporary challenges that are less well known, especially among women. In Frei Landau and Avidov Ungar (2022), some women said it was difficult to manage time when learning when using cell phones. Time to manage virtual class responsibilities and personal activities was also constrained, owing to limited computers at home, when most used as the equipment for school or office (Frei Landau & Avidov Ungar, 2022).
Table 5: Difference between perceived levels of challenges faced by secondary students during virtual learning when grouped according to secondary school levels Challenges Mean SD df F p Expenses
Junior High School 1.748 0.400
Senior High School 1.817 0.406
Academic Satisfaction
1,149 0.963 0.328
Junior High School 2.511 0.396 1,149 0.646 0.423
Senior High School 2.565 0.365
Self directed Learning
Junior High School 2.360 0.489 1,149 0.080 0.778
Senior High School 2.336 0.491
School-life Balance
Junior High School 2.667 0.574 1,149 0.835 0.362
Senior High School 2.750 0.414
Internet Connectivity and Technology
Junior High School 1.860 0.491 1,149 7.342** 0.008
Senior High School 2.115 0.635
Time Management
Junior High School 2.405 0.610 1,149 0.251 0.617
Senior High School 2.455 0.499
Junior High School 2.367 0.537 1,149 3.934* 0.049
Senior High School 2.560 0.611
Teaching Strategies
Junior High School 2.305 0.467 1,149 14.391*** 0.000
Senior High School 2.625 0.526
Note: *p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001
One way ANOVA assessed the influence of secondary school levels on how difficult virtual learning was regarded. Tests indicated significant differences on how secondary school respondents assess teachers’ virtual learning tactics (F(1,149)=14.391, p<0.001). This means that seniors (��=2.625, SD=0.526) were less happy with virtual teaching tactics than were juniors (��=2.305, SD=0.467). These findings matched those of Bariham (2022), who proposed expanding instructors’ expertise of virtual teaching and learning methodologies, due to SHS unhappiness. Seniors find virtual T L less successful; Abduh et al. (2022) advise reviewing virtual learning policies. ANOVA also indicated significant differences between secondary students’ happiness with internet connectivity and technology during virtual learning (F(1,149)=7.342, p<0.01). SHS (��=2.115, SD=0.635) had higher internet connectivity and technology use concerns than did JHS (��=1.860, SD=0.491). According to Treceñe (2022), SHS in the Philippines have issues with technology resources and internet stability. According to Mamolo (2022), high schools complained of poor and unstable internet connection, causing concerns.
Meanwhile, (F(1,149)=3.934, p<0.05) indicated significant differences in students’ perceptions of teacher parent contact during virtual learning. SHS (��=2.560, SD=0.611) were less happy with communication than were JHS (��=2.305, SD=0.467). According to Agbofa and Okyere (2022). SHS regarded direct communication between school and students as being unsatisfactory. Juniors liked how professors communicated when studying in rooms, unlike seniors (Cañete & Potane, 2022).
5.4. Perceived level of opportunities gained by students during virtual learning when grouped according to sexes and secondary educational levels Table 6 depicts students’ perceptions on the level of opportunities gained in virtual learning when grouped according to sexes, while Table 7 presents the results of students’ perceptions on the level of opportunities gained in virtual learning according to grade levels.
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Table 6: Differences between perceived levels of opportunities gained by secondary students during virtual learning when grouped according to sexes Challenges Mean SD df F p Feedback
Female 2.280 0.451 1,149 5.082* 0.026 Male 2.443 0.395
Changes in One’s Life Situation
Female 2.262 0.409 1,149 5.900* 0.016 Male 2.424 0.377 Support
Female 2.620 0.476 1,149 7.482** 0.007 Male 2.822 0.367
Attitude toward Virtual Learning
Female 1.637 0.580 1,149 6.438* 0.012 Male 1.904 0.691 Relevance
Female 2.401 0.485 1,149 5.183* 0.024 Male 2.591 0.508
Note: *p<0.05 **p<0.01
One way ANOVA revealed significant gender differences on how the respondents see school and teacher support as an opportunity (F(1,149)=7.482, p<0.01). On average, males (��=2.822, SD=0.367) were happier with school and teacher assistance during virtual learning than were females (��=2.620, SD=0.476). Aladsani (2022) noted that the respondents were pleased to hear news; since it allowed them to study and work whenever possible. Teachers acquired fair assessment policy to remedy problems that males believed virtual evaluations were unfair than those in person, turning tables among satisfaction with school and professors (Tarchi et al., 2022).
The results also showed a significant difference in respondents’ sex on the attitude towards virtual learning (F(1,149)=6.438, p<0.05), adaptability to changes (F(1,149)=5.900, p<0.05), perceptions on the relevance of virtual learning activities to subject matter (F(1,149)=5.183, p<0.05), and feedback perception (F(1,149)=5.082, p<0.05). Males (��=1.904, SD=0.691) generally liked virtual learning more than did females (��=1 637, SD=0.580). Males (��=2.424, SD=0.377) saw themselves as more adaptive than females (��=2.262, SD=0.409). Males (��=2.591, SD=0.508) believed that subject matter and learning tasks are associated more than females (��=2.401, SD=0.485). Males (��=2.443, SD=0.395) usually view feedback and engagement more positively than do females (��=2.280, SD=0.451).
Females had more difficulty using learning tools than did males (Apriani et al., 2022), consequently male students in the Philippines viewed virtual learning more favourably. According to Apriani et al. (2022), males are more flexible and receptive to a virtual set-up in general; because females complain more on learning connection, resources, and technology skills, so are more likely to find virtual learning activities relevant. While they behave differently when directed, this implies that males prefer to state points of view more succinctly than do females (Noroozi et al., 2022), in agreement with results of current study, that
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males had more positive perceptions on virtual feedback and interaction than female counterparts. Almasri (2022) argued that virtual learning and gender groupings affect learners’ accomplishment and attitudes. Males believed that content and virtual learning activities are connected, boosting matter’s importance to learning commitment and involvement.
Table 7: Difference between perceived levels of opportunities gained by secondary students during virtual learning when grouped according to secondary school levels
Challenges Mean SD df F p Feedback
Junior High School 2.410 0.423 1,149 7.671** 0.006 Senior High School 2.205 0.437
Changes in One’s Life Situation
Junior High School 2.377 0.392 1,149 5.389* 0.022 Senior High School 2.217 0.410
Support
Junior High School 2.760 0.434 1,149 6.220* 0.014 Senior High School 2.570 0.452
Attitude toward Virtual Learning
Junior High School 1.858 0.674 1,149 11.278** 0.001 Senior High School 1.500 0.471 Relevance
Junior High School 2.577 0.492 1,149 13.866*** 0.000 Senior High School 2.267 0.457
Note: *p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001
One way ANOVA was used to compare the perceived opportunities that secondary students obtained from virtual learning, based on secondary educational levels. Secondary school levels significantly affected the participants’ perceptions of virtual learning activities’ subject relevance (F(1,149)=13.866, p<0.001). This suggests JHS (��=2.577, SD=0.492) perceived subject matter and virtual learning tasks as being interrelated more than did SHS (��=2.267, SD=0.457). Younger learners have more liberty in virtual learning because there is less supervision and no direct human interaction (Chui, 2022). Most JHS find virtual activities connected and relevant (Chui, 2022). Parallel to Díaz Noguera et al. (2022), students thought that the virtual learning environment’s subject contents and materials were worth learning, despite there being some restrictions on the instructions.
The results also showed that the respondents’ secondary educational levels affect their attitude towards virtual learning (F(1,149)=11.278, p<0.01), virtual feedback perception (F(1,149)=7.671, p<0.01), perception on school and teacher support (F(1,149)=6.220, p<0.05), and their adaptability to change (F(1,149)=5.389, p<0.05). JHS (��=1.858; SD=0.674) are more optimistic on virtual learning than SHS (��=1.500; SD=0.471). JHS (��=2.410, SD=0.423) view virtual feedback and engagement more positively than SHS (��=2.205, SD=0.437). JHS (��=2.760, SD=0.434) view the virtual learning environment with school and teacher support more highly than did SHS (��=2.570, SD=0.452). JHS (��=2.377, SD=0.392) are more adaptable to virtual
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learning improvements than are SHS (��=2.217, SD=0.410). Khusanov et al. (2022) found parents, teachers, and middle school students appreciated virtual learning’s flexibility. JHS developed virtual learning procedural abilities, as a complement or adaptation to curricula during the pandemic. JHS adapt to the virtual learning environment and the demands thereof more easily(Azhari & Fajri, 2022).
COVID 19 presented both challenges and opportunities. Academic satisfaction and combining schoolwork and family responsibilities are challenges in virtual learning environments, but positive reinforcement and support from families and professors can increase outputs. Females perceive school life balance, communication, academic satisfaction, self directedness, and time management as more challenging than do males, but males are more satisfied with school and teacher support; and thus, they perceive the virtual learning set up more positively; since they view themselves as being more adaptive; and they view virtual learning positively in terms of virtual feedback Communication, internet connectivity, and technology use satisfaction were lower in senior high school. Virtual teaching was unsatisfactory in both JHS and SHS. Junior high schools perceive topic content, learning activities, virtual feedback from schools and teachers, and change, as opportunities.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 139 160, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.7
Received Aug 17, 2022; Revised Oct 11, 2022; Accepted Oct 17, 2022
Anita Fatimatul Laeli
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
Slamet Setiawan*
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate the usage of online reading strategies among EFL pre service teachers in the Education Program and their pedagogical practices in teaching online reading. A total of 107 participants from the English Education program in East Java were involved in this study. A mixed method design was used as the research approach For data collection, this present study used the Second Language Online Reading Strategy Inventory (SLORSI) closed ended questionnaire and semi structured interviews Overall, 13 participants were involved in the interview session. Based on the statistical analysis of the questionnaire, it was found that EFL pre service teachers showed a high level of usage of online reading strategies (M=3,71 4.14). The most frequently used was the Saving strategy (M= 4,14). However, the interview results were inconsistent with the questionnaire; although the participants showed a high level of usage of online reading, they offered different perspectives on teaching online reading. The participants mentioned inadequate reading digital literacy and strategies for future reading classes. Therefore, this study suggests that EFL education programs must highlight the importance of providing explicit practice for pre service teachers using online reading strategies and model the strategy for future students.
Keywords: Indonesian EFL pre service teachers; online reading strategy; digital reading text; teaching online reading
* Corresponding author: SlametSetiawan,slametsetiawan@unesa.ac.id
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The Internet provides digitally based material or information for our reading. As a result, reading activity has migrated from print to online/digital texts Besides the changes in the medium of reading from paper text to screen text (Cho, 2014; Cho & Afflerbach, 2017; Coiro & Dobler, 2007; Dobler & Eagleton, 2015), there are several changes involved in switching to online reading, relating to reading habits and practices (Jang et al., 2020) For printed texts, the reader reads multiple forms of traditional texts, such as books and magazines, while during online reading, readers actively engage with reading digital texts such as websites, e books, and text messages. The practice of scaffolding in reading has also changed, such that scaffolding must be supported by using technology to fit the needs of students in 21st century learning (Arifani, 2020; Kucirkova et al., 2015) Another essential part of technology development in reading is the new literacy in online reading comprehension. Leu et al. (2012) mention that the usage of the Internet as a result of technological advancement offers new literacies during online reading comprehension; they are: 1) reading to notice significant concerns; 2) reading to locate information; 3) reading to critically assess information; 4) reading to synthesize online information; 5) reading and writing to exchange Internet knowledge.
There is little empirical evidence, particularly among adolescents, to support claims that printed and digital texts are distinctive media that necessitate different cognitive processes (Cho, 2014; Cho & Afflerbach, 2017). Commonly, traditional cognitive reading skills focus on strategic comprehension of a single text, ranging from literal to inferential comprehension (Cho, 2014). A traditional cognitive strategy is required for online reading but is insufficient; cognitive flexibility is also required for online reading (Coiro & Dobler, 2007). Cognitive flexibility requires readers to use past knowledge flexibly within the context of multiple texts from different sources/hypertexts available on the Internet (Cho & Afflerbach, 2017; Coiro & Dobler, 2007). Further, Cho (2014) claims that online reading is effective when readers efficiently navigate a range of digital sources and make informed judgments about what to read, how to sequence selections, and when and where to read further and access new sources or not. Thus, new types of strategic knowledge are required in the online reading process, including identifying, locating, analysing, and utilising informative material accessible on the Internet (Cho & Afflerbach, 2017; Coiro & Dobler, 2007). In addition, Gilbert (2017) investigated how English students (in an ESL environment) interpret and assess reading using digital literacy abilities. He implies that language learners use different reading strategies and practices while reading web material. Furthermore, Gilbert (2017) advises that digital literacy abilities should be developed alongside traditional literacy abilities in the target language, including in the area of reading.
Several previous studies have investigated reading strategies in the online environment (Cho, 2014; Chou, 2012; Coiro & Dobler, 2007; Hahnel et al., 2016; J. Park et al., 2014) These studies have led to many claims about how students use strategies when reading online, one of which is that the success and experience of students using online reading strategies depend on how their teacher scaffolds
the reading process (H. R. Park & Kim, 2017). However, previous researchers have not investigated in much detail how teachers experience online reading strategies, including pre service teachers As stated by Leu, Jr. et al. (2004), in line with the emergence of new literacy skill in internet integration in classroom learning, particularly in online reading literacy, it is crucial to study how teachers manage the learning experience, both in terms of the teacher's own experience in using online reading strategies and how teachers teach their students these strategies.
In the Indonesian context, previous research contributing to knowledge on to pre service teachers' online reading strategy was undertaken by Mudra (2018). He focuses on profiling pre service teachers using online reading strategies at one of the universities in Indonesia. There were a few limitations of his study. First, the instrument used in the study was the Online Survey of Reading Strategies (OSORS), which adopted the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy Inventory (MARSI) However this instrument was believed to fail to address the distinctiveness and specific features of online reading, such as new cognitive strategies and social communication (Li, 2020). Second, Mudra (2018) did not investigate pre service teachers' perspectives on digital reading literacy that impacted their pedagogy knowledge, in particular how to teach online reading in their future reading classes. As Larson (2013) states, educators must recognize digital reading literacy and assist students in determining which reading strategies to employ in their best interest Further, the learning experiences of pre service teachers when they are in education will have an impact on their readiness to become teachers (Hikida et al., 2019). It also impacts their perception of what kind of teacher they will become (Griffith, 2017), and their level of awareness of how to become a teacher and how to use specific teaching strategies in their future classrooms (Iwai, 2016; Zamora & Zamora, 2022)
Considering the limitations of previous studies, it is necessary to conduct extensive research on how EFL pre service teachers use online reading strategies and how this knowledge might be used to teach online reading, since proficiency as a teacher in emerging literacies necessitates knowledge, abilities, and attitudes intimately related to the subject, context, and pedagogy (Larson, 2013; Tafazoli et al., 2020). Most teaching on how to use digital media in reading instruction is delivered in response to new and evolving technologies (Maden, 2018) Therefore, this present study aims to investigate:
1. What online reading strategies are used by EFL pre service teachers in reading online texts.
2. EFL pre service teachers' insights into teaching online reading strategies for their future reading classes
The primary purpose of this present study is to investigate how EFL pre service teachers utilize online reading strategies and their insights into teaching online reading. In order to elucidate these ideas, we rely on two theoretical frameworks that are believed to provide the most acceptable perspectives for our investigation: online reading strategy and EFL pre service teachers' reading
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literacy and strategy. The two theoretical frameworks will be discussed in the following sub section.
Reading strategies are contextual activities of human cognition aimed at achieving a particular reading objective in the broadest sense. Reading strategies are selected, structured, and implemented based on how readers engage with the materials and sources accessible in the task context. Consequently, a strategic reader would respond actively to the texts by retaining the fundamental and evolving objectives, and this responsiveness influences their reading strategy selection and coordination (Cho, 2014). Further, a comprehensive study evaluation on reading comprehension techniques was conducted by Song et al. (2020) They believe there is a significant link between students' reading competency and strategy utilization; English as a second language and English as a foreign language readers may learn to utilize higher order thinking methods to increase their reading ability.
The availability of computers and the Internet is beneficial in the use of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in English teaching and learning. Such multimedia offer a wealth of materials, including:text, graphics, video, animation, computer data, online libraries, and e journals. There is something of a relationship between online reading and electronic literacies, such that, readers who are online need to adopt literacy skills and regulate their reading purposes and patterns in diverse reading situations (H. R. Park & Kim, 2017). With the different characteristics and tasks inherent to online text, language learners experience new challenges where traditional reading strategies are not sufficient to help them read online text. One example is when entering keywords in a search engine; users will be presented with more than ten choices relevant to the keywords they entered, so they must be able to decide which text should be read first, second, and next (Cho & Afflerbach, 2017) This observation is also in line with research results by Gilbert (2017) showing that language learners use different reading strategies and practices while reading web material. As a result, online readers must learn new reading strategies in the face of new reading settings and challenges (Reiber Kuijpers et al., 2021)
Recently, investigators have examined the use of online reading strategies among pre service teachers. For example, Amer et al. (2010) investigated students' online reading strategies, which were limited only to differences in the use of strategies by students based on gender differences (male and female) and semester level (first and fourth semester) at a university in Oman. Moreover, Iwai (2016) examined pre service teachers' use and understanding of metacognitive reading strategies at three levels of the teacher education program (initial, middle, and final). Meanwhile, Mudra (2018) only focuses on the profiles of pre service teachers using an online reading strategy in one of the universities in Indonesia. Generally, these previous studies use existing instruments (Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy Inventory (MARSI) or Online Survey of Reading Strategies (OSORS)) to investigate pre service teachers’ online reading strategies. However, Li (2020) argues that the weaknesses of OSORS includes that fact that it
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only adapts items from MARSI by adding phrases online/online to the OSORS instrument. So, the instrument's validity is still in question, because eight items were taken from MARSI without any further explanation or validation Therefore, the OSORS instrument does not fully capture the complex nature of online reading, which involves complications such as using both traditional print text and electronic literacy strategies (Li, 2020).
The online reading strategy questionnaire used in this research is a new self reporting instrument called Second Language Online Reading Strategies Inventory (SLORSI), developed by Li (2020). The instrument includes cognitive, metacognitive, and social aspects of online reading (Li, 2020) The three aspects of focus that are measured in the instrument used in this study will provide a complete picture of frequent strategy use in online reading. Moreover, in terms of cognitive strategy, it provides an overview of traditional and new cognitive strategies in online reading. Basically, in the online reading process, there is a collaborative process between traditional strategies (such as skimming, inferring, translating) and electronic literacy skills for reading (locating, synthesizing), which are also called new cognitive strategies (Leu et al., 2012; Leu et al., 2017; Li, 2020). In previous research in the Indonesian setting (Mudra, 2018), the investigation of online strategies by EFL pre service teachers has not addressed electronic literacy skills, which is the unique area of online reading strategies. Electronic literacy skills affect the extent to which readers approach the online reading environment (H. R. Park & Kim, 2017; Song et al., 2020) Another major difference between the SLORSI and other online reading strategy questionnaires is that the SLORSI questionnaire is constructed based on three theoretical perspectives: constructively responsive reading, the Information Problem Solving (IPS) model, and new literacies of reading (Li, 2020) Thus, the information obtained from this questionnaire will comprehensively describe the strategies used by readers, especially in terms of the new cognitive and communication strategies needed for online reading. Furthermore, the results of this questionnaire can illustrate how readers perform new literacy practices in reading online/digital texts. For this reason, it is proper to investigate Indonesian EFL preservice teachers using SLORSI.
The New Literacies Perspective acknowledges that new literacies are ever changing and that the link between literacy and technology is transactional (Larson, 2013) The transformational effects of technology on traditional definitions of reading and learning have an impact on the purpose, processes, medium, and act of reading (Brueck & Lenhart, 2015). So, students require new literacy skills to tap into the promise of emerging and changing technology effectively. However, once students utilize technology in new ways, students also alter the technology, resulting in further new literacies (Leu et al., 2017) Teachers are constantly challenged to modify their reading teaching in response to new and changing technology. Also, one of the impacts of the emergence of new literacy related to ICT development is the changing role of teachers in the classroom (Zamora & Zamora, 2022) In the literacy era, teachers are challenged to thoughtfully guide students' learning within information environments that are
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richer and more complex than traditional print media, presenting richer and more complex learning opportunities for both themselves and their students (Leu, Jr. et al., 2004) Burke and Rowsell (2008) claim that educators or teachers should re examine their beliefs about what it means to be literate in a technological world and how reading instruction should improve the complicated skills required to analyze digital texts critically. Digital Reading Literacy combines traditional book reading with knowledge available on the Internet, ICT, or in a digital reading setting (Chen, 2017) Students must recognize, select, and retrieve important messages related to their objectives due to the vast number and diversity of digital information resources. Since teachers must evaluate students' needs in various learning contexts and determine the best approach to assist them, they must be aware of the significance of, but also be competent in, electronic literacies and online reading (H. R. Park & Kim, 2017).
Teacher proficiency in emerging literacies necessitates knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are intricately linked to content, context, and pedagogy (Larson, 2013). Practical online training in new reading strategies not only assists readers in overcoming challenges in reading digital texts but also improves their performance in reading materials in an electronic medium (Li, 2020). Regrettably, not all teachers prioritize the teaching of nuances of online texts and online reading strategies (Laeli et al., 2020; Li, 2020). Also, instructors may assist their students in improving their online reading fluency and comprehension by recognizing the unique challenges of online reading and ensuring adequate strategy instruction and digital reading practices (Brun mercer, 2019) Therefore, strategic training should begin by empowering teachers to demonstrate a different approach, helping them to understand how to apply it and why it is essential for learners
Previous research on digital and reading literacy for the pre service teacher is limited to integrating digital literacy practice into teaching instruction (Botturi, 2019; Hoffman et al., 2019; Prasojo et al., 2018) and digital reading literacy practices (Brun mercer, 2019; Larson, 2013). However, there has been little discussion among EFL researchers, including in Indonesia, on the strategy used by pre service teachers for digital reading and how this is associated with pre service teachers’ knowledge of digital reading literacy activities in reading classes. As future teachers, pre service teachers must understand not only how to learn but also how to teach or transfer knowledge to their students (Bembenutty et al., 2015); this must include the ability to set an example for their students on the use of the strategy (Perry et al., 2007) and develop new strategies that contribute to the achievement of an effective teaching learning process (Zamora & Zamora, 2022). Therefore, investigating pre-service teachers' insight into teaching online reading strategy is essential so that their future students can become effective online readers and become digitally literate.
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The third section is concerned with the methodology used for this study. This section is divided into four sub sections, they are: research design, participants and settings, instruments, and data collection and data analysis.
This present study applies a mixed method approach, with an explanatory sequential design. This design was used to explore further the results or a specific aspect of the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) The current study first relies on quantitative data collection (the questionnaire), followed by qualitative collection (semi structured interviews). The quantitative data revealed which strategies EFL pre service teachers typically apply while reading online/digital texts. And the qualitative interviews gave insight into online reading strategy, specifically how these ideas manifested themselves in their pedagogy.
This study involved 107 male and female English pre service teachers (in the sixth and eighth semesters). They are university students at 13 separate state and private English Education programs in East Java province, Indonesia (Table 1). The participants' ages ranged between 20 and22. The study programs for all participants involved in the research are accredited by the Indonesian National Accreditation Body. The participants involved in interviews had completed both their reading series program and a full micro teaching program.
This study was conducted in early 2022 (from January to March 2022) At that time, the COVID 19 pandemic situation in East Java Province was still classified as unsafe, so this research was conducted online through a synchronous activity (virtual conference) and asynchronous activities (Google Form). Researchers coordinated and recruited participants through online chat communication. Finally, from January to March, the required data were confirmed as having reached saturation, so data retrieval was declared complete.
Table 1: Pre-service teachers’ profiles
Gender 30 male & 77 females
Average age 21 years old
Semester 6th semester (64 std) & 8th semester (43 std)
Province East Java
Questionnaire participants 107
Interview participants 13 students
There were two different instruments used to collect data in this study: questionnaire and interview. The two instruments will be discussed in the following sub section.
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The questionnaire was developed based on a self reporting instrument for Second Language online Reading Strategies (SLORSI) developed by Li (2020). The researcher did not make any changes or modifications to the questionnaire items in SLORSI since Li (2020) had already checked the questionnaire items statistically using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to validate them. Further, theoretically, all the items included all the aspects that satisfy the new literacy in digital reading. The totalitems included in the questionnaire were 29, divided into four major sections. The first section was focused on traditional cognitive strategies, which included inferring strategy (3 items), skimming strategy (3 items), and translating strategy (3 items). The second section was about new cognitive strategies, which included locating strategy (3 items), synthesizing strategy (4 items), saving strategy (4 items), and navigating strategy (3 items). The third section examined the evaluating strategy (3 items), and the fourth was communicative strategy (3 items). For each section of the questionnaire, a five point Likert scale was used.
The interview items focused on participants' perspectives on online reading literacy for future students in their classes, what online reading strategies they will use to teach digital reading text in their future reading classes, and whether they have specific reading digital text practices in their university class. The interview items were modified from the SLORSI questionnaire (Li, 2020) and the questions guide was inspired by Iwai (2016) Semi structured interviews were conducted with 13 participants that were selected based on their university representativeness. The interviews were conducted one on one via an online virtual conference. The participants' voices and videos were recorded once they had given their authorisation.
The quantitative data were analyzed to follow the frequency of usage strategy by determining the Mean (M) and Standard Deviation (SD). The mean scores for each item and each strategy subscale obtained from the questionnaire were identified on three levels based on Oxford's language learning strategy usage (Li, 2020): high (mean of 3.5 or above), medium (mean of 2.5 to 3.4) and low (2.4 or lower). The lower the mean value of the items and strategy subscale, the less frequently the strategy was used by the EFL pre service teachers. In contrast, the higher the mean value of the items and strategy subscale, the more frequent the strategies used by the EFL pre service teachers. Finally, each strategy subscale's results were statistically compared to the data evaluated using SPSS 20.
Meanwhile, the qualitative data from the semi structured interviews were analyzed based on the step proposed by Creswell (2012). The analysis was composed of: organizing the data, coding the data, coding to build descriptions and themes, reporting the findings, interpreting the findings, and validating the findings' accuracy The results of the semi structured interview were used to determine the EFL pre service teachers' insights into teaching reading digital literacy and online reading strategy for future students.
The findings of this study will be reported based on two main problems: pre service teachers’ use of online reading strategies and pre service teachers’ insights into teaching online reading strategies. The following sub sections will discuss the results of this study in detail.
4.1 Online reading strategies used by EFL pre-service teachers
There are four dimensions of online reading strategies investigated in this study: traditional cognitive strategies, new cognitive strategies, evaluation strategies, and communication strategies. The findings will be presented based on an analysis of the frequency of the use of strategy items in each subscale for each dimension Then, after all the strategy items have been reported, the findings in this study will indicate the results of the comparison between the subscales in each dimension to find on which strategy is most often used for online reading by EFL pre service teachers.
4.1.1 Dimensions of traditional cognitive strategy
Based on data (Table 2), all the strategic items on the subscale in the dimension of traditional cognitive strategy were rated highly (M = 3.50 above). Although all the strategy items in each subscale achieved high scores, there is a significant difference in the mean scores for each item within the subscale. From the three strategy items in inferring, the most frequently used strategy is "I check if my guesses about the online text are right or wrong" (M=3.82). This means that, when considering meanings of the text that are not clearly expressed, the participants prefer to verify if their general predictions regarding the web material are correct or incorrect, rather than focusing on unfamiliar words or phrases. This is in line with the score for strategy items in skimming, relating to determining the core concept or links between ideas at a glance. Participants mostly agreed with the sentence "I scroll up and down in an online text to find relationships among ideas in it." (M=4.12), rather than reading the first sentence of each paragraph of the entire text. And when they have a comprehension problem, they prefer to look to the meaning of difficult words in their native language, rather than looking for equivalent words in the target language (English) through search engines or online dictionaries. This can be seen from the mean score for the subscale translating strategy items, where the item with the highest mean was "I translate difficult sentences into my native language to deal with comprehension failures" (M=4.29). Therefore, we can conclude that the strategy item in the traditional cognitive strategy dimension most commonly used is translating (M=3.99, SD=0.733).
Table 2. The mean, standard deviation (SD), and level of dimension results for the traditional cognitive strategy
Dimension Subscale Items Mean (M) SD Level
Dimension Traditional Cognitive Strategy
Inferring “I check if my guesses about the online text are right or wrong. ”
“When I read online, I try to guess what the content is going to be next.”
3 82 0.70 High
3 79 0.79 High
4.1.2
3 79 0 82 High Skimming “While reading online, I read the first sentence of each paragraph for a quick overview.”
“When I read online, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases.”
3 85 0 81 High “
I take an overall view of an online text to see what it is about at the beginning stage.”
“I scroll up and down in an online text to find relationships among ideas in it.”
Translating “ I translate difficult sentences into my native language to deal with comprehension failures.”
“
I look for the native language equivalents of terms in an online specialized dictionary.”
“
I look for the native language equivalents of key words online by using search engines.”
3.66 0.70 High
4 12 0 65 High
4 29 0 64 High
3 77 0 73 High
3.93 0.72 High
In the new cognitive strategy dimension, based on Table 3, all items in each subscale are at a high level, which means that participants in this study widely use all the strategy items. There are four subscales in the new cognitive strategy dimension: locating, synthesizing, saving, and navigating. Based on Table 3, in each subscale, among locating, participants often use the strategy "I use my background knowledge about the topic to locate target information," (M=3.96). This means that, to search and identify the location of the information needed, the participant most commonly used their additional information about the topic
rather than the information about the website or information from the printed text. Furthermore, in the category synthesizing, the most widely used strategy is for the items "I click on a hyperlink when it is important for my understanding of the current online text," (M=3.95) and "I check to see whether new information fits my reading purpose" (M=3.95). So, the participants mostly combine different sources and examine whether the content is appropriate to their reading need. Meanwhile, in the subscale saving, the strategy item that is most widely used is "I save the link when I feel an online text is important," (M=4.50). It can be concluded that the participants most commonly save information they find without additional notes or highlight information about the topic. Moreover, for the navigating subscale, the most widely used strategy item is "I remind myself of my reading purposes before clicking on a link," (M = 3.93) This means that the participants control and manage their act of scrolling through a website while reading. However, within the subscale in the dimension of new cognitive strategy, the highest mean score is for the saving strategy
Table. 3 The mean, standard deviation (SD), and level of dimension results for the new cognitive strategy
Dimension Subscale Items Mean (M) SD Level
Dimension New Cognitive Strategy
Locating “I use my background knowledge about the topic to locate target information. “
“
3.96 0.64 High
3 79 0 71 High “
I use my knowledge of informational website structures to locate target information.”
I use prior knowledge of printed informational text structures to locate target information. “
Synthesizing “I contrast information from various pages to sort out those that mostly serve my reading purposes.”
“
I click on a hyperlink when it is important for my understanding of the current online text.”
“
I check to see whether new information fits my reading purpose. “
“
I check whether information on a new webpage fits my understanding of the text. “
3.80 0.68 High
3 76 0 76 High
3 95 0 68 High
3.95 0.60 High
3 85 0 55 High
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Saving “I save the link when I feel an online text is important. “
“When I feel an online text is important, I save it together with my notes. “
“When I feel an online text is important, I save it with highlighted information in it. “
“I save pages bearing similar information in an internet bookmark folder for future reviewing.”
Navigating “I consciously control my reading path by clicking on suitable links. “
“Before I start reading a new website, I glance over the website's main menu. “
“I remind myself of my reading purposes before clicking on a link.”
4 50 0 73 High
4 10 0 76 High
4.07 0.77 High
3 89 0 78 High
3.79 0.65 High
3 66 0 79 High
3 93 0 70 High
For the subscale evaluating for the dimension for evaluating strategy, based on the item strategies in Table 4, all strategy items are at the high level (M= 3.50 above), but the highest score of Mean was in response to the statement "I look for multiple online texts on the same topic" with M=3.93 and SD=0.70. This means that participants tend to find and analyze a similar idea to find information for a particular topic rather than text that contains various different aspects of the topic.
Table. 4 The mean, standard deviation (SD), and level of dimension results for the new evaluating strategy
Dimension Subscale Items Mean (M) SD Level
Dimension Evaluating Strategy
Evaluating “When reading on line, I look for sites that cover both sides of an issue. “
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3 75 0 67 High “I look for multiple online texts on the same topic. “
“I critically analyse and evaluate the information presented in an online text.”
3 93 0 70 High
3 74 0 65 High
4.1.4
Based on Table 5, in the communicative subscale in the dimension for communicative strategy, participants show variations in the use of this strategy. There are two levels in this subscale, namely high and medium and the item most commonly used by the participants is "I collaborated with others online to gain a deeper understanding of a text" with M= 4.01 and SD = 0.79. In understanding the text, participants more often collaborate with others to find a deeper understanding of the information they get through the online text. However, unlike the level results for the strategy items, one of the items in the communication subscale resulted in a medium level score, "I communicate with other readers by leaving comments in message areas," (M=3,28; SD=0,87). This means that participants in this study tend not to communicate with other users to any great extent, if they do not know each other, while understanding the information in a digital text. Of course, this result contrasts with the other two strategy items in the subscale for communication. So, from the inconsistency of these results, it can be concluded that participants in this study prefer to communicate and collaborate with other users who are still in the same community they know, such as close friends or classmates.
Table. 5 The mean, standard deviation (SD), and level of dimension results for the new evaluating strategy
Dimension Subscale Items Mean (M) SD Level
Dimension Communicative strategy
Communication “I collaborate with others online to gain a deeper understanding of a text. “
“I communicate with other readers by leaving comments in message areas. “
“
I discuss my comprehension problems on online social media (e.g. Facebook, WhatsApp, WeChat, etc.). “
4.01 0.79 High
3 28 0 87 Medium
3 83 0 95 High
This study also analyses each subscale across dimensions through the mean, standard deviation score, and level. In Table 6, it can be seen that all the subscales resulted in high scores (M= 3.50 above). However, even though all the subscales are at a high level, there is a slight difference in their mean scores. The highest mean loss was in the saving subscale (M=4.14 and SD= 0.793). This means that the saving subscale strategy in the new cognitive strategy was more frequently used than the other subscale strategies across dimensions. This means that participants
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in this study use electronic technology to preserve significant or comparable online text material. Moreover, the lowest subscale strategy is communication, which implies that online readers communicate, discuss, and participate with others to address their reading challenges using network services.
Table. 6 The mean, standard deviation (SD), and level subscale results for the various dimensions
Dimension Subscale Mean (M) SD Level
Dimension Traditional Cognitive strategy
Inferring 3.80 0.769 High Skimming 3.88 0.746 High
Translating 3.99 0.733 High
Dimension New Cognitive strategy Locating 3.85 0.680 High Synthesizing 3.88 0.656 High Saving 4.14 0.793 High Navigating 3.80 0.724 High
Dimension Evaluating Strategy Evaluating 3.80 0.677 High Dimension Communicative strategy Communication 3.71 0.923 High
4.2
The data to answer the second research question were taken from the interview results Thirteen participants were invited to the interview session. The results of the interviews are reported below.
4.2.1
The first item from the interview was about EFL pre service teachers defining online reading literacy practices. Based on the responses in the interview sessions, most EFL pre service teachers define online reading literacy practices as an activity to improve their reading understanding through internet media specifically. They also said that online reading is an activity to obtain and understand messages or information in text written via the Internet: "In online reading to find information, I will teach the students how to search information. I will ask them to write related keywords based on the topic they find in the google browser " (Pre-service Teacher 5)
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"Online reading practices including the process of reading or understanding the meaning of text in digital format or online." (Pre service Teacher 7)
"Online reading literacy practices is an activity that is involved in the process of obtaining information or messages conveyed by the author to the reader through internet media " (Pre-service Teacher 13)
However, some respondents say that online reading is the process of reading text in the form of soft file sprit pdf, and epub., making it easy for readers to read anywhere without carrying a printed book.
"online reading is a kind of reading which is in format electronic. By online reading, we can read anything what we want and where we want only with our gadget, not only that, online reading no need confused to find words and pages, we can easily by typing the words or pages on the search " (Pre-service Teacher 3)
From the responses in this study, it can be implied that EFL pre service teachers have different knowledge about online reading activities. Some of them already understand that online reading is an activity to promote reading literacy digitally through the media. However, some still say that online reading is just a non printed text reading activity.
4.2.2. Locating, saving, and evaluating as the strategy for teaching online reading The second focus of the interviews was asking the pre service teachers how they will teach online reading with their future reading classes. The interview result indicated that, firstly, the EFL pre service teachers are likely to tend to teach their future students how to search the Internet using background knowledge of the topic (locating). Further, they explain that in searching the information on the Internet, they will suggest that students type keywords related to topics on their target information.
"In online reading to find information, I will teach the students how to search information. I will ask them to write related keywords based on the topic they find in the google browser." (Pre service Teacher 5)
The strategy mentioned below was about saving information deemed appropriate to the topic of information (saving). Specifically, the participants explained that they will teach students to save the information obtained into a specific folder on their laptops or cell phones "after the students find the information, I will teach them how to save, if it is in the form of pdf/word it should be downloaded, and save it in their folder, but if it is kind of website, I will ask them to copy all the information, and save it into word file " (Pre-service Teacher 8)
The last strategy discussed based on the interviews was searching for information from various websites, hyperlinks, or texts on the Internet on the same topic (evaluating). The EFL pre service teachers explained that students must find resources to collect more information about the topic.
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"Another important strategy to teach online reading is to find more information about the topics from different websites or links, that is appearing on the search page when they are searching for information."
(Pre service Teacher 13)
The last issue in the interview sessions related to whether the participants knew of explicit or specific subjects to teach online reading to their future students. Based on the interviews, the students mentioned that they had not been given specific or direct interventions about teaching online reading; they claimed that they had personal experience of searching for information from the Internet in writing class, and some other classes that they had to present a theory. Commonly, they were asked to find a reference source for their presentation material. However, they did not receive training on teaching online reading according to digital literacy needs for their future reading classes
"So far, I have never received any special material that discusses how to teach reading when students have to read online (looking for information on the Internet). Yes, usually, when the TEFL course is related to reading learning in class, the lecturer only focuses on several learning strategies that we can use for reading learning, such as the KNWL strategy, etc."
(Pre service Teacher 4)
Based on the findings in this study, it is understood that the participants used a high level of different strategies. In other words, participants tend to use all the strategies described in the questionnaire frequently. These conditions could be due to the characteristics of the participants. The participants in this study were generally 20 21 years old and thus digital natives (Prensky, 2001) Digital natives already have basic computer skills in using Internet media for information retrieval since they havebeen familiar with using technology for the wholeof their lives Hahnel et al. (2016) state that if readers already have basic computer skills, it profoundly influences the digital reading process Further, the findings of this study also confirm a report by Alieto et al. (2020) In their report, pre service teachers aged between 18 and 25 show a positive attitude toward reading digital text since they have a strong understanding of technology and digital resources Therefore, it is reasonable that all participants in this study scored highly for all item strategies.
Additionally, the four strategy dimension results show that the highest mean score was for new cognitive strategies (M = 3.9); the highest subscale in this category was the saving strategy. This result is in line with the claim of Dobler and Eagleton (2015), who stated that the Internet or web texts provide various information that can be obtained and organized more efficiently, thus making online readers more likely to save and sort the information they feel necessary or relevant to the topic they are looking for. Furthermore, in the traditional cognitive strategy dimension, the translation subscale has the highest mean value among the other subscales (M=3,99), meaning that online readers more often use the help of their mother tongue to understand the information contained in the texts they read. This finding is in line with Song et al. (2020), who found that bilingual online
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resources are used in applying the comprehension strategy when reading online, including dictionaries that online readers often use Overall, from the questionnaire results in this research, a combination of traditional and new cognitive strategies mostcommonly used by participants included translating and saving.
Another essential point from the findings related to the use of a communicative strategy to read online. The item in the communicative subscale shows that the participants did not take collaborative communication to broader users on the Internet within the text/web. Indeed, online communication is a crucial aspect of online reading practices (Leu et al., 2012), Since communication involves readers in collaborative efforts to discuss, share and negotiate to improve reading performance and comprehension (Orosco & O'Connor, 2014). The study also highlights an essential social element unique to online reading: communicative techniques. Thus, online readers of a second language apply new information and communication technologies to discuss, and share to collaboratively co construct meanings of texts. In this sense, online reading is no more an isolated activity but rather involves the collaborative efforts of online readers to address reading difficulties (Kiili et al., 2012). Such interactive and dialogic procedures assist online readers in increasing their cognitive awareness of learning (Liu et al., 2014)
It is critical to assist people with new literacy using online reading and comprehension, which includes the capability to interact over the Internet to gain more information, collaborate on information, or convey the information you have learned.
Nevertheless, the findings of this study on online reading strategies used by EFL pre service teachers also provide an overview of how online readers approach online reading for their learning (Song et al., 2020) The results of this study indicate that Indonesian EFL pre service teachers were high users of the online reading strategy inventory (made up of traditional cognitive strategies, new cognitive strategies, evaluation strategies, and communicative strategies). The findings on these strategies were in contrast with the research results of Mudra (2018) and Iwai (2016) which showed that EFL pre service teachers were medium users of online reading strategies.
In addition, the results of the interviews concerning pre service teachers' insights into teaching online reading were inconsistent with the results about using online reading strategies from the questionnaire. First, their understanding of digital reading literacy practices demonstrated that most participants regard literacy practices as the ability to search for information within the text on the web or hyperlinks. In contrast, literacy practices in online/digital texts not only focus on the ability to seek information Literacy practices include analyzing the information within the text on the web/hyperlinks, evaluating the credibility of the information sources critically, and synthesizing all the information found from the texts within various sources (Brun-mercer, 2019; Leu et al., 2011; Leu et al., 2012) Further, in addition to the four skills, literacy practice in online reading also includes the ability to communicate and collaborate with other online users while reading online (Kiili et al., 2018; Li, 2020)
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Second, the interview results show that pre service teachers did not comprehensively understand what strategies they would use with their future students when reading online. They only stated that three strategies would be given: locating, saving, and evaluating. Of course, this result contrasts with the statement of Song et al. (2020), Li (2020) and Reiber Kuijpers et al. (2021), who found that with regard to online strategy, there is collaboration in the use of a printed text strategy (traditional strategy) and online text (new cognitive strategy) as well as a communication strategy. Moreover, participants stated that they had not been given an explicit program on how to teach online reading with appropriate strategies for online reading for their future reading classes. Laksani (2019) states that providing direct interventions on developing technology for English teaching is essential. Teachers must be trained to teach online reading using an appropriate strategy (Brun mercer, 2019; Larson, 2013) so they can model it for their students (Perry et al., 2007)
This study supports the claim that teachers must evaluate students' needs in various learning contexts and determine the best approach to assist them. Teachers must be aware of the significance of, and be competent in, electronic literacies and online reading strategies (H. R. Park & Kim, 2017) Additionally, such teaching strategy training should begin during teacher education programs (Ndebele & Legg Jack, 2022; Mohammadi et al., 2020). Therefore, it is essential to provide EFL pre service teachers with information on acceptable practices for online reading strategies to respond to digital literacy practices for their future students in reading classes
This present study reveals that EFL pre service teachers use most of the various strategies for online reading: cognitive strategies (traditional and new), metacognitive strategy (evaluation), and social strategy (communication). The findings on the most frequently used online reading strategy adopted by EFL pre service teachers in this study indicate that teachers and pre service teachers need training on potential digital reading strategies in their teaching with more precise objectives. However, the online reading strategy experience does not imply their pedagogical practice as future teachers. During their undergraduate degrees, EFL pre service teachers’ programs must highlight the importance of digital reading literacy training and online reading strategy practices, particularly in Indonesia In addition, educators should obtain training on how to use online reading strategy and literacy in pre service teachers' professional lives. In this regard, the language curriculum should provide the fundamentals of digital reading, train excellent digital readers and teach how to integrate digital media into reading education in response to new and emerging technology The limitation of this study is that it has not investigated the challenges faced by pre service teachers in terms of the practical aspects of online reading and how low and high proficiency readers differ in using the online reading strategy inventory. So, future researchers could usefully investigate this issue further in this field
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 161 177, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.8
Received Aug 7, 2022; Revised Oct 11, 2022; Accepted Oct 15, 2022
College
ofTeacher
Education, Cebu Normal University, Philippines Joje Mar P. SanchezCollege of Teacher Education, Cebu Normal University, Philippines
Abstract. Undergraduate research as a high impact educational practice aims to develop the personal and professional growth of preservice teachers and prepares them to be effective practitioners in the field. With the sudden shift in instructional delivery, a dearth of studies focusing on students’ experiences in conducting research in the online learning environment is observed. This study examined the experiences of 80 preservice teachers from a teacher education institution implementing a pure online instructional delivery in conducting educational research through descriptive phenomenology. Their narrative accounts were obtained through their post assessment reflective journal with seven guide questions and were analyzed using thematic analysis. Their nuances articulated that students' prior knowledge and experiences in research, presence of support groups, availability of learning resources, and perceived benefits were the enabling factors for their learning success. However, there were also challenges along the way such as communication barriers, lack of resources, overlapping responsibilities, and the quality of their output and performance. The presence of a supportive virtual learning environment and online learning community is critical to learning outcomes and the quality of learning experiences.
Keywords: educational research; online instruction; phenomenology; preservice teachers
Research and inquiry are essential tools for preservice teachers to be informed decision makers and effective practitioners in the field. Several studies have underscored the benefits of conducting research for the professional and personal growth and development of preservice teachers (Hong & Lawrence, 2011; Miller & Shinas, 2019; Ulvik, 2014). First, the duration of undergraduate research experience positively contributes to graduate school performance in their research
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
skills (Gilmore et al., 2015). Second, participation in research undertaking has been associated with enhanced ability in doing science along with other scientific values and skills such asoral communication, professional writing, research skills, and academic skills (Thiry et al., 2011; Sanchez & Rosaroso, 2019). Thirdly, it enables them to understand and visualize the role of teachers with those opportunities and problems that may confront them as professional teachers as research derived knowledge is instrumental for effective learning processes and whole school improvement (Mincu, 2015). Lastly, educational research results provide an empirical basis for implementation in the teaching learning process and implications in the educational system (Eğmir, Erdem & Koçyiğit, 2017). Teacher candidates who develop an inquiry based stance to learning are positioned to become change agents in their classrooms (Ortlieb & Lu, 2011; Hermoso et al., 2022). Therefore, incorporating educational research in teacher preparation programs creates opportunities for candidates to develop the skills and competencies of effective teachers (Miller & Shinas, 2019).
Undergraduate research education has been incorporated across higher education institutions in various countries (Gilmore et al., 2015) including the Philippines (Ulla, 2018; Sanchez et al., 2021). Due to the COVID 19 lockdown protocols, schools in the country closed in March 2020 and partially reopened in January 2022 in some low risk areas. However, with the recurrence of the surge of infections brought about by COVID 19 new variants, schools reverted to flexible learning options with these set up to be adopted as part of the new normal in the educational setting. The country adopted preventive measures for learning continuity in both basic and higher education levels through flexible learning modalities such as modular based instruction, blended learning approach, and pure online instruction (Canlas & Karpudewan, 2021). Teachers and students were confronted with the need to adapt to online teaching in particular since it is a reality that web based technology has noticeably influenced and transformed the learning and teaching environment. This transformation permeated across degree programs and course offerings such as educational research (Ni, 2013; Aghaee & Keller, 2016). These unconventional approaches to learning are characterized by advantages and disadvantages to learners, teachers, and the learning process (Alqurashi, 2019; Boholano et al., 2022).
Too many studies focused on mentors' perceptions and experiences in mentoring undergraduate research but less on student experiences, especially in the context of new learning modalities such as blended learning, distance learning, and pure online learning that necessitate further description. This study aimed to answer the following questions:
1. What are the enabling factors affecting preservice teachers’ undergraduate research experience in the online learning environment?
2. What are the deterrent factors affecting their learning experience and outcome in undergraduate research through online instructional delivery?
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Undergraduate research is changing in the face of the challenges and developments in the educational landscape and higher education. In a comparative study by Ni (2013) between online students and classroom students vis à vis, their performance measure in research methods courses in a graduate public administration, students' grade is independent of the mode of instruction. However, all classroom students considered their learning experience to be successful, whereas only 87% of online students do. With a higher failure rate (12%) for the online section compared to 4% in the face to face section, the author underscored the need to carefully direct research efforts exploring various aspects of learning effectiveness affecting the online instructional mode. Brown et al (2020) revealed that online students have lower completion rates than those studying on campus, amidst the flexibility and autonomy that the nature of online learning offers. This phenomenon could be affected by the lack if not the absence of interaction between students and mentors.
Online learning modality potentially eliminated physical barriers and increases convenience, flexibility, access to materials, and customized learning and feedback over the traditional face to face setup (Ni, 2013). Undeniably, concerns are also reported that online learning modality significantly reduced social and communicative interaction (Ni, 2013), reduced the level of motivation, and affected learning effectiveness. One essential element for a quality learning outcome in doing research is interaction. Learners perceived peer interaction as useful to enhance the quality of the thesis outcomes (Aghaee & Keller, 2016). This contemporary educational setting raises a question about the effectiveness of online instructional modality as compared to traditional classroom learning in developing research skills and competence and achieving the learning outcome. Interestingly, in a time of decreased in class interaction between students and faculty mentors due to the COVID 19 restrictions, efforts to examine students' reflections of their learning experience in the context of the pandemic are scarce to non existent. In response, this study examined the dimensions of students learning experience in educational research courses in the context of unconventional online based instructional delivery.
The succeeding sections detail the research approach and procedures employed to collect the textual data needed to explore the various factors affecting undergraduate students' research experiences with the online learning modality.
This qualitative research utilized descriptive phenomenology (Sundler et al., 2019). This methodology involves thematizing meaning to illuminate the underlying meanings hidden in lived experiences (Ho et al., 2017) of preservice teachers in their undergraduate research through online instructional delivery a phenomenon that is considered relatively unconventional in the context of the study. The written accounts of students' narration of their reflection on the phenomenon were subjected to thematic analysis based on descriptive
phenomenology (Sundler et al., 2019) wherein coding categories are derived directly from the textual data to illuminate the meaning
The participants of the study are 80 preservice teachers and students who were selected purposively based on the quality of the reflection paper that they submitted. The authors attempted to recruit a diverse sample based on gender and specialization as reflected in table 1 showing the characteristics of the participants. These participants were third year undergraduate students pursuing a degree in teaching at a public university recognized as a center of excellence in teacher education. All participants were granted informed consent before data collection; the study was approved by the institutional review board with the following certification number 562/2020 09 Picardal
Characteristic
Distribution
Male = 24 (30%) Female = 56 (70%) Specialization Science = 20 (25%) English = 20 (25%) Mathematics = 20 (25%) Elementary = 20 (25%)
Sex
The most interesting aspect of this study involving these student participants is the fact that they will be the pioneer batch of the graduate of the K to 12 programs, an educational reform of the Philippines that was initiated in 2013 to address issues and concerns in the Philippine educational system vis à vis global competitiveness. Moreover, the participants were preservice teachers studying in a recognized teacher education institution in which the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) granted a Center of Excellence in Teacher Education status to this university in the region. For ethical considerations, the institution is named ABC University for anonymity and confidentiality principle. This university implemented flexible learning modalities because of the COVID 19 restrictions as well as the mandate to ensure learning continuity by enforcing health protocols.
In compliance with the outcomes based education framework for the Philippine Higher Education reform that focuses on outcomes of learning, the learning program is used instead of a course syllabus. As Spady (1994, p.2) put it, OBE serves as “a comprehensive approach to organizing and operating an educational system that is focused on and defined by the successful demonstrations of learning sought from each student”. The nomenclature for this compulsory 3 unit course is Education 7: Educational Research. Based on the course outcome, after completion of the course, prospective teachers should be able to: a) demonstrate content knowledge of principles, ethics, rigors, and processes in the conduct of educational research; b) Conduct educational research in groups of 2 3 members/group under the
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guidance of research professor or adviser or mentor; c) formulate research problems, justify its significance, gather related literature and studies, choose appropriate research methodology and research design, procedures of gathering data, research instrument construction, validation, data collection, organization of data, analysis and interpretation of results, conclusion, and recommendations, proper citations and referencing; and d) disseminate research findings through (1) oral presentation and (2) written research output in a journal article (IMRAD) format. Given that for this batch of K to 12 students who have undergone at least three curriculum mandated research subjects (e.g., quantitative research, qualitative research, and inquiries, innovations, and immersion) in their Senior High School years, their prior research experience is considered a prerequisite. Usually, this course is offered to students in their third year level during the first semester which is equivalent to 12% of a 25 unit full time student semester load.
Teacher preparation in the Philippines requires a minimum of four year of coursework including 2 semesters of practicum in their final year. Interestingly, all third year students need to take and pass this subject and their research output should be aligned with their specialization. For instance, preservice science teachers should be working on issues and problems in science education. As to the learning design, the scope is divided into eight units for the whole semester with its content anchored on the standard content of Cohen et al. (2018), Creswell and Poth (2016), and Creswell (2013). These learning resources also served as the major reference materials that students were asked to download the eBook version in the Google Scholar database. Unit 1 begins with the introductory nature of this course along with contemporary issues and trends of educational research from the global scenario down to the contextual setting in the Philippine education system. The mechanism of student coursework follows that of an input output pattern wherein the instructor gives explicit and sometimes inquiry based instruction on the concepts afterward students apply those research knowledge and skills to their respective research problem. By mid semester, they should be able to come up with and defend their research proposal to a panel of evaluators. After complying with the comments and suggestions of the panel, they proceed with the data collection until such time that they will be able to complete and present their work as the major output of the course at the end of the semester. Throughout the course, the instructor conducts regular consultations with students on the development and concerns of their research undertaking. Comparably, this is similar to an undergraduate thesis in another degree program as students in educational research courses are expected to contribute to the growing body of knowledge in the field of education by addressing emergent educational issues.
The current paradigms in teacher education in the context of distance education and with the demands of 21st century teaching and learning highlight reflective practices using self-reflection (Erdemir & Yeşilçınar, 2021) in improving practices in the classroom. This study utilized post summative reflection of students as the source of data. After the screening of student reflection papers, they were identified, selected, and invited via email to participate in the study. Initially, there were 88 students but eight of them declined to participate in the study as
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they were working students and they could not commit to the procedure. The writing of the reflection paper came towards the end of their educational research course in which students were given six guiding questions for them to share their experiences in the course and with the new learning platform, which is pure online instructional delivery.
The textual data from thereflection papers of students were analyzed thematically using the protocol of Sundler et al., 2019 achieve an understanding of patterns of meanings from data on lived experiences. Their thematic analysis for descriptive phenomenology involves three steps as follows: 1. Achieve familiarity with the data through open minded reading; 2. Search for meanings and themes; and 3. Organizing themes into meaningful wholeness. To illustrate the data analysis, the following table depicts how each analytical step is carried out to generate themes that describe the phenomenon. For the step of thematic analysis, text data were read several times to be familiarized with the experiences of participants. The second step involved meaning making and looking for patterns among the meanings to come up with themes. As shown in Table 2 is the thematic analysis to illustrate how a particular theme emerged. The third step involved an exhaustive description of the theme by describing the meaningful text and it is supported by the actual narration of the experiences by the participants through their vignettes.
Table 2. Sample thematic analysis of textual data from participants’ reflection paper Source Statement Meaning Theme Organizing Theme
P3; #61 64 full support and guidance of the teacher through regular meetings and sharing of resources made the experience easier and bearable
P7; #44 50 best and efficient people in the team built by trust, cooperation, and sharing of knowledge
P9; #61 63 supportive people around helped to overcome challenges and anxieties
Availability of mentor Presence of a support group
Collaborative team members
Supportive family members
Enabling Factor
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Based on the responses from the participants, eight primary themes were identified by the authors of which four themes served as enabling factors such as 1) Prior knowledge and experience; 2) presence of a support group; 3) Availability of learning resources; 4) Perceived benefits. Meanwhile, four themes described the deterrent factors affecting undergraduate research experience which are 5) Communication barriers; 6) Lack of resources; 7) overlapping priorities, and 8) Quality of output and performance Direct quotes from the student reflection paper were presented to support each theme. Codenames were used for the participants.
Participants have expressed that their prior experience and research orientation during their senior high school years were helpful to their undergraduate research experience. Some of them admitted that they had to unlearn and relearn research concepts from their previous exposure as they see it more relevant and extensive when they applied it to their educational research project. During the initial stage of topic conceptualization, several students admitted that they were used to the practice of the teacher adviser providing them with a specific topic to work on and some were asked to come up with a research title right away, which is a common practice by most research teachers. Their experience in this learning modality considered unconventional was more student driven as they had to source out potential research topics from the recommendations advanced in recently published journal articles in their field of specialization. Since the nature of this course was self directed and with the limitless information available to students, they learned to be critical in examining information to identify a plausible topic. A kind of practice that to them is quite new but more appreciated because it is different from what they were trained during their high school days. This nuanced from participants supported Mosyjowski and Daly's (2020) findings that the previous experiences of students shape their research practices and perceptions, especially in the selection of a research problem. "What comes to my mind is to search again that would be hard and timely. Hard because of embracing this new platform while conducting research in and timely because I need to spend most of my time in making research amidst the pandemic. I was also afraid and doubtful of its future outcomes because of this new mode of learning. Hardly, I am confused and worried as to how I will create my research and how it should be done when all the people are under quarantine. In addition, I am also doubtful about myself and my research skills because ever since when I was in grade school, research already put a milestone in education as well as in learning.” (P19)
When students were asked how they were able to sustain their motivation to comply with the coursework and conduct research all the way through, they unanimously ascribed having a support group as their source of strength. Students underscored the essence of having a healthy relationship with their
mentors, classmates, family, and friends to overcome challenges brought about by the new mode of learning as well as the economic and socio emotional impact of the pandemic. This adaptive mechanism is similar to the findings of Sespene et al. (2021) on students learning in a modular distance learning modality in the Philippines.
"During the making of our research study, whenever we are stressed out we usually reach out to one other to share our burdens and empathize with each other. This helped me a lot because it gives me a sense of security that I am not alone in my struggles. It encourages me to keep going because soon we will all graduate together. Upon making our research study, I constantly communicate with my group to work and plan our research. We never fail to talk and listen to each other's ideas, which made the flow of making our research way easier. We usually meet with each other in our group chat but sometimes we also meet through video call in messenger, zoom, or google meet. It's really fun to see and talk to them despite our distance because aside from talking about our project, we also get to have fun teasing and checking each other's situation at home." (P7)
One of the contributing factors to the positive learning outcome of students in this new learning modality for undergraduate research is the availability of various learning resources readily available to them. Considering their level of maturity, they have managed to practice different self regulated strategies with the aid of technology and open communication with their mentor for feedback. They maximized the comments and suggestions from their mentors on their progress and output as a learning opportunity at the same time enriching their knowledge and skills in research through self initiated reading and video tutorials.
“Whenever some group would have confusion the other group would help and guide what to do in accomplishing the data needed I experience that because YouTube and google can answer my questions so I tried asking my major how to calculate and interpret the data and somehow it helps a lot.” (P44)
Surprisingly, the majority of these preservice teachers demonstrated inherent motivations to pursue educational research not only because it is a major course output. They have a positive perception of undergraduate research, as they believe it contributes to their professional and personal development knowing that if they will become a practitioner teacher in the field, the conduct of research is also encouraged and a promotion ticket. They also cited the benefits that educational research provided to them through online learning, particularly on strategies and techniques for doing research efficiently such as using a research matrix in establishing a research gap.
“With the endless moving parts to a project, there is truly never a dull moment in research. I was able to develop new skills with every research experience, learn more about the kind of setting I want to be in, further explore my strengths and interests, and test my motivation to study more or pursue a career in a field or discipline. This chapter of my life is an equally important learning experience that I need to consider and use when deciding what kind of life waits ahead of me.” (P38)
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Cognizant of the enabling factors that facilitated the development of knowledge and skills in research, there were deterrent factors that served as challenges to the learning experience and learning outcome of students in research courses in this online learning modality.
The sudden shift to flexible learning delivery in which a purely online platform was one of the options due to the COVID 19, communication barrier significantly affected the teaching and learning process in an educational research course. All student participants remarkably said that they encountered difficulty in communicating with their peers, their instructors, and even at their own pace of learning due to intermitted internet connection and other technical glitches. Since these students were at their respective homes while learning through online mode, they have no control over connectivity issues due to geographical location, and their groupmates with no communication devices for learning due to economic reasons.
“In online classes, it is hard for us to update each other because only a few of us have good internet connectivity. Even worse, we are clueless that some are being left behind in the activities and we are perplexed because we cannot help them. Our unity as a class is disrupted by the digital divide phenomenon.” (P70)
Considering the economic situation of students, the majority of them do not have available learning devices to keep up with the demands of online learning. Some students were sharing one device with other siblings, while others had to endure using mobile phones in attending synchronous classes and in working with tasks and activities. One of the reasons why students were compelled to choose pure online learning modality over print based modular learning or electronic based modular learning is the aspect of timeliness and the sense of belongingness. They felt that they had to be with their other classmates and instructors in real time so they had to be resourceful in meeting the demands brought about by all the other courses in this learning modality.
“I find it very difficult to communicate with my groupmates because I don’t have a laptop at that time and my phone is already broken so there’s one time our leader is upset with us and tell us what she felt about our cooperation and work but after that confrontation, we settled and said sorry for our mistakes.” (P14)
Some participants complained that they could not focus on their academic work because they had to do some household chores or errands, which disrupt their participation and learning process. It is a reality in this distance learning set up that there is no boundary between school and family responsibilities because they often overlap. Some students were confused about what to prioritize as they were sometimes overwhelmedwith much coursework in their other subjects along with the major output (e.g., research), and their urge to help at home with chores or to look for additional income. With these overlapping responsibilities, it becomes a
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deterrent factor to students' success in this course and this learning platform if they could not manage their time and responsibilities.
“Other small issues relating to communication problem points to the fact that not all of us are free all the time. When we do planning and agreements about our assigned research parts, not all are present. Some were late responding due to their commitments at home. So, as the leader, the thing that I did was to leave a detailed message for my groupmates to easily and comprehensively absorb the things that I asked them to do.” (P39)
Cognizant of the challenges of the learning platform and the public health crisis, students had to work in group for their educational research project. With the heterogeneous nature of the group in terms of previous learning experiences in research, some participants expressed concern about the quality of their output and collective performance. This concern stems from their observation of their groupmates with limited background knowledge in research, apathetic members, and mediocre mentality, among others. Another issue cited by students that served as a deterrent factor to producing quality research output was the research process itself in terms of data collection. While others found it convenient to collect data through an online platform, some groups complained that reaching out to their target respondents was extremely difficult due to physical restrictions along with the availability of respondents when reached out online.
“One of the difficulties we faced was during the gathering of data. Because our sample size is quite big and we had to follow certain strata for our respondents, we were very challenged with finding such students who fit the criteria we set. We had to message every student individually from the list of names their bloc chairpersons gave us. It was very time consuming since we were spammed a couple of times with Messenger and email. It did test our patience on data collection but it made us understand the value of connection among our peers and our determination to finish our research with full accuracy and rigor." P(46)
The present study drew out the experiences of preservice teachers in terms of the enabling and deterrent factors affecting their undergraduate educational research undertaking using pure online instructional delivery. Among the factors that contributed to their learning outcome in this course were their prior knowledge, the presence of a support group, accessibility to learning resources, and the perceived gains they will develop in terms of personal and professional growth. Several studies in the literature focusing on preservice teachers' undergraduate research experiences during traditional in class learning highlights the benefits that students gained from the process of doing research supported by various enabling factors (Ulvik, 2014; Linn et al., 2015; Stanford et al., 2015; van Ingen & Ariew, 2015; Gilmore et al., 2015; Miller et al., 2019; Ruth et al., 2021).
The first theme on prior knowledge and experience corroborated reports from the literature that early research experience benefits undergraduate students in terms of increased retention and learning gains (Standford et al., 2015) and positive
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attitude as they were more intrinsically motivated to engage in research due to their research experience (Guilbert et al. (2016). These student researchers had their previous exposure and training in research during their junior and senior high school years because of the curricular reform in the country to produce globally competitive graduates which we believe contributes to the extent of engagement in research and the quality of their output and performance.
In the Philippine education system, students have already been exposed to several types of research as stipulated in the K to 12 curricula where students had more or less three research subjects with a graduated level of complexity in terms of content and outcome. As they progress through the university level, more intensive research based coursework and discipline based research subject (e.g., educational research, research in teaching science) are part of the teacher education program.
Preservice teachers' confusion about research diminishes as they engage more in research tasks particularly those with the real world application (Toquero, 2021). In the context of online learning, the quality and extent of previous research training these students have had play a major role in their involvement in their group research project as students always tend to anchor their present perception of research to their experience. Few reported positive encounters with teachers and the content but several of them revealed worst experiences and inadequate training. Moreover, part of their coping mechanism to sustain their motivation in conducting research in this online learning setup is through cultivating a support group in the person of their parents, mentors, classmates, and friends. For instance, a student reported that having an approachable mentor helped them to continue what they were doing despite the many challenges they are facing (psychological, economic, physical, and emotional).
According to Song et al. (2016), students' emotional responses and instructors' self disclosure enhances the student teacher relationship, which as a result increases gain in perceived knowledge and learning satisfaction. Active mentoring practices showed to be a significant influence on students' perceived competence (Davis & Jones, 2017). Meanwhile, the observation that the support group enabled students' positive research and online learning experience contrast Alqurashi's (2019) claim that learner to learner interaction was not predictive of student satisfaction and perceived learning in an online learning environment. It is evident in the current study that these student researchers relied on their groupmates and other peers to work collaboratively on their research project and even offered assistance to those who are struggling due to communication barriers. Information sharing and development predicted learning at the same time access and motivation leads to student satisfaction (Tratnik, et al., 2019).
Supporting students in the online learning environment contribute to increased student success, satisfaction, and retention (Brown et al., 2020).
The theme of accessibility to learning resources supports the observation of van Ingen and Ariew (2015) that to prepare preservice teachers to engage in the complex research process, they had to foster collaboration with librarians and
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other groups as a learning resource to develop information literacy skill thereby gaining higher achievement. This essential skill is viewed as the beginning step of the process of linking research to teaching practice. Students reported that through this online learning setup, they were able to maximize the accessibility and use of a wide array of these resources to their advantage and content enrichment. This finding further supports Alqurashi's (2019) report that learner to content interaction was the strongest and most significant predictor of student satisfaction in an online learning environment while online learning self efficacy was the strongest and most significant predictor of perceived learning due to the availability of online learning materials. While it is recognized that these online learning materials served as enabling factors for positive learning outcomes, especially in research, Soffer and Cohen (2019) countered that access to these materials does not necessarily guarantee meaningful engagement however it is a factor to their achievement. The theme of perceived gains of knowledge, skills, and attitude among these undergraduate students relates to Ulla's (2018) findings on Filipino teachers' motivation to pursue research out of degree compliance and job promotion. While some participants nuanced that the manifested intrinsic motivation to conduct research because of the various skills they developed such as critical thinking, communication skill, and other competencies alongside the research process, it is undeniable that in the online learning modality, this perceived gain served as an enabling factor for undergraduate research. This study posits that undergraduate research in this online learning modality is successful in the aspect of perceived gains by students with the knowledge and skills which Ni (2013) attributed such development to the nature of online learning in which students must communicate both individually and collaboratively in the online environment by writing and posting their work or ideas. On top of this, the virtual space appears less intimidating which enhances the participation of most students belonging to the 'Net Generation' (Ni, 2013). Increasing opportunities for students to be involved in a research undertaking in the online learning modality lead to a perceived improvement in understanding the research process and ethics, self confidence, perseverance, and collaboration (Ruth et al., 2021).
Consequently, several studies disclosed the common barriers and concerns encountered by undergraduate students in conducting research whether in the classroom learning set up Ulvik, 2014; van Ingen & Ariew, 2015; Miller et al., 2019; Sanchez et al., 2021; Batmang et al., 2021) or compared to the online learning environment (Ni, 2013). The findings of the present study revealed common issues encountered by these student researchers as they navigated the online learning environment in conducting research. Communication barriers, lack of resources that support their online learning, overlapping responsibilities, and concerns about quality output and performance served as deterrent factors that affected their research learning. Student researchers reported real struggle as they tried to huddle virtually as a team to discuss their research project and even during synchronous sessions, they could not meet or participate because of poor internet connection.
Another issue is the technical glitches because some students were not equipped with competent and proper online learning devices for economic reasons that they
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endure using old laptops or mobile phones or staying at the internet café to keep up with the demands of online learning and the research course work. This issue with technology hinders effective communication critical for successful distance learning through online modality. These challenges may have caused some members of the team to be less participative leading to poor learning outcomes or low satisfaction in the learning process. This observation is similar to Imafuku et al. (2015) report that interpersonal communication, understanding of the research process, and social relationships with others widen the differences among students that contributedto a barrier to learning research in an online class setting. Unique to this kind of online research undertaking is the manner of data collection in which they are heavily dependent on different tools and mediums to reach out to their respondents for surveys or interviews. While web based surveys were viewed as rapid and low expense data collection procedures (Steele, 2008), the student researchers were apprehensive of its employment in their research project due to the credibility and validity of the data collected given that they are limited to self reported responses only. This concern became a deterrent factor to students for their research project as they reported difficulty in reaching out to the target respondents due to survey fatigue (Steele, 2008) as most of the students conducting research focus on their locale within the institution or neighboring setting, thereby increasing occurrence of web based surveys on campus. This phenomenon led other students to ignore or resent such surveys. Students also complained about a lack of feedback received on their output which could be attributed to overlapping responsibilities of the mentor, the bulk of research projects being supervised, and overloaded schedules, among others that diminish mentor researcher dialogue and constructive Feedbacking. To avoid such a scenario, Ajjawi and Boud (2017) recommended that both students and teachers co construct comments and interactive dialogue and engage actively in the process and meaning making from the feedback.
Generally, students claimed to have gained personal and professional benefits from their research undertaking despite their unconventional learning setup. Although they encountered setbacks in their learning process due to some deterrent factors that mainly resulted from the nature of the online class, students found ways and means to overcome it through a positive mindset towards doing research in the online learning environment in the hope that it will improve their professional qualification and teacher competence. This study successfully elucidated students' experiences in conducting undergraduate research in the face of an unconventional learning setup. However, it also recognizes some methodological limitations employed in this study, particularly on the source of data, which only relied on the end of course reflection paper of select students. To trace the development of research skills and interaction of potential elements in undergraduate research done through online modality, a longitudinal and cross case analysis of stakeholders can be conducted for future research direction.
Conducting undergraduate research is a critical aspect of teacher education preparation to capacitate prospective teachers to be an effective and reflective practitioners in the field with the personal and professional gains they developed. With the unconventional learning setup brought about by the global health crisis,
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the complexity of this course is magnified. Two main conclusions were deduced from the research experience of these student researchers in the online learning modality. First, some factors promote successful learning outcomes and positive learning experiences among students when they are provided with a supportive learning environment, mentoring, and a built foundation of knowledge and skills. It is evident from students' narratives that they have had varied prior experiences in research affecting their knowledge, skills, and attitude toward to course and toward the learning process. Second, being new to this unconventional online learning platform and given the complexity and demands of the research course, students encountered challenges that made their learning experience meaningful. These deterrent factors come in the form of technical, financial, emotional, and psychological concerns. Despite all these challenges, they remain optimistic amidst the situation and develop a positive attitude towards research by looking forward to the benefits that it may provide to them as future teachers. Relevant to teacher preparation and development as key building blocks in developing effective teachers (Darling Hammond, 2017), this study emphasized the need to strengthen undergraduate research through the provision of a supportive online learning environment and hands on mentoring in the form of feedback and consultation. Higher education institutions and mentors need to be informed of the salient strategies to support online teaching and learning by considering the experiences of students. In light of the findings, future research may be conducted on mapping out the extent of involvement of the teacher/mentor and the extent of autonomy of students in the research process. This study is cognizant of the following limitations on the methodological aspect owing to the nature of the study which involved a smaller sample size. Furthermore, the data source through students' reflection papers may also have served as a limitation, which may have restricted students from further describing details of their experiences. Nevertheless, this study was able to shed light on enabling and deterrent factors influencing students learning experience and outcomes in research in an online learning setup.
The authors would like to extend the utmost gratitude to the Center for Research and Development (CRD) of Cebu Normal University for the institutional funding provided for this study.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 178 194, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.9
Received Aug 11, 2022; Revised Oct 11, 2022; Accepted Oct 18, 2022
Mohamad Aidil Hasim
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia
Juhaini Jabar*
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia
Atirah Sufian
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia
Nor Fauziana Ibrahim
Multimedia University Malacca, Malaysia
Abstract. With its plethora of benefits, E learning has the potential to attractstudentstoaneducationalenvironment.Unfortunately, E learning can cause students to become passive learners. Most learning occurs asynchronously, and students typically feel estranged from their instructors and peers. This paper explains the pilot test approach to a proposed framework model based on E learning antecedents, digital readiness, usage behavior and E learning performance, before embarking on the extensive research necessary to develop best practices in E learning. The content validity index and a pilot study were used to determine the usability and reliability of a survey questionnaire. Based on a simple random sampling plan, an online survey method was used to gather data from 102 respondents at the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia. The results indicate that the instrument's content validity index value is 0.97, which is significantly greater than the cut off value of 0.8. The Cronbach alpha values for most of the constructs in the proposed framework model ranged between 0.905 and 0.970, indicating that the constructs are highly reliable. To contribute to the body of knowledge, the researchers provide an overview of the pilot test procedures as well as the methodology that was utilized. Based on the integration of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology and task technology fit models, a proposed framework model is presented to provide a more comprehensive framework model. It is concluded that the questionnaire items are adequate and acceptable for further investigation
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
on a broader scale. Thus, the instrument can be examined further in other settings.
Keywords: E Learning antecedents; usage behavior; E Learning Performance; pilot research
In the past decennium, many higher education institutions have tried to boost students’ education performance by utilizing emerging technologies that could provide novel approaches to providing and creating new environments in university education (Al Kumaim et al., 2021; Deng & Tavares, 2013; Sun & Chen, 2016). E-learning was used by universities to assist in the delivery of academic resources, to improve communication between students and instructors, to encourage student learning communities, to monitor knowledge development in students, and to enable students to participate in E learning courses (Kim et al., 2019; Rashid & Asghar, 2016; Zalat et al., 2021). E learning platforms are developing rapidly, due to the popularization and promotion of network technologies and multimedia, such as high definition video, high speed Internet, and the smart tools and features of numerous learning management systems (Cidral et al., 2018; Zalat et al., 2021). E learning offers students the opportunity to access, repeat, and utilize educational materials. Technological aids and approaches of E learning platforms could promote education excellence and performance by providing optimized learning resources and schemes that are matched to each student’s requirements and priorities (Kim et al., 2019). This phenomenon has stirred the belief that conventional learning could be fortified by E learning.
The COVID 19 pandemic compelled changes in the way higher education institutions approach the teaching and learning process. The pandemic impacted the interaction between academics and students. Because of the way this virus is spread, universities, colleges and schools around the world were compelled to close, and to shift their courses online in order to keep teaching and learning going (Adams et al., 2021) all their interactions with students had to be conducted through the Internet (Abdullah et al., 2020). The impact of the pandemic on universities’ pedagogical activities was lessened by the implementation of mitigation strategies, such as flexible online learning and E assessment (Rapanta et al., 2020). Universities were advised to opt for open distance learning as an alternative approach to teaching and learning, so that students and academics could interact remotely and limit interference in the educational process by the COVID 19 pandemic (Mustafa, 2020).
Higher education institutions should advance E learning platforms, so that they become students’ preferred teaching approach, or an auxiliary technique to conventional face to face lessons, so that students comprehend the technological procedures involved, become accustomed to the use of this technology and become digital natives (Parkes et al., 2015; Gherheș et al., 2021).
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E learning has slowly become the new norm. Students are being required to complete their coursework at home, in order to assist in the prevention and control of the pandemic (Adams & Dewitt, 2021). In this context, online learning has numerous advantages; however, students who participate in online learning may experience a loss of motivation, delayed feedback or too little assistance, because the majority of the learning takes place asynchronously and instructors are not always available at the times students require assistance while learning; students frequently feel disconnected from their lecturers and classmates, which cause students to become inactive learners (Vavasseur et al., 2020).
These consequences indicate that students were not ready or prepared for switching to entirely online learning. Few students had received adequate training to comprehend, operate, and apply E learning packages effectively (Almaiah & Al Khasawneh, 2020; Eze et al., 2020), which led to students having mixed perceptions about using E learning (Kim et al., 2019). There is a paucity of empirical research in Malaysia that focused solely on students’ engagement in E learning experiences, and their performance (Adams et al., 2021). Therefore, this study intended to validate the component of E learning antecedents, digital readiness, and usage behavior towards E learning performance through a pilot study The study makes a contribution to the evolution of the most effective procedures for application in an E learning setting.
A pilot study is a study that is undertaken before the main research is conducted; the aim is to determine whether an approach that is planned for a larger scale study is feasible (Fraser et al., 2018). According to Van Teijlingen and Hundley (2002), the goals of a pilot study are to (a) evaluate the appropriateness of the research instruments; (b) establish the feasibility of the research procedures; (c) evaluate the viability of a full scale project; d) provide specific answers in relation to logistical concerns; e) gather preliminary data; f) validate the sampling frame and method; g) determine the appropriate sample size; and h) persuade funding agencies that the planned extensive study is both doable and beneficial. It is recommended that a pilot study is carried out to ascertain the potential risks connected to the sample size, method of data collection, sample selection, data management, and data analysis (Memon et al., 2020). Hence, a pilot study is required to be carried out. Most published pilot studies were in medicine (Lancaster, 2015), leaving much to be desired in other fields (Van Teijlingen & Hundley, 2002). Fraser et al. (2018) suggest that more pilot studies need to be published, to facilitate knowledge exchange and improving subject recruitment and intervention delivery and allowing researchers to get a better idea of how many samples they need for a pilot study.
The main objective of this pilot study was to test or assess a questionnaire before it was deployed, in order to examine the feasibility of an approach that will be used in a larger scale study. The pilot study validated the instrument based on respondents’ understanding, as indicated by their responses to a questionnaire. This analysis was carried out to determine how well respondents understood each item in the construct. The present endeavor contributes to the literature on the
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topic of the research. The results of this pilot study will assist researchers to refine their plans for data collection, based on the data content and relevant procedures (In, 2017).
A pilot study is conducted on a relatively small sample, or as a trial, to ensure the success of the larger investigation. The adoption of certain research instrument is subject on its validity, since it has been proven by a pilot study. There are a number of guidelines for selecting the appropriate number of participants for a pilot study. For instance, Cooper and Schindler (2011) recommended a sample size of between 25 and 100 respondents. In turn, Hill (1998) and Isaac and Michael (1995) recommend that a pilot test should consist of between 10 and 30 participants Whitehead et al. (2016) indicate that the minimum sample size for a pilot test of a large scale survey is 40. However, Hair et al. (2018) state that the majority of research scenarios call for at least 50 samples and, in most cases, 100 samples (Memon et al., 2017; Memon et al., 2020), while Yusoff and Tengku Arifin (2021) explain that a pilot study's sample size could range from a few hundred to 200 in the case of a large scale survey.
A total of 133 respondents were recruited for this pilot study. After the screening process, 102 social sciences students of the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Malaysia, remained as a sample frame for the pilot test. The rationale for selecting social sciences students for this study related to the aim, namely to to gain an understanding of the level of self efficacy and readiness regarding the usage of the E learning system of social sciences students, since previous studies had indicated that engineering students had significantly higher self efficacy regarding E learning, compared to students with social sciences backgrounds (Fantz et al., 2011; Mamaril et al., 2016).
This study aimed to understand how social sciences students perceived their E learning antecedents, readiness, usage behavior, and performance in relation to the use of E learning platforms. Thus, the pilot study was carried out to accomplish the following objectives:
• To prepare a questionnaire that investigated the four main constructs, namely E learning antecedents, digital readiness, usage behavior and E learning performance;
• To examine the reliability and validity of the instrument utilized;
• To generate items for measuring E learning antecedents and usage behavior in relation to E learning performance.
Over the last decade, the adoption of E learning by higher education institutions worldwide has increased at a breakneck pace. Contributing to this surge are breakthroughs in education technology and the transition to 21st century learning (Miller, 2018). In the past, E learning was used mainly by colleges that offered distance learning programs (Osman et al., 2018). Today, E learning in higher education may appear to be welcoming to a wide range of students as a result of the proliferation of inclusive technological tools and practices. E learning features
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or components are being incorporated into an increasing number of course formats, ranging from entirely online to blended and hybrid forms, with the goal of improving students' educational experiences (Yang, 2020).
Researchers have demonstrated a strong interest in examining the adoption of E learning from various angles. One topic that has been extensively studied is the readiness of faculty and students to accept this form of learning (Cheng et al., 2019). E learning has emerged as a potentially useful strategy for extending learning beyond the traditional confines of the classroom (Yang, 2020). Studies on students' readiness for E learning or its variants were undertaken during the campus closures that were caused by the COVID 19 pandemic. This was because institutions started emphasizing E learning as a means of mitigating the effects of the pandemic (Tang et al., 2021). Studies indicate that another critical area of effort for E learning in higher education is overcoming implementation problems (Heilporn et al., 2021).
Despite some of the challenges that are commonly reported in Malaysia, such as a lack of infrastructure and institutional support, the outcomes of E learning adoption as reported in Malaysian literature are predominantly positive. Jie and Fernandez (2021) discovered that, in small towns, maintaining a stable internet connection continues to be an issue. This finding is consistent with that of Azizan et al. (2021), who found that students' learning and E learning performance continue to be hampered by limited internet access. To improve student performance, E learning in higher education institutions should emphasize digital technologies, such as E learning platforms, in developing educational materials for students, and should standardize courses in the university environment (Coman et al., 2020). Moreover, the utilization of this technology should be made compulsory for students at universities, to encourage information and communications technology (ICT) usage so that students are confident about using technology (Hailegebreal et al., 2022). Students' self efficacy in using E learning as the main platform of their learning process is expected to increase. Thus, a study is required to measure E learning antecedents and usage behavior towards E learning performance. This study is anticipated to contribute to the successful implementation of E learning platforms in the Malaysian context.
Based on the research that was reviewed, Figure 1 proposes a framework model. This study is based on the integration of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model as proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003), and the task technology fit (TTF) model as proposed by Goodhue and Thompson (1995) as an underpinning theory. The UTAUT model is a robust and validated model that is extensively used to examine the factors that could influence the adoption and use of information systems and technologies (Dwivedi et al., 2019; Zainab et al., 2018). Similarly, the empirical study results report that the TTF model is an effective model for analyzing information systems adoption and use behavior (D'Ambra et al., 2013; Vongjaturapat, 2018). Thus, the UTAUT and TTF models were used by this study to explain the development of the proposed framework model.
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Initially, the UTAUT model was developed to forecast the acceptance of technology by users, and to assist in explaining users' intentions to use an information system, and their subsequent usage behavior (Ayaz & Yanartas, 2020). However, Dwivedi et al. (2019) claim that the UTAUT model omits some potentially significant relationships, and that others may not be applicable in all situations, such as the facilitating condition and behavior intention. Based on the findings done by Dwivedi et al. (2019), this study critically analyzed and refined the original UTAUT model, to advance theory and identify future research directions. Thus, omitting constructs such as facilitating condition and behavior intention may help to explain the findings more clearly, since the facilitating condition and behavior intention were found to be poor predictors, and tend to be unstable, which could affect the proposed model used in this study (Ajzen, 2020; Wedlock & Trahan, 2019).
This new model integrates the UTAUT model and the TTF model, which provides a more comprehensive model for examining E learning usage behavior towards E learning performance. The model below consists of six independent variables presented as E learning antecedents that could influence student usage behavior towards E learning performance: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, personal innovations, task characteristics, and technology characteristics. Additionally, digital readiness was introduced as a new construct to serve as a mediating variable. Digital readiness is the second order model, which incorporates technical competencies, computer self efficacy, and self directed learning in a single parent construct.
To confirm the analysis, path analysis in structural equation modeling and bootstrapping were used to measure the total effect, the direct effect, and the indirect effect between the constructs. The algorithm compiled a table that includes the minimum and maximum values, as well as the two tailed significant values, for the effects. The researchers used these values to compare the mediation test results with the bootstrapping results In this study, income classification was employed as a moderator variable. Multi group confirmatory factor analysis was adopted to assess the effect of the moderator variable included in the model, as
introduced via AMOS software (Feng et al., 2020). Finally, usage behavior may influence E learning performance. E learning performance is the outcome of the proposed framework model; therefore, 12 constructs were included in the proposed framework model.
In this study, a cross sectional survey research design was employed to collect the data. A total online survey was administered to 102 respondents of the Faculty of Technology Management and Technopreneurship, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, who had been selected through simple random sampling. According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), when the population size is 400, the minimum number of respondents for an adequate sample is 196. Since this survey was intended for a pilot study, 102 respondents were sufficient. Respondents were selected through simple random sampling because it was seen as the best way to provide the data, because each respondent had an equal chance of being chosen (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). The sample consisted of students enrolled for Bachelors of Technology Management: Technology Innovation (30.4%), Supply Chain Management and Logistics (24.6%), and High Technology Marketing (23.5%), while 21.5% of respondents were enrolled for Bachelor of Technopreneurship. In accordance with specifications of this study, the respondents were chosen with the following criteria in mind: (1) respondents had to be first year students with a social sciences background, (2) respondents had to be using E learning at the time, and had to have been doing so for more than five months.
Before conducting the pilot test, a pre test was undertaken, which involved asking experts and respondents to fill out the questionnaire, so that any flaws in the instrument or its design could be discovered and corrected (Babin & Zikmund, 2015). Doing so enables researchers to address any flaws in the questionnaire before disseminating the final version to the respondents, to minimize biases and improve the quality of survey based research (Gaur et al., 2020). In this study, eight experts were recruited to participate in a pre test of the data gathering instrument to uncover the instrument's shortcomings via the content validity index (CVI). In this case, the role of experts is fundamental in explaining, clarifying, adding, supplementing and modifying the necessary aspects (Zun et al., 2019). The content validity of the questionnaire that was used in this study was validated by panel members who held doctoral degrees in technology management, organizational behavior or management information systems, and who used E learning platforms. This step ensured that the instrument was accurate and simple to grasp, and had undergone content validation via the CVI. Fernández Gómez et al. (2020) define content validation through expert judgment as obtaining an educated view from people with experience of the subject, who are considered competent experts, and who can contribute information, evidence, judgments and assessments. Table 1 illustrates the information of the expert information verification applied in this study.
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Expert Designation of expert Area of expertise Organization Years of experience
Expert 1 Professor Technology Management
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) 32
Expert 2 Professor Management Information Systems Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) 22
Expert 3 Professor (Professional Technologies) Organizational Behavior
Expert 4 Associate professor Technology Management & Information Systems
Expert 5 Associate professor Organizational Behavior
Expert 6 Associate professor (Professional Technologies)
Expert 7 Senior lecturer (Professional Technologies)
Organizational Behavior (E learning)
Management Information Systems (E learning)
Expert 8 Senior lecturer Management Information Systems (E learning)
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) 20
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) 13
Universiti Teknikal Malaysi Melaka (UTeM) 19
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) 21
Universiti Malaysia Sawarak (UNIMAS) 20
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) 6
The questionnaire was modified in response to their feedback. Items were altered in light of the pre test results, to amplify the face and content validity and the reliability of this study, based on their observations and understanding of the subject matter (Hasim et al., 2019). After the validation procedure had been completed, the data were collected. In this study, the data were collected using an online survey. The online questionnaire was completed by 133 people, but 31 of those responses had to be discarded because they were incomplete. Hence, data from 102 respondents were used for further analysis by this pilot study. All constructs were adapted and modified from previously validated studies, to boost transparency, as shown in Table 2. In the meantime, respondents provided informed consent and received an information sheet that explained the protocol and the purpose of the study. Anonymity was assured by detaching the participants’ written consent from the questionnaire, so that the researcher could not disclose respondents’ names in the research reports (Saunders et al., 2019). Respondents' information will not be reported publicly in a manner that identifies them (Ponto, 2015). Hence, the questionnaires were only numbered after data had been collected, and contained no identifying information.
The results indicate that the CVI value of the instrument is 0.97 significantly higher than the cut off value of 0.8 (Davis, 1992; Yusoff & Tengku Arifin, 2021). In this study, data from 102 respondents were analyzed using the Statistic Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 26. The results, based on the CVR, indicates that all 62 recommended items were adequately preserved after expert judgment, as demonstrated in Table 2. Table 3 illustrates the frequencies of responses relating to demographic profile obtained in this study.
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Item Question
Panel Approval (√)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 No. of Approvals CVR
1. I find E learning to be a useful learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2. I am aware that the E learning platform expedites the completion of my learning tasks √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3. I know E learning platforms increase my effectiveness in learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4. I know E learning platforms increase my productivity √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5. I know E learning platforms improve my learning result √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
6. I know E learning platforms increase my learning motivation √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
1.
I am aware that the E learning platform is intuitive √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2. I know E learning platforms help me to improve my skills √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3. I have become proficient at using the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ X √ 7 0.88
4. I am confident that my interaction with the E learning platform is lucid √ √ √ √ √ √ √ X 7 0.88
5. I am confident that my interactions with the E learning platform are comprehensible √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
1. People who influence my behavior think that I should use the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2. People who are significant to me believe that I should utilize the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3. My lecturers believe I should utilize the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4. My department's administration is supportive of the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5. The university has generally supported the use of the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
1. I am someone who is willing to try out a new E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2. I am usually the first of my peers to try out an E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3. I do not hesitate to try out the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4. I am someone who has a positive mindset to experiment with the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5. I prefer to use creative learning methods during my study (such as E learning platform) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
6. I discovered that I am interested in the E learning platform X X √ √ √ √ √ √ 6 0.80
1. I understand E learning platform allows me to learn whenever and wherever I want √ X X √ √ √ √ √ 6 0.80
2. I frequently seek advice from others to handle my learning problems in easier ways √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3. I frequently acquire knowledge by gathering data from others √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4. I frequently need interaction throughout the learning process √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5. I frequently need timely feedback throughout the learning process
1. I am aware E learning platforms encourage active engagement with students
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2. I feel the E learning platform is convenient since I can study anytime and anywhere √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3.
I always have the option of synchronous or asynchronous interaction via the E learning platform
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4. I always have the option to interact with the E learning platform via video, audio, images, or text √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5.
6.
7.
I am aware the technological features of the E learning platform are appropriate for supporting successful learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
I am aware E learning platform can provide me with good folder sharing and data synchronization function
I am aware E learning platform can allow me to access files/information on different devices and cross the operating systems
Digital Readiness (Technical Competencies)
1 I am confident in my ability to use the E learning platform for specific tasks
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
√ √ √ √ X √ √ √ 7 0.88
2 I am proficient at using a wide variety of E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3 I am comfortable using the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4 I am able to articulate the advantages of utilizing an E learning platform in my learning process.
5 I am able to incorporate E learning platforms into my learning activities.
6
Using the E learning platform inspires me to engage in more learning activities.
Digital Readiness (Computer Self Efficacy)
1 I am competent with fundamental Microsoft Office program operations
√ X √ √ √ √ √ √ 7 0.88
√ √ √ √ √ X √ √ 7 0.88
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2 I am confident in my ability to manage online learning software √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3 I am confident in using the Internet to search for information √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4
5
I am confident in my ability to learn new ICT tools on my own √ √ √ √ √ √ √ X 7 0.88
I am confident in my ability to solve any technical issues that may arise √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
6 I am confident that I can use ICT tools efficiently √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
1 I follow my own study schedule while studying online √ √ √ √ √ √ √ X 7 0.88
2 I seek help when I encounter difficulties with online learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3 I effectively manage my time while studying online √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4 I planned out the objectives for my online education √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5
I have a high expectation for my online learning process
1 I consider myself a regular user of the E learning platform
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√ √ X √ √ √ √ √ 7 0.88
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2 I do most learning tasks by using the E learning platform √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3 Whenever possible, I use the E learning platform √ √ √ √ X √ X √ 6 0.80
4 I frequently use the E learning platform for my regular tasks √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5 I intend to utilize the E learning platform frequently in the future. √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
1 Using E learning helps improve my academic performance (such as CGPA) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
2 Using E learning allows me to think through challenges more effectively √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
3 Using E learning enables me to improve my competitiveness during the study √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
4 Using E learning allows me to respond more quickly to change √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
5 Using E learning assists me in achieving my learning outcomes √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
6 In general, I find that E learning is helpful in organizing my academic work √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 8 1.00
Content Validity Index (CVI) 0.97 CVR = (Ne−N/2)/(N/2) involved eight expert panels (n = 8); items with CVR values of 0.8 and above were retained, because they served adequately as instrument forming items.
Table 3: Respondents’ demographic profile (N = 102)
Variable Category Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 29 28.4 Female 73 71.6 Race Malay 72 70.6 Chinese 14 13.7 Indian 5 4.9 Other 9 10.8 Age 19 20 years 8 7.8 21 22 years 90 88.2 23 24 years 4 3.9
Religion
Direct entry from (education status)
Muslim 79 77.5 Buddhist 14 13.7 Christian 7 6.9 Hindu 2 2.0
Matriculation/Foundation/A level/O level 7 6.9 Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM) 89 87.3 Diploma 6 5.9
Bachelor of Technopreneurship 22 21.5
Bachelor of Technology Management (High Technology Marketing) 24 23.5
Bachelor of Technology Management (Technology Innovation) 31 30.4
Bachelor of Technology Management (Supply Chain Management & Logistics) 25 24.6
CPGA Low (< 3.00) 23 22.5 Average (3.00 3.49) 57 55.9 High (3.50 4.00) 22 21.6
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Hair et al. (2010) describe reliability as an assessment of the consistency of variables. This assessment is essential, because it can determine an instrument's value and ensure that it has relevant value to the field of study. Thus, any instrument's reliability should be evaluated before its validity is determined (Hair et al., 2011). According to Sekaran and Bougie (2016), the four most frequently used reliability procedures are test retest, alternate forms, split halves, and Cronbach's alpha. This study used Cronbach's alpha to determine the consistency of the scale overall. Cronbach's alpha is a statistical technique used by a study to determine the reliability of constructs. An alpha value greater than 0.7 is considered acceptable (Cortina, 1993; Nurakun et al., 2018). A study done by Taber (2018) also indicated that a Cronbach's alpha range of 0.7 and above is acceptable for behavioral research purposes. Table 4 depicts the rule of thumb for Cronbach's alpha that was used in this study to determine reliability.
Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient Range Strength of Association 0.9 and above Very high 0.70 ≤ to < 0.90 High 0.50 ≤ to < 0.70 Moderate 0.30 ≤ to < 0.50 Low < 0.30 Very low Adopted from Taber (2018)
The reliability analysis was performed to determine the alpha coefficients for each construct and the internal consistency of each item (Cronbach, 1951). In this study, most of the alpha coefficients of the constructs ranged from 0.905 to 0.970. All the constructs achieved scores of at least 0.7, which means that Cronbach's alpha values for all constructs indicate excellent internal consistency.
It ought to be indicated that an instrument's validity is closely related to its reliability – an instrument cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Furthermore, Taber (2018) asserts that a reliability of greater than 0.70 is perfectly adequate. In other words, the greater the difference between Cronbach's alpha value and 1.0, the higher the degree of reliability. Based on the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value, the questionnaire was deemed acceptable and reliable to use, as specified by Taber (2018), indicating that acceptable coefficient alpha values must be greater than 0.7, as illustrated in Table 5.
Construct Number of Items Mean Standard Deviation
Cronbach’s Alpha
Performance Expectancy 6 5.7680 0.95099 0.948
Effort Expectancy 5 6.2824 0.75116 0.967
Social Influence 5 5.8353 0.83128 0.905
Personal Innovativeness 6 5.7680 0.84339 0.924
Task Characteristics 5 5.9333 0.90645 0.970
Technology Characteristics 7 5.8431 0.85915 0.953
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Technical Competencies 6 5.7614 0.88550 0.953
Computer Self Efficacy 6 5.7320 0.89065 0.944
Self Directed Learning 5 5.6961 0.86824 0.934
Usage Behavior 5 5.7980 0.89950 0.959 E learning Performance 6 5.7663 0.89130 0.952
After a comprehensive pilot study, this study successfully established the validated research instruments and enhanced the research design for the substantive investigation. This crucial phase of the piloting process uncovered several challenges, including concerns about the usefulness of the instruments and their transferability. In fact, the integration of the UTAUT and TTF models will produce a more comprehensive framework model for investigating the variables used in this study. Furthermore, this study empirically examined and validated the existing questionnaire in the study context via the CVI and pilot study. The present study found the instrument's CVI value to be 0.97, which is significantly greater than the cut off value of 0.8. All 62 recommended items were retained, based on expert judgment. The findings of the pilot study demonstrate that an online survey is appropriate and conducive for a large scale survey.
At the moment, the methodological literature gives scant guidance on how pilot studies can be used to evaluate the practicability of various aspects of the novel intervention, including recruitment, randomization, retention, assessment procedures, and new methods in research. Hence, this study contributes to a greater understanding and awareness of how pilot studies might influence knowledge and aid in the development of high quality research a problem that merits more debate in published literature. Empirically, the UTAUT and the TTF models might be an effective research framework for accessing E learning antecedents and usage behavior towards E learning performance. The validation of these items contributes to knowledge development by expanding the body of knowledge (literature), and it indicates that validation items are reliable and adequate for use in E learning practice. Hence, the instrument that was used can be examined further in various settings.
The authors would like to extend heartfelt appreciation to the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka and the Centre for Technopreneurship Development for funding this project under INDUSTRI(IRMG)/YAPERTIB/2020/FPTT CTED/I00043.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 195 211, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.10
Received May 31, 2022; Revised Sep 7, 2022; Accepted Sep 14, 2022
Abstract This study sought to explore challenges in the current practices of including children with intellectual disabilities (IDs) in early childhood development (ECD) with a view to using the findings to improve their access to early learning programmes. The study employed semi structured interviews, focus group interviews, nonparticipant observation and document reviews. Individual interviews were employed to gather data from eleven ECD teachers and five school heads. From each of the five schools, five teachers were purposively selected to participate in focus group interviews. The study found that the execution of this seemingly rather complex practice of inclusion in early learning programmes has to be changed since teachers revealed that they lacked the expertise and necessary resources to meet the needs of these learners. Additionally, schools would prefer these children to attend special schools; they do not accept them and teacher education programmes do not prepare them effectively to work in inclusive environments. The study recommends that capacity building for ECD teachers be improved in order to equip them with adequate skills to deal with children with IDs In addition, it is recommended that ECD classes be adequately resourced in terms of material and infrastructure. The inclusion of children with IDs at ECD level should be supported by policies that clearly spell out how issues related to resources, class sizes, assessment and teacher education are addressed Support services should also be available to assist ECD teachers to meet the needs of children with IDs
Keywords: inclusion; intellectual disabilities; early childhood development
* Corresponding author: MercyNcube;ncubemercy123@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Historically the education of children with IDs has been left to chance as it was considered to be a waste of resources. Rotatori et al. (2011) noted that because disability made one a nonperson, persons with disabilities were excluded, mistreated and were considered as uneducable. In Zimbabwe, missionaries were the first to establish schools for children with IDs According to Mariga et al. (2014), previously children who were different were excluded from schools or attended special schools. They were educated under the auspices of special needs education in church established institutions (Chimonyo et al., 2014).
After attaining independence in 1980, the country developed a heightened interest in ECD provision to its eligible population. However, Nziramasanga (1999) found that although there were 1 000 ECD centres in both rural and urban areas in 1980, children with disabilities did not have access to ECD. Similarly, Kirk et al. (2012) observed that owing to the belief that their status could not be improved, children with disabilities were excluded from preschool programmes until the 1960s Instead, they were placed in institutions where they received custodial care. Moreover, Kirk made it clear that early experiences with development accelerated the mental and social capabilities of children with intellectual disability. Furthermore, the United States (US) Department of Health and Human Services (2015) claim that states and communities have expanded early learning opportunities for young children In 40 states pre kindergarten programmes are state funded; however, there is no expansion of early learning for children with disabilities.
Since 1988 many ECD centres have been established in the country and privately owned centres are required to register with the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. Research by Tafirei et al. (2013) found that children with IDs in their study were aged between eight and 19 years because in Zimbabwe these children start school later than non disabled peers and spend a longer time in school. They spend more years repeating grades to master skills that their peers would have mastered easily during ECD programmes. The teachers' goal would be to aid these children in the development of their moral, social, cognitive, and physical abilities. Even though the term "ECD" was not used, schools offered services that support development which are part of the ECD curriculum.
The advent of inclusive education (IE) meant that Zimbabwe had to introduce ECD in its schools to support this paradigm shift in education. The practice of IE and ECD is backed by international declarations and conventions. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (1994) reaffirmed the right of every child to education and that inclusion of individuals with disabilities should be a crucial component of that education. The UN Convention of the Rights of People with Disabilities (2008) indicated unequivocally that states must provide an inclusive
education system at all levels. The United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities (1993) rule 6, which focuses on education, indicates that states should ensure that the education of people with disabilities is an integral part of the education system Special attention should be given to very young and preschool children with disabilities. States have the responsibility for ensuring that children with disabilities access education at all levels, including early learning programmes. Also, countries that attended the Dakar Conference (2000) committed to implementing inclusive educational systems that seek out children who are not enrolled and react to their needs. One of the objectives established was to increase access to early childhood care and education (Mariga et al , 2014). Previous research studies show that inclusion has been actively considered in Zimbabwe since 1994. Children with disabilities have access to inclusive early learning programmes as recommended by Nziramasanga (1999). Allen and Cowdery (2012) observe that early childhood education gained widespread acceptance in the past quarter of the century and integration of young children with disabilities in this programme is a relatively new practice. These children’s development will be severely hampered if they do not have access to ECD, which in turn delays early intervention. In line with current global trends, the government has deemed it important to provide inclusive ECD in its primary schools. This has seen primary school education shifting from a seven year course to one of nine years This programme caters for children from three to six years old with ECD A comprising those aged three and four whilst ECD B comprises four and five year olds. Teachers have training in inclusive education (Mutepfa et al., 2007).
2.1 Benefits of ECD to learners with intellectual disabilities
ECD is the cornerstone of formal education and is seen as an essential component of the global education system. On the importance of ECD, the United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) (2013) observes that children who receive preschool education outperform those who do not have access to early education in terms of academic success, employment and earnings, health, welfare dependence and crime rates. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2015), both children with and without disabilities benefit from early childhood inclusion. If they do not access ECD, children with IDs may not have their potential nurtured. Chomba et al. (2014) point out everyone’s capacity can be increased to the extent where those with mild to moderate disabilities will eventually no longer be classified as having IDs. A building’s foundation is more important than the rest of it: it must be strong because it supports the rest of the structure. Through social interaction
ECD children develop physically, socially, cognitively and emotionally According to Omrod (2014), active interaction with the physical world is essential for cognitive growth. These children are characterised by developmental delays and thus may have limited interaction with their environment. Inclusive ECD programmes enable them to develop through social interaction.
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Acceptance of these children may be facilitated by knowledge of disability. According to Omrod (2012), the non disabled gain knowledge from IE about diversity of the human race and discover how similar to themselves those with IDs are in many respects. Owing to lack of early opportunities most people are sceptical about people with disabilities. Allen and Cowdery (2012) maintain that inclusion at the ECD level is crucial because it enables children with disabilities to imitate skills modelled by peers. Language acquisition and other behaviours are learnt through imitation. ECD provides a stimulating environment which influences learning and development which may eventually reduce the impact of the child’s disability.
Literature research has shown that there are obstacles to inclusion at various levels of education. Research by Kuyayama (2012) on ECD policy which supports inclusion found that although policies are inclusive, their implementation presents problems due to lack of human and financial resources as well as knowledge on inclusion. The researcher observed that the government has mandated primary teacher education colleges to train ECD teachers and their curriculum encompasses inclusive education. In terms of research on inclusive education in ECD in New Zealand (2012), it was found that children with disabilities are excluded because service providers are not adequately resourced to include these children. Furthermore, a study by Mukhopadyay et al. (2012) found that primary school teachers in Botswana favoured including students with mild disabilities over those with severe to profound instances. In Zimbabwe, the Education Act of 1987, revised in 2006 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1992 prevent discrimination against people with disabilities in public settings, such as schools. However, Mpofu and Shumba (2012) found that children with special needs were being taught by unqualified teachers, the curriculum was inappropriate, and the environment did not accommodate the difficulties faced by children with special educational needs in ECD centres in Zimbabwe. Numerous challenges affect the inclusion of children with disabilities at ECD level.
Based on the preceding section, the research questions can thus be formulated as follows:
• What are the current practices and issues surrounding the inclusion of children with IDs in ECD?
• How might inclusion at ECD level be improved?
The philosophy underpinning the concept of inclusive education (IE) in this study is that of constructivism and human rights. IE is premised on the social model of disability which locates the source of difficulties faced by children with disabilities in the educational environment (Hassanein, 2015). Physical, social, cultural, political and economic factors are barriers which have disabling effects that create disability socially by imposing limitations on certain individuals,
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including children with IDs, from participating in the school life. For instance, disability is created when a child using a wheel chair is expected to get into a room which has steps at its entrance. Their needs are not considered
Schools are no exception, as noted by Goepel et al (2014) who say barriers to learning and participation emanate from the interaction of the child with their environment. Vygotsky’s cultural historical theory views disability from a social constructionist perspective and stresses the importance of the sociocultural nature of disability for the methodology in IE as well as the importance of social learning in the upbringing and education of children with disabilities (Rodina, 2006). Isolating children with disabilities from typically developing peers creates disability. Inclusion in early learning is important because human learning and development take place in a social context It is against this background that children with disabilities have a right to ECD The social model of disability, according to Donohue and Bornman (2014), has its roots in the human rights paradigm. Adults and the physical environment socially construct disability by denying children with IDs the opportunity to interact with peers Human rights include the right to education, health, family life, the vote, employment and recreation facilities. Human rights apply to all people, not a selected few. The UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (2000) affirm the right to education for all children, youths and adults with disabilities in inclusive settings. The right to education is paramount because it enables them to access all other rights.
The research employed the qualitative interpretive research paradigm with a bias towards the phenomenological approach. This provided the opportunity to explore the phenomenon in its natural setting through the participants’ perspective (Cohen et al., 2018). The nature of the topic studied suits the qualitative interpretive paradigm which believes that knowledge is constructed basing on human interactions. The qualitative phenomenology approach permitted the researcher to build a robust understanding of the topic and unpack meanings people ascribe to their activities and situations (Leavy, 2017). This approach was chosen because it is flexible and not confined to a single case study. Phenomenological study advocates for the study of lived experiences of the people involved with the issues being researched (Cresswell, 2014). The research explored the phenomenon using interviews, focus group interviews, observations and document reviews. Semi structured interviews allowed the researcher to co construct knowledge whilst focusing the conversation on issues relevant to the study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). Focus group interviews enabled participants to speak freely about significant issues using their own language and describe their own experiences in detail with illustrations (Leavy, 2017). Observations were used to assess indoor and outdoor infrastructure. These techniques enabled the triangulation of results and ensured the trustworthiness of the study.
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Mutoko District in Mashonaland East Province in Zimbabwe served as the site of the study ECD class teachers, school heads and some teachers at the schools teaching grades one to three classes comprised the population of the study (Cohen et al, 2018). The teachers were purposively selected because they were better positioned to provide in depth information on the topic. Five schools were randomly drawn from a population of 90 primary schools. It is a sample drawn from a population in such a way that each element had a chance to be involved in the study. Ethical issues were considered throughout the study; prior to conducting the research, at the commencement of the research, as well as during data collection, analysis, reporting the data and publishing the study (Creswell, 2013).
Permission to conduct the study was sought from the District Education Officer at Mutoko. Interviews and focus group interviews were carried out at the schools to avoid disturbing participants during their time off work. Data were first transcribed. Multiple readings of the data allowed for the description, classification, and interpretation of the data (Creswell, 2013). Identified themes were then coded. The researcher had to review the themes, focusing on pattern codes which helped to put material into meaningful units and to identify data that addressed the research questions.
The study found that the inclusion of children with IDs in ECD is faced with several obstacles, among which are lack of adequate skills by teachers to teach these children, lack of resources, large class sizes, long distances to school and lack of parental involvement in some cases.
During interviews participants revealed that the inclusion of children with IDs at ECD level gave the children the opportunity to develop social skills, acceptable behaviours, friendships, gains in emotional development as well as learning language through imitation, and learning to write They also showcase their talents in sports. Attending school helps them learn to interact with others and discrimination is reduced whilst exclusion compounds their problems. One ECD teacher indicated the following: Significant improvement is seen in the child’s work, especially on colouring, fine motor skills and social development. She sometimes plays well with others though at times she is bully
Another ECD teacher said: It is good to include these children, especially in rural areas because some parents cannot afford sending them to special schools. It is better for them to come to school and be included rather than just sitting at home. At school they learn different social skills like sharing and listening to others.
Interviewed participants reported that these children develop socially, physically, intellectually and emotionally as they interact with others in ECD classes. Allen and Cowdery (2012) noted that inclusion at ECD level provides
children with disabilities with models to imitate. Interaction with others also facilitates learning.
Participants had varying experiences with children with IDs in ECD classes. They revealed that these children exhibited challenging behaviours which included disruptiveness, aggression and bullying. Attention problems, failure to follow instructions, and a lack of social skills were also mentioned. One teacher reported the following:
The child sometimes bullies others, fights others or just screams and does anything that she feels like doing and others will be disturbed.
Some children with ID who exhibited challenging behaviours should be dealt with in a manner that gives them the opportunity to learn acceptable behaviours. According to Heward (2014), limited self control, aggression, and bizarre as well as self injurious behaviour are more common in children with IDs than among their non disabled peers. Mariga et al (2014) suggest that being firm and consistent in managing challenging behaviours is crucial. Challenging behaviours could emanate from lack of attention or from lack of involvement in learning, leading to their exclusion. When children are not fully engaged in learning, they are likely to misbehave.
The child may not be able to reason like other children. The child does not do what he/she is expected to do and does not think that he is supposed to do it that way. The child does not understand very simple things.
These children faced challenges to learn because the teachers reported that they were insufficiently trained to teach these children. The challenges could also be due to teachers’ failing to adapt the curriculum to suit the learning abilities of these children with IDs. Kirk et al (2012) question the ability of teachers to assess needs of children with IDs and modify the curriculum appropriately.
Six children involved in this study had mild to moderate ID Some of the children had attention problems and were restless. During lesson observation, one child with ID stood up and started walking towards the window. The teacher had to get the child seated. During another lesson one of the children with ID failed to identify a triangle and showed no interest in group activities assigned by the teacher by keeping quiet and being uncooperative
It was observed that some children benefitted from interacting with peers. However, some children with IDs were seen beating and scolding their peers and on one occasion the teacher had to intervene. Whilst some children with IDs interacted with typically developing peers, the opposite was observed from others who exclusively interacted with peers they knew and to whom they related. Some occasionally accomplished tasks assigned by the teacher successfully and without any prompts. However, methodology was not adapted to accommodate these children. Also, it was noted that certain classes were overcrowded, the available seating furniture was not age appropriate, and in
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other cases, the students were crammed onto the few available benches, which led to a great deal of pushing and shoving and eventually, some fights. During one lesson that was conducted at the outdoor play area, one child with ID sat down by himself, despite the teacher's efforts to get him to join the others. He briefly joined them but kept quiet, and he eventually retreated and sat down in the play area. According to Balakrishnan and Cornelius (2012), it is possible for children with IDs who are placed in a mainstream class to remain segregated within the class and among peers.
The children’s samples of work in their portfolios supported the teachers’ claims that these children struggle with written work. One of the children had drawn a picture with human attributes (legs and hands). On another sample it was difficult to tell what the child had wanted to write; even simple patterns seemed difficult for the child to draw. Others merely scribbled all over the paper. The developmental checklists provided evidence that these children had acquired some self help skills. They were able to button and unbutton their clothing, tie their own shoelaces, and signalled when they wanted to use the toilet and did so hygienically and independently They were able to scribble with a beginner’s pencil and match pictures with familiar objects. Some could not turn the pages of a book without assistance and encountered challenges in writing numerals and copying their first names.
8.5.1Lackofsupport
During interviews participants said that parents did not show an interest in the education of these children. Teachers’ efforts to communicate with the parents of these children using various ways yielded no positive results. One of the teachers reported the following: They have not visited the school and l do not know them. If you ask the child to bring information about his date of birth he does not bring it. You write them a letter; they do not come. I do not know any of the people he claims to stay with. You invite them to the school; they do not turn up.
Participants expressed mixed feelings on the availability of support. Some reported that they received support from the district remedial tutor, specialist teachers and non governmental organisations whilst others lamented a lack of support from the district offices. However, they indicated that they were aware that they could seek assistance from the district. Nevertheless, the officer responsible for Special Needs Education rarely visited schools. This could be attributed to a lack of transport. It was also revealed that the remedial tutor sometimes arranges some workshops to assist teachers in their work. One of the school heads indicated the following: Sometimes on problems that we encounter we work with the parent, try to understand the challenge that their child is having and we also try by all means to provide some resources to support that child. We also try to link with the Psychological Services who recommends how we can help the child grow well regardless of his challenges.
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Lack of support personnel to assist class teachers makes it a challenge to include children with disabilities However, it is sad to note that teachers in this study managed ECD classes on their own because schools did not employ support personnel. Placing children with ID in inclusive settings without support is detrimental as observed by Allen and Cowdery (2012) who contend that adequate support must be provided to a child in an inclusive set up to succeed, otherwise the child may fail to learn. Lack of support may result in exclusion. Lack of support has greater implications for assessment which helps to identify strengths, weaknesses and the needs of the child. This, in turn, leads to appropriate placement and informed instructional objectives and activities (Mariga et al., 2014) Without assessment, teachers may face difficulties in providing appropriate education to children with IDs
Participants revealed that some parents do not send their children to school, pay school fees or provide them with basic needs while some teachers prefer that they enrol at special schools. Parents of children without disabilities do not want their children to associate with those with ID. One school head explained the following:
It is a challenge for parents to understand and accept their children’s situation. Some parents have got a tendency of not paying fees for them. They think everything is done by the government yet that’s not the scenario. If you invite them to come and you discuss with them, they seem not to be very supportive to these students. We are trying by all means to teach them on how they should handle and treat them and some of them are happy if you associate with them.
When asked why parents do not send these children for ECD learning, one teacher said:
I think the main reason is that parents are not aware of what ECD entails, therefore if they have a child with IDs, they think it is useless to send such a child to ECD since they just play.
When they were asked about the challenges that are encountered in the inclusion of children with IDs in early learning programmes, one of the ECD teachers said the following:
There was a big boy who had tantrums and was aggressive and one parent came and said, “‘Can you move my child from that group”’. He did not want his child to be associated with the child with IDs. l discussed the issue with him till he understood and l did not move the child from the group. I moved the mentally retarded child to another position such that he would not be segregated from the rest of the group. He sat among others instead of seating in a corner on his own. That was the only case, may be others complained at home.
Despite participants being aware of the benefits of including children with IDs in ECD, one of the ECD teachers said the following:
It would be better if they are sent to special schools because there are special teachers who have learnt to handle these children and for them to learn and have a better future.
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Generally, participants had negative attitudes towards the inclusion of children with IDs. These negative attitudes could emanate from lack of knowledge and negative societal beliefs about children with IDs. Chimonyo et al (2014, 27) contend that society harbours myths about children with IDs. Some people equate ID with mental illness. Pertaining to this result, Balakrish and Cornelius (2012, 85) maintain that low levels of awareness and the prejudices of other parents regarding the acceptance of children with disabilities in the same classroom as their children are impediments to successful inclusion. Also, parents do not pay fees or provide for their children with ID because they consider that as wasting resources. In this regard Mariga et al. (2014) observe that negative attitudes by parents who consider that it is not worth investing in the education of children with disabilities threaten inclusive education. Inclusion may be a challenge to implement and these children may eventually become school drop outs if the schools pressurise them to support the children, to pay fees and to provide other school necessities.
Teachers are unwillingly to accept these children: should the opportunity arise, they would prefer them to enrol in special schools. Under such circumstances these children may not benefit from inclusive classes.
Participants also mentioned how inclusion was affected by large classes. It would be very challenging to meet the needs of fifty children, especially if these included children with disabilities. At one school, there were more than 100 students in two of the ECD classrooms According to Belk (2005), teachers of inclusive courses should give children with disabilities individualized instruction, which influences how much time they spend with other children. If students do not receive individualized attention, their demands can go unmet. The study's classes ranged in size from 25 to 52. One ECD teacher stated the following:
I believe 34 children in a class are too many. The teacher to student ratio should be 20. I believe that is how we can best assist them all.
One of the teachers explained that:
The teacher pupil ratio at this level will not allow me to cater for individual differences because I will be moving around monitoring other children, those learners need extra attention. It would be beneficial if the government would approve of assisting teachers.
The participants indicated that class sizes of 20 25 would be reasonable since they do not have assistant staff. This result coincides with what Hassanein (2015, 129) found in Egypt, namely that teachers faced a dilemma in meeting the individual needs of children in large mainstream classes. He also found that the teachers were worried that class size affected the success of inclusion.
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The majority of the ECD teachers in this study had ECD teaching experience ranging from two to seven years. Three teachers had recently joined the profession as they indicated that they had teaching experience of one term (three months), while two teachers did not hold any qualification to teach ECD classes; instead, they were qualified to teach from grade one upwards. One of the ECD qualified teachers had a Bachelor of Education degree in ECD and was studying for a Master’s degree in ECD. The remaining teachers held diplomas in ECD while there was also an ECD certificate holder (para professional).
School heads revealed that the ECD teachers were adequately trained to teach children with IDs in ECD classes. At one school the head said that they had a qualified teacher who was able to teach children with IDs and a para professional who had attended short courses. She added that the latter had a better understanding of these children At another school, when asked whether the teachers were able to manage children with ID, the head reported the following: Sometimes they manage; occasionally I ask them what they are doing about those children They say that it is very difficult to handle them. So they need more training to assist those children. They need special schools but since all of them cannot go to special schools, we include them in our schools We enrolled them and teachers are doing their best to assist them, but more training is needed because these are special needs children who require special teachers.
However, the ECD teachers said that they were not adequately prepared to handle these children. Nziramasanga (1999) recommended that teacher training should include the basics of special education; however, the majority of practising teachers do not feel confident working with children with disabilities. Based on this suggestion, teachers from colleges are expected to be competent in managing these children in inclusive classes. Surprisingly, the teachers revealed that they were not competent to assist learners with ID. A recently qualified ECD teacher said: We were not adequately trained because we were introduced to such education when we were back from Teaching Practice and which means it was for some few months since we were preparing for examinations and they were in a rush all the time. We did not receive enough education. We have rough ideas on what it is but skills to help such children are not enough. A teacher must possess more than a qualification to teach ECD classes in order to manage an inclusive class.
According to UNESCO (2013), while it may appear easy to implement inclusive education, striving to do so in schools and without teacher education is difficult Another ECD teacher said the following: lt is better if they are sent to special schools because, there are special teachers who have learnt how to handle these children for them to learn and have a better future. At our schools we are not able to assist them to engage in any task because we were not educated to help children with such challenges.
Participants expressed a significant need for further education to enable them to work with children with IDs. They recommended workshops help teachers acquire the necessary information to deal with these children. An ECD teacher reported as follows:
We have the fundamentals but colleges should have that program alone. It should be a standalone subject because there are many children with disabilities in schools. It should not be covered under Psychology, so that we can have the skills we need to help these children
One of the participants suggested the following: l think the government should employ at least one specialist teacher at each school, to cater for these children.
Another participant from that group elaborated that teachers who are able to cater for these children should be deployed in schools similar to what is done for subjects such as Agriculture. Participants emphasised the need to fuse theory with practice. Pedagogy for children with disabilities should be included in coursework and practicum (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). This could guarantee that teachers receive the necessary training to work in inclusive classes.
It was also found that some schools lacked adequate resources for inclusion. Observations revealed that there were not sufficient materials or equipment. Although some participants indicated that their schools have adequate resources to accommodate learners with IDs in early learning programmes, the majority of participants believed that their schools were not adequately resourced. Both infrastructural and material resources were insufficient. Balakrishnan and Cornelius (2012, 83) state that there are various constraints in developing countries such as lack of infrastructure and inadequate resources to meet the needs of children with IDs. One of the school heads remarked as follows: The play centre is poorly resourced. Lack of adequate play material affects their play time. The School Development Committee is trying to find a solution but if we could get a donor of money we could buy slides and other items
In some schools, resources were not commensurate with the number of ECD children enrolled. The school heads reported that they did not have enough furniture or classrooms. Even though schools tried to address the challenges of resources for the ECD classes, they did not have adequate materials for these learners. This could be due to large ECD classes at the schools. One school head who responded to the question of how they obtain resources for ECD classes said:
We buy some through the School Development Committees whilst some are donated by UNICEF and non governmental organisations like Capnak. They donated material specifically for ECD children once
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Reiterating that their schools had adequate resources both in indoor and outdoor play areas. An ECD teacher reported the following: Swings and see saws are part of our outdoor area. Indoor play centres are equipped with different toys and blocks. As you can see, that child is attempting to make different shapes with the blocks like others That child enjoys playing with dolls on the dramatic area. Every time she puts the baby on her back and sweeps the classroom. We have everything necessary child development.
These findings are consistent with the National Report on the Status of Education by Zimbabwe (2008) which indicated that the government and private sector are not adequately funding ECD Generally, resources that are used by other children also benefit those children with IDs; however, the schools in the study lacked adequate resources owing to large classes. There were dolls, balls, and blocks and occasionally, non functional television sets and computers in the indoor play area There were no record players, tape recorders, music tapes or DVD players. Additionally, it was noted that one school’s furniture was insufficient and unsuitable for the young learners The children with IDs sat with peers in overcrowded classrooms. At two schools, the furniture was sufficient and child sized. The infrastructure in schools was impacted by the implementation of the ECD programme In some cases, the ECD A and B classes had to share one classroom allocated to them since classrooms were insufficient One of the school heads said: Our classrooms were adequate but enrolment has increased. Twenty will be in the room while the remaining 20 will be outside at play. Those that were inside go outside on a set time Children are confused by this and it affects the ECD programmes.
Participants expressed dissatisfaction with the circumstances which they claimed affected the young learners. Inclusion of learners with IDs at ECD level was affected by long distances Participants said that five kilometre distances were too far for young children to travel and that parents might be concerned for their children As a result, some children began early learning in ECD B class and others even attended the programme during the last terms of ECD B. According to one school head: ECD has a problem that children aged 0 4 years are not able to walk long distances, which is why they are few. Children aged five six year are not affected because they can walk long distances. Currently there is no child with IDs in EDC but last year we had one who is now in grade one. He drools and is not able to talk but he is included and managing. The main problem is that teachers are ill equipped to assist the child.
Walking distances are acknowledged as a barrier to inclusion at ECD (National Action Plan of Zimbabwe, 2005). It was found that some parents may be reluctant to enrol children with disabilities for the early learning programme out of concern that they might face harassment along the way to school or become lost owing to long distances. One of the teachers reported the following:
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Parents hide them because they are terrified of what society will say about their children. Some of them experience abuse by peers who may beat them as they travel. So, the parent will think it is better the child stays at home than sending the child to school. Some are afraid that the child gets lost along the way because he/she may not be able to return home alone. Some parents that the child not be able to do anything in life.’
This could be the reason why in some ECD classes in two schools there were no children with IDs when the study was conducted. In their study, Deluca et al (2014) found that school heads and teachers agreed that parents were worried that children with disabilities would be abused and that schools were too far from home. Under such conditions children with IDs are unlikely to be enrolled for ECD.
Participants revealed that some parents do not permit their children to complete the entire two year programme owing to financial difficulties. Financial constraints were mentioned as a problem that limited the amount of time students with IDs could attend ECD. Additionally, it was revealed that some community members who have children with IDs do not send them to school since some parents view them as useless. This has led some parents to send their children to school without books or fees. One participant commented as follows: Some children enrol for only a portion of the ECD course: it is difficult to determine if they attended and made any progress because the fees are too exorbitant. They do not complete the entire course.
Yet another participant added that: Parents do not have resources and they view paying school fees for such children as wasting money so they prefer to send other children to school.
The government of Zimbabwe introduced the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) in 2001 with the intention of assisting vulnerable children to access education (Smith et al., 2012). It is interesting to note that parents still struggle to pay fees. They add that underprivileged children, those with disabilities, and those with a history of failing to pay fees and levies are eligible for BEAM financing Zimbabwe has an obligation to provide quality education to children and to support vulnerable children (Smith et al., 2012). Therefore, it may be concluded that selection committees do not take children with IDs into account when choosing recipients of this programme Similarly, Deluca et al (2014) contend that though BEAM has a positive impact, children with disabilities are less likely to be considered as beneficiaries. The reason could be that society has negative attitudes towards these children and may consider registering them for BEAM as wasting resources
The purpose of the study was to examine the challenges of including children with IDs in early learning programmes. Despite the widespread acceptance of inclusion in early learning as a means to enhance the development of all
children, including those with disabilities, nations such as Zimbabwe still face difficulties in implementing this novel idea. The incorporation of inclusive education in teacher education curricula does not guarantee the provision of quality services to children with IDs. Key issues surrounding the inclusion in ECD were lack of resources, inadequate teacher training, negative attitudes, inaccessible schools, high teacher pupil ratios and lack of support. Because of the way society views these children, they are at risk of being excluded and subsequently dropping out of school. Evidence suggests that even recently qualified teachers were not capacitated to deal with children with IDs in inclusive classes. In addition, the Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education (SPS & SNE) Department is not providing the much needed support for successful inclusion. In order to provide quality inclusive ECD to all children, SPS and SNE should be capacitated to assist schools. In addition, teacher education must revamp its approaches to IE by covering concepts in greater depth.
To improve the inclusion of children with IDs in early learning programmes the study made the following recommendations:
1. Teacher education programmes should ensure that their curricula give topics related to the inclusion of learners with disabilities more serious consideration and that aspiring teachers are effectively trained to meet the needs of such learners. Inclusive education should not be treated as a component of Psychology of Education; rather, it should be allocated the same adequate time as any other subject in the curriculum
2. Establishing ECD centres in the communities close to where young children live could address the problem of travelling long distances to access education by those aged between three and six years who may find it difficult to attend distant schools
3. Parental education on the importance of ECD to learners with disabilities could be initiated in communities
4. Schools should ensure that learners with IDs constitute part of the beneficiaries of BEAM (Basic Education Assistance Module). This could be stipulated in policies that guide the selection of beneficiaries
5. The Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education Department should be actively involved in the service provision of learners with IDs by initiating workshops for ECD teachers and parents, as well as conducting assessments that will guide instruction
6. Teachers in the schools should have access to policies on inclusive education that guide their operations in schools where the inclusion of children with IDs takes place.
7. The teacher pupil ratio for ECD classes stipulated in the policies should be adhered to for the benefit of learners with IDs
8. It could be of great benefit if each school could have a specialist teacher who could assist teachers to teach and manage children with IDs and other disabilities during curriculum implementation. Funds permitting, allowing ECD teachers to have assistant teachers would be a noble idea which would reduce teacher stress and help ensure that all children benefit from the early learning programme.
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9. All stakeholders should assist in the procurement of adequate resources for ECD A and B classes so that meaningful inclusion of children with IDs takes place They should also assist in the building of classrooms for ECD learners. Alumni Associations could be established to assist in paying fees and procuring other resources.
10. Exchange visits could be arranged at district or national level to enable ECD teachers, parents of children with IDs, and school heads to visit schools that are already practising inclusion at ECD level in the country or even in neighbouring countries.
11. The findings from the study also suggest that practitioners in the schools should be equipped with skills to operate in inclusive classes at ECD level through in service training or through workshops organised at district or cluster level.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 212 227, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.11
Received Jun 30, 2022; Revised Sep 17, 2022; Accepted Oct 26, 2022
Álvaro González Sanzana Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile
Katherine Acosta García Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
Jorge Valenzuela Carreño Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
Jorge Miranda Ossandón
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
Lidia Valdenegro Fuentes
Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Abstract. This paper analyzes the similarities and differences by sex in the motivational variables for choosing a teaching career. We set out to determine the motivational variables influencing student teachers to opt for teaching careers according to sex. Nine hundred and ninety five student teachers from four Chilean universities participated in this study. Female respondents constituted 65.7% of those who responded to the research instrument (n = 654), while male respondents comprised 34 3% (n = 341) of the sample. The study used the FIT Choice (factors influencing teaching choice) Scale. This paper presents differential evidence by sex regarding the motivations that the literature has recognized as relevant for selecting a teaching career in Chile. The comparative results showed that women are more motivated than men for their studies, perceive themselves as having greater capacities for teaching, and are more satisfied with this career choice. Intrinsic value is the main motivational factor that explains satisfaction with career choices for both sexes. However, it appears more strongly in men. It is followed in importance by social utility value, perceived ability, and previous teaching learning experiences. The positive relationship between the perceived demands of the profession and the desire to pursue a teaching career stands out among men. The implications of these findings are discussed.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: FIT Choice Scale; higher education; motivation; preservice teachers; sex
The quality of educational systems is strongly correlated with the quality of their teachers (Escribano Hervis, 2018). This puts a strain on initial teacher training and raises the need to attract candidates with good academic performance and high motivation for teaching. In general, motivations for studying a teaching career have been associated with the performance and persistence of future teachers in their professional work (Abós et al., 2018; Muñoz Fernández et al., 2019; Watt & Richardson, 2020). Evidence has shown that teachers with high motivations are more committed to their students and their professional development (García Poyato et al., 2018; Goller et al., 2019; Watt et al., 2017). In general terms, it is acknowledged that the most motivated teachers are those who present more significant professional commitment, lower burnout, and more remarkable dedication to the job (Abós et al., 2018). Indeed, professional burnout, teacher optimism, and emotions such as enjoyment or anxiety have also been associated with teacher motivations (McLean et al., 2019; Parr et al., 2021).
Attracting suitable candidates is a real challenge in many countries that have seen how enrollment in pedagogy programs has significantly declined in recent decades (Schleicher, 2019). In Chile, enrollment in education careershas decreased by 35 1% in recent years The most affected areas are those related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers, for example biology and chemistry ( 10.2%), physics ( 13.8%), and mathematics ( 3.2%) (Consejo Nacional de Educación [CNED], 2021).
In this context, understanding students’ motivations for pursuing a teaching career and developing as future teachers would help influence policies for attracting good teaching candidates (Han & Yin, 2016). Likewise, it allows thinking about how to better accompany studentsin their formative trajectory and their entrance into the teaching profession (Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon, 2021). Indeed, motivation is the main focus of most research papers addressing why an individual wants to become a teacher (Fray & Gore, 2018). Specifically, altruistic and intrinsic motivationsare prominent among the motivational factors for opting for teaching over other variables, such as personal utility value or social influences (Alvariñas Villaverde et al., 2022; Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon, 2021; Watt et al., 2017).
However, in the existing empirical research on motivations for teaching, little research is found exploring the influence of demographic variables such as age, socioeconomic status, and sex (Alexander et al., 2020; Stolk et al., 2021; Watt et al., 2017). A review of 70 empirical studies on the choice of teaching as a profession showed that only nine investigations addressed sex differences as a variable influencing the decision to teach (Fray & Gore, 2018). In these studies, comparisons for sex showed differences in motivational factors for teaching between countries. For example, Klassen et al. (2011) found that gender roles
significantly influenced choosing teaching as a career in Omani but not in Canada. Another study showed that Malaysian female teachers choose to teach for family and personal goals, such as a compatible career with parenthood (Azman, 2013). Other reasons for choosing teaching as a career for females are perceptions of stability, the relational and psychological aspect of teaching, skill and knowledge acquisition, and balancing of work and family (Butt et al., 2010; Müller et al., 2009).
On the contrary, males choose to teach for more extrinsic reasons, such as holidays, social life, or stability of income (Alpaslan & Damli, 2022; Balyer & Özcan, 2014; Struyven et al., 2013).
The above ratifies the importance of incorporating this variable into the analysis of the factors that influence the motivation to choose a teaching career. This would allow targeting of specific actions to attract male candidates to a highly feminized profession, especially in early childhood teaching programs (CNED, 2021; Elacqua et al., 2018).
In this regard, recent studies have reported that sex and age seem to play an essential role in opting for teaching as a profession (Akar, 2019; Akpochafo, 2020). Indeed, male and female candidates have different motivations and perceptions regarding teaching (Eghtesadi Roudi, 2021). Women consider the profession more demanding and manifest more altruistic motivations than men (Simić et al., 2022).
In contrast, men manifest more pragmatic and extrinsic motivations (Gratacós & López Jurado, 2016). At the same time, when they choose to study a career in pedagogy, men do so in those disciplines that allow them to work with young people at more advanced school educational levels, avoiding entering early childhood teaching careers (Bhana & Moosa, 2016).
Although the feminization of teaching careers has been noted in Chile (CNED, 2021), we found no research regarding the motivational differences between men and women when choosing teaching as a profession. The knowledge gap we want to fill with this study is related to motivational differences by sex. In addition, we wish to provide relevant information for decision makers regarding the attraction of students to teaching careers. In this context, the objectives of this study are to:
• analyze similarities and differences by sex in the motivational and perceptual variables that influence the choice of teaching as a profession;
• analyze the relationship of the motivational and perceptual variables, differentiated by sex; and
• determine the explanatory capacity of the motivational and perceptual variables on satisfaction with career choice, according to sex.
The Factors Influencing Teaching Choice (FIT Choice) Model (Watt & Richardson, 2007) is a theoretical model that relies on the cognitive psychology of motivation and social psychology. This model postulates that individuals who believe they possess exemplary teaching skills and attach a high subjective value to the task prefer to choose teaching careers (Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon, 2021). In this model, an attempt is made to unify most factors that influence the decision to pursue a teaching career. The central elements of the model are consistent with
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expectancy value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020) through the expectancy that individuals have about their self perceptions about their ability to succeed in teaching and the value they add to the teaching career and profession (Watt et al., 2017). Beliefs in one’s abilities are of great importance in the model and are generally highly related to intrinsic value. In other words, many individuals combine wanting to be a teacher with the feeling of being able to be a good teacher.
The value dimension of the model is subdivided into three aspects. On the one hand, intrinsic value, considered the genuine interest in the teaching career (Fray & Gore, 2018), is positively associated with professional teaching performance (Tang et al., 2020). Intrinsic value has been described as a critical element in understanding teachers’ success in their professional lives. This type of motivation is positively related to teachers’ persistence in their profession and professional well being (McLean et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2020). Although, for many scholars, intrinsic motivation is a unitary construct, other scholars mention two sides of intrinsic motivation. On the one hand, it is related to motivation for a particular discipline or area of knowledge, and on the other hand, it is explicitly related to teaching (Parr et al., 2021).
Conversely, the model highlights the altruistic value, which is characterized by work performance that allows fighting against social inequality, improving the living conditions of individuals, and working with disadvantaged people. The altruistic value is strongly present in most future teachers, especially in all those who will work with younger children, usually women (Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon, 2021). These motivations have also been positively associated with professional performance (Torsney et al., 2019). Finally, the model also captures extrinsic value, that is, those motivations that mobilize the individual through an external reward and which have traditionally been associated by specialized literature with lower levels of satisfaction and interest in teaching on the part of teachers (McLean et al., 2019; Tomšik, 2016). Teachers, however, should be qualified, since, as Muñoz Fernández et al. (2019) indicated, positive and negative extrinsic motivations can be distinguished. Entering the teaching profession because one wants to have a stable job compared to other occupations, or wishing to reconcile family life with work life, may well be combined with motivations of a more intrinsic and altruistic nature. However, future teachers recurrently report this type of motivation in a less appropriate way than intrinsic or altruistic motivations. There may be, to some degree, a social desirability bias in these responses (Parr et al., 2021).
In addition to the motivational elements described above, the FIT Choice Model considers individuals’ perceptions of the demands and returns of the profession. The positive and negative social influences, as well as their previous teaching learning experiences, may affect the decision to choose education as a career. All these variables fluctuate enormously according to national and cultural contexts. Still, in general terms, they play a secondary role in career choice relative to altruistic and intrinsic motivations or perceived ability.
To empirically evaluate the model, Watt and Richardson (2007) created a scale (i.e., FIT Choice), which they initially validated in Australia. Subsequently, they applied it in countries of widely varying geographical and cultural contexts, thus allowing comparisons of prospective teachers’ motivations (Watt & Richardson, 2012). Comparisons revealed that motivations for becoming a teacher were relatively similar across samples, whereas perceptions of the teaching profession tended to reflect more significant differences between countries (Watt et al., 2012). The application of the FIT Choice Scale in various national contexts has resulted in comparative research, with excellent reliability and validity results (Navarro Asencio et al., 2021).
We used a quantitative non experimental and correlational explanatory design to determine the differences in motivational and perceptual factors between the sexes. This design can be helpful in studies that want to inform decision making and to improve or initiate activities or changes in teacher education (Curtis et al., 2016). The research process is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Research process flowchart
Students from teaching programs (N = 995) from four Chilean state universities with different geographical contexts participated in this study, namely from the north (19.5%), center (36.4%), and south (44.1%) of the country. Female respondents constituted 65.7% of the sample (n = 654), whereas male respondents comprised 34 3% (n = 341).
The instrument used for this study was the FIT Choice Scale, developed by Watt and Richardson (2007) and translated into Spanish by Gratacós and López Jurado (2016). In both cases, analyses to check the internal consistency showed promising results, and the authors conducted confirmatory factor analyses. The instrument addresses achievement expectations, subjective task value that students place on becoming teachers, and the social influences that may affect the decision to pursue a teaching career. Finally, it also inquires into students’ perceptions of the demands and returns of the teaching profession. The questionnaire we used is practically identical, except for some words that were replaced for cultural relevance and one item that was eliminated in the “Social status” factor. The item “Do you think teachers have a high morale?” was not retained, because previous studies have reported that it does not contribute to the scale’s reliability.
The FIT Choice Scale is subdivided into 12 motivational factors and 6 perceptual factors, broken down into a total of 57 items on a seven point Likert type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). According to the model, certain factors are grouped into second order dimensions or factors. Thus, the dimension “Social utility value” groups the factors “Working with children/adolescents” , “Enhance social equity” , “Shape future of children/adolescents”, and “Make social contribution”. This dimension refers to altruistic motivations. The “Personal utility value” dimension, on the other hand, groups together the factors “Job security” , “Job transferability”, and “Time for family”. This dimension refers to extrinsic motivations. The dimension “Task demand” groups together the factors “Expert career” and “High demand” . Finally, the dimension “Task return” groups together the factors “Good salary” and “Social status” These last two dimensions probe students’ perceptions of the benefits and demands of the teaching profession (see Table 1).
Table 1: Examples of statements and questions from the research instrument for each dimension
Satisfaction with career choice
Intrinsic career value
Social utility value
Personal utility value
Perceived ability
• How satisfied are you with your choice about becoming a teacher?
• How happy are you with your choice of becoming a teacher?
• How carefully have you thought about becoming a teacher?
• I am interested in teaching.
• I like teaching.
• I have always wanted to be a teacher.
• Teaching will allow me to provide a service to society.
• Teaching will allow me to benefit the socially disadvantaged.
• Teaching will allow me to shape child and adolescent values.
• Teaching hours will fit with the responsibilities of having a family.
• Teaching will provide a reliable income.
• A teaching job will allow me to choose where I wish to live.
• I have the qualities of a good teacher.
• I have good teaching skills.
• Teaching is a career suited to my abilities.
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Social dissuasion
Positive social influences
• Did others tell you teaching was not a good career choice?
• Did others influence you to consider careers other than teaching?
• Were you encouraged to pursue careers other than teaching?
• My friends think I should become a teacher.
• My family thinks I should become a teacher.
• I have had good teachers as role models.
• I have had inspirational teachers.
• People I have worked with think I should become a teacher. Prior teaching and learning experiences
Task demand
• I have had positive learning experiences.
• Do you think teaching is emotionally demanding?
• Do you think teaching requires high levels of expert knowledge?
• Do you think teachers have a heavy workload? Task return
• Do you think teaching is well paid?
• Do you believe teaching is a well respected career?
• Do you believe teaching is perceived as a high status occupation?
Table 2 shows the mean, standard deviation (SD), and Cronbach alpha coefficient for each dimension analyzed.
Table 2: Mean, standard deviation and Cronbach alpha coefficient for each dimension
Dimension Mean SD Alpha
Satisfaction with career choice 6.55 0.869 .918
Intrinsic career value 6.08 1.001 .781 Social utility value 6.18 0.784 .879 Personal utility value 4.17 1.162 .884 Perceived ability 5.93 1.036 .873 Social dissuasion 4.77 1.661 .707 Positive social influences 5.40 1.129 .841 Prior teaching and learning experiences 6.06 1.098 .781 Task demand 6.24 0.633 .702 Task return 3.61 1.174 .850
The respective ethics committees approved the instrument for use in the participating universities. The questionnaire was administered in virtual and face to face modalities according to the health care context of the respective university All respondents provided informed consent to participate. The time needed to complete the instrument was 25 minutes.
The motivational variables of the FIT Choice instrument were compared by sex through an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Correlations were established, also by sex, between the motivational and perceptual variables. Likewise, multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the portion of the variance in the dependent variable (satisfaction with the teaching career) explained by each of the motivational and perceptual variables evaluated.
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In this section, the three key research findings are presented.
Analysis of the results showed significant differences by sex in all the motivational variables assessed (see Table 3), except for two variables, the perception of return to the teaching profession (p = .276) and social dissuasion (p = .722).
Results showed that sex differences always favored female respondents Female respondents obtained better scores in the motivational and perceptual variables, where statistically significant differences were observed (p < .028). The only variables where male and female respondents did not differ were the perception of return regarding salary and social status and the social dissuasion to which the respondents may have been subjected.
Table 3: ANOVA results of differences by sex
Male Female F Sig.
6.33 6.66 33.485 < .001 Intrinsic career value 5.78 6.23 47.316 < .001 Social utility value 5.96 6.30 43.222 < .001
Satisfaction with career choice
Personal utility value 4.06 4.23 4.818 .028
Perceived ability 5.71 6.05 24.399 < .001
Social dissuasion 4.80 4.76 0.127 .722
Positive social influences 5.19 5.52 17.037 < .001
Prior teaching and learning experiences 5.95 6.12 5.442 .020 Task demand 6.15 6.28 9.164 .003 Task return 3.66 3.58 1.187 .276
The analysis showed that motivational and perceptual factors were significantly correlated between female and male respondents (see Tables 4 and 5). A few positive correlations stood out in this regard. This included correlations between intrinsic value and satisfaction with career choice (r = .578 in women; r = .743 in men), social utility value and intrinsic value (r = .562 in women; r = .718 in men), perceived ability to teach and intrinsic value (r = .589 in women; r = .703 in men), as well as individuals’ prior teaching and learning experiences and positive social influences (r = .598 in women; r = .671 in men).
In both cases, the exceptions were social dissuasion, which correlated with very few other variables, and the perceived return of the profession, which did not correlate with the perceived demand of the profession. Finally, it is worth noting that, in the case of the male respondents, the variable of career demands also did not significantly correlate with the personal utility value.
Table 4: Matrix of correlations between variables (Female respondents)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. SAT
2. ICV .578**
3. SUV .513** .562**
4. PUV .198** .206** .190**
5. PA .481** .589** .474** .352** 6. SD .029 .049 .164** .022 .068
7. PI .335** .425** .357** .472** .462** .003
8. PE .314** .333** .381** .170** .229** .060 .598**
9. TD .199** .283** .401** .164** .330** .118* .223** .209**
10. TR .193** .171** .134** .449** .116** .132** .198** .153** .041 ** p < .001; * p<.005
Note: 1. SAT = satisfaction; 2. ICV = intrinsic career value; 3. SUV= social utility value; 4. PUV = personal utility value; 5. PA = perceived ability; 6. SD = social dissuasion; 7. PI = positive influences; 8. PE = prior experiences; 9. TD = task demand; 10. TR = task return.
Table 5: Matrix of correlations between variables (Male respondents)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. SAT
2. ICV .743** 3. SUV .663** .718** 4. PUV .202** .304** .319** 5. PA 577** .703** .593** .403** 6. SD .049 .005 .054 .053 .071 7. PI .398** .520** .512** .565** .576** .036 8. PE .454** .463** .554** .245** .417** .150* .671** 9. TD .436** .420** .506** .094 .324** .064 .302** .388** 10. TR .201** .276** .225** .403** .188** .173** .279** .161** .031
** p <.001; * p<.005
Note: 1. SAT = satisfaction; 2. ICV = intrinsic career value; 3. SUV = social utility value; 4. PUV= personal utility value; 5. PA = perceived ability; 6. SD = social dissuasion; 7. PI = positive influences; 8. PE = prior experiences; 9. TD = task demand; 10. TR = task return.
The explanatory power of the motivational and perceptual variables proposed in the FIT Choice instrument on satisfaction with career choice was carried out separately by sex (see Tables 6 and 7).
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Model Variables
R R2 Adjusted R squared
Standard error
1 Intrinsic career value .551 .304 .302 .58383
2 Intrinsic career value + social utility value .594 .353 .351 .56319
3 Intrinsic career value + social utility value + perceived ability .612 .374 .371 .55452
4 Intrinsic career value + social utility value + perceived ability + social dissuasion
5 Intrinsic career value + social utility value + perceived ability + social dissuasion + prior teaching and learning experiences
.620 .384 .379 .55074
.624 .390 .384 .54859
Note: R = correlation between the observed values of the response variable and the predicted values of the response variable made by the model. R2 = proportion of the variance in the response variable that can be explained by the predictor variables in the regression model
In the case of the female respondents (Table 6), satisfaction with career choice of 38.4% is explained by the following variables: intrinsic career value (ß = .295), social utility value (ß = .227), perceived ability (ß = .184), social dissuasion (ß = .099), and previous teaching learning experiences (ß = .085).
Model Variables R R2 Adjusted R squared
Standard error
1 Intrinsic career value .729 .531 .529 .71765
2 Intrinsic career value + social utility value .755 .570 .567 .68857
3 Intrinsic career value + social utility value + task demand .760 .578 .573 .68321
For the male respondents (see Table 7), career satisfaction was significantly higher (57.3%) than for the female respondents. This was mainly due to the intrinsic career value (ß = .514), followed by the social utility value (ß = .238) and the task demand (ß = .105).
It is worth noting that the variables that explain the satisfaction of both male and female respondents are coincidentally those with the most significant explanatory power (intrinsic career value and social utility value). In the case of the female respondents, both variables explain 35.1% of the variance, while in the case of the male respondents, they explain 56.7% of the career satisfaction. Therefore, in the case of the female respondents, the remaining three variables only contributed an additional 3.3% of the variance, while for the male respondents, task demand contributed the extra 0.6%.
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Few studies have focused on the influence of students’ sex as variable in teaching career choice and the motivational differences related to it. It is known that, in some countries, sex roles are more marked than in others. In addition, often, the stability of the teaching job and the possibility of family reconciliation strongly influence women’s decisions. Thus, the emphasis that women and men give to aspects related to personal development and the teaching learning process is sometimes different, although there are also many similarities between the sexes (Fray & Gore, 2018). A meta analysis suggested that female students have a stronger attitude towards the teaching profession than male students (Polat, 2019).
In the first place, our results showed that regarding the motivational and perceptual variables associated with the study of teaching careers, female respondents achieved higher scores than their male peers. This higher motivation and positive perception by female respondents were significant in all variables, except for social dissuasion and the perception of returning to the teaching profession, where there were no differences by sex. Male and female respondents therefore felt the same regarding these last two variables. It is worth noting that the variable of perceived return to the teaching profession, in terms of salary and social status, obtained the lowest score for both sample groups. Similar results were reported in Australia and Czech Republic, where women showed a more positive motivational profile than men (Tomšik, 2015; Watt et al., 2013). In this sense, in line with international reports, intrinsic and altruistic motivations tend to be the most common when choosing a teaching career. However, national contexts, with their respective salary structures and recognition of the profession, are also essential to understanding the attractiveness of this career for individuals (Gratacós et al., 2017; Goller et al., 2019).
Second, the different motivational and perceptual factors, both in female and male respondents, were significantly correlated, except for some exceptions, such as social dissuasion or the perceived return to the profession. Some associations stood out for their strong positive correlations. These were: intrinsic value and satisfaction with career choice; social utility value and intrinsic value; perceived ability to teach and intrinsic value; as well as individuals’ previous teaching learning experiences and positive social influences received. In all these variable associations, the correlation was stronger for male than female respondents, but for both groups, they constituted the pairs of variables with the highest correlations.
Finally, concerning the variables that explain satisfaction with career choice, in both groups, the main determinants corresponded to the variables of intrinsic career value and social utility value. This finding is congruent with several studies at the international level (Akar, 2019; Akpochafo, 2020; Eghtesadi Roudi, 2021; Simić et al., 2022), although altruistic value has been reported as the most relevant (Bakar et al., 2014). We found that, beyond these variables, other variables contribute significantly to explaining satisfaction, which differs between males and females. For men, satisfaction in the choice of a teaching career is also
determined by the perception of demand. In the case of women, perceived ability, social dissuasion, and previous teaching learning experiences are variables to be considered when explaining satisfaction. This can be explained in terms of the need for men for a teaching career to be a real challenge in terms of demands, especially considering that the teaching profession is stereotypically associated, in many countries, with being a typically female job (Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon, 2021). A recent study conducted in Chile showed sex differences in the choice of university careers. A comparison of students with the same academic performance showed that men are more likely than women to apply for more selective careers. The authors suggested that social stereotypes influence decisions and that men feel more social pressure to succeed than women (Bordón et al., 2020).
The findings of this study, particularly in the case of the male respondents, allow us to visualize the critical need to make the conditions of initial teacher training more attractive and the motivational consequences generated by greater demands during teaching education. This will not only attract more individuals to teaching but also enhance satisfaction with the choice of career. In Chile, several policies have been implemented during the last decades to improve initial teacher education (Ávalos, 2014; Cox et al., 2014). However, no special attention has been paid to demand as a relevant motivational factor. Specifically, it is considered that one of the most relevant contributions of this study lies in highlighting the perceived demand for teacher training as a possible mechanism that contributes to attraction and retention, especially of men.
Another contribution of the study is that it adds value to the FIT Choice Model as a comprehensive model of satisfaction in relation to studying for a teaching career. This is not a minor issue, given that this satisfaction expresses a key motivational aspect in the persistence of university students and the willingness to deeply appropriate the skills and knowledge inherent to their professional training (Butler, 2017). This takes on particular importance in the context of enrollment contraction for pedagogy careers It becomes vital to favor the continuity of the formative process and the graduation of these students, especially if we consider that motivation is changeable and can be affected during the students’ training process (Valenzuela et al., 2018).
As a limitation, it should be noted that the study was carried out only in Chilean state universities. It would thus be interesting to determine how the variables in this study affect the behavior of students in private universities in Chile.
In conclusion, and returning to the objectives of this study, it can be pointed out that there are significant differences in the motivations of male and female students in choosing a teaching career. Women seem more motivated than men to study teaching and have higher self perceptions of their teaching abilities. Motivational and perceptual factors are highly correlated with each other. Intrinsic and altruistic motivations are more important than extrinsic motivation for both men and women. Intrinsic motivation most powerfully explains
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individuals’ satisfaction with studying for a teaching career, followed by altruistic motivation. In the case of men, this relationship is powerful. Perceived ability and previous teaching learning experiences in women, and the perceived demands of the profession in men, also explain, in part, satisfaction with the choice of a teaching career. Finally, considering that the FIT Choice Model is essentially psychological and that the understanding of motivations is complex and multidimensional, it is suggested that future research investigate personal biographical experiences and the effect of social and cultural factors to obtain a more holistic view of the phenomenon (Tardif & Tremblay Gagnon 2021).
This research was funded by National Research and Development Agency, ANID Chile, through the Fondecyt Projects 11181301 and 1210626.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon a reasonable request.
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Watt,H.M.,Richardson,P. W.,&Devos,C.(2013).(How)does gender matterinthechoice of a STEM teaching career and later teaching behaviours? InternationalJournalof Gender,ScienceandTechnology,5(3), 187 206. http://genderandset.open.ac.uk/index.php/genderandset/article/view/331
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 228 248, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.12
Received Jun 30, 2022; Revised Sep 17, 2022; Accepted Oct 26, 2022
Curriculum Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, School of Education, Johannesburg, South Africa
Curriculum Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, School of Education, Johannesburg, South Africa
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to understand Grade 10 Business Studies learners’ experiences of receiving written formative assessment in the South African school context. This exploratory qualitative study employed a case study design and was conducted with 12 Grade 10 learners from two public secondary schools, located in Johannesburg East, Gauteng. The study sample was purposefully and conveniently selected and data were collected through semi structured interviews via WhatsApp voice calls. Thematic analysis was employed to make sense of the data. Findings of the study generated two themes to describe the learners’ experiences, namely timing, and specificity of formative feedback. The learners disclosed that they received delayed feedback that did not specify their individual progress, areas of work that was well done, and areas that needed improvement. This study suggests that if classroom teachers are to become effective ‘mediators’ of formative assessment, they must be provided with a better theoretical and practical grounding in the nature of formative assessment feedback The Department of Education needs to provide more guidelines, practical demonstrations, and workshops to assist to teachers to understand and implement formative assessment feedback practices effectively. Teacher and student feedback literacy also has the potential to facilitate principled, research informed feedback processes in the future.
Keywords: formative assessment; formative feedback; timing of feedback; specificity of feedback; Business Studies
Assessment in South Africa during the apartheid era was not integrated into the teaching and learning process (Carless, 2012). The bulk of the assessments were summative, with the goal of grading how well students remembered the
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knowledge given to them (Carless, 2012). In South Africa, the implementation of a new curriculum in 1997 based on the Outcomes Based Education (OBE) philosophy resulted in changes in assessment practices for teachers (DoE, 2017). The new curriculum placed emphasis on formative assessment to facilitate learner growth and development. (DoE, 2017). In 2009, the Ministerial Task Team (MTT) was formed to look into the implementation of the National Curriculum Statements (NCS) in Grades R 12. The Review Committee determined that the assessment standards were too ambiguous and limited in their ability to demonstrate progress (Nicol, 2019). Following the recommendations of the task team, the NCS was revised, and Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) were created for each school subject (DoE, 2017). Formative assessment is supported by Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements because it involves learners, allowing them to share their assessment experiences and the reasons for those experiences, which can provide insights useful to the teaching and learning process (Nicol, 2019). According to the CAPS document for Business Studies, ‘teacher student interactions should involve discussion of goals, strategies, progress, and should develop peer and self assessment skills that lead to learners becoming autonomous individuals’ (DoE, 2017, p. 14). This indicates the shift from summative to formative assessment in the learning of Business Studies (Nicol, 2019). In this regard, feedback on formative assessment is considered part of classroom instruction, as well as one of the strongest educational tools that can be used to improve the academic performance of learners (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
Particularly in the context of South African schools, where policy increasingly emphasises the importance of formative assessment (also referred to as assessment for learning), good quality formative feedback is a crucial source of reference that learners can use to identify a gap in their learning, and from which they can gain recommendations to close the gap (Moeed, 2015). Formative assessment feedback should indicate learner achievement effectively and efficiently and should be used to close gaps in the knowledge and skills of learners while improving teaching, according to the National Protocol for Assessment (NPA), which sets out the assessment process for Grades R 12 in South Africa and provides a policy framework for the management of school assessments. To improve the learning experience, feedback should be given following the assessment (DoE, 2017, p.3).
Timely, relevant, and detailed formative feedback is essential to the learning process and is crucial for helping learners to become self regulating and independent lifelong learners (Carless, 2012). Feedback can help learners to prepare for future learning events by encouraging in-depth learning, developing thinking abilities, and encouraging in depth learning (Carless & Boud, 2018).). While feedback is frequently viewed as the core component that improves teaching and learning, there appears to be a lack of concern for learners’ experiences of formative feedback, particularly in the context of South African schools.
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Scholars like Evans (2013), Tanner (2017), and Nicol (2021) have emphasised the need to analyse learners’ understanding of feedback information. Literature about formative assessment feedback has revealed that understanding learners’ experiences of assessment feedback is important as it helps one to provide feedback that encourages and helps learners to do better (Jones et al., 2016).The majority of studies on assessment feedback have been conducted outside of South Africa, with only a few allusions to the South African setting (Carless & Boud, 2018; Chidiebere, 2020; Nicol, 2020). Furthermore, such research focuses primarily on the experiences of tertiary students receiving formative feedback. Therefore, the lack of research on the phenomenon in the South African school context and in secondary school Business Studies, prompted this study Specifically, it sought answer to the question: What are learners’ experiences of receiving written formative feedback on Business Studies written formative assessments?
This study drew on the social constructivist theory. Social constructivism argues that an individual plays an active role in building and making sense of information (Cooper, 1999). It holds that, in a sociocultural context, individuals construct their reality through active participation and social interactions with others (Vygotsky, 1978). Furthermore, social constructivists emphasise that, with the assistance of a knowledgeable other (teacher), learners can begin to grasp concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own (Woo & Reeves, 2011). In this regard, giving learners formative feedback is viewed as a process in which the teacher helps learners to identify where they are in their learning as opposed to where they are supposed to be (Sardareha & Saad, 2012). The role of social interaction in the development of higher cognitive functions is central to the learning process for social constructivists. In the sense that providing feedback to learners is a form of social interaction (verbal and written) between the educator and the learners, this research is related to this theory. This feedback (social interaction) is an attempt to improve the learners’ writing skills, so that they can progress to the next level (development of higher cognitive functions).
2.1.
Formative assessment (assessment for learning) is fundamentally a collaborative act that takes place between the teacher and learners (Hansen, 2020). Formative assessment can be defined as an educational tool that provides teachers and students with information that can be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning process. (Moeed, 2015; Hansen, 2020). The South African National Protocol for Assessment (NPA) encourages the use of formative assessment because this form of assessment promotes day to day classroom assessment complemented by formative feedback (DoE, 2017). As a result, formative assessment is an important part of classroom work that can help students to attain higher levels of accomplishment, especially when it is combined with good formative feedback (Nicol, 2019).
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As schools around the world closed owing to the coronavirus (COVID 19) pandemic in 2020 and 2021, teachers had to shift their teaching and assessment to online to avoid the spread of the virus (Nicol, 2021). Formative assessment (FA) was used to support teachers to engage, guide and monitor students’ (online) learning. Most South African schools had to employ various online formative assessments that were learning oriented such as e portfolios, reading responses, online discussion forums, multiple choice questions (MCQs), peer and group presentations. Discussion forums and the online marking tool via the schools’ learning management system were used to give students formative feedback (Chidiebere, 2020, p.65). However, the implementation of online formative assessment introduced great constraints within the South African context: the limited access to recourses had made the synchronous online teaching of large classes difficult, necessitating the move towards blended approaches (Nicol, 2021).The opportunities to learn through active participation and socialisation were therefore limited, adding constraint to the implementation of online formative assessment feedback
Business Studies is one of 29 Further Education and Training (FET) disciplines and a commercial subject in the Economic and Management Sciences (EMS) category (Russell, 2013). Business Studies teaches important skills like leadership, risk taking, problem solving, and management, which prepare students for success in a variety of business settings The assessment practice in Grade 10 Business Studies involves six formative assessments and two summative assessments (mid year and final examination) over one school year. The six formative assessments consist of three Business Studies assignments/projects and three formative tests. Although this subject involves six official formative assessments, CAPS and NPA encourage Business Studies teachers to administer daily formative assessments to monitor teaching and learning (DoE, 2017). Formative assessment should always be followed by formative feedback, which informs learners about a gap between their current and desired academic performance as well as making recommendations on how they can improve their learning (Gipps & Stobart, 2011; DoE, 2017). Although formative assessment and formative feedback are widely applied as a means of instruction in business education today, little is known about learners’ experiences of receiving formative feedback (Russell, 2013); hence the need for this study.
Feedback is an important component of the formative assessment process (Carless & Boud, 2018). In an educational context, feedback is described as the practice of giving learners responses on completed learning activities and informing them about what they need to do next to improve their learning (Heritage & Wylie, 2020). Different authors provide a similar conception of the term ‘feedback’ (Ngwenya & Maistry, 2012; Carless & Boud, 2018 ). For Nicol et al. (2016), feedback is also referred to as a form of communication to learners, which informs them about the gap between where they are in their learning and where they need to be.
In South Africa, formative written feedback is one of the fruitful modes of giving feedback to learners in secondary school (Van der Nest et al., 2018). It involves written comments only and it is often given to learners after they have completed an assessment (Moeed, 2015). Providing written feedback is one significant responsibility on the part of teachers. This is because, if teachers are to provide written feedback, they have to ensure that it facilitates academic improvement and motivation toward learning (Moeed, 2015). Learners also prefer written feedback over any other mode of giving feedback (Van der Kleij, 2019; Chidiebere, 2020; Faulconer et al., 2022).
2.5.
2.5.1. The Timing of Assessment Feedback
The timing of assessment feedback is a widely studied but underappreciated variable in the feedback process (Attali & van der Kleij, 2017). The literature offers a variety of suggestions for the best time to provide feedback (Swart et al., 2019). The point in the instructional sequence at which learners’ errors are addressed is referred to as feedback timing (Quinn & Nakata, 2017, p. 59). Previous research on the issue of assessment feedback timing compared immediate feedback (provided during or immediately following the assessment task) to delayed feedback (provided days after the assessment task) (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Carless & Boud, 2018; Nicol; 2019). In theory, one could argue both for providing feedback during the assessment task and for providing feedback afterwards Assessment feedback is best provided during the assessment task because it allows learners to evaluate and adjust their knowledge while working on the task, allowing misunderstandings to be detected and corrected as soon as possible (Swart et al., 2019). From a cognitive standpoint, it could be argued that feedback should be provided following the assessment task in order to reduce learners’ cognitive load (Attali & van der Kleij, 2017). According to this logic, it may be preferable to provide feedback after the assessment task rather than during the assessment task, so that learners’ limited working memory capacity can be fully utilised to create a mental model of the learning task (Kluger & DeNisi, 2016; Swart et al., 2019).
Although assessment feedback may be immediate or slightly delayed, it must be provided when it is still useful to learners (Brookhart, 2017). Learners need to receive feedback while they are still mindful of the content knowledge, topic, or performance in question (Brookhart, 2017). Previous studies on the timing of feedback have shown that assessment feedback provided when it is still useful to the learners is more effective in enhancing learning than feedback provided when it is no longer useful (Swart et al., 2019). It may therefore be said that assessment feedback is most effective if it is received when learners are still mindful of and striving for the learning goal (Brookhart, 2017).
A substantial literature on formative assessment feedback practices reveals that, in most cases, learners receive delayed assessment feedback which has proven to hinder their learning process (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Peacock, Murray et al., 2014; van der Kleij, 2019). A study by van der Kleij (2019), which explored formative assessment practices, revealed that although learners desire timely
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assessment feedback, instead they received delayed (weeks after completing the task) feedback, which was no longer helpful in enhancing their learning Another study that explored the experiences of health sciences students of receiving written formative feedback revealed that those students received delayed feedback, and thus did not use it to inform their learning (Peacock et al., 2014). A key challenge identified by students in this study was that it took a substantial period of time for them to receive written feedback from their teachers; thus, they received it when it was no longer useful. For this reason, students in this study reported that they preferred written feedback given through the ePortfolio as it was immediate and was considered useful in enhancing learning (Peacock et al., 2014). Timely feedback feedback provided while learners are still mindful of the learning target and while there is still time for learners to act on it (Brookhart, 2017) is most effective in supporting learning and will most likely lead to improved future academic performance (Swart et al., 2019).
2.5.2.
Literature has revealed that effective feedback should consist of information that is specific to students’ progress, and should specify how students should proceed (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Tanner, 2017; Carless & Boud,2018). Literature has also pointed out that students often misunderstand written feedback that lacks specificity and that teachers tend to provide standardised feedback in the form of general phrases like ‘good work’/’excellent’, which, in turn, leave students confused in terms of what they need to do next to improve their learning (Engelsen & Smith, 2017). A study conducted in Australia, in English and mathematics classrooms, revealed that students desire written feedback that specifies achievement and how they can improve (van der Kleij, 2019). In support of this, one student participant commented that she wanted ‘written feedback that explains more on how I can improve on a subject’ (van der Kleij, 2019, p. 182). However, some student participants in this study reported that, even though they actively sought such feedback, their teachers would not provide them with the comments they requested (van der Kleij, 2019). The study also revealed that students desired written feedback that is specific to the individual student’s work (van der Kleij, 2019). In support of this, one student wrote, ‘I think feedback should be less targeted at the whole class and more individual’ (van der Kleij, 2019, p. 182). Although students desired written feedback that is specific to their achievement, some of these students reported that they did not receive such written feedback which, in turn, constrained their learning (van der Kleij, 2019).
A similar study was conducted on feedback experiences of students undergoing surgical training (Vu et al., 2020). This was an exploratory qualitative study conducted at the University of Michigan to better understand how surgical students experience formative feedback received on leadership assessment (Vu et al., 2020). Leadership is one of the six essential competencies for medical education, according to the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (Vu et al., 2020). Participants in the study expressed a desire for feedback that was tailored to their unique performance and included suggestions for improvement. They did say, however, that the criticism they received was too general to aid them in making improvements. (Vu et al., 2020). One participant in
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the study commented that ‘I get feedback comments like “Good job!” and I am thinking “Come on… tell me something else”’ (Vu et al., 2020, p. 47). The study also discovered that, despite the fact that effective leadership was still expected of them, their written assessments (feedback) did not focus on their leadership qualities (Vu et al., 2020). Clinical and technical learning were prioritised over leadership development in medical education, according to survey participants (Vu et al., 2020). The study concluded that feedback that lacks specificity is unlikely to support learning (Vu et al., 2020).
Several disciplines, including mathematics, physics, and languages, have investigated students’ reactions to getting written feedback on written examinations. Higher education has received a great deal of attention, but secondary school education has also received much attention. The lack of study on secondary school learners’ experiences of obtaining written feedback on written formative assessments in the South African environment, particularly in Grade 10 Business Studies, is noteworthy. It lends relevance to this research, which is attempting to fill this void. The majority of studies on learners’ experiences with receiving written feedback on written formative assessments ended with the presentation of findings. Following the discussion of findings, this study will provide implications for future feedback practices as well as recommendations for future research.
This study adopted a qualitative research approach using case study research design. A qualitative approach is used to understand the phenomenon from the perspective of participants as they make meaning of their world (Smith, 2018). A case study research design was used to engage closely with the participants in order to develop deep insights into the phenomenon under study (Creswell, 2012).Since it is a more comprehensive study of a particular situation rather than an in depth statistical study, it affords a researcher an opportunity to focus on a particular and fascinating case (Creswell, 2012).
This study was rooted in the interpretive paradigm. The interpretive paradigm seeks to describe how people respond to objects in the world, based on the meaning they have attached to these objects (Cohen et al., 2017). The interpretive paradigm was suitable for the purpose of this study because it allowed the researchers to understand learners’ experiences of written feedback from the perspectives of the learners
The study was conducted during the Coronavirus 19 pandemic. Coronavirus 19 (also referred to as COVID 19) is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome (Yelin et al., 2020). Hence, following the COVID 19 directives of social distancing and avoiding crowded places, the researchers collected data through semi structured interviews via WhatsApp voice calls.
Semi structured interviews via WhatsApp voice calls were most suitable for this study because they helped the researchers to ensure meaningful participation from the study participants, specifically because this method allowed the
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participants greater freedom, control and comfort during the interviews. WhatsApp voice communication is thought to be particularly comfortable for young people because of the greater ability it affords them to control a conversation, and because of decreased fear of social judgment in the absence of visual cues (Gibson, 2020). The semi structured interviews via WhatsApp voice calls allowed for flowing discussions, and helped the researchers to obtain detained information about the studied phenomenon. For the purpose of this study, 12 participants, six from each school, were interviewed for 45 minutes each. The semi structured interviews took the form of a friendly chat via WhatsApp voice call, while trying to piece together different parts of the stories into a cohesive meaning (Aizenkot, 2020). We began each interview with a short explanation about the research, followed by a fewpersonal background questions. Theming the interviews with the study participants was an inquiry into their experiences of receiving written feedback on Business Studies written formative assessment, how they used the written assessment feedback they received from their Business Studies teachers, and why they used written feedback the way they did. An interview guide, with questions which do not follow a specified order, was used to help in focusing the interview on the topic without constraining the participants to a particular format.
The data collection method required participants to use mobile devices and mobile data. The researchers informed study participants via participant information sheets that any mobile data costs incurred as a result of their participation in the study would be their own responsibility. Because participation in this study was entirely voluntary, it was limited to students who had access to a mobile device and mobile data.
Braun and Clarke (2006) assert the importance of the use of thematic analysis (TA) within qualitative research. They note that ‘TA goes beyond counting words in a text (content analysis) to investigate explicit and implicit meanings in data’ (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p.16). The researchers used the six phases of thematic analysis to evaluate the data collected through semi structured WhatsApp interviews The steps did not need to be approached in a linear fashion because the researchers might need to move back and forth between the stages. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) steps for thematic analysis were applied as follows: 1. The researchers familiarised themselves with the data by repeatedly reading the data and gaining a sense of familiarity with the semantic meanings. The researchers made notes about general observations that might later foster theme development. 2. Codes were then developed to capture key analytic ideas within the data which related to the research question. This was repeated to ensure that key codes were not missed. 3. Themes were generated by grouping codes which related to a particular concept. The themes identified patterns of meaning across the data. 4. The themes were reviewed in relation to the coded data and to the data as whole. A thematic map was used to structure the analysis and to define the relationships between the themes. 5. The themes were then defined and named. It is at this point that the researchers constructed an analytic narrative to explain what was happening in
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the data, how this relates to the research question, and why the reader should pay attention to this. 6. The analysis was written up in a report.
This study employed purposive and convenience sampling approaches. Purposive sampling is used when samples are chosen because they have specific features or characteristics that will allow for detailed exploration and understanding of the central questions that the researcher intends to investigate (Ritchie & Lewis, 2012). Cohen et al. (2017) argue that the purposive method is mostly suitable for small scale research, that it is less complicated to set up and does not cost very much. This research study was a small scale study, studying the learners’ experiences with regard to their assessment feedback. Purposive sampling was effective to elicit rich and detailed data. In support, Martella et al., (2019) argue that, in utilising purposive sampling, the sample consists of a case that is rich in information from which the researcher can derive important data. According to Bell and Bryman (2012), purposive sampling is used when the researcher has an objective in mind and chooses a context that is significant to the research questions. The study participants were purposively selected according to their Grade 10 Business Studies Terms 1 and 2 academic performances. Six learners in each of the two schools were selected according to the following categories: lower (below 39%), middle (40 69%), and higher (above 69%) academic performance. This was done to ensure that data were collected from learners with varying academic performances in order to get a holistic understanding of learners’ experiences of receiving written feedback on written formative assessments.
The researchers sent emails to the principals of the respective schools from whom they received permission to invite learners to participate in this study and recommendations of Grade 10 Business Studies teachers who could help them to select the study participants according to their academic performance. The two recommended Grade 10 Business Studies teachers, one from each school, agreed to select the study participants according to their academic performance Following the selection process, the researchers spoke to the participants through a WhatsApp group voice call for 45 minutes about the purpose of the study, to seek their opinions, and to probe their willingness to participate in the study. The researchers did this to ensure that the class teacher and they themselves, did not in any way coerce learners into participation; hence affording the learners the informed option to participate in the study voluntarily.
This study used a convenience sampling approach as it was limited intentionally to Business Studies learners in two public secondary schools in Johannesburg East, Gauteng. The researchers chose Grade 10 Business Studies students from two public secondary schools in Gauteng as participants because they thought they would be useful sources for the following reasons:
1. One of the researchers in this study has taught learners from school A for three consecutive years and she believed that she had built a good professional relationship with the learners; thus, the learners were more likely to feel
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comfortable talking about their experiences of receiving written feedback on written formative assessment with them.
2. One of the researchers in this study also offers extra Accounting lessons to learners from both schools; therefore, this allowed her to have convenient access to them. The researcher offers extra lessons to learners from school A during the week (after school hours) and to learners from school B on Saturdays.
3. These learners conveniently have access to mobile devices and internet connections within the selected schools’ premises, so the researchers were able to collect data through WhatsApp and Microsoft teams.
The study met the criteria for trustworthiness, which include validity, dependability, anonymity, and conformability. Throughout the study, the researchers relied on peers and colleagues for debriefings and member checks to establish credibility in a less intrusive manner (Guba, 1981). In addition, each participant received an email with a copy of his or her interview transcript for review. The researchers wanted to make sure participants were aware about any unusual experiences. If there were any discrepancies, an MS Teams meeting was held to ensure accuracy. Each participant reviewed their own transcript and found no errors necessitating a follow up meeting.
In terms of transferability, it was critical to remember that a person’s experiences are unique to them and are not generalisable to the general population. Because the participants were carefully chosen, there may be some transferability. Because the participants share some characteristics, such as identifying as South African, this type of selection may have resulted in study duplication (Guba, 1981). Dependability refers to the consistency of data and the accuracy of data interpretation (Guba, 1981). Leaving a clear audit trail, so that an external reviewer can determine how participants were selected and data was collected, analysed, and interpreted, aids in ensuring that all trustworthiness concepts are met (Guba, 1981). The researchers kept the basic structure of the interview consistent with each participant during data collection, but the process and line of questions may have changed depending on the conversation with the participant (Guba, 1981). In terms of conformability, the researchers provided a clear map of data interpretation and were forthcoming about specific assumptions (Guba, 1981). They were open and honest throughout the research.
The university at which the research was conducted provided ethical approval (Ethics approval number: 2020ECE006M), and the Gauteng Department of Education granted permission to conduct the study. Before the investigation began, all of the principals, parents, and teachers provided informed consent. To maintain anonymity, participants were identified using abbreviations (A L to identify learners).
Learners were asked to share their experiences of receiving written formative feedback on their Business Studies written formative assessments. Their
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responses revealed different experiences, which provided great insight into how assessment feedback influenced their learning of Business Studies. These experiences fit into the following themes: timing of formative feedback, and specificity of formative feedback.
The first sub theme which emerged from learners’ experiences of receiving written formative feedback was the issue of the timing of formative feedback. Learners who participated in this study reported that they received delayed written formative feedback on their Business Studies written formative assessments. Learners’ responses revealed that, while they preferred immediate written feedback, they often received written comments on their work three to four weeks after submission of a formative assessment task. For these learners, written formative feedback was not helpful because it was received when they had already forgotten the content that was assessed and had moved on to the next topic. Learners reported the following:
I get written feedback 3 weeks after writing and submitting a task. This is not fair because it [feedback] comes when I have forgotten the topic that was tested. In most cases, I don’t even remember the answers I wrote.
Learner B
Another learner reported the following:
I get feedback 3 to 4 weeks later. I remember receiving feedback on one assessment task after I had written three other tasks. I wrote the other tasks without knowing how well I did in the first one. When I finally received the feedback, I did not pay attention to it because it was too late.
Learner F
Another learner emphasised the negative impact of delayed assessment feedback on academic performance by stating:
I receive feedback 3 weeks after writing a task. It [feedback] doesn’t help me much with improving my performance because it comes too late when there isn’t much I can do to make sure I do better next time. Learner L
What emerged from the excerpts above is that learners in this study experienced delayed written formative feedback, which they could not use to inform their learning of Business Studies because they received it when they had forgotten the learning goals, the assessed topics, and when there was no time for them to act on it [feedback]. No learnerreported an instance when they received timely feedback. All learners in this study reported that they received delayed written feedback for Business Studies written formative assessments, and this constrained them from identifying areas of strengths and the gaps in their learning at the time when they needed to do so.
While some learners in this study reported that they received delayed written feedback from their Business Studies teachers, others stated that they did not receive written feedback unless they specifically sought it out. These learners also reported that when they did seek written formative feedback, they received it weeks later. Responses extracted from the interviews read:
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I do not receive feedback unless I ask my teacher for it. We just write tasks after tasks without feedback. I want my teacher to come back to me and say I did well in this, I struggled with this, you know, I just want to know my progress, so I go to my teacher and ask for it [feedback]. Learner J
I ask my teacher for feedback because if I don’t, I won’t get it. But even though I ask for feedback, I get it a few weeks after asking for it. Learner H
We do not get feedback from our teacher, we only do corrections. But sometimes I go to the teacher to ask for feedback because I want to know what I have to do to improve. Learner A
When Learner A was probed to comment on how long it took to receive feedback after asking for it from the teacher, the learner responded as follows: It takes a long time ma’am, like 2 3 weeks. Sometimes you just ask for it [feedback] but you never know whether or not you will get it. Learner A
Generally, learners in this study complained that the timing of written formative feedback was disappointing. Multiple elements, including ‘late feedback’, and ‘absence of feedback’ were explanations provided for their negative experiences of receiving Business Studies written formative feedback. The learners also emphasised the importance of timely formative feedback in their learning of Business Studies. They pointed out that timely written feedback would help them to see their strengths and weaknesses early, and subsequently to come up with strategies to overcome their weaknesses while they are still mindful of the assessed topics. When learners were allowed to give any general comment relating to written formative feedback, they responded as follows: Feedback should be given on time, maybe 3 days after writing a task … latest [laughs]. If I get feedback early, I will be able to fix my mistakes early, so that I don’t repeat them in the next tasks. Learner F
I think feedback should be provided immediately after we’ve submitted the task. Not immediately immediately, but maybe a day or two after submission. If I get feedback early, I will pay attention to it because the tested topics will still be fresh in my mind. I can then work on my weaknesses and polish up my strengths. Learner H
The findings relating to the timing of written formative feedback suggest that the learners’ experiences of receiving delayed written formative feedback increased the complexity of their learning of Business Studies, and this made it difficult for them to improve their academic performance. The findings also suggest that the learning of Business Studies was constrained owing to the ‘absence’ of and ‘late’ written formative feedback.
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The second theme which emerged from learners’ experiences of receiving written formative feedback was the issue of specificity of written formative feedback. Learners in this study reported that they received vague written comments that did not help them to see their mistakes and ways to improve their performance. They also reported that while they strongly preferred written formative feedback that pointed out specific sections and/or areas of their work that needed improvement, they often received written comments that were too vague and did not specify weak and strong sections of their work. Responses extracted from the interviews read as follows:
I often receive comments like “next time pay attention to finer details of the questions to improve your results”, especially when I have failed the task. What does this even mean, am I not reading the questions correctly? I want the teacher to tell me exactly what I am doing wrong! Learner J
Recently I got a comment that read “A little more effort can improve your marks” . And I was like huh? … which section requires effort? What more could I have done? Learner I
I get comments like “keep up the good work” and “well done”. This doesn’t help me understand what constitutes good work or even bad work. I want my teacher to tell me which section of my work is good and which section I need to work hard on. Learner K
What emerged from the excerpts above is that learners who participated in this study received written feedback that did not specify areas in their work that was well done and areas that needed improvement; thus, they considered feedback to be unhelpful in preparing them for future learning events. The responses above indicate that learners preferred written feedback that specified their learning progress feedback that specified achievement and how they could improve. More importantly, learners in this study reported that, while trying to meet their teachers’ expectations, they were still unsure about the qualities of good and/or bad work because the written feedback they received did not specify this. Furthermore, the interview data suggest that learners preferred written feedback that did not only specify good and weak sections of their work, and how to improve, but also feedback that specified assessment criteria (such as what constitutes good and/or bad work). This was perhaps an indirect way to express a wish for written feedback that specified why a specific section of their work was good and/or why it was weak.
Findings in this study also revealed that learners did not only receive broad yet vague written feedback on their written formative tasks but also received generalised feedback, which was not specific to their work. Learners in this study reported that they sometimes received the same written comments, irrespective of the difference in the quality of their work and the mark allocated. Responses extracted from the interviews read: Sometimes the teacher writes “good work” for everyone who got 50% and above and “needs improvement” for everyone who got below 50%.
Learner C
I do not know very well what I am good at and weak in after reading my teacher's feedback because sometimes the teacher writes the same comment for everyone, even when our marks are different. Learner L
Other learners reported that feedback that did not address specific points of their performance and was not specific to their academic progress was unhelpful, as it did not provide information that led to greater possibilities for the learning of Business Studies. Responses from the learners read: Feedback that is not specific to my work and my progress doesn’t help me learn. Getting the same comment even though our marks are different just suggests that we are all the same in the classroom. But I don’t think that is the case. Learner D
I don’t think the whole class should get the same comment, especially when our marks are not the same. I want feedback that is specific to my work because this shows that the teacher sees my efforts. Also, I can use such feedback when I study because it is specific to my learning progress.
Learner A
Getting the same comment as others is upsetting because it doesn’t specify your level of understanding compared to someone else. Learner B
The above responses emphasised the importance of differentiated written formative feedback in helping learners to see their progress in their learning of Business Studies. The learners’ responses above suggest that learners wanted to see the relevance of written formative feedback in their work, which would help them to study the subject content according to their understanding and/or misunderstanding of the assessed content knowledge. Learners also expressed that formative feedback that was not specific to their work caused frustrations and created a sense of unfairness because they received the same comment even though their work and the mark allocated were different to that of other learners
Although most learners in this study were dissatisfied with the written formative feedback that did not specify strong and weak sections of their work, as well as feedback that was not specific to their work, for some learners the effect was the opposite as they seemed unaffected with this kind of written feedback. The responses from the learners read as follows: When I get comments like “good work” and “you can do better”, I feel like the teacher appreciates my work and I become more confident and proud of myself and also more interested in studying harder to improve my marks. Learner E
If my teacher comments “you can do better” it means s/he believes in me. So I take that as a motivation to study harder. Learner G
The responses above suggest that, for some learners, written formative feedback that was not specific to their performance and did not provide suggestions for improvement, did not hinder their learning of Business Studies but, in fact,
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motivated them to study harder. This was perhaps an indirect way to express a wish to meet the teachers’ expectations even though the feedback they received did not specify those expectations.
Generally, most learners in this study complained that the feedback they received lacked specificity; thus hindering their learning of Business Studies. Multiple elements, including lack of specificity of strong and weak sections of their work, lack of specific guidelines for improvement, and generalised feedback comments were explanations provided for their negative experience of receiving written formative feedback in Business Studies. The learners emphasised the importance of specificity of feedback comments in their learning of Business Studies. They pointed out that formative feedback that specified areas of improvement in their work would help them to direct their energy towards specific areas of the subject content that require attention, which could help them to learn strategies to improve their academic performance.
A distinct finding revealed that the timing of assessment feedback is one of the key variables in the feedback process that can either hinder or foster the effectiveness and usefulness of assessment feedback. This corresponds with prior studies (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Attali & van der Kleij, 2017; Quinn & Nakata, 2017; Swart et al., 2019). Learners’ experiences related to the timing of receiving written formative feedback revealed that feedback practices in the school context fall short of the principles outlined in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (Department of Education [DoE], 2017) and the National Protocol for Assessment (NPA) (DoE, 2017). The Business Studies FET CAPS document and the NPA state that learners should receive timely assessment feedback that is, feedback received when learners are still mindful of the content knowledge, assessed topics, and learning goals (DoE, 2017). Findings in this study revealed that learners received delayed feedback, which was reported to hinder the usefulness of formative feedback. In the context of this study, delayed feedback was considered to be feedback received three or more weeks after submission of an assessment task. Learners in this study reported that they received written formative feedback weeks after submitting a written formative assessment task, and thus did not use it to inform their learning of Business Studies as they received it [feedback] when it was too late to act on it.
The findings in this study support previous studies (Peacock et al., 2014; van der Kleij, 2019) which documented substantial evidence that learners do not use written feedback because they receive it too late when they are no longer mindful of the content knowledge, topic or performance in question. It can be noted from the findings in this study that delayed written formative feedback hinders early detection and correction of flaws in understanding. From a social constructivist perspective, feedback cannot act as a scaffold for comprehension when it is received too late (Vygotsky, 1978). This is because delayed feedback hinders both teachers and learners from taking corrective action as early as possible. In cases of flaws in understanding, this hinders learning from feedback. Moreover, the social constructivism theory states that learning is a social process
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that is activated through the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Gredler, 2012). Timely assessment feedback has the potential to help learners to determine the ‘distance’ between their actual and potential level of development. Drawing from the findings in this study, one may argue that delayed formative feedback interferes with learners’ cognitive development because it delays the development of advanced mental structures (which may be acquired through effective formative feedback), which, in turn, may delay learners from reaching their potential level of development.
It was also found that learners often did not receive written feedback unless they specifically sought it out and that, when they did seek feedback, they received it weeks later. This emphasises that learners in this study received delayed written feedback, whether or not they sought it out actively. The findings in this study indicate that delayed feedback is ineffective in supporting learning. Learners in this study reported that delayed feedback hindered them from devising learning strategies on time, in order to improve their future academic performance. From a social constructivist perspective, delayed feedback constrains learners from monitoring their learning progress and delays teacher learner collaboration to monitor learners’ current level of achievement according to the learning intentions (Sardareha & Saad, 2012). These social constructivist assumptions are in line with the findings in this study on the effect of delayed feedback, that is, delayed feedback seems to interrupt teacher learner collaborative effort in the learning process, which subsequently constrains learners’ understanding and knowledge construction (Sardareha & Saad, 2012).
The current study shows that written formative feedback is most effective in supporting learning if provided immediately (within a few days), instead of weeks after the submission of an assessment task. The study shows that delayed feedback constrains the usefulness of feedback, which could impede learning. Therefore, an attempt should be made by teachers to provide timely written formative feedback in order to enhance the effectiveness and usefulness of feedback as well as to encourage productive learning.
Findings in this study also revealed that Business Studies learners received written formative feedback that lacked specificity. Learners in the study reported that the written comments they received from their teachers on their assessment tasks were not specific to their learning progress and did not specify what they needed to do to improve their work and/or to prepare for future learning events. For this reason, learners in this study reported that they did not use feedback information because they were unsure about what they needed to do to improve the quality of their work.
The findings in this study correspond with the Vu et al. (2020) case study, which revealed that students did not use the written feedback they received on their course assessments because it was not specific to their performance and did not provide suggestions for improvement. Similarly, the findings in this study revealed that written feedback that lacked specificity hindered learners’ engagement with feedback. Moreover, learners’ experiences of receiving feedback
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in this study suggest that feedback practices in the school context fall short of the principles outlined in the FET Business Studies CAPS document (DoE, 2017) and the NPA (DoE, 2017), which state that feedback should inform learners specifically about a gap between their current and desired academic performance as well as offer recommendations on how they can improve their learning. It can be noted from the reported learners’ experiences of receiving written feedback in this study that feedback received by learners did not specify the gap between where they were in their learning and where they needed to be, which made it difficult for them to use feedback to inform their learning of Business Studies.
From a social constructivism perspective, feedback should help learners to monitor their current level of achievement according to the learning intentions (Sardareha & Saad, 2012). Feedback should specify learners’ learning progress to enable learners not only to monitor their learning progress actively but also to control their success in the learning process (Sardareha & Saad, 2012). The findings in this study suggest that learners were not able to use written feedback to control their success actively in the learning process because the feedback they received on their learning tasks did not specify good and weak sections of their work, or how to improve.
It was also found that learners received generalised feedback that did not specify their learning progress. Learners in this study reported that they received the same comments irrespective of the difference in their work and the marks achieved. This finding corresponds with the findings in the case studies of Engelsen and Smith (2017) and van der Kleij (2019), which documented that learners received standardised feedback in the form of general phrases like ‘try harder’ , ‘good work’ , ‘excellent work’, which they could not use to inform their learning because the comments did not specify how an individual learner could improve his/her work. Similarly, the interview data in this study revealed that learners did not use written feedback because the generalised and standardised phrases they received from their teachers which were not specific to their work did not lead to greater learning possibilities.
As with any study, this study also has its limitations. The data for this study were collected at only one point in time (only in Term 3). Learners’ experiences of receiving written formative feedback could change over time. This study was unable to capture changes in any learner experiences of the phenomenon. This study explored the experiences of receiving written formative feedback from 12 learners from two different public schools. Therefore, results cannot be generalised since different schools may have different formative feedback practices – resulting in different experiences of receiving written formative feedback.
The findings in this study suggest that written formative feedback that does not specify strong and weak sections of learners’ work and how to address flaws in understanding, as well as written feedback that is not specific to an individual learner’s learning progress, constrains the usefulness of feedback, which could
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impede learning. Knowledge of these inhibiting factors is useful to heads of Business Studies departments in order to address and minimise challenges in Formative Assessment feedback (FAF) for Business Studies educators for effective implementation of FAF techniques in the Business Studies modules. This calls for professional development which allows the skills development programme to be directed by the teachers themselves, rather than adopting a top down approach. This suggests a context driven model for professional development, based on an ‘inside out’ strategy Learners should also be trained with techniques to develop self regulatory capacities so that they can use feedback to improve their own learning.
It may be concluded that learners have been overlooked as a vital resource informing assessment feedback practice; there is a mismatch between learners’ feedback needs and the feedback supplied. Hopefully, over time, feedback practices will be implemented in a circular fashion, allowing learners’ feedback perspectives and needs to have an impact on enhancing teachers’ feedback practices. This study makes a valuable contribution to the literature, specifically to FAF, with respect to the gaps identified in the introduction and literature review. To date, the literature has explored teachers’ understanding or practices of FAF, and has mostly focused on in service teachers. This study is perhaps the first to explore students’ experiences of receiving written feedback on written coursework at high school level, in Grade 10 Business Studies in the South African context Findings from this research can enable teachers to rethink their assessment feedback practice by encouraging learners to take responsibility for their learning and for the learning of others. This kind of feedback sustains the notion of communal learning where everybody takes part in the process of providing feedback.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 249 264, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.13
Received Jul 19, 2022; Revised Sep 20, 2022; Accepted Sep 29, 2022
Abstract. This paper investigated how graduating Natural Science pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in their lesson plan designs. The study draws on the theoretical tenets of Transformative Pedagogy, a form of pedagogy that combines social constructivism and critical theory, in order to teach for equity and equality. The study was qualitative in nature; it and made use of a documentary analytical method to respond to the primary research question: how do graduating Natural Science pre service teachers integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in their lesson plan designs? To respond to this primary research question, descriptive text that derived from the purposely selected sample of lesson plan designs of the pre service teachers was analysed. An analysis of the three lesson plan designs revealed that the principles of Transformative Pedagogy, namely the “prompting of learners’ critical consciousness about social issues”, “the existence of open dialogue amongst learners” and “learners’ engagement in educational collaborative practices” were thoughtfully considered and integrated within the lesson plan designs. Based on the findings, this study holds a series of implications for future research in the scholarship of pre service teacher development, especially in the field ofscienceeducation.Given theideals ofTransformative Pedagogy,future research could focus on the capability of pre service teachers to infuse the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in other science related school subjects, such as Physical science and Chemistry teaching. Future research could also perhaps explore how pre service teachers experience the integration of Transformative Pedagogy in their lessons.
Keywords: Natural Science education; pre service teacher development; Transformative Pedagogy; lesson planning; Initial Teacher Education
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Initial Teacher Education Programmes should provide pre service teachers in development with a well rounded education that would equip graduates with an integrated knowledge base that enables them to demonstrate applied teacher competence, commitment and responsibility, as academically and professionally qualified educators (Bourke, 2019). In the context of Natural Science teacher education, the integrated knowledge base is the ability of pre service teachers to demonstrate a mastery of Natural Science subject content knowledge, knowledge of the learners and their educational contexts in the Natural Science classroom and a pedagogical content knowledge base that is specifically aligned to the nature of the subject Natural Science (Hetherington & Wegerif, 2018). As a middle school subject, Natural Science forms the basis of applied sciences that focuses on the rules of nature and the study of the universe.
In addition to pre service teachers’ mastery of an integrated knowledge base, the expectation is also for graduating pre service teachers to be able to demonstrate the ability to structure meaningful lesson plans that would give expression to an effective Natural Science educational experience. The lesson plan, which encompasses an in depth description of the instructional strategies and learning activities to be performed in the teaching and learning scenario (Ahmad, Yakob & Ahmad, 2018), includes various core lesson plan features that are associated with a teaching episode. These features, amongst others, include information about the lesson topic selected, the lesson objectives formulated, the teaching approach followed, teaching materials considered and the assessment methods selected (König et al., 2020).
Furthermore, apart from lesson plan features, it is also expected that the pre service teacher should be knowledgeable of various educational learning theories that could help them improve their lesson plan design (Civitillo, Juang & Schachner, 2018). Generally, the three most widely accepted theories to learning are Constructivism (i.e., learners being the constructors of knowledge), Social Constructivism (i.e., learners acquiring knowledge through social interaction with their fellow peers) and Behaviourism (i.e., learners acquiring knowledge through a stimulus response reinforcement method) (Clark, 2018).
The ability of the pre service teacher to draw on these theories would affect the didactic condition of the lesson. In other words, the selection of a particular learning theory influences how the lesson activity would unravel in the classroom context; and it would consequently impact how learners experience the learning and teaching process.
Aside from these common learning theories, an alternative educational theory deemed highly appropriate for promoting a "socially just" educational experience, deals with a pre service teacher’s ability to infuse Transformative Pedagogy into a lesson plan design. Transformative Pedagogy is considered to be a form of pedagogy that combines social constructivism and critical theory; and one which focuses on a pre service teacher's ability to teach for equity and equality (Tinning, 2017).
Using Transformative Pedagogy implies that the pre service teacher is interested in teaching in a manner that would raise awareness amongst learners of those factors that negatively downplay equity and equality in society (Lynch & Curtner Smith, 2019).
Given this understanding of Transformative Pedagogy, the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualification (MRTEQ) policy, which governs the processes and practices related to teacher education in South Africa (Department of Higher Education, 2015), reiterates the importance of Initial Teacher Education programmes exposing pre service teachers to the key theoretical tenets of Transformative Pedagogy. Given this call, the School of Education at a selected South African University, is committed to equipping pre service teachers with an integrated knowledge base that would enable them to perform quality teaching duties with the values and norms of social justice and human rights in mind.
However, given this programme expectation, little research has been done by us as teacher educators in the School of Education, in order to determine whether pre service teachers were able to integrate such norms and values into their lesson plan designs. Doing so is important; since the pre service teachers’ lesson plan designs ultimately inform their teaching practice during a teaching practicum experience (Lynch & Curtner Smith, 2019). It is with this argument in mind that we ask the following question: “how do graduating Natural Science pre service teachers integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their lesson plan designs?” In posing this question, our thinking was guided by the purpose of the study, which was to determine the ability of graduating pre service teachers to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their Natural Science lesson plan designs.
This study draws on the theoretical tenets of Transformative Pedagogy. This is a form of pedagogy that combines social constructivism and critical theory. It focusses on teaching for equity and equality (Tinning, 2017). The implementation of Transformative Pedagogy allows for didactic conditions to occur within a teaching context (Branchetti & Rossi, 2021). These didactic conditions, according to Mezirow (1997), include learners undergoing a process of perspective transformation, which is articulated across three dimensions. These dimensions include the psychological dimension (i.e., learners’ transforming how they perceive the “self”), a convictional dimension (i.e., learners critically reflecting on their own beliefs and values), and a behavioural dimension (i.e., learners undergoing a transitional change in their lifestyle and personal behaviour against the backdrop of the values of social justice) (Mezirow, 1997).
In the context of Natural Science teaching, the perspective transformation that is referred to here, is the product of a Natural Science lesson being structured in a manner that enables learners to enter a phase of critical self reflection that allows them to question their existing assumptions and beliefs about various issues in society (Herbert, Baize Ward & Latz, 2018).
By referring to Transformative Pedagogy in the classroom, the teacher shows an interest to teach learners the issues of social justice. This approach is followed, in order to raise awareness amongst learners about factors that negatively downplay equity and equality in society (Lynch & Curtner Smith, 2019). Issues, such as poverty, homelessness, climate change, over population, xenophobia, racial discrimination, gender inequality and health care availability are some of the common issues that hamper a socially just society (Fujino et al., 2018).
Given these issues, some suggest that teaching should be organised in a manner that would promote learners’ self examination of their core values and beliefs and elicit an understanding of those, who have different core values and beliefs (Branchetti, Capone & Rossi, 2021). For Transformative Pedagogy to surface in a Natural Science teaching setting, requires the Natural Science teacher to be intentional in the structuring of a lesson plan that would ultimately give expression to the three core principles that underpin Transformative Pedagogy (Branchetti, Capone & Rossi, 2021).
In the first instance, the lesson plan should refer to educational activities that allow learners to be critically conscious of those social issues that affect the well being of others (Giroux, 2018). The inclusion of such activities would engage learners in the process of self reflection, self enquiry and self learning (Freire, 2005). In following this approach, learners are made aware of how their thoughts, feelings and values would affect others in society. It is important here for learners to “feel” and “know” reality as it is often perceived by the oppressed. The oppressed, which Freire (2005) refers to here, includes those individuals in society that fall victim to issues of injustice.
Kennedy (2019) believes that the ability of an individual to be critically conscious of the thoughts, feelings, and values of others, serves as a driving force towards enabling social justice and transformation within the broader society.
The principle of critical consciousness is further promoted through the inclusion of self reflective exercises offered by the lesson plan. Blakemore and Agllias (2019) explained that the inclusion of self reflective exercises is meaningful for triggering learners’ self reflection of existing assumptions and beliefs. In doing so, learners could consider the limitations of these assumptions and beliefs against the backdrop of a socially just society (Watts, 2021). Self reflective exercises in the form of open and closed ended questions, pre tests, or surveys are valuable for clarifying learners’ prior knowledge, their existing beliefs and assumptions. The inclusion of such activities in the lesson plan would create an awareness amongst learners of the societal issues that negatively affect values, such as human equity and equality.
The existence of open dialogue between individuals in the classroom serves as the second core principle of Transformative Pedagogy (Patel, 2021). It is believed that to cultivate conscientisation amongst learners, requires them to participate in some form of human solidarity (Holmes & Tolbert, 2020). Solidarity, on the other
hand, would only emerge within a classroom context if the lesson plan permits learners to engage in educational activities that promote open dialogue. Formenti and West (2018) add that learners should be able to share their subjective experiences that are anchored in real life events and contexts. The expectation is that using open dialogue, learners should be able to affirm each other’s views, opinions and inputs, free from any forms of intimidation and judgement. The latter would allow learners to learn from each other’s experiences as a collective (Formenti & West, 2018).
For this to occur, the lesson plan should enable learners to either explain their individualised thinking in writing, or voice their individualised thinking through classroom discussions (Schuitema et al., 2018). Given this expectation, Martin (2018) suggests that the effectiveness of open dialogue in the classroom is an outcome of the trust and respect learners display towards the viewpoints and opinions of their counterparts. In making provision for open dialogue in the teaching context, the lesson plan should include educational activities that allow learners to examine social issues through acts of listening, reading, viewing, and writing. Such forms of open dialogue would allow learners to transition their thoughts and in class discussions to authentic practices outside the classroom (Harfitt & Chow, 2018).
It is for this reason that it is claimed that Transformative Pedagogy places a high value on learners being agents of change (Laininen, 2019). The third core principle of Transformative Pedagogy deals with the aspect of collaborative practices. To be specific, Kaspar (2018) suggests that the lesson plan should cater for collaborative exercises that allow learners to work together as a collective in making meaning of societal issues that impact the lives of others. Johnson and Golombek (2020) add that the lesson plan should include engaging learning activities that would create conflicting viewpoints amongst learners that would ultimately challenge their current beliefs and existing assumptions.
The lesson plan should, therefore, enable learners to enter a zone of critical engagement that is underpinned by the values of trust, openness and responsibility (Johnson & Golombek, 2020). In turn, these values would foster a critical dialogue that is interpersonal, intrapersonal and discursive of nature.
Typical features of such collaborative practices should include learners’ interaction with their peers in a small group setting, learners’ role playing activities to get a certain “message” across, small group reflective writing sessions and debating (Loh et al., 2018). Coulson et al. (2018) added that such collaborative practices should include participative engagement amongst learners in class, the greater school community, and the local community. Such participative engagement activities are key in empowering individuals, irrespective of their status of power, level of education or influence (Giroux, 2018).
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3.1.
Given the aim of the study, a qualitative research methodology was employed. Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non numerical data, such as texts, videos, or audio recordings (Hays & McKibben, 2021). In this study, descriptive texts in graduating Natural Science pre service teachers lesson plan designs were analysed, in order to gain insight into the integration of the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in such plans, thereby responding to the primary research question of the study. Notably, a qualitative research methodology was useful because it allowed the researchers to collect data on all kinds of topics in a very flexible and open ended manner.
Consequently, the application of a qualitative research methodology aligned with the goal of this study, which was to analyse the graduating Natural Science pre service teachers’ lesson plan designs, in order to gain insight into the integration of the principles of Transformative Pedagogy.
The population of the study included graduating pre service teachers in a School of Education at a South African University. Given this population, a purposive sampling technique was employed for the study.Purposive sampling, also known as judgemental, selective, or subjective sampling (Goacher et al., 2017), is a type of non probability sampling in which researchers choose individuals from the public to participate in the data collection process, based on the researcher’s own judgment. Klar and Leeper (2019) added that a purposive sampling technique is the deliberate choice of an informant, due to the particular qualities that the informant possesses. For this study, the pre service teachers enrolled in a Bachelor of Education study at a selected university in South Africa that specialised in the teaching of Natural Science in the School Education. These teachers were deliberately selected. Three of their lesson plan designs were deliberately used as a source of the written data needed for the study to reach its goal.
The study utilised a documentary analysis as a data collection method. The use of documentary analysis is considered as a form of qualitative research, in which several documents are interpreted, in order to provide voice and meaning regarding a particular topic of interest (Rapley, 2018). For this study, there was a deliberate focus on the documentary evidence captured in the lesson plan designs of 3 pre service teachers that were teaching the subject of Natural Science; since it provides sufficient documentary evidence on the pre service teachers' ability to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their lesson plan designs. Given this approach, Bowen (2009) and O’Leary (2014) suggested that in seeking corroboration, researchers ought to consult any relevant documentation, such as public records, personal documents, or some form of physical evidence to capture documentary evidence that is applicable to the topic under investigation.
Other forms of data collection methods, such as interviews and observations were not conducted. Instead, the researchers were merely interested in analysing their
lesson plans designs to gain insights regarding the integration of the principles of Transformative Pedagogy. Although some scholars question the amount of documentary evidence that should be gathered during a documentary analysis (Groenland & Dana, 2020), other scholars insist that the quality and substance of the documentary evidence is of the utmost importance (Bowen, 2009). It is for this reason that O’Leary (2014) makesa claim for thequality of documentary evidence, rather than the quantity of documentary evidence. Given this view, the researchers opted for quality over quantity in analysing the written texts that provided written data on the lesson topics selected, the teaching approaches followed, the teaching materials considered, the assessment methods used, and the lesson conclusions formulated in line with the principles of Transformative Pedagogy as a theoretical lens.
The researchers made use of thematic analysis to analyse the written texts that were extracted from the lesson plans of the 3 pre service teachers. This was required to make sense of how the pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their lesson plan designs. The researchers were aware that while thematic analysis was considered a flexible means to analyse the data, it could lead to discrepancies and an absence of consistency when constructing themes from the data (Elliott, 2018). To address the afore mentioned disadvantage of thematic analysis, our intention as researchers, was to keep records of the raw data, which could assist us to systemise, relate and cross reference the data (Watkins, 2017).
This further assisted us to create a clear audit trail of the data that were used. In addition, findings from the study were also shared with the 3 pre service teachers, to ensure that the data presentation is credible and a trustworthy representation of the pre service teachers’ voices.
4.
Permission for this study was granted by the Senate Research Ethics Committee at a selected South African University. Permission to use the lesson plan designs was obtained from the 3 sampled Natural Sciences pre service teachers. The lesson plans for which permission had been granted were de identified, thereby implying that the names of the Natural Science pre service teachers would be removed for the sake of anonymity and the pseudonyms that were indicated. The privacy, confidentiality and anonymity of the documents were acknowledged and respected. A confidentiality clause was included in all documentation, signed by the pre service teachers, in order to ensure the confidentiality of their lesson plan designs.
5.
Positionality “reflects the position that the researcher has chosen to adopt within a given research study” (Savin Baden & Major, 2013, p. 71). Positionality also requires the researchers to acknowledge and locate their views, values, and beliefs in relation to the research process (Goacher et al., 2017). Positionality is normally identified by locating the researcher in terms of the subject under investigation,
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the research participants, and the research context. In this study the researchers only engaged with the participants to obtain their consent to use their lesson plan designs.
Furthermore, we were aware of possible power imbalances; since this is related to the involvement of our students in this project. The students were an important aspect; since we as researchers, were offering modules that related to Natural Science education and transformative pedagogical practices in the School of Education. This awareness prompted us to be extra vigilant and cautious of power dynamics and forms of intimidation that could have existed between us as researchers and module lecturers, as well as the pre service teachers as participants in the study.
However, by no means did our positionality as teacher educators affect the ethical processes in this study. Ethical principles in terms of consent and confidentiality to protect the written lesson plan data of the participants were applied. To ensure that the interpreted data correlated with the information in the lesson plans provided by the Natural Science pre service teachers, we also allowed the three pre service teachers to review the findings of the study.
The primary research question for the study was to determine “how graduating Natural Science pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their lesson plan designs ” Below is the summary of the 3 lesson plan designs provided by the pre service teachers. This was required to make sense of how the pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy. From these lesson plans, specific attention was given to the written text that provided the data on the lesson topics selected, the teaching approaches followed, the teaching materials considered, the assessment methods used, and the lesson conclusions formulated. This was followed by an in depth analysis, interpretation, and description of the lesson plans in line with the principles of Transformative Pedagogy.
6.1.
The topic that Mary selected for her Natural Science lesson was “population ecology”. Mary’s intention with the lesson was two fold. The first lesson objective dealt with creating awareness amongst learners on ways to reduce and eliminate the adverse impact of waste material on human and animal life. Her second objective focused on creating a learning environment for learners to eagerly participate in a peer to peer poster presentation process that dealt with “the ways to manage waste disposal”.
As part of her introduction and teaching approach, Mary projected a photograph to the class that “depicts a recreation park close to the school that was littered with waste material”. In showing the learners this photograph, she posed the following questions, namely, “What comes to mind when you look at the picture?” “Have you seen this recreation park before?” “If so, how does this recreation park make you feel when you walk past it on your way to school?” and “How do you think does the community feel that are staying close to this recreation park?” After posing these questions, Mary then entered a whole class discussion with her learners where they discussed topics, such as “waste
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disposal” and “waste management”. When participating in the whole class discussion, Mary wanted her learners to obtain a better understanding of what was meant by “waste disposal” and “waste management”, as concepts relevant to the Natural Science school syllabus. To facilitate the discussion and further enable the learning progress, Mary shared printouts of visual examples of “waste disposal” and “waste management” with her learners.
Following the whole class discussion, she then divided the class into groups of four; and she instructed each group to develop a creative poster that “dealt with ways to manage waste disposal”. In concluding the lesson, Mary shared a homework activity that required the learners to survey all the forms of waste material generated in their homes, and to then report their findings to their fellow classmates the following day.
Mary’s lesson plan made several references to the principles of Transformative Pedagogy. To be specific, the principle of critical consciousness came to the fore with her intention to “make learners aware of the negative impact of waste pollution on the health of local citizens from the surrounding community”. More evidence of the principle of critical consciousness surfaced, when Mary posed open ended questions, such as “How does the recreation park make you feel, when you walk past it on your way to school?” and “How do you think the locals feel that are staying close to the park?”
In addition to the learners being made critically consciousness of the issue of waste management, Mary’s lesson also showed signs of collaborative practices. For example, her lesson expects from learners to “eagerly participate in the development of posters that suggest ways to manage waste disposal”. This activity enabled the learners to work together as a collective to engender meaning of societal issues that impact the lives of others (Kaspar, 2018).
This form of critical engagement fosters values, such as trust, respect, openness and responsibility amongst the learners (Johnson & Golombek, 2020).
Another striking feature of the lesson, is Mary’s use of critical open ended questions. Blakemore and Agllias (2019) reminded us of the importance of using open ended questions to clarify learners’ prior knowledge, existing beliefs and assumptions. The questions that Mary posed, such as “What comes to mind when you look at the picture?” and “Have you seen this recreation park before?” prompt learners to express their individualised thinking in the form of a classroom discussion (Watts, 2021); thereby allowing learners’ voices to be amplified in such a manner that is the key towards enabling learners to acknowledge each other’s diverse viewpoints and opinions.
This approach is essential in eliciting trust and respect among learners in a learning environment (Harfitt & Chow, 2018).
6.2. The lesson-plan extract of Katlego:
The topic that Katlego selected for his Natural Science lesson dealt with “food security and hunger relief in a South African context”. Like Mary’s lesson, Katlego also made provision for two lesson objectives. In the first instance, Katlego hoped to “create an awareness
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amongst his learners on how food insecurity and hunger affect the daily lives of others ” His second lesson objective centred around “enabling learners to create a vegetable garden in the school, as a means to sustain food security.” As part of his lesson introduction and teaching approach, John played a video that “shared the faces and stories of people who struggle to put food on their families' tables ”
After playing this video, Katlego then asked the learners questions. such as "How did this video make you feel?" and "do you think that this is the reality? Following this brief classroom discussion, Katlego then decided to read “section 27 (1)(b)” from the “South African Constitution,” which declares that “all the citizens of South Africa have the right to have access to sufficient food and basic nutrition;” and he asked learners to brain storm strategies to “eradicate hunger in the local community. ”
Given this task, the learners were vocal in sharing potential strategies that could potentially eradicate hunger amongst locals in the community. Finally, the concluding stage of his lesson required learners to develop an action plan on how a vegetable garden can be developed on the local school premises. With this task in mind, Katlego assigned well prescribed roles to various groups in the classroom that would breathe life into the task. Group “Nonyane” was tasked to measure and calculate the exact space for the vegetable garden on the school premises.
Group “Tlou” was tasked to carefully consider which types of vegetables to plant, given the climatic conditions of the local region. Group “Letlotse” had to investigate whether the soil was fertile enough for the vegetables to grow. Finally, group “Sefêlaphiri” penned the learner roles and responsibilities in terms of sustaining the vegetable garden.
The lesson presentation provided by Katlego also shows signs of Transformative Pedagogy. To be specific, the principle of critical consciousness reflects in Katlego’s lesson in multiple instances. To be specific, the questions that he poses to his learners, namely "how did this video make you feel?" and "do you think that this is the reality?” challenges the learners’ beliefs and views on the urgency to act on food insecurity, as a social issue. In addition, Katlego also expects his learners to engage in an episode of self reflection, in order to come to grips with the reality of food insecurity in the local region in which they find themselves.
Katlego’s lesson further touches base on the principle of open dialogue in the classroom context. Particularly, the teaching activity that enables learners to brainstorm and share strategies to “eradicate hunger in the local community.” This aligns well with the principle of open dialogue. In other words, learners can voice their individualised thinking in a conductive space, free from forms of intimidation and judgement (Schuitema et al., 2018). In following this approach, learners are positioned as “change agents, ” which are capable of tackling real life societal challenges.” (Laininen, 2019)
Finally, Katlego’s lesson further caters for the principle of collaborative practices. This is evident when Katlego tasks his learners to collectively brainstorm and pen strategies to potentially eradicate “food insecurity” and “hunger” in the local community. Furthermore, additional classroom activities that relate to collaborative practices surface, when Katlego instructs his learners to devise an
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action plan on how to create a vegetable garden in the school. With this activity in mind, Katlego is hopeful that his learners will realise that although food insecurity is a real issue in the community, learners themselves can act as “problem solvers” and “change agents” that are capable of addressing the issue.
6.3. The Lesson-plan extract of Maru:
The over arching topic that Maru selected for her Natural Science lesson dealt with the female reproductive system, as a “driver” to gender inequality and gender violence. The aim of Maru’s lesson was to make learners aware of the conations between the female reproductive system and female genital mutilation, as a form of gender based violence. For learners to realise this aim, Maru proposed four lesson objectives. The first lesson objective required learners to become familiar with the different parts of the female reproductive system, as prescribed in the Natural Science school syllabus. With the learners’ fundamental knowledge of the female reproductive system in place, Maru suggested a second lesson objective, that required the learners to take note of the procedures involved in the process of female genital mutilation. Maru’s 3rd lesson objective, aimed to make learners aware of the health complications that were related to the practice of female genital mutilation. Finally, her 4th lesson objective attempted to create an awareness amongst learners on how the practice of female genital mutilation violated the rights of young African females, which ultimately resulted in gender inequality.
As part of her lesson introduction and teaching approach, Maru adopted a teacher centred approach to explain the anatomy of the female reproductive system to her learners. She then posed a couple of closed ended questions to the learners, in order to test their factual knowledge of the topic. Moving on towards the main section of her lesson, she provided each of the learners with a print out of a newspaper article entitled: “Who will end the agony of girls undergoing female genital mutilation”. She then instructed her learners to read the article: and she insisted that the learners engage in a self reflective writing exercise that would allow them to share their views on the topic of female genital mutilation. Finally, the concluding stage of the lesson was dedicated to learners sharing their views on how awareness could be raised about female genital mutilation as a human rights violation act.
The lesson plan provided by Maru serves as a prime example of teaching for equity and equality. Her lesson is structured in a manner that made explicit references to the principles of “critical consciousness” and “open dialogue”. A closer look at her topic reveals that she intends to make learners conscious of how young African females are exposed to “gender inequalities”, “gender based violence” and the “violation of human rights” through practices that related to the “female genital mutilation process ”
Throughout her lesson, a multitude of references were made to educational activities that requires learners to be “critically conscious on how the social issue of “female genital mutilation” affects the physical, social and emotional well being of young African women” (Kennedy, 2019). One such activity, is Maru’s use of a self reflective exercise that prompts learners to “feel” and “know” reality (inter alia female genital mutilation, as a form of gender violence and abuse), as it is often perceived by the oppressed (inter alia, young African women enduring such an extreme form of gender violation) (Freire, 2005).
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Maru’s inclusion of self reflexive exercises in her lesson enables learners to engage in acts of self reflection, self enquiry and self learning (Freire, 2005). Maru’s lesson further caters for the principle of open dialogue, as another prominent principle of Transformative Pedagogy. For example, the “self reflective reading activity” with which she provided learners, not only allowed the learners to reflect on their thoughts and beliefs about the practice of female genital mutilation: but it further enabled learners to share their subjective viewpoints on the topic with their fellow peers.
The teaching approach followed by Maru aligns well with the view of Martin (2018), when it is suggested that the effectiveness of open dialogue in the class room context is an outcome of the trust and respect that each of the learners displays towards other’s viewpoints and opinions. Maru’s lesson referred to key features of open dialogue; since the learners were able to examine social issues through listening, reading, viewing, and writing (Formenti & West, 2018). This approach is often referred to as a form of human solidarity (Patel, 2021). Holmes and Tolbert (2020) claim that human solidarity will only emerge within a classroom context if the lesson plan permits learners to engage in educational activities that promote open dialogue amongst the learners, as witnessed in Maru’s teaching approach.
The purpose of this study was to analyse how graduating pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in their Natural Science lesson plan designs. Conducting this study was important: since the expectation at the School of Education is that pre service teachers should be able to demonstrate an in depth understanding of Transformative Pedagogy, which is a form of pedagogy that combines the aspects of social constructivism and critical theory (Mezirow, 1997).
The use of Transformative Pedagogy comes in handy when an educator is interested in teaching for equity and equality (Tinning, 2017). However, given this expectation, little to no effort had been made by us, as teacher educators in the School of Education and researchers of this study, to uncover how our Natural Science pre service teachers were able to integrate the principles of Transformative Pedagogy into their lesson plan designs. This argument motivated us to conduct this study.
Based on the findings of the study, the lesson plan designs of three pre service teachers demonstrate an integration of the principles of Transformative Pedagogy, namely the “prompting of learners’ critical consciousness about social issues”, “the existence of open dialogue amongst learners” and “learners’ engagement in educational collaborative practices”. The three principles of Transformative Pedagogy were thoughtfully considered by the 3 pre service teachers: and these principles were integrated into their “lesson topics selected”, “teaching approaches followed”, “teaching materials considered”, “assessment methods used” and “lesson conclusions formulated”. Interestingly, all three
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lesson plan designs were structured in a manner that provoked learners’ critical consciousness about social issues that centred around topics, such as “food security and hunger relief in a South African context – Katlego”, “impact of waste material on human and animal life Mary” and “female genital mutilation, as a form of gender based violence Maru.”
The principle of critical consciousness, that is informed by the practices of self reflection, self enquiry and self learning (Freire, 2005), formed the backbone of the majority of lesson objectives structured in the 3 lesson plan designs. Consequently, the pre service teachers were able to develop lesson objectives that required “learners to have an awareness on the health complications related to the practice of female genital mutilation Maru ” Another lesson objective informed by the principle of critical consciousness was for “learners to realise how the practice of female genital mutilation serves as a driver of gender inequality and violence Maru ”
The nature of the lesson objectives further promoted an educational experience that gave expression to “collaborative practices” and “open dialogue” as the two other principles of Transformative Pedagogy. For example, a closer look at the introduction planned and the teaching strategies followed in the lesson plan designs provided evidence of educational activities that required learners to engage in collaborative exercises where they work together as a collective, in order to make meaning of societal issues that impact on the lives of others.
In particular, Katlego’s lesson expected his learners to “develop an action plan on how a vegetable garden can be developed in the local school premises”. Another interesting example was when Mary requested her learners to form groups of four and develop a creative poster that dealt with ways to manage waste disposal ” These different types of collaborative practices followed further prompted learners to engage in the practices of open dialogue.
Open dialogue, as a third principle of Transformative Pedagogy, caters for educational practices that empower learners to affirm each other’s views, opinions and inputs in a conducive learning environment that is free from forms of intimidation and judgment (Formenti & West, 2018). From the lesson plan extracts, open dialogue was prominent in all 3 lesson plans. For example, open ended questions posed, such as “What comes to mind when you look at the picture?:” and “How does this recreation park make you feel when you walk past it on your way to school?”
Mary” not only allowed for learner-discussion: but she also catered for learners’ self reflection. More evidence of open dialogue and learner self refection could be found in Katlego’s lesson plan, when he posed open ended questions, such as "how did this video make you feel?" and "do you think that this is the reality?”
In this study, we make the claim that the 3 pre service teachers were indeed strategic in planning their lessons, in order to cater for didactical conditions that were transformative in nature. Drawing upon Mezirow’s (1997) psychological,
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convictional, and behavioural dimensions, we were confident to declare that the pre service teachers were capable in structuring Natural Science lessons that initiated educational experiences, which empowered their learners to transform how they perceive “the self” (psychological dimension). We are further of the view, that the pre service teachers could structure lessons that would enable learners to “critically reflect on their existing beliefs and values” (convictional dimension).
Finally, we concur that the pre service teachers were successful in structuring lesson plans that would enable learners to undergo a “transitional change in their lifestyle and personal behaviour” against the backdrop of the norms and values of a socially just society.
The limited sample size might potentially serve as a limitation of the study. Future research should consider a larger sample of lesson plan designs. Going forward, this study holds a series of implications for future research in the field of pre service teacher development, especially in the field of science education. Given the ideals of Transformative Pedagogy, future research could focus on the capability of pre service teachers infusing the principles of Transformative Pedagogy in other science related school subjects, such as Physical science and Chemistry teaching. Future research could also perhaps explore how pre service teachers experience the integration of Transformative Pedagogy into their lessons.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 265 279, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.14
Received Jul 28, 2022; Revised Oct 4 2022; Accepted Oct 20, 2022
Abstract. It is common knowledge that grammar instruction is a prime factor in developing EFL students' proficiency. However, the argument revolves around the best method of teaching grammar, whether implicitly or explicitly. Metalanguage (ML), which stands for the technical terms that describe language, is essential for explicit instruction. As this teaching method is widely acknowledged, much research has focused on the relation between ML and language acquisition and proficiency. The focus has always been on the role of ML in developing students' language skills and uptake when taught through such a method. However, there is a relative paucity of studies that explore the exact impact of ML based instruction on students' grammatical recognition, especially inthe Arabian EFL context. Accordingly, the current study investigated the issue through an experimental method. The participants' (n = 73, 35 in the experimental group, and 38 in the control group) scores on the pre and post tests were analysed using t test and item analysis to test the research hypothesis. The results revealed that ML positively affects students' grammatical recognition. However, this improvement was evident only in some grammatical structures. These results imply that ML is beneficial for grammar instruction; however, a mixture of teaching methods should be applied to account for all grammatical constructs The study findings may contribute to enriching the literature on ML and provide evidence for its importance in grammar instruction.
Keywords: metalinguistic knowledge; explicit instruction; focus on form; grammar; language knowledge
Grammar teaching methods are among the widely discussed topics in English language teaching (ELT) literature. In this regard, a fundamental issue to investigate is whether to teach grammar explicitly or implicitly. Both methods have their advocates and opponents. Explicit instruction based on rule
* Corresponding author: AbdulazizBSanosi,a.assanosi@psau.edu.sa
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
presentation and error correction is believed to promote students' accuracy (Alderson et al. 1997) though it may impede spontaneous interaction (Krashen, 1982). On the other hand, implicit instruction is suggested with the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching Method (Savignon, 1987) to foster the meaningful acquisition of a second language (L2). However, it was revealed later that teaching grammar implicitly might lead to inaccurate usage of grammatical structure as students "cannot easily attend to both meaning and form at the same time" (Basturkmen et al., 2002, p. 1). Accordingly, explicit instruction remains the norm for most EFL teachers as the prime objective of most of them is accuracy.
Explicit instruction requires students' knowledge of a collection of technical terms that describe linguistic units, structures and relations. These terms are known as metalanguage (ML). Knowledge of ML is believed to be of essential importance to EFL learners. It helps students to comprehend grammar rules better (Alderson et al., 1997) and it improves their language proficiency (Hu, 2010). To this end, metalinguistic knowledge and its relation to EFL learners have been the focus of considerable research over the past decades. Previous research focused on the effect of ML on different language skills and aspects (Daffern, 2016; Dong, et al., 2020), their application of what they study in their actual performance (Basturkmen, et al., 2002), and the relationship between linguistics and metalinguistic units (Alipour, 2014). Nevertheless, a relatively neglected area in this field is identifying how ML based instruction can affect grammar recognition.
Recent years have witnessed a revitalized consideration of the topic. Accuracy levels of EFL (English foreign language) and ESL (English second language) learners have deteriorated. This represents a problem as one of the essential aims of EFL programmes is to foster correct language usage Therefore, "more recently, the consensus seems that some form of grammar instruction is useful" (Nunan, 2003, p. 157). Notwithstanding, sufficient research that equals the urgency of these findings could not be found. In efforts to deal with this renewed importance, this study attempted to measure the impact of ML based instruction on developing students' grammar recognition. It was aimed at validating the claim that ML can foster the grammatical performance of EFL learners. The researchers investigated this area by testing the following null hypothesis.
H0 There is no impact of ML on EFL learners' grammar recognition.
Metalanguage is the language teachers use to speak about the language when they teach (Ellis, 2016). As Ellis (2016) points out, three uses of ML are distinguished. The first one is utilizing ML to talk about primary grammatical phrases such as objects, nouns, verbs, or sentences. Second, ML refers to technical linguistic terms including phonotactics, adjunct, or suffixes. Finally, ML is employed for non technical terms such as means, say, or correct. These three uses of ML to describe essential grammatical items, technical and non technical terms, are referred to by Fortune (2005) as ML A, ML B, and ML C, respectively. This classification is beneficial in limiting the range of ML and is also useful in categorizing its various functions (Ellis, 2016). Nevertheless, Bastrukmen et al. (2002) explain that this
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classification is not that simple as it does not incorporate assessing remarks such as excellent or correct
The use of ML falls in the argument of whether to teach grammar implicitly or explicitly. (Ellis, 2005, in Roshan & Elhami, 2016b). The former involves no awareness and could be used in fast and natural communication. In comparison, the latter is confirmatory and focuses on the accurate knowledge of a foreign language's phonological, lexical, grammatical, pragmatic, and socio critical characteristics, along with employing ML to mark this knowledge.
A plethora of research suggests that ML can be useful for language learning. For instance, Ellis (2016) proposes that it has prolific uses in communicative language teaching (CLT). Roshan and Elhami (2016a) point out that using ML assists students in communicating through the language, explaining and analysing it. Consequently, this supports learners to possess correctness, self correction, and competence. In CLT, ML raises learners' awareness of the language, resulting in accurate and fluent use of the target language (Ellis, 2016). Moreover, research has shown that ML helps enhancing students' attention to English grammatical items (Abdollahzadeh, 2016; Roshan & Elhami, 2016a; Rizqan, 2020); improving learners' general language proficiency (Berry, 1997 in Berry 2010; Berry 2009a; Hanson, 2013; and Randen, 2022); and raising students' awareness of the language (Hu, 2010).
Furthermore, Hu (2010) reports that ML is beneficial in several ways. First, it improves learners' knowledge of forms and functions. These two aspects are crucial in grammar learning. Second, it draws on the contrastive analysis between the foreign language and the mother tongue. This contrastive analysis is influential in predicting students' mistakes and raising their awareness to avoid them. Third, it facilitates grammar instruction originating from students' knowledge of forms and functions, increasing students' consciousness of their learning. Hence, their metacognitive abilities will be activated and employed. Fourth, Hu (2010) suggests that another benefit of ML is concerned with the explanatory precision with which linguistic generalization can be made and the efficient delimitation of the contexts to which the generalization applies. ML that is appropriately used can pre empt both under and over generalization of the rules in question. (p. 66).
According to Roshan and Elhami (2016a), this may lead to false generalizations Another advantage of ML is its importance in teaching/learning grammar (Roshan & Elhami, 2016b; Rizqan & Rohmah, 2020) since it raises students' attention to the language while enabling them to investigate and recognise it. Consequently, ML activates students' attention to and recognition of grammatical items.
Attention, Noticing, and Recognition
Noticing theory hypothesizes that 'input' becomes 'intake' if it is noticed and deliberately archived (Schmidt, 2010). Schmidt (2010) states that language acquisition is initiated by what students recognize and are conscious of in the language input. What Schmidt refers to is that recognition plays an integral role
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in understanding language input of all kinds. Schmidt (2010) maintains that "some level of attention to form is required" (p.723).
Awareness can be classified into three ranks (Schmidt, 2010). The first one is conscious, which is a cognitive operation involving formulating inner images of exterior incidents. The second level of consciousness is recognition or noticing. Recognition refers to the variation between implied and recognized data (Bowes, 1984, as cited in, Schmidt, 1990). Understanding is the last level of awareness. It entails noticing and thinking about something to dissect and contrast it with other things noticed in various opportunities.
Conscious raising aims to assist language students in attending to forms in the input while simultaneously providing the required input for acquiring the language (Benati, 2021and East, 2021). Conscious raising could be achieved using ML, which facilitates learning grammatical items (Roshan & Elhami, 2016a).
Targeting investigating the ML categories production in grammar and exam adopting content analysis, Rizaqan & Rohmah (2020) found that their students produced both technical and non technical ML, with the former occurring more frequently than the latter. The study concluded that both ML types affected students' grammar recognition. Bakhshandeh & Jafari (2018) disclosed that overt teaching of the present and past simple passive voice forms improved the participants' direct knowledge of these forms as the emprical group’s students performed better than those in the control group in the untimed grammatical judgment post test.
Djahimo (2018) reported two results. The first was that the participants expressed their satisfaction with learning English grammar through consciousness raising tasks. It enabled them tounderstand the conditional sentences, simple present and past tenses, which were targeted by the study. The second result was that the students performed well in the post test compared to their performance in the pre test. Roshan & Elhami (2016 a & b) investigated the impact of ML on Iranian EFL students' grammar noticing and learning, respectively. The studies found that ML enhanced the students' grammar recognition and learning by raising the participants' consciousness of grammatical items. Bouziane & Harrizi (2014) examined Moroccan EFL learners' grammatical competence after explicit and implicit grammar teaching. The study adopted Swan and Baker's Grammar Scan expert tests. They found that the participants' scores were high in some grammatical items such as the infinitive, relatives, sentence structures, passives, determiners, ing forms, and nouns, among other items. They made use of explicit and implicit grammar teaching. Mallia (2014) concluded that most of his participants preferred deductive grammar learning. Mallia (2014) revealed that those who preferred explicit grammar learning did better in forming, applying, and recognizing the past perfect tense.
These studies suffer from some limitations. Rizqan and Rohmah (2020) employed a limited number of participants. Roshan and Elhami's (2016a) study adopted a noticing test that included a few items compared to those adduced in Basturkman et al. (2002, pp. 7 8) and Berry (2010, p.141). Similarly, Roshan and Elhami's (2016b) research adopted a questionnaire that might not suffice such a study since
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it incorporates a number of items and grammatical points. Therefore, it limits the generalizability of its findings Bouziane and Harrizi (2014) collected their data via a test a year after students had finished their grammar course. This delay might have affected the students' level of grammar knowledge. Thus, the results revealed by the study might not be valid.
The study reported here adopted a quasi experimental design as it is the most suitable method of exploring the causal links between variables in applied linguistics (Dornyei, 2007) The selected method was used because grammar recognition can be influenced by many variables. Focusing on the effect of ML based instruction can better be attained by an experimental approach that involves applying the treatment. Accordingly, the researchers administered pre and post tests to collect the research data.
Seventy three female students participated in this study. They studied English Language and Literature at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. They had been automatically assigned to two different sections by the university registration system based on the priority of registration. The researchers took advantage of this categorization and designated one section (n = 38) as a control group and adopted the other group (n = 35) as experimental. Thus, the sampling method followed can be considered a clustering method. Such sampling was considered convenient and suitable since it maintains homogeneity of the groups and variability of its members according to normal distribution and individual differences. Two intact classes were chosen: one for the treatment and the other as a baseline for controlling the experiment.
The students' English Language levels were not measured for the purposes of the study, However, based on them having completed nine years of studying general English at public schools and three semesters’ majoring in English, it was supposed that their levels would range from A1 to B1 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). They studied introductory courses in English language, literature, and translation. The participants were informed about the study and notified that participation was voluntary and independent of course assessment.
To collect data for this study, we adopted pre and post Grammatical Judgment Tests (GJT). GJT is famous as a "standard method of determining whether a construction is well formed" (Rimmer, 2006, p. 246). GJT has been in use for more than 50 years to evaluate students’ understanding of grammar and their language level (Tan & Noor Izzati, 2015). Considering the aim of this study, the GJT was thought to be relevant, as it enabled us to measure the participants' grammar correctness before and after the treatment.
Each of the two tests contained 25 questions divided into two sections. The first section consisted of 12 questions, eight of which were wrong and four werecorrect sentences. The students were required to evaluate (judge) the correctness of the sentences. However, the second section comprised 13 multiple choice questions (MCQs) from which the participants were requested to choose the correct answer.
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The questions were modified from Swan and Baker's (2008) Grammar Scan Test. The tests encapsulated specific grammar items that covered adjectives, adverbs, articles, nouns, pronouns, and verb tenses. These items were displayed in all types of sentences: positive, negative, and interrogative.
The rationale for selecting these grammatical points was based on the university's previous courses students had studied Before choosing the items, the researchers reviewed the course specifications of Grammar I and Grammar II courses which are taught at levels two and three, respectively. Additionally, the same grammatical points were included in the course the students were studying The course, An Introduction to Translation, deals with the problems that face English Arabic translators due to differences between the grammatical systems of the two languages.
Two university professors specializing in Applied Linguistics and TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) were asked to review the test and evaluate its correctness, relevance and suitability for the study. They provided feedback on specific points employed to edit the final draft of the tests. The reliability of the test results was verified by the Blackboard item analysis tool, which computes the discrimination power of the questions, their difficulty, the standard deviation of the scores and the standard error of measurement.
According to the Blackboard manual, discrimination values indicate the ability of a question to differentiate between students with a high and low level of understanding. A value can fall into one of three categories: Good (a score more than 0.3), Fair (a score amid 0.1 and 0.3), and Poor (a score lower than 0.1). On the other hand, difficulty indicates the proportion of participants who accurately responded to the test items. The higher the percentage, the easier the question. A question is considered Easy if its difficulty value is greater than 80 %, Medium if the value is between 30% and 80 %, and Hard if the value is less than 30%. Item analysis also analyses how the questions are grouped or deviate from the average score. Smaller Standard Deviation values suggest that the scores are tightly grouped around the average score, suggesting that the students' performance is homogenous. On the other hand, standard error values indicate the extent of accidental variability. The smaller the standard error of measurement, the more accurate the measurement provided by the test question.
In the initial stage of the research, participants were notified of the objectives and importance of the study. They were also informed that participation in the study was voluntary and unrelated to the formal assessment of current courses and hence no consequences were expected if they were not willing to participate. As the two tests were available online through Blackboard, they were informed that logging into the system and starting the tests indicated their understanding and acceptance of the terms. All the students agreed to the terms and participated in the study.
The pre test was administered in the second week of the second semester in January, 2022. The participant's scores and analyses were automatically acquired through the university Learning Management System (LMS) Blackboard and
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stored for the second analysis stage. Subsequently, the second researcher taught the selected grammatical points to the two groups for twelve weeks using two different methods. The researcher used an inductive approach for the control group, presenting the targeted grammatical points in context The students were then guided to elicit the forms and asked to generate comparable forms in different contexts. Students were then asked to translate the forms into Arabic. The problems of translation were discussed thoroughly, and suggested solutions were presented.
For the experimental group, explicit grammar instruction, based on English and Arabic ML was used. Students were coached on parts of speech and tenses in both languages. This was done by comparing the related rules and functions in the two languages. Students were asked to practise the related forms and generate comparable forms in both languages. Throughout these stages, grammatical technical terms were used. After twelve weeks of teaching with both methods, the post test was administered through Blackboard. The scores of the students on both tests were downloaded to an Excel spreadsheet. Scores of students who completed one test were excluded, and the remaining data were adopted for analysis.
To test the central research hypothesis, researchers conducted an independent sample t test. The T test is a proper statistical method when the aim is to compare various groups of people (Dornyei, 2007). Accordingly, the researchers used SPSS to compute the mean scores of the two tests for both groups and the P value to determine the significance of the difference between the scores. Furthermore, the experimental group scores on both tests were analysed to check the impact of the treatment on the specific grammatical points studied, that is, adjectives, adverbs, articles, nouns, pronouns, or verb tenses. To achieve this, the differences between the mean scores of each grammatical point in the pre test and the post test were computed.
4.1
The results of the first data analysis stage pertaining to the pre test's item analysis are displayed in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Pre test item analysis (Sorted by difficulty)
Q Question Type Discrimination Difficulty Average Std Dev. Std Error 13 Either/Or 0.3 0.85 0.86 0.36 0.06 5 Either/Or 0.4 0.83 0.84 0.38 0.06 23 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.82 0.83 0.39 0.07 24 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.80 0.80 0.41 0.07 7 Either/Or 0.2 0.79 0.80 0.42 0.07 15 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.78 0.79 0.42 0.07 20 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.77 0.78 0.43 0.07 25 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.74 0.75 0.45 0.07 2 Either/Or 0.3 0.70 0.70 0.47 0.08
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21
Multiple Choice 0.4 0.70 0.71 0.46 0.07
4 Either/Or 0.4 0.67 0.68 0.47 0.07
10 Either/Or 0.3 0.65 0.66 0.49 0.08
6 Either/Or 0.4 0.64 0.65 0.49 0.08
1
Either/Or 0.4 0.63 0.64 0.50 0.08
18 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.62 0.63 0.50 0.08
22 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.61 0.62 0.50 0.08
17 Multiple Choice 0.5 0.56 0.57 0.50 0.08
19 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.54 0.55 0.51 0.08
16 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.09
12 Either/Or 0.2 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.08
14 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.09
11 Either/Or 0.4 0.46 0.47 0.51 0.08
9 Either/Or 0.3 0.39 0.40 0.50 0.08
3 Either/Or 0.4 0.28 0.29 0.46 0.07
8 Either/Or 0.4 0.27 0.27 0.45 0.07
In general, the results show that the question type did not affect the participants' performance. It is also noted that most questions have a significant discrimination power. Twenty three test questions had discrimination values of 0.3 or above, i.e., they fall into the Good category, while two questions were Fair and no Poor question found. On the other hand, the test difficulty was normal. Overall, there were 4 easy questions (with values < 0.80), two hard ones (with values > 0.30) and 19 medium questions. The small standard deviation values of the questions suggested that the students were homogenous in their answers as their scores were clustered closely around specific values. Moreover, it is noted that standard error values also were small, suggesting an accurate measurement. These results support the reliability of the test scores.
As for the post test, Table 2 presents the item analysis results of the test questions.
Table 2. Post test item analysis (Sorted by difficulty)
Q Question Type Discrimination Difficulty Average Std Dev Std Error
25
Multiple Choice 0.2 0.85 0.86 0.37 0.06 23 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.82 0.83 0.40 0.07 22 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.78 0.79 0.43 0.07 13 Either/or 0.2 0.74 0.75 0.45 0.07
24
Multiple Choice 0.5 0.72 0.73 0.45 0.08 19 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.71 0.71 0.46 0.08
9 Either/or 0.4 0.69 0.70 0.47 0.08 12 Either/or 0.2 0.69 0.70 0.47 0.08 21 Multiple Choice 0.3 0.69 0.69 0.48 0.08 20 Multiple Choice 0.2 0.66 0.67 0.48 0.08 16 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.64 0.64 0.49 0.08
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11
Either/or 0.5 0.63 0.64 0.50 0.08
3 Either/or 0.1 0.57 0.57 0.50 0.08
8 Either/or 0.1 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.08
17 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.55 0.56 0.50 0.08
10 Either/or 0.4 0.53 0.54 0.50 0.08
15 Multiple Choice 0.5 0.53 0.53 0.51 0.08
5 Either/or 0.2 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.08
7 Either/or 0.2 0.48 0.48 0.51 0.08
6 Either/or 0.2 0.47 0.47 0.51 0.08
14 Multiple Choice 0.4 0.47 0.48 0.51 0.08
18 Multiple Choice 0.2 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.08
4 Either/or 0.4 0.46 0.46 0.51 0.08
2 Either/or 0.3 0.42 0.42 0.51 0.08
1 Either/or 0.2 0.32 0.33 0.48 0.08
Regarding discrimination power, the post test had fourteen Good questions and eleven Fair ones. The test included no Poor questions. Most of the questions, that is, twenty three, were of medium difficulty, while two questions were in the Easy category. The small standard deviation values indicate a consistent performance by the participants, and the low standard error values mean that the measurement [What does this mean?] is unlikely to be due to chance, as all the values were less than 0.1, which means a slight probability of chance.
4.3
The central research hypothesis was tested after checking the final data for reliability An independent T test was performed to compare the scores of students who received ML based instruction (Experimental group) to the score of the control group which received regular instruction. The results are displayed in Table 3 below.
Table 3. T
Mean N Std. Deviation t df Sig (2 tailed)
Pair 1 CTRL_pre 14.5 38 4.70 .718 37 .477 CTRL_post 15.1 38 4.10
Pair 2 EXP_PRE [Comparing the performance of both groups in the pre test is important?] 13.86 35 3.25 9.586 34 .000 EXP_POST 18.11 35 4.02
The findings show that no significant difference occurred between the performance of the two groups in the pre test. The difference between the mean scores of the group is only 0.6; however, a considerable difference is observed in their scores in the post test as displayed in Figure 1 below
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Pre-test
Post-test
ControlGroup ExperimentalGroup
Figure 1: Overall participant scores in the two tests
Furthermore, the results indicate that there was a significant difference between the performances of the experimental group in the post test (M=18.11, SD = 4.02) and the pre test (M=13.86, SD =3.25); t(34) = 9.586, p = .000(. This result is supported by the insignificant difference in the performance of the control group in the post test (M=15.1, SD = 4.10) and the pre test (M=14.5, SD= 4.70); t(37) = .718, p = .477. Accordingly, the null hypothesis of the research is rejected, and the alternative hypothesis, that is., there is a significant relation between ML based instruction and grammatical accuracy, is supported.
4.4 The Impact of ML on the Selected Grammatical Points Further analysis was conducted to check the impact of ML on each grammatical point. The result of this analysis is presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Overall participants' performance on the two tests in terms of grammatical points
Group → Control Experimental Gram.Point↓ Pre. Av. Post_Av. Diff. Pre.Av. Post_Av. Diff. Adjectives 0.54 0.57 0.03 0.54 0.55 0.01 Adverbs 0.59 0.62 0.03 0.59 0.63 0.04 Articles 0.66 0.65 0.01 0.66 0.64 0.02 Nouns 0.66 0.61 0.05 0.67 0.48 0.18
Pronouns 0.70 0.64 0.06 0.71 0.65 0.06
Verb Tense 0.50 0.56 0.06 0.51 0.60 0.09
The findings show a considerable discrepancy in the gains of students in different grammatical points. They hence suggest varied effects of ML instruction on different grammatical aspects. Figure 2 below illustrates the gains achieved by each group regarding each grammatical point.
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
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-0.15
-0.20
It is evident that while the treatment was effective in improving the participant’s performance in adverbs and verb tense, it had no effect on adjectives, articles, nouns, and pronouns.
In general, the result is in line with the findings of most of the previous studies reported in literature. The positive impact of using ML based grammar instruction was supported by Bakhshandeh and Jafari (2018), Roshan and Elhami (2016a & b), Djahimo (2018), and Sanosi (2022), who noticed an improvement in the knowledge and use of grammatical forms after receiving explicit instruction based on ML. This improvement is represented in several forms and labelled by different terms such as noticing (Roshan & Elhami, 2016a & b), Knowledge (Bakhshandeh & Jafari, 2018), consciousness (Djahimo, 2018), and accuracy (Sanosi, 2022) All of these, nevertheless, revealed that ML instruction affects students' performance in grammar in one way or another.
An interesting point to investigate, however, is that the development in the participants' performance is not observed at all levels of grammatical points studied. A probable justification for this finding is that metalanguage, although ML knowledge is helpful in improving grammatical recognition, it is not the exclusive factor that determines improving it. Several extrinsic and intrinsic factors can determine students’ recognition of grammar, including teaching methods, syllabi, and L1 (first language) transfer. As evident in Table 4 above, the improvement is detected in the participants' scores regarding only two grammatical points, which were adverbs and verb tense, respectively. In contrast, scores in adjectives, articles, nouns and pronouns were not affected by the treatment, suggesting no impact of ML based grammar instruction. Implications of these results are that using ML based instruction is likely to be impactful on specific grammatical points, which means that other grammatical structures require different teaching techniques.
This result supports the findings of Bouziane and Harrizi, (2014), who found that explicit grammar instruction effectively improved some grammatical structures but not all of them. Also, tenses, especially past and present perfect, were some of the structures acquired more properly after students were taught explicitly. It is also comparable to the findings of Bakhshandeh and Jafari (2018), which suggested that ML classes were influential in developing students' performance on past and present passive voice
While it seems intuitive that ML based instruction is likely to foster students' grammar accuracy and knowledge, the partial impact is worth more investigation and further research. A sound justification of this phenomenon is probably the differences between students' L1 and English and their negative transfer. For example, it is widely acknowledged that Arab EFL students face difficulty regarding articles, pronouns, and nouns, among other points. Notwithstanding, even the improved grammatical points were also acknowledged as challenging for Arab EFL Learners. For example, verb tenses are proved to be complicated by many researchers e.g. (Yaseen, et al., 2018); nevertheless, they are found to be positively affected by ML based instruction. Accordingly, it can be suggested that a mixture of explicit instruction based on ML and implicit instruction that adopts various techniques is the proper way of teaching grammar. These techniques can include contextualization by supplying socially relevant examples (Mallia, 2018) and using the mother tongue ML (Rakab, 2021).
It is plausible that two limitations might have influenced the results obtained in this study. First, the size of the sample is small. Although all the necessary procedures were taken to guarantee proper sampling, it is thought that a larger sample size would generate more valid results. Another limitation is that the instrument did not take account of the ML knowledge per se. in other words, the test did not include questions on the knowledge and use of technical terms such as verbs, nouns, pronouns, and so forth. Having data about such usage might support or refute the claim that the improvement in the student's performance is because of their ML knowledge and not because of other factors such as the practice effect.
The present findings might have important implications for grammar instruction. As it is proved that ML based instruction positively affects grammar accuracy in some structures, EFL (English first language) teachers are presupposed to apply it parallelly with other techniques that can account for the other undeveloped grammatical points. Teachers are asked to apply contexts, socio communicative activities and inductive methods to teach grammar in this regard. To support this approach, it is expected that course developers will design grammar lessons in a way that can account for both form and functions with a probable room for students to practise through dialogues, role play, games and other comparable activities.
Using ML for teaching grammar explicitly was a topic of debate for a considerable time. However, no decisive findings were found regarding the exact effect of this approach on developing students' grammatical accuracy. Therefore, the researchers aimed to revisit the issue and investigate the impact of ML based
instruction on developing students' grammatical accuracy. An experimental design of control and experimental group was adopted. Subsequently, the participants' scores in the pre test and post test were analysed to measure the impact of the treatment on the experimental group's performance. The findings support the idea that ML based instruction fosters students' knowledge and use of grammar and hence improves students' grammatical accuracy. Notwithstanding, this development is proved to be only in specific grammatical structures such as tenses, adverbs, and adjectives, while other grammatical points remain unaffected. It can thus be suggested that EFL teachers should apply a blend of explicit and implicit instruction methods which can account for both grammatical rules and functions.
This study was limited by the small sample size and the instrument's structure, which contains no questions on ML knowledge per se. Accordingly, it is recommended that future research should employ a larger sample and administer tests that assess students' comprehension of the technical metalinguistic terms. Further analysis can then be conducted to measure the correlation between students' knowledge of ML and their actual grammatical accuracy.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper
This project was supported by the deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University under the research project number 2021/02/17916
The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University for supporting this research project. Thank you too to the third level students, the Department of English Language and Literature at the College of Science and Humanities, Hawtat Bani Tamim for participating in the study, and Dr Ahmad Saeed Rahma for his assistance in the statistical analysis of the research data.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 280 295, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.15
Received Aug 17, 2022; Revised Aug 23, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Abstract This research examined the use of assistive technology (AT) in the classroom with a deaf autistic student, and explored how the technology could support the student in acquiring sign language. It also enhanced the impact of AT on the learning progress of the student. Semi structured interviews were conducted with one interpreter and one teacher, with the responses transcribed and coded. The use of AT in the classroom was also observed. The data analysis yielded four primary categories: teacher and interpreter use of AT and overall benefit, barriers to accessing AT, AT use for academic support, and misunderstandings about deafness and autism. The most common forms of AT used with this deaf autistic student were laptops and iPads. The results indicated that AT had an overwhelmingly positive impact on the learning and behavior of students. The school system presented the main challenge as it did not help the participants to easily access AT. There are common misunderstandings about whether sign language can be taught to deaf autistic children; however, this study’s participants believed that a deaf autistic student could learn and understand the meaning of sign language. Teachers need to integrate AT into their classrooms since AT influences communication development for deaf autistic students and aids their learning progress.
Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; deafness and autism; sign language; assistive technology
There is widespread concern in the U.S., as well as globally, about the number of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). “In 2021, the CDC reported that approximately 1 in 44 children in the U.S. is diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), according to 2018 data” (Autism Speaks, 2021, para. 1). Coke and Kaneshige (2013) have stated that ASD encompasses a range or spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders, marked by communication and social impairments, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors. However, no specific
* Corresponding author: AsmaAlzahrani,an.alzahrani@mu.edu.sa
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
behavior exists that is typical of an individual with ASD, and the disorder manifests differently across individuals over their lifetime. One possible comorbidity is hearing loss. A survey at the Gallaudet Research Institute indicated that during the 2009 2010 school year, 1 in 50 students, most of whom were 8 years of age and suffering from hearing disabilities, were also receiving services for autism (Gallaudet Research Institute, 2011; Szymanski et al., 2012).
As a result of the increasing number of deaf students with autism, how these students learn language requires investigation. Many such students can communicate very well using hand signs, gestures, pictures, and word cards. (Quinto Pozos & Cooley, 2020). These students usually possess better or equally good skills in visual discrimination (Axelsson et al., 2019; Fan, 2012). Nonverbal autistic students can more easily process visual information than auditory information (Fan, 2012).
Carr (1979) states that there is considerable evidence suggesting that autistic children have trouble with mastering intellectual ideas and other composite linguistic skills; one of the most severe complications of ASD is a speech comprehension deficit. Because sign language relies on visual discrimination instead of hearing, it could be helpful for removing key difficulties in acquiring complex linguistic skills for students with comorbid conditions (Carr, 1979; Quinto Pozos & Cooley, 2020). Assistive technology (AT) plays a key role in teaching sign language to these students (Axelsson et al., 2019; Carr, 1979).
Very few studies have examined the dialectal insufficiencies of signing in deaf children with autism (Carr, 1979; Fan, 2012; Shield & Meier, 2013; Quinto Pozos & Cooley, 2020). Other researchers have solely focused on nonverbal autism, neglecting possible deafness, as there is no specific diagnosis for deaf children with autism (Dawson & Toth, 2006; Denmark, 2011; Dale & Neild, 2020). Meinzen Derra et al. (2014) noted that both hearing loss alone and ASD alone can lead to communication and social delays. Therefore, providing a true dual diagnosis is challenging.
The qualitative study aimed to investigate the implementation of AT with one deaf autistic student, focusing on the teaching of sign language. The study investigated the types of technology that can support the student in daily communication and learning, and the understanding of the teacher and interpreter on the use of AT for deaf autistic students.
Denmark (2011) notes the various impairments that characterize individuals with ASD, including social, voiced, and nonverbal interactions and creative activities. Dawson and Toth (2006) listed other social impairments that often present with ASD, including difficulties with eye contact, joint attention, facial expression, and understanding of nonverbal communication; lack of interaction with peers; and lack of social reciprocity. Communication impairments do not solely involve language delays, but also failures in the use of language (Dale & Neild, 2020).
Individuals with ASD often display atypical speech patterns, including
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immediate or delayed echolalia, duplication of expressions in an abnormal manner, and infrequent prosody, among others (Dawson & Toth, 2006).
Rather than communicating through language, deaf students with autism usually communicate by pointing or leading, or through their behavior. In 2008, the study of combined autism and deafness attracted scholarly attention when specialists including Morton, Steinberg, Brice, and Miller contributed articles on the topic of New Directions in Deaf Education (Vernon & Rhodes, 2009).
Technology has been shown to ameliorate the tone of communication in real life situations for people who experience communication disorders (Bryant et al., 2020). Unfortunately, although AT can be extremely beneficial to deaf children with autism, there has been limited research into its implementation (Nelson & Bruce, 2019). This literature review explores how ASD is diagnosed in deaf children, the characteristics of autism in deaf children, sign language studies involving autistic children, and AT studies involving deaf autistic children.
2.1.
Diagnosing ASD in deaf children is a complex task for many reasons. First, Szymanski and Brice (2008), in a review of a study by Roper et al. (2003), stated that deaf children were usually diagnosed with autism between the ages of 5 and 16, while hearing children were diagnosed at ages 4 11. Second, Szymanski and Brice (2008) noted that there have been few psychological assessments that have considered deaf children. Denmark (2011) stated that the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Generic (ADOS G) was the only assessment for ASD in deaf children. However, Dale and Neild (2020) noted, “The ADOS 2, however, falls in line with most standardized assessments in its lack of standardization with the deaf and hard of hearing (D/HH) population. The validation sample of the ADOS 2 did not include individuals who were D/HH” (p. 477). Therefore, there is no standardized psychometrically validated assessment for diagnosing these conditions, and the ADOS 2 is inappropriate for deaf children (Dale & Neild, 2020). When autism is diagnosed late in deaf children, it makes it more difficult for parents and educators to distinguish the characteristics of deafness from those of autism (Szarkowski & Johnston, 2018) whilst also limiting the resources available for parents and teachers to identify autism and deafness (Dale & Neild, 2020; Szarkowski & Johnston, 2018; Szymanski & Brice, 2008).
2.2. Characteristics of Autism in Deaf Children
Szymanski and Brice (2008) demonstrated that the characteristics of autism can appear similar to a loss of hearing ability, and vice versa. These researchers identified potential red flag characteristics for autism in deaf children (see Figure 1).
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•Doesn’t reply to his or her own name when tapped or when attention is shared
•Has difficulty engaging in shared attention
•Has difficulty imitating facial expressions and actions of caregivers
•Makes limited use of eye contact even though it is needed for communication
•Has difficulty understanding others’ needs and feelings
•Reduced range of language functions
•Signing skills develop slowly
•Has difficulty understanding sign language or verbal language unless it is simplified
•Does not play in the same way as same age peers
•Shows an intense interest in a particular activity or object
•Has difficulty interacting with other deaf and hard of hearing students, even with language access
•Resists changes in routines, even though changes are clearly communicated
Figure 1: The characteristics of autism in deaf children: Possible red flags. Adapted from “When Autism and Deafness Coexist in Children: What We Know Now,” by C. Szymanski and P. J. Brice, 2008, Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education, 9(1), pp. 10–15.
Sign language is useful for both people with hearing loss and those with ASD, since it is an alternative form of communication that assists and encourages language development in children who go on to establish functional language (Paul, 2008). It also promotes social interactions for both autistic and deaf children who can better respond and learn quicker when information is presented visually rather than verbally (Paul, 2008; Toth, 2009). Toth (2009) supported the position that visual sign language and gesture characteristics have become a valuable communication tool for students with autism. Toth conducted a pilot study of symbol language as a communication tool for non deaf children aged 0 6 who were diagnosed with autism or communication problems, and found that sign language and pictures eased their development of language skills rather than using the words alone. Shield and Meier (2013) supported the position that sign language was seen as a possible alternative communication system for autistic persons who had failed to acquire speech and could better handle a visual rather than an auditory modality. Conversely, several researchers have suggested that students with ASD cannot learn sign language because their ability to recognize and process information from faces is impaired (Dawson et al., 2005; Klin et al., 2002; Schultz et al., 2003).
To compare the effectiveness and efficiency of two discrete trial teaching (DTT) processes for training receptive linguistic skills, Kurt (2011) used a single subject design with two students with autism. First, the procedure was delivered only using verbal instructions. Second, the procedure was delivered via verbal
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instructions combined with simple gestures and signs to teach receptive language skills using DTT. The results showed that spoken directives combined with simple signals and signs were more effective in promoting receptive linguistic skills for both students than verbal instructions alone. Daniels (2001) supported this position: “Children who have autism have great difficulty processing verbal information and do far better responding to visual communication. Sign language, pictures, or pictographs illustrating the steps of a task are much easier for them to understand than words. Language appears to be jumbled in their heads, and sign language gives them another piece in what for them is a very confusing puzzle.” (p. 97)
Pronovost et al. (1966) carried out a case study over a 2 year period to develop detailed descriptions of the style of speech, language conception, and general functioning of 14 youngsters diagnosed with autistic or atypical personalities. The researchers discovered that when an autistic child was given a gesture to shut the window, they willingly obeyed. However, when a similar request was made without using a gesture, the child failed to complete the action.
AT refers to any item that helps to improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. In all aspects of daily life, devices, whether they be low tech or high tech, should be used to develop the functional capabilities of students with autism and deafness (Fan, 2012). There has been little recent research on the implementation of AT for students with both deafness and autism (Donne, 2013), even though AT can be extremely beneficial to them (Nelson & Bruce, 2019).
A British study used experimental technology to examine if deaf students with autism conveyed emotion in British Sign Language, and found that both participant groups recognized emotions through signing (Denmark, 2011). Lartz et al. (2008) also undertook a qualitative based study of nine deaf students attending a large hearing school, and investigated their perspectives on the use of AT. The results were recorded and then transliterated from symbol language to English. The findings indicated that AT played a crucial role in improving the lives of these students.
The research questions for this study were:
1. What kinds of technology do teachers use to support the needs of both deaf students and students with ASD?
2. How do teachers and interpreters use these technologies to support students?
3. Does AT help students with comorbid deafness and autism to acquire sign language, and if so, how?
4. How does AT influence deaf students with autism?
The aim of the research questions is to investigate how AT has been applied by teachers for students with deafness and autism. They highlight the technology
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that is used in schools, how it impacts upon deaf autistic students, and whether these students can acquire sign language using technology.
3.1.
To explore the research questions the study employed a basic qualitative design, utilizing interviews and observations. The design used subjective data, and was not restricted by definable variables, such as those found in quantitative studies (Barbour, 2014). Before the study began, permission was sought and received from the George Mason University Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was obtained from all participants.
This research took place at a public K 5 elementary school, with two classes at each grade level. The school aims to address students’ educational needs from the ethnic minority group living in the area. The total enrollment was 208 White, 146 Black, 19 Hispanic, and 53 multiracial students. The school had 64 disabled students, comprising 14.8% of the school population.
The research participants consisted of one special education teacher and one interpreter. The teacher worked in a mainstream classroom that includes students with multiple disabilities, one of whom had comorbid deafness and autism. The teacher was 56 years old and had been teaching for 25 years; at the time of the study she taught K 2 and K 1 classes.
The interpreter worked with the same deaf autistic student. She graduated from college in 1987 with a degree in interpreting for the deaf and then began interpreting in the school system. At first, she worked primarily with highly functional students in high school and middle school, as well as college students. In the 8 years prior to the study, she had been working with the mentally disabled.
I had an indirect relationship with the teachers who were working with this deaf autistic student. I chose the teacher to participate in this study based on a recommendation from a past teacher. I asked the teacher to inform the student’s mother about the study and received consent to observe the student. During this time, I chose the interpreter as the second participant and interviewed her.
Semi structured interviews and observations were used as the data collection methods. The primary data sources were the special education teacher and the interpreter. Additional primary data was gathered by observing the deaf autistic student with her teachers.
The objective of this study was to examine the importance of using AT with this student. Observations were deemed to be the best technique for obtaining data, as it eliminates reporting and recall biases (Chandra & Sharma, 2013). I observed the teacher with the student during class hours (12:00 p.m. 2:15 p.m.). As a passive participant, I observed without disturbing the situation in any way. In addition, I observed the student during her gym lesson and took notes.
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During the observation, I focused on every aspect within the student’s classroom, such as the type of AT used, activities that the teacher and interpreter used with the student, the teacher’s use of sign language, the interpreter’s teaching style of sign language, and the student responses. I recorded observations in a notebook so that they could be coded later. The observation period lasted 2.5 hours. While gathering the data, I became aware of the relevance of Gillham’s (2005) statement that “the human eye is not a camera: It does not just record but selects and interprets” (p. 166). My focus was on how the teachers used AT to help the child learn and how the student responded to the cues provided.
After the observation, I interviewed the teacher and interpreter in order to obtain factual data and supplementary information on their perceptions; this was so that I could gather an objective and comprehensive picture of the situation. Both interviews were scheduled outside of the classroom. The first interview began with an introduction of the study, followed by open ended questions. The second interview began with open ended questions about the participant’s background and previous experience working with deaf students with autism. The interviews were conducted informally and recorded.
The teacher and interpreter were asked the same 10 interview questions (Appendix 1). During the dialogue new questions emerged, which elicited additional details and clarification supporting the research questions. The interview questions focused on the technology that the respondent regularly used with their deaf autistic student, how AT supported the student in acquiring sign language, and their perceptions of how technologies influenced the student’s learning process.
Data analysis “involves organizing the data, conducting a preliminary read through of the database, coding and organizing themes, representing the data, and forming an interpretation of them” (Creswell, 2013, p. 179). After the classroom observation and interviews were completed, I listened to each interview recording several times, then transcribed them and translated them from Arabic to English. I performed the same process for my field notes. An external expert reviewed all of the English texts.
I read through the transcribed interviews and observations multiple times and identified any incidents that aligned with the research question for coding. The codes were then placed into separate categories; each category was highlighted with a different color for visual representation of the data. Tables were also created to organize all data into categories.
To check the coding processes, I selected an external expert with a Ph.D. This individual was experienced in education but was not involved with the study; they checked all of the interview and observation transcripts, as well as the lists of codes and coding categories. The expert read the codes and quotations, examined the documentation, and agreed with the coding.
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This study was conducted to learn more about whether teachers understand and use AT to help deaf autistic students acquire sign language and support them in daily communication and learning. The analysis yielded four primary categories of data: (a) teacher and interpreter use of AT and overall benefit, (b) barriers to accessing AT, (c) AT use for academic support, and (d) misunderstandings about deafness and autism. Several subcategories emerged within each of these categories, and are discussed below.
The teacher and interpreter both used AT and reported that it was both influential and beneficial to the student’s learning. They implemented two forms of AT for their deaf student with autism. An iPad was the most common, and was preferred by the student as it was comfortable for both the teacher and interpreter. The iPad was used for games and educational programs, including one on one work with shapes, matching, and language exercises. Another type of AT used was videos on a laptop, which allowed the student to learn visually from other children who used sign language by trying to imitate them and understand their meaning. The interpreter said: “She uses the laptop to watch Singing Time video. . . . She watches on the laptop and she loved it, because she visually saw the story signing in the sign language. She learned all different things through the technology. We worked with a sign language program, there are sign language stories told by deaf people, and the author’s name is Peter Cook. It is under [a] website called Sign Story. She gets access to stories, YouTube, deaf interviews, storytellers, and drama.”
Both types of AT encouraged the student to become more engaged and motivated. The iPad and watching videos on the laptop were found to be useful as instructional tools that provided visual sign language and assisted their student in learning sign language. The teacher believed that AT attracted the student’s attention because of the visual content, and called it a window to the world for her student. She described the benefit and impact of using AT: “We also have found websites that have stories of someone signing the story. She really enjoys those stories. She really watches them. She watches the sign language. She is trying to mimic the sign in the story, and that keeps her engaged.”
Additionally, when the teacher and interpreter used AT with this student, they observed that she felt great joy. They noticed that AT increased their student’s engagement and interaction, stating: “She could interact with technology. She would be able to interact with the computer website with shapes. She is able to work with very simple sentences and matching the sentences with the picture. I think it’s very motivating to her.”
The other impact of AT was reducing bad behavior, with the interpreter stating that “with the technology, as she just sits and does cutting or coloring, she is able to interact with the technology and that’s really aspiring for her.” The teacher
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stated that AT increased her student’s ability to connect and communicate with other students. It also helped her remain calm, happy, and motivated to do more work. Further, the teacher said: “When you see her enjoying the video, you notice that she begins to communicate with other students. They are all together. If they just sit there together in my class, that is a big deal, if they are working together. When she finished with the shapes, you notice how she gets proud of herself. She wants to do five hands. She kissed me; she looked at me and grabbed my hair.”
In summary, the participants reported the use of two forms of AT, an iPad and a laptop This had an overwhelmingly positive impact on the student’s learning and behavior. They believed that AT increased the student’s engagement and reduced her bad behavior. However, difficulties emerged in accessing the AT.
The main barrier identified by the participants was that the school provided insufficient AT, so that the participants had to use their own devices for teaching. The interpreter described her frustration with the school system, saying: “There is one technology, it is called a smart board and the child can touch the board. It is like a laptop. It is wonderful. However, our school does not have that yet. All the other schools have smart boards, and we do not have one yet. There are not enough iPads for each student, so we have to share the iPad.”
The teacher brought her own iPad and downloaded applications to support her students’ learning. She said: “Then with the iPad, we do not have any of it in my room. The school does not provide it. They provide the iPad, but I brought the iPad from home and put the apps [on it] myself. It is expensive to have it. I have to admit we do not have a lot of technology for our students in Akron.”
The teacher also believed that laptops were too advanced for 5 year old students, stating that: “Because they cannot control the mouse, and I do know that they have them with touch screens, but they just want to keep moving, because they are so little. If they get older it would be different, I am sure. You know, it is hard for a little one to not keep touching all the buttons.”
Both participants reported that the school system was challenging as it did not provide easy access to AT.
The teacher and interpreter both used AT to support the student’s learning. First, the teacher provided the student with an iPad and opened an application that contained shapes and puzzles. The student placed every puzzle piece into its correct position. The student knew the shapes of triangles, squares, and rectangles. After the student completed this work, the teacher opened a sign language video. With the aid of the video, the student began to sign and
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communicate very well with the teacher, who claimed, “She signs more pumpkin by hands. She signs the song by sign language.”
In addition, the interpreter used the iPad for academic support. She allowed the student touch the screen to match numbers or letters. She described her use of AT as follows: “If she touches the word three and the letter, the number three and the three pigs light up and dance. If she does not match the word and the letter three, the pig does not do anything. Therefore, she has to learn that the number three and the word three go hand by hand, and if she does not connect them, nothing happens. Consequently, she learned that if she presses on the word, the pig, and the letters P, I, and G, the picture of the pig starts to dance. Then she uses the laptop to watch video, video called Singing Time.”
During the interviews, one theme emerged that was not considered during the development of the research questions. The theme was whether it is possible to teach sign language to deaf students with autism. As previously noted in the literature review, some scholars have argued that students with autism cannot learn sign language due to difficulties with facial communication.
The teacher reported that people assumed her deaf autistic student was not smart enough to use sign language: “She was in the deaf class with a total of sign language, but because of her autism, they could not get her to do what they wanted her to do. Therefore, I think they just figured out she is not smart! They basically said with her disability of autism, she is so limited. She would not benefit from sign language.”
Both the teacher and interpreter responded to this misunderstanding by arguing that deaf students with autism needed to learn sign language to communicate. The teacher stated: “I am looking at her as more of a deaf child than an autistic child, and they are looking at her as more as an autistic child, not a deaf child. I am giving her the benefit of getting around autistic world. . . . she could communicate with other people, but she needs skills. She is deaf! How is she going to do that if we do not teach her sign language? Why wait until we can prove that she is smart enough to meet it, then we could teach it to her. She could be learning it now, and there is potential with her. People do not realize when I saw her smart. Yeah, she is. She does not have any difficulties with face communication. She looks at me, kisses me.”
The teacher believed that deaf students with autism could learn sign language through observation: “I am just thinking about it logically, and if a hearing child learns to speak, if they learn language from hearing it, then I would assume that a deaf child would learn the language from seeing the sign language, from seeing someone do it all the time. That is how they learn it. And I even
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said, we talk to a baby, even [though] a baby can’t repeat what we’re doing and does not understand what we’re saying, but they still learn language in that way and we still talk to a baby. So it makes sense to me, and I said, I am not a deaf teacher, but it just makes sense to me that she is only going to benefit from having another teacher teaching her sign language.”
The interpreter believed the student could see her face and communicate with her through sign language: “She does focus on me with sign language. She is able to understand that we are talking a language that helps her get what she wants. She is realizing her sign language gets her what she wants.” Additionally, the interpreter noted, “Sign language just allows her to get her needs [met]. She is able to get what she wants to eat by signing either ‘ orange ’ or ‘apple.’ It is very important, for example, to learn how to use the restroom, to be able to sign ‘restroom’ in her hands.”
In summary, people have various misunderstandings about teaching sign language to deaf students with autism. They believe that such students have limited abilities because of their communication difficulties. However, the participants asserted thattheir deaf student with autism couldlearn sign language and understand its meaning.
This study used several measures to ensure that the findings were trustworthy. First, the data was gathered from multiple sources both interviews and observations thereby providing an accurate account of an extremely significant aspect of the learning environment (Baxter & Jack, 2008). All participants understood the nature of the study. Furthermore, an external expert reviewed all of the interview and observation transcripts for clarity and coding, and several codes that the expert suggested were incorporated. As Creswell and Miller (2000) wrote: “
The lens for establishing credibility is someone external to the study . . . is operating because of the close collaboration between the external reviewer and the qualitative researcher. This procedure is best used over time during the process of an entire study. Peer debriefers can provide written feedback to researchers or simply serve as a sounding board for ideas. By seeking the assistance of peer debriefers, researchers add credibility to a study.” (p. 129)
There are several limitations to this study. First, this research involved a student who had comorbid autism and deafness, and because of their special needs, it was very difficult to incorporate their particular view. Second, the study relied on the teacher’s observations of the deaf autistic student. Third, the sample size was small and the study was based in one school.
In addition, the validity of the study may have been affected by interviewer bias on the part of the researcher in terms of deaf autistic education and acquiring sign language. As Maxwell (2013) wrote, “Two important threats to the validity of qualitative conclusions are selection of data that fit the researcher theory or
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preconceptions and the selection of data that ‘stand out’ to researcher” (p. 108). To validate the results, when coding the transcribed interviews I included everything that the participants shared with me in the results section, since “Validity in qualitative research is not the result of indifference, but of integrity” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 108).
Another limitation was the reactivity of participants, which may pose issues with the validity of the findings. During observations, I felt that the participants modified their behaviors with the deaf autistic student as they were aware they were being watched and recorded. I also noticed during the interview that the teacher was very new to AT. She said, “I am so new to this, you know, having this technology.” I avoided leading questions, which led to a more open dialogue with the teacher, who then seemed to answer the questions more honestly.
Despite the limitations of the study, as Lincoln and Guba (1985) wrote, “By describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail, one can begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn are transferable to other times, settings, situations, and people” (p. 306). Therefore, to enable this study to contribute to scientific knowledge, plentiful descriptive information was provided about the participants and the setting. This allows readers to decide how the findings can be applied and transfer the conclusions to other settings.
This study has helped to provide a better understanding of the perceptions of classroom teachers’ and the implementation of AT for deaf students with autism to engage and communicate with sign language. Although there are barriers to using AT, the participants believed that AT provided a window for their deaf autistic student and helped her acquire sign language as a result of using visual content.
There were significant differences between this study’s findings and those of previous research. As previously noted in the literature review, researchers have suggested that students with autism are impaired in their recognition of facial information, making them unable to see the teachers’ faces when they are signing or to recognize faces when presented with a video about signing (Dawson et al., 2005; Klin et al., 2002; Schultz et al., 2003). Participants in the current study indicated that their student could learn sign language and understand its meaning, thereby contradicting previous research.
Future research should focus on how teachers can make professional use of AT and determine the best methods and strategies for working with deaf autistic students. Moreover, future studies could also examine other interventional strategies to address the needs of their students and improve their sign language skills. Additional research is required to examine special education teachers’ knowledge, skills, and experience of teaching deafautistic students and to identify the extent of their knowledge of sign language. Finally, further research could examine current educational programs for the deaf autistic population in order to help teachers specialize in the field.
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This study has shown that storytelling is a crucial of component of qualitative research. Many people in our society need to have their voices heard. Storytelling through research is an extraordinary way to make this happen, especially for teachers or parents of children with disabilities who have a difficult time being heard on their own. Prasetyo (2017) notes that storytelling is part of how humans translate their individual experiences of understanding into a public culturally negotiated form. This study makes an additional and important contribution that is focused on teaching a student with both deafness and autism, a relatively rare combination of disabilities. Stories such as this may help teachers explore what works for their own students.
This study has also shown that sign language and AT may be useful ways for deaf students with autism to develop language skills. One participant pointed out a website called Signed Stories (http://www.signedstories.com/apps) as an example of how AT can be used to teach sign language. Teachers need to integrate AT into their classrooms since AT influences communication development for deaf autistic students and aids their learning progress.
There is very limited research on the use of AT to educate deaf students with autism. This study may help teachers to acknowledge the importance of integrating AT and identifying appropriate technology and software to educate this population.
The author would like to thank Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University for Supporting this work under Project Number No. R 2022 327
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A) Group A for question one:
Do students at your school have access to assistive technology?
Do you believe that technology can help those with both autism and deafness? What technology does the student use (computer, laptop, iPad, etc.)? What applications does the student enjoy using (video, Facebook, learning apps, etc.), and is there any technology or software used in the school?
B) Group B for question two:
How does your student communicate with you?
Do you agree that the student needs to learn sign language? And why/how?
Do you agree that assistive technology enables your student to be able to learn sign language so that she can communicate with you? Please explain why.
C) Group C for question three:
Could you please explain your student’s behavior?
How is your student performing?
Does AT help to reduce the bad behavior of your student, and how?
*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 296 308, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.16
Received Aug 17, 2022; Revised Aug 23, 2022; Accepted Oct 19, 2022
Ashton Mudzingiri
University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa
Sanderson Abel
University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa
Tafirenyika Mafugu*
University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa
Abstract During the height of the Covid 19 pandemic, the prohibition of gatherings threatened the education process. Learning institutions had to close. Instead, institutions had to opt for virtual teaching methods. This study investigates the implications of coronavirus induced e Learning on university education. As such, the main objective of the study was to determine the perceptions of the students about Covid 19 induced e Learning. A survey design with 357 university students underpins the study. The students felt that the e Learning platforms had interaction limitations and required more resources, making it more expensive. They also perceived face to face classes to be better than online classes, negatively affecting their performance. Students experienced challenges with e Learning platforms, such as lack of electricity, lack of resources and information technology skills, and an unconducive home environment. The study recommends that universities adopt a blended approach, provide students with relevant devices and data, and provide prerecorded lecture audio. The study also recommends that the e Learning platforms be made more user friendly. Institutions should also provide adequate technical support to lecturers and students to improve the effectiveness of online teaching and learning effectiveness.
Keywords: online learning; COVID 19; lockdown; undergraduates; developing countries; challenges
University education in Zimbabwe had previously been mainly via face to face learning. Since Covid 19 was declared a global pandemic, it brought with it changes in the mode of operation in terms of learning and teaching in
Corresponding author: Tafirenyika Mafugu,mafugut@ufs.ac.za
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Zimbabwean universities. E Learning is increasingly becoming critical in course delivery and instruction, and modifying traditional methods of instruction throughout the world (Lee, 2017). When gatherings were then prohibited, the education process was threatened. With the government closing all learning institutions in March 2020 in response to the Covid 19 outbreak, Zimbabwean institutions had to find ways to adopt e Learning. The sudden change was accompanied by the challenges of digital technology resources and the lack of training and preparation for digital platforms. Molise and Dube (2020) reported that lecturers had to adjust their pedagogical methods and assessment plans to adopt new approaches to interact with learners online to mitigate the spread of coronavirus.
Kotler & Armstrong (2009) define e Learning as a broad range of information and communication technologies (ICTs) that support teaching, learning, and assessment. It relies on the use of technologies such as computers and mobile communications. Virtual classrooms can also be used to expand educational provision.
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is widely used throughout university education. Higher education institutions were urged to take advantage of the advancement of communication technology to improve the quality of education under the UNESCO policy document for Higher Education (UNESCO, 1995). Many universities around the globe turned to using Information Communication Technology, referred to as e Learning.
Generally, online teaching and learning changes roles, skills, competencies traditionally critical abilities and brings new ways of teaching and learning. Zimbabwe’s higher education sector is undergoing significant changes affecting educators and learners, due to Covid 19. Online learning is relatively new in tertiary institutions in Zimbabwe, but it soon became the only viable option to facilitate teaching and learning (Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education, 2020). The pandemic provided an opportunity to accelerate the introduction of digital technology for teaching and learning in tertiary institutions (Dhawan, 2020).
The current study is underpinned by the innovation diffusion theory (Roger, 1995) and the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) models. The section will first focus on the innovation diffusion theory and later, the UTAUT model. Innovation is an act, idea, or instrument that is new to a group of people or an individual (Roger, 1995). Diffusion is when a new technology is transferred from various communication channels to individuals aiming to use the latest system. The theory has five innovative components: relative advantage, complexity, compatibility, trialability, and observability. Ching and Ellis (2004) and Rogers (2003) argue that the relative advantage refers to the extent to which an innovation is better than other innovations it supersedes. The relative advantage is equivalent to the perceived usefulness of the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1986). Rogers (2003) defines complexity as the degree to which an innovation is professed as easy to use with little effort, and explains that the
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adoption of innovation is jeopardised if the innovation is complex to use. Compatibility is the extent to which a given service matches with the current habits, beliefs, and needs of users Trialability focuses on experimenting with the new technology. Observability refers to the visibility of the new technology's results (Jebeile & Reeve, 2003). The innovation diffusion model shares two components with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), namely perceived usefulness, and ease of use.
The UTAUT model by Venkatesh et al. (2003) combines several models which were central to the use of technology in teaching and learning. The UTAUT model has been widely used in education to identify variables associated with student acceptance and use of technology. The model consists of the following variables (Khechine & Augier, 2019, p. 54; Venkatesh et al., 2003, pp. 447 453):
1. Performance Expectancy (PE) refers to “self perception or beliefs of the students about their performance in the course when using the system”.
2. Effort Expectancy (EE) refers to the degree of “ease of using the learning system”.
3. Social Influence (SI) refers to the “opinion of the other students, teachers, friends, classmates, and family members about using the learning system”.
4. Facilitating Conditions (FC) refers to “human, organizational, and technical support for using the learning system”.
E Learning tools have played an essential role in helping universities facilitate student learning during Covid 19 induced university closure (Subedi et al., 2020). Instructors have used a variety of online platforms, including Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Skype, and Blackboard, to create educational courses (Petrie, 2020). The platforms include options for different types of assessment, sharing of content in the form of Word, PDF, or Excel documents, audio, and videos. They also allow tracking of student attendance, keeping assessments submitted, and avoiding false submissions. In flipped classrooms, learning resources such as prerecorded videos, PowerPoint presentations with recorded audio, and YouTube links can be provided before the class (Doucet et al., 2020). Online classroom time is then used to develop problem solving and critical thinking skills through peer discussion (Doucet et al., 2020).
Although most institutions in developed countries had already invested in information and technology to promote flexibility in learning before the pandemic, developing countries were lagging behind (Harrati et al., 2016; Hrtoňova et al., 2015). Developed countries enjoy an abundance of resources that include infrastructure, electricity, and the Internet. However, in developing countries, there is a need to develop sustainable educational strategies that incorporate the use of technology. Currently, teachers in developing countries do not optimally integrate technology in teaching and learning due to the lack of infrastructure and technological knowledge (Naresh & Reddy, 2015). The large population size makes it difficult for technology to reach the entire population. Online learning is costly and requires reliable electricity and Internet access throughout the country (Cabauatan et al., 2021). Developing countries struggle to benefit from e Learning due to inadequate budgets and the unavailability of both electricity and network in most parts of the country (Karkar et al., 2020; Folorunso
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et al., 2006). According to Asoodar et al. (2016), providing technical support through institutional training to instructors and students, and funding is vital for technology to be effective. Izzeddin and Bdair (2021) observe that infrastructure, end user training, and the establishment of teaching and assessment guidelines are critical in ensuring a superior virtual learning environment. Both students and lecturers need motivation for the e Learning process to adopt the use of technology in learning (Hrtoňova et al., 2015).
Online learning enables students to participate in a program while living in their home area and allows students to learn from their peers and lecturers (Milheim, 2014; Mukhtar et al., 2020; Singh & Thurman, 2019). The cost of transport and accommodation is eliminated. In the study by Opeyemi et al. (2019), almost all participants indicated that online learning is user friendly. Bączek et al. (2021), in their study of online learning among Polish students, revealed that 69% of the students had the advantage of staying home, 69% had continuous access to materials, while 64% enjoyed the advantage of learning at their own pace. Most of the respondents had problems with IT equipment (54%) as the main disadvantage. In their study, Alvarez (2009) observed the need for preservice and inservice ICT training to develop instructors' pedagogical competencies. The study also revealed the need for interaction with colleagues to share experiences in online teaching that could develop pedagogical practices. The study of South Asian countries by Mathrani et al. (2022) indicated that a significant proportion of students did not have adequate Internet access and technological devices. Most of the participants relied on their mobile phones. Previous studies reported the need to study the lived experience of students to ensure rigorous online teaching (Lovrić et al., 2020).
Due to the fact that negative perception about online learning is one critical factor resulting in loss of student inspiration and perseverance, it is essential to study student perceptions toward online learning (Kauffman, 2015). Previous studies (Colley et al., 1994; Gaytan, 2015; Hart, 2012; Hone & El Said, 2016; Hunter Dr. & Ross, 2019; Kauffman, 2015; Volery & Lord, 2000) have recognised several essential factors influencing online learning, including the availability of computers at home, gender, regular instructional feedback from teachers, belonging to the community of learning, support from the family, and skills in time management.
The study's primary objective was to explore students' perceptions about Covid 19 induced e Learning at a university in Zimbabwe.
• What experiences do university students have with e Learning?
• What opportunities were presented to students by using e Learning in Zimbabwe?
• What challenges faced university students when they used e Learning during the coronavirus pandemic?
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The study was underpinned by a cross sectional survey research design. The study used a semistructured questionnaire to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data.
The targeted population consisted of all students studying at Midlands State University. The university has around 25000 students (Midlands State University website, 2020). Due to time constraints, the researchers focused on students from two faculties, namely Agriculture, Environment and Natural Resources Management (AENRM), and Social Sciences. The two faculties had a population of 2022 in the year 2020, with 546 from AENRM, and 1476 from Social Sciences. The Slovin formula: n = N/(1+Ne2) was used to determine the sample size ‘n’ (Ryan, 2013). n = 2022/[1+2022(0.05)2] = 333. 90~334. Where N = total number of students from the two faculties, e = desired error margin (0.05 in 95% confidence interval). The Slovin formula was used because it provides a sensible approximation of the sample size. The sample for AENRM = (546/2022) x 334 = 90.19 ~ 90. The calculated sample comprised 90 students from the Faculty of AENRM and 244 from Social Science. Using random sampling, 110 students were drawn from the list of Natural Science students, while 270 students were drawn from the list of AENRM and Social Sciences students. A larger sample size allowed students to withdraw voluntarily without affecting the desired minimum sample size. A semistructured questionnaire was designed in Google Forms and sent to the students. A total of 102 students from the Faculty of AENRM, and 255 students from the Faculty of Social Science completed the semistructured questionnaires. These were then analysed. The final sample size was 357 students.
The initial part of the survey required students to complete their biographic details (gender, age, and marital status), describe their residence, and state their enrolment mode. The second part consisted of nine items, where participants rated their agreement with the variable under consideration on a Likert scale from strongly disagree, to strongly agree (Figure 2). The closed ended questions were as follows. E Learning prevented students from engaging in other activities; e Learning requires someone who is literate in information technology (IT); lectures conducted online were better than face to face lectures; student interaction in online learning is limited; e Learning is cost effective compared to face to face; e Learning does not affect student performance; e Learning requires more resources than face to face; concepts are better understood when using e Learning platforms; and e Learning is as good as face to face instruction. Questions in the last section were open ended, where students wrote about the challenges they experienced during online learning.
To calculate the frequencies and Cronbach's Alpha, the data were then analysed using SPSS version 27. Responses to open questions were organised into themes and presented in tables. Informed consent was sought from all participants.
This section presents the results and a discussion of the findings.
0%
Figure 1: Demographic characteristics of the respondents (N=357)
Figure 1 shows that 56% of the respondents were male, while 44% were female. The sample is a good representation of the students at the Midlands State University, where most of the student population is male. Most (99%) of the respondents fall into the 18 39 year age category. This distribution is normal because most students enroll in the university just after completing high school. Some students (1%) above the age of 39 enrolled in the tertiary institution long after completing high school to pursue undergraduate programmes. Only 13% of the studentswere married, while the rest were single. Furthermore, demographics show that most of the respondents were from urban areas (79%), with a small proportion (21%) from rural communities. The mode of entry to MSU undergraduate programmes is either parallel or conventional. The parallel programme offers students who have been employed the opportunity to attend school after work later in the evening. The study shows that 98% of the respondents are conventional students.
The reliability of the items in the questionnaire was evaluated using Cronbach's Alpha (Hair et al., 2010). A reliable scale has Cronbach's Alpha values that are at least equal to a threshold of 0.70 (Malhotra, 2007).
Table 1:
Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items .82 10
An Alpha value of 0.82 shows a high degree of reliability of the test items (Table 1). Most of the students (89%) agreed that online activities prevented them from participating in other extracurricular activities such as sporting activities like soccer, volleyball, netball, tennis, and swimming. E Learning as such was viewed by students as academically focussed, and does not provide students an opportunity to do other extracurricular activities.
A large proportion of students (76%) indicated that e Learning requires someone who is IT literate. 39% of the respondents agreed with this notion, while 37% strongly agreed (Figure 2). For a 21st century student to succeed in educational endeavours, information technology skills among students and lecturers are mandatory (El Seoud. et al., 2014). The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework identified technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge as essential elements for effective online learning (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Technical competency for both students and lecturers is the most important factor affecting the success of e Learning (Kim & Bonk, 2006). Both students and lecturers need sufficient training to enhance effective e Learning. Gounder and Xing (2012) argue that it is necessary to provide institutional e Learning support for developing countries, since lecturers and students should learn skills concerning modern technology and develop online
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learning efficiency to build human capital. Additionally, students in primary and secondary education should have information technology skills to prepare for tertiary education. According to the TAM model, as the ease of use increases, both students and lecturers are likely to see the benefits of online learning, making it easier for them to accept the use of technology.
A relatively large number of students (85% male and 86% female, respectively) agreed that e Learning provided limited peer to peer interaction and required more resources than face to face classes. Some research studies reported positive student perceptions of the impact of blended learning on student engagement (Moussa Inaty, 2017), while the study by Rahman (2021) revealed a mixed picture in this regard. In the study by Sreehari (2020), students preferred a blended learning mode of instruction that involves online and face to face teaching and learning. Due to the need for more resources for e Learning, developing countries hardly benefit from e Learning due to the high cost of computers, Internet, and electricity (Karkar et al., 2020). Most students do not have relevant gadgets and struggle to purchase data (Dhanarajan, 2001; Heeks, 2002; Rajesh, 2003). All of these factors negatively affect student performance.
On the contrary, most of the participants in this study (97%) disagreed that online lectures were better than traditional presentations. This concurs with the study of Gherheș et al. (2021) in which it was highlighted that in some cases, face to face lectures can be better than online. Despite the preference for online lectures, Gherheș et al. (2021) view the blended approach as a better approach than online or face to face only. Of the students who responded to the questionnaire, 86% believed that e Learning actually negatively affected their performance. Figure 2 shows that most of the students (89%) feel that the concepts taught by e Learning are not well understood during the e Learning process. Regarding cost effectiveness, a large proportion of students (55%) disagreed that e Learning is cost effective, while a smaller percentage (37%) of the respondents argued that e Learning is indeed cost effective
The study by Cabauatan et al. (2021) indicates that training or a background in Information Technology is critical to improving competency in the use of technology. According to Petrie (2020), online platforms allow lecturers to create educational courses. These platforms provide options for discussion forums that promote student participation. In addition, the platform can be used for video meetings and storage files that keep classes organised and user friendly. They provide additional support by sharing diverse content, including Word, PDF, Excel, audio, and video files (Petrie, 2020), and allowing students to interact with the content before the class. According to Doucet et al. (2020), online classrooms are used to develop understanding through discussion. Discussions encourage the development of problem solving and critical thinking skills (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). These also allow for the rubric based assessment of submitted assignments. The benefits of online platforms can only be enjoyed if both lecturers and students are well trained to use the platforms effectively and resources such as data, electricity, and laptops are available and affordable to support online learning.
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• Students indicated that purchasing e Learning data was an additional cost they incurred when moving to e Learning. It implied that students had to incur a hidden additional cost by purchasing e Learning data bundles over and above the full fees paid.
• The inaccessibility of electricity affects the learning of students through e Learning.
• One of the biggest challenges of Covid 19 induced e Learning was accessing the e learning platforms.
• The lack of appropriate e Learning equipment such as laptops, computers, and compatible smartphones was a major challenge for students.
• Most students lack information technology skills.
• The home learning environment was not conducive.
• The interaction between the professor and the student was minimal.
• Reduced chances of passing.
The challenges reported by the students such as high data costs, the unavailability of electricity, and the unavailability of learning devices, could be the reason for the view of the students that face to face classes are better than online classes (Table 2). Additionally, the lack of technological skills and non conducive home environments created more barriers to online learning. According to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), such barriers make it difficult for participants to accept the use of technology. The results are consistent with the results observed by Rahman (2021) in India, where there was poor Internet connectivity, high Internet cost, lack of a proper environment at home, and irregular electricity access. The challenges including the insufficient allocation of funds for education to support the use of online learning and lack of technical knowledge make it difficult for developing countries to benefit from e Learning (Folorunso et al., 2006; Karkar et al., 2020).
Massive technical and administrative support will help improve the incorporation of technology in developing nations. To promote effective teaching and learning, e Learning requires training for both students and lecturers. Most of the students disagreed that online lectures were better than regular face to face presentations. Of the students who responded to the questionnaire, 86% were of the opinion that e Learning actually negatively affected their performance. The challenges reported by the students like the high data costs, the inaccessibility of electricity, and the inaccessibility of the learning devices could be the reasons why students viewed face to face classes better than online classes. Additionally, the lack of technological skills and unconducive home environments created more barriers to online learning. Adequate support in providing skills and resources by higher education institutions is required to successfully implement e Learning programmes in developing countries. The study adds to the limited literature on online teaching and learning in developing countries. It highlights areas that need attention to improve the effectiveness of online teaching and learning effectiveness, enabling lecturers and students to benefit from a blended learning
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approach. Covid induced e Learning provides an opportunity for institutions to improve their infrastructure and pave the way for blended learning.
The authors declare that there were no potential conflicts of interest.
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
'Conceptualisation, A.M. and S.A.; Methodology, A.M. and T.M.; Software, A.M.; Validation, A.M., S.A. and T.M.; Formal analysis, A.M. and T.M.; Investigation, A.M.; Resources, A.M.; Data curation, A.M.; Writing original draft preparation, A.M.; writing review and editing, T.M. and S.A..; Visualisation, S.A.; Supervision, S.A.; Project administration, A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.'
Research data are available on request.
The authors thank all participants who voluntarily provided the data for the study.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 309 324, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.17
Received Aug 10, 2022; Revised Oct 15, 2022; Accepted Oct 24, 2022
Abstract. In 2018, among 10 key competencies that the Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training has proposed in the new education curriculum, numeracy was identified as an essential competency that needs to be developed for students in the future However, little is known about the numeracy of students in general, and of students in mountainous areas in particular. The aim of this study was to design an assessment of numeracy for students in the mountainous areas to understand their performance in numeracy. The study used the quantitative approach. A sample of 730 students in grades 6 8 from eight provinces in the mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam was recruited to participate in the study. A numeracy framework and three tests with anchor items were designed and developed to measure students’ numeracy. The results of the analysis using an approach to item response theory showed that the items had good fits with the model, and they could be used to describe numeracy learning progression with different levels of proficiency. The tests were reliable and valid, and the anchor items were good for connecting students’ competency among grades. The results also showed that Vietnamese students in mountainous areas tendedtoperformbetterinArithmetic andAlgebra problemsthaninreal life problems. The results provide convincing evidence of the practical performance in numeracy of students in various ethnic minority groups in Northern Vietnam.
* Corresponding author: XuanCuongDang,dxcuong.dggd@moet.edu.vn
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: numeracy; equating; learning progression; ethnic minority; Vietnamese students
Numeracy is one of the important 21st century skills. When discussing the role of these skills, Steen (2007) stated that “Being numerate is one of the few essential skills that students absolutely must master, both for their own good and for the benefit of the nation’s democracy and economic well being” (p. 16). Many researchers stated that numeracy is important for individuals to develop logical thinking, reasoning strategies and problem solving skills in their everyday activities (Westwood, 2021; Yasukawa, 2018). In many countries (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2014; Department for Education, 2013), numeracy is an important part of the general education curriculum that needs to be developed in order to prepare students for their learning as well as their jobs in the future. It is believed that if students have poor numeracy skills, they will not only find it difficult to solve real life problems, but also to understand materials such as news, manuals, and invoices (Thomson et al., 2020). The following sections review the definitions of numeracy, numeracy learning progression, the assessment of numeracy skills, and the context of the present research.
There are various definitions of numeracy and it has different meaning to different people (Turner, 2007) Cockcroft (1982) proposed that numeracy has two different aspects. The first aspect is people’s sense of numbers and their capacity to employ mathematical skills in a way that allows them to apply these in their daily lives. The second is the ability to grasp and appreciate information from mathematical concepts. The Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development (2012) defined numeracy as the “ability to access, use, interpret, and communicate mathematical information and ideas, to engage in and manage mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life” (p. 33). Faragher and Brown (2005) defined numeracy as the “ability and willingness to use a wide range of mathematics in the context of people’s lives” (p. 5) Westwood (2021) proposed that numeracy refers to the ability of learners to explore, understand and apply knowledge and skills in different areas such as calculation, estimation, measurement, and quantitative problem solving. Tout (2020) also suggested that “numeracy encompasses the need for individuals to be able to understand, use and apply mathematical (and statistical) skills and knowledge” (p. 3) The author also tried to clarify the differences between numeracy skills and mathematics literacy. According to many researchers and educators, people should not consider numeracy to be equated with less mathematics and more application (O'Donoghue, 2002)
At the secondary education level, numeracy focuses more on helping students not only master mathematics knowledge and skills, especially computation skills, but also develop the competence to apply these knowledge and skills to solve real life problems (Westwood, 2021). Moreover, students in secondary schools learn various new mathematical concepts and it is difficult for them to understand
these concepts. As a result, the process of developing their numeracy may be more complicated. For instance, research on the relationships between mathematics knowledge and skills beyond school showed the existing mismatches between the two (Zawojewski & McCarthy, 2007) Various strategies and approaches have been proposed to narrow these mismatches, such as realistic mathematics education (RME) (Stemn, 2017; Venkat & Matthews, 2019).
Although there are different definitions of numeracy and many researchers have emphasised the characteristics of applying knowledge and skills in real life situations, numeracy has different meanings in different countries. Researchers have also tried to differentiate among numeracy, quantitative literacy and mathematical literacy These terms are still used interchangeably in some countries (Geiger et al., 2015).
Learning progression is known as a pathway whereby teachers and students can determine students’ current locations and how students can move to the next location in different domains of knowledge and skills (Heritage, 2008, 2013). Learning progression has been also described as a road map (Black et al., 2011). The main purpose of learning progression development is to support teachers in making good decisions on student learning development, as well as helping students see what they are expected to do and what they need to acquire using learning progression during their learning journey. This approach aligns with Griffin’s (2018) perspectives when he proposed the developmental approach to assessment, whereby researchers need to examine a latent trait or a construct by dividing it into different dimensions, and then defining different capabilities or requirements within each dimension. After that, each capability or requirement needs to be divided into various indicative behaviours (Griffin & Care, 2015) According to McMillan (2018), one of the most important contributions when developing a learning progression is that learning progressions can overcome the disadvantages of each standard to provide stakeholders with a bigger and clearer picture about students’ learning progress. Reviews from the literature showed that some countries develop numeracy learning progressions in their curricula. For instance, in the Australian national curriculum, teachers and students use learning progression as one of the sources to engage with the numeracy requirements in the Australian curriculum (ACARA, 2014). From the learning progression in the national curriculum, some states in Australia also develop their own learning progression for numeracy. For instance, in Victoria, numeracy learning progression provides a sequence of observable indicators on a scale from low to high in 15 key numeracy concepts (Department of Education and Training, n.d.)
Researchers globally have been interested in measuring numeracy. For example, Balt et al. (2020) used a development model of conceptual numerical understanding to understand numeracy learning of first grade students. In this research, the authors used instruments to measure numeracy in different periods of time in order to analyse the growth of these skills. Strickland et al. (2016) also conducted research on measuring early numeracy skills for students with additional learning needs. They used the results from item response theory to propose a framework and a learning progression to examine students’
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performance on numeracy. Gittens (2015) also developed an instrument to set up a scale for measuring numeracy as an applied form of critical thinking. National assessments in some countries also measure numeracy. For instance, students in Grades 3, 5, 7 and 9 in Australia participate in the National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) every year. Students’ numeracy is reported against proficiency bands with ten levels. These levels show the increasing complexity of numeracy demonstrated by each student. Within each grade, students are reported using six of these ten bands (ACARA, n.d)
Apart from measuring numeracy as a whole, researchers have investigated some specific aspects of numeracy. For example, Kim et al. (2017) proposed a learning progression for geometric measurements, where they developed five levels of learning: (a) Intuitive/holistic/visual comparison; (b) Early unit concept; (c) Space filling/covering with units; (d) Interval scale concept related to the use of efficient composite units; and (e) General model. The experts were invited to validate the learning progression, and the tasks were designed to examine students’ understanding of geometric measurement in terms of length, area, and volume measurement in one, two and three dimensions. Callingham et al. (2019) developed a learning progression for the students’ statistical reasoning with eight different increasing levels in statistical and probabilistic contexts. This learning progression can be used both for teaching and assessment purposes. Dole et al. (2012) and Hilton et al. (2013) also developed instruments to examine whether students could apply proportional reasoning in cross curricular contexts. In addition, Seah and Horne (2020) developed a test to measure geometric reasoning Moreover, many studies focus on measuring adults’ numeracy in different contexts (Hoogland & Pepin, 2016; Jang et al., 2020).
Vietnam has developed various strategies to prepare high quality human resources to serve the country's development in the 21st century. One of those strategies is to innovate the education system towards the development of key competencies for Vietnamese students. The Vietnam government issued a new general education curriculum in 2018. This curriculum was developed based on the competence approach in which students need to develop ten key competencies during their learning through K 12; one of these competencies is numeracy competency. Different components and detailed skills of this competency for each education level (i.e., primary, lower secondary and upper secondary level) have been defined in this curriculum (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2018). However, little is known from the literature about these competencies with the sample of Vietnamese students since this curriculum is relatively new, and the old content based curriculum is still applicable while transforming from the old curriculum. In the documents relating to the new general education curriculum, mathematical literacy and numeracy are sometimes used interchangeably.
In Vietnam, there are 54 minority ethnic groups of which the majority are the Kinh group with 85,4% (Open Development Vietnam, 2020), who mainly live in advantaged areas. In terms of the ethnic minority groups, the Vietnam Government has developed a wide range of policies and programmes on the
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education for the ethnic minority groups in order to secure equity for these groups. One such document is the Decision No. 1557/QD TTg dated September 10, 2015 of the Prime Minister approving a number of targets for the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals for ethnic minorities in association with the goal of sustainable development after the year 2015 (Vietnam Government, 2015). This Decision also identified different strategies for the educational development of students in mountainous areas. In comparison with students of the Kinh ethnic group, these students have faced many difficulties in learning. According to a report from the Ministry of Education and Training (2015), the literacy rates for students from ethnic minority groups are lower than the national rates. Moreover, evidence from national assessments showed that the mathematics performance of ethnic minority students also tended to be lower than the national average (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2014).
Therefore, for the above reasons, there is a gap in assessing and understanding students’ numeracy in the mountainous areas Determining their learning outcomes in general, and their numeracy skills in particular is worth researching and is still relatively new in Vietnam. The aim of this study is to design a numeracy assessment for lower secondary school students in the mountainous areas in Northern Vietnam and propose a learning progression to understand the numeracy skills of these students. The present research follows the definition of Faragher and Brown (2005) that numeracy is the ability to use a wide range of mathematical knowledge and skills to solve mathematical problems as well as applying them in the context of everyday situations.
A sample of 730 lower secondary school students participated in the present research. These participants are in grades 6 8 from mountainous areas in eight provinces in the north of Vietnam. In Vietnam, lower secondary school level ranges from grade 6 to grade 9. However, grade 9 students were excluded in the present research since they had to prepare for their examinations. Within each province, one school was selected by using the convenience sampling method, and within each school, 30 35 students were chosen randomly for each grade level. Table 1 shows the actual number of research participants.
Table 1 Number of Research Participants by Grade
Province Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total
Bac Kan 30 29 35 94
Hoa Binh 27 24 27 78
Ha Giang 29 30 35 94
Lao Cai 29 32 34 95
Lang Son 30 28 35 93
Quang Ninh 30 29 35 94
Son La 26 29 34 89
Thai Nguyen 30 28 35 93
Total 231 229 270 730
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Students come from 14 of the 54 ethnic minority groups in Vietnam. The Kinh and Tay ethnic groups have the most students in the sample with 26.0% and 23.3% respectively. Among 730 students, 330 (45.2%) identified as male and 400 (54.8%) identified as female. Table 2 shows the number of students and their gender in each ethnic group withinthesample.
Ethnic group
Male Female Total
Kinh 94 96 190 (26.0%)
Tay 65 105 170 (23.3%)
Dao 46 52 98 (13.4%)
Nung 41 49 90 (12.3%) Giay 26 41 67 (9.2%)
Muong 31 28 59 (8.1%)
San Chi 11 8 19 (2.6%)
Hmong 9 8 17 (2.3%)
Cao Lan 2 4 6 (0.8%)
Thai 3 2 5 (0.7%)
Hoa 0 3 3 (0.4%)
San Chay 1 2 3 (0.4%) Lao 0 2 2 (0.3%)
San Diu 1 0 1 (0.1%)
Total 330 (45.2%) 400 (54.8%) 730 (100%)
At the time of conducting the research, students in grades 6 8 still learned mathematics following the old curriculum. This curriculum defines different key domains of mathematics learning, including Arithmetic and Algebra, Geometry, and word problems. Although students also learn some basic knowledge of Statistics, this is not a main domain in the old curriculum. According to the new mathematics curriculum in 2018 (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2018), Probability and Statistics is considered as one of important domains. Within this domain, students start learning Probability and Statistics from Grade 2. Therefore, in the present research, all four above domains are included in the instruments to measure students’ numeracy skills to connect with this new curriculum.
In order to explore Vietnamese students’ numeracy skills, the development of numeracy learning progression was implemented. This process followed the BEAR model (Draney, 2009; Wilson, 2005) Based on the proposed definition of the numeracy skills in the previous section, a framework of numeracy skills was developed including four (4) main strands of mathematics that were defined in the curriculum. Within each strand, a set of indicators was identified to measure the competency of understanding and using relevant knowledge to solve problems within that strand of mathematics as well as in the contexts of real life situations. In particular,, in each domain, based on the requirements in the both current and new mathematics curriculum for each grade level, a set of detailed
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indicators of students’ numeracy skills was developed, each indicator measuring a specific aspect of numeracy skills. This set of indicators was reviewed by mathematics teachers and experts in the field of mathematics education. The full test specifications were developed for the grade 6, 7, and 8 tests. Table 3 shows an example of the item descriptions for the domain of Arithmetic in grade 6.
1 Perform arithmetical operations on the set of natural numbers 2 Recognise simple patterns of the sequence of natural numbers 3 Compare and order natural numbers 4 Generate natural numbers according to the given information 5 Represent fractions on the number line 6 Identify divisibility, division with remainder 7 Apply operation properties to solve real life problems 8 Know how to calculate percentage
The following items measure students’ skills in recognising simple patterns of the sequence of natural numbers and identifying divisibility and division with remainder:
ExampleItem1. In each of the following Xs, the number of dots in each pattern is increased equally.
How many dots do you need to make the denominator 20? Show your work.
ExampleItem2. Chi's father bought her a box of Vitamin C candy containing 32 tablets. Knowing that Chi eats the same amount of candy every day until the box runs out, how many candies did Ha Chi eat each day?
A. 6 tablets
B. 5 tablets
C. 4 tablets
D. 3 tablets
Table 4 introduces the number of items within each grade level for each domain. Since the grade 6 Mathematics curriculum focuses more on Arithmetic, it was proposed that most of the items should relate to Arithmetic. Regarding the domain of Statistics, each test included only two or three items since this is a main domain in the new curriculum and was not considered as a main domain in the old curriculum. In all three tests, both multiple choice items and constructed response items were designed for the purpose of the research.
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Grade Arithmetic and Algebra Geometry Word problem Statistics Total 6 15 7 9 2 33 7 9 10 8 3 30 8 9 11 8 2 30
Total 33 28 25 7 93
In order to compare sets of all items in the same scale to develop the learning progression, a common item nonequivalent group (CINEG) design was used (Kolen & Brennan, 2014). Numeracy tests were vertically linked across grades 6 8 by common items embedded in the tests within adjacent grade levels; that is, grade 6 and grade 7; grade 7 and grade 8. There are eight common items between each pair of adjacent grade levels. The data collection phase was implemented at the end of the school year when students had nearly finished their work for the year.
Descriptive statistics were used first to have an initial understanding of the data. Then, item response theory through ConQuest (Adam et al., 2015) and R (R Core Team, 2021) software were used for the data analysis process. Specifically, since the tests consisted of both dichotomous and polytomous score items, a partial credit model (Masters, 1982) was employed to provide evidence on assessing the reliability and validity of the tests. Within the common item design among numeracy tests for grade 6-8, data for tests in each grade using item response theory was separately analysed in order to examine the quality of the common items as well as the quality of each test. The correlation analysis was also used to examine the relationships among common items within the designed tests. Then, data for all three tests was combined and the concurrent calibration equating procedures were used to set all items on the same scale (Von Davier, 2011). The information on indices of classical test theory, item difficulty, standard errors of measurement, fit statistics, reliability indices, and variable maps from the model provide evidence to assess the quality of items as well as proposing the learning progression of numeracy skills for the sample of students.
3.1
As mentioned earlier, for each pair of adjacent tests, one set of item difficulties (for example, of grade 6 link items) was plotted against the other set of item difficulties (of grade 7 link items). Two scatterplots are presented below in Figure 1. In each scatterplot, each dot represents a common item. The first plot showed the relationships among all link items within two tests, and the second plot showed the relationships among link items after reviewing and selecting good link items. The fit indices and the difficulty levels of these items were also used for assessing the quality of the equating procedures (González & Wiberg, 2017). At the final stage of the equating procedures, five common items between grade 6 and grade 7 tests, and six common items between grade 7 and grade 8 tests were used for the final analysis.
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Initial analysis showed that the set of items had a high level of internal consistency, as demonstrated by the reliability coefficient for each test (all above 0.75). According to Abu Bader (2021), the reliability coefficients of the tests are considered to be very good. In other words, all three tests were reliable. In the first calibration phase for all 77 items of the three original tests, the estimates produced a range of 0.72 to 1.34 for the weighted mean squares (MNSQ) fit statistics. In the second calibration phase, 70 items of the three revised tests produced a range of 0.76 to 1.31. These statistics are based upon the difference between observed and expected scores and indicate how well the expected observations fit the Rasch model (Wu et al., 2016). From this result, it can be seen that all items in the revised tests had good fit indices. The final version of three tests consisted of 70 items and this version was used to run the final equating procedures and estimate item difficulties and students’ abilities. All these parameters were used to propose the learning progression of numeracy skills
Based on the procedure proposed by Wolfe and Smith (2007) and Wilson (2005), the standard setting process for the numeracy skills test was conducted. In this process, the information from partial credit modelling analysis (Masters, 1982) was used in connection to the work of the test designers, and the advice from secondary school teachers who were teaching Mathematics for grade 6 8 students. The set of 70 items in three tests after reviewing were used to develop a learning progression of numeracy skills which included a range from low to high difficulty levels. Following the next step in the standard setting process (Wolfe & Smith, 2007), the difficulty indices of the items in the tests were placed in order from lowest to highest, and the benchmarks were defined based on the presence of big gaps between clusters of items. Figure 2 shows the results of this process. The result of this step was to obtain categories of items along with their difficulty
levels. Since each item has its description of a specific numeracy skill, within each category of items statements were written describing the main expected skills in that level.
Since the results of equating procedures using item response theory put item difficulty indices and students’ abilities on the same scale, it can be seen from Figure 3 that the variable map shows a good match between item difficulty and students’ ability. The variable map helps stakeholders understand how the emergence of skills was developed. It also helps to interpret the results based on the learning progression. The progression derived from a review of the map is shown in Table 5
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1
At this level, students can recognise divisibility, division with remainder, solve proportional problems, recognise types of angles, and read data from statistical tables
2
At this level, students can proficiently perform adding, subtracting, multiplying, comparing, and ordering of natural numbers; be able to perform calculations with time; recognise isosceles, equilateral, right triangles and some familiar spatial figures; can read bar charts and find the averages
3
At this level, students can make combinations of polynomials using simple operations, know how to determine whether a number is a solution to a polynomial, solve problems with time, compare decimals, calculate percentages, and recognise opposite angles, alternate angles, corresponding angles
4
At this level, students can perform calculations with polynomials, know how torepresentany numberon anumber line, canapply theirlearnedknowledge to solve practical situations, know how to apply Pythagorean theorem, and can calculate perimeter and area of quadrilaterals
5
At this level, students can apply knowledge of arithmetic and algebra to perform multi step problems, solve problems of sum/difference, ratio; solve geometry problems using algebraic properties; apply knowledge of geometry such as Pythagorean theorem and knowledge of parallel lines to solve problems; can convert data in different forms and solve practical problems of related statistics to frequency and average
Figure 4 showed the percentages of students within each grade assigned in each level of the learning progression. It can be seen that only a few grade 6 and grade 7 students were at the lowest level of the learningprogression (level 1), while there were no grade 8 students at this level. The percentages of grades 6, 7, and 8 students at the highest level (level 5) increased respectively. However, grade 6 students in the sample had a fairly high performance in compared to other grade levels since there were 57.6% of the students who belonged to level 4 of the learning progressions. There are some explanations for to this. Regarding the distribution of each domain within the Mathematics curriculum, grade 6 students focus more on the domain of Arithmetic and Algebra, with which they were fairly familiar from the previous grades. In grades 7 and 8, students have to acquire new knowledge and skills in other new domains such as Algebra, and some abstract concepts in the domain of Geometry. From a practical perspective, grade 6 students may put more effort into completing the tests. All these issues should be noted for future research.
In order to explore the differences in domains, Figure 6 provides a variable map from a multidimensional analysis of item response theory. Since there were only two to three items in the domain of Probability and Statistics, these items in this domain were removed from the analysis. To contribute to the previous explanation of the high performance of grade 6 students, it can be seen from Figure 5 that these students performed better in the domain of Arithmetic and Algebra when compared to the other domains, even performing better in this domain than grade 7 students.
In the domain of Geometry and word problems, there is linear growth from grade 6 to grade 8 students. From the perspectives of learning domains, one of the findings is that students in the sample had the best performance in the domain of Arithmetic and Algebra. In all three grades, students had lower performances in the domain of Geometry in comparison with the domain of Arithmetic and Algebra. Specifically, students in three grades tended to have lower performance in the domain of word problems. A word problem refers to a real world problem where students need to use their mathematics knowledge and skills to solve it One of the possible explanations for this finding is that at the time of the data collection phase, all students in the sample were still learning mathematics
according to the old curriculum that was mostly based on mathematics content rather than the competency based approach. This explanation is also supported by the fact that Vietnamese teachers still focus more on transmissive teaching rather than on constructive teaching (Nguyen et al., 2020) These results imply that various mathematics teaching and learning approaches should be implemented to develop students’ numeracy skills though different activities.
The present research investigated students’ performance against different levels of numeracy on a proposed learning progression. Using the support from item response theory, three tests for lower secondary school students with common items were developed and validated. Then, a learning progression of numeracy was proposed to report students’ performance on numeracy in termsofdifferent strands of mathematics. The results showed that students in the mountainous areas in the north of Vietnam performed fairly well on the tests. Specifically, students in these areas tended to perform well in the pure mathematics problems in the domain of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry. Another important finding is that students are still lacking in the ability to apply mathematics knowledge and skills in everyday situations. One of the important explanations for these results comes from the fact that Vietnamese teachers are in the process of
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transforming from traditional teaching methods to constructive teaching approaches. The findings of the present research provide evidence of students’ numeracy in mountainous areas in Northern Vietnam. From the results, there is a need for developing students’ numeracy in various domains (e.g., Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry) to increase students’ performance as wellas proposing mathematics learning models that focus on developing numeracy skills.
A limitation of this research is that there is no evidence of numeracy skills of students in advantaged areas to compare with the results of the study. Further research is needed to have more evidence of students’ numeracy in other levels, especially of primary and upper secondary school students in other minority ethnic groups in Vietnam, and of various factors that may influence students’ numeracy skills.
This research was funded by the Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number 503.01 2020.300. We would like to thank Thai Nguyen University of Education for their support and all schools, teachers and students for participating in the research.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 325 340, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.18
Received Aug 15, 2022; Revised Oct 18, 2022; Accepted Oct 21, 2022
Raymundo A. Santos
Distance, Open and Transnational University, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Leila M. Collantes College of Education, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Edwin D. Ibañez College of Science, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Florante P. Ibarra College of Education, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Jupeth T. Pentang* College of Education, Western Philippines University Puerto Princesa City, Philippines
Abstract. The study determined the influence of innate mathematical characteristics on the number sense competencies of junior high school students in a Philippine public school. The descriptive correlational research design was used to accomplish the study involving a nonrandom sample of sixty 7th grade students attending synchronous math sessions. Data obtained from the math specific Learning Style and Self Efficacy questionnaires and the modified Number Sense Test (NST) were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s Chi Square, and Simple Linear Regression analysis. The research instruments and statistics were all validated and tested for reliability. The analysis revealed that the students are visual learners, had no or slight self efficacy, and their number sense competency level is poor. They encountered difficulty in all the components and domains of the NST. Moreover, the students’ mathematical self efficacy is significantly related
* Corresponding author: JupethT.Pentang,jupeth.pentang@wpu.edu.ph
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
and may influence their number sense competency level. Building upon the learners’ self efficacy to further their understanding and skills in number sense is necessary
Keywords: learning style; mathematics education; number sense; Philippine high school; self efficacy
Mathematics proficiency is two fold: remembering and applying the correct rules and following the established rules. As evident in the mathematics curricula, the ultimate goal is to equip learners with essential knowledge and skills that will enable them to solve real life situations using mathematics (Pentang, 2021). Hence, learners are taught mathematical concepts and skills presented in a spiral approach. While mathematical proficiency develops over time, it is anchored in the learner’s number sense. This pertains to the learner’s general understanding of numbers, operations, their relationship, and the ability and confidence to perform calculations correctly. Researchers have reported that the number sense of students was consistently low, though they noted that such levels improved through the years (Maghfirah & Mahmudi, 2018; Whitacre et al., 2020; Wulandari et al., 2021). It was pointed out that some possible causes of students’ low performance in number sense could be attributed to the emphasis and use of traditional algorithms (method and content), as taught widely in many traditional schools (Kirkland, 2022; Yang, 2002)
Number sense can be regarded as a group of skills that enable individuals to work with numbers and other tasks, such as understanding quantities and symbols that represent quantities, comparing numbers and their relative values, estimating and manipulating numerical quantities, and judging the reasonableness of their calculations (Whitacre et al., 2020). Individuals who possess good number sense use flexible and appropriate ways to solve numerical problems and are not limited to the use of rote and raw rules learned in classroom instruction (Pentang, 2019) They can routinely estimate their answers before calculating, look for connections and readily recognize patterns in numbers, enabling them to predict outcomes. Their strategies often lead to a more efficient solution to the problem.
Mathematics curricula at the grade school level emphasize understanding numbers and developing number sense. The New Jersey Mathematics Curriculum Framework (n.d.) states that number sense can be viewed as an intuitive feel for numbers and a common sense approach to using them. It necessitates understanding the relationships between different numbers, including fractions and decimals, and how to use them to illuminate certain situations. The learners’ number sense development in the Philippine context is emphasized in their earlier mathematical education (Department of Education, 2016). Understandably, innate characteristics such as learning styles and self efficacy help promote learners’ number sense competency.
Learning style is the preferred way in which an individual gathers, organizes, examines, interprets, and applies information. It is a method by which learners absorb, process, and make sense of the information Psychologists and researchers
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suggest several learning styles. The most common is the Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (VAK) Model, espoused by Barbe et al. (1979). Visual learners process information using charts, maps, graphs, and other forms of visual aid that show patterns, while auditory learners prefer and process information that is heard or spoken. Conversely, kinesthetic learners benefit from tactile experiences and physical activity to practice applying new information. Recognizing and understanding the students’ learning styles enables teachers to formulate lessons and design instructional activities that will address learners’ varied learning styles.
Self efficacy is crucial to the students’ learning style as an essential factor in their academic performance Self efficacy is a person ’s confidence in their capacity to plan and carry out the steps necessary to achieve specific outputs (Bandura, 1977). For example, students may have a strong self concept that they are good in math but may have poor self efficacy in explaining their solutions Self efficacy is a personal belief that one can achieve one’s desired goal through specific actions. A student with solid self efficacy is more likely to be intrinsically motivated and challenge himself to overcome complex tasks.
A student’s ultimate success or difficulty in any math course depends on numerical skills. Hence, it is imperative to equip him with a solid foundation in nature (such as the concept of rational number, unit of measurement), principles (divisibility, factors, and multiples), and operations with numbers, particularly during the early years of schooling. Furthermore, one of the standards in mathematical practice in assessing students’ proficiency is their ability to make sense of quantity and their relationships in problem situations. The Philippine Mathematics Standards of the K 12 Basic Education Curriculum (Department of Education, 2016) and the Philippine Basic Education Mathematics Framework (SEI DOST & MATHTED, 2011) highlight the importance of the Number and Number Sense strand, making this the foundation of all other mathematical contents. A student should have developed such competency when entering middle or junior high school.
Unfortunately, the Program for International Students Assessment (PISA) 2018 report and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS) 2019 reflect Filipino students’ dismal mathematics performance in both assessments. The latter also shows that the Philippines’ achievement score has declined from the first time they participated in the assessments (in 2003, then again in 2019), though it claimed that every country had a wide variation in achievement Even the national achievement test (NAT), conducted annually, has indicated the poor performance of Filipino learners in mathematics (Pentang, 2019). As a result, there appears to be a misalignment between the math curriculum and the students’ achievement. Consequently, educational leaders, curriculum planners, and mathematics teachers have to periodically assess learners’ progress in numeracy and examine possible factors causing a disparity in the outcome. This concern can be credited to students lacking number sense competency.
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The observations and considerations above prompted this study of students’ number sense competency and determined the predictors of their proficiency in number sense. This aligns with the belief that the mastery of basic arithmetic and mental computation skills is an essential tool for success in high school math courses. Subsequently, this study aimed to determine whether learners’ innate mathematical traits impact their number sense competency.
The general goal of the study was to determine the influence of innate mathematical characteristics on the number sense competency (NSC) of junior high school students in a public school in the Philippines. It aimed to:
1. describe the innate mathematical characteristics of the students in terms of learning style and self efficacy;
2. determine the levels of NSC among the students; 3. identify a significant relationship between the innate mathematical characteristics of the students and their level of NSC; and 4. ascertain which of the students’ innate mathematical characteristics significantly predicts their NSC.
2.1.
Individuals learn in various learning environments and academic experiences. Some flourish in traditionally prepared settings, while others thrive in an open environment (Mariano Dolesh et al., 2022) Learning style indicates how the student perceives, interacts, and responds to the learning environment (Alog, 2012; Cabual, 2021). Ergo, the learner as well as the teacher must be aware of and utilize the learning style of the former. Subsequently, psychological and educational research has been undertaken regarding learning style and academic achievement. Adu et al. (2020), Sinaga (2022), and Villajuan (2019) reported that learning style has a statistically significant positive relationship with students’ mathematics performance and success. Accommodating the students’ learning styles in the instructional method yields better mathematical performance This study theorized that learning styles influence mathematical number sense competency.
Self efficacy refers to a learner’s perceptions of the skills needed to perform at an expected standard and meet one’s academic objectives. It has been demonstrated that it affects academic achievement, learning, and motivation (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Several studies have been conducted on self efficacy and its relationship to the learner’s academic performance and achievement in different grade levels. A notable similarity was highlighted when McMillian (2017) found a very modest positive relationship but not a statistically significant correlation between self efficacy and mathematics performance. Furthermore, Ducay and Alave (2021), Görgün and Tican (2020), Hayat et al. (2020), Samavi et al. (2017), and Vuong et al. (2010) reported that self efficacy is an essential factor in students’ academic achievement This study theorized that self efficacy influences mathematical number sense competency.
No two researchers define number sense in the same manner, and discrepancy in the components of number sense exists among researchers (Maghfirah & Mahmudi, 2018). Whitacre et al. (2020), on the other hand, formulated three constructs: approximate number sense (innate set of neurological abilities), early number sense (involving number knowledge), and mature number sense (multi digit and rational number sense). Number sense is an intuitive feeling about numbers, operations, and their relationship, understanding of the relative and absolute magnitude of numbers, application of knowledge of numbers and operations to the computational situation, and making a reasonable judgment of calculation results (Yang,2002). Hence, a person with good number sensehas both the ability and confidence to decide whether a numerical result is reasonable (Wulandari et al., 2021). Number sense is an analogous numerical cognition that denotes a particular meaning to a group of vital mathematical abilities or the basic mathematical concept (Yang, 2002) Students with mature number sense understand numbers and operations, use reasoning to spot patterns, and choose the most efficient problem solving strategies (Kirkland, 2022). Theoretically, the respondents are deemed to have number sense competency with the implementation of a spiral math curriculum.
Core to achieving a successful number sense performance is one’s learning style preference. Research on learning styles in various countries and covering various grade levels has ascertained that one’s learning style is significantly related to and impacts academic performance and achievement in general. Concomitant to learning style is self efficacy, which pertains to one’s beliefs in one’s capability to execute specific tasks to achieve academic goals. Studies involving students from different levels support the positive relation of self efficacy to one’s academic performance and its predictive effectiveness in gauging the latter. However, no studies have explored the relationship between learning style and self efficacy with number sense competency. Also, the number sense competency of Filipino students has not been explicitly studied. Furthermore, no studies have been conducted to determine the factors influencing their number sense competency. These gaps in the literature are addressed in the current study The study is a pioneering work describing the learning style, self efficacy, and number sense competency amid online learning in Philippine public high schools.
3.1.
The study was anchored on the following: Learning Style Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory, and Innate Sense of Numbers. Learning style is the preferential way in which an individual acquires, processes, retains, and applies information. Over the years, several models and theories related to learning styles have been developed. As applied in this study, the researchers aimed to describe the learning style of the respondents using the VAK model (Barbe et al., 1979) and to find out whether the learners’ learning style is related to their number sense competency.
Aside from learning styles, the study also employed the concept of self efficacy as defined by Bandura (1977), which pertains to a person’s beliefs regarding how well one can execute a plan of action in prospective situations. Self efficacy is a personal judgment on how well or poorly one can perform a specific task or cope with a situation based on one’s skills and circumstances. Bandura (1977) posited that self efficacy determines how an individual feels, thinks, motivates, and behaves when he meets stress and challenges and determines how much effort will be expended to reach his goals and how long those goals will be pursued. People with high self efficacy approach complex tasks as a challenge to be mastered.
Even if number sense is natural for us, it is understandable that some number concepts are challenging to understand. This can be attributed to the fact that it is easier to learn a concept in numbers that correspond most closely to innate numerical concepts, the idea of the collection, and its numerosity. Furthermore, it can be attributed to several innate characteristics. The study determined the number sense competency of the respondents, in the belief that learners possess a number sense that further develops as they mature and experience meaningful learning activities. This innate ability enables them to perform calculations, formulate mathematical conclusions, and check the accuracy and reasonableness of their answer.
The research paradigm (Figure 1) was conceptualized using the theories discussed above to describe the independent variables (innate mathematical characteristics) and determine their influence on the dependent variable (number sense competency). It is hypothesized that one’s learning style and self efficacy greatly influence one’s number sense performance.
Innate Characteristics
• Learning Style
• Self Efficacy
Number Sense Competency
• Components of Number Sense
• Domains of Number Sense
• Level of Number Sense Competency
The study is quantitative, specifically descriptive correlational. The descriptive research design described the respondents’ innate characteristics (learning style and self efficacy) and their number sense competency (NSC). The correlational research design measured the degree of the relationship between the respondents’ innate characteristics and their NSC, including the influence of the former on the latter
The study respondents were junior high school (7th grade) students at a public school in the Philippines based on the minimum competency requirement
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supposedly covered in elementary math courses. Due to the nature of the remote instructional modality at the survey site, only students attending the synchronous session were purposively chosen as prospective respondents, based on their ability to provide the necessary information and connectivity when the study was conducted. The 60 respondents who completed the survey instruments were included in the sample. Ethical measures were taken by obtaining clearances and consent forms from authorities, parents, and students.
The researchers administered the Learning Style Preference and the Mathematics Self Efficacy Scale. The first instrument, adapted from Arem (2009), focuses on the three learning styles, which are math specific and follow the VAK model learning style (Barbe et al., 1979). The thirty item inventory includes ten descriptors for each learning style. The category with the highest total determines the preferred learning style of the respondent. On the other hand, the second instrument has 24 items, which respondents use to rate their self efficacy from 1 (no self efficacy) to 5 (extreme self efficacy) to succeed in accomplishing exercises related to math topics without using calculators. The average scale score obtained indicates their self efficacy.
The forty item Number Sense Test (NST), developed by Yang (2002), was adapted for this study and modified to suit the respondents’ culture. The test covers concepts and operations on whole numbers, decimals, and fractions, mostly involving estimation and mental computations. Additionally, the instrument covers six components of number sense: understanding of the meaning and size of numbers, understanding and use of equivalent representations of numbers, understanding the meaning and effect of operations, understanding and use of equivalent expressions, flexible computing and counting strategies for mental and written computations/calculations, and the use of measurement benchmark.
All instruments (Learning Style, Self Efficacy, and Number Sense Competency) were pilot tested and garnered an internal consistency greater than .90, indicating reliability. Three external parties reviewed and validated the use of data gathering tools.
3.5. Method of Data Gathering Protocol was observed in selecting the survey site and respondents by formally requesting permission from the respective school administrator to survey the chosen school. Google forms were prepared, and the links were shared with the respondents through their respective Google Classrooms. The confidentiality of the respondents was observed and protected by assigning them respondent numbers. The respondents signed their consent before the study began. Respondents were allowed to answer the first questionnaire asynchronously while the second instrument was administered synchronously. To ensure that respondents adhered to the usual pacing in answering the Number Sense Test, they were instructed to allow themselves 60 seconds per item and to move on to the next item if they encountered difficulty with the item.
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Descriptive and inferential analysis was used. Frequency count and percentage were utilized for the respondents’ innate mathematical characteristics regarding learning styles and self efficacy. Similarly, frequency count, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were employed for the respondents’ number sense competency (NSC) Meanwhile, Pearson’s Chi Square (x2) was computed to determine the significant relationship between innate mathematical characteristics with NSC. Furthermore, a simple linear regression analysis was carried out to determine the significant predictors of the respondents’ NSC
4.1.
4.1.1.
The predominant learning style of the respondents (Table 1) is visual (46.70%), followed by kinesthetic (26.70%), with the least being auditory (10%). There are minimal cases of respondents having dual learning styles (visual and auditory, 3.30%; visual and kinesthetic, 10%; and auditory and kinesthetic, 1.7%). Additionally, a single case of trimodal learning style was reported. The data implies that almost half of the respondents prefer visual learning and that some learn using a combination of at least two learning styles. As visual learners, printed and electronic visual aids may support advancing their number sense competencies.
The same result was obtained by Adu et al. (2020), who reported that visual learning is predominant among South African students, and Cabual (2021), who found that visual is reportedly the ‘new normal’ learning style. In contrast, Alog (2012) discovered that the predominant learning styles among the 5th and 6th grade students in her study of intermediate public schools are auditory and visual, respectively. The data shows that learners have several learning preferences and that diversity among schoolchildren still emerges. Given these differences, math teachers must ensure that each learner is given careful attention, especially with their number sense development, as it is the very foundation of mathematical understanding.
Table
Learning Style Frequency (n = 60) Percentage
Visual 28 46.70
Auditory 6 10.00 Kinesthetic 16 26.70 Visual/Auditory 2 3.30 Visual/Kinesthetic 6 10.00 Auditory/Kinesthetic 1 1.70 Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic 1 1.70
One half of the respondents have fair self efficacy (50%), indicating an average or medium level of self efficacy. When combined, approximately 42 percent have no to slight self efficacy, while only five respondents have complete to extreme self efficacy. These observations are similar to those found by Görgün and Tican
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(2020), who reported that middle school students have an average level of math self efficacy perception. This result is alarming but not new in the Philippine context. Students tend to report no or low confidence and even dislike mathematics (Pentang, 2019). This may be a result of their limited background and negative experiences. The number of learners with no to fair math self efficacy may be attributed to the poor preparation they experienced during their primary years or may be due to other personal factors such as negative math dispositions. The results of the study, however, contrast with the findings of Ducay and Alave (2021), which showed a high self efficacy for junior high school students. With regard to the learners with fair self efficacy, personality development activities may also be integrated during math classes which increase self efficacy and, eventually, their number sense competency.
Self Efficacy Levels Frequency (n = 60) Percentage
No Self Efficacy 8 13.33
Slight Self Efficacy 17 28.33
Fair Self Efficacy 30 50.00
Complete Self Efficacy 4 6.67 Extreme Self Efficacy 1 1.67
4.2.1. Components of the Number Sense Test (NST)
Table 3 presents the percentages of respondents who answered each item correctly and the mean percentages of the respondents who answered correctly in each component. Namely, 36.33 percent for the understanding of the meaning and size of number; 37.50 percent for understanding and use of equivalent representation of numbers; 53.61 percent for understanding the meaning and effect of operations; 28.8 percent for understanding and use of equivalent expressions; 39.31 percent for flexible computing and counting strategies for mental computation and calculations; and 23.08 percent for the use of measurement benchmark. Thus, it can be deduced that the respondents had difficulty in all the components of number sense, as shown by the mean percentage of respondents who answered correctly. In particular, approximately half of the respondents performed fairly in only one component (understanding the meaning and effect of the operation). The number sense competency among students is undeniably an ongoing concern for the Philippines and some Asian countries since this finding is similar to that of Mohamed and Johnny (2010) and Pentang (2019), who shared the same discovery among Malaysian and Filipino students, respectively. Therefore, the classroom teacher should involve the students in solving non-routine, non-procedural problems. This will promote the learners’ algorithm development compared to the formula algorithm. Similarly, students should be trained and encouraged to check the reasonableness of their answers.
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Table 3: Number Sense Domain and Number Sense Components for the NST
Domain Components A B C D E F
Whole Number 63.33 51.67 90.00 28.89 46.67 17.98 Decimal 18.33 37.50 34.17 29.17 39.17 38.33 Fraction 27.33 23.33 36.67 28.33 32.08 12.92 Mean 36.33 37.50 53.61 28.80 39.31 23.08
Legend:A = understanding of the meaning and size of number
B = understanding and use of equivalent representation of numbers
C = understanding the meaning of operations
D = understanding and use of equivalent expressions
E = flexible computing strategies for mental computation
F = use of measurement benchmark
4.2.2.
Generally, about 40 percent of the respondents were able to respond accurately to the Number Sense Test (NST). Table 4 details the mean performance (%) of the respondents who answered the test correctly. The majority (57.4%) could perform calculations involving whole numbers. Only 36.2 and 26.08 percent had an easier time performing calculations involving decimals and fractions, respectively. These suggest that the respondents encountered difficulty in all three domains. Besides, less than 40 percent of the respondents can perform addition (38.47%), multiplication (34.61%), and division (33.52%). Consistent with Pentang et al. (2020), the respondents generally have trouble with the fundamental operations concerning fractions. This is linked to negative dispositions and poor conceptual understanding of fractions (Bacsal et al., 2022; Ibañez & Pentang, 2021). The same observations are shared by math teachers, who feel frustrated that students generally remain inadept in performing arithmetic operations (written or mental calculation) involving fractions and decimals, even in upper level high school math courses, without the aid of calculators. The data shows why some Filipino learners perform low in national and international assessments such as NAT, PISA, and TIMSS. These learners struggled with the fundamental and foundational concepts of mathematics.
Table 4: Number Sense Domain and Four Basic Operations for the NST
Domain Arithmetic Operations (%) Mean Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
Whole Numbers 69.17 74.17 44.59 41.67 57.40 Decimals 28.33 47.50 34.52 34.45 36.20 Fractions 17.92 37.22 24.72 24.44 26.08 Mean 38.47 52.96 34.61 33.52 39.89
The level of number sense competency was based on the grading scale and descriptors used in the Philippine public educational system. Among the 60 respondents, only two had outstanding competency. One respondent performed fairly satisfactorily, while the rest did not meet expectations (Table 5). The mean score achieved by the respondents is 12.78, which translates to an equivalent grade of 31.96 percent. Overall, the respondents’ level of number sense
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competency did not meet expectations. The number sense skills of students were at a low level, and the students were still deficient in all areas of number sense, parallel to the findings of Wulandari et al. (2021).
School administrators may consider offering after school tutoring to enable learners to catch up with and reinforce the requisite mathematical skills essential to experience success in their learning and create and may further wish to implement workshops for teachers on developing the number sense competencies of their students. This study may serve as a baseline for teachers in conducting action research that may propose effective ways to further the number sense competencies of learners. Moreover, the results imply the need for a careful review of the curriculum, instruction, and assessment implemented.
Table 5: Raw Score Interval, Frequencies, and Equivalent Grade
Raw Score Interval Frequency Equivalent grade (%) Verbal Interpretation
36 and Above 34 to 35 32 to 33 30 to 31 Below 30
2 0 0 1 57
90 100 85 89 80 84 75 79 74 below
Outstanding Very Satisfactory Satisfactory Fairly Satisfactory Did Not Meet Expectations
Note: NST Mean Score = 12.78 NST Equivalent Grade = 31.96%
4.3.1.
The number sense competency levels bearing a specific number of respondents are considered in the cross tabulation result (Table 6). All respondents (100%) who are auditory learners did not meet expectations. Most (92.9%) respondents who are reportedly visual learners also did not meet expectations, while 7.1 percent have outstanding number sense competency. Among the kinesthetic learners, 93.8 percent did not meet expectations, and only 6.3 percent had a relatively satisfactory number sense competency. All respondents who claim to have at least two learning styles also did not meet expectations.
Pearson’s Chi Square calculation results do not show a significant relationship in the number sense competency among the different groups of learning styles, x2(12) = 5.094, p > 0.05. This implies that one learning style is not comparatively better than the other regarding the student’s attainment of number sense competency level. The result resembles the findings of Alog (2012), who claimed that pupils’ learning style was unrelated to their academic achievement in Mathematics. However, this opposes the findings of Adu et al. (2020), Sinaga (2022), and Villajuan (2019). The result suggests that students may still have poor number sense competency regardless of learning style.
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Learning Style Number Sense Competency Did Not Meet Expectations
Fairly Satisfactory Outstanding
Auditory 6(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) Visual 26(92.9%) 0(0.0%) 2(7.1%) Kinesthetic 15(93.8%) 1(6.3%) 0(0.0%)
Auditory/Kinesthetic 1(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%)
Visual/Auditory 2(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) Visual/ Kinesthetic 6(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%)
Auditory/Visual/ Kinesthetic 1(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%)
Total 57 1 2
Respondents who had no to slight self efficacy did not meet the expectations. Among those with fair self efficacy, 95.5 percent also did not meet expectations, and only 4.5 percent reached a reasonably satisfactory level. While 50 percent of those with complete self efficacy did not meet the expectation, 25 percent attained fairly satisfactory and outstanding levels, respectively. The sole student who has extreme self efficacy achieved an outstanding level. It can be inferred that neither learning style nor self efficacy has anything to do with number sense ability.
Correlational analysis using Pearson’s Chi Square shows a statistically significant relationship in the number sense competency among the different groups of self efficacies, x2(10) = 45.077, p < 0.01. This suggests that students with no or slight self efficacy are less likely to meet the expectation in number sense competency. On the other hand, students with extreme self efficacy tend to perform outstandingly in number sense competency. The result shows that the student’s self efficacy holds their number sense competency. The result supports the findings of Ducay and Alave (2021), Görgün and Tican (2020), and McMillian (2017), who state that middle school learners’ self efficacy impacts their mathematics performance. Teachers should develop a favorable climate for students to grow in understanding and application of numbers by designing instructional materials and activities that promote the development of number sense.
Self
No Self Efficacy 12(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%)
Slight Self Efficacy 21(100.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%)
Fair Self Efficacy 21(95.5%) 1(4.5%) 0(0.0%)
Complete Self Efficacy 2(50.0%) 1(25.0%) 1(25.0%)
Extreme Self Efficacy 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(100.0%)
Total 56 2 2
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The Chi square calculations showed that only self efficacy is significantly related to the respondents’ number sense competency. Thus, a simple linear regression analysis was performed to determine whether self efficacy predicts the number sense competency of the respondents (Table 8) The determination coefficient (R2) is equal to .631 (Adjusted R2 = .625), indicating that their self efficacy accounts for approximately 63 percent of the variance in respondents’ NSC grades. This supports the inference that the respondents’ self efficacy level impacts their number sense competency. Besides, the model is highly significant [F(1,58) = 99.201, p < .001], implying that self efficacy significantly predicts the learner’s number sense competency, t = 9.960, p = .000. This aligns with the findings of Hayat et al. (2020), Samavi et al. (2017), and Vuong et al. (2010).
Innate characteristics are indeed helpful in boosting mathematical learning. Self efficacy, in particular, must be developed among learners to promote a deep understanding of number sense. Classroom teachers should train and encourage their students to explain their answers or to give brief reasons or examples for their answers. Even if obtaining the correct answer is desired in most cases, helping the students in metacognition contributes to developing their number sense. This can be achieved using open ended questions requiring brief explanations, enabling students to communicate their thought processes mathematically. Providing an avenue for the learners to grow in self efficacy will promote excellence in their mathematical competencies, particularly in number sense.
Predictor
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta
1.725 .090 Constant 7.222 4.185 SelfEfficacy 14.078 1.413 .794 9.960 .000
Note: R2 = .631 (Adjusted R2 = .625); F(1,58) = 99.201 (p = .000)
The respondents are primarily visual learners. A few cases exist where the respondents indicated dual or tripartite learning styles. A small number claimed to be not at all or slightly confident regarding their mathematical self efficacy. Besides, they had difficulty in all the components of the Number Sense Test, as indicated by the average percentage where fewer than half answered correctly. Moreover, most had an easier time answering questions involving whole numbers, while more than half experienced difficulty in dealing with decimals and fractions.
The respondents’ level of number sense competency did not meet the expectations. A few reached a reasonably satisfactory or outstanding level of number sense competency. This is possibly aggravated by the pandemic slide phenomenon resulting from remote/distant learning. The respondent’ s self efficacy is strongly related to number sense competency. However, their learning
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style is unrelated to their level of number sense competency. Self efficacy appears to influence the respondent’s number sense competency. The study is distinct from other studies since it analyzed the relationship between students’ innate mathematical characteristics and number sense competency.
Curriculum planners and supervisors should consider revisiting the syllabus and introducing changes to focus on the most critical learning competencies while ensuring the quality of content delivery. Furthermore, classroom teachers must clearly understand the concept and nature of number sense and recognize the importance of developing number sense competency among their students. They may consider administering an aptitude test on number sense at the start of the math course to gauge their student’s readiness for the content and skills to be covered in the lessons. Knowing and understanding the entry level of the students will minimize stress and frustration for both the learners and the teacher as they proceed with the instructional and learning activities.
Self efficacy has been found to predict students’ NSC Thus, the teacher can enhance learners’ self efficacy by ensuring they experience success in their math class, providing verbal or non verbal prompts, acknowledgment and recognition of skills or effort demonstrated by the learner, and peer coaching or teaching. On the other hand, learners can further develop their self efficacy through peer observation, soliciting feedback from family and peers, and developing personal standards to assess their progress.
With the limitations posed by the current study, further inquiry may increase the sample size and use other instruments or methods (e.g. written computation, interview, and observation) to further investigate the actual effect of innate mathematical characteristics on learners’ number sense competency. Other researchers may consider replicating the study to investigate further the influence of innate mathematical characteristics on learners’ number sense competency and consider other factors/variables in their study.
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 341 361, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.19
Received Aug 10, 2022; Revised Oct 16, 2022; Accepted Oct 20, 2022
Mega Febriani Sya
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Novi Anoegrajekti*
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Ratna Dewanti
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Bambang Heri Isnawan
Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Abstract. The digital age allows creating an affinity space without being constrained by geographical and temporal distances. Fellow fandom enthusiasts can gather and share their creations through social media, such as Instagram. These creations are filled with educational and other cross scientific meanings but are often still overlooked by educational researchers. This study aims to understand the patterns of transformative and innovative work created by Indo Harry Potter Instagram (IHP) enthusiasts that correlate with education and psychology. In this study, the case observed was fantasy literature content on IHP’s Instagram account that reflects education, psychology, literacy, and inspiration aspects for foreign language teaching methods. Data were collected in stages through participatory observation directly to the Instagram page as a follower. Then, ongoing prospective teachers who were also IHP followers were interviewed to determine their perspectives on educational aspects that may appear in the posted content. Furthermore, the researchers and lecturers from English language and literature education discussed the coding results in a group forum. The results included transformative work on character education, psychological stimulation, literacy, and inspiration in designing foreign language learning methods and techniques. The implication was that the transformative educational work created by fans of fantasy literature IHP on Instagram contained the aesthetic value of reception and was useful
Corresponding author: NoviAnoegrajekti;novi_anoegrajekti@unj.ac.id
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
for guidelines in designing methods and techniques for learning foreign languages.
Keywords: educational value; Harry Potter; learning method; social media; transformative works
The affinity space created by the fandom community includes online and offline locations where people of all ages and genders gather due to similar interests. In many cases, the affinity space is associated with the same craze. Creating an affinity space in the digital age is straightforward without being constrained by geographical and temporal distances (Garcia, 2016). Fellow enthusiasts are passionate about getting together and sharing all their creations on social media, such as Instagram. Instagram facilitates the creation of an affinity space for fans, now known as fandom. One of the world’s phenomenal literary fandoms is Harry Potter (Efimova, 2015), which has a global fandom base, including Indonesia. If searched by typing the keyword Harry Potter on the Instagram page, at least 12 Harry Potter fandoms with a worldwide base will appear. One of them is Indo Harry Potter (IHP) Such fandoms have many transformative activities, such as performances, reading, and writing fan fiction, creating socialization, producing fan art, and so on (Busse, 2017). This penchant for interaction can be online and offline with activities, such as fan conventions and tours of iconic places relevant to books and film productions. The IHP encourages various forms of participation and sharing of vast knowledge about the development of literature.
This space, in addition to facilitating connections among geographically dispersed users, generates a new audience and an opportunity to create more meaningful content. Although the current evolution of social media is astounding, it poses a challenge to many individuals, communities, and even the political system. Some users have found ways to utilize social media for various activities and even inspire scholarly exploration (Carpenter et al., 2020) However, research on social media and education remains immensely ignored by education researchers (Selwyn & Stirling, 2016).
Previous research has investigated fandom in social media relating to cross disciplinary, as done by DeLuca (2018), exploring rhetorical behavior and supporting compositions of fandom across spaces to generate pedagogical value, giving rise to the incorporation of fandom activities into the writing classroom. Thus, new public spaces to improve students’ writing capacity are discovered Teachers and educators can combine technologiesto develop, foster, and maintain professional relationships (Carr, 2016). Furthermore, academic research and literature utilize various social media platforms in different educational contexts. From a university math course and Facebook group to Twitter as a “channel” in the classroom, every academic journal has become interested in educational technology, and educational media is now filled with discussions about the potential of education on social media (Selwyn & Stirling, 2016).
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Another research explored disciplines related to the media for 10 years (2009 2018). A search on the Web of Science resulted in 580 articles, with 260 articles focusing on education. Research in this area has been steadily increasing since 2009; roughly half of these studies were conducted in North America. The findings showed that in education, the dominant theme of research on social media was used as a teaching and learning tool by professional teachers and in digital literacy (Dennen et al., 2020) The exploration of fandom as the future classroom becomes a culture that encourages critical thinking, writing, and making wise and critical judgments. The formal education system can benefit from the critical thinking that can occur in fan environments. Fans, scholars, fan scholars, and educators must be more assertive toward normalizing commercialization, market power, and neoliberal control over influence in education and beyond. Fan studies, as well as how the fandom encourages fans to be wise in an expressive world, should be taught (Booth, 2015).
Some educators have utilized social media for student learning (Carpenter & Justice, 2017) and professional education and learning (Xing & Gao, 2018). Previous research investigating educators’ use of social media, including Facebook as an open and large group, can be a valuable source of pragmatic advice for fellow teachers However, this group rarely reflects and provides feedback on teaching practices (Kelly & Antonio, 2016) An exploratory qualitative study of 117 teachers explored how educators engaged with Pinterest, an online social networking site; the findings showed that teachers at all levels tended to use Pinterest to source learning and adapt to the needs of their classrooms (Schroeder et al., 2019) Subsequent research examined 47 educational hashtags from Twitter by comparing over 550,000 tweets for six months. The findings provided an overview of the most productive educational focus, discussed the implications of teacher professional development, and suggested directions for future educational research focused on tweet content (Rosenberg et al., 2016). However, despite being the second most used social media platform in the United States and the fifth most used worldwide (Pearce et al., 2019), Instagram has received limited attention from educational researchers to.
Created in 2010, Instagram is a social media platform for pictures and video sharing networking. Users access the service through a feature limited application or web interface and can edit the content with various filters. Many contents are posted on Instagram, individual based and community based, voicing feelings of empathy and camaraderie toward others with similar interests. This beloved community is known as fandom, where fans of certain media use the existing world of stories plots, characters, and settings. Harry Potter fandoms have undeniable global popularity as fantasy literature. Indo Harry Potter (IHP) was founded in 2001 and named J.K. Rowling’s Wizarding World Community in Indonesia. This community is based on shared participation, commonality, and belief, and is thus inherently democratically committed to the continued development of Harry Potter and its interconnection with other cognate works born after the phenomenon. Not only are online events held, but positive influences from various disciplines, such as literacy, character education cultivation, psychological elements, and many other topics that are
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transformative adaptations of the original story, are also shared offline. These communities also embody the same values in online forums that connect through participatory practices, such as discussing, composing, and circulating compositions about their shared interests. Through this participatory literacy practice, a sense of group identity is fostered and community is developed. However, how fans on each post create transformative works remains underexplored Thus, the current work will significantly affect followers and even be able to produce educational innovations.
This research aims to understand prospective teachers' educational perspectives. This pattern correlates with education and psychology and can be used as guidelines in designing foreign language learning methods and techniques. This research contributes to the literature on how social media containing fantasy fiction content can create transformative and innovative works that correlate with education, psychology, and art and help design foreign language learning methods and techniques.
2.1
Over the past decade, new ways of acquiring knowledge using social media in formal and informal education have been emerging. Formal education is a hierarchically structured and organized education system in successive periods, from elementary school to university. Meanwhile, informal education is considered a learning process in which everyone learns and acquires attitudes, values, knowledge, and skills directly from their daily experiences and social environment in absolute terms or through virtual spaces exposed to social media (Zachos et al., 2018) Students use social media primarily for socialization purposes, exchanging views or ideas, and only for entertainment (Kircaburun et al., 2020). Nonetheless, such activities can be incorporated into educational procedures, or the content can inspire educational development. Students primarily use social media to increase their communal presence and Instagram can influence students’ education directly or indirectly (Hosen et al., 2021). How about Instagram, which was created by the fanfiction community? Obviously, it will contain a great deal of transformative content adapted from their fad for fictional stories.
Instagram is a social media platform for pictures and video sharing networking Users can access the service through the application or web features and edit the content with various filters with up to 2200 character texts in each post. Instagram offers a private messaging service and the option to tag content with searchable hashtags. In addition to including multiple images and videos in a single post, providing a story feature allows users to post content to a “feed” that can be accessed and viewed by others for 24 hours. Messages, posts, and stories allow individuals to communicate with other users differently while remaining private and formal. Instagram posts tend to feature carefully curated and positive images compared to informal stories (Hong et al., 2020). Instagram, in recent years, has become increasingly popular among teenagers compared with Facebook
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(Anderson & Jiang, 2018). Hence, social media platforms will be important in the future. Indications of Instagram’s absorption in education have become substantial. For example, Stephens, an art teacher, has formed a community on the app, using hashtags #teachersofinstagram Other art teachers would respond with photos of carefully crafted classroom décor, lesson plans, and even artful everyday attire (Rozen, 2018). Instagram allows others to peek into other art teachers’ spaces to collaborate and inspire one another.
Instagram's relatively more text focused visual nature means that educators use it differently than other social media platforms (Pittman & Reich, 2016). Themedia conveys a message, and technology influences how people learn and think. Social media is about more than just media content; it is also about human experience and life dynamics, which can lead to social effects, such as a particular way of life and culture (Esteban Guitart, 2015). Instagram not only connects educators and provides a neutral space for them to share ideas; the features and design inspiration they use influence the nature of the connections made and what is developed. For example, education related hashtags were featured in millions of Instagram posts as of June 2020, #teachersofinstagram had more than 6.9 million posts and #teachersfollowteachers had more than 4.6 million posts. In addition, the overall use of Instagram has increased fivefold since 2014, from 200 million to more than 1 billion active users, demonstrating the importance of the overall growth as a platform that supports educational activities (Statista, 2020). This demonstrates the current popularity of Instagram being able to connect the needs of educational development between one place and another in various parts of the world.
A fandom is a subculture, group, and community of fans who have a particular interest and become unified, whether a sports team, television show, book series, or movie. The fan community has existed since the nineteenth century, starting with the participation of die hard Sherlock Holmes fans developing their experiences through the activities of compiling fictional fan texts (Brown, 2009). Since the internet emerged in the late twentieth century, fandom, which was initially intertwined only in offline communities, has progressed to become a community in digital media. The web also allows fans to create connections across time and space; finding other people to discuss similar interests with is not difficult(DeLuca, 2018); it can even create transformative works. One such phenomenon is Harry Potter, which initially appeared twenty six years ago only as children’s literature Nevertheless, the saga is able to influence the development of fandom and pop culture aimed at adults and children even to this day (Dempster et al., 2016). The rise of fantasy novels that emerged after the publication of Harry Potter made a story of intertextuality that became the concern and subject of study by world researchers. J.K. Rowling never imagined that anything that came into contact with the results of her written literary works would one day become alucrative business opportunity. Thus, it cannot be denied that Harry Potter has changed the world.
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However, inevitable controversies have emerged, such as the notion that it is foolish for the many adults to enjoy books that are intended for children’s readers. This literary phenomenon had experienced resistance where there were parties who tried to make the reader stop reading the book. The involvement of witchcraft and the occult in the story becomes the basis for a conflict that is considered to present an understanding of the occult and strange practices carried out. This peculiar practice is secretly organized beyond human logic, leading to the desire to possess or master something partly believed to be related to curses The race still performs occult acts today is generally a legacy of hereditary ancestors. Similar formal efforts for abolition continued for decades due to the dismay of conservative religious leaders who felt the book exerted a “satanic” influence. Even in the first series, the book topped the American Library Association’s list of the most banned books of 1999. Over time, Harry Potter developed with outstanding achievements. Combining an intricate, difficult to guess mystery plot with a touch of epic fantasy and a classic boarding school narrative proves to appeal to readers of all ages. As the reader is immersed in another world, fantasy mythology encompasses a world filled with wonder and joy, despite the fact that each of his characters remains familiar and endearing in a traumatic narrative.
Although the first printing has been over twenty years, Harry Potter’s enthusiast readers and fans are constantly waiting for what will reappear in the reunion and the next companion novels. Therefore, a cultural phenomenon affects readers’ social, emotional, and personal relationships (Jakob et al., 2019) As the reader enjoys and is immersed in a fictional world, a personally formed viewpoint of the character will appear, ultimately reacting to the elements of fiction through the process of identifying the individual. There are parasocial interactions or imitative behaviors that occur. This incident is due to the human brain processing experiences as if manifested “direct experiences” of friendly relationships or attachments established with characters appearing in the media. The character that appears is based on the affective bond felt by a person toward the media figure. Immersion in the fictional world can influence the behavior of individuals and influence the reader’s view through social and emotional situations on the basis of the thoughts and emotions of the characters (Das, 2013). The immersion of fantasy in the narrative has the function of entertaining, an abstract that exposes the reader to situations and social knowledge. It provides an effect as a simulation of how the world in a fantasy rhythm can occur, which then bridges the reader to a new perspective capable of influencing their view of the natural world (Mar & Oatley, 2008). The IHP currently has over 9000 followers, with 872 posts resulting from transformative work across disciplines that IHP followers can enjoy.
3.1.
This research is a case study aiming to obtain and examine data in a context or phenomenon. Case study data are used to describe a case in depth in a comprehensive manner. In this study, the cases observed were fantasy literary content on IHP’s Instagram account that reflected aspects of education, psychology, literacy, and inspiration for foreign language teaching methods. A
literature search determined the conceptual and operational definition. Data collection was conducted in stages, through participatory observation directly to the Instagram page as a follower. The ongoing prospective teachers who were also IHP followers were interviewed to discover their perspectives on educational aspects that may appear in the posted content. Furthermore, the researchers and lecturers from English language and literature education discussed the coding results in a group forum.
A total of 52 teacher education students from private universities in West Java, Indonesia participated in this study (Table 1). Four fourth semester students who had attended the basics of education and educational perspectives to understand and assess aspects and concepts of education that may appear in content on social media became the respondents. They owned an Instagram account and were active in social media. The selection of samples was purposive technique.
Frequency %
Gender
Male 6 12 Female 46 88 Study at the level of (even semester)
Fourth semester 51 98 Sixth semester 1 2 Level of education Bachelor's 52 100 Other’s 0 0
Data collection was carried out through three stages. First, a survey was conducted on prospective teacher students who are also IHP Instagram followers. The survey was conducted through interviews containing questions related to education, psychology, and teaching methods that can be answered with a brief statement or a longer description. Questions were compiled on the basis of the relevant literature; survey data was collected from May 25, 2022, to June 8, 2022, among 52 respondents. Each respondent was guaranteed confidentiality and given a pseudonym. The purpose of the interview was to obtain deeper and more meaningful data. After collecting the survey data, each respondent’s results were transcribed, and a preliminary code was generated. The second stage of data collection was through participatory observation, where direct observation on the IHP Instagram page examined content related to education, literacy, psychology, and teaching methods. The third stage in data collection was a group discussion forum with a team of competent lecturers in English language and literature expertise.
The data were analyzed using inductive and thematic analyses aimed at identifying, evaluating, and determining the themes expressed by respondents. The answers and responses of each participant in the first stage were coded using
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keywords to avoid overlaps. The NVivo 12 program was used to facilitate coding and categorization. Data from interviews, observations, and group discussions were entered into Nodes and Cases and grouped into data with particular codes. Thematic maps show the organization of concepts and potential interactions between concepts that were developed. All code and categorization are simplified and verify the possibility of integration between codes. The analytical techniques used by inductive models to identify themes that respondents provide in response to research questions are presented in Figure 1.
Education in social media with fantasy literary content demonstrates that there are four educational aspects that appear broadly: character education, variations of teaching foreign languages, psychological education, and literacy activities. The character education that emerges is diligent, wise, loyal, logical thinking, active, maintaining norms, loving others, courageous, hard working, and politically conscious. The literacy element that emerges is learning about history, attending reading festivals, visiting museums, and participating in fandom communities to increase the desire to read and write. The psychological aspects in the post are related to socialization, strengthening achievements, art, sports, imagination, creativeness stimuli, and motivational sentences. Then there are the costs associated with various methods of foreign language learning, such as singing, learning in nature, puzzles, posters, quizzes, storytelling, workshops, and guessing. The relationship can be seen in Figure 2 through the NVivo visualization
This post contains an element of motivation for us to continue fighting despite the fact that we are up against many opponents or friends. This wise quote can inspire followers to further their education. They must have the courage totake a risk, decide, and face many opponents. If we are brave, our abilities will differ, but we will still progress. One of the keys to overcoming a challenge is courage.
Faithful and Hard work
Above the ferret image is “loyalty,” which is in line with Hufflepuff dormitory students’ loyal, fair, and hard working characteristics A caption reads, “Some people will always fear us. The followers/readers must not let their fear prevent them from doing good,” which means “some people will always be afraid of us. They must not allow their fears to prevent us from doing good”. They must still try and work hard to get what they want. Then, after the dreams are achieved, they should be humble and not underestimate the abilities of others.
Wise
This post explains that wisdom is the right attitude while facing problems This behavior must be possessed by an individual to obtain peace.
Keeping the norm Harry Potter's best friend is Ron Weasley. He had a unique life story; others frequently mocked him and his family's poverty, which upset and frustrated him. Despite not having much money, his parents raised him with love and good values.
Discipline Some cartoon books that are interesting and popular among children and adults, and whose main characters have the power of magic, have an educational component; these books are examples of fiction books. Fiction books are a learning tool or medium for children and adults, as they can present messages and encourage readers to learn more about the meaning of each vocabulary word in the book.
This post is about historical literacy. Students are expected to learn about the history of Indonesia's Independence Day in 1945 to understand the struggle for freedom and fighting in a war. Students can take values from history and apply them in their daily lives, while also appreciating the merits of the heroes who have fought.
Visiting the museum
The Harry Potter fandom once organized a trip to a transportation museum, which was featured in some of the books and movies. However, movies, books, and various locations on Earth can help to stimulate interest and provide authentic experiences to children to cultivate more insights. Using the tourist work method can provide a more comprehensive overview of what people see while participating in tourism activities.
Communities can drive literacy
The post on togetherness contains educational elements because there is an implied message in this post that invites followers/readers to form a book fandom community to read and study books together, which is unquestionably necessary in the world of education. They can form groups or study groups to read and review the teacher provided learning materials. They can exchange ideas with other friends in this study group.
Examples
Sociable Outdoor activities allow participants to obtain a different atmosphere, new experiences, and friends. Teachers/educators can use this method for students by conducting learning outside the classroom. They are familiar with many lessons that can be taken outside of the classroom, such as things or places related to the lesson. As a result, students can have real world experience and understanding, and they can socialize with their peers.
Triggering achievement Only students with a high level of education can possess trophies. At an event, numerous students compete for specific trophies and even class advancement champions. As a result, trophies can be used as a competitive tool to encourage students to always be enthusiastic about pursuing or achieving their learning goals because, as students, they strive to be the best and obtain exemplary accomplishments, particularly in academic and non academic fields. These will increase their confidence and enthusiasm for pursuing their objectives.
Art Educators who foster an appreciation for the value of art in the classroom are doing their students a great service. Art has many positive effects on students, including (1) allowing them to voice their opinions and ideas, (2) helping them realize their creative potential, (3) enhancing their appreciation for aesthetics, (4) introducing them to the tools and techniques artists use, and (5) allowing them to create something original.
Imagination
This post features an illustration created by an Indonesian. The educational component is that students can use technology to create art. This post may also inspire Indonesian children to create illustrations using technology. The artist's imagination is reflected and visualized in the illustrations.
Stimulate creativeness
This post contains two educational components. The first step is to learn about different types of mass media, such as newspapers. It can provide children with news information in the form of print media. Print media can help children improve their knowledge and reading skills. The second is cosplay, which is related to dressing up as a character. The post describes several people who cosplay as Harry Potter characters while teaching children about creativity and art appreciation.
Sports
The picture aims to promote physical activity by emulating Quidditch, the wizarding world's version of basketball. This is a fictional sport from the Harry Potter book series. The game iscomparabletobasketball. People who watch this sport want to play it as well. All sports are beneficial to health and can help to test the brain's intelligence in decision making.
Singing a song The image depicts a singing activity in English at the Periplus office. These activities can help the audience learn English by mentioning each English vocabulary. Teachers can use songs and learning media to facilitate children's speaking in English learning activities in the classroom.
Playing crossword puzzle
This post contains an educational component because completing the crossword puzzle teaches people how to think critically. This Crossword Puzzle can be used in the classroom as an example of learning media, particularly to attract students.
Studying in nature The post demonstrates how the community environment can be used to learn. The environment can help students increase their knowledge through community learning activities because students interact with many people to exchange ideas or opinions. Using the community as a learning environment for elementary school children can also help students practice speaking, listening, socializing, and receiving opinions.
Story Telling This post includes educational interactions that are part of the educational component. In the world of education, the speaker engages in a series of collaborative activities with the listener, who can be referred to as educators and students.
Quiz Teachers can use quizzes and guessing pictures as a learning medium when teaching students. Students will be pleased if we can learn while having fun. Students will not be bored, and this quiz can be used to assess students' understanding of the material taught by the teacher. Quizzes can also be used to figure out what the picture is. Teachers can use quizzes as a learning medium to provide students with understanding through an image.
Workshop The IHP community hosted a book review workshop for Harry Potter. This new experience may encourage participants to become accustomed to comprehending and exploring books to comprehend the author's purpose and writing style. Furthermore, this will be useful in education when analyzing journals.
Many transformative works are incorporated into IHP content as character education, psychology, and art elements. The interaction patterns play a role in creating and maintaining social solidarity. Rhetorical creations and strategies used to create meaning in education, psychology, and art are integrated into the practice and artwork of fans (Barzilai et al., 2018; Henriksen et al., 2018) The character who appears is the courage expressed in the first character's education, which can be seen in motivational sentences to influence fandom members to be brave and think critically. When viewed from an educational perspective, a student must have motivation, a brave spirit, a high character level, as well as great determination and responsibility. Motivational sentences are a component of literacy that can help to avoid the increasingly common phenomenon of juvenile delinquency and highlight the moral decay of today's adolescent generation (Nurtanto et al., 2019) due to the significant influence of social media
is not accompanied by filtration first. Therefore, having transformative work content that reveals wise sentences in the style of young people is necessary This phrase encourages them to be positive without feeling patronized (Komalasari & Saripudin, 2018) and to interact with the inevitable modernization.
Being wise and adhering to good standards in the content posted are examples of some efforts to preserve and prevent the nation's disintegration (Bonifacio et al., 2021) Good norms should not be broken. National disintegration is the responsibility of the entire community, including the fandom community, which can positively influence other communities (Kuo et al., 2021). The participation of citizens in preserving the nation's integrity is a legal obligation that is clearly stated in the country's laws. The community plays a critical role in preserving the nation's integrity as much as possible.
The fandom's transformative work displayed learning about history and visiting museums; they combine historical narratives from the wizarding world with the reality of celebrating Indonesia's Independence Day. This comparison conveyed the idea that a civilization's historical process should be valued, remembered, and turned into a valuable lesson because, without history, man would be unable to achieve a technologically complete civilization. The process of knowing history will improve the development of student literacy (Popat & Starkey, 2019) Students are expected to gain more literacy by visiting museums, as the younger generation prefers gathering in placed places with a modern atmosphere.
“Harry Potter Book Night,” organized by the fandom community, became one of the popular cultural icons every year with the theme “Magical Journeys” chosen by Bloomsbury to reflect how many millions more have taken part in the story of Harry Potter’s life. The first saga, Harry Potter and Philosopher’s Stone was released 25 years ago in 1997. His fans always have a special celebration in memory of the wizard with a lightning shaped scar on his forehead. The celebration is closely related to the fun exploration of reading literacy There are also book posts that are almost one genre with Harry Potter books from several countries and many quizzes are presented with various attractive prizes. The post in this celebration applied literacy in educational elements and how to invite the community to love the culture of reading books. Literacy is the ability to read and write, increase knowledge and skills, critically solve problems, and communicate effectively to develop potential and participate in people’s lives (Pangrazio & Sefton Green, 2020)
The element of art appeared in the explanatory post of six logos in the ministry of magic. This logo was created by Minalima design with an attractive shape and contrasting coloring and can explain its true identity. Some illustrated the element of education in fine arts. Learning the logo is essential to the identity of an institution and how that identity can be remembered in society because of its uniqueness. Furthermore, students in the community can understand the fine arts, coloring, and the use of flat planes such as triangles, squares, and circles. The
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artistic system depicted in the post is the film's artistic system. A novel narrative of linguistic symbols in an artistic film system is certainly not easy to visualize (Hanich, 2022) Visualization of the novel’s narrative will encourage fandoms interested in art to explore how it can be done
For a teacher, several illustrative images can be a learning medium; using them as a learning medium stimulates students to express their opinions about the images they see. Using illustrative images in learning activities can also create a fun and interactive learning atmosphere. Using illustrative images helps to stimulate students’ imagination and thinking ability in concluding an object they see (Medina Herrera et al., 2019) In addition, illustrative images can motivate students to start practicing their abilities in creative activities.
IHP’s post where the fandom was singing together in English at the periplus office became one of the means of streamlining the English of the audience; it can be applied by teachers in English learning activities in the classroom, making songs as a means and learning medium to improve speaking skills (Passiatore et al., 2019). Furthermore, puzzle games and quizzes can improve memory. Students must remember the answer from the information obtained by playing the puzzle. In education, the puzzle's questions can be replaced with questions about the material being studied, such as English learning materials or general knowledge.
In addition, there are guessing images; this post contains an educational element in the form of a learning tool or media. Ultimately, this image guessing game can improve skill and critical thinking. In addition, this picture guessing quiz is not monotonous; students interact with one another and make new friends.
The combination of crossword puzzles and guessing pictures is one of the active learning methods for students that involves all learners thinking while playing; students become more enthusiastic in following the lesson (Huang et al., 2020). By completing the crossword puzzle, students unconsciously learn, gain knowledge and understanding of the subject matter while having fun. Students will always understand the subject by opening, reading, and looking for answers to the crossword puzzle. The crossword puzzles will provide positive values to the students; by working together, students will always compete to find the correct answer, resulting in healthy competition. Given that learners who find answers will be able to answer the crossword puzzle, other learners in the group will also know the correct answer and thus a strong sense of community will develop. Using crossword puzzles in the classroom is beneficial for students (Subhash & Cudney, 2018) The factor of high accuracy and precision is also crucial when filling in crossword puzzle answers, as the letters in a solution can influence the other answers in rows or columns. This method can influence the instruction of metacognitive strategies to increase student participation and skills in online or offline learning (Vellanki et al., 2022).
The transformative educational works created by fans of IHP fantasy literature on Instagram were diverse and included aesthetic value of reception. Although not
all have educational backgrounds, each post always included elements of literacy to explore the aesthetics of various sciences, such as creating a fantasy literature cosplay at a celebration and its educational value. Readers and fan writers contribute a much more personal and unique version of creativity. However, the transformative work has not fully considered the mature identification level and the personal subjectivity involved in the central issue.
Overall, the content presented by the Harry Potter fandom could become a hotbed of knowledge, allowing previously unconsidered reviews of legendary literature worldwide to be written. “Magic” is not taboo but can become a beautiful package full of character values, literacy, psychological stimulation, and influencing the design of a foreign language learning. The study of fantasy fiction related to fandom is not only a passion; it can inspire the development of cross disciplinary, pure transformative works created by fans into a new science that will likely produce knowledge theories. Subsequent fan fiction studies should unearth and analyze the dialectical reading process of the fan community and link to the analysis of academic literature. This research is limited in that it only focuses on transformative work in general; it has not specified its influence on the development of learning methods or media. The following research is expected to delve deeper into psychology, art, and literacy aspects based on learning methods.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 362 380, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.20
Received Aug 9, 2022; Revised Oct 21, 2022; Accepted Oct 26, 2022
Muhammad
Abd Hadi Bunyamin* School of Education, Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaFatin
Aliah Phang Centre for Engineering Education, Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaAbstract. Since the 19th century, many studies have claimed the importance of integrating culture in science education, grasping everyone’s experience and background. However, from 2012 to 2015, many recent works within these years describe how standardized curricula have marginalized cultural based education. Scholars then re emphasized the role of bridging funds of knowledge (FOK) as a conceptual framework to counter the deficit of marginalized groups and advance social justice in science education However, up to this point, the extent and pattern of the growing body of literature on cultural science integration is still less explored Hence, in thisreview, we sought new and current inquiries that connect FOK or cultures with science education reform discourse to identify and understand the current trends of the integration phenomena by doing a systematic literature review After constantly comparing the articles, we found three trends of the integration, which are (1) cultural based lesson plan for equity in science educational opportunities, (2) effectiveness of integrating culture in science education, and (3) cultural based science education as a voice of multidimensional perspectives We hope that this review of research could reshape the future direction of research on equity and social justice issues in education and reshape the practice of education, particularly science education.
Keywords: funds of knowledge; marginalized groups; culturally relevant pedagogy; culturally responsive teaching; social justice
The paradigm of discontinuity between science and real life experience among learners is still happening for decades due to its abstract notion, which seems
* Corresponding author: MuhammadAbdHadiBunyamin,mabhadi@utm.my
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
empirical, analytical, and positivistic (Lee et al., 2020). Moreover, Pejaner and Mistades (2020) believe the science decontextualizing issue happened due to the westernization of the science content. This is because the curriculum was first introduced in many school education systems globally and historically, thus impacting the non western learners’ achievement and epistemological beliefs (Aikenhead, 1996). Scholars have suggested that this issue has disadvantaged marginalized students in many countries and contributed to achievement gap phenomena, dragging the equity and social justice issue in education (Johnson & Newcomer, 2020; Suárez, 2019). A decade ago, Hursh (2007) argued about neoliberal ideology in the United States education system, which was reflected in the policy of No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Neoliberal policies, reflected in NCLB, aimed to increase students’ achievement and close the achievement gap. However, Hursh (2007) found that NCLB did not attain its goals. In fact, neoliberal policies undermined equity and diversity in education with regard to diverse ethnics, cultures, and belief systems (Fortney et al., 2019) because of the notion of “individual responsibility” that is not realistic in a society that is unjust in terms of wealth distribution and equitable access. To this extent, equity and social justice issues are still growing current topics in science education research and practices, which need global attention to project a better solution ahead.
Historically, many studies have introduced sociocultural integration into science, namely funds of knowledge hereafter referred to as funds of knowledge (FOK) (FOK) as a conceptual framework to encounter injustice in education. This is where stakeholders should emphasize the sociocultural theoretical elements (Vygotsky, 1978) in the classroom through culturally relevant education (CRE) (Ladson Billings, 2006; Llopart & Esteban Guitart, 2018) and culturally responsive teaching (CRT) (Gay, 2010, 2015; O’Leary et al., 2020). Other than that, Aronson and Laughter (2016) argued that CRE and CRT could be used to reframe public debates in education so that education would not be excessively interpreted from the perspective of neoliberalism but from the cultural lens comprehensively
Nevertheless, the growing body of literature in cultural science studies always discusses the opportunity and achievement gap between dominant and minority students. It also puts equity as the main focus for the research problems to make science relevant, improve disadvantaged students’ performance, and advance social justice (Volman & ’t Gilde, 2021) Hence, many studies come with solutions, enhancement, and advancement by years, and finally believe that integrating culture is the best (Aikenhead & Jegede, 1999; Avery, 2013; Fortney et al., 2019; Hogg, 2016; Hutchison et al., 2020; Ladson Billings, 2014; Milner IV, 2013; Upadhyay, 2009). This is because culture is not a possession but a means of running lives (Cole, 1996). Meanwhile, science is a discipline of knowledge that discusses real lives phenomena. Hence, bridging sociocultural and real life experience (FOK) with science in prior studies seems to have promising positive outcomes among learners. In fact, Aikenhead and Jegede (1999) even conceptualized the transition between a student's lifeworld and school science as a cultural border crossing.
Scholars also argue that linking students’ background or FOK with science is essential by reinforcing the connections between culture and science content. This
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is because bridging home and school through science education increases the authenticity of science learning Hence, home and school will not be isolated and not become homogenous in students’ minds and lives. Nevertheless, the pattern of how culture is integrated into science education for studies up to 2015 is still less explored in scientific discourses. It is important to study the pattern and implication as a guideline for future educational policies to advance social justice and equity based on the current trends. Therefore, to address this gap, authors synthesize the recent studies based on these inquiries:
(i) How culture and social context are cultured in current science education?
(ii) To what extent cultural studies in science education has promised positive outcomes?
The authors want to define key terms used in this paper so that readers become clear with the meaning of those terms. First, funds of knowledge (FOK) Initially, FOK emerged as “bodies of knowledge of strategic importance to households” (Vélez Ibáñez & Greenberg, 1992). Subsequently, it was termed “funds of knowledge” (FOK) by Moll et al (1992) They later defined FOK as the term that refers to these historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for household or individual functioning and well being. Recently, Albrecht and Upadhyay (2018) defined FOK as all knowledge and skills learned at home from one’s cultural, social, historical, linguistic, and political acts that establish a foundation for further learning and support in students’ engagement during science learning in schools. Note that FOK is an empowering tool for students from immigrants and underrepresented groups as they have delineated how science is experienced at home and how it could build their classroom learning.
Second, culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and culturally responsive teaching (CRT). In social justice educational studies, most research used CRP and CRT as their frameworks with positive outcomes. For example, Ladson Billings (1994) defines CRP as one that empowers students intellectually and, in all aspects, including social, economic, and politics, using culture as the main tool to teach knowledge, skills, and attitude. Meanwhile, Gay (2010) defines CRT as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frame of reference, and performance style of multiethnic students to make learning more significant to them. These theories were often used when researchers were studying integrating science contents with social context, cultures, funds of knowledge, experience, participants’ background, families, and socio politics.
Third, marginalized groups The people who come from indigenous groups, females, African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, immigrants, people with disabilities, poor people, and people who come from the global south are deemed marginalized groups (Upadhyay et al., 2020). Many equity and social justice educational studies have been conducted on these people.
We describe our search process, inclusion criteria, and how the articles we reviewed were chosen. First, it is important to mention that our multistep review was informed by systematic and narrative approaches to answer our research
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questions. We utilized electronic searches using two engine databases: Scopus and Web of Science (WoS), since they are the most recommended database for educational research while consisting of quality articles (Gusenbauer & Haddaway, 2019) In addition, these two engine databases are available at our university subscription, and its index is believed as one of the best databases in our country, Malaysia. We did not arbitrarily pick articles that had shown up in the results, but we had limited and selected them based on our search criteria, which are depicted in Figure 1 and will be detailed further below.
Originally, our searches started with our study keywords which are “funds of knowledge” AND “science education.” As science is a root field for chemistry, biology, and physics, we then opened and included these three educational subjects in our searches However, during the search process, the articles that explicitly mentioned “FOK” were limited in number, only less than ten. Hence, we used keywords synonyms with its terms, such as culture, sociocultural, daily experience, social context, informal knowledge, CRP, and CRT in science education, aligning with the meaning of FOK defined by Hogg (2011) in her review article. Next, we searched for combinations of these terms appearing in the titles, abstracts, and keywords of manuscripts on those databases. Without the restriction of our searches within that range of year and fields, it resulted in
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several manuscripts across the discipline. Consequently, we read the abstracts and used the following inclusion and exclusion criteria whether to keep the article for our review or exclude it
First, we limited the search only to journal articles that appeared from 2015 to 2022. This was the crucial step to ensure the articles we got were recent to understand the current trend of integrating culture with science education. The articles, too, must be written in English. At this stage, we obtained 115 results in Scopus and 100 in WoS.However, all related articles in WoS are also encompassed in Scopus. Furthermore, some articles appeared not on science but social science in education. Hence, we need to be selective and focus during this process to choose only science education in school strictly, not higher education, due to time constraints.
Second, we checked the profile of the authors. We specified our search to pick scholars who have constantly conducted studies on culture in science education and/or have fought for equity and social justice in education. The reason was that scholars who keep doing research with a consistent paradigm and nature of the study conducting research would be experts in that particular area (Westerman, 1991). In addition, it will bring insights for the better understanding of the cultural integration pattern in science education.
Third, the next step was reading the abstracts to evaluate whether they met our criteria or not. A limitation arose from the exclusion of a bunch of articles that used “FOK,” “culture,” and “science education” as the keywords but did not match our needs after reading the abstracts, so those papers were eliminated. The mismatch occurred when those articles only mentioned culture or FOK but did not utilize it as its conceptual lens and the main scope of their study. Specifically, we only focus on reviewing the articles discussing FOK, culture, CRP, or CRT as the conceptual lens of a framework in science education to frame its implementation pattern for further guidelines in educational policies.
Fourth, we included articles that used any methodology, whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method. We also did not specify our articles to any countries because we wanted to include all studies that would be able to provide insights into our specific area of research interests. We utilized the text's comparative analysis manually to extract, compare, and synthesize the pattern of the studies.
Finally, we included the articles that only reported their empirical data and not review articles Initially, before these restrictions and limitations were set, the results appeared to be more than a hundred, then reduced to minimal results on both databases after several stages. However, after being restricted to the abovementioned criteria, we only found thirteen articles that met our search criteria: Albrecht and Upadhyay (2020), Albrecht and Upadhyay (2018), Brown and Crippen (2017), Esteban Guitart et al. (2019), Kadmayana et al. (2021), Mohd Norawi et al. (2015), Mohd Norawi et al. (2017), Rahmawati et al. (2019), Soko et al. (2019), Stapleton and Reif (2022), Suastra (2017), and Upadhyay et al. (2017, 2020) The review presents the analysis of the literature and its description. Consequently, we critically analyze the articles using a constant comparative
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technique to provide and articulate a comprehensive understanding of how culture is nurtured in those studies with a positive outcome.
After analyzing thirteen articles connected to culture and science education, we summarize the findings and discuss them in the discussion part later. Finally, the results are categorized into three themes to determine the current trend of research and positive outcomes within these seven years.
Ali, Halim, and Osman (2015) and Ali, Halim, Osman, and Mohtar (2017) conducted studies in different years by integrating physics with funds of knowledge (FOK). Ali et al. (2015) discussed how vital FOK was integrated into a physics lesson. FOK possessed by the students was rich and diverse due to having mingled and participated actively in a multiethnic community. They designed a lesson plan on Archimedes' main topic with five phases of integration strategy: (1) teachers need to identify students’ FOK, (2) matching physics content knowledge with FOK, (3) experience and language skills in science discourse were used, (4) creating hybrid space, and (5) using a constructivist approach. Other than that, they claimed that the integration would increase excellence in students’ learning and equity of students in rural areas. This can be done by appreciating physics in their culture. Meanwhile, Ali and colleagues’ studies (2015) were significant to science education in general and physics in particular due to the perception of physics as difficult to understand and irrelevant due to its abstract nature. Linking physics with FOK would be beneficial to students to make the subject comprehensible to students where they could realize that physics contextually happens in daily life On the other hand, Ali et al. (2015) also strongly argue that nurturing culture in the lesson plan for implementation would provide equity for students as they learn what they are supposed to learn.
Instead of generating a lesson plan as Ali et al. (2015) did, Soko, Setiawan, and Widodo (2019) identified the ability of Indonesian teachers to design a lesson plan utilizing culture based physics learning activity Moreover, Soko et al. (2019) tested the relationship between their ability to design a cultural based lesson plan with the real implementation (teaching) in a physics classroom. They found that the majority (85%) of teachers in Nusa Southeast (Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT)) could design a lesson plan for physics with culture based activities even though they never designed a lesson plan that integrated students’ culture. Note that this ability was assessed using a rubric comprising these criteria: selecting and organizing teaching material, learning models and methods, and selecting learning resources. The result indicates the teachers’ maturity in decision making is related to materials when choosing the essential content that would be taught in the classroom. Nevertheless, there was a junior physics teacher who was unable to adjust the material of cultural based physics within the allocated time frame. This implied that lack of experience might have influenced the ability to organize teaching materials through the lens of culture. Apart from that, Soko et al. (2019) concluded that when physics teachers could design a culture based lesson plan, they would be more prepared to identify the culture according to the physics
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content. In addition, experienced teachers, too, can design and implement their cultural based lesson plans compared to junior teachers.
The growing body of literature on FOK and culture in science education has emphasized nurturing into the science lesson plans. By stressing the importance of FOK, teachers were given the trust and audacity to appreciate, dig and integrate students’ life experiences in their lesson plans because teachers have the power to control their lessons in the classroom.
Avoid misconception. Ali et al. (2017) once again researched cultural based science education. They performed a test on the effectiveness of FOK to fix the misconceptions that occurred among physics students in optics topics. They used pre and post tests on two groups (intervention and control groups) for comparison and validity of FOK effectiveness In the pre and post tests, both groups were tested with the Physics Optics Conceptual Test (POCT) to identify students’ misconceptions and conceptual understanding twice. From the quantitative findings, students in both groups had misconceptions in the pre test but had significantly remediated in the post test for the intervention group. This showed that integrating FOK in the hybridization strategy could enhance students’ understanding of optics concepts and correct it successfully. Furthermore, even though physics equations need mathematics for calculation, this study had proven that integrating FOK could impact solving the mathematical equations in optics among students.
Foster creative thinking skills. Suastra (2017) conducted a study and found one model of innovative teaching that might challenge students: a local culture based teaching model. The author used the model in the study to examine its effects on students’ creative thinking skills and understanding level of the Nature of Science (NOS). Suastra proved that teaching linked to a culture, called the Local Culture based Model of Teaching (LCBMT), was more effective than the Conventional Method of Teaching (CMT), with a significant difference in mean values. Other than that, students in the group that received LCBMT gained a better effect than CMT in terms of creative thinking and understanding towards NOS. In LCBMT, teachers initiated the lesson by identifying students’ prior knowledge and beliefs concerning the material to be learned. Subsequently, inquiry based learning (IBL) occurred using two perspectives If the concepts were related to scientific concepts, then IBL took the form of a scientific inquiry. However, it could be investigated from the sociocultural perspective if it was related to sociocultural concepts. Hence, the flexibility of LCBMT eased students to make them think from both perspectives.
Foster critical thinking skills Another study was identified among marginalized communities. To develop critical thinking among chemistry students who are Tegal ethnics, Rahmawati, Baeti, Ridwan, Suhartono, and Rafiuddin (2019) used culturally responsive teaching (CRT) to allow teachers to conduct meaningful activities. It was done by utilizing the students’ contexts of daily experiences and culture with chemistry content They designed a teaching model consisting of five phases: (1) self identification, where students reflected their understanding of
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knowledge, (2) cultural understanding, where students needed to understand their culture to be integrated with ethnochemistry, (3) collaboration, where students worked together in a group discussing concepts and cultural perspectives, (4) critical reflective thinking, where students presented the results of the project to the class, and (5) the stage where students exchanged their values and understanding. The result found that students could develop, foster, and apply critical thinking skills at a moderate (satisfactory) level when teachers utilized CRT during the lesson. Students were also able to connect acid base concepts in chemistry with agriculture with regard to the pH of soil that might be changing due to acid rain. Likewise, the research is able to prove that CRT in teaching made students more motivated to express their opinions actively in chemistry discussion through self experience and culture as it aligns with their FOK. This helped students to understand the chemical concepts better, by relating it to their agricultural activities.
Improve scientific attitudes. On the other hand, Kadmayana et al. (2021) bridge culture by encouraging students to be culturally sensitive to the surrounding environment to make sense of the physics concepts that students have learned They developed the contextual teaching and learning (CTL) model, which claimed to increase students’ scientific attitudes and science process skills. In their quantitative study, Kadmayana et al. (2021) compared the pre test and post test to determine whether the CTL model they had developed reached their research objective or vice versa. As expected, they found that students were able to carry out the scientific investigation by themselves. They also improved their scientific skills in observation, classification, interpretation, prediction, communication, making hypotheses and questions, and conducting the experiment. Other than that, Kadmayana et al. (2021) argue that the CTL model improves students’ scientific attitudes by behaving scientifically in seeking scientific knowledge. It shows that by making students culturally sensitive to their surroundings or FOK, they can develop scientific attitudes by appreciating the culture and their real life experiences.
To this extent, studies have shown that FOK and cultural studies in science education promise positive outcomes in avoiding misconceptions and fostering students’ creativity, critical thinking skills, and scientific attitudes. In addition, it is suggested that the integration of culture helps students’ cognitive ability and skills in science to be reinforced for better engagement and achievement.
3.3.1
Brown and Crippen (2017) argued in their research that science teachers struggled to enact culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) during lessons. Other than that, Brown and Crippen characterized the knowledge and practices of culturally responsive science teaching and how they changed over time in a professional development program. They conducted classroom observations six times for each teacher and three semi structured group interviews among teachers. This was done to examine teachers’ beliefs and knowledge about CRP and their students, as well as the reflections on their teaching practices in a classroom that consisted
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of diverse students. Four findings in their research were: (1) teachers’ view of students, (2) repositioning, (3) community building, and (4) utilizing a CRP toolbox At the beginning of their research, they found that some teachers had implicit stereotypes and prejudices as the media had shaped them. Lastly, some teachers practiced positive words to students after getting involved in the Science Teachers Are Responsive to Students (STARTS) program. Teachers encouraged low self esteem immigrant students to motivate themselves in learning science by utilizing their cultural background for canonical science learning. Apart from that, teachers realized that the micro level knowledge (knowledge about students’ experience, strengths, and needs) was what they should know and own. Thus, the interaction between students students and student teachers would be good in a multicultural classroom and further reposition them in their roles as learners.
Subsequently, Brown and Crippen (2017) found that repositioning would occur in the classroom as it was the site for social change. They argued that for repositioning to occur, the teachers must take the role of a facilitator and make the students an expert by “digging the knowledge out” of students (Ladson Billings, 2014). Teachers must guide students to explain science specifically. It should result in students constructing, justifying, and evaluating the quality of their explanation. As a culturally responsive teacher that links social context and culture in science learning, they must encourage students to become a community that can solve scientific problems together rather than being an individualistic student and individual competitive achievement. On the other hand, the teachers also used the CRP toolbox, where they attempted to contextualize science instruction in students’ life experiences and bridge home school experiences. As teachers learned more about students’ culture and home based experiences, they noticed that strategies became tied to students’ specific needs. Thus, students enjoyed the science learning.
Currently, Stapleton and Reif (2022) worked on the narrative reflection by bringing the emic perspectives of their co author in their study, Kahlela Reif. Note that Reif is an elementary science teacher who shared her difficult transition from being a marginalized student who was learning science and lacked science experience until she successfully became a science teacher. This study framed her rich experience to reform ways of science teaching to the marginalized community. Using a third space theoretical lens, Stapleton and Reif advocate integrating FOK as the approach by implementing outdoor activities as outreach for students to empower science for their social justice and struggles.
3.3.2
Albrecht and Upadhyay (2018) examined Somali mothers’ perceptions of science, their challenges in dealing with science as well as their own social and cultural practices. Using CRP as their framework, they found that these three Somali mothers viewed science knowledge as most acceptable if and only if the topics were harmonious with their social, health, home experience, and cultural contexts. They agreed that their perceptions of science were shaped by what they learned at home from the adults. Additionally, they also admit that they knew the functions of each medicine, such as amoxicillin, and how dangerous it was when it was misused. Still, they did not know the scientific facts behind it.
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The researchers also found that Somali mothers perceived science as an empowering tool for their feminine life, such as reproductive health issues, which was an unexpected response. They suggested that science learning should embrace and improve girls’ and young women’s safety issues. This is mainly due to the gender disparities where women held much less power in decision making about everything, especially when bearing greater consequences of pregnancies and sexual violence towards girls. Other than that, they saw science as a platform to inform Somali students regarding this issue to be well educated in reproductive health since this ‘knowledge’ is only passed down from the eldest to mother to daughter. In fact, it is crucial to understand the science beyond this health issue. Thus, to improve women's social status, those participants saw that science could empower girls. This is because taking a degree or profession in science seemed to empower Somali girls through better social status and provide them with the freedom to select their future educational and professional goals.
However, the heterogenous linguistics in the United States schools with science content is full of too many topics instead of being in depth, creating a concern that the children might be moved to the next grade without a deep understanding of science content. Hence, Albrecht and Upadhyay (2018) put this research as a broader implication for urban science teachers to revise their curricular decision and teaching of science by connecting the Somali students’ culture and empowering girls.
After understanding the perspective of mothers on science, Albrecht and Upadhyay (2019) again conducted explanatory qualitative research by interviewing two Somali fathers to explore their perceptions of science and how to intersect science with their sociocultural practices so their children could learn science best. The study showed how bewildered the fathers were about the contradiction of human creation explanation in science with the Islamic paradigm that was not properly matched. Apart from that, Albrecht and Upadhyay (2019) found that ‘jokes’ or ‘humor,’ the oral tradition in Somali culture, was seen as the medium to break the tensions between learning human evolution either scientifically or Islamically. The Somali fathers encouraged Somali students to see the connections between the Islamic faith and science to dispel the myth that those two fields are incompatible. In addition, Somali fathers acknowledged that social and cultural experiences gained through the perpetuated parenting from their ancestors, parents, and themselves to the younger generation shaped how they and their children viewed science. It includes the effects of fasting on the human body during Ramadan, the effects of the environment in pastoral practices, climate change, dietary habits, and some health issues. Home experience with science content brought practical significance to Somali people.
3.3.3
Upadhyay et al. (2017) saw that many urban elementary students learned science topics decontextualized from their sociocultural and sociohistorical experiences, which made science learning less meaningful (Ladson Billings, 2014). Using the sociocultural theory of learning (SCT) and CRP, Upadhyay et al. (2017) claimed that the sociocultural experiences among non dominant students would enable them to gain a voice in influencing science content and practice. It would then
lead them to get self determining to recognize science was personally significant. Other than that, their varied sociocultural experiences, which came from diverse countries, made the classroom an ideal cultural space to infuse science activities Thus, the researchers focused on the gardening activity. On the other side, the teacher, Ms. Hope, involved in the lesson, used culturally relevant science teaching, encouraging non English speaking students to prioritize their home experience during the lesson and challenging students to doubt her ideas about science.
Finally, Upadhyay et al. (2017) discovered three findings in their research on how students leveraged their sociocultural experiences in science: (1) students gaining a voice in a science classroom, where they suggested to the teacher what activities they would like to do for tomorrow’s lesson, (2) students acted upon their self determination in science learning, such as bringing the agriculture issue then linking it with science content, and (3) making science learning as the sociopolitical awareness, where students saw the links between science learning with the larger communal and global issues. For example, Somali refugee camps in Kenya did not have the accessibility to water, but the city people got it. Note that these three findings were a success due to the outstanding teacher who knew ways to induce responses and make students leverage their home experience, FOK, and sociocultural content into science.
Alternatively, while other researchers used CRP and CRT as their theoretical framework, Esteban Guitart et al. (2019) used the culturally sustaining pedagogy (CSP) as a theoretical stance proposed by Paris (2012). They conducted a study when a problem of a performance gap between migrant and immigrant students toward science was seen in the Program for International Students Assessment (PISA) 2015 report in Spain. Thus, they did an ethnographic visit and in depth interview involving teachers, families, and students as the participants, but teachers were not there as experts but as learners.
Furthermore, Esteban Guitart et al.’s (2019) study presented two empirical examples that were divided into context A (FOK intervention research) and context B (funds of identity (FOI) intervention research). The findings for Context A exposed a list of FOK that many shared similarities between hidden cultures and FOK Note that they came from different families with different natures of traditional cultures, such as plurilingual competencies, gardening knowledge, practices, skills, and hobbies. The teacher was shocked when they found the similarities between those families and decided to embed them in the classroom to facilitate the science learning process.
In context B, a student developed a unique connection between the personal family school practice through the dialogue transitions, from resistance to bridging the school practice into their identity. Some students even said that somehow uncensored dialogue occurred on the notion of culture from one’s experience of belonging. In fact, the subtle assimilation process happened in the classroom, but they resisted accepting it. These showed how inadequate essential approaches to the diverse culture in the education system were. Thus, Esteban Guitart et al. (2019) concluded that teachers should not only recognize and highlight the importance of cultural diversity, but they have to sustain it. From
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both contexts, it could be inferred that inclusive educational practice should be brought into line with cultural sustainability pedagogies as well as connecting them to the curriculum objectives.
Lastly, the most recent research by Upadhyay et al. (2020), who conducted qualitative research on Tharu indigenous students identified as a marginalized group in Western Nepal, was presented. These indigenous communities are discriminated against and have to endure oppressive socioeconomic and political environments. Despite suffering in that situation, they have no choice but to continue to value and appreciate their culture and knowledge regarding the education system. Compared to boys, the girls have an outsized burden to secure their family needs as they are still expected to help mothers at home, fish at the nearest river, take care of their younger siblings, cook, and harvest. Moreover, most of the student's parents worked as bonded laborers, which kept them in poverty for over a century. Since the knowledge and skills are passed down orally and learned that survival skills a lot from one generation to another, students have varied experiences and indigenous knowledge about their geographic and economic activities. Hence, Upadhyay et al. (2020) conducted a study at a poor rural public school called Aasha using sociopolitical consciousness (SPC), CRP, and critical consciousness as their research framework. This was to explore how Tharu students utilized their science knowledge and skills to gain a voice to challenge and understand the socio political issue and how they took action for social change and empowering the community for their social justice.
Throughout their study, Upadhyay et al. (2020) explored and understood students’ SPC actions by profoundly focusing on their critical thinking and reflection during science class. Fostering social justice awareness in science class, where students have an aphorism that science could help them improve their skills to gain a voice for their social and cultural justice. For example, during science class, when the teacher talked about the water system (science content), girls who were fed up with being discriminated against kept asking why they always got impure water from the school and government. The discussion affected girls in the school and women in the community. They viewed that the issue could be solved by taking political action.
Since Tharu is one of the areas in Nepal famous for sickle cell disease, either the person is a carrier or affected patient, students sighed that the science curriculum has nothing about mosquitoes and ways to prevent it. Consequently, they complained about the textbook authors, who were all non Tharus. They felt discriminated against, especially when that disease was stigmatized as ‘Tharus disease.’ Hence, students did the discussion and connected the diseases with their experiences in life though it was not in the government prescribed science textbook. They took action by making a pamphlet and letter to the principal and the village council to tell their society the science behind the disease and its myths. The teacher named Mr. Binod, who practiced an activist pedagogy for SPC science learning, had connected the science contents with Tharu’s culture. His action became a success when students responded positively. Other than that, he constantly coaxed students to leverage their experiences to link them with sociopolitical issues.
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The study by Upadhyay et al. (2020) revealed how students made connections between science content with their culture, experience, and socio politics. It also describes how they could take action as students who viewed social, political, and curricular structural forces have marginalized and discriminated against in their communal life. Note that marginalized indigenous students were able to engage their critical thinking, critical reflection, and taking action for their social change by connecting science with their social culture.
The trend of current cultural based science education within these seven years divided into three patterns of research: (1) cultural based lesson plan for equity in physics educational opportunities, (2) effectiveness of integrating culture in science education, and (3) cultural based science education as a voice of multidimensional perspectives
For the first trend of integrating students’ cultural values in science lesson plans by Ali et al. (2015), it was good to blend students’ funds of knowledge (FOK) by considering their daily experiences or common things in activities. However, the researchers did not deeply explain the relation of the material density formula and ways to get the buoyancy force with FOK. The physics concept of buoyancy is explained in Archimedes’ principle. Nevertheless, buoyancy is one concept that is difficult to understand. Therefore, it is important to connect the physics formula with students’ social contexts or FOK, such as their daily experiences and culture (Rohandi, 2014) When describing the connection in depth, for research purposes, it is necessary to reveal hidden stories of students’ real lives regarding physics. Meanwhile, in a study by Soko et al. (2019), though physics teachers proved they managed to design a cultural based lesson plan for the first time, teachers only did the relation of physics with culture through the experiment that had been suggested in the Scheme of Work (SOW) template. Science is beyond what has been written in a textbook (Upadhyay et al., 2020). From our perspectives, it is important for teachers to understand the nature, daily life experience and sociocultural elements of their students before design the lesson plans. Soko et. al (2019) have argued, too, that teachers who lacked experience in teaching were unable to design lesson plans that integrating students’ FOK. We argue that pre service teachers and new teachers should be given exposures in culturally responsive teaching (CRT) and culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) practices (Nasri et al., 2021) especially in developing countries to extent the social justice and equity (Aikenhead & Jegede, 1999).
For the second trend, studies of the effectiveness of integrating culture in science education have been done by Ali et al. (2017), Suastra (2017), Rahmawati et al. (2019), and Kadmayana et al. (2021). Different from Ali et al. (2015), Ali et al. (2017) showed that integrating culture into physics concepts could tackle the misconception problems and immediately refine them. They showed an excellent example of a refractive index formula and connected it with students’ FOK. However, they put a limitation only on the optics chapter. On the other hand, Suastra (2017) has shown the effectiveness of the Local Culture based Model of Teaching (LCBMT) in physics learning by embedding culture into it. Nonetheless, the way they measured the understanding level was poorly explained and
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ambiguous. We have doubts about identifying students’ understanding level toward the Nature of Science (NOS) with students’ sociocultural perspective by only using questionnaires. Apart from that, we argue that students’ understanding level could be better measured using subjective questions so that they can reveal the in depth thinking of students. The connection of culturally responsive teaching with students’ creativity in Rahmawati et al. (2019) deserves particular attention. This research claimed to develop students' critical thinking skills through culturally responsive teaching (CRT), which was implemented in a five phase teaching model. However, they did not explain clearly how effective the CRT approach was in developing students’ critical thinking skills. Thus, their research remained questionable.
For the third trend, research by Brown and Crippen (2017) is one that we found examining teachers’ perspectives toward integrating culture with science education. This research impacted how discrimination in multicultural education was eliminated gradually after teachers were involved in the Science Teachers Are Responsive to Students (STARTS) program. The biases and bad assumptions among teachers toward their minority students become their regrets after realizing that students’ culture is the main key to being linked in the science classroom to reach equity. Note that this research focused on teachers’ perspectives, but the way students responded and how their academic performance would change were things that they did not mention. As the main center of education is students (Upadhyay et al., 2017), then it is important to indicate the successfulness of teachers’ practices by looking into students’ perspective of their teachers, as well as their performance.
The studies on marginalized parents’ perspectives towards science education integrated with culture are reflected in Albrecht and Upadhyay's (2018) research. They conducted a study to get three Somali mothers’ perspectives on science. Though this research collected the perspective of only three refugee women, the researchers wished science educators to adjust their science instruction so that Somali students could connect their culture, home experience, and science content. However, the findings were collected from Somali adults, not students or teachers. Thus, this research cannot be generalized to all Somali communities. Meanwhile, Albrecht and Upadhyay (2019) did qualitative research on Somali fathers. By gaining the perspective of cultural based science learning on immigrant parents, teachers should be more inclusive of sociocultural experiences among students. This is vital to make science learning and pedagogy more meaningful and not isolated to students from underrepresented groups.
Lastly, the research trend of cultural based science for marginalized students’ perspectives can be seen in Upadhyay et al. (2020) and Upadhyay et al. (2017) Since students come from multiple locations, they have diverse cultures and home experiences. Therefore, when linked with science content, they could influence their teachers’ teaching decisions for academic success and build a sociopolitical awareness. Other than that, this research indicates that science educators need to perceive the value of culturally responsive instruction and the sociocultural idea of learning, which support pluralistic and democratic practices. Hence, how many teachers have a right concern to support and embrace democratic practices needs
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further research because teachers are the central agents who connect culture and science when teaching. Teachers, indeed, need teaching practices of CRT and CRP to have the sense of urgency to become the agency of equity and social justice. This is because we believe that teachers are educators, facilitators, and their roles are more than just teaching.
In relation to Upadhyay et al. (2017, 2020) studies, critical consciousness is still limited in number in science education research, in which Brown and Crippen (2017) have mentioned their concern. Having critical consciousness does not mean we supposedly foster students to criticize the government, but it is about gaining a voice and taking action for social justice. In the study by Esteban Guitart et al. (2019), FOK might seem easy but not be so practical due to the study’s limitations. However, FOK would have a big impact on students with diverse cultures, migrant immigrant students, dominant and non dominant students, and marginalized students, as how Upadhyay (2006, 2009) did. Alternatively, Esteban Guitart et al. believed that cultural pedagogy and sustainability identity should normalize diversity, including language, history, and students’ FOK. Nevertheless, the researchers did not analyze the impact of FOK and Funds of Identity (FOI) on science learning as they put them as their limitations. Nonetheless, they proposed two concepts that could help teachers in that area, leveraging cultures into the curriculum and pedagogy toward multicultural education: FOK and FOI.
On the other hand, Stapleton and Reif (2022) brought a fresh and new insight into cultural bridging in science education when emic perspectives were tapped as FOK to become a guideline for outdoor teaching using a third space theoretical lens. Their study channel the voice of the science teacher who was once a marginalized student. Although “onesize doesnot fit all” denies one solution that could solve science education problems in equity and social justice, FOK and third space were advocated as socially, contextually, and situated based to improve marginalized students’ engagement and performance by giving equal opportunity to learn. Other than that, upholding marginalized students’ voices to reframe equity in science education is one of the efforts to channel the audacity of how they want to be taught. This, too, aligns with Upadhyay et al. (2017), where students bring their voices to the science classroom when the teacher leverages FOK during the lesson. Giving a spotlight to these disadvantaged students indeed promises many positive outcomes. Hence, it is time to reshape the science curriculum policy from the marginalized community’s perspectives to advance social justice and bring equity to the disadvantaged
To conclude, when it comes to social justice, we are on the right track when fighting for minority or immigrant people’s achievement in science and equity in educational practices. However, fixing only the achievement gap is cliché because many scholars have put much effort into doing multiple studies to close the gap since the 19th century. Indeed, we are now in the modern era with uncountable technologies, yet we are still fixing the achievement gap among students. To fight for equity, solving the achievement gap is a must. Still, from the thirteen articles we have synthesized, the crucial thing that needs attention is fixing equity and
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social justice among disadvantaged students. It needs a strong commitment from students, teachers, parents, families, and the whole community to reshape society’s education to ensure equity and social justice However, from the current pattern of integrating culture in science education, there is a sense of urgency in developing model that emphasize the teaching practice for CRT and CRP to bridge FOK and science since teachers are the hopes for marginalized students and communities, especially in developing countries. We hope that from this review of research, we could reshape the future direction of research on equity and social justice in education and reshape the practice of education, particularly science education by looking into the mirror, not outside of the window.
The researchers would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for the research grant of the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) with reference number FRGS/1/2019/SS05/UTM/02/8 and the cost centre of R.J130000.7853.5F125. We also would like to thank the Malaysian Research University Network (MRUN) for the support given to the project of the MRUN Young Research Grant Scheme (MY RGS) with the cost number of R.J130000.7853.4L902
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 381 394, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.21
Received Aug 7, 2022; Revised Oct 21, 2022; Accepted Oct 26, 2022
Abstract. Students and academics in higher education institutions (HEIs) were perilously hit by the unparalleled changes due to the COVID 19 pandemic. Within a span of less than a month, teaching and learning activities were shifted online to warrant continuity. This study intends to probe the online learning readiness and satisfaction among university students within the scope of students’ prior ICT knowledge and the university's ICT infrastructure. This study employs a quantitative approach with a questionnaire as the research instrument. A sample size of 1,692 Sunway University students in the Ministry of Education (MOE) General Studies subjects were chosen. The data were analysed descriptively, and the results revealed that students are generally ready for online learning, and they are satisfied with the ICT amenities provided. As a result, both students and Sunway University are well prepared, with the major implication that student preparation and satisfaction, as well as infrastructures, are critical to scaffold the accelerated transition in the use of online learning.
Keywords: readiness; satisfaction; Information and Communication Technology; teaching tools
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced educators to shift from face-to-face to online learning (Mahmud et al., 2022). Even though the world has entered an endemic phase, online teaching and learning methods remain a popular option. Youths today are accustomed to digital learning sessions, and their lives are constantly exposed to the most recent developments in information and communication technology (ICT). In other words, information technology and ICT are inextricably linked to the lives of today's generation. This is because ICT functions
* Corresponding author: RozainiAhmad,rozainia@sunway.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
support the learning revolution by providing global communication and information access, flexibility, interactivity, communication facilities, and online discussions that promote learning outside of the classroom. Access to learning materials and the use of multimedia can make learning more enjoyable (Thandevaraj et al., 2021). Furthermore, online learning allows students and lecturers to communicate, and learning sessions can take place concurrently even if their locations are different (Mahmud, 2018; Salleh, 2021). As a result, students' readiness to use technology and communication is an important factor in ensuring student excellence in online learning. If students do not have the knowledge and skills to use ICT, the learning process will be hampered.
One of the challenges that students face that makes them less prepared to pursue online learning is a lack of a personal computer. According to the findings of a survey by Salleh et al. (2021) at Politeknik Ibrahim Sultan Johor (PIS), 18.1 per cent of engineering science programme students did not have a personal computer. Their research also demonstrated the importance of personal computer ownership, even though it is a relatively minor component in PIS. This finding is supported by the study of Aziz and Sieng (2019) as well as Jafar et al. (2020), who stated that the equipment of technology facilities affects the learning process among students. Due to this, students are forced to just utilise their mobile phones to keep up with their studies, which is inappropriate because they do not have access to computers (Hassan, 2021). Furthermore, students' readiness to pursue online learning is hampered by a lack of internet access (Mahmud et al., 2021). Interrupted internet access is a common problem in online teaching and learning, whether for lecturers or students. According to Mahmud et al. (2021) when the Movement Control Order (MCO) is issued, lecturers must enter the campus to obtain ICT facilities provided by the Institution of Higher Education to ensure that online teaching and learning run smoothly. Furthermore, for this to happen, students must have adequate ICT knowledge and skills.
Furthermore, students' lack of knowledge about ICT use causes the online learning process to fall behind. According to Hasin et al.’s (2021) study on the difference in achievement between rural and urban students in the use of ICT, rural students are less interested than urban students. They claim that constraints and a lack of ICT facilities have harmed the effectiveness and quality of rural education. Because of the impact of ICT use, 87.5 per cent of respondents agreed that there is a knowledge gap and competition between rural and urban students. According to the Malay dictionary, Kamus Dewan (2015), knowledge refers to information that has been mastered or known. As a result, students require preliminary knowledge, particularly regarding their ICT experience, to learn information more quickly (Kit & Ganapathy, 2019). For example, ICT has increased students' interest in learning by making it easier and faster to access necessary learning materials online (Muhammad & Ismail, 2020). According to Ishak and Yamin (2019), ICT knowledge includes various skills in using ICT tools, such as computer tools and hardware, application software, the internet, and so on. Students' knowledge and use of ICT are seen as beneficial to the country's education and the formation of knowledgeable human capital.
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In addition to knowing ICT, skills in using the latest technology are an important factor in the readiness of students to use ICT as a learning tool. Skill means competence or ingenuity (Kamus Dewan, 2015) Skills are also associated with the achievement, application, or manipulation of knowledge. According to Das (2019), ICT is an abbreviation for Information and Communication Technology and is defined as the equipment and resources of technology used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information. Therefore, ICT skills in this context are skills where users understand and can use ICT equipment and knowledge in performing any task. Furthermore, Ishak and Yamin (2019) also stated that students with sufficient ICT skills could use various resources such as computer hardware, computer networks, software, and the internet to meet their information needs. This is supported by Muhammad and Ismail (2020) who say that adequate ICT skills have encouraged students' interest in mastering knowledge by simply accessing the required learning materials online more easily and quickly. ICT skills learnt by students are seen as very important in the learning process and in line with the development of modern education. Even a blended learning approach can also improve students' ICT skills.
Other factors, such as having a personal laptop, knowledge and skills, all contribute to the element of student readiness in online learning. If students are not prepared through online learning, they will find it a significant challenge. For example, the lack of laptops and internet access will inevitably have an impact on the direct online learning process. According to Mohamad's (2021) study on the pedagogical challenges of the new norm at Perlis Islamic University College (KUIPs), almost all students have smartphones. But they are still less capable of retrieving data or connecting to the internet. Students who are less able and do not have the convenience of gadgets such as laptops find it difficult to keep up with all of the online learning, making it a challenge. As a result, external factors are critical in contributing to the satisfaction of students who pursue online learning. Among the factors identified are the university's infrastructure facilities, such as adequate ICT facilities, cutting edge ICT facilities, encouraging ICT facilities, and access to teaching materials. According to Ho et al. (2021), the experiences that students have regularly on campus will form a source of satisfaction for them. Thus, student satisfaction with the university's ICT facilities is an initial expectation of the experience students have after completing the online learning process.
The first external factor is that the university's ICT facilities must be adequate. For example, technological advances in the twenty first century have resulted in a slew of new facility platforms that facilitate communication between educators and students (Camilleri, 2021). The university must provide an appropriate platform for teaching and learning used by the majority of educational institutions, such as Zoom applications, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, and Google Meet, which are popular teaching and learning trends. These findings are consistent with the findings of Bizami et al. (2022) who stated that teaching and learning sessions are now using technologies with appealing and sophisticated software features. This research backs up the findings of Gopal et al. (2021), who discovered that the use of online web technology media affects student
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satisfaction and performance. As a result, students can learn about many mediums and applications that are rarely or never used. Finally, e learning methods with adequate ICT capabilities can now entice the younger generation to acquire knowledge easily and effectively.
The second external factor is that the most up to date ICT facilities play a significant role in ensuring current students' happiness with the online learning process. During the ICT based teaching and learning process, technology plays a significant role. There are a variety of gadgets, including desktops, laptops, mobile phones, smart devices, internet connections, and online learning platforms (Rafique et al., 2021). With the university's comprehensive and cutting edge ICT facilities, instructors can not only deliver, receive, access, and share information in a variety of formats, but also provide students with a satisfying and conducive learning environment that can broaden their perspectives and make collaborative learning sessions more effective. This is corroborated by Mustamam et al. (2021), who found that the effectiveness of online learning content was successfully given via ICT teaching facilities in the form of videos. Through this online learning, the instructor can also teach students how to think critically and creatively. In addition, the ICT facilities enable students to explore the rapidly expanding world of information and communication technology (Salleh et al., 2021). Therefore, the most recent ICT facilities have become essential at all levels of education, from elementary schools to institutions of higher education.
Furthermore, student satisfaction can be seen in the aspect of ICT facilities that can encourage more exciting and productive teaching and learning. Providing innovative online learning tools can pique students' interest and satisfaction. Panopto learning tools, for example, make it easier for students to quickly access lecture videos. Students can access Panopto via laptops, mobile phones, and tablets to better understand the learning syllabus. Metz and Metz (2022) added that Panopto has advantages such as being able to access personal computers, Macs, tablets, and mobile phones, and students can find important information in the video by typing keywords only. Other ICT tools, such as Mentimeter, Nearpod and Padlet, can also increase student satisfaction with learning. This is because the tool can spark lively discussions, transforming the classroom environment. This is consistent with Gao’s (2021) claim that Mentimeter can entice students to engage in conversation and measure their opinions. As a result, each web based teaching tool should be appropriate and appealing to foster an active learning environment and a positive collaboration with lecturers. According to Dhawan (2020), an institution must choose the best online teaching and learning tools. Simultaneously, web based teaching tools should address issues such as safety, laboratory availability and conditions, internet speed, internet access, beneficiary digital literacy level, and so on (Mahmud et al., 2021). As the introduction of ICT technology has been accelerated in various areas today, many people have been interested in its effect, especially students who are benefiting from the technology in completing their assessments efficiently Such a situation is very helpful in assignments such as promoting their events on social media to attract public support. As a result, the availability of a wide range of technology also has contributed to web based teaching tools, which have been advantageous in
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launching online learning and increasing student satisfaction with the university's infrastructure.
The final external factor is the ease with which teaching materials can be accessed. This refers to the features found in a platform that are designed to prevent students from becoming confused while searching for information. Students are also satisfied when they can clearly understand the features of the platform that has been provided. The university, for example, provides platforms such as eLearn Blackboard, Moodle, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), and so on. In line with the findings of Yaacob et al. (2021), one of the features found in eLearn Blackboard is the "Announcements" section, which is a section that distributes important information and reminders to students who access the platform, such as important dates, class activity lists, and so on. Next, Meirbekov et al. (2022) claim that the teaching materials available in eLearn can help students develop skills and stimulate critical thinking. In short, students' satisfaction with the ease of accessing online learning materials is also dependent on the platform provided by the institution, which allows students to focus more on their learning.
Based on the above description, the problem statements are to analyse how prepared the students are to use online teaching and learning technology and how satisfied they are with the technology facilities supplied by higher education institutions. Thus, the aim of this research is to identify students’ readiness to use technology for online teaching and learning and to identify the level of student satisfaction with technological facilities provided by higher learning institutions. This is because the readiness and satisfaction of students in using ICT as a learning tool is an important measure for the university to ensure that the services provided are adequate and comfortable. According to Talip and Taat (2021), the level of student satisfaction with an institution of higher learning can be used to assess the quality of its services. In addition, students must improve their ICT skills for ICT based learning to run smoothly. In this case, there is a need to strike a balance between students' readiness and the university's ICT resources to achieve adequate e learning quality.
All data gathered are intended to answer the study's purpose and questions. As a result, this section discusses the study design, research samples, research instruments, study procedure and analysis of data gathered.
This study is quantitative and was conducted according to the survey method. According to Raman et al. (2019), this method is suitable for measuring the respondents' views on an issue or topic, the achievement of an objective, and the attitudes and behaviours of respondents. This method was selected based on its suitability with the purpose of the study, which is to survey the perception of the level of readiness and satisfaction of students with their experience using technological facilities provided by the institution.This method is seen as practical as the respondents of this study involve a large number of students.
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This study used a random sampling technique for its sampling. The target audience is comprised of Sunway University students enrolled in the Department of General Studies between January and March 2022. This study's sample consists of 1,692 students from Sunway College and Sunway University who were enrolled in online courses; 1008 respondents were female (59.6%), while 684 were male (40.4%). In terms of ethnicity, the bulk of respondents for this research are Chinese, with 1,404 (45.7%), followed by Indians and others with 160 (9.5%) and Malays with 126 (7.5%) (Table 1).
Following that, all respondents are from three educational levels. The highest number of students involved in this survey is degree students (81.7%), followed by diploma students (1.6%), and certificate students (6%). Respondents come from four different programmes: Sunway University Business School (SUBS), Sunway Arts School (SOA), Sunway TES, and Sunway Science and Technology School (SST). Most respondents (73.6%) came from SUBS, followed by the SOA (11.3%), Sunway TES (8.1%), and the SST 118 (7%), as shown in Table 2.
Table 1: Demographic Profile of the Respondents
Characteristic Frequency Percentage Gender Female Male 1008 684 59.6 40.4 Race Chinese Indian & others Malay
1404 160 126
83.0 9.5 7.5 Area of living City Rural area 1258 433 74.4 25.6
Table 2: Respondents’ Course Details
Characteristic Frequency Percentage Level of Education Degree Diploma Certificate
Program/Department
Sunway University Business School (SUBS) School of Arts (SOA) Sunway TES School of Science and Technology (SST)
1383 197 112
81.7 11.6 6.6
1245 191 137 118
375 642 444 228
22.2 38.0 26.3 13.5
73.6 11.3 8.1 7 Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3 Semester 4
General Studies’ Subject Islamic Civilization and Asian Studies 674 39.8
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Bahasa Kebangsaan A (BKA)
Philosophy and Current Issues
Islamic Studies Malaysian Studies 2
Full live Class Online Full Face to Face Class
488 168 147 117 60 35
28.8 9.9 8.7 6.8 3.5 2.1 Mode of Learning Hybrid Method (Pre class & Face to face or Live Class)
846 740 106
50.0 43.7 6.3
The instrument is a collection of questionnaires used to collect data as a measuring tool. The questionnaires used in the study were developed by the General Studies department and called the General Subject Questionnaire (MPU) 2022. There are demographic items and 70 questionnaire items on students' perceptions and attitudes towards the acceptance of blended online learning. The questionnaire is divided into 13 sections. Only one of these 13 sections is directly related to this research. The primary focus of this study is Part J, titled infrastructure facilities, which includes eight items. The items built are related to students' level of readiness and satisfaction with their experience using technological facilities provided by educational institutions. The researcher used Cronbach’s alpha to validate the questionnaires. The value for the eight items is 0.961. Based on the alpha values, it shows that the questionnaires have high reliability and can measure the variables in this study well.
Prior to data collection procedures, the researcher had the questionnaire reviewed by an expert for question summary and title correction. Google Forms was used to create the questionnaire for online data gathering. After the question had been prepared, it was emailed to the respondents. Respondents were asked to indicate whether they agreed or disagreed with each of the items given. The collected data were then analysed using descriptive statistics and SPSS software.
The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics through SPSS software. This study's questions were answered using descriptive analysis with mean score values. The average score in this study has been divided into three levels, namely low, medium and high, to give a more precise explanation of the level of variables. Factor levels are measured using a 5 point Likert scale. The score range is between 1.00 to 5.00. For the low level, the score range is 1 to 1.7. For the medium level, the score range is 1.8 to 3.4, while, for the high level, the score range is 3.5 to 5. This division is obtained by dividing the highest score, which is a score of 5, into three parts (low level, medium and high), and the new standard deviation obtained is 1.7 for each level. The mean score values were then interpreted using the mean score interpretation, as shown in Table 3. Yaacob
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(2016) adopted this mean score interpretation, which has been modified to facilitate data analysis.
Means Score Level
1.00 until 1.70 Low 1.80 until 3.40 Moderate 3.50 until 5.00 High
Table 4 displays the mean score findings for the four items for the level of readiness of students in learning with teaching tools. Overall, items with a personal laptop recorded the highest mean score (mean score = 4.25), followed by having internet access facilities (mean score = 4.12), and knowledge items in ICT also recorded the lowest mean score (mean score = 3.94). Overall, students' readiness level in learning with teaching tools is at high level (mean score = 4.07).
Item Mean Score Level
Own a personal laptop 4.24 High Have internet access 4.12 High Knowledgeable in ICT 3.94 High Proficient in ICT 3.95 High Overall mean score 4.07 High
Table 5 shows the mean score findings for four items that have been studied on the level of student satisfaction with ICT facilities provided by the university. Among the four items, adequate ICT facilities and the latest ICT facilities recorded the highest mean score of 4.02. The results of the analysis showed that there was no difference between the two items when obtaining the same mean score. These were followed by the ease of accessing teaching materials which is at a moderate level (mean score = 3.54). Overall, the level of student satisfaction in ICT provided by the university recorded a mean score at a high level of 3.88.
Item Mean Score Level
Adequate ICT facilities 4.02 High Latest ICT facilities 4.02 High Engaging ICT facilities 3.95 High Easy access to teaching materials 3.54 High Overall mean score 3.88 High
The findings show that the mean score for students' readiness in using technology in the teaching process of general courses at Sunway University is high, with a mean score of 4.07. The high percentage of computer ownership ensures students' preparedness and contentment with the online teaching and learning given by lecturers. This is supported by a study conducted by Ismail et al. (2021) at the Dato
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'Razali Ismail Campus Teacher Education Institute (IPGKDRI), which discovered that 98.6 per cent of students, or 629 out of 638, are ready to use personal computers in following teaching and learning process when compared to other digital devices. These findings are also consistent with the research of Bestiantono et al. (2020), who found that 71.4 per cent of the 180 study participants in Budi Utomo Secondary School, Indonesia, are confident and ready to utilise computers for online learning. However, other conditions explain the necessity to acquire a computer to assure the preparedness and pleasure of online teaching and learning. This is in line with by the findings of Mokhtar et al. (2021), who discovered that the usage of laptop computers among special education instructors in Selangor is somewhat high. According to the researchers, throughout the pandemic, respondents taught using computers and phones as an appropriate communication medium to apply teaching and learning to children with special needs. Simsek et al. (2021) stated that students are moderately satisfied with online teaching and learning. This study is based on data from Istanbul University, Cerrahpasa in Turkey, which included 8884 out of 13447 students (66.1%) using personal computers and others using cell phones.
A high mean score was also obtained for the item of internet access facilities. Sunway University's location and the fact that most student residences in the city have internet connections testify to this. In line with the findings of Kabir's (2020) study, the majority of private institutions are located in urban regions, and most city students also have better access and exposure to the internet. During the COVID 19 epidemic, a study by Shigemura et al. (2020) found that individuals living in urban regions are more favourable to online learning and have lower student anxiety than those living in rural areas. This circumstance makes it easier for responders to keep up with online teaching and learning. However, according to Mohammad (2020), residential location seems to have little impact on internet access facilities or even access to an internet network, which influences student satisfaction with online learning. This is because students in cities still have issues with low internet connectivity as compared to students in rural areas who have a stable internet network. These findings are also supported by Shamsuddin et al. (2022), who found that students in metropolitan regions have limited access to the internet. As a result, a steady and robust internet network connection can help students study more effectively and enjoy their studies.
The respondents' priority of ICT knowledge and skills was also reflected in a high mean score. The high rating indicates that Sunway University students are prepared and have been exposed to digital technology because the majority live in the city and are quicker to master it. The findings of this study support the views of Olayemi et al. (2021), who said that ICT skills and competencies are required for the efficient and effective use of online learning platforms. The findings of his survey reveal that the majority of students claim to be skilled in using online learning. Moreover, pupils who have a strong background in computer literacy and web browsing are more likely to be interested in online learning. This is because students are unlikely to be engaged in online learning unless they are familiar with computer and internet services such as chat, discussion forums, web, electronic messages, and so on. These findings are also
reinforced by the research of Wahab et al. (2020), who found that students who master ICT abilities are more likely to implement current technology tools and even build a more realistic and dynamic learning environment. Furthermore, Wan et al. (2019) found that ICT literacy skills are extremely good among students due to the use of ICT in the teaching and learning process. This application indirectly improves pupils' ICT abilities. The use of ICT facilities in teaching and learning is capable of improving ICT skills among students in line with the need to accomplish the industrial revolution 4.0.
The overall mean score for the satisfaction level in Sunway University's ICT facilities is at 3.88. The findings yielded demonstrated that the institution has offered sufficient ICT facilities for students to use for teaching and learning According to Kabir (2020), private institutions of higher learning have been at the forefront of providing ICT facilities for the online learning process, and students are also prepared with the logistics and attitude to accept technology based learning. Furthermore, students at Sunway University feel more at ease using the campus facilities. When all of the facilities are adequate, this will motivate students to learn. When student happiness is increased, student loyalty to the university increases (Masserini et al., 2019). The findings are also consistent with the findings of Ismail et al. (2021) and Samoylenko et al. (2022), who stated that the use of online web technology media has an impact on teaching and learning as well as student performance, and that internet based web technology applications can support teaching and learning in institutes of higher learning and the implementation of more effective education systems.
Furthermore, the aspect of accessibility to instructional resources had a modest mean score of 3.54. This demonstrates that, while the university's ICT facilities are comprehensive, they will not guarantee a seamless process of accessing learning materials if students continue to lack knowledge on how to use and access information through the platform given. It is conceivable that some pupils are still inexperienced and uninterested in learning how to use the platform. According to Aziz et al. (2020), a person's perception of ease of use will increase a person's level of acceptance of technology. This is because there is a significant connection between attitudes towards technology's ease of use and acceptance of its use. However, the teaching materials are not available due to network system problems as well as computer maintenance issues in accessing the teaching materials. According to Nambiar (2020), students are disappointed when teachers are not prepared to provide technical help to them. The university must provide technical support such as generating e content (in house), providing broadband infrastructure for all, an e learning platform (Learning Management System Blackboard Author), the construction of an e-learning development unit to assist professors in developing e modules, and support from the Information Technology Centre (ITC) to enable seamless access to teaching materials (Hisham & Ramlan, 2020). Any such encouragement will increase the probability of using and participating in e-learning.
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Through this study, two objectives have been investigated by the researcher namely, to identify students' readiness to use technology for online teaching and learning and to identify the level of student satisfaction with technological facilities provided by higher learning institutions. Overall, the study's findings show the readiness and satisfaction of students in using ICT as a teaching and learning tool at Sunway University are at a high level. This supports the view that all Sunway University students are prepared and have good experience using ICT as a learning medium. This is supportive that the university has provided the best services to students, especially in online learning and teaching. Therefore, the findings of this study can be used as a reference, especially for researchers to expand further the study of the role and function of ICT in education in the new millennium, such as network based learning, computer based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. At the same time, educators can use this study as a guide or procedure to organise, design, and plan to teach and learn with the help of ICT. For example, instructors can use PowerPoint and video recording, YouTube, and online activities like Quizizz, Kahoot, Mentimeter, and others to perform efficient teaching and learning processes. Modules or methods of teaching and learning using ICT can be enhanced with the availability of technology facilities and advanced ICT knowledge. Effective use of ICT will also increase students' motivation to pursue learning digitally. Therefore, ICT should be used as much as possible to uphold the field of modern education and student excellence.
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Appendix 1
This study aims to probe the online learning readiness and satisfaction among university students within the scope of students’ prior ICT knowledge and the university's ICT infrastructure
Scale: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Moderate, Agree, strongly agree
Infrastructure
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 395 417, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.22
Received Jul 28, 2022; Revised Sep 15, 2022; Accepted Oct 16, 2022
University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa Thuthukile
JitaUniversity of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Abstract. This study investigated high school students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs based on their gender. A mathematical problem solving beliefs questionnaire comprising 36 items across six beliefs scales was administered to a sample of 490 students (288 boys and 202 girls) from three schools: a mixed sex school (106 boys and 103 girls), a single sex boys’ school with 182 students, and a single sex girls’ school with 99 students. The independent samples t test was used to analyse the effect of gender on high school students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. Results revealed that there was a significant difference in students’ beliefs that some word problems cannot be solved with simple, step by step procedures, with girls exhibiting higher beliefs than boys. However, when the entire sample was analysed, gender did not have an overall effect on students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. It was further revealed that gender did not have a significant effect on students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs at a mixed sex (boys and girls) school. Results are important for the implementation of a problem solving approach in a new mathematics curriculum. In addition, the results contribute to the literature in mathematics education by highlighting the importance of gender when considering debates about students’ problem solving beliefs in mathematics.
Keywords: mathematical problem solving; beliefs; high school students; gender
Beliefs about mathematical problem solving are concerned with an individual’s interactions with mathematics subject matter and thereby influence the way the subject is taught and learned in high school classrooms (Marshman, 2021; Simamora & Saragih, 2019). For mathematics students, beliefs have been understood as their implicit or explicit subjective mathematical conceptions that
Corresponding author: EdgarJ.Sintema,Sintema.ej@ufs.ca.za
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
are key in shaping their mathematical behaviour (Yin et al., 2020), and predicting performance (Habók et al., 2020; Hidayatullah & Csíkos, 2022). While previous studies investigated problem solving as a skill needed for students to enhance their mathematics abilities (for example NoprianiLubis et al., 2017), this study emanates from the introduction of a new mathematics curriculum in a developing African country, Zambia, in which mathematical problem solving has been identified as one of the key instructional approaches.
As a teaching approach, problem solving has been found to be effective at boosting students’ motivation to engage with mathematical problems (Habtamu et al., 2022) and to develop their mathematical abilities (Soebagyo et al., 2022). However, some researchers of this instructional strategy consider it ineffective, partly due to the complex nature of the problem solving process (Haavold & Sriraman, 2022). In their study about creativity in problem solving, which focused on the role and importance of insight, Haavold and Sriraman (2022) found that unconscious insight emerges as students go through the process of problem solving. They encourage teachers to use problem solving models that speak to insight as the unconscious processes that occur during problem solving.
We believe that the introduction of the new mathematics curriculum in which problem solving is a key teaching approach opens important lines for research the results of which will contribute significantly to the assessment of the performance of the new mathematics curriculum. This is what the current study is doing. We also think that the new curriculum presents opportunities for teachers to help learners develop skills for confronting problems in their immediate environment by using mathematics.
The rationale for the new curriculum was premised on Zambia’s vision for education, summarized in the vision statement “Quality life long education for all which is accessible, inclusive and relevant to individual, national and global needs and value systems” (MGE, 2013, p. vi). Six teaching methods were identified by the curriculum framers to drive the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) agenda for mathematics, namely the problem solving approach (PSA), project method, discovery method, cooperative learning, discussion method, and heuristic method (CDC, 2019, p. 4). The problem solving approach (PSA) was the focus of this study.
Extensive research has been done on students’ gender differences in terms of mathematical problem solving. However, not much research, especially in Zambia, has been conducted on students’ gender differences on mathematical problem solving beliefs. Thus, by investigating gender differences in students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving, this study focused on the newly introduced curriculum which at the time of data collection was in its third year of implementation. The results of this study will act as feedback to teachers and curriculum developers on the newly introduced curriculum. The study purpose was to investigate senior secondary school students’ beliefs, with a special focus on gender differences, about problem solving in mathematics, following its introduction in the new curriculum. To accomplish this purpose, the following questions were asked:
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1. What is the overall difference between male and female students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs?
2. Is there a significant difference in mathematical problem solving beliefs between students from a single sex boys’ school and those from a single sex girls’ school)?
3. Is there a significant difference in the mathematical problem solving beliefs between male and female students at a mixed sex (boys and girls) school?
Several countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the United States of America engaged in mathematics curriculum reforms for the purpose of improving the quality of pedagogical strategies and placing mathematics at the centre of finding solutions to problems faced by emphasizing problem solving in mathematics classrooms (Jäder et al., 2020). In Asia, China conducted a reform of the national curriculum to align it with the country’s development agenda for the twenty first century and its expected impact on the education system and policy implementation (Wang et al., 2018). This ensured that mathematics was identified with tools for finding solutions to Chinese problems in classrooms and society. Learners in schools were given opportunities to acquire mathematical skills that would develop them into problem solvers in the wider application of mathematics. In Europe, for example, the Netherlands reformed its mathematics curriculum for 15 to 18 year old learners which was piloted in schools between 2011 and 2017 (Drijvers et al., 2019). This reform focused on mathematical thinking as its key element. In the USA, examination of a middle school mathematics curriculum is reported for learners who do not take the same mathematics course (Senk & Thompson, 2020). Curriculum reforms in some Southern African countries like South Africa identified problem solving as one of the key competences that students should have (Department of Education, 2008). This resulted in research outputs in South Africa on the beliefs of prospective teachers related to the nature of mathematics (Spangenberg & Myburgh, 2017), which revealed a significant difference between male and female pre service teachers.
In all these examples of curriculum reform, there is no focus on students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving. Thus, this study exclusively concentrated on investigating students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs with specific focus on gender differences. Zambia is currently reforming its secondary education mathematics curriculum by aligning the new mathematics curriculum with mathematical problem solving and declaring it as a key activity for teaching and learning. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC, 2019) emphasized that problem solving would foster critical analysis of mathematical problems for learners and collaboration among teachers through sharing ideas about improvement of their classroom practice. It is believed that the STEM curriculum will provoke creativity, innovativeness and critical thinking among students, thereby enabling them to be problem solvers who are capable of contributing effectively to national development. To realize this, the Zambian Ministry of General Education (MGE) rolled out the implementation of the new STEM
Curriculum in 2019 with the first national examination under this curriculum expected to be written in 2021.
2.1 Problem Solving Approach in Mathematics
and Learning Problem solving has been identified as a key activity for classroom mathematics teaching and learning experiences across the world (Son et al., 2020). This approach to teaching also has been recognized to best suit mathematics lessons in which the teacher uses learner centred methods of instruction which are aimed at stimulating students’ interest in mathematics, and motivates them to work hard towards improving their mathematical abilities (Ahmed et al., 2020; Irhamna et al., 2020). However, previous research has revealed that despite problem solving being fundamental in developing students’ abilities to learning mathematics, they still exhibit difficulties and present errors in their classroom work that involve problem solving tasks (Son et al., 2019). As problem solving is not a simple and straightforward step by step mathematical activity, it is not unusual for students to encounter difficulties in the process of mathematical problem solving (Simamora & Saragih, 2019).
The principal aim with teaching mathematics in secondary school in Zambia and other countries is to train students to be able to solve day to day life problems in their immediate environment and beyond, using mathematics (CDC, 2019). To achieve successful problem solving, students are expected to challenge themselves by engaging in high order cognitive processes (He & Wong, 2021). One way in which students can master the mathematical problem solving process is by using Polya’s (1957) problem solving model (Figure 1). Polya suggests steps through which problem solving can successfully be carried out, namely understand the problem, devise a solving plan, execute the plan and look back. Figure 1 shows a detailed explanation of each problem solving step as suggested by Polya.
In addressing problem solving in teaching and learning, some researchers focused on the teacher (Csíkos & Szitányi, 2020; Ozdemir & Seker, 2021; Tambunan, 2019), while others focused on different aspects of learners (Amalia et al., 2017; Fitriani & Arnawa, 2020; Kholid et al., 2021; LaForce et al., 2017; Lubienski et al., 2021).
Those focusing on teachers, emphasized teachers’ development of their own problem solving skills to enhance their intellectual and cognitive abilities to solve real life problems as this is the best way in which they effectively could help learners develop problem solving skills (Ozdemir & Seker, 2021). Teachers’ development of individual problem solving skills should be in tandem with the development of their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) related to problem solving (Csíkos & Szitányi, 2021). Word problems in mathematics, for example, would require high teacher PCK skills to be taught satisfactorily. It was found in Tambunan’s (2019) study that teaching mathematics using the problem solving strategy improved students’ mathematical problem solving abilities. This implies that teachers whose problem solving skills and problem solving PCK are high, are likely to train secondary school students to improve their problem solving abilities. Teachers’ PCK should include good selection of problem posing tasks for their students (Freiman & Fellus, 2021). The use of teaching models has been found to enhance high order problem solving skills among students and overall mathematical cognitive development (Son, 2020). Alongside these models, teachers can also develop learning devices for students to enhance their problem solving abilities (Fitriani & Arnawa, 2020), as this can help them in their learning. However, in their study, Fitriani and Arnawa (2020) found that learning devices that had been developed for students were too general and did not facilitate the link to real life problems, thereby making mathematics instruction meaningless.
Research, focused on school students’ problem solving abilities, has covered different aspects of this topic. Lubienski et al. (2021) investigated gender differences in relation to mathematical problem solving (see Section 2.3 for a detailed discussion), a situation which continues to persist among students, while Kholid et al. (2021) investigated students’ reflective thinking and self efficacy for problem solving. Lubienski et al. (2021) suggest bold problem solving constructs as a solution to understanding gender disparities in learners’ problem solving skills. The gender and self efficacy (specifically students’ beliefs) variables are subjects of the current study because we think that the gender variable provides a good picture of difficulties faced by male and female students in mathematics, while the beliefs give an insight of how students relate with mathematics. This may increase awareness about gender specific interventions needed to improve students’ problem solving abilities. To complement teachers’ efforts, parents also have a critical role to play in ensuring that they support students at home to develop problem solving skills regardless of their mathematics orientation levels, because a large number of problem solving tasks that students are exposed to involve real life situations (Williams & Williams, 2021). Homework policy in Zambian schools is one of the key policies advocated by the Ministry of General Education. Thus, by helping their children with homework, parents get involved in complementing teachers in inculcating desired problem solving skills.
As the government of Zambia aligns its mathematics curriculum with STEM principles, it is crucial for teachers to train students how to use technology to solve problems. Through the STEM content they receive in their classrooms, Zambian students are given opportunities to develop their abilities to use mathematics content and practices to communicate their designed solutions to problems. This is critical for the realization of the STEM curriculum objectives (Shanta & Wells, 2020). Some researchers found the problem based learning (PBL) approach through the use of PBL models as effective when teaching (Amalia et al., 2017; LaForce et al., 2017; Simamora et al., 2017). They posited that PBL could help in improving students’ problem solving skills and has potential to improve students’ attitudes, beliefs and motivation levels to take up STEM careers in future. For Zambia, whose citizens come from strong cultural backgrounds, development of teaching/learning materials for use during lessons should be done with full consideration of students’ cultural context. Teaching and learning materials can be developed by integrating and adapting local materials that students interact with every day, like artifacts (Simamora & Saragih, 2019). This is because the integration of the local culture will demystify mathematics from being regarded as unpractical, abstract and foreign.
One of the aims of the STEM curriculum being implemented in Zambia is inclusive mathematics (CDC, 2019). This implies that students with disabilities should be adequately given opportunities to develop their problem solving skills like any other student. Some researchers have studied the improvement of the problem solving abilities of students with disabilities (Root et al., 2021; Spooner et al., 2017) using both school based and real world mathematics tasks. This has proven to be effective.
Secondary school students’ beliefs about mathematics in general and mathematical problem solving in particular, affect their level of interest in the subject, and whether or not they are motivated to learn it and take up mathematics related courses at university (Hidayatullah & Csíkos, 2022; Humairah, 2021; Jusra & Ramadhani, 2022). To excel in mathematics, students need to apply themselves to the subject by putting in much effort, as well as being persistent in their studies. Research has shown that students’ beliefs about mathematics have a significant effect on their persistence to learn new concepts and the effort they apply (Concha Zelada et al., 2019; Keleş, 2022; Sholihah et al., 2022; Sokić et al., 2021). It has also been observed that students’ beliefs about mathematics are usually false with a perception that the subject is difficult and boring (Hamukwaya & Haser, 2021).
Students’ beliefs have also been found to influence their critical thinking, conceptualization, recognition of mathematical problems and engagement in problem solving (Belecina & Ocampo, 2018). Thus, their beliefs can significantly guide and develop their critical thinking as they engage in problem solving activities. Activities selected for problem solving must be supported by context rich curricula like the STEM mathematics curriculum that has been developed in Zambia (Gijsbers et al., 2020; Peranginangin et al., 2019). Allowing students to work on their tasks in small groups and using suitable strategies of teaching
would enhance their beliefs about mathematical problem solving (Ajan Jr et al., 2021). It has been observed that students taught by teachers that favoured the problem solving approach enhanced their problem solving skills, reasoning and creativity more than those taught by teachers who favoured other teaching approaches (Tambunan, 2019).
Development of learning and teaching materials should always accompany new curricula because it helps teachers and students not to lose focus on the subject matter demands of the curriculum. Unfortunately for Zambia, there seems to be no teaching and learning materials in schools to support the STEM curriculum. Teachers and students are depending on materials developed before curriculum reforms to align teaching and learning to STEM principles. Student textbooks and worksheets have a significant effect on the development of students’ problem solving skills (Jäder et al., 2020; Ulandari et al., 2019). This is because teachers mainly use textbooks to prepare lesson plans, and students depend largely on textbooks for their studies. Through reading textbooks, students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving can improve. Textbooks can improve students’ mathematical word problem solving (Sahendra et al., 2018), as mathematical representations enhance problem solving skills by acting as mediators between students’ beliefs and mathematical problem solving (Yuanita et al., 2018).
In several other studies high school students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving have been investigated, reaching consensus that positive beliefs are essential for enhanced problem solving skills of students (NoprianiLubis et al., 2017; Özcan & Eren Gümüş, 2019; Prendergast et al., 2018; Surya & Putri, 2017; Zulnaidi et al., 2021) with others focusing on the effect of gender (Awofala, 2017), while some focused on repercussions on motivation (Rojo Robas et al., 2020). Thus, the purpose of this paper was to investigate high school students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs based on their gender. To accomplish this purpose, the study sought answers to the following questions.
The gender gap in mathematical performance of male and female students has consistently emerged to be a topical issue among mathematics education researchers (Dai et al., 2022; Mejía Rodríguez et al., 2021). Several varied reasons have dominated debates among experts in explaining this status quo. It has been reported that the gender divide continues into tertiary education where entrants with high mathematical competences from high school show high levels of solving mathematical problems regardless of their gender (Widiyasari et al., 2022).
The gender gap has been attributed largely to attitudes toward mathematics and different mathematical abilities between the two genders (Mejía Rodríguez et al., 2021). For example, Mejía Rodríguez et al. (2021) argued that in many countries, including Zambia, boys tend to exhibit superior performance when solving mathematical problems across all mathematics topics. To reduce the gender divide in students’ mathematical performance, Dai et al. (2022) shared empirical evidence which suggests that mathematical activities that incorporate the use of games and narratives tend to support girls’ mathematical problem solving skills development.
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Considering that creativity is important in problem solving, several studies reported mixed results related to gender differences in students’ creativity when solving mathematical problems (He & Wong, 2021; Keleş, 2022; Sokić et al., 2021; Taylor & Barbot, 2021). In their study, He and Wong (2021) found that boys demonstrated more creativity in their problem solving activities than girls. This result agrees with the findings of Mejía Rodríguez et al. (2021). In contrast to this result, Sholihah et al. (2022) in their study related to the effect of gender on students’ creative problem solving abilities, found that girls scored higher than boys. In another study, Keleş. (2022) and Concha Zelada et al. (2019) found that gender did not affect students’ creativity when engaging in problem solving. These results indicate that research about gender differences in students’ problem solving has continued to produce results that are not consistent. This is the reason for continued and growing research into this phenomenon in different contexts.
Research has also shown the effect of gender on students’ mathematical problem solving self efficacy (e.g., Imaroh et al., 2021; Jusra & Ramadhani, 2022; Subekti & Krisdiani, 2021; Wijayanti et al., 2021). These studies posit that students with high self efficacy, whether they are boys or girls, tend to exhibit higher mathematical problem solving abilities. Jusra and Ramadhani (2022), and Subekti and Krisdiani (2021) in their studies found that girls exhibited higher problem solving abilities than boys, owing to their high self efficacy. In these studies girls showed high confidence and were motivated to tackle difficult mathematical problems. Contrary to the above findings, Kasturi et al. (2021) in their study about gender based differences in students’ mathematical problem solving self efficacy found that there was no difference between the two groups based on gender.
Mathematical beliefs also have been found to play a fundamental role in students’ mathematical problem solving related to word problems (Hidayatullah & Csíkos, 2022; Humairah, 2021). In his study, Humairah (2021) found that in terms of mathematical problem solving concerned with word problems, mathematical reasoning and abilities of girls were superior to that of boys. This result implies that girls were more confident and motivated to tackle word problems. This is important because it demonstrates that in some cases girls have better mathematical abilities than boys.
A quantitative research design, using a cross sectional survey method underpinned this study. A single, once off, cross sectional survey was administered to a convenient sample of high school students. The survey focused on high school students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving. The research design is shown in Figure 2.
3.1
Participants consisted of Grade 12 students aged between 15 and 18 years who were selected from three public secondary schools in the Eastern Province of Zambia. At the time of data collection, it was established that these students were following the newly introduced STEM mathematics curriculum and were expected to be examined based on the new curriculum. Cluster sampling a probabilistic sampling technique, was used to select three schools in which each school was regarded a cluster. This technique was preferred because of the geographical spread of the schools in the district. All Grade 12 students in each cluster were requested to participate in the study. However, only a total of 490 students (288 boys and 202 girls) from three schools volunteered to participate. Of these, 209 students (106 boys and 103 girls) were drawn from a mixed sex school, 182 from a single sex boys’ school and 99 from a single sex girls’ schools. The rationale for selecting a mixed sex school and two single sex schools was premised on the purpose of the study which included testing the effect of gender on students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. Grade 12 students were selected because they had followed the STEM curriculum for more than one year, thus, it was assumed that their mathematical problem solving beliefs would be more representative of all senior secondary school students in the population of the Eastern Province.
3.2
Data were collected from students at three different high schools over a period of three consecutive days. At each of the schools an appointment was made for students to participate in the study outside learning hours so as not to disrupt their time tabled lessons. Thus, the data collection took place during prep time. Students were assured that their participation in the study would have no consequences for their scores in the continuous assessment tests or the final examinations at the end of the year, because the study was purely about gathering their ideas and beliefs about mathematical problem solving with the aim of improving the teaching and learning of mathematics. Thus, they were requested to provide honest responses. At each school, students were asked to indicate their
level of agreement with each statement in the questionnaire by rating the items from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. This exercise took place in their respective classrooms. They completed the questionnaires in 45 50 minutes.
The data collection instrument used in this study was a survey adopted from Kloosterman and Stage (1992, p. 115), and was developed to measure students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. The survey consisted of 36 items on a 5 point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The items were evenly sub divided into six beliefs (see Appendix 1). The items thus were distributed across six scales (beliefs). The Cronbach’s alpha values for each scale were calculated and found to be in the range 0.71 to 0.78. Thus, the questionnaire was reliable and suitable for use in this study.
The data set for the study consisted of 490 completed questionnaires. We employed the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 23 (SPSS23) for analysing the survey data. To accomplish the purpose of the study, descriptive statistics and the independent samples t test were used to answer the posed research questions. The independent samples t test was conducted to compare their mathematical problem solving beliefs by gender. In doing so, we focused on the mean scores and standard deviations, which helped us to analyse differences in self perceived mathematical problem solving beliefs of secondary school students based on their gender.
With the purpose of investigating gender differences in high school students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving, this section presents the findings together with a brief discussion of each result. For easy reading, results are presented according to research questions.
RQ1. What is the overall difference between male and female students’ mathematical problem-solving beliefs?
To answer this question, participants from the three schools were assigned to two groups, namely a male and a female group. The independent samples t text was then conducted to analyse differences in participants’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. For each of the six beliefs (see Table 2), there were differences in mean scores based on gender, although the differences were not statistically significant. This could be verified from the p values that all are greater than 0.05 (see Table 2). The test for the assumption of equal variances for male and female participants also was conducted, using the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances. Results for the homogeneity of variances shows that p values for all the t tests were in the range p = 0.2 to p = 0.7. This implies that the assumption for homogeneity of variances was not violated.
When Table 1 is analysed, it was found that female participants believed more than males that they could solve mathematical problems that are time consuming (��male=3.06 < ��female=3.08), and that some mathematical word problems cannot be solved by merely using simple steps (��male=3.52 < ��female=3.59). They also believed more than male participants that mathematics as a subject is very useful in the
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daily life of every individual (��male=2.96 < ��female=2.98), and that one can increase his/her mathematical ability when much effort is applied during studies (��male=4.37 < ��female=4.41). However, while male participants had low beliefs that some word problems could easily be solved by following simple mathematical steps or procedures, they believed more than females that word problems are important in mathematics (��male=2.93 > ��female=2.84), and that conceptual understanding is important in mathematics (��male=3.18 > ��female=3.16)
Table 1. Overall difference in male and female students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs
Belief Gender N �� SD Df T Sig
Belief 1: Solving mathematics problems that are time consuming
Belief 2: Word problems that cannot be solved using simple procedural steps
Belief 3: Importance of conceptual understanding in mathematics
Belief 4: Importance of word problems in mathematics
Male 288 3.06 .61 487 .49 .626 Female 202 3.08 .67 487
Male 288 3.52 .49 487 1.61 .108 Female 202 3.59 .49 487
Male 288 3.18 .54 487 .47 .640 Female 202 3.16 .59 487
Male 288 2.93 .64 487 1.58 .115 Female 202 2.84 .63 487
Belief 5: Effort and mathematical ability
Belief 6: Usefulness of mathematics
Male 288 4.37 .65 487 .59 .551 Female 202 4.41 .63 487
Male 288 2.96 .49 487 .39 .697 Female 202 2.98 .42 487
RQ2. Is there a significant difference in mathematical problem-solving beliefs between students from a single sex boys’ school and those from a single sex girls’ school?
We also compared mathematical problem solving beliefs of students from the two single sex schools. We wanted to find out whether girls’ beliefs are different from those of boys when they learn on their own and interact academically among themselves at school. It is important to understand whether girls or boys have strong beliefs that they can do mathematics without the influence of the other gender.
The independent samples t test showed that there was a statistically significant difference between male and female students’ beliefs that some word problems could not be solved using simple mathematical steps [t(279) = 2.39, p = .018]. Female students believed more than their male counterparts (��male = 3.49 < ��female = 3.63) that there are word problems in mathematics that cannot be solved using simple mathematical steps or procedures (see Table 1). However, there were no
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statistically significant differences in the other five beliefs with p values ranging from 0.199 to 0.932 (see Table 2). Even though there were no significant differences about these beliefs, small mean differences were recorded regarding some beliefs which provided insight into characteristics of the two groups’ gender differences. Male participants posted higher ratings than females in their belief that conceptual understanding in mathematics is important (��male = 3.19 > ��female = 3.14) and that word problems are also important in mathematics (��male=2.91 > ��female = 2.82). Female participants, on the other hand, believed more than their male colleagues that effort is required for one to increase one’s mathematical ability (��male = 4.44 < ��female = 4.47) and that mathematics is useful in the daily lives of humans (��male = 2.91 < ��female = 2.98).
Table 2. Difference regarding mathematical problem solving beliefs in male and female students from single-sex schools
Belief Gender N �� SD Df T Sig
Belief 1: Solving mathematics problems that are time consuming
Belief 2: Word problems that cannot be solved using simple procedural steps
Belief 3: Importance of conceptual understanding in mathematics
Belief 4: Importance of word problems in mathematics
Belief 5: Effortandmathematicalability
Belief 6: Usefulness of mathematics
Male 182 3.01 .63 279 .09 .932 Female 99 3.01 .66 279
Male 182 3.49 .49 279 2.39 .018 Female 99 3.63 .47 279
Male 182 3.19 .54 279 .63 .530 Female 99 3.14 .58 279
Male 182 2.91 .62 279 1.16 .245 Female 99 2.82 .64 279
Male 182 4.44 .61 279 .36 .719 Female 99 4.47 .62 279
Male 182 2.91 .45 279 1.29 .199 Female 99 2.98 .47 279
RQ3. Is there a significant difference in the mathematical problem-solving beliefs between male and female students at a mixed sex (boys and girls) school?
We further analysed gender differences between male and female participants at a mixed sex school where girls and boys attended mathematics lessons in the same class and possibly influenced each other’s belief systems in relation to the subject. Results of the independent samples t text showed no statistically significant differences in participants’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving. To appreciate any small gender differences, we base our analysis on the mean scores recorded by the two groups.
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Examining Table 3, it is found that female participants believed more than males that they could solve mathematical problems thatare time consuming (��male = 3.13 < ��female = 3.16) and that effort can increase one’s mathematical ability (��male = 4.26 < ��female = 4.35). Male participants had higher mean scores than females in their beliefs that some word problems cannot be solved using simple, step by step procedures (��male = 3.58 < ��female = 3.56), and that word problems are useful in mathematics (��male = 2.96 > ��female = 2.86). They also believed more than females that mathematics is useful in one’s daily life (��male = 3.05 > ��female = 2.97)
Table 3. Difference in male and female students’ mathematical problem-solving beliefs in a mixed sex school
Belief Gender N �� SD Df T Sig
Belief 1: Solving mathematics problems that are time consuming
Belief 2: Word problems that cannot be solved using simple procedural steps
Belief 3: Importance of conceptual understanding in mathematics
Belief 4: Importance of word problems in mathematics
Male 106 3.13 .56 206 .35 .730 Female 103 3.16 .67 206
Male 106 3.58 .47 206 .34 .735 Female 103 3.56 .50 206
Male 106 3.18 .55 206 .05 .957 Female 103 3.18 .61 206
Male 106 2.96 .67 206 1.19 .237 Female 103 2.86 .61 206
Belief 5: Effort and mathematical ability
Belief 6: Usefulness of mathematics
Male 106 4.26 .69 206 .99 .324 Female 103 4.35 .64 206
Male 106 3.05 .54 206 1.21 .228 Female 103 2.97 .35 206
This discussion will take place at three levels. We first discuss gender differences when the entire sample is divided into two groups of male and female, then we consider a sub sample of male and female students from single sex boys’ and girls’ schools respectively. Finally, we delve into gender differences for male and female participants from a mixed sex school. This allowed us to search deeply for gender differences in participants’ beliefs, if any.
When the entire sample was divided into two groups of male and female participants, it was found that there were no significant gender differences in the mathematical problem solving beliefs of participants across all six beliefs. This implies that, in general, gender does not have statistically significant effects on secondary school students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. Thus, their mathematical abilities would not be impacted by their beliefs. This result is not consistent with findings of Kasturi et al. (2021), as well as Subekti and Krisdiani
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(2021), who reported significant differences between male and female students’ attitudes towards mathematical problem solving. The result of this study has implications for mathematics teachers’ lesson planning when they choose to employ problem solving as a preferred teaching method.
They will not need to consider gender differences as they plan for classroom instruction. In addition, it is worth noting that the robust t test in the current study found no significant gender differences in students’ beliefs about time consuming mathematical problems, problems related to usefulness of mathematics in one’s daily life, and mathematical problems that cannot be solved by using routine step by step procedures. A literature check showed that some studies also did not find statistically significant differences by gender in students’ problem solving beliefs (e.g., Kasturi et al., 2021)
We also were interested in finding out if significant gender differences in this regard could be found between females from a girls’ school and males from a boys’ school. It would be interesting to understand the belief system of a group of either male or female students who were not mathematically influenced by the other gender. Results of this study showed that there was a significant difference in students’ beliefs about mathematical problems that can be solved using a step by step procedure, with females in the majority when the analysis was based on gender. This result is consistent with the findings of Humairah (2021), whose study found superior problem solving abilities among girls when compared to boys. However, gender did not significantly affect students’ other five beliefs. Similarly, when the analysis considered only participants at a mixed sex school, no significant gender differences were found. This means that gender should not affect teachers’ planning for students.
Finally, understanding students’ beliefs is important for teachers’ instructional planning. It is argued that students who consider problem solving a difficult task usually are more likely to view it as a short process that could be accomplished by memorizing rules and procedures (Hamukwaya & Haser, 2021). When students exhibit positive beliefs about problem solving, they would more likely invest in fully understanding the problem and planning the strategy for getting to the answer before attempting to solve it (Rahmah & Saputro, 2021). Teachers could also support improvement of students’ problem solving beliefs and abilities when they use problem-based methods in their instruction (Bosica et al., 2021). In cases where there were no statistically significant gender differences, this could mean that students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving do not significantly contribute to their performance in class and in national examinations.
The purpose of this study was to investigate high school students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs based on their gender. This study was conducted at a time when Zambia was reforming its curriculum to align it with STEM principles. It makes a significant contribution to theory and practice by highlighting how gender can/cannot influence students’ beliefs about mathematical problem solving. Gender differences in relation to students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs have not been extensively studied in the Zambian context. Thus, results of
this study make a new and original contribution in this regard, considering that the study acts as a response to curriculum reforms being implemented in Zambia
It was assumed by the authors that reforming a curriculum presented opportunities for the education system in Zambia to respond to society’s needs, whose problems would require solutions anchored in mathematical knowledge, while implementing those solutions would come with some challenges. One such challenge would be students’ beliefs, because these beliefs would determine the acceptability of the new curriculum. Considering that problem solving has been identified as one of the key instructional methods in the new curriculum, it is important for teachers to understand students’ beliefs as they are crucial in the successful implementation of the curriculum and student academic achievement. This work is useful as it provides information on how problem solving as a teaching strategy can be improved, especially when students’ beliefs are considered. The study is also useful to policy makers for planning purposes. At the planning stage of a curriculum implementation process, students’ beliefs, and the potential challenges they pose, should be taken care of seriously
This study opens some interesting lanes for future research Researchers might consider conducting future studies using mixed methods research that includes interviews with participants in order to gain a deeper understanding of students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs. It would also be insightful for future researchers to consider investigating students’ attitudes and beliefs about mathematical problem solving by examining how the two relate. Lastly, it would be insightful for future studies to consider a longitudinal study on students’ mathematical problem solving beliefs by studying a cohort from Grade 10 through to Grade 12 for a period of three years. Such a three year study might produce interesting results for theory, practice, and policy.
The authors would like to thank the headteachers of the three schools at which data were collected for facilitating a successful data collection process. We are also very grateful to Mr Ben Mwanza, a teacher at one of the schools in Chipata District, Zambia, for assisting us during the data collection process. Lastly, we wish to thank students from the three schools for their voluntary participation in this study.
The current study was funded by Thuthuka National Research Foundation (NRF) for the post doctoral track which contributed to the funding of the project: Grant no. TTK170405225946.
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Mathematical Problem-Solving Beliefs Questionnaire (Adopted from Kloosterman, P. & Stage, F. K., 1992)
Dear student
Please fill in the questionnaire below by indicating with a cross (X) how you agree / disagree with the given statements. Please be very honest. Participation is voluntary and all answers will be treated anonymously. Do not write your name on the questionnaire. Your participation in this research is appreciated.
SCHOOL:…………… GENDER:………… GRADE:………. AGE:……
I can solve time consuming mathematics problems Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
1 Math problems that take a long time don’t bother me
2 I feel I can do math problems that take a long time to compute
3 I find I can do hard math problems if I just hang in there
4 If I can’t do a math problem in a few minutes, I probably can’t do it at all
5 If I can’t solve a math problem quickly, I quit trying
6 I’m not very good at solving math problems that take a while to figure out There are word problems that cannot be solved with simple, step by step procedures
7 There are word problems that just can’t be solved by following a predetermined sequence of steps
8 Word problems can be solved without remembering formulas
9
Memorizing steps is not very useful for learning to solve word problems
10 Any word problems can be solved if you know the right steps to follow
11 Most word problems can be solved by using the correct step by step procedure
12 Learning to do word problems is mostly a matter
Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
of memorizing the right steps to follow
Understanding concepts is important in mathematics Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
13
14
Time to investigate why a solution to a math problem works is time well spent
A person who doesn’t understand why an answer to a math problem is correct hasn’t really solved the problem
15
In addition to getting a right answer in mathematics, it is important to understand why the answer is correct
16
It’s not important to understand why a mathematical procedure works as long as it gives a correct answer
17 Getting a right answer in math is more important than understanding why the answer works
18
It doesn’t really matter if you understand a math problem if you can get the right answer
Word problems are important in mathematics Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
19
A person who can’t solve word problems can’t really do maths
20
21
Computational skills are of little value if you can’t use them to solve word problems
Computational skills are useless if you can’t apply them to real life situations
22
23
Learning computational skills is more important than learning to solve word problems
Math classes should not emphasize word problems
24
Word problems are not a very important part of mathematics
Effort can increase mathematical ability Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
25
By trying hard, one can become smarter in maths
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26 Working can improve one’s ability in mathematics 27 I can get smarter in maths by trying hard 28 Ability in maths increases when one studies hard 29 Hard work can increase one’s ability to do maths 30 I can get smarter in maths if I try hard
Mathematics is useful in daily life Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 31 I study mathematics because I know how useful it is 32 Knowing mathematics will help me earn a living 33 Mathematics is a worthwhile and necessary subject 34 Mathematics will not be important to me in my life’s work 35 Mathematics is of no relevance to my life 36 Studying mathematics is a waste of time
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 418 435, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.23
Received Aug 6, 2022; Revised Oct 11, 2022; Accepted Oct 27, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science, University of Rwanda, College of Education, Kayonza, Rwanda
Rwanda Institute for Conservation Agriculture, Department of Academics, Research and Extension, Kigali, Rwanda
University of Education, Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science Education, Winneba, Ghana
Abstract. The pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of teachers influences students’ achievement of the learning outcomes. This study examined teachers’ perceived enactment of PCK in biology The quantitative survey design was adopted by using a Likert scale questionnaire consisting of six components of PCK, namely curricular saliency, students’ prior knowledge, what makes the subject easy or difficult, representations, conceptual teaching strategies, and assessment. Data on teachers’ perceived enacted PCK (ePCK) were collected from 54 biology teachers selected from 14 secondary schools in three districts of Lusaka province. The data were analyzed by computing descriptive and inferential statistics using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software The findings revealed that: (a) respondents’ perceived ePCK was high (M = 4.29, SD = .37), (b) respondents’ perceived ePCK was not influenced by gender, teaching experience, and type of school, (c) respondents’ perceived ePCK was influenced by their academic qualifications, (d) the component students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions was the most enacted component, and (e) the component what makes the subject easy or difficult was the least enacted component. The results highlight areas in teachers’ PCK that require enhancement The study recommends using teacher professional development to enhance teachers’ ePCK in the component what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand. Further research may use larger samples and more data sources to increase the validity of the findings.
Corresponding author: ThumahMapulanga,thumahm@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: Biology; enacted pedagogical content knowledge; secondary school; teachers
Developing countries are faced with a multitude of educational problems, including inadequate qualified teachers, which affect the quality of teaching and learning (Al Ansi, 2017). Teachers play an important role in the learning process (Al Ansi, 2017), as predictors of students’ academic achievement. As such, teacher professional knowledge has attracted the attention of education researchers for some time. One type of teacher professional knowledge is the ability of the teacher to adapt subject matter knowledge and make it understandable to students of all academic levels. Shulman (1986) referred to this knowledge as the teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Since teachers’ PCK has a significant role in achieving students’ learning outcomes in science subjects, many researchers have investigated the matter (Behling et al., 2022; Chan et al., 2019; Gess Newsome et al., 2019; Park et al., 2020)
Researchers have used various approaches to measure teachers’ PCK, such as interviews with teachers (Mapulanga et al., 2022; Suh & Park, 2017), analysis of teachers’ and students’ written scripts (document analysis) (Park & Oliver, 2008), lesson observations (Mthethwa Kunene et al., 2015), teacher surveys (Schmelzing et al., 2013), and student surveys (Halim et al., 2014; Uner & Akkus, 2019). Others, such as Maseko and Khoza (2021), have used a combination of questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observation to explore teacher professional knowledge.
Shulman (1986) postulated that teacher professional knowledge comprises the combination of content (knowing what to teach) and pedagogy (knowing how to teach) and referred to it as PCK PCK constitutes the knowledge used by teachers to transform knowledge in their subject areas, such as biology, into forms that students can understand regardless of their background. Veal and Makinster (1999) created a generic taxonomy for PCK, categorising PCK into general PCK for disciplines (e.g., science), domains (e.g., biology), and topics (e.g., respiration) In other words, discipline PCK involves, for example, PCK in the science discipline, whereas domain PCK, then, involves PCK in science subjects, such as biology. Topic specific PCK (TSPCK) is the PCK used to teach specific topics in a subject, for example respiration. Aside from Shulman’s model, multiple other models havebeen developedtodescribe teachers’PCK These include Magnusson et al.’s (1999) model, the Pentagon Model (Park & Oliver, 2008), the Consensus Model (Gess Newsome, 2015), the Topic Specific Model (Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013), and the Revised Consensus Model (Carlson et al., 2019). What is common among these and other models is the recognition that content knowledge needs to be transformed through some components of PCK.
Mavhunga and Rollnick’s (2013) model was developed to describe TSPCK The current study applied the TSPCK components to describe the PCK of teachers in biology. Furthermore, the current study included an additional component,
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knowledge of assessment, so that six components of teachers’ PCK were evaluated, as defined below (Magnusson et al., 1999; Mapulanga et al., 2022):
a. Knowledge of assessment [ASS] the understanding of the concepts that must be measured, as well as knowledge of the techniques for measuring learning.
b. Curricular saliency [CS] the ability of a teacher to pick and sequence crucial concepts for studying biology.
c. What makes the subject easy or difficult to understand [WD] the understanding of concepts that require special attention while teaching biological concepts that students typically find difficult to grasp.
d. Students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions [SPK] the knowledge of what students already know from either personal experiences or prior teaching or both. It includes both alternative and correct conceptions
e. Representations and analogies [RP] the understanding of methods (e.g., diagrams, demonstrations, analogies, and models) for depicting biological topics in ways that aid in the conceptual growth of ideas
f. Conceptual teaching strategies [CTS] understanding of strategies for teaching specific topics, including competence and knowledge and effective connections of other PCK components.
This section presents an overview of reviewed studies related to teacher professional knowledge or PCK Many studies have been conducted to investigate the perceptions, views, or self efficacy beliefs of pre service and in service teachers about aspects of their professional knowledge, most of which are aspects of the PCK domain For example, Choy et al. (2013) examined the perceptions of early career teachers in Singapore regarding their pedagogical knowledge related to lesson planning, classroom management, and instructional strategies. They used a survey questionnaire and found that teachers’ perceptions increased significantly with experience. Kilic (2015) also used a questionnaire to establish the degree of pre service teachers’ perceptions of teacher knowledge It was concluded that the perceptions of pre service teachers about their teacher knowledge were high.
Mäkelä et al (2019) investigated the perceptions of Finnish teachers about their PCK in higher education using teacher interviews with seven teachers. The findings indicated that teachers used diverse teaching methods and had positive attitudes towards educational technology. In a study related to teachers’ PCK levels, Park et al (2020) investigated the proxy indicators of the quality of teachers that best predicted their level of PCK The sample comprised 166 secondary science teachers from South Korea and the United States. They found that the correlation between gender, years of service, and teachers’ PCK was not significant They also found that high school teaching and biology qualifications predicted teachers’ PCK the best. However, the results showed that teachers had trouble connecting their understanding of students’ comprehension with their use of teaching strategies. Zolkoski et al. (2020) investigated the perceptions of teachers regarding the knowledge and resources required to encourage emotional and social learning in rural classes. The results indicated that teachers had positive
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perceptions to develop their abilities and knowledge to teach different students and to improve self management.
Researchers have thus used surveys and interviews to describe teachers’ professional knowledge or some aspects of it. Nonetheless, there is a shortage of research on teachers’ perceived enacted PCK (ePCK) in biology. Furthermore, many studies either investigated teachers’ actual enactment of components of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) or some components of PCK. The current study sought to contribute to closing this knowledge gap by exploring secondary school teachers’ perceived ePCK in biology. Teachers’ perceived PCK enactment is correlated with their actions in and outside the classroom. Teachers’ perceptions may influence their decisions on the content (what to teach) and pedagogy (how to teach). In other words, teachers’ perceptions of their ePCK may influence their choices related to instructional strategies, representations, content, examples, and assessment activities that they use during lessons. As Carlson et al (2019) asserted, teachers’ personal beliefs and attitudes towards teaching amplify their PCK and, hence, understanding how they perceive their ePCK is important. Consequently, it is vital to measure teachers’ perceived ePCK in biology to understand how they employ their PCK in teaching and learning.
Examining the quality of teachers’ PCK is a real concern in the education systems of many countries, as it is deemed to be a relevant and vital process for both the teachers’ professional growth and educational advancement. However, there is a paucity of data on secondary school science teachers’ perceived ePCK in Zambia, where the current study was conducted. There is also a lack of quantitative research on teachers’ perceived enactment of PCK in biology. The current study investigated biology teachers’ perceived ePCK at the domain (biology) level since this is where teachers borrow the TSPCK required to teach particular biology topics (Veal & Makinster, 1999). Therefore, the current study sought to assess biology teachers’ perceived ePCK in biology at selected secondary schools in the Lusaka province of Zambia. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. How do biology teachers perceive their ePCK in biology?
2. Is there a relationship between teachers’ gender, academic qualifications, teaching experience, type of school, and their perceived ePCK?
Gess Newsome (2015) asserted that teachers are significant filters and amplifiers of PCK. Therefore, collecting data about their perceived ePCK is critical in identifying aspects of PCK that may need to be enhanced. The current study contributes knowledge to the PCK community by describing teachers’ perceived ePCK in biology and offers knowledge of the implications for teaching, teacher education, and research. The implications of the findings lie in highlighting the grey areas in biology teachers’ ePCK which may need to be promoted.
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The methodology employed by the study is described in this section under the subsections research and sampling design, research instrument, procedures, and analysis.
The study adopted the quantitative survey design because it allows for the collection of data from a relatively large sample and enables the generalisation of the findings to the target population (Creswell, 2014). The multi stage sampling design was used to purposively select 14 secondary schools representing three types of schools (boarding, day, and national science, technology, engineering, and mathematics [STEM] schools) from three districts of Lusaka province. The population comprised all the biology teachers at the selected secondary schools, while the sample consisted of 54 teachers who responded to the questionnaire. The teachers from the selected schools were selected using simple random sampling and out of the 70 teachers invited to participate in the survey, 54 (77%) returned the questionnaire. The respondents’ characteristics are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Respondent characteristics (N = 54)
Characteristic Category
Frequency Percentage
Gender Female 29 53.7 Male 25 46.3
Academic qualification Master’ s degree 3 5.6 Bachelor’s degree 41 75.2 Diploma 10 18.5
Years of teaching experience 0 5 18 33.3 6 12 21 38.9 ≥ 13 15 27.8
The study used the Secondary School Teachers’ Perceived ePCK Questionnaire (SSTPePCK) (Appendix 1) to collect data on teachers’ perceived ePCK in biology. Part I of the questionnaire requested respondents’ demographic data, such as gender, years of teaching experience, highest academic qualification, and type of school. Part II of the questionnaire comprised 26 statements about respondents’ enactment of PCK in six components, namely students’ prior knowledge, what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand, curricular saliency, conceptual teaching strategies, representations, and assessment. The 26 items were developed from a literature search, with most items adapted from Uner and Akkus’ (2019) Secondary School Students’ Perceptions of Their Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge (SPTPCK) Scale, which had a reliability index (α value) of .925. The response options to the five point questionnaire items were 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree The questionnaire was sent to peers and experts for content and face validation. The validators included two biology education lecturers, two biology teachers, and one English language teacher. Validators’ comments were used to rephrase some statements for clarity.
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The questionnaire was pilot tested with 17 teachers and the Cronbach’s alpha value of .896 indicated that the items were reliable (Taber, 2018)
The first author sought permission from the Ministry of Education Headquarters, District Education Board secretaries, and head teachers of the participating schools to conduct the research. Teachers voluntarily responded to the questionnaire, which was distributed and collected in the first and second terms of the school calendar from February 2022 to June 2022. To avoid disturbing the teaching and learning process, prior arrangements were made with the school administration, and appropriate dates were agreed upon for the administration of the questionnaire. Data were collected using a self administered Likert type questionnaire for teachers. The respondents were required to select the most appropriate response, on a five point scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, to describe their ePCK in biology. The respondents completed the questionnaire at a time convenient to them, taking about 20 minutes.
The analytical framework for the study comprised the following six PCK components: (a) assessment (ASS), (b) conceptual teaching strategies (CTS), (c) curricular saliency (CS), (d) what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand (WD), (e) students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions (SPK), and (f) representations and analogies (RP). Similar to the analysis by Almutairi (2022), Busaka et al. (2022), and Lai and Lin (2018), the Likert-scale responses were treated as though they were continuous data, so that aggregated means and standard deviations were computed. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyze the data Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to describe the respondents’ perceived enactment of PCK, while inferential statistics (t test and analysis of variance [ANOVA]) were used to compare the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on their characteristics (gender, academic qualification, teaching experience, and type of school).
This section presents the results of the study concerning teachers’ perceived PCK enactment in biology, and a comparison of teachers’ perceived PCK enactment based on gender, academic qualification, teaching experience, and type of school. The respondents’ responses were checked for normality and the results showed that the responses were approximately normally distributed (W = 0.979, p = .450). Therefore, appropriate parametric tests were performed on the data.
The results showed that the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment in biology was high, as shown in Table 2. The respondents rated themselves above 4 for overall PCK and 3.77 or above for the components of PCK. The respondents’ least enacted PCK component was WD, while the most enacted component was SPK.
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Table 2: Respondents’ PCK enactment
Perceived enactment of PCK M SD Level of perceptions
Overall PCK 4.29 .37 High Perceived enactment of PCK components M SD Level of perceptions
SPK 4.43 .47 High WD 3.77 .62 Moderate CS 4.36 .41 High CTS 4.42 .45 High RP 4.41 .53 High ASS 4.35 .49 High
4.2 Teachers’ Perceived PCK Enactment Based on Gender
Table 3 shows the independent t test results for the respondents’ perceived ePCK by gender.
Table 3: Respondents’ perceived PCK enactment by gender
Respondents (N = 54, female = 29, male = 25) Perceived enactment of PCK
Gender M SD df t p
PCK Female 4.36 .37 52 1.542 .129 Male 4.21 .35 Perceived enactment of PCK components
Gender M SD df t p
SPK Female 4.39 .49 52 0.595 .554 Male 4.47 .44 WD Female 3.89 .64 52 1.555 .126 Male 3.63 .57 CS Female 4.48 .40 52 2.414 .019* Male 4.22 .38
CTS Female 4.41 .46 52 0.051 .960 Male 4.42 .43
RP Female 4.51 .49 52 1.489 .143 Male 4.29 .56
ASS Female 4.47 .49 52 1.986 .052 Male 4.21 .47
*Significant at p = .05
Regarding the influence of gender on respondents’ perceived PCK enactment, the independent samples t test results showed that there was no significant difference in the respondents’ perceived ePCK (t[52] = 1.54, p = .129) based on gender. With regard to perceived enactment of the PCK components, the respondents’ perceptions did not differ by gender, except for the component CS (t[52] = 2.414, p = .019)
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Table 4 shows respondents’ perceived ePCK based on their highest academic qualifications.
Table 4: Respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on their academic qualification
Respondents (diploma = 10, bachelor’s degree = 41, master’ s degree = 3) Perceived enactment of PCK
Highest qualification M SD F p
Overall PCK
SPK
Diploma
4.01 .31 3.989 .025* Bachelor’s degree 4.35 .36 Master’ s degree 4.39 .29 Perceived enactment of PCK components
Highest qualification M SD F p
Diploma
4.07 .49 4.143 .022* Bachelor’s degree 4.51 .41 Master’s degree 4.44 .69
WD Diploma 3.45 .49 1.710 .191
Bachelor’s degree 3.84 .63 Master’s degree 3.92 .52
CS Diploma 4.06 .51 3.993 .024*
Bachelor’s degree 4.41 .36 Master’s degree 4.62 .29
CTS Diploma 4.20 .55 1.602 .212
Bachelor’s degree 4.46 .41 Master’s degree 4.58 .38
RP Diploma 4.10 .49 2.173 .124 Bachelor’s degree 4.48 .53 Master’s degree 4.44 .19
ASS Diploma 4.18 .44 0.720 .492 Bachelor’s degree 4.39 .51 Master’s degree 4.33 .42
*Significant at p = .05
The majority of the respondents (41) were bachelor’s degree holders, followed by diploma holders (10) and master’s degree holders (3). The one way ANOVA was conducted to compare the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on their academic qualification. The results in Table 4 show that the perceived PCK enactment of diploma, bachelor’s degree, and master’s degree holders were significantly different (F[2, 51] = 3.989, p = .025) Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) post hoc test showed that there were statistically significant differences in the perceived PCK enactment of diploma and bachelor’s degree holders (p = .021). However, there were no statistically significant differences between diploma and master’s degree holders (p = .225) and master’s degree and bachelor’s degree holders (p = .977).
Furthermore, there was a statistically significant difference in respondents’ perceived enactment of the components SPK (F[2, 51] = 4.143, p = .022) and CS
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(F[2, 51] = 3.993, p = .024). However, there were no statistically significant differences in the perceived enactment of the components WD, CTS, RP, and ASS. The post hoc analysis using Tukey’ s HSD test revealed that the mean perceived ePCK of diploma holders was significantly lower for SPK (p = .016) and CS (p = .035). Results showed that respondents’ perceptions for overall PCK and all components were highest for master’s degree holders followed by bachelor’s degree and diploma holders, respectively.
The one way ANOVA (Table 5) was performed to compare respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on their teaching experience
Table 5: Respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on teaching experience
Respondents (0 5 years = 18, 6 12 years = 21, ≥ 13 = 15) Perceived enactment of PCK Teaching exp. (years) M SD F P
Overall PCK 0 5 4.33 .36 0.304 .739 6 12 4.24 .37 ≥ 13 4.31 .38 Perceived enactment of PCK components Teaching exp. (years) M SD F P
SPK 0 5 4.10 .45 0.212 .810 6 12 4.48 .36 ≥ 13 4.38 .62 WD 0 5 3.79 .63 0.210 .811 6 12 3.72 .59 ≥ 13 3.83 .67 CS 0 5 4.34 .46 0.022 .978 6 12 4.37 .39 ≥ 13 4.37 .41 CTS 0 5 4.54 .45 1.335 .272 6 12 4.31 .43 ≥ 13 4.42 .45 RP 0 5 4.52 .43 0.695 .504 6 12 4.32 .62 ≥ 13 4.40 .51 ASS 0 5 4.36 .53 0.617 .544 6 12 4.27 .54 ≥ 13 4.45 .38
The one way ANOVA revealed that there were no significant differences in the respondents’ perceived enactment of PCK (F[2, 51] = 0.304, p = .739) and all PCK components based on teaching experience. The results showed that teaching experience did not influence respondents’ perceived PCK enactment in biology and that the mean was the lowest for the component WD.
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4.5 Teachers’ Perceived PCK Enactment
of
Results for respondents’ perceived ePCK based on type of school are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Respondents’ perceived PCK enactment based on the type of school Respondents (boarding = 13, day = 38, national STEM = 3), df = 2, 51 Perceived enactment of PCK
Type of school M SD F p PCK Boarding 4.31 .42 0.082 .921 Day 4.27 .35 National STEM 4.35 .43 Perceived enactment of PCK components
Type of school M SD F p SPK Boarding 4.51 .38 0.476 .624 Day 4.39 .49 National STEM 4.56 .51 WD Boarding 4.02 .73 1.893 .161 Day 3.66 .58 National STEM 4.00 .25 CS Boarding 4.22 .51 1.206 .308 Day 4.41 .38 National STEM 4.24 .41 CTS Boarding 4.44 .50 0.093 .911 Day 4.40 .43 National STEM 4.50 .50 RP Boarding 4.44 .53 0.036 .965 Day 4.39 .54 National STEM 4.44 .51 ASS Boarding 4.23 .59 0.490 .615 Day 4.39 .46 National STEM 4.33 .58
Regarding type of school, the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment was high and the type of school (boarding, day, and national STEM schools) did not influence their perceived ePCK significantly. Respondents’ perceived enactment of overall PCK was not influenced by the type of school they worked at (F[2, 51] = 0.082, p = .921). These results show clearly that the type of school did not influence the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment in biology.
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In this section, the implications of the results for practice, policy, and research are discussed in light of the literature.
5.1
Generally, the respondents’ perceived ePCK in biology was high, implying that they perceived their ePCK to be developed. Based on Mazibe et al. (2018), who found that teachers’ reported and enacted PCK were mostly equal, it may be assumed that if teachers’ ePCK is as high as they perceive it, higher accomplishment may be attained by students Since teachers with developed PCK are more likely to use instructional strategies which tend to promote meaningful learning among students, students’ learning may be enhanced. However, teachers’ views about their teaching may not be perceived in the same way by others, such as students (Budge & Cowlishaw, 2012). This suggests a need for future research to triangulate data sources on teachers’ ePCK by observing the actual enactment of PCK during teaching. Research may also compare teachers’ perceived enactment of PCK with students’ perceptions of teachers’ PCK.
The finding that gender did not influence respondents’ perceived PCK enactment supports Park et al (2020), who reported nosignificant difference in teachers’ PCK scores based on gender. Furthermore, the findings are similar to Busaka et al (2022), who found that there were no significant differences in the perceptions of male and female teachers. This result was expected, as the teachers are trained in the same courses and are expected to teach the same content regardless of their gender. Therefore, their perceived ePCK was expected to be the same.
According to the results, the type of school did not influence respondents’ perceived ePCK in biology. It was discovered that respondents in boarding and national STEM schools enacted PCK the same way as those in day schools, even though they had more access to teaching learning materials (e.g., libraries, laboratories, and textbooks), which may influence the way teachers enact their PCK This may be explained by the fact that teachers offer the same syllabus at all types of schools and receive the same training in content at the college and university level.
The respondents’ perceived PCK enactment was influenced by their highest academic qualifications, with diploma holders having lower perceived ePCK than bachelor’s degree and master’ s degree holders, respectively. This finding supports Park et al (2020), who found that teaching certification and teaching at a high school influenced teachers’ total PCK scores. This may influence teachers’ motivation, creativity, and persistence during the preparation and implementation of lessons. As the respondents’ perceived PCK enactment was high, this may positively affect how they employ their PCK during the teaching process in class (Hartadiyati & Sutikno, 2015). The results suggest that teachers’ perceived PCK enactment increases with higher academic qualifications. This
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finding was not expected for the secondary school level, as all teachers learn higher level content than they are expected to teach. The diploma holders’ lower self ratings could point to a need for them to have their PCK enhanced through teacher professional development.
The study also showed that teaching experience did not influence respondents’ perceived PCK enactment. This finding supports other studies (Mapulanga et al., 2022; Park et al., 2020; Park & Chen, 2012; Suprayogi et al., 2017). The results also support Busaka et al. (2022), who found that the perceptions of teachers towards integrating soft skills in mathematics lessons were not influenced by the number of years they had taught However, the results contradict the findings by Friedrichsen et al (2009), who found that teachers’ teaching experience had contributed to their knowledge of PCK components. The results also counter the assertion that PCK develops with teaching experience. The study found that the perceived PCK enactment of teachers with more than 13 years of teaching experience was not significantly different from that of those with 0 to 5 years of teaching experience. This finding counters the assertion by Liu et al. (2010) that experienced teachers have a broader knowledge of educational practices and as a result, have more favorable perceptions of their instructional approaches and practices. Since PCK has been observed to develop with practice and experience with the topics or subject matter, it was expected that teachers who had taught for many years would have higher perceived PCK enactment compared to their counterparts who had taught for only a few years. This suggests that the experienced teachers who participated in the current study have not reflected deeply on their teaching experiences.
The study found that the component SPK was the most enacted PCK component. This implies that respondents felt that they most frequently integrated students’ prior knowledge in their teaching, suggesting that respondents had developed knowledge of SPK. This finding contradicts the findings by Mthetwa Khunene et al. (2015), who concluded that the teachers in their study had inadequate knowledge of the component of students’ prior knowledge of genetics. The significance of SPK for teaching and learning is that it empowers teachers to make effective pedagogical decisions concerning the concepts to be taught (Lee & Luft, 2008). It may mean that teachers know their students’ prior knowledge so that they can prepare and conduct lessons that build on what the students already know about biology topics. This would also enable teachers to use appropriate instructional strategies to help students overcome their misconceptions and learning difficulties.
5.5
The finding that the component what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand (WD) was the least enacted component is a serious concern for the success of educational activities. This finding is consistent with a previous study on planned TSPCK which found that WD was the least integrated component (Mapulanga et al., 2022). This finding also supports Kaya et al. (2021), who concluded that pre service teachers had low knowledge of students’ learning difficulties. The finding implies that if teachers do not know the aspects of the
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content that make it easy or difficult to learn the subject, it becomes almost impossible for them to plan and enact lessons that may result in meaningful learning. They may not know the aspects of the subject that require dedicated time to be taught and/or understood, and so may fail to guide the students appropriately. There is a serious need for teachers’ knowledge of this component (WD) to be enhanced as it is needed to make students comprehend the topics that are perceived to be difficult
This study examined secondary school teachers’ perceived PCK enactment in biology. The findings indicated that respondents’ perceived PCK enactment in biology was high, implying that respondents generally felt that they enact developed PCK in biology The results also revealed that academic qualification was significantly related to the perceived enactment of PCK. However, the respondents’ perceived enactment of PCK did not differ significantly based on gender, type of school, and teaching experience The findings are relevant, as they point out some grey areas in teachers’ knowledge that need to be given the necessary attention both at the teacher training and professional development level. Since the study revealed that respondents’ PCK was influenced by their qualifications, there is a need to enhance teachers’ PCK, especially for the component what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand, which was the least enacted. The study also recommends enhancing teachers’ PCK in the components where respondents showed differences based on their demographic characteristics Future research should use a larger sample and multiple data collection tools, such as interviews and document analysis of planning documents, to triangulate the findings.
The study was limited in some methodological aspects, such as data collection methods and sample size, which may affect the generalization of the findings. Although the study only collected data using a Likert type questionnaire, the findings remain valuable as the analysis employed involved the constant comparison with results from other contexts, namely sample, subjects, and regions. Despite the findings relating to the perceived PCK enactment of a smaller sample (54 teachers), which may not be representative of all biology teachers in Zambia, they provide an idea of the needed praxis interventions. Furthermore, the findings are relevant as they offer a glimpse of the possible prevailing teaching and learning situation at the three types of secondary schools represented in the study. The use of individuals from different types of public secondary schools in Zambia also added to the validity of the findings.
We thank all the respondents for their time and commitment. We also appreciate the financial support offered by the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science.
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Please tick where applicable
1. What is your gender?
Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. What is your highest academic/teaching qualification? Diploma [ ] Degree [ ] Master’s [ ]
3. Indicate your years of teaching experience
0 to 5 [ ] 6 to 12 [ ] 13 and more [ ]
4. State the type of your school
Day school [ ] Boarding school [ ] National STEM school [ ]
Please state (tick or cross) the extent to which you agree/disagree with each statement below.
SA= Strongly agree, A = Agree, U = Undecided, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly disagree
Statements Responses
SA A U D SD
Students’ prior knowledge
1. The questions I ask when introducing the topic reveal how much my students know about the topic.
2. The questions I ask in class evaluate how much my students have learned about the biology topic.
3. ThetestsandexercisesIgivemystudentsrevealhow much they have learned in class.
What makes the topic/subject easy or difficult
4. I warn my students about the topics/concepts they may find difficult to learn
5. I explain the points commonly misunderstood by students by giving reasons
6. I immediately notice when my students have difficulty learning a topic/concept.
7. I immediately notice why my students have difficulty learning a topic.
Curricular saliency
8. I inform my students about the biology syllabus.
9. The questions I ask in class give clues about important points regarding the topic/concept.
10. I explain how and where my students can use the knowledge they learn.
11. I explain how my students will use the knowledge they learn in further topics/concepts.
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12. I assist my students to establish the relationship between the biology topics they learn and previous topics.
13. I assist my students to establish the relationship between the topics they learn and other subjects.
14. I clearly explain biology concepts to my students
15. I perform activities specific to the topic, such as demonstration/experiment, simulation, animation, and display of teaching aids.
16. I give situations about the topic/concept to explain concepts in class.
17. I am aware of the skills required to use materials in an activity.
18. I encourage learners to express their views in class.
19. I give examples from daily life experiences to explain biology concepts.
20. I use teaching aids specific to the biology topic, such as figures, diagrams, simulations, models, and drawings.
21. I use materials and activities to facilitate learning of the concepts in biology.
22. I give class and homework exercises, assignments, and projects about biology topics.
23. I use different types of questions, such as open ended, multiple choice, and filling in the blanks, in tests.
24. For different topics, I use different types of questions, such as open ended, multiple choice, and filling in the blanks.
25. During a term, I use different assessment methods, such as assignments, projects, classroom and homework exercises, tests, and experiments.
26. The homework I give can be done using the knowledge my students learn in class.
Thank you very much for completing this questionnaire!!
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 436 456, October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.10.24
Received Aug 2, 2022; Revised Oct 16, 2022; Accepted Oct 24, 2022
Universitas Negeri Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia Universitas Negeri
SemarangAbstract. This research studied the possibility of applying socio affective instruction in online learning in Indonesia during the pandemic. The main objectives of this study were to investigate how Socio Affective Instruction (SAI) and metacognition levels affected the students' listening and speaking proficiency and to investigate students’ perceptions. This was experimental research with one group using a pre and a post test. The research sample was 41 students, with a total population of 84 students. The instruments were speaking and listening tests, metacognitive awareness questionnaires, and open ended questionnaires. The non parametric test was used to analyse the quantitative data, and Open Code was used to synthesize the student perceptions. The result reported significant differences between the listening and speaking pre and post test, indicating that SAI significantly influenced students' listening and speaking proficiency Students with high metacognition showed a significant difference in listening and speaking proficiency, indicating metacognition's significant influence on listening achievement compared to speaking. The perceptions revealed that students valued a comfortable environment during online learning. However, online learning caused learning collaboration to have many disadvantages. The metacognition level contributes significantly to students listening proficiency. In conclusion, although the SAI was applied to enhance collaboration, students tended to work individually. On the contrary, metacognition did not influence students' speaking proficiency because students cooperated well and were much influenced by peer assistance.
Keywords: Socio Affective Learning; metacognition; listening; speaking; E Learning
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Due to the Covid 19 outbreak, the Indonesian government prohibits direct offline courses and suggested online learning to continue the teaching and learning process. Many problems emerge because of the sudden changes in the education system (Abidah et al., 2020; Nartiningrum & Nugroho, 2020; Roziqin et al., 2021). The students' negative learning behaviour often occurs because of low motivation and a lack of interest in online learning. Students should be independent learners who learn based on their willingness and learning regulation because teachers cannot assist them directly (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015; Efriana, 2021; He & Chen, 2017; Jenna Gillett Swan, 2017).
Many Indonesian students live in rural and small villages with low internet bandwidth. Since some areas lack good internet coverage, many students have problems doing online courses. However, English as Foreign Language (EFL) learning requires of students to practise language skills. Since the class is offered online, students might lack interaction to practise the language. This ensues in many challenges to EFL teachers to manage English online learning effectively, especially in rural areas.
Online EFL learning is done with limited direct interaction, and students often take the classes for granted, because they do the tasks at home without direct supervision. Moreover, online learning only focuses on individual cognitive learning and pays less attention to the value of social interaction and affective involvement The quality of the interaction depends on the internet connection. This is a disadvantage for students in rural areas (Al Khresheh, 2021; Mu et al., 2022). The interaction intensity is crucial for speaking practice; students must cooperate with peers or partners. Cooperative partners will improve speaking proficiency and create effective learning opportunities (Newton & Nation, 2009; Rabab’ah, 2016) Moreover, cooperative learning could stimulate learning motivation and eventually increase learning achievement (Bećirović et al., 2022)
The tendency of students to be individual learners is high. They need to control their learning regulation with less direct supervision from teachers. The awareness to manage learning regulation and the strategy used determine their learning success. Researchers found that metacognitive learning affects students’ learning achievement. It has a major impact on listening comprehension (Forbes & Fisher, 2018; Goh & Hu, 2014; Tanewong, 2019). In contrast, socio affective learning is suitable to teach speaking because it emphasizes socio interactive learning and affective involvement. The socio affective strategy trains the learners to be aware of their feelings, appreciate the social relationship, and value social interaction as part of their learning process. Learners learn how to cooperate, encourage, and control their emotions to gain more benefits during language learning (Allah, 2016; Fotokian, 2015; Gurman Kahraman, 2013; Muin & Aswati, 2019; Syafri, 2016)
One of the universities that implement online learning is Universitas Muria Kudus It is one of the private universities in Kudus, a small regency in Central Java, Indonesia. Many university students live in rural and small villages with low
internet bandwidth. Since the area lacks good internet coverage, many students experience problems doing online courses. The English Education Department needs to create an environment that enables students to practise language skills. Since the class was conducted online, students' limited interaction to practise the language caused many disadvantages.
The transition from offline to online learning required teachers to adjust the learning strategy and supporting media for teaching. For teaching listening, teachers needed to ensure the accessibility of the audio materials to meet the curriculum requirements and students’ needs. In teaching students to speak English, teachers encountered a lack of interaction during online learning. Moreover, the institution did not provide a supportive platform for convenient video conferences, and the low internet bandwidth affected the quality of direct video conferences. In considering the problems during online learning at the institution, teachers need to increase student interaction, build students' and teachers' rapport, and provide students with model texts to practise speaking. By integrating the topics, listening could be considered as the language input for learning to speak. Socio affective learning offered the possibility to apply cooperative learning that might increase interaction.
Limited interaction during online learning caused students to be individual learners. For teaching listening, teachers should create accessible oral texts that meet the curriculum requirements and students' needs. Due to the limitation of direct supervision, the students needed oral model texts and cooperative learning for speaking practice.
Socio affective learning offers coorperative learning. Integrated listening speaking treats listening as language input for speaking practice. Metacognition affects individual's learning differences.
How socio affective learning and metacognition affect the students' listening and speaking proficiency .
Figure 1 above indicates various issues that arose during the study. The researchers conducted this research to investigate (i) how Socio Affective Instruction and metacognition levels affect the students' listening and speaking proficiency during online EFL learning, and (ii) how the students perceived the socio affective learning instruction during online EFL listening and speaking practice.
This research offered explicit sequences of socio affective learning for listening and speaking practices in synchronous and asynchronous online learning. This socio-affective learning outlined cooperative learning by organizing the students
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into learning communities that enabled them to cooperate inside and outside the classroom for listening and speaking practice. The learning sequences began with topic engagement and social interaction initiated by the teacher as the opening session. In the main session, students managed group work and socio affective learning by practising the given topic. At the end of the learning session, students calmed down by listening to music or playing simple games to relax and reduce anxiety. The closing session focused on sharing feelings among students to develop affective involvement.
Socio affective strategies help learners regulate and control emotions, motivations, and attitudes toward learning and support learners to learn through contact and interaction with others. A socio affective learning strategy is also believed to reduce students' anxiety and other adverse psychological effects (O’ Malley & Chamot, 1995; Oxford, 2013; Vandergrift† & Cross, 2018). Indonesian EFL learners consider speaking the most difficult language skill to acquire, due to negative psychological aspects such as less self confidence and high language anxiety. By applying the socio affective strategies, language learners are expected to lower their anxiety and solve problems through teacher students or peer interactions. Therefore, using socio affective learning strategies serves as a good alternative in language learning
Socio affective strategies offer different learning activities. Socio affective strategies take effect when language learners cooperate with classmates, question the teacher for clarification, or apply specific techniques to lower their anxiety levels (Oxford et al., 2014; Vandergrift† & Cross, 2018). This strategy might be well applied in teaching to speak because speaking, as a complex skill, should be taught under specific circumstances that enable learners to interact and learn in groups (Burns, 2016) Gurman Kahraman (2013) found that a socio affective strategy indicates a statistically significant decrease in the participating students' overall anxiety levels. Shofwani (2019) proved that socio and affective strategies effectively increased students' speaking ability with different confidence levels (Gurman Kahraman, 2013; Shofwani, 2019)
However, the students' tendency to use cognitive and metacognitive strategies during online learning creates learning gaps. In metacognitive learning, students practise autonomous learning frequently. The strategy trains students to control their learning regulations and highlights individuals’ characteristics in learning. Learners apply strategies and tactics that prove to be beneficial and evaluate and enhance their learning. Although a metacognitive strategy improves individual learning potential, it undermines the socio-affective factors that occur during learning cooperation and interaction (O'Malley & Chamot, 1995; Oxford, 2013; Oxford et al., 2014).
Metacognitive learning supports autonomous learning. However, becoming autonomous learners does not mean working individually. In speaking practice, students need to cooperate with peers or partners. Cooperative partners will improve speaking proficiency and create effective learning opportunities
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(Newton & Nation, 2009; Rabab’ah, 2016). Researchers found that metacognitive learning best suits listening comprehension (Forbes & Fisher, 2018; Goh & Hu, 2014; Rahimi & Katal, 2013; Tanewong, 2019; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). In comparison, socio affective learning is suitable for teaching spoken language because it emphasizes socio interactive learning and affective involvement.
Listening and speaking are always integrated during communication; therefore, teachers should teach these two skills as receiving and responding to information. Although the students may know how to listen and speak in English, they may not communicate properly, mainly because these skills are not taught in integration. Limited research exists investigating how listening correlates to speaking by adopting an experimental research design that implements a particular teaching strategy or technique. Some researchers correlated the students' listening and speaking scores and reported that they were correlated positively (Abu Snoubar, 2017; Demir, 2017; Hoang & Ngoc, 2021)
In this study, an experimental design was employed with one group and doing a pre and a post test. This research was conducted in 2021 during the Covid 19 outbreak in a new e learning environment. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed . The quantitative data comprised findings about the students' listening and speaking proficiency from experimenting with socio affective intervention. Metacognitive awareness level refers to the mediated variable that divided the participants into two groups. Qualitative data were gathered during the experiment using open ended questionnaires that recorded the students' perceptions after the intervention. These data were used to clarify students’ activities during the intervention. This research required mixed method data analysis (Creswell, 2014) The quantitative data analysis was used to evaluate the effect of SAI and metacognition levels on students' listening and speaking skills. The qualitative data were used to explain the SAI process and the socio affective factors that influence the students’ learning achievement.
The population of this research was 84 female and male Indonesian EFL university students. The subjects of the research were 41 students organized into two different classes. This research used cluster sampling because the groups were selected from four classes of the same academic year in Universitas Muria Kudus, eastern Central Java, Indonesia. The research was conducted in their second semester during the Intensive Listening and Speaking for Daily Communication classes The two groups of sampling were chosen due to the schedule arrangements by the head of the English department.
The research instruments were metacognitive awareness questionnaires, listening and speaking tests, and open ended questionnaires The Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire MALQ was revised, based on the works of Vandergrift and Goh (Vandergrift et al., 2006). This instrument was designed for researchers and instructors to assess the extent of students’ metacognitive
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awareness in listening comprehension. The MASQ (Metacognitive Awareness Speaking Questionnaires) was developed based on Vandergrift and Goh’s studies to measure students’ metacognitive awareness in speaking. The researchers adjusted the substance of the questionnaire by considering some strategies that best suited speaking practices (Sulistyowati et al., 2022).
Furthermore, to measure listening proficiency, the researcher used multiple choice listening test questions taken from the book, the Longman Complete Course for the TOEFL Test, which consists of authentic TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Language) items. The items were selected and adjusted according to the listening and speaking intervention topics. Forty items were selected, and eight questions were eliminated after the multiple choice validity and reliability test was done
To assess speaking proficiency, the researchers designed an interview based speaking test. The test was designed and validated based on internal validity by considering the content and face validity. To complete the speaking test, the students answered a series of questions and did the speaking instruction by self recording. The speaking scoring rubrics included fluency and coherence, lexical resources, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation as the assessed speaking aspects.
The researchers also collected qualitative data using open ended questionnaires to support the quantitative data. The questionnaires were used to evaluate the learning process and gather students' perceptions during the intervention. The question items were focused on the socio affective learning procedures, such as how students and teachers initiate the interaction, group working management, students' emotion and relaxation, and their expectations. Students completed the questionnaires using Google Forms, and the questionnaires were done anonymously.
Pre test in Listening & Speaking Class
SAI for Intervention
Post test in Listening & Speaking Class
Open ended questionnaire MALQ and MASQ
Figure 2 is a representation of the data collection procedure. After a pre test had been administered to the experimental group before the intervention, the students were guided to apply socio affective learning principles during the intervention period (cf. Oxford, 2013). The learning processes were done online by utilizing the zoom application. A few sessions used asynchronous learning activity by utilizing Google Form administration software to manage the assignments and was supported by WhatsApp Messenger to give indirect instruction and clarification if needed. To support the speaking practice, students self recorded their online conversations and uploaded them on the YouTube website.
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The sequences of the lesson were the following. The intervention lasted one semester with 14 weekly meetings in four months. After the intervention, the researchers measured the students' speaking and listening proficiency to gather the after effect data.
The listening and speaking practices shared the same topic in every meeting. This learning design facilitated the concept of integrated learning in listening speaking practices. This concept highlighted the principles of listening as receptive skills and speaking as productive skills. The two major listening concepts, listening as comprehension and language acquisition, were applied to accommodate students in increasing their oral texts comprehension and developing their speaking skills by acknowledging the linguistic features and common expressions used in a particular language use context.
Because the number of the data sources were less than 50 and unlikely to be heterogenic or non normal, data subsequently were subjected to non parametric test analysis. The pair sample data were analysed using the Wilcoxon test to confirm the significant difference between the pre test and post test scores of the listening and speaking proficiency, and to determine the significance of the difference between the independent samples; the researchers used the Mann Whitney U test. The data comparison involved four groups; Students with High and Low MALQ and Students with High and Low MASQ
Wilcoxon Listening Pre & Post test (High MALQ) Pre & Post test (Low MALQ)
Speaking Pre & Post test (High MASQ) Pre & Post test (Low MASQ)
Mann Whitney Listening Post test (High & Low MALQ)
Speaking Post test of (High & Low MASQ)
Listening & Speaking Listening & Speaking Post test (High MALQ & MASQ)
Listening & Speaking Listening & Speaking Post test (Low MALQ & MASQ)
The classification of students with high and low metacognition achievement was calculated based on their responses by using a Likert scale on MASQ and MALQ. To classify the students into high and low metacognition, the researchers calculated the mean score of MASQ and MALQ. The students with metacognition scores higher than the mean score were included in the high metacognition group, and those with metacognition scores lower than the mean were included in the low metacognition group.
Inductive coding was used to interpret the raw textual data from the questionnaires gathered during the intervention (cf. Creswell, 2014; Elliott, 2018). The data coding process uses the Open Code application for qualitative coding data from open ended questionnaires. The open coding was done to analyse the data line by line, every sentence and word from the strands of meaningful text from the students' statements. This coding process was required to build concepts and categories related to the success of the SAI. The quantitative data were combined with the qualitative data to interpret the research findings
4.1.
The normality test was done to decide on the test used for the quantitative data analysis. Because the listening test data were non normal, this research required a non parametric statistical test.
Group Kolmogorov Smirnov Shapiro Wilk Normality (Sig. > .05) Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Speaking (High MASQ) .190 20 .056 .919 20 .096 Normal
Speaking (Low MASQ) .176 21 .090 .921 21 .092 Normal
Listening (High MALQ) .256 20 .001 .787 20 .001 Non normal
Listening (Low MAlq) .217 21 .011 .832 21 .002 Non normal
Table 3 presents the results of the listening and speaking pre and post test. The listening proficiency of students with high metacognition increased significantly (26.9); those with low metacognition increased by 15.19. Speaking with the low metacognition group (9.96) and Speaking with the high metacognition group (7.55).
Skill
Speaking
Meta cognition Level Test N Range Min Max
Mean Std. Deviation Variance Statistic Std. Error
High
Pre 20 28 52 80 68.30 1.881 8.411 70.747 Post 20 22 65 87 75.85 1.366 6.107 37.292 Low Pre 21 21 54 75 61.71 1.469 6.732 45.314 Post 21 18 62 80 71.67 1.101 5.043 25.433
High
Pre 20 81 0 81 58.55 5.225 23.368 546.050 Post 20 66 34 100 85.45 4.055 18.132 328.787 low Pre 21 71 13 84 52.71 5.703 26.136 683.114 Post 21 87 13 100 67.90 6.805 31.185 972.490
The Wilcoxon Rank Test was done to analyse the effectiveness of the SA Instruction for improving the students’ listening and speaking proficiency. This statistical test compares the pre and post test scores for each group with different levels of metacognition. The result reports that SAI effectively increased the students’ language proficiency.
The researchers compared the pre and post test to examine the listening and speaking development after the intervention. The groups’ report indicated that all pre and post tests showed significant differences as the Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) is lower than 0.05. The result indicates that SAI positively influenced students’ speaking and listening proficiency for both groups of high and low metacognition (Table 4).
Metacognition Level
Speaking Listening High Low High Low
Z 3.926 3.951 3.846 3.270 Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .000 .000 .000 .001
The Mann Whitney U test for the independent sample test reported that not all post test comparisons showed significant differences. The test showed a significant difference if the Asymptotic Significance (2 tailed) is lower than 0.05. However, only the comparison of listening with high and low metacognition groups and the comparison of speaking and listening in high metacognition groups showed significant differences (Table 5).
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The post test speaking scores of high and low metacognitions did not differ significantly. It can be concluded that the level of metacognitive awareness does not significantly influence speaking achievement after the socio affective instruction intervention.
Table 5. Independent Sample test of listening and speaking with different metacognition groups Different Skills Different Metacognition
Speaking Listening High Metacognition Low Metacognition
Mann Whitney U 140.000 133.000 98.500 181.000 Wilcoxon W 371.000 364.000 308.500 412.000
Z 1.838 2.018 2.753 .996 Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .066 .044 .006 .319
Low metacognition students' listening and speaking achievements also were compared to determine their best skills. The statistical Mann Whitney showed no significant difference between listening and speaking achievement. The Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) was valued at .319, which is higher than the p .05. In conclusion, SAI had an insignificant influence on listening and speaking among students with low metacognition.
The qualitative data analysis reported that students had their own perceptions of applying socio affective instruction for learning to listen and to speak. The researchers synthesized the perceptions into several categories. These were: learning media and instruction, the problems, socio affective learning indicators, and students' expectations. The synthesis was outlined to determine some aspects that affect learning success during the intervention.
Table 6. Students’ Perceptions Synthesis 2 Synthesis 1 Students' Perceptions N Learning Aids Learning materials Topics are interesting 9 The learning materials are simple 3 The teacher gives learning variation 5 Instruction Module guides learning 1 Teacher explains clearly 3 Aids Songs are interesting 2 Videos are interesting 1 Problems Group working problem
Collaboration is limited 3 Organization is poor 6 Few students work in the group 6 Interaction problems Less interaction caused student teacher gap 2 They have limited speaking exposure 1 Not all students interacted 4
Low participation 1 Negative Emotion Low confidence 4 Feeling anxious 10 Less interested in learning 1 Task makes nervous 9 Test makes nervous 2 Technical problems Poor internet connections 2 Offline learning preference 1
Socio Affective Indicators Feeling and Emotion Cheerful slogan increases enthusiasm 2
Doing tasks is a challenge 4 They feel relaxed and enjoyment 10 Learning is pleasant 12 Games increase enthusiasm 4 Games reduce anxiety 13 Group work reduces anxiety 2 Music gives relaxation 10 Group working management
They cooperate well 2 They made equal contributions to the group 7 Group work reduces anxiety 2 Peers assistance 6 Social Interaction Games stimulate interaction 7 Students teacher interactions occur 10 Group working enhanced interaction 16
Students' Expectation Learning expectation
They need better group management 2 They need clear instructions 6 They need evaluation 1 They need games and songs 4 They need individual work 1 They need more fun games 4 They need intensive interaction 3 They need more relaxation and enjoyment 7 They need more time for tasks 4 They need offline meetings 3 They need more speaking practice 1 They do not want any video tasks 1
How strategy and tactics influence the listening achievement was reported (Chin et al., 2017; Goh & Hu, 2014; Tanewong, 2019). The research findings claimed that students’ listening achievement was influenced by metacognitive instruction and
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the student's awareness of the strategies used. This study reports a significant difference when comparing the listening pre and post test of the low and high metacognition groups. It indicates that the SAI as listening instruction had a significant effect on students with high and low listening metacognitive awareness. Previous research reported that socio affective learners consistently rank at the bottom compared to those who used other strategies, and they preferred to choose cognition and metacognition while listening (Bidabadi & Yamat, 2011; Huang & Nisbet, 2019; Serri et al., 2012). However, as the only intervention, SAI positively influenced students with high and low metacognition. When the post test result of listening is compared for the two groups, a significant difference is confirmed, and the post test mean increases significantly. The increase in the mean score of the high metacognition group was higher than that of the low metacognition group. In conclusion, the high metacognition group derived more advantage from the intervention.
However, the students' speaking proficiency did not show a considerable difference between the two groups; therefore, no significant difference was found. When the students were tested using an indirect interview based speaking test, they responded to the questions with various levels of vocabulary use, fluency, grammatical accuracy, and pronunciation. Most students managed to answer the questions in the test, and the different levels of speaking achievements resulted from the variance in speaking fluency, grammatical errors, vocabulary limitation, and miss pronunciation. Students with lower achievement often paused, and they did not sound natural when responding. They maintained the flow of speech, but used repetitions, self correction, and practised slow speech to keep speaking. They talked about familiar topics, but used vocabulary with limited flexibility and attempted to use short paraphrases with obvious grammatical errors that may cause comprehension problems.
The pre and post test comparison shows significant differences for both groups. The mean of the students with high metacognition increased by 7.55 points, and the mean of those with low metacognition increased by 9.96. In conclusion, students with low metacognition took more advantage of learning to speak. Therefore, in learning to speak, the students' metacognitive awareness did not significantly affect their speaking proficiency. Although various studies (Arp, 2016; Forbes & Fisher, 2018; Hermayani, 2020; Lye & Goh, 2018) claim that metacognition can be employed as an effective strategy for speaking practice and it offers many benefits regarding the possibility of students' strategy awareness, self efficacy, and self regulatory in learning, many other aspects influence the success of learning. Speaking is a complex language skill because it involves students' ability to manage emotional constraints, such as lack of confidence, anxiety, and low motivation. Online speaking practice may give students more challenges depending on their levels of confidence and anxiety. Speaking in front of the camera, video recording, and virtual speaking performance via zoom sessions for Indonesian EFL students, who are unfamiliar with online speaking exposure, may be considered a threat that affects their speaking confidence.
Regardless of the different degrees of improvement of the two groups, the SAI significantly affected students' speaking skills. The socio affective learning contributes to speaking by lowering negative emotional issues that impact on communication, such as anxiety, lack of motivation, confidence, and self efficacy (Jamaluddin, 2015; Muin & Aswati, 2019; Shofwani et al., 2019).
This research also reports that listening and speaking skills show different results. The HMA group significantly differed when their listening and speaking achievements were compared. The mean score of the listening post test was higher than the speaking score. In conclusion, students with high metacognitive awareness achieved higher listening scores than those speaking. This result supports the previous statements that metacognition level affects listening proficiency more. These findings were supported by previous research and theories that indicate that when students use a metacognitive strategy in learning to listen, they will get more benefits and improve their listening significantly (Lye & Goh, 2018; Rahimi & Katal, 2013; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012)
After the intervention, the students' perceptions were analysed to find the aspects influencing listening and speaking achievement. To summarize, the researchers outlined these important aspects
The researchers used open ended online questionnaires to find factors influencing SAI listening and speaking practices. The items questionnaires interrogated the students as respondents about the implementation of the SAI and the challenges during the intervention, and their learning expectations. In this section, the researchers will explain each of the syntheses. The synthesis in Figure 4 showed some factors that influenced the students during learning. The first category was the materials, media, and instructions reliability. The second was problems and
difficulties. The third was socio affective indicators that highlighted feeling and emotion, working group management, and social interaction. The last was the students' expectations.
Students explained that the teacherprovidedmore exciting learning materials and media to cope with virtual learning. The students perceived they had exciting topics and simple learning materials with various topics and media. They have many different learning topics related to their daily English needs. Students stated:
'I think the topic is attractive, and the learning style is not monotonous, so I do not feel bored…’ (Student 3)
'I feel interested, and the learning materials are given in a fun and simple way; therefore, I like to actively discuss the materials with classmates and teachers. I like learning with friends, and it makes me feel motivated.' (Student 4)
‘I think the topics are very interesting, and the topics are varied and related to daily life language use, therefore, I do not feel bored during the lesson, and I can follow the materials easily … (Student 15)
The text based approach was used to choose the topic of learning. The learning aims were to train the students to understand and produce English used for international communication (Melissourgou & Frantzi, 2017). Therefore, the topic focused on English used in daily informal communication, formal communication, short functional text, and longer text with specific genres, such as descriptive, procedures, and narratives. Thus, students thought that they had many variations in topics. The teacher used songs and videos to provide exciting and engaging media. The teacher created a comfortable and lively atmosphere for online learning by singing and playing audio videos related to the topics. Due to the massive development of EFL online learning, teachers must choose learning media relevant to distance education and web based learning (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015; Rigo & Mikus, 2021).
The students experienced socio affective involvement and felt the advantages of using SAI for online listening and speaking. They highlighted three aspects; feeling and emotion, group working management, and social interaction. The ability to control their negative emotion is beneficial for learners to achieve better results (Saeidi & Khaliliaqdam, 2013). The following excerpts revealed the students' perceptions:
Grouping arrangement at the beginning of the lesson stimulate my interaction among classmates, and I think my interaction with the teacher is very good because he gives ice breaking session that makes the lesson not monotonous and boring… (Student 1)
… many games make us interact…. I feel comfortable playing in games… (Student 13)
…. I like to interact with others, so in group working, we do the work enthusiastically by sharing the ideas … (Student 15)
… In group work, I prefer interacting with friends in the group and sometimes sharing with other groups… (Student 29)
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There were several ways that the teacher created to fill the students with positive emotions during the intervention. They created a cheerful slogan for the class and each group to increase enthusiasm and students' motivation. Students thought that it increased positive emotion. This activity is also helpful for encouraging students and stimulating their self efficacy. Simple online games and relaxing music were set to reduce anxiety and increase fun and enjoyment during intervention sessions. Students thought that games reduced their anxiety and enjoyment, and many concluded that learning was a pleasure. Those actions indicated the socio affective learning principle of managing feelings and positive emotions during learning.
Students also gave positive evaluations of the group's working management. They thought they cooperated well with other group members because they chose the members from the beginning. Therefore, they were familiar with it, making the management more effortless. They claimed that each member tried to make an equal contribution to the task and willingly provided assistance to others. They use chat applications to communicate and discuss the given tasks to manage online group work. Games and group work were applied during the learning to stimulate and control the social interaction between students and teachers. Many students perceived that they felt the responsibility to connect and interact with other group members by working in a group work. They also needed to get the teacher's assistance and maintain good interaction. Social interaction is also a prominent aspect of socio affective learning; therefore, it is essential to train students to communicate well. Communication occurred while students discussed the task, encouraged, shared feelings, and showed empathy. These were synthesized based on the principles of socio affective learning (Oxford, 2013; Palagar, 2013)
However, students also encountered many problems during the learning period. Few reported that not all students actively interacted during zoom sessions and cooperated well during group work. Students experience difficulties communicating with group members; as a result, only some students actively participated in a group discussion during the listening task and not all the members could practice speaking online. They found that not all students participated in classroom discussions. Few of them keep silent, refuse to turn the camera on, and sometimes do not respond to the teacher's initiation. Students stated:
'Actually, I do not feel comfortable working in a group with many students. …. We have three students, but only two actively do the task, but; one of us did not participate well …. and difficult to contact… (Student 9)
'I can work in the group pretty well… and we can cooperate… but sometimes other member does not care about the task, as a result, it affects our working mood…’ (Student 16)
‘I feel comfortable with online and offline listening and speaking, but the low internet signal makes the class inconvenient…' (Student 28)
‘… I feel anxious when suddenly the teacher ask me questions …’ (Student 32)
‘… In practicing speaking, I feel anxious because I am not very confident in expressing something in class.’ (Student 33)
This phenomenon has become an essential issue in online learning in Indonesia. Although teachers used many variations in learning by choosing related topics and using audio videos, relaxing music, and songs, some students cannot avoid being very nervous, especially when they need to do the tasks online in a synchronous environment.
Because many students live in rural areas, internet connection can be problematic. Students mayhave difficulties joining zoom sessions with low bandwidth internet connections due to technical problems and limited interaction during online learning. These issues were also reported by previous research. Some scholars claimed that if education institutions wanted to improve their online learning quality, they needed support from the Indonesian government. The government needs to make massive improvements for equal internet availability for all students. E learning utilities, technology literacy for students and teachers, suitable teaching design, and an intensive evaluation of the e learning program were required to make the program more effective (Nartiningrum & Nugroho, 2020; Nugraha et al., 2018).
Due to some problems they faced during online EFL learning, students expected more group management training, especially when working in groups in the virtual learning environment. With limited interaction, they needed an effective way of communication among group members. They claimed they preferred explicit instruction to help them effectively manage the task. The students believed they needed to relax and enjoy online learning. Because playing games online is rarely used in online learning, students must understand the instruction well. Despite the limited instruction and kinds of games that could be done online, students thought they needed them to overcome boredom and reduce their anxiety.
I hope to have offline class … we, students need to have face to face interaction to discuss the assignment … we also need to have a proper discussion with the teacher about the subject …. (Student 2)
…I think it is also important to have individual learning for listening and speaking because not all students feel comfortable working in a group….
In online learning, not all students actively participate in the discussion… all students need to turn on their camera from the beginning of the class …' (Student 21)
‘I expect for Listening and Speaking class to have more fun game… The teacher should not directly ask students to speak because that makes them feel anxious and nervous… (Student 27)
Students value a comfortable environment during online learning. However, online learning caused learning collaboration to have many disadvantages. Limited internet connection caused difficulties in learning collaboration. This fact was supported by previous research on the limitation of online learning during Covid 19 (Abidah et al., 2020; Rigo & Mikus, 2021; Zboun & Farrah, 2021) Students should be facilitated with supportive learning infrastructures. The
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statistical analysis reported a significant difference in students listening achievement between the high and low metacognition levels. It means metacognition contributes significantly to students listening proficiency. It was supported by previous research that claimed metacognition positively influenced listening comprehension (Forbes & Fisher, 2018; Goh & Hu, 2014; Liu, 2020; Tanewong, 2019). However, the listening score range was very high (SD: 18 and 30) In conclusion, although the SAI was applied to enhance collaboration, students tended to work individually.
On the contrary, metacognition gave an insignificant influence on students' speaking proficiency. The post test of the high and low metacognition showed insignificant differences. Students had to cooperate well and were much influenced by peer assistance. These findings showed that metacognition did not significantly influence students' speaking performance when students learned using SAI in the online learning environment. When the students were exposed to interview speaking sessions with the teacher, they tended to produce limited responses and keep silent. It seems that they were inconvenient and preferred their peers' initiations. The SAI to increase students' speaking confidence and motivation was not significantly achieved because some students felt nervous and anxious during their speaking performance. Therefore the application of SAI in an online learning environment contributes differently compared to previous research (Jamaluddin, 2015; Muin & Aswati, 2019; Shofwani et al., 2019)
Research reports that SAI has a significant influence in increasing students' listening and speaking proficiency, especially for students with high and low metacognitive awareness. After comparing the pre test and post test results, the researchers confirmed the significant difference in the test results between the two groups. The researchers compared the post test to study metacognition effects on students listening and speaking proficiency during SAI intervention. The listening proficiency of the two groups shows a significant difference; on the contrary, the comparison of the speaking proficiency does not show a significant difference. The high metacognition group shows a significant difference when listening and speaking are compared, but the low metacognition group does not show a significant difference. In conclusion, students with high metacognition benefited more when they learned how to listen, and students with low metacognition improved more significantly in their speaking proficiency
Students perceived SAI as explicit instruction during online learning that could benefit listening and speaking skills development. Students experienced enjoyment and a comfortable environment by practising SAI as they played games, listened to music, and shared assistance during group work. As for recommendations, teachers can be mediators in stimulating classroom interaction, and role models expressing sympathy, encouraging, and appreciating the students' work. Students need to learn how to express themselves by showing interest, exposing their feeling, and improving their positive feeling toward the learning process. To build empathy among students, teachers can create a learning community to enable students to work together and communicate more by giving
project based learning tasks. Online learning limits interaction but creates more opportunities forstudents to be autonomous learners because they can create their own learning environment.
During intervention sessions in 14 meetings, the researchers found that online synchronous listening and speaking practice depended on internet connection quality. Sometimes audio listening might not be audible. Students needed direct links to play the audio, which was stressful and time consuming Moreover, students tended to avoid turning on the camera during the video conference, and some important learning aspects, such as motivation, direct attention, learning interest, and group work management, cannot be observed and measured precisely. Limited direct interaction caused difficulties for students and teachers to maintain communication, which caused misinterpretation in learning instruction. For further research, researchers should focus on designing a reliable system of monitoring and assistance for online learning to support students' on task behaviour.
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