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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 12 (December 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 12 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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with this issue. Editors of the December 2020 Issue

Environment 30

Mapuya Medson Adolescent with Complex the Notion of Resilience: A Study in Greece and England

Elementary

Unlocking the Cultural Diversity Black Box: Application of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies in University Classrooms in Zimbabwe 146 Norman Rudhumbu A Conceptual Research Model for Investigating the Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on Students’ Teacherpreneurial Competencies and Intentions in Preservice Teacher Education 163 Olusiji Adebola Lasekan, Reyaz Malik and Claudia Méndez Alarcon Curriculum Structure and its Influence on Content Knowledge of Economics Student Teachers .......................... 190 Mothofela R Msimanga Questions in English Medium Instruction Undergraduate Lectures in a Sri Lankan University: Why are they important? 208 Abdul Majeed Mohamed Navaz Exploring Pre Service Teachers’ Emotional Competence and Motivation for the Choice of a Teaching Career 230 Tea Pavin Ivanec

Initiatives 106

Needs Perceive

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 12 December 2020 Table of Contents Analysis of Lesson Plans from Rwandan Physics Teachers 1

Attainment

Gilbert C. Magulod, Leonilo B. Capulso, Josephine Pineda Dasig, Micheal Bhobet B. Baluyot, John Noel S. Nisperos, Ethel Reyes Chua, Mahyudin Ritonga, Randy Joy M. Ventayen, Assel Khassenova, Mashraky Mustary and Supat Chupradit of School Principals in Indonesia Purwa Widiyan, Saowanee Sirisooksilp and Pennee Kantavong Narot

126 Agung

Disabilities and /or

Kizito Ndihokubwayo, Irénée Ndayambaje and Jean Uwamahoro Student Teachers’ their Learning

Reshaping

Perceptions of

First Year Accounting

Students

How

through

Immediate

Maria Georgiadi, Stefanos Plexousakis, Josie Maitland, Elias Kourkoutas and Angie Hart the University Curriculum the Visiting Lectureship 70 Valentyna I. Bobrytska, Hanna V. Krasylnykova, Nina G. Batechko, Nataliia А. Beseda and Yevhenii S. Spitsyn

Attributes

Teaching Children with Special Needs in Nigerian Regular Classes: Impact of Gender, Marital Status, Experience, and Specialty 86 Kingsley Chinaza Nwosu, WP Wahl, Hasina Cassim, Emmanuel Nkemakolam Okwuduba and Gloria Uzoamaka Nnaemeka of the Program Graduate and Learning Outcomes of Teacher Candidates towards Global Competence

The Development of Instructional Leadership Scale

Classroom

Convergence or Divergence in EFL Teachers’ and Learners’ Beliefs on Using Smartphones in Learning English: The Case of Master1 Students University of Tlemcen (Algeria) ................................................................................ 246 Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Investigating Predictors of Academic Plagiarism among University Students 264 Sumayah Nabee, Joash Mageto and Noleen Pisa Reimagining the Sustainable and Social Justice Mathematics Classrooms in the Fourth Industrial Revolution 281 Tshele J. Moloi and Mogalatjane E. Matabane Efficacy of Teachers’ In Service Training for Increasing Their Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia....................................................................................................................... 295 Tareq Melhem

Irénée Ndayambaje Rwanda Education Board (REB), Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5300 9063 Jean Uwamahoro

Keywords: pedagogical document; lesson plan; physics teacher; competence based curriculum

African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1730 6685

African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2566 8045

Abstract. Lessonplanningisacrucialroadmapguidingtheteacherbefore the implementation of the lesson. In the current study, we aimed at reviewing pedagogical documents used by Rwandan physics teachers. We gathered 32 lesson plans related to optics topics from five teachers and analyzed them using the lesson plan analysis protocol (LPAP) and lesson plan evaluation form (LPEF) jointly. We have found that teachers do not prepare these documents as required by the newly introduced competence based curriculum. Teachers plan for low levels of Bloom's cognitive and affective taxonomy domains and do not follow effective inquiry techniques along the stages of the lesson activities. A detailed discussion on each teacher’s practice was provided, and we hope it can serve as a qualitative overview on teaching and learning planning for effective classroom implementation. Due to the importance of pedagogical documents on effective teaching, we went through a rigorous validation process and suggested a model lesson plan to be consulted by any physics teacher (please see Appendix C) We recommend that teachers consult this lesson plan and prepare accordingly before class.

1 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 1 29, December https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.12020 Analysis of Lesson Plans from Rwandan Physics Teachers Kizito Ndihokubwayo*

Corresponding author: Kizito Ndihokubwayo; Email: ndihokubwayokizito@gmail.com

1. Introduction Any teacher in any subject needs to prepare the lesson before implementing it in the classroom. There are many types of pedagogical documents that teachers need as their daily instruments. These include the scheme of work, lesson plan, class diary, mark sheet, attendance list, notebook, evaluation notebook, exercise notebook, and so forth. However, these documents are importantly used for different purposes according to different teachers and education systems across the world. A system of training teachers in the Rwandan education system date back to colonialism around the 1900s, when formal education was introduced. Before competence based curriculum (CBC), the knowledge based curriculum (KBC) also emphasized much on effective PDs. However, the current CBC (REB, 2015b) focuses on learner centered as one of the millennium development goals implemented in 2000 (Abbott, Sapsford & Rwirahira, 2015; Nsengimana et al., 2020). As of 2016, all teachers were required to shift from knowledge based approaches and adapt to competence based approaches. Except for content knowledge, others related to pedagogical knowledge, instructional tool, and methods have all shifted towards learner engagement related approaches, including the ways of preparing PDs. Pedagogical documents are essential because they guide teachers to the expected destination. For instance, the work (SW) scheme guides teachers in a whole year or term (REB, 2015c) SW focuses on unit planning, while lesson plan (LP) focuses on topic planning (REB, 2015a). SW consists of what a teacher will teach in a term. It is a well scheduled document in the form of a bunch of lessons, while an LP is a sheet of paper showing what the teacher will follow during a class of one or two periods (REB, 2017) Jacobs, Martin, and Otieno (2008) refer to a lesson plan to a teacher's day to day teaching practice focusing on pedagogical knowledge. PDs are vital because they guide teachers' daily work. The scheme of work should be well prepared to guide the teacher to schedule the lesson for an extended time frame, while a lesson plan should be well prepared to reflect what will be done in a real classroom. An investigation carried out in Rwanda during learning optics showed the low performance and conceptual understanding of geometric optics (Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro & Ndayambaje, 2020a) and physical optics (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). Therefore, we were interested in analyzing these documents used by some physics teachers to check the way teachers prepare their PDs, mainly LPs. Planning is key for any teacher for his/her professional development (Ruys, van Keer & Aelterman, 2012). Pramoolsook and Magday (2019) and Sawyer and Myers (2018) assume that a lesson plan is a precise reflection of what arises in the classroom. Thus, a link between teacher’s planning and students’ outcome should arise. This study will help teachers to value the preparation before the class takes place using various LP tools. Teachers generally prepare the lesson plans for evaluation purposes by school administrators (Causton Theoharis, Theoharis & Trezek, 2008; Sawyer & Myers, 2018; Theoharis & Causton Theoharis, 2011), such as monitoring classroom curriculum implementation. However, they can serve as a roadmap to teachers for effective classroom implementation. They can also ensure that lesson plans are available and clear for substitutes in case the teacher is absent (Jacobs et al., 2008). The LPs include references to page numbers to be covered in the textbook, problems to be assigned as homework, and lists of standards or objectives to be covered during the lesson delivery.

This study aims at reviewing Rwandan physics teachers’ lesson plans in line with the following research questions:

It is essential to check what was planned before observation. The literature shows a strong relationship between teacher planning and student outcomes, as it is assumed that the teacher's lesson plan reflects the classroom activity (JICA, 2020) Therefore, LPs would be useful in program evaluation, such as tracking CBC implementation and teacher assessment. The SIIQS† project initiated lesson plan analysis through lesson study activity in Rwanda; however, there have been no studies evaluated of lesson plans for the physics CBC. Consecutive studies done in Rwanda found gaps both in pedagogical document preparation and classroom teaching practices. For instance, Byusa, Kampire, and Mwesigye (2020) found that the teachers do not take the PDs as their guide; instead, they only care about presenting them to education authorities such as district education officers, headteachers, or deputy headteacher in charge of studies. Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro and Ndayambaje (2020b) observed 42 physics classes using the RTOP tool and found that reformed teaching is 53% and teachers are running out of time and do not care about inquiry instruction. Nowadays, the inquiry is gradually receiving considerable room in many developing countries' science curriculum though it is at its early stage in Rwanda (Mugabo, 2012).

iii) Do physics teachers introduce inquiry based planned instruction in their lesson plans?

1.1 Research problem

i) To what extent do physics teachers' lesson plans reflect on a competence based curriculum?

ii) How do physics teachers prepare their lesson plans based on cognitive and practical Bloom Taxonomy's domains?

1.2 Research questions

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. The use of both lesson plan analysis protocol (LPAP) and lesson plan evaluation form (LPEF) is limited to LP only. Therefore, classroom observation should serve as a supplement to obtain data about the program under investigation. The lesson plan tools are used to prescribe the components of a program in terms of established models quantitatively and help determine the program's level of implementation (Boikhutso, 2010; Pramoolsook & Magday, 2019). A lesson plan analysis tool is a scalable and broader lens to support other tools that measure teaching behavior, such as classroom observation. However, it does not show evidence about lesson enactment until post lesson information is delivered (Diem & Thathong, 2019; Jacobs et al., 2008).

This study bridges the gap between teacher lesson preparation and real classroom practices. It shows teachers an effective way of lesson planning. Therefore, we hypothesize that there will be no difference among teachers in terms of lesson preparation. This research's novelty is that we designed and validated a model lesson plan that any teacher can refer to. † SIIQS: Project for Supporting Institutionalizing and Improving the Quality of School Based In service Teacher Training Activity

2. Methods and Procedures

2.1 Sample scope To carry out this study, we got an ethical clearance from the research and innovation unit at the University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE) for and research permission from distinguished districts. We, in May 2019, have visited two schools in Kigali and the Eastern province, Rwanda. Our sample targeted 11 physics teachers from four districts in Rwanda selected purposively from schools accommodating advanced level grade 10 and 11 science, including physics subject. We invited them to share with us the taught lesson plans related to optics. These LPs should have been used in the last term (from middle January and early April 2019). Eight teachers shared with us their lesson plans in hand or online. Three of eight teachers shared the LPs that are not relevant. One teacher shared mathematics LPs; two teachers shared LPs of mechanics related topics such as "Kinematics and simple harmonic motion," "Simple harmonic oscillation (Simple pendulum)," "Simple harmonic oscillator (Mass suspended from a coiled spring)" and "Representation, characteristics, and properties of sounds waves." Among these two teachers, one shared LPs related to optics but from 2018. We did not consider all of these LPs from three teachers for our analysis. Thus, our analysis took a case of five physics teachers' lesson plans. We have collected 32 LPs, representing approximately 54% of the sampled teachers (Appendix A)

2.2 Data sources

This is basic and applied research (Orodho et al., 2016). It is basic in a way that it adds knowledge of Rwandan physics teachers’ lesson planning to existing literature while is applied in a way that we have designed a model lesson plan for teachers’ references. We have used a mixed methodology to present the data. Thus, we have documented the characteristics of the lesson plans and discussed the variability among teachers.

2.3 Reliability analysis In analyzing these 32 LPs, we read all the documents and classified them according to the reserved scales (see Table 1). We used SPSS version 23.0 to analyze both reliability tests and data presented in the results section.

We used two necessary LP analysis tools to carry out this study. The LPAP of Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020) and the LPEF of Ferrell (1992). LPAP analyses nine elements of a competence based lesson plan. These 9 LPAP elements consist 27 items (Ndihokubway et al., 2020). The nine elements are sub sectioned into three stages: preliminary elements, the body of the content, and the accessories. "A Lesson Plan Evaluation Form (LPEF) was developed to provide systematic quantitative data about classroom functioning (Ferrel 1992, p. 23)." The LPEF involves three models curriculum, Bloom Taxonomy domains, and inquiry techniques of learning used in developing a curriculum where each lesson plan is scrutinized to determine the level to which it reflected the discerned curriculum elements (Ferrell, 1992). The developer of LPEF used the Inquiry Model to weigh the degree to which the LPs reflected a chance to gather and organize data and formulate and test hypotheses. The LPAP components align with LP format for a competence based curriculum (REB, 2019) while LPEF calls upon the inquiry based physics instruction (Ferrell, 1992) and illuminates the outcome from teacher planned teaching practices.

Item7 Related to Special Education Needs (SEN) Not written "none" or " " or the teacher writes a number only Describe only Write the number and describe

Item15-23 Teaching resources (TR), Formative assessment (FA), Active learning techniques (ALT)in the content of the lesson Not visualized Visualized but not clear At least one is visualized and clear More than one is visualized and clear

Item10 12 Writing the content of the lesson Not written Written but unclear (or not related) Written but not describe (outline) Written and well described

Item13 14 Stages of the development and conclusion sections areoutlinedComponentsin"Note"absent Not clear/not identifiable Other components apart from those outlined in "Note." Components outlined in "Note" are present

Item6 Number of IO components None One to two Three to four All five

Item25 26 Generic competences (GCs) and Cross cutting issues (CCIs) Not written Not clear Outlined only Outlined and described

Item5 Related to Instructional Objective (IO) Not written Written but Not related to the topic Written and related to the topic Written and related to the topic and content

Item2 Related to the format of the lesson title More than three Triple Double title Single title

Item1 Related to Key Unit Competence (KUC) Not written Written but not related to syllabus Written in summary and related to syllabus Written in full and related to syllabus

Item8 Addressing SEN Not addressed Not clear where it was addressed Addressed in IO or Description of Teaching and Learning Activity (DTLA) Addressed in Introduction to the lesson (Intro), or Lesson development (Dev), or Conclusion of the lesson (Concl))

Item27 Teacher self evaluation (TSE) Not written Written but not clear The teacher writes a simple word "well or not well done" The teacher well describes with the next step

Item9 Related to DTLA Not written Written but not related Written but does not show well what will be done in the lesson Written and shows well whatwill be done in the lesson

Item24 If visualized, was the ALT used with purpose? Definitely not Probably not Probably yes Definitely yes

Item3 4 Relationship between lesson title and time, and the connection to the syllabus Definitely not Probably not Probably yes Definitely yes

The preliminaries (item1 9) got a reliability coefficient of .92 (and a weighted Kappa of .87) across 32 LPs averaged from two raters. The body of the content (item 10 24) got a reliability coefficient of .79 (and a weighted Kappa of .69), while the accessories (item 25 27) got .58 (and a weighted Kappa of .48). Table 2 presents detailed interrater reliability among 9 LPAP elements.

LPAP elements Spearman's rho Weighted Kappa (K) Key unit competence 0.871 0.875 Title of the lesson 0.857 0.742 Instructional objective 0.969 0.968 Special Education Needs 1 1 Lesson description (DTLA) 0.897 0.758 Lesson stages 0.412 0.324 Lesson approaches 0.980 0.869 Generic competences and Cross cutting issues 0.369 0.214 Lesson evaluation 1 1

The inter rater reliability for LPEF was similarly based on the same LPAP raters scoring a sample of the same 32 LPs. The Spearman's rho among the raters was computed and found to be .93, while the weighted Kappa was found to be .79 across all selected LPEF items.

Alongside rate agreement among raters, Cohen's Kappa is used to remove agreement by chance (Cohen, 1988). Its interpretation is moderate when K is >.5, reasonable when K is >.7, and excellent when K is >.8. For ordinal data, the Spearman Brown coefficient is considered, and a weighted Kappa is computed to provide an ordinal outcome.

Each lesson plan was assigned a number and separately rated by two raters from the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematicsand Science(ACEITLMS) basedat the University of RwandaCollege of Education (URCE); among them, one is the first author of this study. These raters are experienced in analyzing lesson plans and are familiar with the LPAP.

The criterion validity check has shown that the data from the LPAP were consistent with data from other more standardized evaluation tools such as Lesson Plan Evaluation Form (LPEF) and Science Lesson Plan Analysis Instrument (SLPAI). A positive correlation (Pearson product moment coefficient r > .50) was detected across "Lesson approaches" of LPAP, "Inquiry techniques" of LPEF, and "Student inquiry" of the SLPAI items.

Table 2: Interrater reliability statistics across LPAP elements

The Spearman's rho among the raters was computed and found to be .81, while the weighted kappa was found to be .72 across 27 LPAP items. Thus, the raters did not differ in the way in which they rated the lesson plans.

Rater1Mean Rater2Mean &2Rater1Mean

Item2 Format

Item7 Written

Item4

Item11 Lesson

Item13 Components

Item14 Components

Table 3: LPAP mean scores from two

Item15 TR in

Item12 Lesson

Each rater has rated all 32 LPs into four LPAP scales according to each of the 27 LPAP items. We have averaged the results from both raters and computed means for each item. All teachers did not use the REB LP format. This is the reason why tracking the steps of inquiry techniques was difficult. The new REB LP format appears in the textbooks printed in 2019 (REB, 2019). However, teachers did not yet adapt themselves to it. This may be the lack of emphasis from REB. Teachers should be well informed of their roles. This format has segments in the development and conclusion sections of the LP, where the development section of the LP comprises discovery activities, presentation learners' findings production, and exploitation of findings/production, and the conclusion section comprises conclusion/summary and assessment/homework. It can be found that there is a variety rate across all 27 items on a 4 point scale. Thus, some items were rated one (on scale 1) while others were rated four (on scale 4). This is to clarify that, for instance, most of the teachers did not write SEN or wrote "none" or " " or a number only and scored below an average score of 2.0. However, none of this written SEN was addressed in the body of the lesson. Thus, both raters rated this item on scale 1. However, they connect the lesson title to the syllabus as both raters rated this item into the scale 4. In other words, teachers consult the syllabus in formulating the lesson topic. All teachers write the IO in all the LPs, although they miss some components, mostly condition and standard (see Table 3). raters &2Rater1SD 0.95 of the lesson title 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.46 title time bound 3.2 3.8 3.5 1.11 Syllabus connected to the lesson title 4 IO and how it is written 4 4 of IO components 3.5 3.4 3.5 0.5 SEN and description 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.84 SEN and the place where it is addressed 1 1 0 DTLA and how it is written 3.1 3.1 3.1 1.31 introduction 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.42 development 3.5 3.5 3.5 0.5 conclusion 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.42 of the lesson development 1.8 1.1 1.4 0.53 of the lesson conclusion 2.1 1.3 1.7 0.91 Introduction to the lesson 1.3 1.3 1.3 0.67

4 0 Item5 Written

Item9 Written

Item10 Lesson

4 0 Item6 Number

To supplement our study results, we have crafted and validated a model lesson plan that any physics teacher can refer to (see Appendix C).

3. Data Analysis and Results

Item1 Written KUC and how it is written 3.6 3.7 3.6

Item3 Lesson

Item8 Addressed

Item23 ALT in Conclusion of the lesson 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.68

Item17 TR in Conclusion of the lesson 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.92

Active learning techniques (ALT) were mostly provided than formative assessment (FA) and teaching resources (TR) (refer to Appendix B for more detail). They were observed mostly in the Development and Conclusion of the lesson than in the Introduction. This was reflected by the high percentage of LPs in the Development of the lesson (47%) and the Conclusion of the lesson (28%). The TRs were not visualized compared to FA and ALT in both parts of the lesson Introduction, Development, and Conclusion. This was reflected by the highest percentages of LPs rated into scale 1 "not visualized" Introduction (87.5%), Development (37.5%), and Conclusion (68.8%) (see Figure 1)

Item26 CCIs 3.9 3.6 3.8 0.62

Item20 FA in Conclusion of the lesson 2.9 3 3 0.28

Item24 If visualized, was the ALT used with purpose? 4 2.3 3.1 1.17

Item22 ALT in Development of the lesson 3.1 3.2 3.2 1.01

Item21 ALT in Introduction to the lesson 2.9 2.9 2.9 0.44

Figure 1: Distribution of LPs into the Lesson Approaches group. Scale 1 "Not visualized" scale 2 "Visualized but not clear" scale 3 "At least one is visualized and clear" scale-4 "More than one is visualized and clear." On the "If visualized, was the ALT used with purpose?" the scale 1 is "Definitely not," scale 2 is "Probably not" scale 3 is "Probably yes," and scale 4 is "Definitely yes."

ApproachesLesson Scale1 Scale2 Scale3 Scale4

The descriptive statistics associated with LPAP scales across five physics teachers are reported in Table 4. We evaluated the assumption of normality to satisfy 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%120.0% TR in Introduction of the lesson TR in Development of the lesson TR in Conclusion of the lesson FA in Introduction of the lesson FA in Development of the lesson FA in Conclusion of the lesson ALT in Introduction of the lesson ALT in Development of the lesson ALT in Conclusion of the lesson If visualized, was the ALT used with purpose? % of LPs

Item19 FA in Development of the lesson 3.1 3.1 3.1 0.64

Item27 TSE 2.6 2.6 2.6 0.83

Item16 TR in Development of the lesson 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.14

Item25 GCs 4 3.7 3.8 0.37

Item18 FA in Introduction to the lesson 2.6 2.7 2.6 0.76

9 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. distribution in these five teachers; the Skewness and Kurtosis were found negative. Skew is about distributional symmetry, while Kurtosis is the thickness of the tails and the center of the distribution (Blanca, Arnau, López Montiel, Bono & Bendayan, 2013). Thus, the data are not normally distributed; instead, they are negatively skewed. Teachers are mostly ranked towards the scale 4 of LPAP. Similarly, the data are negative Kurtosis distribution as the data in distribution is short and wide.

From the Bloom taxonomy perspectives' cognitive level, teachers plan for only delivering knowledge and assure that understanding is set in. This is shown by the mean score (4.0) across all 32 LPs. Even the application of what was learned was found below the average of 2.0. Similarly, at the adequate level of Bloom taxonomy perspectives, teachers care for making their students receive information (M=4.0) and attend (M=4.0) to and respond (M=3.1) asked questions (see Table 5).

Table 4: Descriptive statistics Mean DeviationStd. Variance Skewness Kurtosis Statistic ErrorStd. Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic MeanTeacher1 2.778 .1945 1.0105 1.021 .496 .858 MeanTeacher2 2.926 .1910 .9924 .985 .691 .716 MeanTeacher3 2.919 .1803 .9368 .878 .664 .370 MeanTeacher4 2.892 .2035 1.0576 1.118 .655 .843 MeanTeacher5 2.639 .2182 1.1337 1.285 .416 1.253 In order to test the hypothesis that teachers plan their lesson similarly, we performed the correlation analysis and analysis of variances (ANOVA). A .929 Cronbach alpha coefficient was found. Thus, the correlation is highly positive among five teachers. The independent between groups ANOVA did not yield a statistically significant difference, F(26, 4)=1.386, p=.244. Thus, we retain a null hypothesis of no difference between teachers in terms of LP preparation. The teachers' means are crossly related, ranging from Teacher 5 (M=2.639) to Teacher 2 (M Among=2.926).32LPs, only four LPs open the Introduction of the lesson by revising the last lesson. This is important from the constructivist point of view in a way that students should build on existing knowledge. Analyzing deep the formative assessment and active learning techniques, we employed the LPEF tool to compute scores on cognitive and affective levels of Bloom taxonomy to respond to the FA and the inquiry techniques as an ALT for most experiment based LPs. The digits under table 4 are average scores from two raters at a 1 to 4 point Likert type scale from 1 "the item was definitely not appeared" to 4 "the item has definitely appeared."

10 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 5: Results from the Lesson Plan Evaluation Form 1: Definitely not, 2: Probably not, 3: Probably yes, and 4: Definitely yes LP code Cognitive Level of Bloom Taxonomy Affective Level of Bloom Taxonomy Inquiry techniques Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Receiving Attending Responding Valuing Organization Characterizatio n collectionData Data organization Hypothesizing Hypothesis testing PT1A 4 4 1 2 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT1B 4 4 1 2 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT1C 4 4 1 2 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT1D 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT1E 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 1 3 2 PT2A 4 4 3 2 1 1 4 4 3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 PT2B 4 4 3 2 1 1 4 4 3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 PT2C 4 4 1 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT2D 4 4 1 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT2E 4 4 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT2F 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT2G 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 PT2H 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 PT2J 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 PT3A 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 PT3B 4 4 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 PT3C 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 PT3D 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

11 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. PT3E 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PT3G 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 4 3 1 1 PT3I 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT3K 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT3M 4 4 2 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 PT3N 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 PT4A 4 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 4 2 PT4B 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 2 1 PT4C 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 PT4D 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 PT4E 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 PT4F 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 PT5A 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 1 1 PT5B 4 4 2 1 1 3 4 4 2 1 1 1 Mean 4.0 4.0 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.8 4.0 4.0 3.1 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.1 St. Dev 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.0 0.7 0.4 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.3

The space with no number refers to LPs that were not related to experimentation. We then noted that other LPs would implement inquiry techniques. However, such practice was not visualized. It seems that teachers are not aware of inquiry based learning techniques and those who are aware of them think that it can only be implemented in experiment related lessons. Our results show that the use of inquiry techniques was below the average of 2.0. Contrary wise, in the Ferrell (1992) study, the LPEF analysis findings indicate that teachers follow an excellent teaching practice during their lesson planning. Only in four LPs, the teacher planned to ask students to hypothesize or predict the outcome of observation (see Table 5). This is in line with a study by Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro & Ndayambaje (2020), who, via RTOP results, found that teachers do not promote prediction among students. The inquiry is associated with science, a complex activity involving observation, questioning, examining various sources of information to revealwhat is already known in the light of experimental evidence, investigating inferences by gathering/analyze/and interpret data, proposing answers and explanations, and communicating the outcome (Mugabo, 2012)

4. Discussion of Practical Implication

Teacher 1 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit; the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4. Teacher 1 fully used group formulation in all LPs, where he emphasized on mixing girls and boys as a criterion of the group formulation. This may be caused by the gender inclusion expected in the 8 CCIs (REB, 2015b). This inclusion is subtle. However, teachers should go beyond this and ensure that boys and girls have the same learning rights. Contrary wise, Teacher 4 mentioned it. He wrote: "gender balance: boys and girls are given equal responsibilities." Teachers should also emphasize the inclusion of able students and struggling students to employ a specific ALT purposively (refer to Appendix B for more detail). In presenting the results, the teacher only uses the group leader. This act may discourage other students and pressure the group leader. It is better to randomly select the presenter so that everyone is ready to work as none knows who will present the group findings. In describing the competences to be accommodated, the teacher usually mentions: "skills in organizing scattered data to develop systematic, observation, and detailed presentation"; however, in the teacher or students' activity, there was not appearance of any doing an experiment, observing nature or inquiry. He also wrote that "skills in report presentation, for example, in Microsoft PowerPoint" while in the teacher or student activities, it appears presenting on the blackboard. An LP serves as a map guiding the teacher during the teaching process (Ndihokubwayo et al. 2020). However, it seems it is a formality. For instance, in the "learning materials" place, the teacher mentions some materials such as a calculator, internet connection. However, he does not describe how they will be used in the main lesson (teacher and learner activities). Straessle (2014) found that many teachers use written lesson plans but they do not often refer to them during class delivery. Therefore, teachers need to take LPs as their road map toward effective lesson delivery. Teachers should write their lesson plan with full consideration. They should revise it to check everything is in place. Refer to a model lesson plan in Appendix C3 as a standardized and full lesson plan.

The teacher considered writing a lab report as an assessment during the Conclusion of the lesson. The study of Amanda G. Sawyer showed that teachers vary in the choices of resources for lesson planning due to their different experiences.

Teacher 2 outlined the activities to be done by students and teachers. She took the students into experiments and discussion of results through group work. She said the teacher should do the first activity of the experiment while students do the next step. However, this is good; however, this is good; she may be sure that students cannot do even the first step if the teacher guides them skillfully. She outlined the GCs and CCIs without explaining how they will be catered and achieved. Thus, their role according to each and specific activity is lost. Teacher 2 differs from Teacher 1 in the way that she planned for the experiment, although she did not provide the name of an experiment to be done or specifies its steps.

Teacher 4 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit; the learner should be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.

Most of all the teachers used a particular ALT without purpose. For instance, Teacher 4 started by assigning students into groups. The use of such group work should take a source, for example, after assigning students with individual work, and the teacher notices difficulties among students to perform the given activity or exercise. Most of the teachers ask questions in the Conclusion and expect students to respond to those questions. However, these questions are not mentioned. These questions or exercises should be different from what was discussed in the lesson to avoid memorization and promote thinking. Thus,

Teacher 3 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit; the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" and "by the end of this unit, the learner should be able to analyze the function of the simple and compound microscope" from S4. In the lesson on Measuring the focal length of the convex lens, the teacher set the IO well (refer to Appendix B for more detail). For instance, he wrote, "given lenses and other necessary apparatus, learners should be able to determine the focal length of a convex lens effectively." This is in line with the Straessle (2014) study, where teachers did not differentiate among the components of lesson planning, although they care about clear learning objectives than other components. Most of the time, the teacher introduces before learners are assigned to the group works. He then emphasizes that students should follow his explanation actively.

Teacher 2 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit, the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4, and "the learner should be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.

In some of the LPs, the teacher described the SEN though he did not address them in the lesson development. For instance, he wrote, "some students are quick while others are slow in learning." Somewhere he even specifies the number "five students have difficulties in understanding English" or "five students have disruptivebehavior."Alwaystheteachersummarizesorconcludesthelesson, and students take notes.

The Straessle (2014) study revealed that when creating assignments, teachers use real world connections significantly more frequently than any other facet. This real world context should be reflected when teachers emphasize allowing students to connect themselves and what they learn to their real life situations. Moreover, this is well outlined and recommended in the syllabus (REB, 2015a) daily Teacheruse.4

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students should use what was learned to answer questions or perform exercises and not copy what they learned. This will increase their critical thinking as they achieved competence, and the lesson will be viewed at a wide angle (to be used in various contexts). Our results show that teachers do not plan for a significant assignment that reflects students' context and the use of what was learned clearly.

planned to request students to interpret their results. This is very important in promoting critical thinking. It alerts students that observation or experimentation is not a standalone lesson objective; instead, a further inference of the results is necessary to get the meaning of what they learn. Most of the teachers care about critical thinking as a GC. Only teacher 4 emphasizes long life learning. For instance, "students will develop long life learning by taking the initiative to update knowledge and skills with minimum external support." This is very crucial to motivate such senior five students to look further in their future. It may help them to plan for their future studies and career.

Teacher 5 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit; the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4 and "by the end of this unit, the learner should be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.

Teacher 5 planed to provide short notes to students and give time to copy notes. He is brief in planning all the LP steps, even in writing the KUC in full. Thus, he shortened the KUC. He wrote, "explain the properties of lenses."

Teacher 4 describes the "DTLA" well. For instance, in the lesson of "measuring the Plank's constant," he wrote the DTLA: "using an electronic circuit containing a LED power supply, digital millimeter, and a digital voltmeter, learners with the help of the teacher describe how to measure Plank's constant." This may guide anyone who reads the LP (for instance, before observing class) on what will be done during the teaching and learning process. Teacher 4 encourages the students to make a prediction. This helps students to observe and think by relating their prerequisite knowledge to a new observation. Teachers outline what will be done in the lesson but do not describe what and how they will be done. In the case of teaching activity, if, for example, the teacher is not available to teach the lesson, Deputy Of Studies will not have an opportunity to assign another teacher to teach such lessons as it is not well and fully elaborated.

conclusion/summary

Most of the teachers start the introduction section by asking students questions about the previous lesson. None of the teachers uses the LP format segmenting the development section into discovery activities, presentation learners' findings production, exploitation findings production, and the conclusion section into and assessment/homework. This shows why all LPs show a poor description of activities to be done during the teaching and learning process. Thus, if the teacher fills the LP format by planning for these components

5. Conclusion and limitations

In this study, LPAP findings showed that physics teachers' lesson plans do not reflect well on the competence based curriculum. Teachers do not follow the REB LP format, do not cater to slow learners, and are reluctant to use effective active learning techniques. There is no need to limit teachers on which lesson plan format to use; however, REB needs to guide them effectively during in service teacher training. Probably, what is essential is not the format, rather what to consider while planning a lesson. Our findings show that the LPEF analysis indicates that teachers do not use higher levels of the cognitive and affective domains. Teachers do not consider following inquiry techniques too. Data from the lesson plan analysis should be supplemented by classroom observation. Although reviewing lesson plans added little to the accuracy of rating a teacher's performance, however, this is a reasonable prediction that if a good preparation were considered, the reformed teaching would also increase. The limitations of our study lie on small sample disabling us to generalize our results. Therefore, further studies should focus on the scheme of work as an important pedagogical document and check its alignment to the lesson plan with a sounding teachers’ sample as well as lesson delivery.

Acknowledgment

6. References Abbott, P., Sapsford, R., & Rwirahira, J. (2015). Rwanda’s potential to achieve the millennium development goals for education. International Journal of Educational Development, 40, 117 125. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.12.007 Birindwa, C., & Atwebembeire, A. (2016a). Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools: Teacher’s Guide Book 4. Kigali: Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd. Birindwa, C., & Atwebembeire, A. (2016b). Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s Book 4. Kigali: Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd. Blanca, M. J., Arnau, J., López Montiel, D., Bono, R., & Bendayan, R. (2013).Skewnessand

This research was financially supported by the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) of the University of Rwanda (UR). We would like to extend our gratitude to the individuals who evaluated the lesson plan presented in this research. Without their comments, critics, and views, the lesson presented would not have rich information and fruitful to our dedicated teachers. This is why Ms. Pascasie Nyirahabimana, Mr. Hashituky Telesphore Habiyaremye, Mr. Jean Nepomscène Twahirwa, Mr. Jean de Dieu Nkurikiyimana, and Ms. Jeannette Nyirahagenimana, all their inputs are acknowledged. We highly appreciate the editor and reviewers from IJLTER; their comments and suggestions were valuable and helped us improve this study. We also thank Mr. Fidèle Ukobizaba and Miss Juliette Itangishatse, who commented on the manuscript before sending it to the IJLTER for review and publication. This work was also inspired by JICA experts that worked for the SIIQS project; therefore, they are acknowledged.

Secondary Schools:

16 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. kurtosis in real data samples. Methodology, 9, 78 84. doi:10.1027/1614 Boikhutso,2241/a000057K.(2010).The theoryintopracticedilemma:Lessonplanningchallengesfacing botswana student teachers. Improving Schools, 13(3), 205 220. doi:10.1177/1365480210385668

Ndihokubwayo, K., Byukusenge, C., Byusa, E., Habiyaremye, H. T., Mbonyiryivuze, A., & Mukagihana, J. 253 K., Uwamahoro, J., & Ndayambaje, I. Mugabo, O., & Nkundabakura, P. P. N., & Ndayambaje, I.

Byusa, E., Kampire, E., & Mwesigye, A. R. (2020). Analysis of Teaching Techniques and Scheme of Work in Teaching Chemistry in Rwandan Secondary Schools. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(6), 1 9. Caustondoi:10.29333/ejmste/7833Theoharis,J.N.,Theoharis, G. T., & Trezek, B. J. (2008). Teaching pre service teachers to design inclusive instruction: A lesson planning template. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12(4), 381 399. doi:10.1080/13603110601156509 Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Diem, H. T. T., & Thathong, K. (2019). Enhancing the pre service biology teachers to construct better lesson plans: A lesson study. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(11), 218 231. doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.11.13 Ferrell, B. G. (1992). Gifted Child Quarterly. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(1), 23 26. doi:10.1177/001698629203600106

(2020). Lesson Plan Analysis Protocol (LPAP): Training Manual Retrieved Ndihokubwayo,8816e04d&showFulltext=true_Finahttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/347388283_LPAP_Training_Manualfroml_version_Suplementary_materials?channel=doi&linkId=5fda6b89299bf140K.,Uwamahoro,J.,&Ndayambaje,I.(2020a).EffectivenessofPhETSimulationsandYouTubeVideostoImprovetheLearningofOpticsinRwandanSecondarySchools. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 24(2),

Jacobs, C. L., Martin, S. N., & Otieno, T. C. (2008). Instrument for Formative and Summative Program Evaluation of a Teacher Education Program. Science Teacher Education, 92, 1097 1126. doi:10.1002/sce.20277 JICA.(2020). (SIIQS) Kigali.

Mugabo, R. L. (2012). of Teaching Rwandan Lower Teachers’ Universityof KwaZulu

Retrieved from https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12327383.pdf

Inquiry based Science

TheProjectforSupportingInstitutionalizingandImprovingQualityofSBIActivity ( SIIQS ) Project Completion Report The Project for Supporting Institutionalizing and Improving Quality of SBI Activity

(2020). Reflection onsciencecompetence basedcurriculumimplementationinSub SaharanAfrican countries. International Journal of Science Education, Part B, 0(0), 1 14. Orodho,doi:10.1080/21548455.2020.1778210A.,Nzabarirwa,W.,Odundo,P., Waweru,

265. doi:10.1080/18117295.2020.1818042 Ndihokubwayo,

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(2020b). Implementation of the Competence Based Learning in Rwandan Physics Classrooms: First Assessment Based on the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(9), 1 8. Ndihokubwayo,doi:10.29333/ejmste/8395K.,Uwamahoro,J.,Ndayambaje,I.,&Ralph,M.(2020).Lightphenomenaconceptualassessment:aninventorytoolforteachers. Physics Education, 55(3), 035009. doi:10.1088/1361 6552/ab6f20 Nsengimana, T., Rugema

Natal.

L., Hiroaki,

(2016).

Project Completion Report.

attitudes and perceptions.

Table A1: Lesson Plans collected alongside the optics content no Topic Date Min S4 lesson plans 1 Magnification of the lens, Power of the lens, and exercises on formula of the lens 6/2/2019 40 2 Determination of the focal length of the lens 8/2/2019 40 3 Refractionthrougha prism (deviationof light bya prism) 15/2/2019 40 4 The angle of minimum deviation and determination of the refractive index 16/2/2019 40 5 Summary (Exercises) of all topics in this unit by giving exercises 21/2/2098 40

Ruys, I., van Keer, H., & Aelterman, A. (2012). Examining pre service teacher competence in lesson planning pertaining to collaborative learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(3), 349 379. doi:10.1080/00220272.2012.675355

REB. (2015a). Advanced level Physics syllabus. Kigali, Rwanda: Rwanda Education Board, Ministry of Education. REB. (2015b). Comptence Based Curriculum. Curriculum Framework Pre Primary to Upper Secondary. Kigali, Rwanda: Rwanda Education Board, Ministry of Education.

REB. (2017). Teacher Training Manual Reflections on Teaching Practice and Focus on Assessement (3rd Phase) Kigali, Rwanda: Rwanda Education Board, Ministry of Education. REB. (2019). Subsidiary Mathematics Senior 6 Teacher’ s Guide Kigali, Rwanda: Rwanda Education Board, Ministry of Education. Sawyer, A. G., & Myers, J. (2018). Seeking comfort: How and why preservice teachers use internet resources for lessonplanning. JournalofEarly ChildhoodTeacherEducation, 39(1), 16 31. doi:10.1080/10901027.2017.1387625 Straessle, M. W. J. (2014). Teachers’ perspectives of effective lesson planning: A comparative analysis (College of William and Mary in Virginia). College of William and Mary in Virginia. doi:10.25774/w4 8swa 7371 Theoharis, G., & Causton Theoharis, J. (2011). Preparing pre service teachers for inclusive classrooms: Revising lesson planning expectations. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(7), 743 761. doi:10.1080/13603110903350321

AppendixAppendicesA: Pedagogical document reviewed We have requested LPs from 11 teachers. We analyzed 32 lesson plans from five teachers, where 24 were from S4 while eight were from S5. Fourteen LPs were single lessons of 40 minutes period, 10 were double periods of 80 minutes each, while 8 had triple periods of 120 minutes each.

REB. (2015c). Roll out of the Competence Based Curriculum: Teacher Training Manual (1st phase). Kigali. Rwanda: Rwanda Education Board, Ministry of Education.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods. A Step by Step Guide to Scholarly Excellence. Nairobi: Kanezja Publishers & Entreprises. Pramoolsook, I., & Magday, W. D. (2019). Move confirmation and teaching strategy identification of english student teachers’ lesson plans in the Philippines: A rhetoricalframeworkfornoviceteachers. InternationalJournalofLearning,Teaching and Educational Research, 18(12), 150 173. doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.12.10

18 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 1 Minimum deviation angles in prisms 6/1/2019 40 2 Physical features and types of thin lenses 21/1/2019 40 3 The image formed by a thin lens 23/1/2019 40 4 The formula of a thin lens 28/1/2019 40 5 Refraction of light through a prism 29/1/2019 40 6 Anglesofminimumdeviationandrefractiveindex 30/1/2019 40 7 Deviation of light by a small angle of the prism 4/2/2019 40 8 Refractive index of the material 5/2/2019 40 1 Thin lens 25/1/2019 80 1 Thin lens equation 22/1/2019 120 2 Measurement of the focal length of a convex lens 29/1/2019 120 3 Defects of lenses and their correction. Refraction through prism 5/2/2019 120 4 refractionRefractionthroughaprism,atermassociatedwiththroughaprism 7/2/2019 120 5 Deviation of light rays by a glass prism. The angle of minimum deviation and determination of the refractive index 12/02/2019 120 6 The angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism 14/2/2019 120 7 Lens maker's equation (Full lens equation) 19/2/2019 120 8 Definition of an optical instrument and angular magnification, the human eye, and visual angle 25/2/2019 80 9 Formation of the image by a lens camera Slide projector 28/2/2019 120 10 The terrestrial telescope, Galilean and reflecting telescope 11/3/2019 80 S5 lesson plans 1 Compton effect and photon interaction 25/1/2019 40 1 Wave and particle nature of light 18/1/2019 80 1 The measure of Planck's constant 22/1/2019 80 2 Representation, characteristics, and properties of sounds waves 28/1/2019 80 3 Blackbody radiation 31/1/2019 80 4 Guidelines for doing physics practical 31/1/2019 80 5 Compton effect and photon interaction 7/2/2019 80 6 Electron microscope 12/2/2019 80 Appendix B: Lack of IO and Presence of TR, FA, and ALT among reviewed LPs In this appendix, we presented what IO components lacked in LPs written by five teachers (Table B1) and the presence of TR, FA, and ALT among five teachers' LPs (Table B2). Table B1 Lack of IO

Table B2 The presence of TR, FA, and ALT TR FA ALT

T3 Chalks, notebooks, figures Questioning (5) Group activities (9) Chalks, notebooks, figures, experiment protocol Group activities (5) Presentation (3) Chalks, notebooks, pens. Exercises, quiz (4) Chalks, notebooks, pens, prism Calculator, notebooks, pens, Equilateral Glass Prism Calculator, notebooks, pens. Chart, simple microscope, Calculator, notebooks, pens. Lens Camera, slide projector, pens (2) T4 String Questioning (6) Group discussion (4) White and black clothes, sunlight (2) Presentation (2) Marbles Group activities (1) Simple magnifying glasses Brainstorming (3) Roleplay (4) Note taking (6) T5 Questioning (2) Group discussion (2) Presentation (1) Roleplay (1) Note taking (2) Appendix C: Model Lesson Plan

Preparation for class may take many forms. Notably, there are 2 phases before a teacher enters the class and the other two after he/she enters the class. These are pre plan, lesson planning, and lesson delivery, and teacher assessment (REB, 2017). The pre plan is when a teacher thinks about what he/she will do, what is

T1 Pen, Pencil (1) Questioning (5) Group discussion (4) Pen, Pencil, Prism (2) Group activities (2) Group activities (2) Pen, Pencil, Prism, Calculator (2) T2 Prism, pens, paper (3) Questioning (9) Lab activities (1) Ruler, textbooks (1) Group activities (8) Discussion (2) Charts (2) Group activities (9) Blackboard, Chalk Board (1) Presentation (1)ProvidingDemonstration(2)(1)examples

Thin lens Magnification,convention(equation),formulathesign(2)Power of the lens Determination(2) of focal length of a concave lens (2)

Table C1 Scheme of work for Unit 1 Thin lenses s/n Syllabus Student's book Teacher's guide (no of periods) 1 Characteristics of lenses Characteristics of lenses (pp. 4 Terms6)used in lenses (pp. 7 11) Types of lenses and their characteristics (2)2 Types of concaveconcave,divergingconvexconvex,converginglenses:(doubleplanconvex,meniscus)and(doubleplanoconcave,meniscus)

To write the model Physics LP, we have chosen to only focus on one topic (Determination of the refractive index of the prism) and planned to be taught in 2 periods (see Table C1). We consulted the syllabus (Rwanda Education Board, 2015a, pp. 23 24), student textbook (Birindwa & Atwebembeire, 2016b, pp. 49 58), and the teacher's guide (Birindwa & Atwebembeire, 2016, pp. 1 2 and 18 20).

3 Refraction of light through lenses. Refraction of light through lenses (p. 12) Properties of images formed by lenses (pp. 13 16) Terms used in lenses, refraction of light by lenses, Images formed by lenses (2) 4 Ray drawing and properties of images formed by lenses for an object located at different positions. Ray diagrams and properties of images byformedlenses (pp. 16 19) Ray diagrams for a convex lens (pp. 20 23) Ray diagrams and images formed by lenses (2) 5 Graphical determination of the focal length of lenses Accurate construction of ray diagrams (pp. 23 24) Graphical determination of the focal length of a Lensconvex(2)

20 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. needed, which method, materials, or teaching aids he/she will use, how he/she will cater to students, manage class, including varieties among students. After pre planning mentally, the teacher needs to plan on the paper. This is the lesson planning phase.

6 Thin lens equation, Power of lens, magnification, and sign convention. The thin lens formula (pp. 24 25) The sign convention (p. Derivation25) of the lens formula (pp. 26 29) Magnification (pp. 29 Applications30) of the lens formula (pp. 30 33) Power of the lens (p. 33) Determination of the focal length of the lens (pp. 34 37)

7 Lens combination and effective focal length Combination of lenses (pp. 37 Defects40)oflenses and their corrections (pp. 40 42) Combination of lenses, and effective focal length of the lens combination (2)

The angle of minimum deviation determinationand of refractive index n of a material of the prism (pp. 51 53) The angle of minimum deviation and the refractive index n of the material (pp. 53 54) Deviation of light by a small angle prism (pp. 54 Determination57) of refractive index of a material of a prism (pp. 57 58)

13 Deviation of light rays by a glass prism. Deviation of light by a prism (pp. 49 51) Determination of refractive index of the Deviationprism; of light by the prism, refractiveDeterminationdeviation,Minimumofindexof a material of a glass prism using minimum deviation (2)

10 Applications of combined lenses

The unit of thin lenses comprises 17 topics (REB, 2015a, pp. 23 24) to be completed in 24 periods (one period is 40 minutes). Six topicsare related to prism refraction through prisms, terms associated with the refraction of passing through a prism, deviation of light rays by a glass prism, angle of minimum deviation and the

12 Terms associated with the refraction of passing through a prism Terms associated with refraction through a prism (pp. 44 45) General formulae for the prism (pp. 45 49)

16 Applications of total internal reflection of light by a prism Applications of total internal reflection of light by a prism (pp. 59 Use60) of prisms in periscopes (pp. 60 61)

9 Defects and correction of lenses Defects of lenses and their prisms)refractionassociated(Introductionthroughrefractioncorrections,glassprismsandtermswiththroughthe(2)

8 Derivation of lenses formulae

17 Problem solving related to combined thin lenses and refraction of light Exercises (pp. 62 68) Problem solving related to combined thin lenses refractionand of light (2)

11 Refraction through prisms Refraction through prisms (pp. 43 44)

14 The angle of minimum deviation and refractivedeterminationtheoftheindexofaprism

15 Dispersion of light by a prism Dispersion of light by a prism (pp. 58 59) Dispersion of light, Applications of total reflectioninternal by a prism (2)

Table C2: Sample LP

22 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. determination of the refractive index of a prism, dispersion of light by a prism, and applications of total internal reflection of light by a prism. Table C2 is the sample lesson plan. This is one LP (Table D1) from sampled 32 LPs. It is the one we referred to during preparing the model physics lesson plan (Table C3).

Note that the lesson plan we drafted is in the format recommended by the REB. We followed their format, but the content was prepared as an example by ourselves to support the LP under Table C2. So, the mistakes or misinformation that may be brought by our content has no way to be attributed to REB or teacher's LP under Table C2. However, we have validated it to the extent it can serve as a model lesson plan to be consulted by any physics teacher for proper planning. Our LP draft was shared with seven people. These were three URCE assistant physics lecturers (among them one teach teaching methods in addition to physics), one consultant who worked for the SIIQS3 project, and three master students at ACEITLMS/URCE who were physics teachers in secondary schools before 2019. After receiving their validation reports (five reports from five people who responded to our request), we have considered their suggestions and input to enrich our LP draft and provide the current model LP (see Table C3).

3 SIIQS refers to the Project for Supporting Institutionalizing and Improving the Quality of SBI (School Based In service Teacher Training) Activity. This project was piloted jointly by Rwanda Education Board (REB) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) from 2017 to 2019

• clearly explain the deviation formula and minimum deviation produced by a prism and its relationship with the refractive index

Key Unit Competence By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses

• determine the refractive index of a material of a prism correctly.

Instructional Objective Through experiments using materials such as glass prism of refracting angle 60o, a sheet of paper, soft board, pins, and pencils, ruler, and protractor; through a series of exercises; learners should be able to:

Learning Materials Glass prism, pins, white papers, soft board, pencils, ruler, protractor, calculators, notebooks (for all learners)

• measure the angle of deviation d accurately

• determine the refractive index of a material of a glass prism using the minimum deviation formula easily.

Unit

Determination of refractive index of the Prism; Deviation of light by the Prism, Minimum deviation, Determination of refractive index of a material of a glass prism using minimum deviation

24 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table C3: Model lesson plan School name: ………X……………………….. Teacher's name: …………X……................................................... Term Date Subject Class UnitN o Lesson No Duration Class size I 12 February2019 Physics Senior 4 PCB 1 10 of 12 80 Minutes 45 Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for in this lesson and number of learners in each category

Thin

• plot a graph of deviation d against the angle of incidence accurately

One student has visual impairment (short sightedness) while ten students are slow to understand physics concepts together with the other seven students fear mathematical formulae title lenses

Title of the lesson

Plan for this Class (location: in / outside) This lesson will be conducted inside the classroom

i1, r

1. (10Introductionmin) Ask questions about the previous lesson: Describe a prism as an apparatus that refracts light Write and interpret the Snell's law and the angle of the prism Guide students in answering questions and clarifying for better conceptual understanding. students with poor understanding (slow to asked questions In optics, a prism is a transparent material like glass or plastic that refracts light. At least two of the flat surfaces must have an angle of less than 90o between them. The exact angle between the surfaces depends on the application. that given 1 and as angles =nsinr1 2 =nsin r2 Angle. This is called the refracting angle or angle of the prism. It is the angle between the inclined surfaces of the prism. 1 + r2 = A. Communication skills will be developed Education will be catered for the lesson

Identify

i2, r2

of holds.nincidenceandrefractionatFandGasshownandistheprismrefractiveindex,thenSnell'slawThatis;Sini 1

GC:

throughout

25 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. References Physics for Rwandan secondary schools Learner's Book 4, Fountain Publishers Timing for each step Description of teaching/learning activities In groups, students perform experiments to determine the refractive index of the prism. The teacher provides materials, gives instructions, and guides students while students are busy working towards lesson objectives. Generic competences and Cross-cutting issues to be addressed a+ short Teacher'sexplanationactivities Teacher's activities Learner's activities

,andSini

through answering CC:questionsInclusive

Note

sittingMaknextthelearners).Makesureeveryoneunderstandsbeforenextlesson;otherwise,considertheminthelesson.esurestudentswithshortsightednessareinfront. Answer

Follow instructions and form groups as Participaterequested. actively in groups by helping each other to perform experiments and following the procedure referred to in Experimenttextbooks.

2. (65ofDevelopmentthelessonmin)

1 (to be done by group 1, 4, and 7) Determination of refractive index of a material of a prism (activity 32, p. 57 student's book) Experiment 2 (to be done by group 2 and 5) Deviation of light by the prism (activity 30, p. 50 student's book) Experiment 3 (to be done by group 3 and 6) Minimum deviation (activity 31, p. 51 student's book) Ask for guidance and record data on the notebook. GC: Cooperation will be developed through working together performing experiment GC: Interpersonal relations and life skills will be developed by supporting each other perform experiment

2.1 activitiesdiscovery (20 min) Form groups (seven groups of 6 7 students) by considering a mixture of both boys and girls, smart and slow learners. Give instructions on what they are going to do Assign(experiment).different experiment tasks to different groups of students in order to keep time and call Askattention.students to follow the procedures and record findings in their notebooks. Remind them that they have different tasks and be ready to teach their colleagues what every group did and found. Guide each group to achieve expected results and monitor the experiment procedure. Note down the difficulties that groups face and individuals' capabilities to learn which groups will present in the next session.

2.2 presentation learners' findings production (15 min) Makesurestudentsrespect thetimeandspare time for them to share their findings. Depending on the teacher's notes (during monitoring experimentation), assign one of the groups who performed experiment 1 to present on what they did and found. It is better to allow the group that got difficulties inorder toraise discussion inthe next session. Let the group that faced more challenges take the first floor to present and turn those challenges into an opportunity to better understand concepts.

2.3 exploitation findings production (20 min) Start the discussion by motivating the rest of the class to challenge the presenters. Guide discussion of students. Give an activity for all the groups. This will make students use what they found in the experimentation.

Group 1 or 4 or 7 shares what they did related to experiment 1 in front of the Groupclass 2 or 5 shares what they did related to experiment 2 in front of the Groupclass 3 or 6 shares what they did related to experiment 3 in front of the Otherclass students follow actively and participate in discussions by asking for clarification.

GC: Critical thinking and problem solving will be throughdevelopedthe derivation of formula and solving exercises

casegeneratingdevelopedinnovationGC:studentswillGC:CommunicationskillsbedevelopedduringpresentationCreativityandwillbethroughtheideasinofbeingchallenged

Derive the relation between minimum deviation and the refractive index of the material: n =��(��+��) 2 /�� 2

Ask clarification, and others respond Discuss the presented findings.

GC: Cooperation and Interpersonal relations and life skills will be developed through discussion and challenging each other

Activity: Determination of refractive index of a bymaterialofaglassprismusingminimumdeviationworkingoutexercisesasgroupwork.

Guide the learners to derive the relation between minimum deviation and the refractive index of the material by specifically encouraging students that fear mathematical formulae.

explorationHe/sheofIfpossible,theteachermustclarifythepresentationstudentsbyaddingscientificinformation.canshowavideotothestudentsforgoodandclarification.

Derive the formulas and use them in the exercisesonnotebooksandachalkboard (work through exercise on page 60 in student's book).

It is better the teacher presents at least two diagrams of the prism, the first one in the normal way and the second one at minimum deviation so that they explore the difference between them and the students can measure the angles of those two prisms and then find the conditions for minimum deviation in addition to that the teacher must help the students to be familiar in the derivation of 4 formulas of prism before attacking minimum deviation.

Monitor how they use what was learned to adapt to a new situation in solving exercises.

GC: Lifelong learning will be developed through exploiting other opportunities available to better improve the knowledge as well as skills

29 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 2.4 conclusion/ summary (10 min) Call for volunteer students to sum up what was learned. A better way is to call some students whom you found had some challenges. Anotherexperimentlearneddid,Anotherwayistoaskonestudentfromgroupsthatletsay,experiment1totalkaboutwhathe/shefromtheworkdonebystudentswhodid2or3.betterwayistoaskeveryonetowritea summary of today’s lesson. Help students contextual and appreciate the competences gained and skills got in today's Motivatelesson. learners to record notes. Groups evaluate each other notebook.RecordeverydayShareShareunderstanding.ProposetheStudentssharewhattheylearnednewinlessonwhattodoforabettertheimportanceoftoday'slesson.howtoapplywhattheylearnedinlife.notesontheindividual GC: Interpersonal relations and life skills learnedcontextualizingbeGC:thinkingofpromotetherefore,challengingwillbedevelopedthrougheachother;thiswilltheDevelopmentthehigherorderskillsLifelonglearningwilldevelopedviatheconcepts 3. assessment /homework (5 min) Assign homework as an individual work. Record the homework in an individual notebook. Teacher self-evaluation The lesson was well done; about ten students still have difficulties in mathematical formulae; before the next lesson (lesson 11: Dispersion of light), I will make corrections of homework by engaging them during the first 15 minutes.

First-Year Accounting Student Teachers’ Perceptions of their Classroom Learning Environment Medson Mapuya Sol Plaatje University. Kimberley. South Africa

Abstract. This study assessed the perceptions of first year accounting student teachers about their classroom learning environment. The study was prompted by studies which argue that the academic performance of students is correlated with their perceptions of the learning environment and the context in which teaching and learning takes place. The population for the study was first year Accounting students at a university of technology in South Africa. The study employed a mixed method approach, and data were collected from students using a Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (CLES) which covered 42 items. The findings from the quantitative part of the study revealed that the students view their learning environment positively. Evidence to this effect is demonstrated by the mean obtained in the categories of the learning environment which were all above three The themes which emerged from the qualitative findings also corroborated the quantitative findings. However, the qualitative data further reveal that the students felt far away from issues directly related to their teaching and learning. Consequently, a more student participative approach to the planning and designing of instruction is recommended to mitigate the identified challenges.

https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.2

Keywords: Student teachers; Learning environment; Perceptions; Constructivism 1. Introduction Actually, it has been acknowledged that the performance of first year accounting student teacher in accounting is to some extent unsatisfactory as shown in the results of the second semester of 2016. The average class performance in Accounting was 51%, while it was 69% in Business Management and 67% in Economics. This is a very low class average as compared to the other two major subjects which form part of the programme. Furthermore, in the final exam of 2016, there were twenty one students who sat for the re evaluation examination in Accounting 1 against three in Economics 1 and none in Business Management

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7331 5113

1. Nationally, this problem is highlighted in the statistics provided by Masondo and Fengu (2019), Raborife (2017) and Seepe (2005), the National Council on Higher Education, (2013), as well as the sentiments of Mapuya (2018) and Makola (2016) Since Accounting 1 is a compulsory module in the programme, students’ poor performance in this module has raised some concerns and thus necessitated this study. Based on the exiting literature, it has been found that such a failure is closely associated with learners’ perceptions and the outlooks they have towards the learning environment. Hence, the present research paper discusses what the literature says about the issue under investigation, and attempts to find out first year accounting students teachers’ perceptions about their classroom learning environment. In this concern, the investigator put forward the following research 1.question:How do first year Accounting student teachers perceive their classroom learning environment?

2.1. Meaning of a Learning Environment

The term ‘learning environment’ has been approached differently by different researchers. To start with, it is used to refer to a few contextual aspects or elements of the teaching and learning process (Mapuya, 2018). It refers to the social atmosphere or climate in which teaching and learning takes place (Killen, 2016; Rankin, 2005; Millet, 2015; Arisoy, 2007). It also denotes the physical setting of the classroom and its social norms (Litmanen, Loyens & Lonka, 2014). Lastly, it refers to the physical activities in the classroom, the teaching strategies used in the teaching and learning process, the type of learning in which students are engaged and the assessment methods used to evaluate teaching and learning (Doppelt, Christian & Schunn, 2008; Cleveland & Fisher, 2014). These definitions offer a more holistic and comprehensive all inclusive view of the learning environment, but the one put forward by Doppelt et al. (2008) and Cleveland and Fisher (2014) is found to be more relevant and applicable to this study.

2. Theoretical Framework Masondo and Fengu (2019) and Hodgson, Lam and Chow (2010) argue that first year students need to adjust from highly structured and supportive learning environments in their secondary schools which promote learning dependence to a complex learning environment at university which emphasizes autonomous learning. To this effect, Killen (2016), Mapuya (2018), and Millet (2015) warn that the perceptions of students about their learning environment have a significant impact on their transition to university life and their overall development and academic progression. Furthermore, Killen (2016) and Millet (2015) agree that the dynamics of adjusting to the social, academic and learning environments constitute the difference between a negative and positive experience for most first year students. These dynamics also influence how students ultimately perceive the learning environment.

2.2. Benefits of Knowledge about the Learning Environment and Why it is Necessary

The learning environment includes several elements such as social relationships, the classroom interactions, the general approach to learning activities and the physical attributes of the classroom that contribute to learning. It comprises what is perceived or experienced by both the students and the lecturer and stands out to be a learning variable which can exacerbate or mitigate academic success of students (Abraham, Ramnarayan, Vinod, & Torke, 2008; Bakhashialiabad et al, 2015). A comprehensive description of the learning environment should incorporate the culture within a lecture hall and its existing ethos, distinctive features and student interactions. It should also include how the lecturer organizes the educational environment to enhance and stimulate teaching and student learning, the type of learning in which students are engaged and the assessment methods used to evaluate teaching and learning (Litmanen et al., 2014; Doppelt et al., 2008; Cleveland & Fisher, 2014). Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) corroborated with the view of Du toit (2018) who contended that the contextual variables of the teaching and learning process and the psycho social engagements in the classroom have a significant effect on the students’ ability to learn and achieve their Bakhashialiabadgoals.et al. (2015) provided a two side view of the learning environment which includes both the physical and psychological aspects to illuminate the implications for teaching and learning. They identified the physical domain of the learning environment which refers to variables such as facilities, spaces, ventilation, furniture, lighting, and all the other features which influence the students’ comfort and safety and ultimately their learning experience and personal development. On the other hand, the psychological environment focuses on the variables within the classroom context in terms of the social relationships among the stakeholders in the classroom. This is also referred to as the classroom social interactions and relationships. Most researchers and educational psychologists who have explored the learning environment through the socio ecological paradigm developed by Moos (1974) subscribe to the conclusion that the learning environment can be a powerful indicator of academic achievement of students and their attitudes (Myint & Goh, 2001; Brown, Williams & Lynch, 2011; Penlington, Joyce, Tudor & Thompson, 2012; Arisoy, 2007; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The dominant view that emerged from investigations in chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics education corroborates with the finding that the perceptions of students regarding the climate and atmosphere in which they learn is a major qualifier of differences in academic achievement than factors related to the characteristics of students (McLoughlin& Luca, 2004; Abraham, Ramnarayan & Torke, 2008; Lin, 2003; Bakhashialiabad et al., 2015; Lakhan & Ekundayo 2013).

Many studies have been conducted on the learning environment and how it is related to the academic performance of the students. Among others, the investigations by Radovan and Makovec (2015), Dahlin, Fjell & Runeson (2010), Nel, Nel & Hugo (2010), Urdan (2004) and Bakhshialiabad, Bakhshi &

2.3. Research on Learning Environments

confirmed that meaningful and successful learning is positively correlated to the students’ perceptions of the learning environment.

Penlingthon, Joyce, Tudor and Thompson (2012) indicated that studies on learning environments have connected the perceptions of students about their learning environment to their quality of learning. In other terms, students tend to learn much better and more efficiently when they have some positive perceptions of their learning environment. Rakici (2004) claimed that the students’ attitudes towards teaching and learning activities are directly associated with their perceptions of the learning environment in their classrooms.

Den Brok (2006) and Arisoy (2007) added that gender is a significant factor that consistently influenced the students’ perceptions of the learning environment, irrespective of the interest in the learning environment. Rakici (2004) and Den Brok (2006) revealed that girls rated their learning environment and the teacher’s interpersonal behaviour more favourably than their male counterparts. The girls who participated in an investigation by Arisoy (2007) showed positive perceptions that are superior to those of boys. However, they were also more motivated to learn than the boys. These claims were later reinforced by Brown, Williams and Lynch (2011) whose findings demonstrated that female students indicated a more positive perception of the learning environment than males. It was also found that the students viewed the learning environment of male educators as more cooperative than that of female educators. Also, male educators were also rated as being stricter in the classrooms than female educators. With regard to the above said, Arisoy, (2007) and Rakici (2004) suggested that Moos (1974) developed the socio ecological approach to illustrate the influence the environment has on the perspectives of individuals who occupy it and how it can be modified to improve their quality of life. As observed by Lakhan & Ekundayo (2013), Moos (1974) argued that the psychosocial environment has three central dimensions that focus on the majority of settings in which people find themselves in their daily lives, namely: a relationship dimension, a personal development dimension, and systems maintenance and systems change dimension.

2.4. The Relationship Dimension

Hassanshahi (2015) have produced compelling evidence to argue that a significant relationship exists between students’ perspectives of the learning environment, and the development of their cognitive and effective domains and their overall academic Bakhashialiabadperformance.etal.(2015)

Rodavan & Makovec (2015) and Lakhan &Ekundayo, (2013) asserted that the relationship dimension assesses and evaluates the degree to which students are involved in the learning environment. It considers the extent to which students assist and support each other to promote their education. In the same line of thought, Rakici (2004) contends that the relationship dimension is concerned with the nature and type of interactions and relationships between the people who occupy a given environment Rodavan & Makovec (2015) further note that this dimension emphasizes the nature, quality and power of personal relations in any

2.5. The Personal Development Dimension

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. given context. These relations can either be negative or positive, depending on the effect they have on both the students and the lecturer. Den Brok, (2006) agreed with Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) in which the elements which Moos (1974) included in this category evaluate and examine the types and levels of personal relationships among the students in the classroom.

The personal development dimension evaluates and analyses the degree to which the learning environment creates and offers students opportunities to develop their self esteem and self enhancement. It covers all the aspects through which the learning environment encourages the growth, development and promotion of students. Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) suggested that at the university, this dimension includes competition, academic success and task orientation. Rakici (2004) complemented and added that under this dimension, self discovery, anger aggression and personal status are also important qualifiers. Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) subscribed to an earlier view of autonomy by Allegrante, Hanson, Sleet & Marks (2010), in which they agreed that autonomy assesses the degree to which students are encouraged to be independent and self sufficient scholars. This view of autonomy is consistent with a social constructivist oriented teaching and learning approach. It is also in harmony with the graduate attributes envisaged by the Central University of Technology (CUT), Free State and some of the educational imperatives of the National Curriculum Statement (Grades R 12), and the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (2015). Moos (1974) identified the variable of autonomy under the personal development dimension to be particularly prevalent and important in universities. The practical orientation of the personal development dimension looks at the degree to which the learning programme prepares and orients students towards training for employment, focusing on the future and working towards the achievement of concrete goals (Den Brok, 2006). This is also consistent with the CUT graduate attributes and the educational goals and objectives pronounced in the National Curriculum Statement (Grades R 12) and the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (2015). All schools and universities continuously strive to realize and achieve the practical orientation of the learning environment. Arisoy (2007) and Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) pointed out that the personal problem orientation element of the personal development dimension evaluates the extent to which students are encouraged to be conscious of their feelings and problems and make attempts to understand them. This is an important element of the learning environment, especially in light of the complex and diverse nature of the various problems encountered by first year students in universities as identified by Pieterse, (2015), Makola (2016), Bojuwoye, (2002) and Bitzer, (2003).

2.6. The Systems Maintenance and System Change Dimension

The third dimension of the environment as propounded by Moos (1974) is the systems maintenance and system change dimension. This dimension encompasses components such as organization, order, clarity in expectations of both the students and the lecturer and control of the environment and physical comfort. Rakici (2004) further noted that it also includes innovation of the learning environment at the university and that student influence is a variable which is

3.3. Research Instruments

3. Methodology

A constructivist learning environment questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The administration of this questionnaire also enabled the researcher to measure how first year accounting student teachers perceived their teaching and learning context through the use of a five point Likert type scale. Quantitative data were obtained from the ratings given by the students to each of the 42 statements posed to them while qualitative data were gathered from the open ended section of the constructivist learning environment questionnaire

The participants of this study were 112 first year Accounting students at a University of Technology in South Africa.

This research instrument was adapted to be used in this study because its developers have tested it for reliability and validity, and therefore the researcher wanted to test its applicability to university students in South Africa. Although it was initially developed and intended for secondary school students, it was found to be useful and relevant to first year students because there is a small gap in terms of transition between them and the secondary school students (Aldridge,

3.2. Participants

An exploratory mixed methods research design was used in this study. It was indeed found to be compatible and consistent with the theoretical framework of the study and the set research question. This method also enabled the researcher to collect both quantitative and qualitative data which were required to answer the research question. As advanced by Creswell (2013), combining both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study results in a comprehensive understanding of the problem being investigated than can be achieved by either method alone.

3.1. Research Design

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. related to system change at universities. Radovan and Makovec (2015) added that the system maintenance and system change dimension refers to the rules, the surveillance mechanisms, the ability and manner in which the system responds to changes. These changes can be in terms of learning needs and the overall strategies used to implement into the curriculum. They are reflected and shown in the differentiation of lessons, how clear the classroom rules and instructions are and how differences in terms of thinking are accepted in the classroom. This further affirms the need to create classroom learning environments which embrace students’ diversity and always keep pace with their individual needs.

With reference to the above said, the relationship, personal development and systems maintenance and change dimensions of the learning environment directly affect how students perceive that specific environment, their learning experience and ultimately their academic success (Bakhashialiabad et al, 2015; Brown et al , 2011; Penlingthon et al , 2012). In this regard, specific reference must be made to Bakhashialiabad et al (2015) who hypothesized that the contextual variables and realities of the teaching and learning process point to the efficiency of the education process.

36 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Fraser, Bell & Dorman, 2012). It was also used by Walker and Fraser (2005) and Aldridge, Fraser, Bell and Dorman (2012) in various investigations which also sought to obtain the perceptions of students about their learning environments and learning experiences.

3.4. Data Collection Procedure and Analysis

4. Findings The study findings are presented on the complete questionnaire used in the study. However, when discussing the findings, reference will only be made to findings on learning to learn (shared control) and learning to communicate (student negotiation). These are the sections of the questionnaire which directly address the research question posed in the study.

Table 1. Presentation of students’ ratings of 42 statements Statements Mean DeviationStandard A. LEARNING ABOUT THE WORLD (Real Life, Personal Voice) In this class 1 I learn about the world outside of school. 4.21 0.75

The questionnaires were administered by the researcher in person. To guarantee a 100% return rate for the questionnaires, the researcher and the students unanimously agreed that the questionnaires would be completed in class during a free double period. The students handed in the questionnaires immediately after completion. As noted by Creswell (2012), the first step in processing data from Section B of the questionnaires used in this study was editing. The editing of the questionnaires comprises of three main checks, namely completeness, accuracy and uniformity. To ensure that every question was answered, the researcher conducted a completeness check. On the other hand, to determine whether all questions had been answered as accurately as possible, an accuracy check was carried out. A uniformity check was meant to establish the extent to which all the students have interpreted the questions and instructions in a similar way (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). The responses to the open ended section of the questionnaires were coded before being assigned unique codes for further analysis. Babbie (2013) notes that this coding process requires the researcher to provide interpretations of responses, a requirement which can lead to misinterpretation and researcher bias (Manion & Morrison, 2013). Measures of central tendency and descriptive statistics (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010; Terre Blanche et al., 2011; Johnson & Christensen, 2014) were used to analyze and describe the students’ ratings of the various statements that were presented to them

2 My learning starts with problems about the world outside of school. 3.62 1.19

3 I learn how Accounting can be part of my out of school life. 4.32 0.83

B. LEARNING ABOUT ACCOUNTING (Uncertainty) In this class

F. ATTITUDE IN LEARNING ACCOUNTING In(Commitment)thisclass 31 I am interested in Accounting lessons. 4.98 0.19

D. LEARNING TO LEARN (Shared control) In this class I help the lecturer plan what I am going to learn. 2.74 1.33 I help the lecturer decide how well I am learning. 2.77 1.28 I help the lecturer decide which activities are best for me. 2.60 1.38 I help the lecturer decide how much time I spend on activities. 2.62 1.40 I help the lecturer decide which activities I do. 2.36 1.29 I help the lecturer assess my learning. 2.94 1.50 E. LEARNING TO COMMUNICATE (Student Innegotiation)thisclass I get the chance to talk to other students. 4.43 0.84 I talk with other students about how to solve problems. 4.47 0.84 I explain my ideas to other students. 4.21 0.93 I ask other students to explain their ideas. 4.31 0.89 Other students ask me to explain my ideas. 4.08 0.97 Other students explain their ideas to me. 4.22 0.93

11 I learn that modern Accounting is different from the Accounting of long ago. 3.58 1.44

Itisacceptable toaskthe teacher "Whydo wehave tolearn this?" 4.24 1.15 It is acceptable to question the way I am being taught. 4.27 0.98 It is acceptable to complain about activities that are confusing. 4.34 1.03 It is acceptable to complain about anything that prevents me from learning. 4.46 0.87 It is acceptable to express my opinion. 4.63 0.74 It is acceptable to speak up for my rights. 4.32 1.08

I learn that Accounting is about inventing theories. 3.38 1.36 C. LEARNING TO SPEAK OUT( Critical voice) In this class

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. I get a better understanding of the world outside of school. 4.07 0.98 I learn interesting things about the world outside of school. 3.91 1.02 What I learn has nothing to do with my out of school life. 2.48 1.40

I learn that Accounting cannot provide perfect answers to problems. 3.14 1.42 I learn that Accounting has changed over time. 3.58 1.30 I learn that Accounting is influenced by people's values and opinions 3.42 1.37 I learn about the different Accounting concepts used by people in other cultures. 3.63 1.33

2 I talk with other students about how to solve problems. 4.47 0.84

3. I explain my ideas to other students. 4.21 0.93

38 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 32 I am willing to learn. 4.63 0.88 33 What we do in this Accounting class is important to me. 4.82 0.68 34 I try my best. 4.82 0.54 35 I pay attention. 4.77 0.57 36 I enjoy Accounting lessons. 4.70 0.61 G. LECTURER SUPPORT IN LEARNING InACCOUNTINGthisclass

41 The lecturer moves around the class to talk to me. 4.14 1.27 The lecturer considers my feelings. 4.01 1.27 3.9 1.05

Table 2. E. learning to communicate (Student negotiation) Statements Mean DeviationStandard In this class

1. I get the chance to talk to other students. 4.43 0.84

37 The lecturer is friendly to me. 4.56 0.91 The lecturer helps me with the work. 4.31 1.02 The lecturer is interested in my problems. 4.00 1.32 The lecturer goes out of his/her way to help me. 4.15 1.24

Reference is made to Section D: Learning to Learn (Shared control) of the questionnaire presented in Table 1 above. This section displays the students’ responses which reveal that they perceive the learning environment as sometimes enabling them to learn, while they believe that they seldom help the lecturer to decide their learning. These findings highlight the fact that the prevalence and amount of collaborative learning and lecture support in teaching and learning activities are underscored. All the means to statements that are presented to the students in this category are below 3.0, which is a factor of some concern. These findings also indicate that the conditions in the classroom are perceived by the students as not promoting their personal development dimension or the systems maintenance and systems change dimensions of the socio ecological model. The results also do not conform to the notion of autonomy and active involvement of students for active learning (Abraham et al., 2008; Bakhashialiabad et al., 2015; Visser, & Vreken, 2013). The students’ concerns in this regard are also raised in the focus group interviews in their responses to questions on the personal dimension of their learning environment.

4. I ask other students to explain their ideas. 4.31 0.89 5. Other students ask me to explain my ideas. 4.08 0.97 6. Other students explain their ideas to me. 4.22 0.93 Overall Mean 4.29 0.90

Section E: Learning to Communicate (Student negotiation) in the above Table 1 presents the perceptions of first year accounting student teachers on the degree to which the variables in the teaching and learning context permit students to negotiate and engage actively with other students in teaching and learning activities. This category represents the relationship dimension of the socio ecological model of learning environments.

5. Discussion An overall mean above 4.00 from the quantitative findings implies that the students have rated the specific statements under the broad category in the affirmative. Thus based on the data from the quantitative and qualitative parts of the data collection instrument, first year accounting student teachers show that they have some positive perceptions about most aspects of their leaning environment. This confirms the findings of earlier studies by Dorman (2012), Litmanen et al. (2014) and Cleveland & Fisher (2014) in which the study participants demonstrated relatively high levels of satisfaction with their learning environment. Similarly, the students indicated that they perceive the classroom learning environment as supportive. However, similar to the findings of Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) and Radovan and Makovec (2015), it was also found that the students felt alienated and marginalized from the designing and planning of their academic activities and the overall classroom instruction. This is actually revealed by the low means and overall mean in the category of learning to learn which were all below 3. This quantitative finding of students being excluded from issues relating to their teaching and learning as signified by an overall mean below 3.00 is also consistent with the students’ qualitative responses where most students indicated that they need to be more actively involved in matters relating to their teaching and learning.

As shown, the students’ ratings of all the individual statements in this category scored a mean of 4, which means that the learning environment often promotes student negotiation and their ability to communicate in the classroom. Under this category of learning to communicate and student negotiation, the students seem to be unanimous that communication in the classroom and among them is very satisfactory. This is demonstrated by the means to each statement which are all above 4.20 and all the standard deviations which are below 1. These responses indicate that students perceive their classroom learning environment to be very helpful and supportive to their negotiation, communication and open dialogue in the learning process. This is one of the most fundamental principles and pillars of social constructivism and the relationship dimension of the socio ecological model of the learning environment. The lecturer should maintain and sustain the good work being done under this category.

6. Conclusion In conclusion, the learning experiences of students have some significant implications on how students ultimately perceive the atmosphere and the setting in which they engage in teaching and learning activities. As such, students formulate perceptions about the learning environment based on their experiences in that particular learning environment. It is thus imperative for teacher educators and universities to ensure that the curriculum is implemented in ways that promote positive perceptions about the learning environment.

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How Adolescent Students with Disabilities and /or Complex Needs Perceive the Notion of Resilience: A Study in Greece and England

Maria Georgiadi and Stefanos Plexousakis University of Crete, Greece https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6846 0156 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8463 1365

Maitland Josie University of Brighton, England https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7932 6465 Elias Kourkoutas University of Crete, Greece https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1346 5344 Angie Hart University of Brighton, England https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5034 5950

43 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 43 69, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.3

Abstract Adolescents with behavioral and learning difficulties are at increased risk in relation to psychological and social well being. This study aimed to investigate the views and experiences of adolescent students, diagnosed with a variety of complex needs such as behavioral, emotional and learning difficulties, to explore potential risk and protective factors that they perceive can enable or constrain resilience. Participants in the study were adolescents both from the UK (n=12) and Greece (n=14), all of whom were receiving additional learning and psychological support in their school settings. A qualitative research design employed the ‘draw and write’ technique in addition to face to face semi structured interviews. Data analysis identified the protective and risk factors that adolescents associated with resilience. Two distinct categories of protective factors emerged from the data: a) personal (positive thoughts, nutrition and achievements) and b) socio ecological factors (significant others, activities, pets, places). Risk factors were also divided into two categories: a) personal (negative thoughts and feelings and health problems) and b) socio ecological factors (relational problems). Findings highlight the complex interplay between personal and socio ecological factors in building resilience in adolescents who are at increased risk in relation to psychological and social well being.

This ‘first wave’ of resilience research could be seen as a response to dominant ‘deficit’ biomedical models of the time that sought an accurate understanding of pathology as opposed to how ‘problems were averted, resolved or transcended’ (O’Dougherty et al., 2013). As the second wave of research emerged, the focus shifted to the role of strengths and protective factors in fostering resilience, leading to a developmental ‘strength based’ approach, which, in schools, centered on increasing self esteem, and the development of pastoral support systems such as school counselling (Akos & Galassi, 2008), focus groups and peer mentoring. As the existing literature highlights, a range of ‘protective factors’ are thought to ‘alter responses to adverse events so that potential negative outcomes can be avoided’ (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012, p. 2298) and significance is given to socio ecological influences on the child rather than purely the biological Subsequentpredeterminants.waves of resilience research therefore moved beyond the attributes of the individual to consider the impact that the social and cultural context can have on resilience; it apportioned responsibility between parents, carers, schools, communities and other organizations that influence the child as opposed to merely ‘responsibilising’ the individual who is facing disadvantage (Hart et al., 2016). Lerner et al. (2013) refer to resilience within a paradigm of relational developmental systems theory. That is to say, they conceptualize resilience as a dynamic construct that responds to ecological factors and, as such, is malleable over time and context. Through this interpretation, resilience can be regarded as emerging from a kind of ‘ordinary magic’ (Masten, 2018), through which a combination of protective mechanisms can result in an extraordinary adaptive quality that buffers against adversity to defy the odds stacked against some children.

The flowchart (Figure 1) summarizes key developments in the field of resilience research and supports discussion on how the proposed research expands the current literature. Early identification of the phenomenon of positive adaptation in the face of adversity was highlighted by researchers in the 1970s. Studies in the field of health sciences discovered that some children, who were deemed to be ‘at risk’ from developing psychopathology, functioned unexpectedly well considering the perceived odds stacked against them.

Keywords. Resilience; adolescence; complex needs; adversities; risk/ protective factors

1. Introduction Defining resilience is far from straight forward (Olsson et al., 2015). Since the emergence of the construct, researchers have contributed to multiple re workings of the concept of resilience (O'Dougherty et al., 2013). Critique of the concept has focused on the ambiguity of the terminology and instability of the construct, due to the degree of heterogeneity of responses to identified risk and protectivefactors (Cameron et al., 2019; Lather, Ciccheti & Becker, 2007).

Inevitably, the introduction of intervention based research as part of the third wave of resilience literature was heavily school based and focused on the rich potential to foster resilience in the school setting. Resilience is highly correlated with academic achievement (Werner & Smith, 1992) and many protective factors in the school environment can be seen to buffer or mediate risk, for example, opportunities to contribute and take responsibility, develop a sense of belonging and core self, as well as experience caring relationships, high expectations and positive influences (Benard, 1991; Henry, Sheffield Morris & Harrist, 2015).

Figure 1. Development of the concept of resilience across the waves of research Adapted from ‘Uniting Resilience Research and Practice With an Inequalities Approach’, by Hart et al. (2016). Copyright © 2016 by the authors. Adapted with permission.

This important shift away from the earlier focus on individual characteristics, placed significant focus on acknowledging the dynamic interplay between elements of the microsystem made up of peer,family and school relationships and wider contextual influences such as social, cultural and political factors. Existing resilience literature provides powerful support for the potential of schools to drastically improve the outcomes of people within the system, in spite of adverse conditions (Lerner et al., 2013). Understanding the complexities of the dynamic matrix of systemic influences enables schools and those involved in supporting children and young people to carefully consider how conditions of adversity and disadvantage can be reinforced or negated by the system they are a part of. Being more explicit about the environmental aspects influencing resilience has been the focus of contemporary applied resilience researchers in the field (e.g. Hart, Blincow & Thomas, 2007), both in terms of developing strategies and resources that can be used by parents, carers and practitioners to make practical interventions and in terms of empowering young people to make ‘resilient moves’. To this end, Hart, Blincow & Thomas (2007) have built on theoretical discourse andsynthesized existingmeasurementtools toproducetheResilienceFramework (Figure 2). This comprises five conceptual areas (basics, belonging, learning, coping and core self) and each of these suggests approaches for practitioners to help them to improve the resilience of children and young people.

Multiple studies trialed projects which aimed to capitalize on ‘critical turning points’ including the transition from primary to secondary education, adolescence, and school completion. These key phases are considered vital opportunities to foster ‘systems of influence’ (Masten & Obradović, 2008; Riley & Masten, 2005) around the individual that might negate early life adversity and promote long term well being. By increasing opportunities for competence and developing positive and meaningful relationships, contextual protective factors are thought to foster personal growth in spite of adversity (Luthar, 2006).

Basic, Belonging and Learning are related to strategies and practices for working directly with children but also involve practitioners strategically linking with and reaching out to others. Coping and core self interventions consist of a set of micro therapeutic approaches designed for direct work with individuals which is a distinct feature between them. While Core self focuses on working at a deep intrapersonal level, Coping provides children with strategies to manage better at a specific time rather than waiting for some deeper personal transformation to occur. The framework draws together existing resilience literature and lived experience of supporting children considered ‘at risk’, and it was developed with school, social care and health practitioners, alongside parents, carers and young people. The Resilience Framework is underpinned by ‘noble truths’ of accepting, conserving, commitment and enlisting and it adopts a strengths based approach reflecting key theories from positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). It echoes core tenets of psychological developmental theory including Deci and Ryan’s Self Determination Theory (1985) and co regulation theory (Moreno, Sanabria & López, 2016).

1.1 Promotion of school based resilience

Importantly, the Resilience Framework acknowledges the impact wider systems can have in negating risk factors and promoting resilience, for example addressing the universal need to feel safe, have access to good nutrition, outdoor exercise, good enough housing, enough sleep and positive relationships with supportive adults. Clearly unequal access to such protective factors may further disadvantage some children and young people, compounding risks posed by additional behavioral or learning needs; this clearly indicates the relationship between resilience and social justice (Hart et al., 2016). This research has responded to earlier critique of the dangers of utilising ‘resilience’ as a ‘vehicle for the responsibilisation of individuals in place of social structures and governing institutions’ (Hart et al., 2016) and is particularly relevant in relation to the increasing accountability of teachers and the raised expectation of academic rigor that does not always account for the complexity of contextual disadvantage.

Whilst enormous leaps have been made in resilience related research, there is a need to consider how to situate these ideas explicitly in an academic context and ensure that school policy adequately reflects current understanding. In the UK, policies like Every Child Matters (DFE, 2003), Future in Mind (2012) and, more recently, the jointly authored ‘Transforming children and young peoples’ mental health provision’ Green Paper (DHSC & DfE, 2017) represent progress in the extent to which policy co ordinates health and education service provision to reduce risks and intervene early to promote resilience. In Greece, Law 3699/2008

In 2016, Hart et al. (2016) proposed the Boingboing framework of resilience research that seeks to interrogate the relationship between personal well being and social equity, building on work by Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky, (2006).

indicates that services are working together to consider collective responsibility to ‘reduce risk and maximize opportunities’ for every child, irrespective of background or disadvantage.

The potential of school communities to foster resilience has led to the proposition of the concept of ‘Academic Resilience’ (Hart & Williams, 2015), which has been defined as ‘students achieving good educational outcomes despite adversity’ (What is Academic Resilience : Young Minds, 2015) .

1.2 Fostering resilience in ‘at-risk’ children and adolescents

It is known that children and adolescents who face difficult psychosocial conditions are at increased risk given the associated adverse physical and psychosocial circumstances which can potentially affect their well being and outcomes at cognitive, mental, emotional and behavioral levels (Smith, Foley & Chaney, 2008). It is well established that the presence of psychosocial difficulties can be interrelated with the existence of a diagnosed disability (Theron, 2016).

Hart and Williams (2015) propose that in order to promote academic resilience most effectively, schools require evidence based methods of early intervention to support children at risk of underachieving academically or experiencing mental or emotional difficulties. Although aspects of the Resilience Framework (such as secure attachment relationships) have been shown to negate the impact of adverse conditions for children from high risk backgrounds who face constellated disadvantage (Hart, Blincow & Thomas, 2007), taking a resilient perspective as a whole school approach is fundamental to achieving a sustainable positive impact.

The ARA provides free online resources globally that support schools to develop a locally meaningful whole school approach including: audit and planning materials and practical strategies that foster resilience across the school community, aiming to have a positive impact especially for children and young people facing adversity.

Overcoming adversity is aligned with a desire and actions to change in some way the conditions that have led to adversity; it exposes the impact of inequalities as a priority and acts to increase control over personal outcomes by challenging culturally imposed conditions of adversity. This approach is particularly relevant for the school community in the current climate of perceived lack of teacher autonomy and limited participation of both school staff and students in policy formation. In addition, seeking to close the attainment gap between disadvantaged students and their peers is a continuing policy priority both in Greece and the UK.

Existing school based resilience building interventions tend to be costly for schools, and often involve external practitioners delivering a time limited programme that may only have a limited impact in the local context, especially after support is withdrawn (Mcpherson et al., , 2016). To this end, the Academic Resilience Approach (ARA) has been developed as a whole school approach to improving outcomes for the most disadvantaged students, by promoting resilience throughout the school system (Hart & Williams, 2015).

In her research, Theron (2016) uses mixed methods to explore the voices of 181 marginalised rural black South African adolescents about what gives them positive adjustment in their daily lives. The research aims to identify the supportive processes which are thought to facilitate positive adjustment to disadvantaged life worlds and how contextual and cultural realities shape such processes. The findings mention the importance of both socio ecological and contextual factors, including the importance of women as significant figures for promoting resilience due to the absence of men. The relational importance of educational and social services provided is also highlighted; this is also identified by other studies in different cultural contexts. In their research with 28 Sesotho speaking adolescent girls from the Free State Province of South Africa, Jefferis & Theron (2017) aimed to explore the views of adolescent girls on how teachers facilitate their resilience. According to their findings, characteristics such us providing guidance and active listening helped these girls to think positively about their futures. Li et al. (2018) interviewed 11 Chinese adolescents facing contextual adversity in order to capture their understanding of pathways leading to resilience. Their findings identify the social environment (such as school and family) alongside positive life goals and self confidence as attributes of resilient Chinese female adolescents.

There are relatively few studies with a specific focus on how resilience is fostered in children/adolescents with disabilities (Abelev, 2009; Yoshikawa et al., 2012). Furthermore, very little is known about how children and adolescents with disabilities themselves perceive the notion of resilience or the factors that they consider to be involved in building resilience. They are often left out of research because involving them can present extra methodological challenges for researchers. Furthermore, their individual characteristics are not always easy to aggregate into large data sets which will result in what are seen by researchers as prestigious publications (Hart et al., 2015). Disability is itself a complex and contested term, but in this paper, ‘disabilities’ refers to a known need for additional support which a child or young person is receiving through specialised educational services. These needs encompass social and communication difficulties including those experienced by young people with an autism spectrum condition, emotional and behavioral difficulties, and cognitive learning Harðardóttir,disabilities.

Therefore, it appears that children living in adverse psychosocial conditions may be at risk of further psychological, emotional, and social/behavioral difficulties which could have a concentrated negative impact, destabilising their otherwise typical developmental trajectories (Smith et al., 2008)

According to a qualitative study focusing on howorphaned children from parents with HIV/AIDS in South Africa (Ogina, 2012) perceive the notion of resilience, the emerging themes included risk factors such as isolation and stigma and protective factors such as positive relationships, personal assets and environmental resources.

Júlíusdóttir & Guðmundsson's research (2015) explored how secondary school students with learning difficulties understand resilience. The

1.3 Fostering resilience in children and adolescents with complex needs

2. Method This study employed a qualitative, narrative approach to collect the perceptions of adolescents with additional behavioral or learning needs. The qualitative case study design was employed to enable the researcher to interact with the adolescents, in order to explore their lived experiences and personal reflections on the concept of resilience (Petty et al., 2012). In this qualitative study the ‘Draw and Write’ technique was employed in combination with semi structured interviews (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995), as a

authors interviewed ten students with learning difficulties in order to capture their experiences of school settings and identify the helpful factors or obstacles in their learning progress. The main themes that emerged were: the difficulty these students experienced in understanding problems they faced, the stigma of labeling, and the importance of support from others (including teachers and friends) as a resilience building mechanism.

Lyons and Roulstone (2018a) aimed to articulate children’s narratives about the potential risk factors to well being for children with speech and language disorders. The eleven participants identified potential risk factors associated with communication difficulties and academic achievement and suggested that hope, positive relationships and agency were important protective factors for their wellThebeing.current research has focused on how adolescents who have been diagnosed as having complex needs, behavioral, emotional, developmental and learning difficulties, conceptualise resilience and identify personal and socio ecological factors that can be considered as either risk or protective factors for building resilience essential for long term well being. Emergent research also calls for greater emphasis on challenging the conditions of adversity by increasing the participation of marginalised groups as a way of overcoming disadvantage and contributing to social change. As Ungar (2005, p. 441) indicates, ‘we would do better helping children if we spent more time asking them to tell us what they need’. To this end, the purpose of the present study is to identify young peoples’ perceptions of risk and protective factors using the ‘Draw and Write’ technique and semi structured interviews, with the aim of making a valuable contribution to the literature and making recommendations to inform special education professionals, parents, carers and other practitioners regarding effective support for this specific population. It is crucial to address the fact that in many studies, the focus is on parents’, teachers’ and professionals’ views of children’s experiences, rather than the direct experiences of the child or young person. Understanding the concerns, ideas, beliefs and metaphors of children through their drawings and dialogue is important because it may be a vehicle for improving our adult understanding of their world. Consequently, this could help in the formation of support strategies in order to improve the mental health and well being of these children (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995;Patrick & Wyckoff, 2018) It is crucial to hear the voices of adolescents with special educational needs/disabilities in order to understand their perspectives in terms of decision making and intervention programmes that are focused on them (Jönsson 2018; Palikara et al., 2018)

way of gaining insight into children’s understanding of the concept of resilience (see Appendix 1). Traditionally, children’s drawings have been used in clinical settings for diagnosis and therapeutic purposes (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995)

Undertaking research with children and adolescents with a variety of disabilities can sometimes be challenging. These children and young people may face difficulties relating to their literacy, cognitive understanding of what is being asked, or communication difficulties that inhibit their responses. Creative or visual data collection gives children the opportunity to explain, in their own words, the meanings of their views, enabling the researcher to understand them (Ogina, 2012). According to Pridmore & Bendelow (1995, p. 473) ‘this technique inverts the more traditional top down methodology to a bottom up approach and has the potential to enable all children [as long as they are at least able to draw] to participate’. This technique lends itself well to being adapted for different cultural contexts and for children with a range of additional needs.

The ‘Draw and Write’ technique is an exploratory method that has been used by several researchers in the field of health psychology and education (Campbell et al., 2010; Farmer & Porcellato 2016; Khair, Meerabeau & Gibson 2015)

2.1 Participants

University research ethical permission was sought for the study as part of a wider study applying resilience based practices. Parents/carers signed a letter of consent for their child to participate in the study. The study was then explained to young people who were asked if they wished to take part ; they were informed that they could choose not to take part or withdraw whenever they wanted to and for any reason. The adolescents were guided through the schedule of the activity and were asked to express any difficulty in understanding the task questions or what was expected of them. The researchers explained to the participants that their role was toshare their perceptions asaccurately as possible andhelptobetter

The study was conducted in Greece and England. The participants in this study were 12 adolescents from one UK school and 14 adolescents from one Greek school. The participants were attending sessions with psychologists and had been diagnosed with a variety of complex needs including: Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Difficulties (SEBD); Speech, Language and Communication Needs (SLCN); Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). The average age of the participants was 13 years and 8 months. IN total, 21 boys and 5 girls took part. The two researchers (one from Greece and one from England) were known to the participants as existing members of staff who had been working with them prior to the research. A safe, secure environment and confidentiality (subject to any safeguarding concerns) were established by the researchers, which helped the children to cooperate and feel free to express themselves to people with whom they were familiar. Regarding any concerns for participants’ well being, researchers worked with school leaders, safeguarding leads and existing therapeutic and psychological support services to ensure that appropriate follow up could be made where necessary.

2.2 Procedure

2.3 Data Analysis

explain how young people similar to them might understand and experience Asresilience.soonas the children had completed the activity, they handed in their responses to the researcher. To relieve any possible anxiety which may have emerged from thinking about and discussing ‘sensitive’ material, an informal conversation was facilitated in order to alleviate possible stress, provide reassurance and determine the need for any subsequent support. Children were able to discuss and reflect on their drawings and answers in a warm and trusting atmosphere, which also helped the researchers to gain a deeper understanding of their responses and ensure accurate interpretation, by checking with participants on their own

The data analysis procedure was based on the ‘three Cs’ proposed by Lichtman (2006, p. 168): ‘from coding to categorizing to concepts’. Analysis therefore facilitated the identification of core categories, emerging patterns and themes in three key stages. After the initial open coding, and a secondary revision in order to collapse or combine the codes, an initial list of categories was developed, which was refined again based on additional re reading of the data to include sub categories. Lastly, the categories and subcategories were translated into themes. Throughout the data analysis process, researchers were guided by both the drawings and participants’ own interpretations of the drawings in order to retain the intended meaning in the final emergent themes. This iterative data analysis process is illustrated in Figure 3.

While we questioned adolescents about their drawings, they were encouraged to determine the deeper meanings of their works through the ‘Draw and Write’ technique. This approach enabled the researchers to explore their deeper experiences and identify themes through their responses. Reliability was ensured by using an oral data eliciting method based on the information provided by the adolescents regarding their drawings. By decoding the data and the emerging

Theintentions.participants received a blank A4 paper, pencil, eraser and colours. The instructions to the participants were: ‘Draw a person like yourself. It doesn’t matter how well you draw, that is not important. What does this person think about their life in the future? When this person that you draw face difficulties in life, what helps them overcome these difficulties? What helps them to find courage in life? Write as much as you want in the space provided, explaining your drawing. If you have a difficulty in writing I can write for you’. The process lasted approximately 45 minutes. The researchers used the drawings and the comments they wrote on their drawings to facilitate interviews and clarify in depth what the participants meant. The follow up questions included: ‘What is your drawing about?’ ‘Who is that?’ and ‘What do you mean by saying this…’

The collected data were obtained from children’s and adolescents’ drawings and narratives, followed by individual interviews (Jefferis & Theron, 2017; Kim, 2016; Søderberg, 2006). Categories and themes were identified in a process of open coding, along with the demographics of the total sample including gender, background, and known difficulties of each child.

Figure 3. Procedure of analysis of research data 3. Results Two main categories emerged from the data: risk factors and protective factors. Sub categories of these themes were personal and socio ecological factors, as illustrated in Figure 4. drawingsevaluationDescriptiveofandnarratives •FIRST riskInterpretationSTEPofdrawingsandnarrativesandidentificationofandprotectivefactors •SECOND STEP Interpretation of trancriptionsnarrativesdrawings,andofinterviews •THIRD STEP

themes with constant reflection on these explanations, it was possible to check for accuracy and clarify comments related to participants’ drawings. To increase the depth and accuracy of collected data, the researcher triangulated information from the drawings, narratives and interviews of the adolescents.

The researchers also developed a shared protocol for the interview process to assure uniformity in the interviews in order to allow for a review of any subconscious bias related to working with adolescents who had disabilities or had experienced adversities. The transcripts from the interviews were decoded verbatim in order to avoid any bias in terms of what adolescents reported in their drawings (Campbell et al., 2010; Khair, Meerabeau & Gibson, 2015 ; Kuhn, 2003; Dasarraju et al., 2016; Farmer & Porcellato, 2016)

A verification procedurewas applied in order to improve the reliability (Creswell, 2014), accuracy of interpretation and credibility of the findings. To verify the findings, the researchers undertook several procedures including: (1) using a peer code to document themes and quotes in the data; (2) conducting multiple meetings with emerging opportunities to review researcher bias and develop protocols before beginning data collection;and(3) developingamodifiedmember checking process that allowed for an external audit of themes within the data.

Positive thoughts and hope were identified as personal protective factors by six adolescents (two from England and four from Greece). Participant 15 stated: ‘I feel like my optimism tank is refilling and I find my own good life and I have new dreams and new goals in life. I want to live!!!’ Participant 16 reported many positive thoughts and feelings that facilitated his optimism. For example: ‘People love you! Don’t give up! My passions are not weaknesses! Do not stop believing! My wounds make me a better person! My past does not represent me! You have a role in life, nothing is impossible!’ (see Figure 5). Nutrition was mentioned by one participant from Greece (Participant 22; he described how good and healthy food helps him keep calm. Achievements were mentioned by two participants (one from Greece and one from England). For example, Participant 19 stated: ‘I am very proud because I managed to win a gold medal in water polo.’

Figure 4. Themes identified from the analysis

In the drawings and interviews, adolescents described the following risk factors and difficulties at a personal level: i) negative thoughts and feelings (fear and low self esteem); and ii) health problems. Two risk factors at a social ecological level were identified as difficulties with: i) family; and ii) peers.

In both the drawings and interviews, participants described situations and activities that they valued and perceived as protective factors at a personal level. These included: i) positive thoughts; ii) nutrition; iii) achievements. Protective factors at a socio ecological level were perceived as: i) people (significant others); ii) play and activities; iii) pets; and iv) places.

3.1 Protective Factors a) Personal factors

Places were reported by seven participants (five from Greece and two from England) who mentioned playgrounds and rooms in their house as particularly safe places to be, the beach as a relaxing place, the gym as a place to release tension, and their favourite tree as a source of comfort. Participant 18 mentioned her support from family as related to her comforting favourite places, which gave her courage to fight in life. She stated: ‘When I returned back in home, I like enjoying the comfort of my warm bed.’

Participant 5 stated that play could also be a distraction from adversity: ‘in my drawing I have put that you can forget about your problems for a while or play X Box to distract yourself.’

Participant 5 mentioned ‘also I go to a dark corner of my room and sit in the dark and think of my holiday’, indicating that memories of favourite places could also be considered a protective factor.

People (significant others) were mentioned by 11 adolescents (five from England and six from Greece). Participant 13 reported: ‘The thing that gives me strength in life is a hug from those I love, like my girlfriend, and that empowerment makes me believe that I can succeed in life. Deep inside I know I can do it but I am afraid to believe it.’

Participant 14 mentioned: ‘my parents help me to be strong and powerful and to have everything I need.’

Play and activities were mentioned by eight participants (three from England and five from Greece). They reported watching TV and doing sports.

Participant 1 explained: ‘in my drawing, I’ve put how to deal with difficulties with friends playing football, playing with toys (dinosaur and cowboy), sleeping and sometimes asking family or friends to support you…sometimes you can’t do that if they are part of the problem.’

b) Socio ecological factors

Participant 4 mentioned that: ‘on the coping side I have said that drawing, colouring, working one one and asking for help are ways I can concentrate. Having something to remember someone by can make saying goodbye easier.’

Pets were mentioned by three participants (one from England and two from Greece). Participant 18 reported that a dog could make her really happy (see Figure Participant6).

Participant 26 reported ‘my mother always helps me with homework so I can overcome any difficulties and I feel very happy.’

8 reported: ‘I have drawn me with my dog. She is always with me and calms me down when I need it.’

The written answersanddrawings were categorised into: a) personal andb) socio ecological factors. a) Personal factors According to our findings, negative thoughts and feelings were mentioned by six participants in England and nine participants in Greece. Issues related to health problems were identified by two adolescents from England and one participant from Greece (see Figure 7). Participants mentioned that negative thoughts and feelings (such as fear, low self esteem) negatively influence their well being and are a cause of sadness. Participants described a range of negative thoughts. For example, they reported uncertainty in relation to their performance at school, uncertainty about the future, perceived pressure from school, fear of failure and anxiety about achieving future goals related to studies. For example, in this excerpt, Participant 15 reported feeling overwhelmed by feelings of desperation and disappointment: ‘Sometimes I do feel that everything is drawn around me and I feel so lonely.’

Left: They don’t want you! You will fail, my self confidence hides my vulnerability. My peacefulness hides a storm. My strength is an illusion. You cannot dream all the time!

Figure 5. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 16

3.2 Risk Factors

Participant 6 stated ‘when I thought about difficulties, I thought that actually, just staying alive in this world can be a struggle. Having to put up with school can be bad as well.’

Right: They love you. Don’t give it up. Don’t stop believing. My passions are not weakness. My wounds make me wiser. My past does not represent me. You have a role. Nothing is impossible!

Participant 13 described negative emotions as a barrier to good experiences: ‘I could be feeling great, going for walks, doing activities, studying at university, socializing, be relaxed and with no worries! But something is stopping me…a fear, an anxiety, a sorrow…’

Participant 7 stated: ‘I can’t think of how to say it or what exactly is difficult. But I have drawn killing yourself. It’s a way to fix everything because then everything is over.’

Figure 6. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 18

Women... Participant 16 appeared to be reporting internal voices resulting in continuous pessimism. He reported that these voices mentioned: ‘Forget it! Why don’t you abandon it? They don’t want you! My self esteem hides a lot of vulnerabilities. You will not manage in life! My tranquility hides a storm! My sense of power is an illusion! You

Participant 4 explained: ‘on the difficulty side I have drawn a clown, who is a funny sort of joker type. It is a female clown with a beard. She finds it hard to say goodbye to someone she knew really well. Also, she finds it hard to concentrate.’ (see Figure 8).

Right: What am i doing now? Will i be succeeding going to the University finally? I can do whatever i want!

Figure 7. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 7 Left: One day, all will be over. I can’t stand it any more! How thing will be when I will be finished? Is it worth it? Can I manage to succeed to the University? Women…

Right: When I return back Home I go into my bed and I will watch television with my Family so I take courage to carry on in life. If I had a dog, I would be very happy.

Pressure to achieve was mentioned; for example, Participant 14, reported ‘Sometimes karate makes me feel so much pressure and makes my life difficult.’

Left: I will not manage it. I will mess it all up! My teacher gives on my Nerves. My mother is Nervous all the time.

Participant 10 explained how he was facing the negative comments of his peers and gave advice for how to manage this difficult situation: Figure 8. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 9. ‘In the difficulties there are family problems. The mum or dad is walking out of the door. I have also put someone dying and children laying flowers at the grave. On the other side I’ve put how to deal with that – friends playing football, playing with toys (dinosaur and cowboy), sleeping and sometimes family or friends to support you….sometimes you can’t do that if they are part of the problem.’

Ten participants (five from Greece and five from England) mentioned difficulties they were facing with family and peers.

a) Socio ecological factors

Participant 5 mentioned a difficult condition with his brother which had been a cause of anxiety: ‘what is happening with my brother, I worry that he might die.’

spend your vital oxygen and your time is running out! What is the reason to exist? You can’t day dream all the time!’ Health related problems were mentioned by three participants. Health problems were referred to as a struggle and the medication process as an unwanted procedure. For example, Participant 8 reported: ‘I have drawn a person with an inhaler. I use an inhaler and it’s something I don’t like.’

Participant 5 mentioned: ‘in my drawing I have written that friends can sometimes make life difficult. Bullies killing you and death are also hard because people are saints’, demonstrating the context specific nature of protective and risk factors. In this example, peer relationships, commonly referred to as a protective mechanism, could also be a risk factor.

Participant 1 mentioned: ‘The mum or dad is walking out of the door. I have also put someone dying and children laying flowers at the grave. On the other side I’ve put how to deal with that friends playing football’ indicating the protective factors he perceived were a buffer against adversity.

As Masten (2018) mentions, the latest studies on intervention models to promote resilience in children and families are now focusing on positive goals, resources, processes and outcomes and shifting away from deficit based models of treatment. Interventions strategies are now focusing on mitigating adversity (e.g. a parent’s aggression), enhancing resources (e.g., health resources) and facilitating protective resources (e.g. improved family relationships) (Zolkoski & Bullock, This2012).study provides various data extracted from adolescents’ drawings and

The supportive role of teachers as a significant resilience factor was mentioned by many of the participants in this study. This finding agrees with the findings of several related studies with young people more broadly (Jefferis and Theron, 2017; Zolkoski and Bullock, 2012) indicating that teachers can facilitate resilience as key social ecological stakeholders when they give guidance, inspire hope for the future and establish good relationships/partnerships with their students.

4. Discussion

This study also provides crucial information about the important role of parents, not only to protect disabled adolescents from stress and adversities, but also in promoting the well being of the whole family system (Masten, 2018). As such, it adds to other studies that have demonstrated the crucial role of adult caregivers in relation to young people more broadly (Dauenhauer et al., 2010). Children and adolescents living with families in adverse conditions often have far fewer resources and access to services which could help them to deal with their vital needs. Daily financial stress affects their lives and those families are more likely to experience poor health, low education, partnership conflicts, violence and low performance at school (Abelev, 2009). In addition, social isolation from the larger community often leads to children and adolescents being marginalised from large scale resources, social stimuli and good quality health care.

This study, based on the narratives and drawings of adolescents with complex needs, aimed to articulate the notion of resilience from the perspective of Greek and English young people with a range of emotional, behavioral and learning needs. The ‘Draw and Write’ technique has been previously applied by other researchers (Grove et al., 2018; McWhirter, 2014; Noonan et al., 2016; Pinquart, 2019) in a variety of situations. As in previous research, this study demonstrated the ‘Draw and Write’ technique as an effective data collection tool to explore the views and perspectives of children and young people with additional needs.

Emergent themes fell into the categories of risk and protective factors, at both personal and socio ecological levels, that influence the resilience of adolescents who face a variety of emotional, behavioral and learning difficulties. Similar findings with children/adolescents with adversities or disabilities have been reported by Ogina (2012) and Lyons and Roulstone (2018) A significant number of adolescents in our research mentioned positive thoughts and a sense of hope as a pathway to greater resilient. This finding is consistent with previous research that recognises hope as an important resilience factor for young people more generally (Li, Bottrell & Armstrong, 2018; Masten, 2018; Pienaar et al., 2011; Pretorius, 2018)

narratives which emerge from the diverse experiences and multiple realities of adolescents living with a disability/complex needs. Emerging realities clarified risk and protective factors and facilitated an understanding of how resilience is formed in these adolescents. Echoing previous findings related to young people with complex needs (Curtin et al., 2016), this study reveals a lack of material and psychological support for children and adolescents who experience a form of disability. Although some of the adolescents in our research reported material support from their families and relatives, there was a significant lack of engagement in loving, caring and emotional bonding relationships between them and the significant others in their lives. Our findings are supported by another similar study (Pienaar et al., 2011) which reported isolation and several emotional problems in addition to economic difficulties. Our research promoted the emergence of adolescents’ narratives through their drawings in relation to their emotional needs and their relationships with significant others. It was found that adolescents emphasised their loving and caring relationships with their families, peers, teachers and others as well as the positive characteristics of their socialisation through their skills, objects, places, activities, future expectations and problem solving as protective factors. This research also found an emphasis placed on positive relationships as a significant protective factor by adolescents with complex needs. More specifically having loving, caring and supportive relationships was reflected as a major ‘weapon’ of adolescents living with complex needs which helped them to stay on the surface of functional living.Our research concurswith previousresearchers working with typically developing adolescents (Li et al., 2018) in that adolescents can use their individual as well their socio ecological resources as vital components to build their pathway to resilience. Many of our study’s adolescents made use of personal coping mechanisms in the face of adversities; these were often linked to their own emerging optimism regarding their future life, positive thoughts and feelings as motivation as well as reminding themselves about all the people who stand on their side. Our research also concurs with previous studies (Masten & Barnes, 2018) which have emphasised the role of functional attachment relationships as a vehicle which helps to defend against adversities and buffer risk factors. The participants in this study differed from typically developing adolescents in terms of their views on how they formed the construct of resilience, not only because of their complex needs but also because of their concerns about potential social marginalisation (Lyons & Roulstone, 2018). This study used drawings as a tool and a specific form of visual method to facilitate and explore the experiences of adolescents living with complex needs in order to reflect on their self perceptions of the notion of resilience and to describe their own problem solving in the context of their vulnerable circumstances. Facilitated through a drawing technique, adolescents revealed their lack of emotional support from family and peers, which emerged as a major risk factor. On the other hand, empowering relationships with significant people like parents, brothers, friends, classmates, teachers were identified as protective factors that offered fundamental material and emotional needs and benefits. The current study emphasises the vital need for positive relationships as a defense in the lives of adolescents who feel emotionally deprived and lonely. Such relationships could derive from family context, educational environment as well as friends and

During adolescent development, it is normal for youths to face risks and negative life experiences at different points in time. Research suggests that environmental variables in an adolescent’s ecology play an important part in their mental health outcomes and that the cumulative effect of multiple risk factors is associated with adolescent development (Hart et al., 2016).

Adolescents who experienced a lack of social support systems were more likely to refer to places, pets and objects as protective factors, whereas those who lived in a more supportive environment described a more connected form of resilience (e.g. socio ecological factors) in which the external environment facilitated a positive personal outlook and perspective. Future research should explore and clarify the nature of the resilience which is being fostered both in terms of self protective forms as well as more connected forms.

peers in school and they potentially trigger all short of beneficial resources at an individual emotional level. As Li et al. (2018) state, parents in Western societies play an important role in helping their children to develop resilience with the support they provide at practical and emotional levels. Important others, such as teachers, seem to play a crucial role too, because it appears that they have a positive effect on academic achievement and on the development of positive behaviors (Li et al., 2018). However, drawings and narratives of adolescents revealed diverse experiences and different experiences of vulnerability. We can identify an emerging repeating pattern/theme reflecting a transformation in the thinking of adolescents and the forming of a new identity in terms of future problem solving and a new vision from a position of vulnerability to a more optimistic vision of the future. Our argument is that in order for adolescents to find the resources they need and become more resilient, they have to adopt both new and different socialisation strategies, as well as motivating themselves and making use of their inner potential and all their dynamic personal traits, as new patterns to compensate for the absence of emotional and material needs, taking into account the dangers of utilising ‘resilience’ as a vehicle for the responsibilitasion of individuals in place of social structures and governing institutions (Hart et al., 2016).

The results of our research indicated that, irrelevant of gender, age, cultural and social status, all adolescents, both in Greece and England, perceived some common themes and patterns in terms of protective factors. However, the extent to which protective factors were effective in overcoming adversities and building resilience varied according to the current resources available to them in terms of loving and caring relationships and supportive adults, who facilitated the transformation from vulnerability to a more dynamic problem solving and positive perception of their future.

The above results suggest that any group of adolescents and any adolescent at an individual level is capable of developing mechanisms of resilience, regardless of their adversities and a lack of support from their social systems, even those who live with severe adversities and disabilities compared to adolescents who live in wealthier and better resourced communities. Adolescents with the highest levels of resilience protective factors are able to invest a large amount of psychological

4.1 Cultural Considerations

Our key research findings regarding the perception of resilience could have significant implications for interventions for adolescents with complex needs and seem to be crucial in order to facilitate their transition to adulthood. A multilevel approach which focuses on the developmental stage of the adolescents in order to enhance their resilience should include ‘assets and resources as the center for change’ (Zolkoski & Bullock 2012, p. 2300). According to these authors, to help adolescents with disabilities overcome barriers to a successful transition to adulthood, intervention programmes should focus on the: a) individual level (social skills, self efficacy etc.); b) family level (e.g. family cohesion); and c) social environment (e.g. supportive teachers, relationships with peers) (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). To add to these dimensions, and more controversially, it is also important to consider supporting children and young people to advocate for themselves for social change and to take part in activist activities that challenge

Given the importance of cultural influences and their impact on the resilience development process, resilience can have a major role as long as parents, carers, teachers and other supportive adults communicate and manage stressful situations and adversities according to the cultural context. Our research findings emphasise the protective role of parents and peers, and are best understood as a form of dynamic interplay between risk and protective factors within a micro community of parents and peers. Our study concurs with previous research (Ilias et al., 2019) that argued that the process of resilience requires the functioning of many interacting systems within and around the parents and the micro ecological environment, which operate at different levels.

4.2 Implications for Practice

Risk factors at the socio ecological level, like poverty, emotional isolation, and family instability, do share clear commonalities both in Greece and England, as reflected in the drawings and narratives of the adolescent participants in this study. Similarly, personal qualities such as a positive attitude towards the future, and an ability to persevere seem to have a positive relationship with managing negative thoughts, health issues and other vulnerable situations in adolescents’ lives. The above factors consist of dynamic interplay which have significant implications for working with youth who face complex needs and/or have disabilities. Understanding these factors, we attempted to identify implications for future practice. It is a common truth that cultural variations play an important role in every aspect oftheresilienceprocess,sinceculturalissuescan affectfamilyandschool practices in terms of building resilience in order to form expectations of adolescent behaviour which fit ‘into their culture, community, or society’ (Masten & Barnes, 2018, p. 6).

effort in their development (Van Breda, 2017) offering them an optimistic perspective of their future life. From a global perspective, it is an important to note that feelings of anger, hopelessness and loneliness are an adolescent phenomenon. Yet, in this study, however poor an individual’s resources were, there was an emerging sense of an interpersonal community from families and friends present in the lives of the adolescents, which acted as a major self defense network in terms of adversities.

Ecological factors could offer resources and potential development to reassure individuals not only in terms of personal safety but also social growth.

Social/ecological factors play a major role in the establishment of emerging resilience to sustain personality development. This is a significant research finding for schools and social welfare institutions providing vital care and resources to children and adolescents, emphasising that positive and enabling relationships, which constitute the fundamental ground of the ecological context, can be created and cultivated even in the most adverse and deprived communities (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012)

Buildingon the principles and practicesof theAcademic ResilienceApproach that we explored in the first part of this article, school personnel should encourage and nurture relationships with children and adolescents, modelling healthy social skills for mature patterns of living. This will enable the internal and external space to be secured for children to feel valued and understood and to promote their welfare, creating bridges and connected communities of social support for the most disadvantaged individuals (Callaghan, Fellin & Alexander, 2019; Hart & Williams, 2015). Individual mentors could connect individuals with a whole community of external supporters as well as with family members. A community around the child should be created to meet their needs, so these supportive relationships can extend beyond immediate family and school staff. Building a connected community of relationships can begin to take place even in the play ground and does not always require specific funding or any infrastructure.

Schools could become the shelters where families could absorb the necessary support, so as to function appropriately, and could be available for families in need, by offering human resources and social skills through parents’ groups. In line with the UK’s Future in Mind approach and Greece’s (Law 3699/2008) school mental health practitioners and social workers could work more closely with families (Future in Mind, 2012). In particular, in Greece since 2013 (Law, 4115/2013) school psychologists and social workers have been providing support to public schools for all vulnerable students who need it. Hence, their bond could become more intimate in the context of a local community and their role become more meaningful and influential in establishing a resilience framework adopting a symbolic, beneficial parental role. Promoting children’s and adolescents’ resilience could be the productive valuable outcome of that intense bond between all working parties in the residential settings of connected communities.

their adversity contexts. This has the potential to be resilience building and is in line with the definition of resilience proposed in the ‘Beating the odds and changing the odds’ concept of ‘Boingboing resilience’ (Hart et al., 2016).

Our research findings also imply that qualified practitioners could be given more training on the fundamental concepts of resilience, including those which challenge notions of responsibilising individuals. This would help ensure that they are in a position to promote effective individual health and social human development and benefit, tackling all risk factors and creating protective resources. Our ethical responsibility is to create ‘resilience informed care’ and practice so we can create and utilise strengths based models and interventions (Patrick & Wyckoff, 2018). Continuing personal and professional development for school personnel is vital. This would support their own resilience to provide

research is required to clarify and explore more deeply the presence and the role of protective and beneficial relationships in managing, against the odds, vital emotional and material needs for the most disadvantaged children and young people, especially those who have complex needs. In addition, future research, of the nature conducted in this study, should include parents’ and teachers’ views on resilience in order to allow for triangulation of the data and produce more holistic results. It could also help in a comparison of adolescents’, their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions both in Greece and the UK.

better services and for many of them, change their focus from a ‘deficit’ model to a positive health development one (Masten and Barnes, 2018).

Drawing has been revealed in this study as a useful tool for phenomenological enquiry and therefore future research could include that research tool to enhance the research perspectives.

Going forward, a transdisciplinary, inter professional framework is needed to mitigate risk and promote resilience in adolescents (Yu et al., 2018). Young people’s views, and indeed leadership in creating it, should be central to this framework to maximise its efficacy and relevance. A ‘test and learn’ experiment in this regard relating to the application ofHartetal.’s ResilientTherapyapproach is underway across a whole town in Blackpool, UK (www.boingboing.org.uk/reflections

big resilience together blackpool/). It has become known as the first pilot for a ‘Resilience Revolution’. Here, the ‘transdisciplinary’ approach goes beyond aspiring towards interprofessionalism. Rather, a community development approach is being instigated involving everyone in the town who wants to participate as a co leader, whether a young person, parent, carer, policy maker or practitioner. Effective preparation, practice, and policy for resilience requires collaboration and coordination across systems, with strategic consideration of the best targets, timing, and alignment of interventions. Many systems contribute to resilience as children and adolescents develop, and in turn, they enhance the future resilience of their communities and societies (Masten & Barnes, 2018) 4.3. Limitations and Future Research

The small sample size presents a major barrier to generalising the results of the present study, and these research findings could rather be seen as tendencies. Furthermore, the research was conducted in just two schools (one in Greece and one in the UK) and therefore the results may not be representative of all students with complex needs in Greece and the UK. Nonetheless, the findings of this study remain a useful tool for explicating the phenomenological experiences of resilience among adolescents with a variety of difficulties. It is hoped that the results of the current research could contribute to the literature providing valuable material to better inform special education professionals on how to work more effectively with this population. Emergent research calls for a greater emphasis on challenging conditions of adversity by increasing the participation of marginalised groups as a way of overcoming disadvantage and contributing to social change (Ungar, 2005). This assertion is just as pertinent for school Futurestaff.resilience

Ethics Statement. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Crete and University of Brighton. Imagine was a five year Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) project funded through the Research Councils UK Connected Communities programme. It ran from 2013 2017. Written informed consent was obtained from parents of participating adolescents and children. All parents of participants gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Acknowledgments. The research in this paper was produced as part of the work undertaken through the successful Economic and Social Research Council funded Imagine programme (Grant Number ES/K002686/1 and ES/K002686/2) and subsequent 2015/2016 funded Designing Resilience activities. Thanks are due to all the co researchers and participants involved in that study including academics, parents, carers, service users, practitioners and young people.

It is very important to identify the unique individual resilience characteristics and profile of each child and adolescent, as well his/her social/ecological and cultural environment. This enables a search for emerging risks and protective factors since the ways in which the identified themes manifest will be culturally and contextually specific. School based psychoeducation programmes and therapeutic interventions could stimulate appropriate and developing skills to equip children and young people with the necessary social skills and problem solving capabilities to tackle life’s challenges and adversities on behalf of themselves and, potentially, on behalf of their peers. This would support the transformation from a passive situation to more active and independent living (van Breda, 2017).

5. Conclusion

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding The present study was funded as part of the work undertaken through the successful Economic and Social Research Council funded Imagine programme (Grant Number ES/K002686/1 and ES/K002686/2) and subsequent 2015/2016 funded Designing Resilience activities.

Conflict of Interest

The current study highlights the importance of integrating the voices of children and adolescents with complex needs, so that it is possible to identify, from their own perspectives, potential risk factors for their well being but also protective factors that can help them be more resilient. In that way, we can promote and apply protective strategies not only at an individual level but also in an environmental context (family, school, community) in order to enhance the well being of individuals and help them to achieve academic success.

Contributions MG, SP designed and conducted the study in Greece, wrote the manuscript, developed and performed the analysis. JM conducted the study in UK and edited the manuscript. EK & AH reviewed and edited the manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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is facing difficulties in his life, what helps him/her to overcome these difficulties? 4. What helps him/her to find courage in his life? 5. Draw and write.

ChildandFamilySocialWork

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70 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 70 85, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.4 Reshaping the University Curriculum through the Visiting Lectureship Valentyna I. Bobrytska National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 1742 0103 Hanna V. Krasylnykova Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine https://orcid org/0000 0002 4846 722X Nina G. Batechko National University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, https://orcid.org/0000Ukraine0002 3772 4489 Nataliia А. Beseda National University “Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic”, Poltava, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 1454 1938 Yevheniy S. Spitsyn Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0001 8385 4789

Abstract. The purpose of the study is to investigate how visiting lectureship is capable to reshape and improve the university curriculum for four different majors such as educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. The research is significant because it addresses some current challenges forming a crisis of higher education such as an instructional challenge, a fiscal challenge, a birth rate related challenge, and a graduate employment challenge. This study combines exploratory and quasi experimental research methods, and Baseline Study Survey Questionnaires (BSSQ), Questionnaire to Measure Research Skills (QMRS), The students’ research activeness checklist, Professional Self development Critical Reflection Scale (PSCRS), along with Self directed Learning Skills Scale (SLSS) are the research instruments used in this study. The sample used are 184 (169 students and 15 lecturers), and key data are drawn from the assessment of students’ research skills and activeness, professional self development, self directed learning and self education skills, and professional socialisation by students themselves and their teachers before and after the intervention. The stakeholders’ perceptions of visiting lectureship such as students,

Keywords: Higher education institutions; Visiting lectureship; University curriculum; Professional training 1. Introduction

2. Literature Review

The social constructivist approach to learning that is based on visiting or guest lectureship serves as a theoretical framework for the study (Al Huneidi & Schreurs, 2012; Yadav, 2016). It is based on learning from the interactive

lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations are studied using the focus group interviews. It is found that visiting lectureship reshapes and improves the university curriculum of four different majors namely: educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. Add to this, visiting lectureship positively influences students’ research activeness, professional self development, self directed learning & self education skills, and professional socialisation, and it is positively perceived by students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations. Visiting lectureship also increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of instruction. Besides, it benefits the potential employers as these are involved in the educational process at the early stage of the programme in its design and updating, which will result in a more competent and competitive staff for them to hire.

Visiting or guest lectureship and professorship are becoming trendy at universities for two main reasons . First, it seems economically advantageous because a short term contract basis of the invited experts and professors is less costly and more flexible for the institutions, and second, it provides the students the opportunity to learn from those who practically succeeded in the students’ future professional field (Bobrytska, 2017; Leventhal Weiner, 2015). The involvement of leading and experienced practitioners in the educational process is aimed at benefiting the students with updated job related knowledge and real life job experience (Nikolayeva, 2018; Rajesh, 2017). However, the core (credit bearing) disciplines that are of practical job related purpose for the students are often delivered by lecturers who are ‘bookish professionals’ in the field they are performing in (Chan, 2018). Even more importantly, the university curriculum is found to be overcrowded with theoretical disciplines that are quite arguably applicable in real life professional settings (Adolfsson, 2018). The over theorisation of studies discourages students from self development in their professional field, demotivates them as student researchers, and causes a certain extend of disrespect to the lectures (Kormoczi, 2019). The above mentioned has created a potential gap for the research which is to address the topic of reshaping the university curriculum through the visiting lectureship to influence students’, professional self development, self directed learning and self education skills, research activeness, and professional socialisation. The research is also significant because it addresses some current challenges forming a crisis of higher education such as an instructional challenge, a fiscal challenge, a birth rate related challenge, and a graduate employment challenge (Drozdowski, 2020).

The purpose of the study is to investigate how visiting lectureship is capable to reshape and improve the university curriculum for four different majors such as educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. In this light, the following research questions sought to explore:

1) How does visiting lectureship influence students’ research activeness, professional self development, self directed learning & self education skills, and professional socialisation? and 2) How do students, lecturers, and representatives perceive the visiting lectureship of the host organizations?

literature, the guest speaker sessions and/or visiting lectureship at higher educational institutions are found to be revealed as an extra curriculum framed learning component that is organised in the non formal educational settings (Xhomaqi et al., 2019). The online environment based on the guest online lecturing is also seen by the researchers and educational practitioners as a pedagogic tool, which is capable to improve the quality of university education in various ways such as positive emotions motivating students to learn, alternative opinions, and expertise of the guest speakers combined with less academic (conventional) teaching methods (Varvel, 2020). The reshaping of the curriculum driven by the introduction of visiting lectureship is found to be consistent with the concept of the critical approach to the curriculum upgrade (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). According to Foley et al. (2015), critical pedagogy is supposed to transform the curriculum in a way it provides a model to build the learning environment where the obtained knowledge is given a meaning that comes from negotiations and debates.

environment created by the instructor or the guest speaker (Ardiansyah & Ujihanti 2018; Fernando & Marikar, 2017). Visiting or guest lectureship and professorship sessions are seen as one of the applications of the social constructivism approach to creating a structured educational environment to train tertiary students as professionals to be (Hover & Hicks, 2017; Mohammed et al., 2020). The visiting or guest lecturers can be both academic and non academic experts who are involved in sharing their expertise, job related, or research skills and knowledge (Guest lecturer, 2020). The tenured position for visiting lectures is found to be quite often offered at universities (Himmelsbach, In2019).the

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Design

The study is divided into six phases that utilised two designs namely: the exploratory and quasi experimental ones. The phases include a baseline study, pre test phase, intervention, post test phase, focus group surveys, and data processing phases (see Fig 1.).

Survey: purposes: a) to evaluate feasibility of reshaping the curriculum. b) to identify perceptions of the students’ engagement in their specialism related component of studies and applied research in terms of the students’ research activeness, professional self development, self directed learning & self education skills, and professional socialisation.

1. Conventional training + lectures delivered by vising speakers at universities and online. 2. Mind sessions conducted by the invited lecturers and speakers.

2. Informed consent from the students and lecturers

The research lasted for 9 months. The baseline study takes place on June 2019. The intervention lasted from October 2019 to the end of March 2020. The post test measurements and focus group interviews are both administered online in June 2020. Phase six of the study is conducted during September 2020. The baseline study survey is anonymously administered online to the students and lecturers of ten universities in Ukraine such as National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv; National University “Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic”, Poltava; the National University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine, Kyiv; Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi; Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv; Dnipro Academy of Continuous Education for Dnipropetrovsk Regional Council, Communally Owned Institution of Higher Education, Dnipro; Kherson State University, Kherson; Kryvyi Rih Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih; Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University, Vinnytsia; and Sumy State

3. Data processing. Transitional steps 1. Data collection tools design. Assessment of the credibility and eligibility of tools.

3. On site hands on experiences 4. Mentoring (job embedded experiences) 5. Professionalism related workshops

3.obtained.Theapproval of the intervention programme by the Board of Academics. Phase 3 Intervention phase (20 weeks)

Figure 1: Research design that is based on six stages such as a baseline study, pretestphase, intervention, post test phase, focus group surveys, and data processing phases

observationsControlled Phase 4 Post test phase (2 weeks) 1. Monitoring the variables. 2. Data consolidation. Focus group interviews (≈3 weeks) 1. Recording the interviews. 2. Transcribing the audio. 3. Synthesising the data. 4. Consolidating the data. Phase 5 Phase 6 Data processing phase (≈3 weeks) 1. Data consolidation. 2. Data computation. 3. Data interpretation and reporting.

Phase 2 Pre test phase (≈4 weeks) 1. Sampling. 2. Pre test measurements to identify the sample homogeneity.

Phase 1 Baseline study (4 weeks, ��=431��)

This study combines exploratory and quasi experimental research methods. The exploratory methodology is used because it helps in analysing participants’ opinions and perceptions expressed in words and actions (Mohajan, 2018; Aspers & Corte, 2019). The quasi experimental research method on the other hand is employed to complete the quasi experiential measurements. Important data are drawn from the assessment of students’ research skills and activeness, professional self development, self directed learning & self education skills, and professional socialisation by students themselves and their teachers before and after the intervention. The stakeholders’ perceptions of visiting lectureship such as students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations are studied using the focus group interviews (See Appendix A) Baseline Study Survey Questionnaires (BSSQ) on Perceived Students’ Engagement in Specialism related Studies for the student and lecturer respondents (See Appendixes B & C) is the research tool used in this study The students’ research skills are measured using a Questionnaire to Measure Research Skills (QMRS) which is designed and validated by Alvarado et al (2016). The students’ research activeness is assessed by their scientific supervisors using the checklist (See Appendix D). A Professional Self development Critical Reflection Scale (PSCRS) is indeed originally designed and validated to be a psychometrically sound tool which is purposefully used as a self report questionnaire to measure the variable of students’ professional self development (see Appendix E). When drafting this research tool, the research team uses the ideas of Nickel (2013). Self directed learning and self education skills are measured with the Self directed Learning Skills Scale (SLSS) that is constructed and validated by Ayyildiz and Tarhan (2015). The Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS) being outlined by Curran et al (2008) is modified to make measurements of the professional socialisation variable (see Appendix F)

The Voyant Tools which are accessed through the link: https://voyant tools.org/, are used to analyse the text corpus of teachers’ observation reports obtained from the controlled observations. The consolidated data drawn from the measurements of the variables were computed using the IBM SPSS Statistics (25.0.0.1) package.The QMRS includes 20 items to cover such skills as information seeking and processing, managing data, and developing scientific information (Alvarado, León & Colon, 2016). The benchmark values for the reliability of the QMRS are proved to be as follows: Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the total scale was .91. The value for the domain of information seeking and processing was .891. It was .711 for managing the data domain. It was supposed to be .687 for the domain of developing scientific information.

University, Sumy. The institutions for the baseline study are intentionally selected to cover four different educational programmes that were intended to qualify the students in educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. These are chosen because they correspond to the research team members’ majors.

3.2. Research Methods and Data Collection Instruments

3.2.1. The Focus Group Survey Questionnaire (��=11) It is based on 5 open ended questions (See Appendix A )that are framed to cover different aspects of the respondents’ perceptions of the programme reshaped to incorporate activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers. The respondents are randomly sampled for the interview. Each question in the interview is conducted via the phone and iss recorded and then transcribed. The responses were grouped according to the themes that were assigned by the experts with the code.

The BSSQs, the checklist for students’ scientific supervisors, RIPLS, and the focus group survey questionnaire are all validated by three Ph.D. experts in Social Studies. The tools are assessed for face validity, content validity, the internal consistency using Cronbach’s Alpha. The Principal components analysis is also conducted to measure the validity of the tools. The three level scale is suggested by the experts to unify the measurements and is applied to the tools that are designed for the study. For the BSSQs, it was 80 125 = a high rate of engagement; 51 79 = a moderate rate of engagement; 25 50 = low rate of engagement. It was 25 35 = a high rate of activeness; 13 24 = a moderate rate of activeness; and 7 12 = a low rate of activeness for the checklist for the scientific supervisors to assess the students’ research activeness. For the PSCRS, it was 17 25 = a high rate of Ss’ critical reflection on self development; 10 16 = a moderate rate of Ss’ critical reflection on self development, and 5 9 = low rate of Ss’ critical reflection on self development. For the RIPLS, it was 17 25 = a high rate of Ss’ readiness; 10 16 = a moderate rate of Ss’ readiness, and 5 9 = low rate of Ss’ readiness.

3.3. Sampling Random sampling is used for the respondents to answer anonymously the questions from the online survey questionnaire used in the baseline study. The sample included 431 students and lecturers of ten universities. The invitation to take part in the survey is sent by email. The email addresses of students and lecturers were enquired from the Dean's offices of the institutions. The convenience sampling technique is actually used to hire students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations for the intervention phase of the study (Taherdoost, 2016). The students and lecturers of five universities are the subjects for the intervention. These universities are as follows: National Pedagogical Dragomanov University (NPDU), National University “Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic” (NUPP), National University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine (NULESU), Khmelnytskyi National University (KNU), and Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (TSNUK).

The Sample size calculator that can be accessed via the link: https://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm#two, is used to compute whether the number of hired students and lecturers is adequate for the experiment. It is found that the sample size of 184 individuals (169 students and 15 lecturers) is sufficient for the experiment if �� (margin of error) is 5.48 and confidence level is 95%. The demographic characteristics of the students and lecturers are presented in Table 1.

The pre intervention measurements in students’ research skills and activeness, professional self development, self directed learning and self education skills, and professional socialisation using the below instruments show homogeneity among the students. Selection of the guest speakers and visiting lecturers

76 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Demographic features of the sampled students (�� =169) and lecturers (�� =15) Feature Institution % �� *NPDU NUPP NULESU KNU TSNUK (Genderstudents) Males 3 11 15 52 6 51.47 �� < 0.001Females 20 33 1 15 13 48.53 (lecturers)Gender Males 2 1 1 2 2 53.33 �� < 0.001Females 1 1 2 2 1 46.67 (students)Age 18 25 2 44 16 37 2 59.76 0. 512 26 30 9 0 0 3 7 11.24 31 35 5 0 0 12 6 13.60 36 40 5 0 0 7 4 9.46 41 45 2 0 0 6 0 4.73 46 59 0 0 0 2 0 1.21 (Lecturers)Age 26 30 0 0 1 2 0 20.00 0. 491 31 35 1 0 0 0 1 13.34 36 40 0 1 1 0 1 20.00 41 45 1 1 0 1 1 26.66 46 59 1 0 1 1 0 20.00 Note: S=students; L=lecturers; NPDU=National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, NUPP=National University «Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic», NULESU=National University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine, KNU=Khmelnytskyi National University; TSNUK=Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv; * the result is significant at �� < 05

The host organisations are also put on a vote to identify whether the students are interested in visiting them or not.

The key data about the educational programmes that are used as the experimental base are presented in Table 2

The selection process is conducted in three important stages. First, searching the information about them on the web Second, holding negotiations with them to reach consensus concerning the purpose of the study and their role in it, and third, polling the students to find out which speaker they are exposed to meet.

3.4. A Brief Outline of the Programmes

Both participants and the research team are involved in the process of selecting the guest speakers and visiting lecturers. The criteria for shortlisting them are as follows:a) strong brand in the media as an expert in the field; b) background and experience; c) charismatic character; and d) age (30 to 50 years old).

Table 2: Data about the institutions, educational programmes, and organisations that provided visiting speakers and hosted students programme)(headInstitutionofthe Programme Duration Qualification Organisations to provide visiting speakers and to host students NPDU (Dr. V. Bobrytska)I.

Directorate of higher education and adult education and Directorate for strategic planning and European integration for the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, and National Agency for Quality Assurance of Higher Education of Ukraine NUPP (N/A) “Physical therapyoccupationaltherapy, ” Bachelor’s programme

Educational expertise and consultancy

Assistance to a physical therapist or an therapistoccupational Poltava State Experimental Prosthetic and Orthopedic Enterprise; “Skalyansky Clinic” Medical Centre, LLC.; Poltava City Centre for Comprehensive Rehabilitation for Persons with RehabilitationDisabilities;centreforchildren with organic lesions of the nervous system of Poltava Regional Children's Clinical Hospital; “Sunflower” Training and Rehabilitation Centre, NGO; “3rd City Clinical Hospital for Poltava City Council”, Communally owned and subsidised enterprise NULESU (N/A) “Automation and integratedcomputer Master’sBachelor’stechnologies”& programme andyears54 thsnmo Engineers technologycomputerautomationinandintegrated "Greenhouses of Ukraine" Association, “Greenhouse” Combine, PJSC; “S Engineering” Company; Siemens, Schneider Electric KNU (Dr. H. Krasylnykova)V.

“Technology of light productsindustry Master’s(garments)” programme 4and1year months productionInstructor, control clothingengineer,designer & technologist Khmelnytsky Centre for Vocational Education in the field of services; Scientific and Methodological Centre for Vocational Education and Training of Engineers and Instructors in Khmelnytsky Region TSNUK (E. Ph.D.Spitsyn,) “Pedagogics of higher Master’sschool” programme years2

Teaching disciplinesbehaviouralsocialnaturaldisciplines,educationaldisciplines,humanitarianofdisciplines,and

Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine; Dnipro Academy of Continuous Education for Dnipropetrovsk Regional Council, Communally Owned Institution of Higher Education, Dnipro; Kherson State University, Kherson; Kryvyi Rih Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih; Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University, Vinnytsia; Sumy State University, Sumy 3.5. Ethical Considerations

The informed consent and the consent for voluntary participation are obtained from the sampled students and lecturers prior to the study. The confidentiality and anonymity of their personal data are given high priority so that the participants and visiting lecturers are not subjected to the harm of their reputation and public image. The survey questionnaires are drafted and edited to avoid misleading, biased, discriminatory, or offensive formulations. The

months10andyears3

policy”“EducationalMaster’s programme 4and1year months

As mentioned above, the randomly chosen students and lecturers are surveyed using the originally designed questionnaire (see Appendix B). The key purpose of the baseline study is to evaluate whether the reshaping curriculum is a feasible solution. In this concern, it serves to identify how the students perceived the extent of their engagement in their specialism related component of studies and applied research, and learn about how the lecturers perceived the extent of students’ engagement in their specialism related component of studies and applied research. Hence, the baseline study survey results shown from the perspective of students and lecturers are presented in Figure 2. Figure 2: The baseline survey results shown form the perspective of students and lecturers As can be seen in Fig 2., the rate for the perceived students’ engagement in specialism related studies as assessed by the students is mostly moderate, while that rate is mostly low from the lecturers’ perspective.

The study finds that visiting lectureship is capable to reshape and improve the university curriculum for four different majors such as educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. This is proved by a series of measurements made in the baseline study whose aim is to identify whether the experiment is feasible, and in the pre intervention and post intervention stages to identify what changes visiting lectureship brought to the variables. The latter is followed by the administration of the focus group surveys to boost the validity of the above measurements. The below sub sections present the results obtained at different phases of the study.

4.1. Baseline study Results

4. Results

The pre test and post test results of measurements that are based on the QMRS, PSCRS, SLSS, RIPLS are dosplayed in Table 3.

4.2. Pre-test and Post-test Measurements

Students' perspective Lecturers' perspective High rate engagementLowofModerateengagementofrateengagementrateof

The results of the analysis of the text corpus of teachers’ observation reports obtained from the controlled observations using the Voyant Tools are presented in Fig. 3 and Table 5. In fact, Figure 3 shows the distribution of the mostly used words in teachers’ observation reports. As displayed, the five most frequently used terms are benefits, job, practical, related, and specialism.

Note: �� Mean; �� Sum of squares; *significant at p < .05. As can be seen in Table 4, the Mean scores for essays and the student research also imply that sampled students experienced a positive change 4.4. The Controlled Observations Reports

79 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3: The pre-test and post-test measurement results based on QMRS, PSCRS, SLSS, RIPLS (�� =169) Tool Pre test Post test �� * �� * �� SS �� SS QMRS 41.31 1592.77 50.54 771.23 2.37125 .013049 PSCRS 38.23 1294.31 55.15 969.69 4.44225 .000086 SLSS 44.08 992.92 62.85 929.69 5.34641 <.00001 RIPLS 43.31 2286.77 61.67 129.69 4.96435 .000023 Note: �� Mean; �� Sum of squares; *significant at p < .05. Students experience a positive change in all the variables under this study. The Mean values in Table 3 suggest that there is the most noteworthy improvement in the Ss’ self directed learning and self education skills with an increase in values by 18.77 points. The second greatest change is in Ss’ readiness for interprofessional learning (the professional socialisation variable) which signifies the difference of 18.36 points in pre test and post test measurements. The third significant change occurred in students’ professional self development intentions with 16.92 points of increase. The least change takes place in Ss’ research skills with a positive shift of 9.23 points in this domain. 4.3. The assessment results of the students’ research activeness by their scientific supervisors (ETCS based) Table 4 reflects the average students’ scores for essays and research work. Table 4: Results of the assessment of the students’ research activeness by their scientific supervisors Pre test Post test �� * �� * �� SS �� SS 69.46 1305.23 83.62 605.08 4.04469 .000235

The analysis of the correlation of terms is presented in Table 5. Table 5: Results of the analysis of the correlation of terms Term 1 Term 2 Correlation Significance* efficient → class/training 1 0 benefits → Practical 0.843 0.0021 interesting → Specialism 0.763 0.0101 job → Related 0.762 0.0103 activities → Research 0.758 0.0352 specialism → Research 0.739 0.0391 job → Benefits 0.717 0.0416

Note: the significance of .05 or less indicates a strong correlation; Correlation: the closer the value is to +1, the stronger the correlation is As can be observed from Table 5, teachers’ observation reports emphasise the effectiveness and benefits of the visiting lectureship for the students’ occupational development and their research activity. 4.5. Focus Group Survey Results (�� =11respondents)

The focus group includes 2 representatives of the host companies, 2 lecturers, 2 guest speakers, and 5 students. For the first question, all respondents appreciate the activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers. Some of their quotes were as follows: […the training sessions were based on the real cases…] […the programme included on site assignments at host organisations that were quite challenging and beneficial in terms of the students’ future job functions…] As for the second question, students reporte that they have benefited professionally. The lecturers and guest speakers confesse that this teaching experience is a challenge to them because they need to update their teaching skills and knowledge along with reshaping the curriculum. The representatives

Figure 3: Distribution of the mostly used words in teachers’ observation reports

The second greatest change is in Ss’ readiness for interprofessional learning (the professional socialisation variable) which indicates the difference of 18.36 points in pre test and post test measurements. The third significant change occurres in students’ professional self development intentions with 16.92 points of increase. The least change takes place in Ss’ research skills with a positive shift of 9.23 points in this domain. The results of the analysis of the text corpus of teachers’ controlled observation reports prove the effectiveness and benefits of the visiting lectureship for the students’ occupational development and their research activity

In reference to the fourth question, all the respondents state that they would become a referee for the programme reshaped in that way because the programme reshaped them as professionals and individuals. As far as the last question is concerned, the lecturers suggest inviting the international speakers while the students proposed to use more media and technology, but the representatives of host companies advise launching the fundraising initiatives.

5. Discussion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of the host companies state that they could select the appropriate future employees for their organisations. In the third question , the lecturers and speakers admit that they need more time to design lesson plans and training sessions. Students also acknowledge that the deadlines are quite tough to some extent. However, the host company representatives find nothings to criticise.

Second, it identifies that the changes that have occurred in students’ research activeness, professional self development, self directed learning and self education skills, and professional socialisation are due to the use of visiting lectureship. The results obtained from the baseline study survey read that the rate for the perceived students’ engagement in specialism related studies as assessed by the students is mostly moderate, while that rate is mostly low from the lecturers’ perspective. These suggest that the programme curriculum needs improvements and use of visiting lectureship could be incorporated in the programme to upgrade the content and teaching methods. The pre test and post test results of measurements that are based on the QMRS, PSCRS, SLSS, RIPLS prove that there is a positive change in all the variables under this study. Due to the intervention, there is the most noteworthy improvement in the Ss’ self directed learning and self education skills with an increase in values by 18.77 points.

The focus group interview also concludes that visiting lectureship is positively perceived by students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations.It is therefore safe to record that visiting lectureship positively influences not only the students but also the other educational stakeholders.

The study is novel into two domains. First, it upgrades and updates the university curriculum of four different majors such as educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology through the use of visiting lectureship

More explicitly, it increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of instruction. Add to this, it benefits the potential employers as these are involved in the educational process at the early stage of the programme in its design and updating, which will result in a more competitive staff for them.

7. Recommendations

It is also recommended to start with the needs analyses of the students and selecting the guest lectures through enquiring about their portfolio of trainings. Furthermore, it would be advisable for guest speakers to attend several lectures before conducting their sessions.

6. Conclusion It is found that visiting lectureship reshapes and improves the university curriculum of four different majors such as educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. Visiting lectureship positively influences students’ research activeness, professional self development, self directed learning and self education skills, and professional socialisation, and it is positively perceived by students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations. Visiting lectureship increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of instruction. Besides, it benefits the potential employers as these are involved in the educational process at the early stage of the programme in its design and updating, which will result in a more competent and competitive staff for them to hire. The results of the research imply that this instructional model can benefit all educational stakeholders through upgrading instructional methods, institutional fiscal management, and graduate employment opportunities. Further research is needed to investigate its impact on of the interprofessional learning.

The current study also agrees with James Jacob et al. (2015), who proves that both programme curriculum and teaching practices could be improved through applying a joint analysis approach based on sharing feedback between teachers and students. The scientists argue that holding special events such as seminars of visiting lecturers, workshops and best practices to share showcasing can be also beneficial for the educational stakeholders as these facilitate the open exchange of ideas and innovative practices in both learning and instruction. It is consistent with Nikolayeva (2018) who finds that guest speaker presentations delivered at the preparatory stage of the fulfillment of the students’ research projects show a positive impact on students’ motivation and quality of their course papers.

The results of the study align with the preceding research. It agrees with Khan and Zhang (2017) who consider the visiting lectureship leverage of upgrading the curriculum to bring benefits to the guest lecturer, students, and university However, they emphasise that the recruitment process of guest speakers seems to be a challenge for the universities because of the curricula factor requiring the selection of a practitioner who is both an expert and a skilled instructor/trainer.

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No conflicts of interests of legal, financial, or commercial nature are reported by the authors. References Adolfsson, C. (2018). Upgraded curriculum? An analysis of knowledge boundaries in the teaching under the Swedish subject based curriculum. The Curriculum Journal, 29(4), 442 440. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2018.1442231

Conflicts

We are grateful to the visiting speakers, guest lecturers and experts for valuable expertise in the evaluation of all outputs being obtained from the study. We are also thankful to all the sampled students, lecturers for their diligence, positive attitude, and encouraging behaviour that made the study smooth to complete. of Interest

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Geduld, D., & Sathorar, H. (2016). Leading curriculum change: Reflections on how Abakhwezeli stoked the fire. South African Journal of Education, 36(4), 1 13. https://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v36n4a1319

Nickel, J. (2013). Self Assessment of Professional Growth Through Reflective Portfolios. Phronesis, 2(1), 67 79. https://doi.org/10.7202/1015640ar Nikolayeva, L. (2018). Role of Guest Lecturer in Research Proposal Writing: Students’ Perception. Arab World English Journal, 1, 24 36. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/mec1.2

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Types of Research Designs (OARP) (2020). Sacred Heart University. Retrieved from https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185902 Rajesh (2017). Benefits of guest lectures for students Retrieved from https://www.easymnotes.in/benefits guest lectures students/ Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology; How to choose a sampling technique for research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 5(2). 18 27. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205035 Varvel, V. E. (2020). Guest lecturers in the online environment Retrieved from https://www.uis.edu/ion/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/guest lecturers in the online environment/ Xhomaqi, B., Todd, A., & Boivin, P. (Eds.) (2019). 21st century learning environments. Retrieved from http://lllplatform.eu/lll/wp content/uploads/2019/10/LLLP Position paper 21CLE.pdf

James Jacob, W., Xiong, W., & Ye, H. (2015). Professional development programmes at world class universities. Palgrave Communications 1 https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2015.2 Khan, S. A. R., & Zhang, Y. (2017). The effective role of visiting lecturers in the courses of supply chain management. American Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, 2(6), 104 109. https://doi.org/ 10.11648/j.ajtte.20170206.12 Kormoczi, R. (2019). The problem with theoretical learning. Retrieved from https://www.timesinternational.net/theoretical learning/ Leventhal Weiner, R. (2015). America’s “visiting professor” scam: How colleges are watering down higher education Retrieved Mohajancolleges_are_watering_down_higher_education/https://www.salon.com/2015/02/19/americas_visiting_professor_scam_how_from,H.K.(2018).Qualitativeresearchmethodologyinsocialsciencesandrelatedsubjects. Journal of Economic Development, Environment, and People, 7(1), 23 48. Mohammed,https://doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v7i1.571Husam,S.,&Kinyo,L.(2020).

Guest lecturer. (2020). Guest Lecturer. Retrieved from https://www.zippia.com/guest lecturer jobs/ Himmelsbach, V. (2019). How to become a tenure track professor. Retrieved from https://tophat.com/blog/tenure track professor/ Hover, S., & Hicks, D. (2017). The Wiley Handbook of Social Studies Research. In M. McGlinn Manfra & C Mason Bolick (Eds.), Social constructivism and student learning in social studies , https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118768747.ch12

The role of constructivism in the enhancement of social studies education. Journal of critical reviews, 7(7), 249 256. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.07.41

85 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Yadav, R. (2016). Role of constructivism in learning. International Journal of Educational Studies, 3(3), 93 96. Retrieved from https://esciencepress.net/journals/index.php/IJES/article/view/1591 Appendix A 1. What is your general impression of the programme accompanied by activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers? Why? 2. How did you personally benefit from the programme reshaped in this way? Suggest your reasoning. 3. What disappointed or discouraged you from participating in the activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers? Why? 4. Would you become a referee for the programme reshaped in this way? Why? 5. What would you change to the programme to make it more beneficial for the students?

86 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 86 105, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.5 Teaching Children with Special Needs in Nigerian Regular Classes: Impact of Gender, Marital Status, Experience, and Specialty Kingsley Chinaza Nwosu University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8856 7938 WP Wahl University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1771 7863 Hasina Cassim University of Venda, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5168 8656 Emmanuel Nkemakolam Okwuduba University of Malaya, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2158 3300 Gloria Uzoamaka Nnaemeka Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2623 7714 Abstract. This study investigated the impact of teachers’ gender, marital status, years of experience, and specialty on their willingness to include children with special needs (CWSNs) in their classes. We adopted a cross sectional survey design. Using a convenience sampling technique, 316 teachers from 15 state owned secondary schools in Awka South Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria participated in this study. Data were analysed with mean, t test, and ANOVA. Findings showed that teachers were willing to include CWSNs in their classes, and only teachers’ specialty showed a significant impact on teachers’ willingness to teach CWSNs. It was concluded that aspects of the teacher socio demographic variables that may affect their willingness to include CWSNs are those that could influence their competence. Limitations of studies were highlighted. Keywords: socio demographic variables; special needs; inclusive education; regular classes

1. Introduction

One of the factors that have bolstered the exclusivity of children with special needs (CWSNs) in regular classes is the teacher factor Teachers have been found to argue that the inclusion of children with disabilities in their classes can undermine their productivity (Greene, 2017). Many factors are associated with teachers’ non receptivity of CWSNs in regular classes, namely the challenges posed by trying to provide education that could satisfy diverse individual needs (Limaye, 2016), teachers’ perceived competence (Cate et al., 2018), institutional challenges such as weak policies and legislative challenges (Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019), cultural beliefs (Eskay, Eskay & Uma, 2012), and teachers’ attitude towards inclusion (Eskay, Eskay & Uma, 2012; Obisesan, 2020) These five aspects concerning the teacher factor are important, because they highlight the current challenges facing inclusive education in Nigeria.

The Nigerian government is a signatory to several international agreements/arrangements that support inclusive education (Obisesan, 2020; Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). However, predominant in the Nigerian context is the integration of CWSNs in regular classes (Oluremi, 2015a) a position that does not always support fully inclusive educational practices. According to Oluremi (2015b), CWSNs in Nigeria may be rejected by some teachers because they lack the requisite training and the confidence to handle them. Training and experiences of teachers have been noted as crucial in the implementation of inclusive educational practices (Oluremi, 2015b), since these factors are likely to affect the attitude of teachers towards inclusionary practices in regular classes. This link between training and experiences and the attitude of teachers is important because teachers are seen as pivotal in the implementation of inclusive education (Cate et al , 2018). Given this vital role, there is a growing research interest to understand factors that impact the receptivity of CWSNs by teachers (Cate et al., 2018; Gilor & Katz, 2018; Low, Ng, Hui & Cai, 2019). However, these studies mostly concentrate on the teachers’ attitudes, self belief systems, and subjective norms concerning inclusive practices (Gilor & Katz, 2018; Low et al., 2019). It appears that the socio demographic characteristics of teachers have not been fully considered in efforts to understand their willingness to include CWSNs

Diversity tolerance in classrooms has been advocated in current literature on inclusive education One of the most preferred approaches to respecting individual needs and ensuring optimal development of all learners in classrooms is the inclusive education approach (Dea & Negassa, 2019; Greene, 2017; Oladele, Ogunwale, & Dafwat, 2016), given its benefits to both typically and atypically developing students (Cate et al., 2018) Underlying this perspective is the fact that schools necessarily are places for enhancing an individual’s potential by ensuring equal educational opportunities (Chao et al., 2017). However, there is a perception that inclusive education, in many nations, is not adequately implemented, due to diverse conceptual interpretations (Braunsteiner & Mariano Lapidus, 2014; Dudley Marling & Burns, 2014; Global Partnership for Education, 2018; Schuelka & Johnstone, 2011) This has led to the exclusion of vulnerable students from regular classrooms.

2.1 Educating CWSNs in the Nigerian Context

Researchers have noted that Nigeria has not met its obligation for full inclusive education (Oluremi, 2015b; Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). Various factors have impeded the implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, such as socio cultural issues like the belief that disability has to do with curses and punishment from the gods (Eskay et al., 2012). These cultural beliefs affect teachers’ attitudes towards CWSNs and constrain policy implementation with regard to the effective education of CWSNs (Eskay et al., 2012; Obisesan, 2020). Other factors that have mitigated against proper inclusion of CWSNs in regular classes include the following: inadequate adaptive facilities (Oluremi, 2015a), negative social attitude, unfriendly school environment, inadequate funding, inadequate human resources and training for teachers, lack of awareness of inclusive education, and policy and legislative issues (Adebisi et al., 2014; Onukwufor & Martins, 2017).

The fact that these factors have been allowed to strain the effective implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, recently has raised questions about the prioritization thereof.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. in regular classes. These shortcomings in the existing body of literature make it difficult to derive any concrete generalization about how different variables concerning the teacher could influence inclusive educational practices, especially in a developing context like the Nigerian society In line with the research finding of Dea and Negassa (2019), and Dev and Kumar (2015), we consider socio demographic variables such as gender, experience, and the specialty of the teacher as crucial to teacher disposition to inclusive education. In a bid to address the limitations in current research, and contribute to knowledge regarding teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in Nigerian regular classrooms, we investigated how gender, marital status, level of experience, and specialty of teachers influence their receptivity to CWSNs. We believe the findings of this study will inform policies on training and retraining of teachers for effective inclusive educational practices and avoidance of rejection of CWSNs in regular classes. Practitioners could tailor make interventions (training programmes) to take into consideration the unique needs and dispositions of regular teachers so that they will be willing to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs. It is clear that training teachers without taking into consideration their individual experiences, exposures, prior learning, gender, and marital status may be counter productive, as literature is replete with evidence that teachers’ socio demographic variables impact their teaching effectiveness.

2. Literature Review

In this section, we report on a review of the education of CWSNs in the Nigerian context, to establish what the efforts to implement inclusive education entailed, and to identify factors impacting its effective implementation. Thereafter, we endeavoured to understand how teacher socio demographic variables could be linked to teacher inclusive education practices, identifying existing gaps. Hence, the literature review is organized in the following sub sections:

Researchers also have demonstrated how socio demographic variables impact teacher retention and willingness to stay in the profession (Efanga et al , 2014), effectiveness in classroom management (Amadi & Allagoa, 2017), and students’ academic/literacy development (Ellis, 2011). Studies that concentrated on special needs education reported on teachers’ socio demographic features, such as teachers’ years of experience, specialty, teaching area, age, pre and in service diversity training, and gender, which impact their inclusive educational practices, perspectives, self efficacy, and attitudes (Boyd, 2017; Dea & Negassa, 2019; Dev & Kumar, 2015; LaVergne et al., 2012; Shaukat, 2012). In their study, for example,

Concerns about the prioritization of inclusive education have a bearing on the general failure to implement relevant policies, perceived as deficient, amidst a sub optimal school system. Igbo et al. (2014), for instance, place the failure to educate CWSNs efficiently and inclusively in Nigeria against the backdrop of even children without special needs not having been adequately provided with quality education. This is why most challenges undermining general education in Nigeria also are found in special needs education but at a very disturbing rate (Igbo et al , 2014) Thus, the issue of sub optimal education in the general school system seems to be intensified when it comes to the education of CWSNs. Though there have been concerted efforts globally to educate all persons, notwithstanding their unique characteristics in an inclusive setting, this noble idea has failed to be realized in Nigeria. Furthermore, although Nigeria has policies that spell out the need for inclusive education, researchers have noted deficiencies in the policy framework and the legislative provisions (Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). This has perpetuated segregation and constrained Nigeria from implementing integration arrangements in educating CWSNs. Therefore, the majority of CWSNs are not educated in an inclusive education setting. Hence, it becomes pertinent to ascertain teacher factors that could impact their willingness to include children with disabilities in their regular classes. In this regard, teachers’ socio demographic variables in inclusive education practices are vital.

2.2 Teachers’ Socio Demographic Variables and Inclusive Education Practices

Understanding the impact of teacher demographic variables on teacher instructional practice, effectiveness, and student outcome in both regular and special classes has attracted the attention of researchers, specifically over the past ten years (Amadi & Allagoa, 2017; Dea & Negassa, 2019; Efanga, Ikpe & Idante, 2014). One of the reasons that could be adduced for expending these research efforts is the fact underpinned by a significant body of literature that individuals’ behaviours are affected by their social and biological attributes (Abdullahi, 2019; VanderStel, 2014). Abdullahi (2019:3) elaborately conceptualized socio demographic variables as ”the sociological and demographic attributes acquired by an individual(s) in a population that determine his/her socio demographic positions or niches, socio demographic roles, as well as the correlating socio demographic advantages he/she attains and succeeds” . The notion of socio demographics includes several variables such as gender, age, marital status, income, education, family, ethnicity, religion, and so forth (Abdullahi, 2019; Rughinis & Huma, 2015). For teacher education research, it could be conceptualized as attributes that demonstrate the socio demographic positions of the teacher.

Dev and Kumar (2015) found that teachers’ gender, age, and educational level accounted for significant differences in their perception of the integration of children with learning disabilities (CWLDs) in regular classes, while teaching experience and teaching field made no significant differences in their perception. What was interesting was that they reported that female teachers were more favourable towards integrating and more patient with CWLDs than their male counterparts. Teachers who were older than forty years and those with postgraduate qualifications showed a more positive inclination to integrating CWLDs in their regular classes. Song, Sharma and Choi (2019) also found that the completion of a compulsory course in special and inclusive education improved pre service teachers’ inclusive self efficacy, intentions, concerns, and attitude. This shows that experience and exposure to rudiments in inclusive education can impact teachers’ competence belief systems. It could, therefore, be inferred from the literature that, since perceptions of teachers on inclusive education could be impacted by socio demographic variables, teachers’ willingness to include CWLDs in regular classes also could be impacted by such variables. Therefore, as Nigeria is making advances to full inclusive education, understanding teacher socio demographic variables that could impact the receptivity of CWSNs in the Nigerian context becomes pertinent. It is this gap in the literature that the present study intended to close.

LaVergne et al. (2012) demonstrated how Texan agricultural education teachers’ teaching area, ethnicity/race, gender, and school setting (rural, suburban, and urban) significantly impacted their perceptions about, and barriers and solutions to problems hampering the smooth move to inclusive education in an agricultural education programme. In the same vein, Shaukat (2012) found that the following factors accounted for significant mean differences in teacher self efficacy in inclusive education: the type of school teachers are trained to teach at, the nature of their own educational programmes (B.Ed. general/special education, or M.Ed. general/special education),their level of training, and their experience in teaching FurthermoreCWSNs.,

3. Theoretical Model Studies have indicated that a large number of factors impact the effective implementation of inclusive education (Adebisi et al., 2014; Eskay, 2012; Oluremi, 2015b; Onukwufor & Martins, 2017; Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). Prominent among these factors in the implementation of inclusive education of CWSNs is the teacher factor. Literature has shown that several studies have been conducted on teacher attitude to, and belief system on the inclusion of CWSNs in their regular classes. We also conceptualized that teacher socio demographic variables such as teachers’ gender, marital status, experience, and specialty will impact their willingness in teaching CWSNs, given that behaviours are reflections of social and biological characteristics (Abdullahi, 2019; VanderStel, 2014). This is framed based on previous work that associated teacher inclusive education practice for children with visual impairment with teacher socio demographic variables (Dea & Negassa, 2019). We extended this to general inclusive education practice within the scope of willingness to teach, and to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in regular classrooms. This is diagrammed in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Teacher Demographic Variables and Willingness to Include CWSNs in Regular Classes

4.1 Research question and hypothesis For a proper guide for the investigation, one research question was posed while a hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. Our research question was: To what extent are teachers, in their diversity, willing to teach CWSNs and provide them with emotional and adaptive support in the regular classes?

a) Investigate the willingness of teachers to teach CWSNs and provide them with emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes; and b) Determine the impact of teachers’ gender, marital status, experience and specialty on their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes

4. Objective of the study With the study we aimed to evaluate teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in their regular classes and to determine how their socio demographic characteristics impact their willingness to include them in regular classes. This arises given that both the biological and sociological background of an individual could affect his behaviour. To inform policies and teacher training for effective inclusive educational practice in Nigeria, understanding the impact of teacher socio demographic variables on their willingness to include CWSNs in their regular classes deserved to be studied Regarding the willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes, we investigated teachers’ willingness to teach them as well as their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs. Our specific objectives, therefore, were to:

The sample for our study comprised 316 teachers in public schools in Awka South Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria Teachers who were employed by government and those employed by Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs) were sampled for the study. National Youth Service Corps members and student teachers who were doing their service year in the sampled schools were not included in the study. The convenience sampling technique was used, but we did not merely select available teachers, but also teachers who gave their consent after we had explained the essence of the study to them. The researchers visited the individual schools and approached the teachers in the staff rooms. Available teachers were handed the questionnaire. Some of the teachers reported that they were busy at the time but made appointments with the researchers to complete the questionnaires. When we revisited the schools, teachers who had not been available during the previous visit were approached and given the questionnaire to complete We distributed 317 copies of the questionnaire in 15 public schools sampled for the study. Three hundred and sixteen teachers completed the questionnaire; thus one teacher dropped out of the study The sample characteristics of our respondents are tabulated in Table 1:

The hypothesis was: Ho: Teachers’ gender, marital status, years of experience, and specialty make no significant difference to their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes.

5. Method To understand the impact of teachers’ demographic characteristics on their willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes, the researchers adopted the quantitative research paradigm as an approach to the investigation. This section is organized under research design, participants, instrument, method of data collection, and analysis.

5.1 Research design We used a cross sectional survey research design. Through the cross sectional survey we aimed at determining the behavioural characteristics prevalent among a population by sampling a cross section of the population at a point in time (cf. Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000; Stockemer, 2019). We wanted to understand the overall picture of how willing teachers were to include CWSNs in their regular classes, hence the need for a design that would enable us to sample across the population. We collected data with the intention of possible generalization of the findings to the population.

5.2 Participants

H1: Teachers’ gender, marital status, years of experience, and specialty make significant difference to their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes.

93 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Respondents’ Characteristics Variable Characteristics Number Percentage Gender Female 247 79.4%? Male 64 20.6% Marital Status Married 190 61.1% Single 121 38.9% Widowed 0.00 0% Teaching Experience Mildly experienced (Less than 4 yrs.) 88 35.2% Moderately experienced (5 10yrs) 97 38.8% HighlyExperienced (11 yrs. and more) 65 26.0% Teachers’ QualificationAcademics NCE 25 8.9% Degree 241 80.6% Master’s Degree & PhD 33 11% Area of Specialization Arts Education 88 28.9% Social Science Education 72 23.7% Science Education 110 32.2% Business Education 34 11.2%

5.3 Instruments

The data collection instrument used was an integrated version of the Teacher Willingness to Teach Challenging Children Questionnaire (TWTCCQ) (Low et al , 2019) and the behavioural component of the Teachers’ Multidimensional Attitude towards Inclusive Education Scale (TMATIES) (Mahat, 2008). We integrated these instruments to broaden the concept in such a way to include elements that had a bearing on both teaching and the provision of emotional and adaptive structures Therefore, we referred to the questionnaire as the ‘Teacher Willingness to Include CWSNs Questionnaire (TWICWSNsQ)’ . We conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on the questionnaire to determine the underlying structures of the ten items in the instrument. Missing data were deleted listwise, the Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) measure was .882, the Bartlett test of sphericity was significant at 0.000, showing that running an EFA on the items was justifiable given that they adequately correlated. The initial communalities ranged between .331 and 0.599 Rotation showed the first factor accounted for 25.64% of the variance, the second factor accounted for 21.21%. The range of the factor loadings is between 0.521 and 0.737. Factor 1 is for teaching support for CWSNs while factor 2 is for emotional and adaptive support. The internal consistency index using the Cronbach Alpha coefficient indicated that the first cluster has a .78 index, while the second cluster has a .83 reliability index.

The majority of the participating teachers were female (79.4%), and more than half of them were married. Regarding experience, 26% had more than ten years’ experience while 35.2% could not really be regarded as experienced teachers as they had less than five years’ teaching experience. The results indicated that most teachers’ highest academic qualification was a first degree (80.6%), while 11% had master’s and PhD degrees and the remaining 8.9% were NCE (National Certificate in Education) holders. With regard to their field of specialty it was found that the sciences topped the list (36.2%), followed by arts and social sciences (28.9% and 23.7% respectively), while only 11.2% specialised in business education.

We distributed the data collection instrument among teachers in public schools through the direct delivery technique. We visited the schools and explained to the teachers the essence of the research, whereafter we sought their consent to participate in the study. Participants were assured of confidentiality, as no provision was made on the questionnaire for teachers’ names or staff identification numbers. They also were informed explicitly that they could leave the study if and when they deemed it fit. Those who consented to participate in the study were given copies of the questionnaire to complete

in Table 2 and Figures 2

The results

willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes Kolmogorov Smirnova Shapiro Wilk Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig. Willingness to teach children .155

are

Data were analysed using the IBM SPSS, version 26. Missing values were handled by default in SPSS. At the data entering stage, missing values were coded 999. The main analysis was preceded by the testing of statistical assumptions such as a normality test and homogeneity of variances and handling of missing data Missing data were deleted listwise by SPSS default. The Shapiro Wilk test showed that the distributions in the two clusters were significant, p < .05, while Levene’s test showed that all the distributions were non significant, p > .05, indicating that variances were homogenous. Given the large sample size and that variances in distributions were homogenous, we continued our analysis with a t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistics. Violation of normality assumption has been shown to cause no harm in t test analysis (Rochon, Gondan & Kieser, 2012). of the normality test presented 5 teachers’ 314 314 Plot teaching CWSNs

.000 .951 314 .000 a. Lilliefors Significance Correction Figure 2: Normal Q Q

5.4 Data Collection and Analysis

below Table 2: Tests of normality on

.000 .954 314 .000 Willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support .131

95 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Figure 3: Detrended Normal Plot of Teaching CWSNs Figure 4: Normal Q Q Plot of Provision of Emotional and Adaptive Support for CWSNs Figure 5: Detrended Normal Plot of Provision of Emotional and Adaptive Support for CWSNs

2 I wouldn’t mind teaching academically weak children 1.00 4.00 3.20 .63

Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive Support to CWSNs Cluster

5 I am willing to encourage students with disabilities to participate in all social activities in the regular classroom 1.00 4.00 3.31 .66

strongly agreed that they were willing to provide emotional support as well as to adapt the environment, curriculum, and assessment to include these children in their regular classes. The mean responses ranged from 3.01 to 3.37.

10 I am willing to adapt to the assessment of individual students for inclusive education to take place. 1.00 4.00 3.31 .63

Table 3 depicts the mean responses of teachers on the two clusters. In cluster one, referring to teaching CWSNs, mean scores showed that teachers agreed that they were willing to teach these children in their regular classes. Items 3 and 4 had the lowest mean scores showing that teachers’ willingness to teach the naughtiest and at risk kids

Furthermore,reduced.teachers

S/N Items Min Max Mean SD Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs Cluster

4 I am ready to teach at risk kids 1.00 4.00 2.82 .78

8 I am willing to modify the physical environment to include students with a disability in the regular classroom 1.00 4.00 3.09 .72

9 I am willing to adapt my communication technique to ensure that all students with emotional and behavioural disorders can be successfully included in the regular classroom 1.00 4.00 3.29 .71

6. Results

1 I am willing to teach behaviourally challenging classes 1.00 4.00 3.14 .66

The results of the data analyses are provided in the tables and figures below, each followed by a brief discussion.

3 I am prepared to teach the naughtiest students 1.00 4.00 2.96 .82

6 I am willing to adapt the curriculum to meet the individual needs of all students regardless of their ability 1.00 4.00 3.37 .64

7 I am willing to include students with a severe disability in the regular classroom with the necessary support 1.00 4.00 3.01 .76

Table 3: Item by Item Analysis of Teachers’ Mean Responses on their Willingness to Teach and Provide Emotional and Adaptive Supports to CWSNs

Table 5: ANOVA Test on Differences in Teachers’ Willingness to Include CWSNs in Regular Classes Based on Level of Years of Experience

Teachers’ willingness to teach CWSNs Married 3.07 .56 1.606 308 .109 Single 2.96 .56

Table 4: T test Statistic Table on Mean Differences according to Respondents’ Gender and Marital Status in their Willingness to Teach and Provide Emotional and Adaptive Support for CWSNs Variables Demographic Mean DeviationStd. t df sign

Teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs Married 3.22 .52 .674 307 .501 Single 3.26 .48

Table 4 shows that male teachers (M = 3.07, SD = .51) had a non significant marginally higher mean score in willingness to teach CWSNs in regular classes than their female counterparts (M = 3.02, SD = .58), t(308) = .664, p >.05. On teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes, male teachers (M = 3.26, SD = .49) had a non significant marginally higher mean than their female counterparts (M = 3.23, SD = .51), t(307) = .482, p < .05.

Teachers’ willingness to teach CWSNs Male 3.07 .51 .664 308 .507 Female 3.02 .58

Similarly, Table 4 shows that married teachers (M = 3.07, SD = .56) had a non significant marginally higher mean score on willingness to teach CWSNs in regular classes than their unmarried counterparts (M = 2.96, SD = .56), t(308) = 1.606, p >.05. On teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes, married teachers (M = 3.22, SD = .52) had a non significant marginally lower mean score than their unmarried counterparts (M = 3.26, SD = .48), t(307) = .674, p < .05. Results showed that gender and marital status did not significantly influence the teachers’ willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.

ANOVA statistics in Table 5 showed no significant main effect of teachers’ levels of the years of experience on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 1.869, p > .05, or their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs, Measure Level of years of experience experiencedMildly ExperiencedModerately experiencedHighly M SD M SD M SD F(2,247) Sign.

Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive support to CWSNs 3.25 .49 3.20 .51 3.32 .50 1.014 .364

Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs 3.03 .62 3.00 .48 3.16 .51 1.869 .156

Teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs Male 3.26 .49 .481 307 .631 Female 3.23 .51

Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive Support to CWSNs 3.23 .57 3.24 .48 3.32 .46 3.24 .50 2.43 .066

Measure EduArtsSpecialtycation

ANOVA statistics in Table 7 show that teacher specialty had a significant main effect on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F (2, 247) = 3.86, p < .05, and their willingness for emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 2.43 p >.05. Posthoc analyses using the Bonferroni test indicated significant differences in teachers’ willingness to teaching CWSNs among teachers who specialized in science education and those who specialized in business education (p. <.05); and also between those in arts education and business education (p < .05). Therefore, teachers’ specialty had a significant impact on their willingness to teach, while it did not have a significant impact on teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.

Table ANOVA Test on Differences in Willingness to Include CWSNs in Regular Classes Based on Teacher Specialty Soc. Science Education EduSciencecation EducationBusiness M SD M SD M SD M SD F(2,247) Sign

98 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. F(2, 247) = 1.014 p >.05. Therefore, teachers’ years of experience did not have a significant impact on their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes. Table 6: ANOVA Test on Differences in Willingness to Include CWSNs in Regular Classes Based on Qualifications Measure Highest Qualification NCE Degree M.Ed & PhD M SD M SD M SD F(2, 247) Sign Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs 2.88 .64 3.07 .54 2.96 .63 1.60 .204 Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive support to CWSNs 3.08 .48 3.25 3.25 3.37 .54 2.52 .082 ANOVA statistics provided in Table 6 show no significant main effect of teachers’ highest qualification on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 1.60, p > .05, or their willingness for emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs, F(2, 247), p >.05. Therefore, teachers’ qualifications did not have a significant impact on their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.

Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs 3.07 .56 3.04 .53 3.11 .60 2.75 .45 3.86 .010

7. Discussion

Our study was aimed at investigating Nigerian teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in their regular classes and how their socio demographics could impact their inclusive education willingness. This was informed by the fact that some teachers in Nigeria, despite the global trend towards educating CWSNs in inclusive education settings, are still not so receptive to the idea of inclusion. For effective implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, there must be teachers who have not just received training in inclusive education but also teachers who are willing to accept CWSNs in their classes. This becomes significant, given that teachers are the bedrock for inclusive education implementation (Cate et al., 2018).

Our findings indicated that teachers were willing to teach and provide a supportive environment for CWSNs in their classes. This was manifested in the high mean scores in the responses. Teachers also were more willing to provide a supportive environment than to teach CWSNs. This might have been informed by their perception of what CWSNs needed most. Granted is the fact that for effective teaching of CWSNs in regular classes, there must be emotional and adaptive support in which the teachers will be empathic to the students. Researchers are of the view that support and adaptation are very important in inclusive education, and that inclusive education demands such competencies to be developed and nurtured among the general teachers (Buli Holmberg & Jeyaprathaban, 2016). Teachers must also be willing to adjust their instructional approaches, curriculum, and assessment practices to accommodate CWSNs.

A closer examination of the mean scores revealed lower scores in teachers’ willingness to teach students with behavioural problems and at risk students. Teachers might have their reservations about this group of students. Also, at risk students are more demanding and teachers might have been cautious in their responses here. This aligns with research that shows that the nature of a disability may affect the way and manner in which the teacher may be receptive to the child (Cassady, 2011). There is the tendency among teachers to be willing to teach children they perceive to have the competence to handle, since this has been shown to influence teachers’ receptivity of CWSNs in their classes (Cate et al., Finding2018).s on teachers’ socio demographics showed non significant effects on their willingness to include children in the classes, except for teacher specialty.

Concerning gender, male teachers had a non significant marginally higher mean score for their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in regular classes than their female counterparts. Thus, this study accepts the null hypothesis that teachers’ willingness to teach CWSNs and provide emotional and adaptive support for them in their regular classes do not significantly differ as a result of their gender, marital status, experience, and specialty. Our finding contradicts several similar studies that have shown that female teachers are more inclined to inclusive education practices, stating that they are more patient with CWSNs (Dev & Kumar, 2015) Our findings showed that both male and female teachers were willing to include CWSNs in their classes. The difference in the mean responses could have been by chance, since it is not statistically significant.

Based on the findings, teachers’ marital status had no significant impact on their willingness to teach CWSNs in regular classes, though those who were married were a little bit more willing than their unmarried counterparts On teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes, married teachers had a non significant marginally lower mean than their unmarried counterparts. Though our finding is not statistically significant, it shows that married teachers are more willing to teach CWSNs, while teachers who are not married are more willing to provide emotional and adaptive support.

In our study it was found that teachers’ specialty had a significant impact on their willingness to teach CWSNs in their regular classes, while it did not have a significant impact on their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes. Posthoc analyses showed the significant differences in teachers’ willingness to teaching CWSNs occurred among teachers who specialized in science education and those who specialized in business education; and between those in arts education and business education. Similar studies have shown that the area of study of a teacher could affect teacher inclusive education practice. Dea and Negassa (2019) found that teachers with a specialty in special education practise more individualized teaching than those who have not had special education training. It could be that the knowledge a teacher has concerning CWSNs could influence his/her willingness to teach them. Therefore, specialty areas that could expose the teacher to underlying biological and environmental factors affecting CWSNs, are likely to impact teachers’ receptivity of CWSNs in regular classes. It might be that the fields of sciences and arts could impact on teachers’ willingness to accept CWSNs in their classroom rather than the specialty area of business education, as those teachers in sciences

Current literature shows extremely limited studies on marital status and inclusive education practice. Thus, there is currently very little empirical evidence that teachers who are married may be more willing to engage with children than their unmarried counterparts, given that having children has a way of mellowing teachers (Odanga, Aloka, & Raburu, 2015).

Our findings indicated that the level of years of teaching experience had no significant impact on teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes. This contradicts the findings of similar studies such as those of Dea and Negassa (2019) and Dev and Kumar (2015), that showed that teachers’ years of experience was a significant factor in inclusive education practice such as collaboration with other professionals and their perception of inclusive education. Furthermore, teachers’ highest qualifications did not have a significant impact on their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes. This implies that regardless of the qualifications with which the teachers sampled for this study were teaching with, they were all willing to include CWSNs in their classes. This may be the opposite of the common assumption that the higher their qualifications the more willing teachers may be to participate in inclusive education practices. However, exposure to compulsory courses in inclusive education could close the gap that might be generated by differences in qualifications Song et al (2019) found that the completion of a compulsory course in inclusive education improved teachers’ competencies in inclusive education practice.

Our study showed that teachers in Nigeria reported that they are willing to include CWSNs in their regular classes and that their sociodemographic characteristics did not impact their willingness significantly, except in the case of their specialty. It was concluded that aspects of the teacher socio demographic variables that may affect their willingness to include CWSNs are those that could influence their competence. This has significant implications for the implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria. Since the teachers are willing to include CWSNs in regular classes, a need exists for the logistics to be finalised and for further training of teachers and others involved to ensure that effective inclusive education is implemented and maintained in Nigeria This will make available education that can cater for the needs of all Nigerian children. The finding that only the area of specialty resulted in significant differences in teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes implies that the teacher education curriculum should be reviewed to ensure that irrespective of a student teacher’s area of specialization, content should be included in the curriculum that will ensure that teachers are prepared and willing to include CWSNs in their regular classes.

Our study has made significant contributions to understanding which factors might impact teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes in Nigeria. This appears to be the first study that has examined the teachers’ socio demographic variables that might have an effect on their willingness to include CWSNs in their regular classes within the Nigerian context Taking cognisance of these variables may influence policies regarding training and retraining teachers for inclusive education in Nigeria.

8. Conclusion and Limitations

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. might have been more informed about the biological issues related to disabilities. Teachers that majored in the arts might be more susceptible to exhibiting a humanistic approach to teaching CWSNs.

Granted, our study has made a significant contribution to the literature on inclusive education, but still it was limited by specific factors. First, an exclusively quantitative research approach was used; results could have been substantiated if there was a possibility of triangulation of findings. For more robust findings, future studies should adopt both quantitative and qualitative designs. Second, the majority of our respondents were female teachers which could ensue data bias. The generalization of this finding to areas without such a lopsided teacher population concerning gender, may be difficult We believe this study provided a sound starting point for further work on the issue if inclusive education in African schools, as it emphasised the importance of teachers’ attitude to educational approaches, and more specifically education for CWSNs.

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Appendix

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105 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Business Education Section B: Teacher Willingness to Include CWSNs Questionnaire (TWICWSNsQ) Instruction: Respond to the following items to indicate how willing you are to teach children with special needs in your class by (√) in the responses provided. S/N Items SA A D SD Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs Cluster 1

I am willing to encourage students with disabilities to participate in all social activities in the regular classroom I am willing to adapt the curriculum to meet the individual needs of all students regardless of their ability I am willing to include students with a severe disability in the regular classroom with the necessary support I am willing to modify the physical environment to include students with a disability in the regular classroom I am willing to adapt my communication technique to ensure that all students with emotional and behavioural disorders can be successfully included in the regular classroom I am willing to adapt to the assessment of individual students for inclusive education to take place.

I am willing to teach behaviourally challenging classes I wouldn’t mind teaching academically weak children I am prepared to teach the naughtiest students I am ready to teach at risk kids Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive Support for CWSNs Cluster

Teachers’

106 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 106 125, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.6 Attainment of the Immediate Program Graduate Attributes and Learning Outcomes of Teacher Candidates towards Global Competence Initiatives Gilbert C. Magulod Jr. Cagayan State University, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8385 683X Leonilo B. Capulso City College of San Fernando, Philippines San Matias National High School, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2984 6590 Josephine Pineda Dasig University of Perpetual Help DALTA, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5280 7242 Micheal Bhobet B. Baluyot Technological University of the Philippines, Manila https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0716 023X John Noel S. Nisperos Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University South La Union Campus, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1397 5133 Ethel Reyes Chua Emilio Aguinaldo College Cavite, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3573 1503 Mahyudin Ritonga Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatera, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia0003 1397 5133 Randy Joy M. Ventayen Pangasinan State University, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0952 7795 Assel Khassenova Astana Medical University, Kazakhstan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2328 6924 Mashraky Mustary Sophia University, Japan Begum Rokeya University, Bangladesh https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5700 725X Supat Chupradit Chiang Mai University, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8596 2991 Abstract. This paper focuses on assessing the immediate program graduate attributes and learning outcomes for the teacher preparation towards global competence initiatives. It describes the students' retrospection, which will serve as a basis for the program's strategic enhancement. This study employed a descriptive survey of 75 teacher candidates in the Philippines. Findings revealed that the top five highest program graduate attributes are lifelong learner, responsive teacher, ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi literate educator Simultaneously, the bottom five are effective communicator, value laden educator, instructional material developer, classroom manager, assessor and evaluator, and curriculum planner and implementer. Grade in

1. Introduction To respond to the growing demand for education in the 21st Century, UNESCO (2015) reported that one of the global problems facing the educational system is the shortages of specialized teachers who have the personal and professional attributes to deal with students of varying needs. Cobbold (2015) asserted that the most significant public policy issue facing countries worldwide is employing sufficient highly qualified teachers. Governments are striving to develop their educational systems to become an essential catalyst for student achievement through quality teacher education preparation (Darling Hammond et al., 2010. Meyer & Norman 2020, Rubach & Lazarides, 2020, Teo 2019, Top et al., 2021) For decade studies, the influence of teachers on student achievement is so evident that they are considered the most significant learning element inside schools (Bruce et al., 2020, Hannaway & Mittleman, 2011, Harris & Sass, 2011, Hu et al., 2021, Koc & Celik 2015, Metzler & Woessmann, 2012, Reeves, et al., 2017, Shen, et al., 2020, Wang et al , 2020). The previous international experience is no less noticeable in the Philippine context. Teacher Education Institutions in the Philippines and the rest of the ASEAN countries are fundamentally focusing their efforts to produce competent and high caliber graduates who will fill the country's teaching human resources needs. Professional discipline like teaching necessitates different subject courses' alignment to the Outcomes Based Education (OBE) standards for Teacher Education Institutions. The track towards OBE defines the attributes of quality teacher education graduates in the Philippines. Quality learning is contingent upon quality teaching. Hence, enhancing teacher quality becomes of utmost importance for a long term and sustainable nation building. Just recently, the adoption and implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) in thePhilippines also paved theway to set outclear expectations of teachers along well defined career stages of professional development from beginning to distinguished practice. It aims to engage teachers to embrace a continuing effort to attain proficiency actively; and apply a uniform measure to assess teacher performance, identify needs, and provide support for professional development. The PPST was used as a basis for all learning and development programs for teachers to ensure that teachers are adequately equipped to

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. experiential learning courses spelled the difference in the acquisition of graduate attributes. Implying that students with high academic performance perceived themselves to have a high level of acquisition of the Immediate Graduate Attributes (IGA). Retrospection of the respondents showed excellent satisfaction with the research and extension services, educational counseling program, and the instructors and professors' qualities while family and relatives were influential in choosingteachingascareer preparation. Finally, parents'satisfaction and geographic locations are important factors that affect the teacher education program enrollment. This study will serve as reference in designing teacher education initiatives towards internationalization.

Keywords: Graduate Attributes; Immediate Program Learning Outcomes; Teacher Education; Retrospection; Global competence

Institutions of higher education and teaching programs, in particular, are still seeking to enhance the standard of their teaching and graduation performance (Deneen et al., 2013). Outcome Based Education (OBE) presents a structure to concentrate and coordinate the program on preset, explicitly specified learning objectives for students. In many fields of integrated expertise and skills gained by students during this program, it was seen as an essential change in education theory and practice (Tam, 2014; Biggs, 2014; Barrie & Prosser, 2004). For Spady

Graduate attributes refer to the university's expectations of their students regarding their sets of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in which the students develop throughout their stay with the higher educational institution (Bowden et al. 2000, Hill, Walkington & France 2016, Barrie 2006). Hence, such graduate attributes go beyond the professional expertise and knowledge, reflecting the university's core values towards the graduates' preparation as the catalyst of societal development. Studies conducted on pre service teachers' graduate attributes are still limited (Harrison & Ballantyne, 2005) In Australia, Hudson, Hudson, Fell and Shipway (2016) investigated the graduate standards of pre service teachers found out that the pre service teachers lacked the confidence to use techniques to promote maximum engagement of students with disabilities; show instructional comprehension. Pop (2015) also explored how pre service teachers understand their teacher preparation and learned that students had a necessary teaching experience to develop their technical and personal values and attributes. Beltman et al. (2015) examined the individual orientation of early pre service teachers, finding that service teachers have described themselves as teacherswhohave goodlearning opportunities,who have productive interactions with their students, and are sure of themselves as teachers. Sheridan (2011) also examined teacher's pre service expectations of teacher competence using a mixed method analysis, concluding that teachers felt that a well advised teacher wants their students to recognize and make their teaching meaningful.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. implement the K to 12 program effectively. It can also be used for the selection and promotion of teachers. All performance appraisals for teachers shall be based on this set of standards. This becomes the basis for developing the identified generic attributes of university graduates competent, self disciplined, and universally adept. Students’ retrospection and satisfaction also play an essential role in the university's effective operation, particularly in developing graduate Thisattributes.study is anchored on Human Capital Theory focusing on education as investment and Braun’s Theory of correlation between education and industry/professions, emphasizing that the formation of knowledge and skills in the educational system is associated with labor, human resources productivity, and innovation. The need to assess the immediate level of acquisition of the program graduate attributes and course learning outcomes, including the retrospection of the students in studying, will provide essential intervention schemes for the improvement of the Teacher Education program to make more responsive to the attainment of the teacher education program educational objectives and its compliance to OBE system.

2. Methodology Research Design

The descriptive survey research design was employed to determine the extent of the course program's attributes and learning outcomes of teacher candidates and their retrospection on studying at a higher learning institution. It surveyed and systematically described the respondents' characteristics and perceptions about

literature has considered it essential to measure student satisfaction due to lower inscription pressure, decreased expenditures, limited fiscal resources, and intensified competition from government and private funding (Li et al. 2005, Schuh, 2009, Herdlein and Zurner 2015). Machado et al. (2011) have confirmed that student retention is a global obstacle to reach students. Kottler (2010) states that the individual's satisfaction is the affective framework for a substance or operation. When results and standards align, greater satisfaction is anticipated. According to Hermans et al. (2009), student satisfaction is critical to the institution's competitive sector. Therefore, Moro Egido (2009) concludes that satisfaction is fundamental if students are perceived as buyers of education asa public good. The Commission of theEuropean Communities'study (2006) stressed that higher education institutions would accept reforms if they are to remain successful in the new world. Gruber et al. (2010) and Osfield (2008) also argued that universities would meet the needs of a changing and varied student population. As the student becomes more a customer, institutions that rely on classroom learning and study must be more mindful of the students' satisfaction (Gruber et al., 2010). Objectives of the Study: This study assessed the extent of acquisition of the course program attributes and learning outcomes of teacher education graduating students and their retrospection on studying. Specifically, it aimed to: (1) assess the level of acquisition of the course program attributes and program learning outcomes; (2) Test the difference in thelevel of acquisition of thecourselearning outcomes when grouped according to the profile variables of the respondents; (3) determine the retrospections of the respondents on their: (3.1.) satisfaction on the quality of services of the university; (3.2) agencies through which the degree programs learned; (3.3) reasons of enrolling in the degree programs; (3.4) factors affecting the enrolment of the respondents to the teacher education degree programs. Results of this study offer a basis for strategic program enhancement of the degree program.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (1994), the creation phase of OBE offers proof of understanding. It covers school results and consequences. Studies on outcome oriented higher education such as Akir, Eng, and Malie (2012), Lui and Shum (2012), and Lam (2009) have shown that OBE structured students are more successful students than traditional students. Biggs and Tang (2007) claimed clearly that a results method targets and integrates the elements of an instructional framework with students' predicted success. For that strategy, learning environments are "backward designed" (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005; Webb, 2009) to synchronize with and help achieve Higherperformance.education

The use of Raosoft as a sampling package provides power values to given sample size and alpha levels to avoid Type I and Type II errors (McCrum Gardner, 2010;Omair, 2014). The complete list of the class population was requested to the dean's office with the university authorities' approval. A systematic sampling technique was employed. The following research ethics considerations guided this study. First, the university ethics committee approved data privacy and informed consent forms to be signed by the study respondents. Second, the researcher conducted an orientation on the purposes of the research before administering the instruments. Thirdly, the anonymity of therespondentsandtheinstitution was observedbynotmentioning Thenames.tool in collecting research data was a research questionnaire constructed by the researcher in which items were adopted from the Outcomes Based Education syllabi consisting of the program graduate attributes and program learning outcome statements of the College of Teacher Education. The items in the survey questionnaire were arranged in sequence into four parts. Part I elicited the personal profile of the respondents. Part II measured the level of acquisition of the program attributes and program learning outcomes. Part III identified the retrospections of the respondents of their studies in a higher learning institution. The questionnaire was self made, and it was validated before its administration to reduceerrors in the measurement process.As tothe study'sresearch procedure, permission was sought from concerned authorities before conducting the study. As ethical procedures, informed consent forms were accomplished. Discussion about the study's objectives and significance was conducted to the group, and their voluntary participation was sought. The administration of the research instrument lasted for two weeks, after which tabulation of research data was carried out.

Data Analysis To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statics were used. Frequency, mean score, standard deviation, ranks, and percentage distribution were used to describe the study's variables. Independent sample t test, one way analysis of variance was employed to identify the difference in the attainment of learning outcomes when grouped according to profile variables. Post Hoc Tukey HSD test was used to confirm the significant difference between the mean responses of the group. The scale of interpretation for the variables being measured to assess the acquisition of the intended program attributes, course learning outcomes and level of satisfaction followed the scale of 1 to 5 with 1 as the lowest and 5 as the highest.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. their level of competencies and skills acquired upon finishing their degree programs in the College of Teacher Education. Respondents, Research Instruments, and Procedure Data of the study were surveyed and generated from the sampled 75 teacher candidates To ensure equal representation of the participants, the researcher employed systematic sampling was used. Raosoft was used to compute the sampling size set with a margin of 5%, 95% level of confidence, and 50% response distribution. Raosoft online software was accessed through this weblink http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html

111 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3. Results and Discussion Level of Acquisition of the Teacher Education Program Attributes of the Respondents. This study assessed the level of acquisition of the program attributes of graduating students of the teacher education program, which will ensure the development of skills to better equip the future teachers for work environment and employment. Table 1. Level of Acquisition of the Course Program Graduate Attributes of the college of Teacher Education AttributesGraduateProgram Program Learning Outcomes (n=75)Mean Dev.Std. D.I. Rank CTEO 1 SubjectExpertmatter Manifest deep and principled understanding of educational concepts and theories in different areas aligned to course. 3.69 0.66 HE 4 CTEO Classroom2Manager Make the classroom a conducive and safe learning environment and implement appropriate pedagogical approaches for diverse learners. 3.58 0.61 HE 8 CTEO 3 Multieducatorliterate Implement pedagogicalappropriateapproaches for diverse learners 3.67 0.66 HE 5 CTEO instructional4MaterialDeveloper Develop and use appropriate instructional materials for meaningful learning activities and experiences 3.61 0.72 HE 7.5 CTEO ImplementerPlannerCurriculum5and Plan, innovate and implement components of the curriculum based on the standards set by regulating bodies 3.31 0.78 ME 10 CTEO 6 AssessorEvaluatorand Employ a wide range of educational assessment tools and evaluate their effectiveness in improving the teaching learning process 3.57 0.70 HE 9 CTEO communicatorEffective7 Communicate effectively in English, Filipino and Mother Tongue in Various Academic and Social Settings 3.63 0.71 HE 6 CTEO EducatorEthical8 Model and practice professional and ethical standards of the teaching profession 3.70 0.65 HE 3 CTEO 9 ValueTeacherladen Exhibit desirable work ethics, personal traits and beliefs consisted of Filipino family and universally shared values 3.61 0.58 HE 7.5

CTEO Responsive10Teacher Manifest excellence in crafting and implementing programs and activities that promote social, cultural, economic, political, ecological and technological growth and development 3.93 0.68 HE 2 CTEO Lifelong11Learner Exhibit passion for learning, professional growth, and educational leadership 3.96 0.71 HE 1 Grand Mean 3.66 High Extent Legend: 4.20 5.00 Very High; 3.40 4.19 High; 2.60 3.39 Moderate; 1.80 2.59 Low; 1.00 1.79 Very Low Table 1 generally presents that the teacher education graduating students in a higher learning institution have a high level of the acquisition on the teacher education program attributes reflected with the grand mean of 3.66. This means that based on the respondents' assessment, they indicated a high understanding of the personal and professional attributes to manifest as future professional teachers. The top five graduate attributes are the lifelong learner, responsive teacher, ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi literate educator. The bottom five were being an effective communicator, value laden educator, an instructional material developed, classroom manager, assessor and evaluator, curriculum planner, and implementer. A closer look at the data reveals that CTEO 11. Lifelong learner program graduate attribute with IPO of exhibit passion for learning, professional growth, and educational leadership obtained the highest mean of 3.96 (SD=0.71) ranked first by the respondents. They generally viewed themselves to have capably valued learning as essential characteristics of the 21st century educator. As future teachers, they emphasize value learning as part of their career preparation and Specifically,development.CTEO

10. The responsive teacher with IPO of manifest excellence in crafting and implementing programs and activities that promote social, cultural, economic, political, ecological, and technological growth and development as an attribute was ranked second and rated with the mean of 3.93 (SD=0.68) interpreted with high extent level of acquisition. This implies that the graduating pre service teachers have a high level of skill in this attribute. This connotes that they are equipped with a responsive teacher's characteristics, particularly in handling diverse learners with multi cultural upbringing. Au (2009) shares that were addressing students' individual needs is a critical concern faced by the education sector since most of the teachers are not prepared to become responsive to the students' needs. Meanwhile, the ranked third was the CTEO 8. Ethical educator attributes with IPO of the model and practices professional and ethical standards of the teaching profession registered with the mean of 3.70 (SD=0.65) with the interpretation of a high extent level of acquisition implies that the respondents manifest the ability

Moreover, CTE0 7. Effective communicator attribute with program learning outcome of Communicating effectively in English, Filipino, and Mother Tongue in Various Academic and Social Settings was significantly rated with 3.63 (SD= 0.71) registered in the seventh rank. The finding reveals that pre service teachers consider that good communication skill is a vital attribute that should be developed. They are aware that having good communication skills is the basic need of academic success among learners. Khan et al 2017) found out that teachers without good communication facilities can cause a low academic performance level. In addition, CTE0 9. Instructional material developer graduate program attribute with learning outcome of developing and using appropriate instructional materials for meaningful learning activities and experiences obtained the mean of 3.61 (SD=0.58) ranked 7.5. This generally implies that the respondents can recognize themselves as instructional material developers. Magulod (2017) noted that designing, developing, and utilizing learning materials suited to the students' individual needs is an indicator of an effective teacher in the 21st Century. Instructional Materials are an essential tool in the process of learning.

In like manner, CTEO 9. Value laden educator as program graduate attributes with learning the outcome of exhibit desirable work ethics, personal traits and beliefs consisting of Filipino family and universally shared values obtained the

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to model and practice ethical standards in the practice of teaching profession. Iroegbu and Adeleke (2017) declare that choosing a profession demands that the person must of necessity learns, practice, and abide by the profession's professional ethics. Awareness of the existing professional standards is indicative of a professionals' likelihood of confirming ethical values under all possible contingencies (Boon, 2011).

In like manner, CTEO 1. subject matter expert as a program graduate attribute with program learning outcomes of manifesting deep and principled understanding of educational concepts and theories in different areas aligned to course ranked fifth with the mean of 3.69 (SD= 0.66) interpreted to have a high extent level of acquisition. The finding clearly shows that the graduating pre service teachers have a high attribute of being a subject matter expert. They emphasize the idea that content knowledge is important in becoming a teacher. The knowledge on the subject matter taught and the skill to facilitate learning. In addition, being a CTO 3. multi literate educator with IPO of Implementing appropriate pedagogical approaches for diverse learners was ranked sixth as evidenced with the mean of 3.67 (SD=0.66) by the respondents. This finding reveals that the pre service graduating students show the inclination of being a multi literate teacher. They consider themselves capable of using different effective models and strategies to integrate technology in the academic environment. Palak and Walls (2009) have stated that university teacher training should prepare students to focus on technology use classrooms. Magulod (2017) recommends that pre service teachers' training to the up to date advances in teaching will make them effectively facilitate the learning process.

Among the eleven program graduate attributes, CTE0 5. Curriculum planner and implementer with learning outcome of Plan, innovate and implement components of the curriculum based on the standards set by regulating bodies (CHED, DepEd, PRC, TESDA, TEC) obtained the lowest mean of 3.31 moderately acquired as a graduate attribute. This implies that this graduate attribute requires actual experience of the pre service teachers to attain to high extent since designing and developing curriculum entirely is the work of teachers who are already in the teaching service, and it requires the involvement of all stakeholders to directly involve them in student instruction which is a vital piece in successful curriculum development and revision. The perception of the level of acquisition of the respondents' intended program attributes to a great extent implies that teacher education graduates have the personal and professional qualities as 21st-century educators. This finding of the study further implies that the respondents are adaptable enough and prepare for the modern teaching scenario and are equipped with the needed skills needed to survive in the 21st century teaching environment. Hence, enhancing the five bottom graduate attributes should be conducted to ensure highly effective teachers' development

As to CTE0 6. Classroom manager program graduate attribute with learning outcome of making the classroom a conducive and safe learning environment and implement appropriate pedagogical approaches for diverse learners. It was rated with the mean of 3.58, which ranked ninth among the attributes. This shows that the pre service teachers understand the effective utilization of classroom management styles appropriate to different situations. Classroom management is the teacher’s ability to manage learning activities, including social and behavioural interaction (Martin, Yin & Baldwin, 1998).

As CTEO 6. Classroom assessor and evaluator registered with learning the outcome of employ a wide range of educational assessment tools and evaluate their effectiveness in improving teaching learning process obtained the mean of 3.57 with high extent level of acquisition ranked ninth among the attributes. This shows that the pre service teachers understood utilizing different assessment modes and processes to improve the teaching learning process. Gronlund (2006) notes that educational assessment skill is essential in the teaching profession. It refers to the process used in the classroom by the teacher to obtain information about students’ performance on assessment tasks.

mean of 3.61 ranked 7.5. This implies that the respondents can positively recognize the importanceof possessing desirable personal and work valueswhich are important to become a professional teacher. They can recognize well their value orientation. In the study of Celikoz and Cetin (2004) as cited by Necla(2016), they found out that if pre serviceteachers are oriented and capacitated tomanifest desirable attitude towards their career, the higher possibility of performing their work properly when they will be in the field.

Profile

Table 2. The difference in the Acquisition of Intended Program Attributes when grouped According to their Profile Variables Variables Intended OutcomesLearning(ILO) Decision Sex 0.939 ns Accept HO Age 0.864 ns Accept HO Weekly allowance 0.265 ns Accept HO Type of HS Graduated from 0.311 ns HO Father’sOccupation 0.826 ns Accept HO Mother’sOccupation 0.253 ns Accept HO Father’sEducation 0.0826 ns Accept HO Mother’sEducation 0.226 ns Accept HO Family Monthly Income 0.409 ns Accept HO Grade in Field Study Courses 0.038 * Reject HO *= Significant at 0.05 level Ns= not significant Table 2 presents the difference in the level of acquisition of program graduate attributes when grouped according to the respondents' profile variables. The result of the test of difference showed that there is a significant difference on the program graduate attributes of the students when grouped according to the profile variables. Hence the null hypothesis of the study is rejected as 0.05 alpha level. The only variable that explains the significant difference in the acquisition of intended program attributes is the general point average in field study courses. Result of the Post Hoc Tukey HSD test showed that those Pre service teachers with outstanding performance (91 93), very good performance (88 99), and with good performance (85 87) significantly have the higher assessment of the level of acquisition of intended program attributes compared to those with satisfactory performance (76 78) and with fair performance (79 81). This generally implies that pre service teachers with the remarkable performance in their experiential learning courses perceived themselves to have higher acquisition of the College of Teacher Education's program graduate attributes The result means that when Preservice teachers have high grades and better exposure in their field study courses, they also manifest high assessment on the level of acquisition of the intended program attributes. The finding can also be practically explained that those students with high academic performance tend to have higher self esteem and confidence. Keeping in view the findings of Arshad, Zaidi and Mahmood (2015) that asserted that there is a strong association between college students' academic performance and self esteem The table further presents that regardless of students’ gender, age, weekly allowance, type of high school graduated from, parents’ occupation, parents’ education, and the family

The significant difference in the level of acquisition of the IPA when grouped according to the selected profile variables will provide a more conclusive result of the extent to which the identified graduate attributes for teacher education were strong and weak.

Test of Difference on the Level of Acquisition of the Intended Program Attributes When Grouped According to the Respondents’ Profile Variables

116 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. monthly income they have the same level of perception on the acquisition of their intended program attributes. Retrospections of Teacher Education Graduating Students in studying Level of Satisfaction of the Respondents. The increasingneed to identify students' level of satisfaction with the university's different services and programs will serve as evidence that there is a need for higher education institutions for improvement and enhancement. Table 3. Satisfaction Level of the Respondents Areas (n=75)Mean Dev.Std. InterpretationDescriptive 1. Structure of the degree program 3.81 1.28 High 2. Topic contents of courses 4.61 0.67 Very High 3. Testing and grading system 4.00 1.18 High 4. Quality of instructors and professors 4.22 0.92 Very High 5. Physical school environment 2.99 0.75 Moderate 6. Academic counseling and guidance program 4.30 0.82 Very High 7. Quality of library resources 2.82 0.82 Moderate 8. Quality of equipment in the laboratories 2.76 0.43 Moderate 9. Quality of Field study and student teaching experience 3.69 1.25 High 10.Scheduling of classes 3.11 0.70 Moderate 11.Quality and size of rooms 2.54 0.50 Moderate 12.Provision for research and extension 4.60 0.49 Very High 13.Provision for comprehensive review classes 3.63 0.78 High Composite Mean 3.62 High Legend: 4.20 5.00 Very High; 3.40 4.19 High; 2.60 3.39 Moderate; 1.80 2.59 Low; 1.00 1.79 Very Low Table 3 presents the satisfaction of the respondents with the services provided by the program. This study reveals that students' overall assessment on the program's quality of services was rated very satisfied with a mean of 3.62 interpreted as satisfied. The result infers that many respondents were highly satisfied with the different services provided by the Campus. Hence, the need for further improvement and the quality of the services provided will contribute to the program's enhancement. Helgesen (2006) cites that higher learning institutions, they are responsible for the overall management by enhancing the students' level of satisfaction. In like manner, Browne et al. (1998) declare that the curriculum's quality, performance, and relevance affect the students' satisfaction. The study results that the provision of research and extension, academic counseling program, and qualities of the instructors and professors were important factors affecting teacher education ststudents' satisfaction This shows that student teacher connection, students' learning experiences, student services, and teacher preparedness contribute to the satisfaction of students in higher

Figure 1 shows the percentage distribution of agencies through which the respondents learned about the program. The figure clearly shows that most of the respondents learned about the degree program through family and relatives, obtaining the highest percentage of distribution of 27 percent (f=20) in the graph. This generally implies that family and relatives greatly influence learning about the College of Teacher Education's degree programs. The finding shows that family and relatives, school campaign, instructors, and professors were the significant agencies in which the respondents learned about the degree program while the least agencies were print materials, website, and Facebook.

Figure 1. Percentage Distribution of Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned about the Program

13% 27% 21% 5% 3%16% 15% Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned About the Teacher Education Degree Programs (n=75) friends (f=10) family and relatives (f=20) school campaign (f=16) print materials instructors/professors(f=4) (f=12) website/facebook (f=2) highschool teachers (f=11) education. The lowest was the physical environment, class scheduling, qualities and sizes of classrooms, and library resources. This indicates that the university still needs to improve its school environment by putting up more buildings and adequate ancillary facilities to cater to the students' needs. According to Magulod (2017), the school environment enhances students' academic capabilities. The effectiveness of carrying out a meaningful program depends on the sufficiency of the institution's physical environment Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned about the Program. To successfully attract students, there is a need to identify the factors affecting the school of choice among students.

The finding generally implies that family and relatives were still influential in choosing the teaching profession as the respondents' career preparation. The result confirms the earlier study of Magulod (2017) that parents' influence in career planning is still evident among college students. Hewitt (2015), concluded that most people are taking careers that their parents favor. Hence, parents are deeply involved in and influential to the college choices of their children. Further, Workman (2015) noted that in the Philippines, parents ‘impact students' decision making when it comes to students' course preference since Filipinos acknowledges the role of families in decision making in a particular career path. The lowest percentage of contributors to the study learned the degree program from website/ Facebook and print materials. Hence, there is a need for the

Thereasonsforstudentstowardstheirchoiceof school arean essential component of the present study. It will uncover the motivation of students their reason for taking teaching as a future profession. The finding will serve as the basis for improving the university policy on admission and career guidance to promote teaching as a profession.

university to intensify its marketing strategy through the use of modern means of reaching enrolment prospects. According to Bowen (2012) advertisements with social media and other networks, strong alumni relations, success stories, promotions, and campaigns offer useful marketing techniques to attract and increase university students' enrollment. Further, Kotler and Keller (2009) also view that the school's physical environment is also a factor of enrollment. This indicates that through the practical application of marketing strategies, modern means of reaching prospective clienteles to portray the university's good image will enable the school to attract many enrollees.

8% 12%24% 8%16% 8%13% 11% Reasons of Enrolling the Teacher Education Degree Programs (n=75) peer influence (f=6) influence of parents and relatives (f=18) inpired by a model (f=9) strong passion for teaching profession (f=6) Prestige of teaching profession (f=12) no better idea or particular choice (f=6) good grades in high school subjects employmentprospect(f=10)forimmediate(f=8)

Figure 2 presents the respondents' reasons for enrolling in the College of Teacher Education of the Collegeof Teacher Education in ahigher learning institution. The graph revealed that most of the respondents enrolled in the program because of parents and relatives' influence, obtaining the highest percentage distribution in the figure of 24 percent (f=18). The least percentage distributions of 8 percent belong to peer influence (f=6), no better idea on particular choice (f=6), and a strong passion for the profession (f=6). It is also interesting to note the most of the respondents who enrolled in the teacher education degree programs were immediate family members of teachers. Hence, the result of this study shared the finding of Abulencia et al (2017), who explored the factors affecting students' career choice to become teachers that early exposures to the role of teachers and the influence of close family members contributed to the preference to pursue education as a program in teacher education. Hence it was recommended that the orientation program include parents and model teachers of the school to strengthen the students' interest to pursue teaching.

Reasons for Enrolling the Teacher Education Degree Programs

Figure 2. Percentage Distribution of Reasons of Enrolling the Teacher Education Degree Programs

Figure 3 presents the factors that affect the enrolment of respondents in the degree program. The finding showed that the significant factor that affects the enrolment of the teacher education degree programs is parents' satisfaction (f=14) obtaining the highest distribution in the graph with 19 percent. The least contributors were the university's facilities (f=3) and admission program (f=4), with both distribution of 4 percent and 5 percent, respectively. The finding generally means that parents' satisfaction and geographic locations are important factors that affect college enrolment of the College of Teacher Education of In a higher learning institution. Agray and Lampadan (2014) opine that for higher education institutions to encourage students to enroll in their programs, there is a need to determine the students' effective marketing strategy, socio economic background, orientation, and behavior. This study found out that parents' influence, the university's reputation, demographics, affordable tuition fee, and economic condition of the family were the highest factor affecting students' enrollment to the teacher education program. The finding construes with Hagel and Shaw (2008) provides a similar set of characteristics: reputation, proximity, and cost were predictors of selecting a university. In like manner, Kusumawati, Yanamandram and Perera, (2010) confirms that the other factors are job marketability and parents’ satisfaction.

Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the Teacher Education Degree Programs (n=75) parent's satisfaction (f=14) demographies and proximinity to home (f=13) reputation of the University Affordable(f=11) Price of Tuition fee (f=10) Economic conditions of family (f=11) Facilities (f=3) Availability of scholarship admission(f=9) program of the university (f=4)

The study employed a descriptive survey research design to assess the level of acquisition of the program graduate attributes, learning outcomes, and teacher education graduating students' retrospection in a higher learning institution. Results of the study revealed that Preservice teachers have a high level of acquisition of the intended program attributes top five highest program graduate 19% 17% 15%13% 15% 4% 12% 5%

Data on the factors contributing to students' enrolment in the teacher education degree programs will provide significant policy input for the institution on what to improve in terms of its accessibility and reputation.

Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the Teacher Education Degree Program

4. Conclusion

Figure 3. Percentage Distribution of the Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the Teacher Education Degree Programs

having the top five attributes of being a lifelong learner, responsive teacher, ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi literate educator while the bottom five were being an effective communicator, value laden educator, instructional material developed, classroom manager, assessor and evaluator, and curriculum planner and implementer

The current research limits teacher candidates' scope for one school year using the descriptive survey to acquire intended graduate attributes and their retrospection in studying. Hence, a follow up study is appropriate when the respondents will have their jobs to validate this study's results. Similarly, longitudinal tracking of the graduates' cohort should be conducted to determine the different graduate attributes' real outcomes. Moreover, a study looking at the relationship between the respondents' employment status and graduateattributes is also recommended for future studies. As an implication of the present study, Philippine universities offering teacher education degree programs should effectively engage in the employability agenda, emphasizing the development of intended program attributes that should be seriously embedded in the realm of lifelong career development among its faculty members students.

Finally, parents' satisfaction and geographic locations are important factors that affect college enrolment of the College of Teacher Education.

. Grade in field study courses spelled difference on the acquisition of graduate attributes of the respondents. Further, the respondents' retrospection showed that they were excellently satisfied with the provision of research and extension, academic counseling program, and qualities of the instructors and professors. Family and relatives were influential in choosing the teaching profession as career preparation of the respondents.

5. Implications to Teacher Candidates Preparation towards Global Competence Initiatives With these findings, the researchers present the following implications to teacher candidates’ preparation towards global competence through a strategic program enhancement as the proposed plan action. The following programs and activities offered for strategic enhancement are: (1) intensive orientation of the teacher education students on the program graduate attributes in the early stage of their course; (2) collaboration for international student teaching immersions to develop global perspectives of teachers with the focus of cross cultural experiential learning; (3) closer monitoring and supervision of on the implementation of experiential learning courses of teacher candidates; (4) choice of international and local faculty members to teach the subjects for teacher education; (5) continuous training of professional education and general education faculty in integrating the assessment of graduate attributes to all teacher education curricula with emphasis of using internationally developed syllabi; (6) improvement of physical learning and distance learning environment for teacher candidates; (7) Career Guidance and Campaign for Parents; and Enhance the marketing strategies of the Teacher Education program.

de Lourdes Machado, M., Brites, R., Magalhães, A., & Sá, M. J. (2011). Satisfaction with

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Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. Workman, J. L.

Abstract. This research aims to develop a scale to measure the practice of instructional leadership of elementary school principals in Indonesia. A sequential mixed methods approach was chosen involving 238 school principals at public elementary schools in Bogor regency, Indonesia. The new instructional leadership scale showed appropriate levels of reliability and validity. The reliability of the developed scale was 0,875. The construct validity was examined; second ordered confirmatory factor analysis was at a satisfactory level, Chi square χ2=434.489, CFI =.934, p=.113, TLI=.928, RMSEA=.019, SRMR=.046. Convergent and discriminant validity were at an acceptable level as well. Qualitative results concluded that there were three identities of instructional leadership: instructional knowledge, attitude, and skills. By providing a new scale to measure instructional leadership roles, it could help navigate effectively that the roles of school leaders for learning reforms.

Keywords: Confirmatory Factor Analysis; Elementary School; Instructional Leadership; Mixed Methods; School Principal 1. Introduction A learning process has become a crucial factor in influencing school outcomes. It articulated the ability of teachers to facilitate students, and it also described the effectiveness of the role of the school principals in leading the school. Once, the school can question what is learning? It will influence the results of other academic works within the school relatively. Thus, educational practices that happen in school might be exactly regarded as learning to learn. Biesta (2010) proposed that the nature of learning is not only to ask about ‘what learning is’, but it is more profoundly and related to the content (what is learned), its relationships (from whom it is learned), and purpose (why it is learned).

126 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 126 145, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.7 The Development of Instructional Leadership Scale of Elementary School Principals in Indonesia Agung Purwa Widiyan, Saowanee Sirisooksilp and Pennee Kantavong Narot Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5459 8007 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0960 7365 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3797 4119

Besides, Jawas (2017) summarized that the roles of the school principals to understand the notion of learning culturally is needed. These consistent roles of leadership will enable the school principals to make necessary changes to certain conditions. To represent these new roles, another scale must be included, replaced, or substituted to identify the successful practices of instructional Thisleadership.isnot to argue for the effectiveness of new leadership scale development against PIMRS. Meanwhile, to cover certain phenomena in which school

Also, Biesta (2010) suggested that the language of learning refers to understanding something from someone for a particular reason. This new notion of learning involved a very personal purpose for learning to take place. This change asserts a different term of learning. Hence, the presence of someone to teach necessarily must be capable to exert the meaning of teaching into designing a learning environment or harnessing learning experience. Besides, this alluring reflection of learning and teaching has significantly changed the role of the school to become a learning community or space to learn. Therefore, this perception leads to changes in educative practices, and the implementation of instruction in the school has been shifted. This shifting of instruction that occurred in the classroom should be led by a school leader who can create a shared sense of purpose in the school and nurture continuous instruction improvement. Those specific actions referred to a type of leadership role which promoted collaborative work purported to facilitate students’ learning (Suratno, 2012) In this regard, the roles of school leaders relate directly to students’ learning achievement and improvement (Elizabeth Dhuey & Justin Smith, 2014). To unpack these progressive roles, a school leader requires a comprehensive understanding of the many facets and functions of instructional leadership. Instructional leadership is defined as leadership roles that put teaching and learning processes in the school as a priority to enhance students’ learning outcomes (Goldring, Preston, & Huff, 2012; Nettles & Herrington, 2007). As an instructional leader, a school leader is identified to notice instruction as an important component of feasible leadership practices (Murphy, 1990) Thus, one scale to infer these roles of instructional leadership well known as the PIMRS (Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale) formulated by Hallinger, Wang, Chen, and Liare (2015) The PIMRS highlights the importance of functions of principals on students’ learning and other important outcomes. However, estimates of the PIMRS vary by type of contexts and different settings. It is, therefore, highly recommended to examine the additional scale to measure the roles of principals in different cultural contexts as the learning processes that occur in a diverse classroom environment as presented in many schools in Indonesia required distinct measurements. Jawas (2017), for instance, stated that school principals in Indonesia faced learning management issues where the learning process in daily practices was significantly influenced by sociocultural determination.

principals are important to perform their roles for particular reasons that establish positive effects on teacher’s performance and desired student learning. Therefore, it is necessary to address that issue by changing the questions in the scale from a focus on the principal to a focus on collective practical effort.

Research on the efficacy of instructional leadership has confirmed that instructional leadership demonstrated by school principals influences what teachers do in the classroom and students’ perceptions and experience of schooling (Hoy & Hoy, 2006; Vogel, 2018). None of those research used the specific issue and context of the sample such as student learning reform. Understanding the specific issue and context by developing a new scale affects the analysis and understanding that is predicated in this research. Hence, this research believes that developing instructional leadership performed by principals can improve understanding of the learning reform concept applied in schools.

A significant amount of research has shown increasing evidence that principals do influence student learning outcomes (Day, Gu, & Sammons, 2016; Leithwood & Day, 2008). Studies are elaborated to help inform a new approach to the curriculum preparation program for principals to ensure the efficacy of new principals to serve as effective instructional leaders (Hayes & Irby, 2020; Vogel, 2018). Scholars have also measured the impact of cultural and organizational context on the practices of principal instructional leadership using the PIMRS (Ail, bin Taib, bt Jaafar, & bin Omar, 2015; Day et al., 2016; Hallinger & Hosseingholizadeh, 2020). However, most of those scholars did not reach the essential dimension of instructional leadership for the specific characters of the sample or the issue. In this regard, the new scale assumes that PIMRS has deficit capability to measure as the change of the language of learning occurred within the school. For instance, Sofo, Fitzgerald, and Jawas (2012) concluded that socio cultural factors of schools in basic education in Indonesia significantly influence the effectiveness of the learning process. Hence, additional scale or replacement is required to provide the school principals with standards that can navigate them in improving student learning opportunities and achievement.

The aims of this research were twofold; first, to examine the appropriate scale of the instructional leadership from the perspective of school principals in Indonesia. Second, to develop the instructional leadership scale that includes the perceptions of teachers and principals.

This section describes the concept of instructional leadership to identify a measurement model in the scale development process and to provide an overview concept in framing a new scale that can be used to conduct this research.

3. Literature Reviews

2. Research Objectives

The most cited definition of instructional leadership is the capabilities and abilities of school principals who lead the school by conducting the roles that are very concerned with exploring curriculum development, improving teachers’ competencies, and creating a positive learning climate for the student (Hallinger, Wang, Chen, & Liare, 2015). It is based on the patterns most scholars regard and reflect on goals, instruction, curriculum design, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structures (Krug, 1992). However, there is not a clear consensus about instructional leadership definitions and their dimensions. Even, some scholars argued that most instructional leadership constructs were formed by researcher perspectives more than considering the roles and actions to adjust the effectiveness of the learning process in the school

3.1 Instructional Leadership of School Principals

instructional leadership is referred to as behaviors, beliefs, expectations, and visions of school principals towards the instruction process in leading schools (Ail et al., 2015; DeArmas, 2015; Hayes & Irby, 2020; Lear, 2017; Simmons, 2019; Vogel, 2018). Both definitions above revealed common points that explain leading learning in the school as purposive actions. However, the leadership roles are formed by identifying learning objectives that are more different from the common instructional leadership. Therefore, school principals need specific roles to navigate the school to achieve its purposes.

Over the past decades, instructional leadership has been referred to as many proposed types. Based on literary works, the defining characteristics of instructional leadership can be summarized into two aspects. First, this research defined instructional leadership as the roles or actions of school leaders in leading schools, that is reflected in program activities, concerns in curriculum development, teaching and learning values, and qualification (DeVries, 2017; E Dhuey & J Smith, 2014; Gawlik, 2018; Lochmiller & Mancinelli, 2019; Mackey, 2016; Shaked, Glanz, & Gross, 2018; Terosky, 2016; Wright, 2010; Zhou & Li, Second2015),

Second, Nettles and Herrington (2007) concluded seven consistent roles of school leadership that had direct effects on student achievement: monitoring school progress, building a shared mission and vision, creating a safe and orderly academic environment, involving stakeholders, focusing on instruction, setting high expectations for student performance and encouraging professional Tdevelopment.hird,Blaseand Blase (1999) encouraged instructional leadership beyond the observation process. This model of instructional leadership emphasized

Applying self determination, this research modified the existing instructional leadership measurement models for suitability in the Indonesian context. It was inspired by several scholars, including, first, P. Hallinger and J. Murphy, P. Hallinger, W. C. Wang, C. Chen, and D. Liare (Hallinger & Murphy, 2013; Hallinger et al., 2015) proposed a widely used conceptual framework called the PIMRS with three dimensions: defining the school mission, managing the instructional program, and developing a positive school learning climate.

instructional coaching, professional development practices, and curricular development practices that follow the classroom observation. Fourth, Robinson (2011) suggested a five dimensional framework for instructional leadership: (1) establishing goals and expectations; (2) strategic resourcing; (3) planning, coordinating, and evaluating teaching and the curriculum; (4) promoting and participating in teacher learning and development; and (5) ensuring an orderly and supportive environment. All dimensions depicted above are simplified into the new scales as the modified measurement model. Hence, the results of synthesizing all dimensions are necessary to figure out the potential appropriate dimensions for Indonesian basic education.

Lastly, conducting supervision is specified by indicators of the role of the school principal to monitor teachers’ performance and students’ work by indicating the needs and obstacles (Brazer & Bauer, 2013; DeVries, 2017; Glickman, Gordon, & Ross Gordon, 2014)

Hence, instructional leadership as the main core of leading learning emphasizes a new conception of creating accountable learning systems in schools It has

The primary purpose of educational leadership has been regarded as the most priority of the students’ adaptive learning which is reflected by accumulating empirical evidence (Davies, 2005; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005; Southworth, 2005) Moreover, the presence of effective school leadership for school improvement is necessary as it facilitates teachers and students with encouragement, appropriate classroom activities, school culture, and organizational direction All of which affect successful teaching and adaptive learning that significantly influence student outcomes are essential (Pitsoe & Letseka, 2013; Seashore Louis, Dretzke, & Wahlstrom, 2010; Sergiovanni, 2015).

3.2 The Relevance of Instructional Leadership for Learning Improvement in Indonesian Schools

Thus, the measurement model of instructional leadership used in this research can be represented as a conceptual framework that covered five dimensions (see Figure 1). Firstly, defining missions is measured by the ability to decide the role and responsibility of all school’s elements as the way to achieve the vision and the goals of the school (Ail et al., 2015; Avolio, 2007). Secondly, adopting an innovative curriculum is reflected by the role of the school principal to provide teachers with assistance and help for designing an innovative curriculum based on school needs and character (Day et al., 2016; Elizabeth Dhuey & Justin Smith, Thirdly,2014) supplying professional development is displayed from the role of the school principal to prepare teachers and parents with the program that can upgrade their competencies to become more experienced teachers and educators (Bolman & Deal, 2017; DeArmas, 2015). Fourthly, promoting a positive learning climate is referred to as the role of the school principal to provide teachers and students with the school environment including programs and facilities that are effectively helping them out to teach and learn (Badri, Amani Saribaglou, Ahrari, Jahadi, & Mahmoudi, 2014; Halverson, Grigg, Prichett, & Thomas, 2007)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. underlined the mutual effect of teacher empowerment and students' learning Inpurpose.thecontext of Indonesian schools, the school principal is equipped with several competencies to be qualified as a school leader. These competencies including personality, management, entrepreneurship, supervision, and social, are formulated and disclosed in the Regulation of the Ministry of Indonesian National Education 2007 (Silalahi & Yuwono, 2018). This law introduces the competencies that potentially can navigate the practices of principals’ leadership towards school reforms. However, to achieve school reform goals effectively, competencies are not sufficient for the school principal to manage educational work in the school reforms. School principals also require a type of leadership that can enable them to demonstrate actions and practices of accountable learning processes significantly and be responsible for building strong teams of teachers to accommodate students’ needs adequately and lead in improving student Inoutcomes.otherwords,

this research argues that developing a new scale of instructional leadership can bring enhancement of the practices of significant instructional improvement in schools 4. Research Method

school reform in the Indonesian educational context is quite specific and different. It was defined as a shift of pedagogical approaches between teacher and students’ instruction from traditional methods into reflective interaction with a particular purpose that intends to provide more opportunities for students’ desires and needs (Jawas, 2017; Sofo, Fitzgerald, & Jawas, 2012). It was clear for the objective of educational reforms must occur. Therefore, the presence of a school principal who understands the impact of instructional leadership that can help the school principal build the teachers’ capabilities and abilities to sustain instructional improvements is necessary (Honig, Copland, Rainey, Lorton, & Newton, 2010). Likewise, the characteristics of principals’ competence were mainly contained in the instructional leadership Todimensionsumup,

This research was approached by using a sequential mixed method (Kroll & Neri, 2009). It is typically characterized by an initial quantitative phase, which is then followed by a qualitative data collection phase. Findings from the qualitative study component are used to explain and contextualize the results from the quantitative study component (Kroll & Neri, 2009). This explanatory sequential mixed method has been widely utilized by many empirical studies in the educational setting for developing scale (Yin, 2017) Therefore, this research was divided into two phases; the first phase was quantitative research to focus on the concept discovery of local perceptions and practices of instructional leadership in Indonesian schools and calculate the degree of importance on instructional leadership from survey exploration of

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. school principals. The second phase was research development that included collecting qualitative data from teachers, and school principals to integrate the relevance of the findings with the sample. 1

Quantitative Research

A survey was applied with questionnaire items using the result of synthesizing several theories related to the literature of instructional leadership in closed ended questions. The questions were constructed in the form of a checklist and Likert type questions. Checklist items asked the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Likert type questions measured the current frequency of identified instructional leadership practices. The scale format was designed using a five point rating scale of lowest=1, low=2, neither low nor high=3, high=4, and highest=5. In summary, the proposed instructional leadership scale consists of 25 indicators with 5 items in each of five dimensions: defining mission, adopting curriculum, supplying professional development, promoting a positive learning climate, and conducting supervision. This survey was conducted on the internet based method. The period of the survey process was approached from March 20 to May 10, 2020. This research is impartial and independent; the responses from respondents were protected by not revealing their answers in the research findings. However, there is a key limitation that restricts this research. Although this research applied quantitative procedure during the covid 19 pandemic, the quantitative findings were done promptly well. The increase of online learning across the archipelago (Rahiem, 2020) would practically ease the procedure of quantitative data collection and at the same time would keep research data at a manageable level. A representative framework of instructional leadership scale that is appropriate to the context of Indonesia was needed. There were three experts from Indonesia and two experts from Thailand involved as they had over five year experience in the educational leadership field. They were interviewed to help build the item of question and get a better understanding of the predictors towards the content quality of the instructional leadership scale.

3.1 Measures

Before distribution, a pilot test was conducted to measure the validity and reliability. The validity of the questionnaires was established by examining their content validity through experts’ judgment. Content validity was evaluated based on the criteria of the extent to which statements or questions represent the issue, and they are supposed to measure the quality and feasibility, considered by the experts in the field (Kumar, 2005) Besides, to measure the reliability, a questionnaire trial was applied to independent groups of school principals. The questionnaires were distributed through the Internet using google form. The groups were contacted through their social media network before the delivery of the questionnaire for asking their agreement to participate. SPSS Statistics 26 software was used to export the

Phase

The construct validity of the scale was assessed in two approaches in this research. First, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the factorial validity of the scale. The measurement model was also assessed through model fit by Chi square test ��2 and four other models fit indices: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The thresholds of mentioned indices for satisfactory fit suggested by R. Kline (Kline, 2016): p value of Chisquare’s test > 0.05, CFI > 0.95, TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.08, SRMR < 0.08. Second, convergent and discriminant validity were calculated. R. Kline, (Kline, 2016) suggested that the value of intercorrelations among variables is considered convergent and discriminant validity. For convergence validity, this research measured two particular items: (1) Composite reliability (CR); and (2) average variance extracted (AVE). In general, the value of composite reliability is more than 0.6 indicating that the inherent consistency of all measurement questions is higher. The value of the average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.5 indicating that the measurement questions can better represent the characteristics of each research variable in the model (Carbrera Nguyen, 2010). For discriminant validity, the analysis can be performed by examining the square root of the AVE value. When the square root of the mean variance extraction rate of each measurement question is higher than the correlation coefficient between the variables, it indicates that there is a strong discriminant coefficient between the variables (Brown, 2015). Thus, the discriminant validity of latent factor correlation among most of the constructs has been verified to meet standards (Shaffer, DeGeest, & Li, 2016) Phase 2 Qualitative Research

All informants were purposely selected from the schools that met the given criteria with different contexts, types, locations, and sizes in Bogor, Indonesia. However, teachers and school principals in this step have an adequate strategic character for research to develop the scales (Patton, 2002). In summary, six schools were included in this research. The informants in this research on the meaning of instructional leadership included teacher representatives (n=3) and school principals (n=3). This research also considered some categories of the

3.4 Informants

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. data, and Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha was calculated to measure the reliability of all variables. The result of Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha for this principal questionnaire was 0 875. This means that the questionnaire was reliable.

3.3 Data Analysis

A purposive sampling technique was used to select the 238 from the 588 elementary school principals. All school principals involved were currently leading elementary public schools located in Bogor regency. The school that has a high national examination score and a medium level of accreditation of school is determined as the criteria for choosing the sample. To get the number of samples, the Taro Yamane formula was employed to calculate the sample’ size.

3.2 Population and Sample

The interview method was utilized in this research. A semi structured interview was used for qualitative data collection. The instrument consisted of the items based on the conceptual framework of the instructional leaders proposed by several scholars (Blase & Blase, 1999; Hallinger et al., 2015; Krug, 1992; Robinson, 2011) For each construct to develop instructional leadership, the interview questions were produced based on dimensions of instructional leadership included defining missions, adopting innovative curriculum, supplying professional development, promoting a positive learning climate, and conducting supervision. The final interview instrument comprises 15 main questions. Data collection was carried out using multiple methods because this research was unable to conduct direct interviews due to the large scale social restrictions that were in place during the research period, data collection, therefore, was completed by using the Google Meet application. The interview process was organized from June 15, 2020, to June 29, 2020. All informants were informed through a consent form before joining the interview. This research did not reveal the identities of all informants and did not report their personal information in the study findings. In analyzing the data, transcription, coding, and thematic analysis were used in this phase to develop the main categories regarding the roles of instructional leadership. The research had identified subcategories, patterns, and relationships among codes and summarized them into categories within the data (Saldaña, 2016). In practice, the data was transcripted individually. After that, the data and detailed data were transformed into a code. The primary aim of coding was to establish a sense of categorical, conceptual, and theoretical structure. Codes were clustered to form new codes that led to the identification of themes. Finally, reviewing the categories to ensure the data appropriateness and feasibility and choosing the final types to design items for the instructional leadership scale were conducted.

The results are presented in two main parts; the first part addresses the result of confirmatory factor analysis to assess the factorial construct of instructional leadership and respectively reported evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. The final part explains the impact of analyzing the categories of instructional leadership to generate the indicators.

informants’ expertise such as teaching experience, leadership experience, as well as willingness to be interviewed.

3.5 Procedures and data analysis

5. Research Result

5.1 Instructional Leadership constructs

Based on the analysis and synthesis results of literature on instructional leadership involving seven lecturers who are experts in the area of educational administration, they have validated the contents regarding their opinion towards instructional leadership development (Güngör, 2018). The results showed that the information that provided insights from the possible effects of synthesizing became the items to measure the roles of instructional leadership

InstructionalLeadership Defining the Mission (A1) Goal setting oriented, (A2) Effective Communication, (A3) Innovative delivery of goals, (A4) Shared responsibility, (A5) Sense of belonging Adopting Innovative Curriculum (A6) Curriculum management, (A7)Curriculum cooperation, (A8) Disrupting teacher’s empowerment, (A9) Curriculum assessment, (A10 ) Curriculum Strategic Development Supplying Professional Development (A11) Teaching analysis support, (A12) Learning collaboration initiative, (A13) Financial analysis determination, (A14) Strategic community partnerships, (A15) Pedagogical approach innovation Promoting a Positive Learning Climate (A16) Systematic learning procedure, (A17) Technology integration initiatives, (A18) Establishment of school climate, (A19) Strategic community partnerships, (A20) Reward establishment Conducting Academic Supervision (A21) Trust learning, (A22) Be flexible Monitor implementation, (A23) Evidence based oriented, (A24) Innovative control approach, (A25) Measurable performance index for further research. In summary, the developed instructional leadership scale, therefore, consisted of 25 indicators with a five point rating scale questionnaire.

4.2 Construct Validity: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Figure 1. Dimensions of instructional leadership for the Indonesian education context

The factorial validity, second ordered confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was examined as a part of construct validity. The result revealed the measurement model provided a good fit to the empirical data, χ2 = 434.489, CFI =.934, p=.113, TLI=.928, RMSEA=.019, SRMR=.046. As seen in Figure 2, all standardized factor loading of both first and second ordered construct were statistically significant and reasonably robust with factor loadings ranging from .73 to .94 for observed variables, as well as going from .57 to .98 for latent factors. Furthermore, the variance of all subscale scores was explained by Instructional leadership constructs with R2 ranging from .46 to .89, and the variance of all observed variables was explained by each of the instructional leadership dimensions with R2 ranging from .51 to .95. However, the five proposed dimensions of the instructional leadership model concluded adequate to confirm the instructional leadership construct.

Convergent validity was examined by calculating loadings of all the indicators; average extracted variance (AVE), composite reliability (CR), and discriminant validity should be examined by measuring whether AVEs are higher than the

Figure 2. Second ordered confirmatory factor analysis for the practice of instructional leadership

4.3 Construct Validity: Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Based on qualitative data analysis, this research summarized that the final instructional leadership scale fell into three overarching categories, each with related items of instructional leadership. The three identified themes are: (a) knowledge, (b) attitude, and (c) practice/skills This research utilized 25 indicators of instructional leadership (as shown in figure 1 above) to be grouped into three groups, including knowledge, attitude, and practice/skills. This research concluded that as an instructional leader, school principals understand the ideas of instruction, the importance of teaching quality, and their roles in influencing teachers’ performance as well as students’ outcomes. The following is an illustration of the codification result.

Table 1. Validity analysis of Instructional Leadership Construct Items CompositeReliability AVE1 DM AC SP PL CS Defining Mission (DM) 0.94 0.71 0.84 Adopting Curriculum (AC) 0.83 0.59 0.53 0.77 Supplying DevelopmentProfessional(SP) 0.93 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.83 Promoting Positive Climate (PL) 0.93 0.70 0.77 0.71 0.75 0.84 Conducting Supervision (CS) 0.96 0.75 0.62 0.62 0.65 0.62 0.86 Note. AVE stands for average variance extract. * The bold numbers above are the square root of AVE. The bold numbers listed diagonally are the square root of the variance shared between the constructs and their measures. The off diagonal variables are the correlations among the constructs. For discriminate validity, the diagonal variables should be larger than the off diagonal variables 4.4 Qualitative Result

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. inner construct correlations. As shown in figure 2, the loadings of all the indicators are above 0.7, indicating that the observed variables have high convergent validity. Furthermore, there is a high correlation between the observed variables and the latent variables. As can be seen in table 1, the calculation of composite reliability is above 0.7 for all the variables, which means that the scale has achieved good reliability and average variance extracted (AVE) is more significant than 0.5 which indicates that the reliability of this model is good (Shaffer et al., 2016) and implies that the latent factors have an ideal convergence ability. Additionally, the square root of the mean variance extraction rate of each measurement question shown in table 1 is greater than the correlation coefficient among the variables, which indicates that the difference between each measurement variable is better (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 1998). Thus, the discriminant validity of latent factors has verified a satisfactory level of discriminant validity. Therefore, from these results; it can be concluded that the developed instructional leadership scale has an acceptable level of both convergent and discriminant validity.

As can be seen in figure 3, it shows items of instructional leadership are mostly grouped into knowledge, attitude, and skills. This research grouped those items based on their similar meaning in categories. The notion of categories was inspired by Kraiger, Ford, and Salas (1993) who emphasized that development is started from knowledge, attitude, and skills. Hence, based on the result of data categorization, this research discovered that instructional leadership skills were the most concerned category of instructional leadership with 10 items, followed by knowledge (9 items), and attitude (7 items).

Figure 3. The result of codification

However, there was an interesting report in which effective communication was placed into two categories between knowledge and skills. This discovery navigated this research to explore the perspectives and insights about the relationship between knowledge, attitude, and skills of instructional leadership. School principals who can communicate the reason for learning and instruction indicate a knowledgeable school principal as an instructional leader. A voice from the teacher explaining. “Looking at the roles of a school principal who has played a very good job of taking things into the school’s vision implementation and explaining it in a way that we are then aware of it. We appreciated to the school principal who knows how to relate to the teachers and understand how to enhance teachers’ responsibility on school development” (DA)

“What makes me surprised is that the presence of our school principal in many activities including classroom management was so fully responsible as it seems to me it tells that “I am doing what I am saying”. She took a dominant role when we discussed why students are happy to learn. She was committing to making sure that the process of learning in our school comprehensively run very well. We are not forced to do ‘teaching’ as we thought before. Moreover, teaching is referred to be so meaningful activity that we have never felt before. And this is because of our school principal. This awareness has been inspired by our school leader” (W) 5. Discussion

“I am so appreciated once teachers are accepting my ideas. I have tried suggesting them in a way they can understand. The previous one was very hard for me to ask teachers to do what I recommended. However, since I kept my commitment to learning purpose and decreasing my intention while I experienced what teachers did, and I contributed what teachers have designed. After several trials, they give me fruitful endeavors” (AA) Other respondents, however, felt that all roles of instructional leadership must be supported by the attitude that school principals need to show. This attitude becomes the capital to play the roles of the instructional leader as stipulated by this teacher.

School principals are expected to be the leader of every student in school. To be an effective leader, a school principal must understand and require a broad improvement of skills and have a high level of confidence once spreading the vision and missions.

“In my view, as students learn with teachers and school principals need to understand that teaching and learning process in the classroom is very crucial for each of us. We cannot let students grow without we know their expression toward teachers and schools. Therefore, we try to provide stakeholders, parents, and the community with the agenda that we are planning to do, share, and open classroom processes. School principals are aware of the need for other participants to get involved as the way to increase the sense of belonging toward the school” (AM) As can be seen from the statement above, the concern of instructional leadership is to achieve a high degree of instruction, and this process requires an understanding of the situation and asks the school principals to divide identity in two ways. First, inside identity, and second, outside identity. These identities included the items of instructional leadership to be replaced into specific for the particular purposes of leading instruction.

The results revealed that the developed instructional leadership scale showed adequate indicators both in reliability and validity. As for the validity of the scale, the CFA results provided evidence deemed to confirm that five constructs of instructional leadership capitalized by several scholars (Blase & Blase, 1999; Hallinger et al., 2015; Krug, 1992; Robinson, 2011; Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011)

Instructional leaders navigated school principals to understand how to work collaboratively with teachers. This role of instruction requires awareness among the subjects of school. The school principal has figured out one role to be conducted.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. were suitable for Indonesian context. This evidence also indicates that the scale is appropriate for assessing the practice of Instructional leadership. Some results pointed out that some constructs of instructional leadership have a lower value of R2 when compared to other constructs. It can be explained that its indicators included unclear descriptions within similar questions, it was a double perspective presented and was not relevant to their mindset and culture, which implied those items might increase error variance within the measurement results (Shaffer et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the convergent validity result was a reasonable level with a high correlation between both the latent factor and the observed variable score. The results can also explain why discriminant validity is accurate Since this research has found a high correlation among constructs, it could be assumed that all constructs were measured by the same high level factor. However, the explanation of this research with this issue is based on the authors’ viewpoint regarding the notion of instructional leadership variables developed from the literature. The results of this research provide practical implications for further research to utilize a well developed scale for measuring and determining the development of leadership. This research also tried to conceptualize a model for preparing principals for instructional leadership. In the Indonesian context, aspiring principals must do on the job training admitting as a candidate before starting as a school principal. Unfortunately, aspiring principals were not also well prepared for instructional leadership (Sofo et al., 2012), as the challenges that aspiring principals will face forward would be different from the challenge they get during in service training. Hence, the developed instructional leadership model is needed in a leading school in this advanced era. As the research conducted by Brazer and Bauer (2013) which formulated a blended leadership, organizational theories, and managerial tools, as well as pedagogical knowledge, to create a model for enabling aspiring principal to become an instructional leader. Hence, the results of this research proposed a developed instructional leadership scale to inspire the principal preparation program to focus more on instructional leadership. The essential dimensions of an effective principal as the leader can be reflected from the roles and the actions of the school principal as instructional leaders (Nixon, Packard, & Dam, 2013). This is important since the understanding of how students learn, recognizing effective instructional strategies, and classroom management techniques that focused on diverse student learners will enable school leaders to transform school effectively (Zepeda, 2014). In this research, instructional leadership is forwarded to be distinguished into three categories for the reason of development that is appropriate to the school principal competence and Indonesian context. The first category was knowledge which means that the instructional leadership model used is based on the information occurring in school and utilizes it by giving an appropriate response. For instance, this research indicated the item of goal setting oriented as knowledge is articulated whether or not the school principal realizes and understands the goal of learning and the purpose of teaching. This item needs

To play the roles of instructional leadership, a school principal is responsible for the quality of instruction in every classroom. This attention stimulates school principals to be capable and having the ability to at least solve the challenges that school faced by the creative mind and specific ability. Therefore, the presence of an instructional leader who can demonstrate strategic efforts to provide students with appropriate and meaningful learning and transform the school into a conducive place to learn is essential. This idea is agreed upon by a result of research conducted by Honig, Copland, Rainey, Lorton, & Newton (2010) which addressed teaching and learning improvement requires top down movement which school principals actively performed.

Indonesia, socio-culture has been dominant as a factor that influences how school principal behaves, and it is in line with the result of research by Jawas (2017) which stated that trust learning is defined as an attitude indicating that school principal must pay attention to the condition and psychology of their teachers and students. To build a relationship that can be started by showing high integrity to the others, the school principal has an opportunity to ensure their teachers and students to trust by making a decision that is entirely for learning concern.

6. Conclusion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. school principals to demonstrate their knowledge by exploring the notion of their goal that they wanted to achieve. It is also related to the research conducted by Mackey (2016) who concluded that every role of school principal needs to be focused on students’ achievement in which school principals understand where their students are, what the things that students want to be, and how to achieve Init.

The result indicated that the instructional leadership scale developed in this research is a five point rating scale. The scale can be measured by five dimensions including defining mission, adopting curriculum, supplying professional development, promoting a positive learning climate, and conducting supervision. This scale also showed a satisfactory level, both validity and reliability. Whoever may be involved can achieve this scale to measure the practice of instructional leadership to show informed evidence of their school to enhance instruction. Since the newly instructional leadership scale is developed based on the results of synthesizing theories; the results from the measurement process can therefore provide insightful information regarding the nature of instructional leadership that has been widely defined and elaborated. To assess the practice of instructional leadership precisely based on the proposed measurement model that is adequate to the context of elementary school principals requires the scale that can represent the effects of instructional leader. Besides, there was an identity shift for a school principal to play the roles of instructional leader. The school principal must be able to understand three categories included knowledge, attitude, and skills. This awareness towards categories helps school principal to measure their performance as an instructional leader.

The authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of this research; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors acknowledge the Educational Administration Experts for content validity and thank Khon Kaen University as this research was supported by the Khon Kaen University Scholarship for ASEAN and GMS Countries Personnel Academic Year 2017. This research article was also a part of the dissertation. This research was ethically approved by the Khon Kaen University Ethics Committee in Human Research on March 19, 2020, with Reference No. HE633042. Written informed consent was obtained from all of the participants.

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Corresponding author: Norman Rudhumbu; Email: nrudhumbu@buse.ac.zw

146 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 146 162, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.8 Unlocking the Cultural Diversity Black Box: Application of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies in University Classrooms in Zimbabwe Norman Rudhumbu* Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2536 5511

universitiesmanagementcompetenctothateffectalsoemergedfromthestudythattheapplicationofCRPshasasignificantondiversitymanagementinuniversities.ResultsfurthershowedtheuseofCRPsbyuniversitylecturersisstillworkinprogressdueamyriadofchallengestheyfacechiefamongwhichisalackofculturaleskills.Theseresultshaveimplicationstodiversityinuniversityclassroomsinparticularaswellasiningeneral.

Abstract. The study investigated the mediating role of lecturers’ biographic factorsand multiculturalcompetencesinthe use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies (CRPs) to effectively teach culturally diverse classrooms in universities. Studies show that culture has an influence on studentlearningand that if itisnoteffectivelymanaged,itcanaffecthow students learn. The study employed a quantitative approach that used structured questionnaires for data collection from a sample of 370 lecturers selected from six universities using a stratified random sampling strategy. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used for data purification. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, One way ANOVA, multiple regression analysis, and correlation analysis. Results showed that verbal and non verbal communication, cultural knowledge, classroom management, and student teacher interaction significantlyinfluenced the applicationof CRPsby universitylecturers. It

Keywords: Culturally responsive pedagogy; cultural diversity; diversity management; multicultural competences; classroom management; cultural knowledge 1. Introduction The purpose of the study was to establish how the university use CRPs to manage diversity in university classrooms. The level of cultural heterogeneity in university classrooms has become very high hence the need to manage diversity in today’s classrooms in order to ensure effective teaching and learning has

The literature shows that a number of resource pedagogies arose during the 1970s through to the 1990s aimed at finding the intersection between pedagogy, culture and language (Richardson, 2018) and one such pedagogical point of intersection was the culturally responsive pedagogy (CRPs) (Diaz, Suarez & Valencia, 2019; Wah & Nasri, 2019). CRP is defined as a teaching approach that employs cultural knowledge, prior experience, frames of references, and performance styles and measures of cultural diversity in students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for the students (Chinn, 2017; Powell et al, 2016). The study was guided by the following research questions: RQ1. What factors influence the implementation of CRPs in universities?

become a must. Various studies show that university classrooms of today are characterized by a diverse range of students in terms of the cultural backgrounds (Wah & Nasri, 2019). Discriminatory teaching practices in these classrooms however continue to have a negative influence on learning experiences of many students that are referred to as others and are always othered (Taylor, 2018; Wah & Nasri, 2019). At a general level, cultural differences are viewed in terms of differences in race, ethnicity, religion, language, economic status, and sexual orientation (Klen, 2015). Cultural differences in classrooms which affect how students learn include differences in language, dress, assertiveness, collectivism, performance orientation, competitiveness, future orientation, power distance and risk avoidance among others (Levonius, 2016). These factors define and shape how students learn behave, communicate, and interact with others in the classroom (Klen, 2015). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy (CRPs) can therefore be used to navigate these differences and the challenge of managing diversity in classrooms. As a result, the need for university lecturers to be aware of cultural differences among their students can be viewed as being very important for effective teaching (Byrd, 2016; Maasum et al, 2014; Tarasawa, 2018). This means that there is a need for lecturers to have a certain level of multi cultural competence for them to be able to deal with issues of cultural diversity in their classrooms through the use of culturally responsive pedagogies.

RQ2. What are the barriers to effective implementation of CRPs in universities?

RQ3. How significantly does the application of CRPs contribute to diversity management in universities?

Culture has an influence on student learning and social adjustment and is defined by Hitchcock, Prater and Chang (2009: 2) as “the shared learned meanings and behaviours derived from living within a particular life activity” which according to Maasum et al (2014) and Dorrington and Guy (2018), encompasses various aspects that include customs and values, traditions, communication, attitudes, beliefs, learning styles, rituals, behaviours as well as language. CRPs have been consistently associated with various positive student academic outcomes such as improved academic performance, development of positive attitudes and a sense of self awareness (Brown, 2019; Ladson Billing, 2014; Paris, 2012). Responsive, according to Dorrington and Guy (2018), means to react quickly and positively, to respond with interest and enthusiasm, hence connotes receptiveness and

2.1. Culture and Culturally Responsive Pedagogies

2. Literature review

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. eagerness. CRPs also known as culturally appropriate pedagogies (CAPs) therefore refers to a pedagogy that enables lecturers in universities to “quickly and positively respond with interest and enthusiasm to the diverse cultures of students” (Dorrington & Guy, 2018: 5). CRPs by definition are teaching approaches that use cultural characteristics, experiences and perspectives of culturally diverse students as catalysts for effective teaching (Cho, 2017; Kahu & Nelson, 2018; Maasum et al, 2014; Richardson, 2018) 2.2. Research model and hypotheses formulation

In the context of the current study, Figure 1 shows that the symbolic interaction theory helps to inform lecturers in university classrooms about how certain behaviours, actions, assumptions and expectations by them and students affect how learning progresses in culturally diverse classrooms, especially with regards to the quality of teacher student interaction as well as student student interaction. A study by Krasnoff (2016) found opportunities for discussion sessions as well as flexible groupings provide students opportunities for them to interact between themselves as well as with the teachers thus ensuring that students of diverse cultures are able to contribute to lessons.

The study is informed by the symbolic interactionist theory which developed by Cooley (1902) and further improved by Mead (1934) among others. Interactionism also called the symbolic interactionist theory or perspective is predicated on the idea that in a social context, individuals create meanings and then act in some way based on these subjective meanings (Essays UK, 2017). Verbal communication in which words are the predominant symbols is key to subjective meaning making (subjective interpretation) evident in social interactions in social contexts which lead to different emotions (positive andnegative) in people. These emotions result in different ways of behaving and acting that have an influence, in the context of classrooms, on continued participation in learning by students (Barker, Nyberg & Larsson, 2019). Subjective interpretations from a social context such as a classroom can contribute to positive emotions such as pleasure and excitement which facilitate learning or to negative emotions such as worry, nervousness, and shame among others, which disrupt learning (Fitzpatrick,2018; Frydendal & Thing,2019; Lodewyk & Muir, 2017; Simonton & Garn, 2018; Wrench & Garrett, 2015). In a nutshell, the symbolic interactionist theory argues that people behave and act the way they do because of the meanings they attach to communicative stimuli from a social context such as a classroom.

Student interactionlecturer(SI) H4 managementDiversityclassroomsin(DMC)H5

Figure 1: Research model adapted from the symbolic interactionist theory (Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934)

In their separate studies, Ritzer (2014) and Haralambos and Holborn (2013) found that the symbolic interaction theory helps lecturers in university classrooms to be able to modify teaching to meet the learning needs of culturally diverse students through the use of differentiated instruction thus successfully manage diversity in classrooms. For lecturers to be able to do this, they must possess multi culturally competency. In two other separate studies by Mapolisa and Tshabala (2014) and Mandina and Chiheve (2015), results showed that social context symbols that lecturers use in classrooms that include gestures, words, labels, streaming, grouping and paying more attention to certain groups of students, can create either positive or negative emotions that affect learning in classrooms because of the types of emotions they create in students.

The words, gestures and labels teachers and students use on some students, the attention they give to other students and classroom management strategies the lecturers reflective the level of multi cultural competency they possess (Dorrington & Guy, 2018) and this has an effect on teaching and learning (see Figure 1). In their studies, Brown (2019) and Krasnoff (2016) found that classroom management activities such as building a caring and supportive classroom learning environment, setting a positive tone for all students as well as setting clear expectations to encourage all students from diverse cultural backgrounds to aim high lead to effective diversity management. Such contextual symbols are interpreted differently (subjectively) by the diverse students in the classrooms in a way that either facilitate or affect effective teacher student and student student interaction in the classroom thus affect learning and effective management of diversity in university classrooms in the end.

HHH123

H3: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in university classrooms and classroom management.

H1: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in university classrooms and verbal and non verbal communication.

H2: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in university classrooms and cultural knowledge of students by teachers.

H4: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in university classrooms and effective student teacher interaction.

Verbal and non verbal communication (VNC) Cultural knowledge (CK) Classroom(CM)management applicCRPation(CA)

2.2.1. Culturally Responsive Pedagogies and diversity management

The study employed a quantitative research design. The purpose of the quantitative research design in this study was to enable the research to discover how a selected large sample of lecturers think (Creswell, 2015) about the application of CRPs in universities. The use of the quantitative research design in this study “allows for a broader study, involves a greater number of subjects, enhances the generalization of the results and allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results” (Creswell, 2015: 27). Stratified random sampling approach was used for selecting a sample of lecturers for thestudy. The purpose of stratified random sampling approach was to ensure that each population from the six universities is proportionately represented in thestudy(Creswell,2015). There are 22 university in Zimbabwe from which six were selected using purposive sampling strategies The six universities have been in operation for more than ten

In their study also, Powell et al (2016: 3) further found that to be able to effectively manage diversity through the use of CRPs lecturers need to possess adequate cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and frames of reference of their diverse students in order to make their learning encounters in classrooms more relevant and effective. In his study also, Krasnoff (2016) found that to be able to manage diversity in their classrooms through the use of CRPs, lecturers should employ approaches that satisfy the learning needs of different students’ epistemologies particularly with regards to how students organize their world cognitively through their diverse language and symbols. Dorrington and Guy (2018) and Gay (2010) in their separate studies also found that for lecturers to effectively manage diversity in their classrooms, they need to employ multiple pedagogies in which they seek multiple perspectives from their students, acknowledge all their diverse students’ comments, contributions and responses as well as use heterogeneous cooperative groupings to build teamwork among diverse students.

H5: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in university classrooms and diversity management.

Various studies have shown that for lecturers to be able to effectively manage diversity they should employ CRPs. Such pedagogies will ensure that teaching is effective and more personally appealing and meaningful to students, and that academic knowledge and skills development in students is situated within their lived experiences and frames of reference (Chinn, 2017; Dreyfus, 2019; Rhodes, 2016; Salmelo Aro, 2017;). Furthermore, a studybyMaasum etal (2014) alsofound that such teaching requires adequate knowledge by lecturers of cultural knowledge (cultural backgrounds) of all their students as a base or starting point, and should include the development of curricula that have cultural diversity elements in their content. Separate studies by Powell et al (2016), Farmer et al. (2016) and McKeown et al (2015) found effective management of diversity requires teachers to make pedagogic decisions and implement teaching approaches that (i) promote academic and social development of students, (ii) encourage teacher student interaction, (iii) build teamwork aimed diverse students, and (iv) reduce competition in the classroom. These results are also confirmed in studies by Gest and Rodkin (2011) and Trussell (2008).

3.1. Research design

3. Methodology

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. years and were considered possible rich sources of data based on how long they have been operating. Lecturers in the six universities represented the target population. A sample of 370 lecturers was selected to participate in the study. The Research Advisors (2006) online sample size table at 95% level of confidence and 5% margin of error was used for coming up with the sample size from a combined target population of 3479 lecturers from the six universities. The distribution of 370 lecturers were as follows: X1=51, X2=74, X3=47, X4=101, X5=64, X5=47, and X6=37.

The instrument was validated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). PCA is defined as “the process of computing the principal components and using them to perform a change of basis on the data, sometimes using only the first few principal components and ignoring the rest” Eriksson, 2018: 12) .PCA is therefore “commonly used for dimensionality reduction by projecting each data point onto only the first few principal components to obtain lower dimensional data while preserving as much of the data's variation as possible” (Jaadi, 2019: 7). In the current study, (PCA) employed the orthogonal rotation procedure using varimax with Kaiser Normalization to summarize original data with minimum factors and maximum coverage (Lever, Krzywinski & Altman, 2017; Jolliff & Cadima, 2016) Items with factor loadings of less than .7 and eigenvalues of less than 1.0 were

A self constructed structured CRPs questionnaire was used for data collection in the study. The questionnaire consisted of 74 items from five factors as follows: Verbal and non verbal communication 16, cultural knowledge 18 items, classroom management 11 items, Student teacher interaction 12 items, and barriers to CRP implementation 17 items. Having 74 items for the five factors ensured that each of the factors related to the application of CRPs in universities was adequately researched on in the study. The purpose of using the quantitative approach was to allow for a broader study that involves a greater number of subjects, and that enhances the generalization of the results as well as allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of results (Creswell, 2015) with regards to the application of CRPs in universities. The researcher used a questionnaire to ensure that a wide and diverse spectrum of lecturers in the universities was able to give their views on their use of CRPs to teach culturally diverse university students. The questionnaire was designed using the 5 point Likert scale from Strongly Agree (SA) 5, Agree (A) 4, Not Sure (NS) 3, Disagree (DA) 2 to Strongly Disagree (SDA) 1. Since only words are used when designing the questionnaire, this means that the technique used for designing the questionnaire was qualitative while the data analysis was quantitative. A criterion mean (CM) of 3 which was the average of the scales was calculated for ease of analysis so that any mean score less than 3 showed disagreement with a given statement while a score from 3 and above showed agreement. 370 questionnaires were hand delivered to participants through the offices of deans of respective universities. 227 questionnaires were returned making a return rate of questionnaires of (61.4%) for the lecturers.

3.2. Research instruments

Chartered Institute

4.1. Biographic profiles of lecturers Results in Table 1 show that more than half (57%) of the lecturers are above 40 years which shows that the institutions are populated by fairly mature lecturers and this is also reflected in the years of experience where 62% of the lecturers have more than 10 years of experience. There are more male lecturers (55%) than female (45%) in theinstitutionswhich showsaproblemofgender imbalance.Most of the lecturers have master’s degrees (53%) with 40% having doctoral and 12% having that include of (CIMA) and Association of Chartered (ACCA). This shows that universities still have challenges attracting doctoral holders and this may have ramifications on the lecturers’ to effectively and manage at this level.

abilities

qualifications

teach

Certified Accountants

Table 1: Biographic characteristics of lecturers Biographic characteristics Items N % Age 20 30 years 49 22 31 40 years 48 21 41 50 years 72 32 51+ years 58 25 Gender Male 125 55 Female 102 45 Educational level Master’s degree 121 53 Phd degree 91 40 Others, specify: ACCA, CIMA 15 7 Years of teaching experience Less than 5 years 47 21 5 10 years 33 17 11 15 years 74 33 15+ years 66 29

diversity

152 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. omitted from further analysis to improve data clarity in line with the assertion of Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson (2010). 3.3. Data analysis A number of data analysis tools were used in the study Descriptive statistics for summarizing data through tables while One way ANOVA, t test and multiple regression analysis were used to determine the nature of relationships between the dependent variable and independent variables in the study. 4. Results

professional qualifications

Management Accountants

4. I always plan and prepare ahead of class in order to mycateradequatelyforthedifferentlearningneedsofallstudents 227 4.11 793

5. I always take time to reflect on my own experiences and biases regarding the way I teach all my students 227 2.81 705

Results in table 2 demonstrate the PCA done to validate the scale items. Using the SPSS Version 24, the PCA reduced the 74 scale items to 56 by removing all items whose factor loadings were less than .7 and eigenvalues less than 1.0. Results further show that the percentage variance extracted from the analysis nagged between 49% and 69%and also the total variance extracted (VE) of 57.6% demonstrated good convergence validity of the scale items. Furthermore, the positive correlation matrix between scale items was a good demonstration of adequate convergent validity of the scale items (Hair et al , 2017) Factor loadings that ranged between .736 and .911 as well as Cronbach’s alpha values that ranged between .751 and .815 demonstrated the presence of good convergent validity (Hair et al , 2017). Cronbach’s alpha values that ranged between .751 and .815 demonstrated good internal consistence reliability of the scale items. The KMO values which ranged between .725 and .831 demonstrated that sampling was adequately done.

Total ExtractedVariance(VE) 57.629

2. I am always willing to learn from my students in terms of what they tell me, bring and show me in the classroom 227 2.66 680

153 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 4.2. Data validation using Principal Component Analysis Table 2: Principal analysis on independent variables Factors ValuesMean SD LoadingsRotatedFactor %ExtractedVariance(VE) KMO Cronbach’s alpha valuesEigen communicationVerbal 3.81 .723 .736 49.713 .806 .788 3.441 knowledgeCultural 3.97 .649 .911 59.127 .725 .815 2.095 managementClassroom 4.04 .715 .820 69.091 .831 .802 1.937 Student interactionteacher 4.36 .625 .738 62.827 .793 .751 1.519 Barriers ofimplementationtoCRPs 4.15 .701 .820 63.550 .804 .811 2.883

4.3. Application of CRP by university lecturers

3. I always have time to know more about my students and their personal experiences 227 2.37 .871

Table 3: Barriers to CRPs application in university classrooms Item N Mean SD 1. Ialwaystrytorespondtoallstudentsduringteaching 227 3.11 .692

17. I have received professional training on the teaching and management of diverse classes 227 1.01 .704 CM = 3.0 Adapted from A validation study of the Culturally Responsive Teaching Survey (Rhodes, 2017) The criterion mean (CM) of 3.0 was used in this section to analyze the barriers to the application of CRPs by university lecturers with any mean less than 3.0 showing that the item is a barrier to the implementation of CRPs in universities.

Results in Table 3 show that university lecturers faced a multiplicity of challenges that act as barriers to their effective implementation of CRP as well as management of diversity in their classrooms with the main challenge being that most of them have not received any professional training in the application of CRPs and management of diversity (M=1.01; SD=.704). Other major challenges affecting how lecturers implement CRPs thus affecting how they manage diversity in their classrooms include the following: always willing to learn from their students during class (M=2.66; SD=.680), not taking time to know more about their students and their personal experiences (M=2.37; SD=.871), not taking time to reflect on their own experiences and biases regarding how they teach all their students (M=2.81; SD=.705), not using multiple teaching styles when teaching diverse students in their classes (M=2.79; SD=.686), not taking time to know the diverse cultures in their classes in order to use the cultural knowledge to connect what student know to new concepts and content (M=2.11; SD=.637), not using multiple assessment methods for assessing diverse students in their classes (M=2.47; SD=.652). Other challenges that act as barriers to effective implementation of CRPs in order to manage diversity in their classes include the following: not setting clear expectations for diverse students to aim higher

154 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 6. I always use multiple teaching styles when teaching diverse students in my class 227 2.79 686 7. I always use the lecture style when teaching 227 4.01 751 8. I always respond positively and constructively to diverse students in my class 227 3.01 .706

16. byIalwaysensureequalaccesstolearningopportunitiesdiversestudents 227 3.37 .638

15. I always set rules for diverse students to work together in a supportive and cooperative manner 227 2.15 694

10. I always react quickly and positively to all my students’ learning concerns 227 3.11 691

13. I set clear expectations for diverse students to aim higher 227 2.41 .693

9. I always take time to know the diverse culturesinmy class in order to use the cultural knowledge to connect what student know to new concepts and content 227 2.11 .637

12. I use multiple, assessment methods for assessing diverse students in my class 227 2.47 652

14. I always ensure that the content I teach represents students’ multiple cultures, genders, religions and nationalities 227 2.49 .542

11. I always respond readily, with interest and enthusiasm when diverse students have learning challenges 227 3.02 .671

155 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (M=2.41; SD=.693), not always ensuring that the content they teach represents students’ multiple cultures, genders, religions and nationalities (M=2.49; SD=.542), always using the lecture method for teaching (M=4.01; SD=.751), and not always setting rules for diverse students to work together in a supportive and cooperative manner (M=2.15; SD=.694). 4.4. Correlation analysis Table 4: Correlation of independent and dependent variables CA VNC CK CM SI BI CRPs application in classrooms 1 Verbal and non verbal communication .601** 1 Cultural knowledge .663** .637** 1 Classroom management .614** .371* .744* 1 Student teacher interaction .782** .495** .388* .519** 1 Barriers to CRP implementation .641** .513** .571** .319** .271** 1 Sig. *p < .05; **p < .01(2 tailed) CRPs application in classrooms (CA); Verbal and non verbal communication (VC); Cultural Knowledge (CK), Student teacher interaction (SI), Classroom Management (CM), Barriers to CRPs implementation (BI) To measure the strength of association between independent variables and also between the dependent variable (CRPs application in classrooms) and independent variables (verbal communication, cultural knowledge, classroom management, student teacher interaction, barriers to CRPs application), correlation analysis was performed. With regards to correlations between the dependent and independent variables, results in Table 4 show that student teacher interaction has the highest positive correlation (r=.782; p < .01) with CRPs application in classrooms which shows that effective student teacher interaction improves CRPs application in classrooms. This is followed by cultural knowledge (r=.663, p < .01) and classroom management (r=.614; r < .01). Barriers to CRPs implementation has the highest negative correlation with CRPs application in the classroom which shows that as barriers increase, the ability of lecturers to apply CRPs in classrooms decreases. With regards to the correlation between independent variables, results in Table 4 show that classroom management and cultural knowledge have the highest correlation (r=.744; p <.05) showing that as the cultural knowledge of students by lecturers improve, so will also be their ability to manage their classes. The correlation between cultural knowledge and verbal and non verbal communication is the second highest (r=.637, p <.01) showing that cultural knowledge of students by lecturers leads to improvement in the way lecturers verbally and non verbally communicate with their students. Barriers to CRPs implementation have a negative correlation with all the other independent variables showing that these barriers have an overall negative influence on the ability of lecturers to verbally communicate with diverse students (r= .513; p <

156 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. .01), have adequate cultural knowledge of students (r= .571; p < .01), manage diverse classes effectively (r= .271; p < .01), and also interact effectively with students from diverse cultures (r= .319; p < .01). 4.5. Hypotheses testing Table 5: ANOVA on verbal and non verbal communication and use of CRPs Variables Source Sum squaresof df Mean squaresof F Sig. Within groups 1027.61 3 342.54 6.053 .000* Non communicationverbal Between groups 11770.13 208 56.59 Total 12797.74 211 knowledgeCultural Within groups 971.388 3 323.796 7.897 .003* Between groups 8529.612 208 41.001 Total 9501.000 211 managementClassroom Within groups 533.609 3 177.870 3.480 .000* Between groups 10631.441 208 51.113 Total 11165.050 211 Student interactionteacher Within groups 841.308 3 280.436 8.241 .003* Between groups 7146.151 210 34.029 Total 7987.459 213 *Sig. p < .05 Results in Table 5 show that all the factors namely non verbal communication, cultural knowledge, student teacher interaction, and classroom management with effective implementation of CRPs in university classrooms (p < .05 for all cases). These results therefore show that all the four factors were predictors of effective implementation of CRPs in university classrooms. Table 6: ANOVA on application of CRPs and management of diversity Source Sum squaresof df Mean squaresof F Sig. Within groups 837.125 3 279.042 11.400 .004 Between groups 5091.470 208 24.478 Total 5928.595 211 Sig: p < .05 Results in Table 6 show that there is a significant statistical relationship between effective use of CRPs and management of diversity in university classrooms (F = 11.4; p = .004; p < .05). This shows that lecturers who are able to effectively apply CRPs in university classrooms have a high chance of being able to manage culturally diverse classes in universities.

5. Discussion

Multiple regression analysis in Table 7 was conducted to establish the contribution of independent variables (biographic factors, multicultural competence and inhibiting factors) to variation in the application of CRPs in university classrooms. The results in Table 7 show that the Adjusted R2 is .4853 whichshows that 48.53% of variations in the way university lecturers apply CRPs in their teaching of culturally diverse students is caused by the independent variables while the remaining 51.47% is as a result of extraneous variables outside the scope of this study.

The purpose of the study was to establish factors influencing the implementation of CRPs as well as how significantly the application of CRPs influences diversity management in university classrooms. The study also identified factors that acted as barriers to effective implementation of CRP in universities. The symbolic interactionist theory by Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) was used to guide the stud. The theory highlighted four dimensions namely verbal and non verbal communication, classroom management, student teacher interaction and cultural knowledge as being important for the implementation of CRPs. It emerged in the study that verbal and non verbal communication has a significant influence on the implementation of CRPs in universities. This means that what people understand or believe they understand from words and symbols that are communicated by the communicator has an influence on how they act or react in a particular situation. A study by Barker, Nyberg and Larsson (2019) found that different forms of communication produce emotions that result in different ways of behaving and acting, which have an influence, in the context of classrooms, on continued participation in learning by students. If some students believe that the communication being done by either the teacher or some sections of theclass are demeaning to them or have some connotations of segregation, such students may end up not participating in the learning process at all or at worst, not coming to school. The words and symbols which teachers and students use for communicating may have a significant effect especially on how the marginalized students behave in the classroom. Confirming the above assertion, separate studies by Fitzpatrick (2018) and Frydendal and Thing (2019) found that subjective interpretations from a social context such as a classroom can contribute to positive emotions such as pleasure and excitement which facilitate learning or to negative emotions such as worry, nervousness, and shame among others, which disrupt learning. Another study by Dorrington and Guy (2018) also found that the words, gestures and labels that teachers and students use on some students as well as the attention they give to other students, have a significant influence on the levels of participation in the learning process by students who may feel affected or neglected.

Results also showed that cultural knowledge of students by the teacher has a significant influence on the implementation of CRPs by university lecturers. Having a good understanding of the diverse cultures in the classroom helps lecturers to come up with teaching content and activities that cater for the needs of all students. To be able to understand how certain students learn and what they actually consider as learning, lecturers need to have a full understanding of the diverse cultures of these students. With this understanding, lecturers will then be able to make decisions on which teaching methods to use, how to select content to teach and what teaching tools to use. Lecturers who possess adequate knowledge of diverse cultures of students in the classroom are referred to as having multi cultural competences who should mostly be able to use differentiated instruction as allowed for in CRPs (Dorrington & Guy, 2018; Haralambos & Holborn, 2013).

Results of the study also showeduniversity lecturers faced anumber of challenges that affect effective implementation of CRPs to manage diversity in their classrooms due to the fact that most lecturers had not received training on how to

Results further showed that classroom management has a significant influence on the implementation of CRPs in university classrooms. Classroom management is important in the implementation of CRPs because it is about the decisions lecturers make and actions they take to create environments that are support and facilitate both academic and social emotional learning. For students of diverse backgrounds to be able to learn effectively, certain conditions that make them feel safe, wanted, cared for and supported have to be in place. Studies by Farmer et al. (2016) and McKeown et al (2015) found that for lecturers to be able to engage diverse students in the learning proves, they need to establish conditions that elicit the cooperation of their students. Such conditions according to separate studies by Krasnoff (2016), Petty (2014) and Brown (2019) include all teaching in the classroom respects and represents multiple cultures, genders, religions and nationalities; being welcoming and focusing on students’ strengths rather than weaknesses, providing students with clear criteria and standards for successful task completion; and setting clear rules on how students of diverse backgrounds interact in the learning process.

It further emerged in the study that student teacher interaction has a significant influence on the implementation of CRPs. Allowing for opportunities where lecturers interact with their students as well as where students interact between and among themselves is very important in the implementation of CRPs and in encouraging all students to be involved in their learning. To provide opportunities for interaction between the lecturers and students and also between and among students themselves, lecturers need to use strategies such as class discussions and group discussions. Such groupings according to a student by Krasnoff (2016) need to be flexible for students of diverse cultures to be able to interact with each other and learn to understand and appreciate each other’s different cultures.

Limitations of the study

Based on the above results, it is recommend that university lecturers need urgent training on how they can apply CRPs to manage cultural diversity in classrooms to be able to make learning more meaningful and effective than currently. With adequate knowledge and skills of how to use CRPs to manage diversity, lecturers will become more confident, develop positive attitudes towards different cultures and will be able to prepare better for teaching culturally diverse students.

The study was quantitative in nature with the purpose of reaching out to as wide a number of lecturers as possible to solicit their views on the application of CRPs in universities. For more depth, a qualitative approach could also have been used

Based on the above results, it was concluded that the implementation of CRPs in university classrooms in Zimbabwe was still work in progress owing to the myriad of challenges lecturers faced during the implementation of CRPs. These challenges ranged from a lack of understanding of the diverse cultures of the students, a lack of training in diversity management to failing to create supportive environments for students to learn. It was also concluded that classroom management, cultural knowledge, student teacher interaction, and non verbal communication had a significant influence on how CRPs was implemented by university lecturers. It was further concluded that effective implementation of CRPs in university classrooms was a pre requisite for lecturers to be able to effectively manage diversity This, according to reviewed literature, meant that for lecturers to be able to manage diverse in university classrooms through the application CRPs, they need to have adequate knowledge of the different cultures in their classes and the different CRPs they can utilize to be able to effectively manage and teach the culturally diverse students in their classrooms. This further means that lecturers for lecturers to be able to effectively apply CRPs to manage culturally diverse university classes, they must demonstrate multi cultural competence by having adequate knowledge of cultural differences in their classes and how to use that knowledge to create learning environments that satisfy the learning needs of each of their students.

6. Conclusions

7. Recommendations

The study has implications on both practice and policy. With regards to practice, the study demonstrated that since university classrooms now consist of culturally diverse students, and that it is possible to successfully teach such students if lecturers use CRPs. These CRPs will ensure that individual learning needs of students from different cultures are catered for. With regards to policy, institutional management need to ensure that, as a matter of policy, lecturers use CRPs for teaching to ensure that they effectively teach culturally diverse students. Such a policy should also ensure that lecturers receive adequate training for them to be multi culturally competent so as to be able to apply CRPs when teaching.

Practical Implications of the study

Availability of data and materials: There is no date and material associated with this study to declare Competing interests: The researcher has no conflict of interest to declare in this study.

Acknowledgements: The researcher wishes to send special acknowledgement to all lecturers from the participating universities who made this study possible.

Methods: methods used in the study were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Declarations: Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before the commencement of the study.

Funding: There is no funding to declare in this study

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163 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 163 189, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.9 A Conceptual Research Model for Investigating the Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on Students’ Teacherpreneurial Competencies and Intentions in Preservice Teacher Education Olusiji Adebola Lasekan Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4244 4852 Reyaz Malik Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, India https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2443 5108 Claudia Méndez Alarcon Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6327 934X

Abstract. This article seeks to develop a research model that can be employed to study the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' teacherpreneurial competence and intention as well as employability. Based on the redefinition of the role of online teacherpreneur as an online private tutor, instructional designer, entrepreneur, and teacher leader, a qualitative literature review of competencies for these roles was conducted. We merged the identified competencies according to conceptual similarities. Our result is an online teacherpreneurship competency adopted to formulate a research model which is a customized measuring instrument for investigating the effect of online teacherpreneurship training on preservice teachers’ teacherpreneurial competencies and intentions. This finding has important implications for developing a template for students, policymakers, and teacher educators needed to create online teacherpreneurship courses, curricula, and evaluations.

Keywords: online teacherpreneurship; entrepreneurial intention; teacher leadership; instructional designing; online private tutor 1. Introduction Berry, Byrd and Wieder (2013) are among the first to incorporate a concept of teacherpreneurship into academic writing. They describe teacherpreneurs as teachers who cultivate and 'sell' their pedagogical talents while at the same time seeking creative solutions to the challenges of the education sector. The increasing rate of precarious employment in the education sector is a critical factor

Though, Shelton and Archambault (2018) limit the scope of online teacherpreneurs to teachers who market their original classroom materials and ideas with colleagues and policymakers on social media such as Instagram and Pinterest. However, considering the increasing growth of online private tutoring business (Bray, 2006). It can be contended that online private tutoring should also be one of the core competencies of online teacherpreneurship. Thus, it is crucial to redefine the concept and competence of online teacherpreneurship and advocate for its inclusion in the preservice teacher education curriculum. This can be done by developing a model that assesses its education impact on students' learning Inoutcomes.entrepreneurship

education, entrepreneurship competence and entrepreneurship intention arethetwostrong predictors to determine asuccessful entrepreneurship program (Sánchez, 2013). Both concepts can also be used to assess the impact of online teacherpreneurship education. Therefore, this study aims to conceptualize a research model that can be used to study the effect of online teacherpreneurship education on students' perceived teacherpreneural competences, teacherpreneural intentions, and perceived employability. After the introduction, we present a literature review. The methodology follows them.

Based on the findings, we proposed an online teacherpreneurship competence construct. We adopted it to conceptualize the research model to study the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on teacherpreneural competencies, intention, and perceived employability in preservice teacher education.

According to Palmer (2017), a teacherpreneur is a creative teacher who is both an educator and an entrepreneur, working a flexible schedule to supplement his or her income by creating and developing teaching and learning products. In sum, teacherpreneurship can simultaneouslyenhance teachers'financial freedomwhile fostering the quality of teaching and innovation in education (Syam, 2019). This capability strengthens its pivotal importance in entrepreneurship education Duestudies.toeasy access to the internet in the past two decades, online education has proliferated in numerous higher education institutions (Tao & Yeh, 2008). The current COVID 19 ravaging the globe has compelled nearly all educational institutions to adopt this teaching mode. Though several studies conducted in different contexts have reported successful implementation of online education with its positive impact on students learning outcomes (Allo, 2020: Tartavulea et al., 2020), there are numerous reports on challenges hampering the successful implementation of online teaching (Rajab, Gazal & Alkattan, 2020: Farooq, Rathore & Mansoor, 2020). Nevertheless, it has been predicted that many higher educational institutions will continue to offer online education after this post pandemic era because it provides flexible, convenient, and interactive methods of instruction to students (Goh & Sandars, 2020). Also, considering the affinity spaces such as Instagram and Facebook, where the increasing number of teachers are sharing professional experience and instructional material for financial gain (Carpenter et al., 2020). Thus, it can be argued that this transition and the new phenomenon will cause more teachers to embrace online teacherpreneurship.

One of the ways every government is promoting entrepreneurship is through its education. As a result of this, entrepreneurship education is becoming popular in several higher educational institutions (Hattab, 2014: Al Mamun, Nawi & Shamsudin, 2016). In the European Union (EU) countries, the education is critical to the socio economic development of the continent (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). In Chile's case, the government believes that the commercial success of the small medium firms, which is vital to economic growth, depends on the successful implementation of entrepreneurship education in the national curriculum (Maldifassi, 2001). Entrepreneurship education is concerned with learning for, through, and about entrepreneurship (Gibb, 2005). For this reason, it is claimed that entrepreneurship education should be regarded as both a learning method as well as learning material (Remes, 2001). Albornoz (2013) identified two teaching goals of every entrepreneurship training. These goals include teaching how to start a successful business and teaching to develop students' entrepreneurial skills. Considering the subjectivity nature of entrepreneurship whose training is extending beyond major business discipline to non business courses such as medical programs (Li, 2017), preservice teacher education programs (Deveci & Seikkula Leino, 2018), engineering programs (Duval Couetil, Reed Rhoads & Haghighi, 2012), and postgraduate programs (Rae & Woodier Harris, 2012), several scholars are now advocating for teaching goals that focus only on the enhancement of entrepreneurship mindset of students in all disciplines (Brand, Wakkee & Van der Veen, 2007: Martin & Iucu, 2014). The aim is to connect the worlds of education and work by improving students' ability to turn ideas into action, which add benefit value for someone other than oneself (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). Thus, it will be interesting to explore the impact of online teacherpreneurship as a sub dimension of entrepreneurship education in preservice teacher education programs.

2. Literature Review

Entrepreneurship Competence (EC) and Entrepreneurship Intention (EI) are the two key predictors of successful entrepreneurship programs. While EC is defined as the general skills of an entrepreneur to carry out the job (Man et al., 2002), EI, which is grounded on a theory of planned behaviour, is defined as the vocational decision process undergoes by an individual to join an occupation as a salaried earner or entrepreneur (Katz, 1992). Numerous studies on Entrepreneurship Education (EE) have used these two concepts to evaluate entrepreneurship programs (Sanchez, 2013: Hattab, 2014). A pretest posttest quasi experimental design to assess the impact of entrepreneurship training on the students' EC revealed that the students' proactivity, risk taking, self efficacy and self employment motive are fostered after the training (Sanchez, 2013).

A similar study to measure the impact of EE on the entrepreneurial intention among Egyptian students established a positive relationship between EE and EI (Hattab, 2014). Also, specific entrepreneurship competencies have been identified to be the driver of EI. In a study conducted among students of Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Business, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, competencies such as the ability to identify income generating opportunities, entrepreneurial skills, creativity, and information seeking skill have a higher impact on EI of students

Teachers' professionalism and qualifications are bound and designed to change according to global needs (Whitty, 2000). Therefore, teachers' competence has to adjust to the curriculum change, work efficiency, and systematic teacher assessment (Bancotovska, 2015) to improve the quality of teaching needed in modern education (Syam & Arifin, 2018). Trilling & Fadel (2009) explained that in the 21st century, one has to master the three core skills, i.e., life and career skills, innovation skills, and information media and technology skills (Ashari, Syam & Budiman, 2017). Therefore, it is essential to foster these skills among preservice teachers to adjust teacher professionalism to 21st century challenges. Several preservice teacher education programs in different contexts have started implementing teacherpreneurship education for several reasons. In Indonesia, the education was used to foster teachers' professionalism by developing their creativity and effectiveness (Sofyan & Efendi, 2017). In Pakistan's case, it was adopted to provide female teachers with knowledge and skills to enhance their competence to launch and sustain their businesses for their socio economic well being (Qureshi, Khanam & Aziz, 2018). In Europe, EIPTE is an innovative Erasmus ongoing project that aims at stimulating the entrepreneurial mindset of preservice teachers (Arruti & Paños Castro, 2020). Despite the successful implementation in different contexts, there is yet to be a study on implementing online teacherpreneurship education. Works on the concept of teacherpreneurship have focused on defining the characteristics of teacherpreneurs. A good example are tutors who teach students but still have space and time to nurse and implement their ideas (Berry, Byrd & Wieder, 2013). Arruti & Paños Castro (2019, p. 20) describe them as professionals who are placing students at the center of their work, pursuing personal and professional development, exhibit leadership skill, adopting active methodologies, daring to break the pre established rules from time to time, and established a significant network of a professional network. The third important characteristic of teacherpreneurs are those that market their teaching skills either as face to face or online private tutors, which is more prominent in non mainstream EFL education (Torrengiani, 2020). The private tuition industry's global growth hasincreaseddrasticallyin differentcountriesovertheyears(Baker & Le Tendre, 2005). For example, Lasekan, Moraga and Galvez (2020) reported a socio demographic profile of the high volume of English private tutors in Chile. Similarly, teaching opportunities outside mainstream education have been revealed in the discipline of physical education (PE). (Adeogu & Adeyeye, 2012).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (Al Mamun, Nawi & Shamsudin 2016). In addition, considering that some EE programs are strictly designed to foster employability, which is 'a collection of skills, knowledge and personal qualities that make an individual more likely to safe and successful in their chosen profession after graduation (Moreland, 2006), a high self perception of employability can also be used as a strong predictor of a good entrepreneurship program. While a study has established a positive impact of EE on the employability skills of British undergraduate students (O'Leary, 2012), another study reported similar positive results among Irish and Croatia students (Robinson, 2018). The literature gap is a work on the construction of online teacherpreneurship competence to assess the impact of its education.

Against this background, we present the key research questions of this study as 1.follows:Based on a broad range of literature, what competencies do future online teacherpreneurs need to acquire?

4. Research Design The research design is inspired by Foucrier & Wiek (2019) and Draksler & Širec (2018) on the conceptual research model of sustainable entrepreneurship

3. Methodology In reviewing the literature, no study was found on developing a model that assesses the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on Students' teacherpreneurial competencies and intentions in preservice teacher education. Thus, this study set out to conceptualize a research model that can be used to study the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' perceived teacherpreneural competences, teacherpreneural intentions, and perceived employability.

2. What is the conceptual research model to study the effect of online teacherpreneurship education on online teacherpreneural competencies and intentions?

By 2017, the discussion on teacherpreneurship has begun to metamorphose into online teacherpreneurship. Scholars reported different educational services that online teacherpreneurs could offer their clients (Shelton & Archambault, 2018; Carpenter et al., 2020). First, teachers focus on creating and selling teaching material and resources for other teachers to use on a popular online educational marketplace such as TeachersPayTeachers.com and Pinterest (Shelton & Archambault, 2018). The study attributed the continuous increase in the practice among teachers to the emergence and growth of the online educational marketplace industry, such as TeachersPayTeachers.com, Pinterest, TES, Amazon Inspire, and Houghton Mifflin, where teachers sell their instructional material to other teachers (Shelton, 2018). Secondly, the low salary income of most teachers (Allegretto & Mishel, 2019). Thus, many teachers use this alternative way of selling authentic material to augment their income (Shelton & Archambault, 2019). Works on online teacherpreneurship are still gaining momentum. A recent study explored how teachers practice online teacherpreneurship on Instagram (Carpenter et al., 2020). The gap in the literature is a study on the competencies that an online teacherpreneur needs to possess.

The authors claim that PE teachers can express their entrepreneurial productivity in several broad areas such as Club Fitness Instructor, Clinical Exercise Physiologist, and sports teacher. To maximize teachers' potential in the fitness industry, the experts stress the importance of entrepreneurship education for prospective physical education teachers. In sum, considering the dynamism and needs of global education, teacherpreneurs can offer their services as private tutors, content developers, and consultants in their respective disciplines. Thus, it is essential to conduct a study on the role of teacherpreneur as a private tutor in both mainstream and non mainstream of education.

The first cluster includes entrepreneurship competencies. It is focused on the role of online teacherpreneurs who are in service teachers and possess entrepreneurial skills and used them directly relevant to their classrooms or the education system they have served (Oplatka, 2014). The second cluster covers teacher leadership competencies because online teacherpreneur are leaders who can virtually influence a broad audience of teachers and students who adopt their instructional materials and ideas for practices (Shelton, 2018). The third cluster (online teaching competencies) was included because their practice is expected to offer online private tutoring services (Torregiani, 2020). The final cluster (instructional designing competencies), which is accounted for in literature, involves creating and selling instructional material on different online platforms (Shelton & Archambault, 2018). Results were eventually scanned for redundancies, cleaned ups, and synthesis.

II. Qualitative Literature Review of Competencies: Concerning the newly conceptualized roles of online teacherpreneur, every literature was analyzed. Thus, the result is clustered into the four competencies (online teaching, instructional designing, teacher leadership, and entrepreneurship competence) needed to perform online teacherpreneur.

III. Framework synthesis: A limited collection of criteria was used to create the new competency structure which can be used to design curriculum and course for online teacherpreneurship programs. The design protocol adopted by Foucrier & Wiek (2019) include: (a) Definition and standardization of competencies from the literature in order to prevent generic definitions or redundancies (b) Linking gaps in the literature (for example, missing or unestablished roles or competencies);

I. Qualitative Literature Review of Tasks: Peer reviewed literature was identified, selected, and evaluated. Reference work has been established via Google Scholar (the broadest database for academic studies). Also, we verified with other databases and no additional sources of interestwas found. Studies were identified through Google using the terms: "Teacherprenuer", "Teacherpreneurship","online teacherpreneur", "online teacherpreneurship", and "Entrepreneurship in Teachers education". The most relevant sources were selected. Criteria such as works that precisely defined the term, published in or after 2010, and works derived the synthesis of existing literature was adopted. The final collection contained the following peer reviewed studies: Van Dam, Schipper and Runhaar (2010). Buckley and Nzembayie (2016). Berry (2011), Bingham (2017), Qureshi, Khanam and Aziz, (2018), Shelton and Archambault (2019), Shelton (2018), Ni' mah, Siswandari and Indrawati (2018), Aryanto, Ariffiando and Andriani (2017), Shelton and Archambault, (2018), Feriady and Santoso, (2020),Keyhani and Kim (2020), Arruti and Panos Castro (2020). Firstly, each source was then analyzed as teacherpreneurial tasks.

Figure 1: Overview of research design adapted from “A process oriented framework of competencies for sustainability entrepreneurship” by Foucrier, T., & Wiek, A. 2019. Sustainability, p.4 5. Results

Teacherpreneurs are professionals who have a great passion for teaching, a positive attitude, and a strong ability to inspire others (Arruti & Paños Castro, 2019). Berry (2011) regarded teacherpreneurs as marketers and professionals who are paid to spread their ideas and content as virtual mentors, teacher educators, community leaders, and policy as well as action researchers. They are described as teachers full of ideas concerned with their students, family, and community and know how to do all the roles (Ni' mah et al., 2018). Teachers who can actualize the potential of entrepreneurs and are expected to be much more productive

For the impact of online teacherpreneurship education, we developed a simple conceptual research model using insights from entrepreneurship education studies (Draksler & Širec, 2018), .and from our literature review. The impact is modeled through the assessment of perceived teacherpreneurial competency, intention, and employability.

The synthesis of competencies for online teacherpreneurship commences with a thorough view at the roles that online teacherpreneurs supposed to perform and the related competencies needed to perform such duties. This is the basis for the new competencystructure for onlineteacherpreneurship education and itsimpact on students' learning outcomes.

Tasks What does online teacherpreneur do? Developing online teacherpreneurship competence is essential to redefine the tasks of online teacherpreneurs by considering how different scholars have described the roles of both teacherpreneurs and online teacherpreneurs.

(c) the use of online teacherpreneurial practice orientation by mapping out basic functions and competencies to prevent "laundry listing" skills; (d) The use of core competencies in different studies as a guide to connect the ongoing debate of competency in various fields.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. professionals, able to create opportunities, like to challenge, independent, and have an unyielding spirit (Aryanto, Ariffiando&Andriani 2017). On the other hand, online teacherpreneurs are current and former K 12 classroom teachers. They engage in educational entrepreneurship, selling their original classroom materials in virtual marketplaces such as TpT, TES, Teachers Notebook, and Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Marketplace (Buckley & Nzembayie, 2016). They are also described as experienced teachers who gain professional authority and influence as a teacher leader (Holland, Eckert & Allen, 2014). Lastly, Shelton (2018) describe them as professional with innovative teaching skills, entrepreneurship mindset, online technology skill, as well as teacher leadership skills. In light of these definitions, we redefine online teacherpreneurs as teachers with an entrepreneurial mindset who offer virtual private tutoring service to students, develop and sell their instructional material to other teachers on the internet, and provide online mentoring and leadership service to other teachers, school management and educational policymakers (see figure 2)

Figure 2: The roles of an online teacherpreneur Competencies What online teacherpreneurs are Capable of? According to Spencer and Spencer (1993), competency is an underlying attribute of an individual that is causally linked to better performance in a job or circumstance. Lucia & Lepsinger (1999) describe two conceptually based structures for the creation of competency models: Beginning with a Validated and Starting from Scratch Competency Model Starting with a validate is a competency model that is generated based on an established competency model and contains the generic competencies needed. They suggest that this approach could be suitable where a competency model has been built for careers with broad duties, roles, and tasks requiring minimal professional abilities and expertise. Regarding teacherpreneurship competence, several attempts have been made to develop and assess the entrepreneurial competencies of teachers. Van Dam, Schipper and Runhaar (2010) build competency based on entrepreneurial knowledge, three aptitudes (career adaptability, occupational self efficacy, creative thinking), and two skills (networking skill, teamwork skill). The latest teacherpreneurshipcompetenceis

basedon Arruti &Paños Castro's(2020)works,

Personalcompetenciesstrength Ability to motivate oneself to maintain an optimum level of operation while responding to constructive criticism. Ability to identify one’s own strengths and weaknesses, and to balance them with opportunities and risks. Man (2001)

compilation is presented in four different blocks, corresponding to the roles of online teacherpreneur identified above. Most of the reviewed literature is pulled from generic entrepreneurship, online teaching, instructional designing, and teacher leadership competency frameworks. We believe a competency framework in different settings is more comprehensive and will be universally applicable (Getha Taylor et al., 2016). As shown in Table 1, Cluster 1 provides an insight into entrepreneurship competence. The foundation of entrepreneurial competencies is described in the theory of competencies of managerial (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010, p. 99). Boyatzis (1982) mentioned the connection between entrepreneurial and managerial competencies. Since then, studies on the competencies have evolved over the years. We decided to adopt the latest and updated EC model by Draksler and Širec (2018) because it is a combination of several models of entrepreneurial competencies created by Man, Lau and Chan (2002), Kyndt and Baert (2015), and Moberg et al. (2014).

Table 1. Entrepreneurship Competence Areas According to the Compilation of Draksler & Širec (2018) Cluster 1 (Entrepreneurship Competence) Competence area Behavioral Focus Literature source Competencies for strategic preparation for the future Havingskillsonhowtoreduce risk while planning for the future. Brinckmann et al. (2010), Karlssonand Honig(2009), Kyndt & Baert (2015) and Chwolka & Raith (2012). Competencies of decisivenesscommitmentand Ability to make specific choices. Especially choices whose outcomes are not completely predictable Wagener et al. (2010), Rezaei Zadeh et al. (2014), Man et al. (2002) competenciesConceptual Having conceptual abilities that can be used in decision making abilities, risk taking, and innovativeness Durkan et al. (1993), Bartlett & Ghoshall (1997), Chandler & Jansen (1992), Gasse et al. (1997), Baum (1994), Bird (1995) competenciesOrganizing Ability to organize human, physical, financial, and technological resources such as team building and staff management Hunt (1998), Lau et al. (1993),(1999)andAdamandChell

Perseverance Ability to handle risks and cope with the potential effects KyndtRauchandFrese(2007)and&Baert(2015)

Competencies for market insight Knowledge of the market that involve evaluating of potential risks, recognizing competition and examining their own market position

Ability to persuade Ability to convince others about their thoughts, strategies, or products Wagener et al. (2010) and BaronandMarkman(2003) Independence Ability to behave differently from others. That is, the ability to know what to do differently to get outstanding result. Wagener et al. (2010) and Rauch and Frese (2007)

competenciesLearning Ability for constant search for new information, openness to new information. Snell and Lau (1994), Man (2001) Competencies of self knowledge Possessing self understanding or self awareness as well as self confidence skills. Hayward et al. (2010)

De Clercq et al. (2012) and Chwolka and Raith (2012) Competenciesopportunitiesrecognizingfor Ability to identify and exploit Opportunities Gras and Mendoza Abarca (2014), Rezaei Zadeh et al. (2014)

Competencies of building networks and relationships Ability to initiate collaboration and trust, using contacts and networks, persuasion skills, communication, and interpersonal skills. GhoshallBird(1995)andBartlettand(1997)

Awareness of potential returns on investments Ability to assess the strengths and weaknesses of financial decisions. Man et al. (2002)

Entrepreneurialknowledge Ability to apply business knowledge in real life situation. That is, moving from theory to practice Florin, et al., (2007) and Moberg et al. (2014)

As demonstrated in Table 2, Cluster 2 is online teaching competence. Moore and Kearsley (2012) defined online education as a type of teaching that commonly takes place in different settings, requiring contact with technologies and a specific institutional organization. Regarding the aspects of being distant, Finch and Jacobs (2012) defined it as all types of teaching and learning where the student and instructor are geographically and temporally separated. The first development of its teaching competence emerges from the core Seven Principles of Effective Teaching proposed by Chickering & Gamson (1991). To further validate the critical competencies, Bigatel et al. (2012) conducted a study where faculties were asked to identify the most significant teaching behaviors associated with successful online teaching. The study included 64 teaching tasks, which were

Creativity Ability to use imagination to solve a problem Moberg et al. (2014), Adapted from “Conceptual Research Model for Studying Students’ Entrepreneurial Competencies.” by Draksler, T. Z., & Širec, K., 2018, Naše Gospodarstvo/Our Economy,p.28

InstructionalDesign

correlated and evaluated to determine key online tutoring skills. This includes Active Teaching, Policy Enforcement, ClassroomDecorum. Farmer and Ramsdale (2016) update this competence by considering the works of Chickering & Gamson (1989), Goodyear et al. (2001), Berge (1995), and Anderson and Dexter (2005) by adding Leadership & Instruction, Instructional Design, Community & Netiquette and Tools & Technology to the construct.

EnforcementPolicy Ability to track students' adherence to Academic Integrity rules and regulations. Leadership.Instruction& Ability to serve as a leader and facilitator by directing students, encouraging them to concentrate on conversations, offering examples and modeling actions that illustrate important ideas, values, and skills. Farmer & (2016),Ramsdale Tools Technology& Online teachers should be able to pick and arrange learning resources and technology. They are expectedtoassessand manage course technology to ensure that tools are effective, easy for learners of varying ability to use, and comply with learning outcomes.

Adapted from " Teaching competencies for the online environment." by Farmer, H., & Ramsdale, J., 2016, Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology/La revue canadienne de l'apprentissage et de la technologie,p.5 Cluster 3 (instructional designing competence) Instructional design deals with comprehension,improving,andusing material for Instructional purposes (Reigeluth, 2013). The author considers teachers that carried out this professional activity as instructional developers. The scholar further states that the skill helps teachers decide what teaching strategies are

Table 2. Online Teaching Competence Areas Cluster 2 (Online teaching competence) Competencearea Behavioral focus Literature source

CommunityNetiquette& Ability to create a conducive online learning atmosphere in classroom and supportive relationship with students Ability to cultivate an inclusive community by developing activities for learners to connect, discuss, and collaborate. Farmer & (2016),Ramsdale ClassroomDecorum Ability to handle course communications by modeling an expected conduct for all course communication Bigatel et al. (2012)

Ability to apply teaching strategies that influence the flow of learning materials, activities, and tests, Active Teaching Teachers can create an interactive and participatory learning atmosphere for online classroom students. They also keep learners up to date, provide input, support group work, modify content, and review teaching strategies.

Competencies:

The IBSTPI model is important since it encompasses a range of educational backgrounds, including secondary, vocational and higher education and can be extended to online learning environments. Also, the IBSTPI model describes the professionalization and specialization needs of instructional design in online learning environments and has identified specific skills to the field of online learning specialists, such as Instructional Technology Specialist (Koszalka et al., 2013).

174 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ideally adapted to cause the desired changes in students' knowledge and skills for particular course content. Numerous professional organizations have published competencies concerning instructional design. They include IBSTPI, AECT, and the Association for Talent Development (ATD). This study's conceptual framework is the ID's competence model created and validated by the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance, and Instruction (IBSTPI) (Koszalka et al., 2013). It consists of twenty two competencies and 105 output items divided into five domains (see Table 3).

Standards

Professional Foundations 1. Good communications 2. Research and theory application 3. Continuous improvement of personal ability 4. Knowledge of data collection and analysis 5. Knowledge of legal, ethical, and political implications of designs . Analysis and Planning 6. work as needs assessor 7. Depicting audience and surroundings traits 8. Deciding content of instruction 9. Analyzing applicable technologies for use teaching 10. Decide on suitable instructional material and development process 11. Organizing instruction material development projects Design & Development 12. Creating and design of teaching material 13.interventionsPlanningof non instructional material 14.interventionsSelectingor modifying of established interventions 15. Developing of instructional tools 16. Designing of learning tests Evaluation Implementation& 17. Instructional material’s assessment 18. Instructional material’s revision 19. Instructional material’s implementation and 20.disseminationApplyingof business skills Management 21. Collaborative relationships 22. Instructional design projects’ planning and management Adapted from Instructional

Table 3: Instructional Design Competence According to Koszalka et al. (2013) Cluster 3 (Instructional Design Competence) Designer The (4th ed.), by Koszalka et al., 2013, Charlotte, NC: Copyright 2012 by ibstpi®,www.ibstpi.org

Areas

Information Age Publishing.

Table 4. Teacher Leadership Competency Areas According to Kho et al. (2015) Cluster 4 (Teacher leadership competence) Competence area Behavioral Focus Literature source ImprovementFacilitatingandEstablishingStandards

AttributesLeadershipModelingandSkills

Cluster 4 (Teacher leadership) As shown in Table 4, Teacher leadership is a collaborative endeavour that capacitates teachers to conduct significant improvements to the school as a community while building standards for themselves (Greenlee, 2007). A common trait of teacher leadership involves connecting to other teacher leaders, student teachers, and administrators. (Angelle, 2007). Considering the role of online tools and social media in connecting teachers' networks, various social networking sites offer teacher leaders a platform to exercise their leadership mindset through collaboration and communication. A study has shown how teacher leaders are sharing their knowledge on Facebook through discussions that cover the full spectrum of educational issues (Rutherford, 2010). According to the author, the platform is seen as a medium to promote and support teacher professional development. In an attempt to determine why educators use Instagram, Carpenter (2020) revealed that most educators used the social networking platforms to share ideas and affirmation, with a subset of users monetizing some of the idea exchanges. On this note, we will examine the teacher leadership competency model (TLCM) updated by Yuet, Yusof and Mohamad (2016) through the lens of collaboration and networking on social media The TLCM was constructed built on the basis of four types of models (Kho, Hamidah&Syed, 2015). These cover the Framework for Teaching Evaluation Instrument (Danielson, 2013), Teacher Leadership Framework (Centre for Strengthening Teaching Profession, 2009), Teachers as Leaders Framework (Crowther, 2008), and Teacher Leader Model Standards (Teacher Leadership Exploratory Consortium, 2011). Thus, The Teacher Leadership Competency Model (TLCM) proposed for this study, therefore, encompasses Facilitation of Improvement and Establishing Standards; Modeling of Leadership Attributes and Skills; Participating in Organizational Development and Fostering a Collaborative Culture

This Demonstratinginvolves: concern in student well being and needs Continuous professional growth of gifts and Continuingtalents;studies in the area of pedagogical practice. Crowther (2008), Teacher Leader Model Standards (TLEC, 2011) Fostering CollaborativeaCulture development.achievementpromoteOnlinepartnershipwithotherstoimprovementinstudentandschool Barth (2001), Goleman, Bryatzis & McKee (2002). Danielson (2013), CSTP (2009),andCrowther (2008).

This involves focusing on compassionate relationships studentsfosteringamongteachersandstudentsandinteractionsamong Danielson (2013) Participating OrganizationalinDevelopment Teachers are active in school development programmes. They assist principals to management Saad & Sankaran (2013),

Teacherpreneurial Competencies

Teacher (2011).ExploratoryLeadershipConsortium

Proposed construct

The competency compilation is presented in Table 5, corresponding to the tasks identified cluster 1. 2, 3 and 4. This includes online teaching competence (Farmer and Ramsdale, 2016), entrepreneurship competence (Draksler & Širec, 2018), teacher leadership competence schools (Kho Hamidah & Syed, 2015), and instructional design competence (Koszalka et al., 2013). Here, it is important to add that the existing competencies had to be changed in order to develop a teacherpreneurial competence construct that can be used to examine the impact of online teacherprenurship education on teacherpreneurial competencies and intentions of preservice teacher education. Many of the identified competencies found in all blocks are the same. For example, relationship competence in cluster 1 is similar to fostering collaboration in teacher leadership competence, leadership instruction in online teaching overlapped with teacher leadership competence. In addition, instruction design in online teaching is covered in instruction design competence. After merging the competencies, we obtained the final 30 competence constructs

Table 5: Proposed Teacherpreneurial Constructs

Literature source Competencies for strategic preparation for the future Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Competencies of determination and dedication Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002), Man (2001), Conceptual competences Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Organizing competencies Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Personal strength competencies Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Learning competencies Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Competencies of self knowledge Kyndt and Baert (2015) Competencies for business insight Kyndt and Baert (2015 Competencies for the identification of opportunities Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Networks and partnership competencies Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002), Man (2001) Capacity to persuade Kyndt and Baert (2015) Independence Kyndt and Baert (2015) Knowledge of future returns on investments Kyndt and Baert (2015) Perseverance Kyndt and Baert (2015) Knowledge of Entrepreneurship Moberg et al. (2014) Creativity Moberg et al. (2014) Professional Foundations Koszalka et al. www.ibstpi.org(2013)Planning & Analysis

Adapted from “Development and validation of the teacher leadership competency scale." by Yuet, F. K. C, Yusof, H., & Mohamad, S. I. S., 2016, Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction

FacilitatingTechnologyImprovement

Establishing

Yuet et al. (2016), Norazlinda Saad and Surendran Sankaran (2013), Teacher Leadership Exploratory Consortium (2011), Danielson (2013) Fostering a Collaborative Culture Modeling Leadership Attributes and ParticipatingSkills in Organizational Development

Farmer and Ramsdale (2016), Bigatel et al. (2012) & & and Standards

Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on Students' Learning Outcome

Netiquette Tools

Considering that this form of education rest on the ability to teach online, share ideas and material online, giving the current pandemic situation which has provided the needed courage to embrace online teaching and learning, we can argue for the need to integrate Online Teacherpreneurship Education (OTE) in preservice teacher education. The first critical step in implementing OTE is by defining the role of online teacherpreneur. We argue that their practice should be based on their ability to teach online, design and sell instructional material, and consult and collaborate in the area of educational leadership. Thirty comprehensive constructs were developed from the existing competencies on entrepreneurship (Draksler & Širec, 2018), online teaching (Farmer and Ramsdale, 2016), instructional design (Koszalka et al., 2013), and teacher leadership (Kho, Hamidah & Syed, 2015). This conforms to previous studies on a conceptual framework to study EE's impact on EC (Draksler & Širec, 2018). This is the first approach towards the development of the curriculum or syllabus needed for OTE. To further assess the impact of OTE, perceived self assessment of entrepreneurship competence can be carried out. Based on self perception theory that states individuals perceive the contingencies influencing their actions and infer their attitudes from the pattern of freely chosen action (Deci., Koestner &

This study aims to conceptualize the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' EC, EI, and perceived employability. The justification for its inclusion in preservice teacher education is similar to various higher institutions' EE program objectives (Deveci & Seikkula Leino, 2018; Qureshi, Khanam & Aziz, 2018). This includes developing an entrepreneurial mindset of students to disrupt precarious employment in education and augment their low wages by developing innovative teaching ideas.

Online Classroom Decorum Online Policy Enforcement Community

On the other hand, EI can be considered the second level of evaluating the impact of education on students learning outcomes. According to human capital theory, an individual with greater competency levels will achieve more significant performance outcomes (EI) (Martin, McNally&Kay, 2013). That is, students' EI can be influenced by the attitude towards a certain kind of behavior and self efficacy (Krueger, 2003). Several studies have suggested ways of increasing learners' entrepreneurial intentions (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016: Mueller, 2011). This involves adopting a model and student oriented teaching model to boost their attitude, emotional, and experiential learning (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Ryan, 1999). Thus, the impact can be measured by evaluating the degree at which they perceive their competence. That is, putting entrepreneurship theory into practice, using their ability to teach online, designing instructional material, and offering teacher leadership consulting service.

Note that online OTE is not solely designed to make teachers set up an enterprise, but to disrupt precarious employment, innovate teaching skills and supplement their income. Thus, perceived employment can be used to assess the quality of the impact of tp education. This agrees with other entrepreneurship education programs used to promote employability among university students (PardoGarcia & Barac, 2020). On the other hand, precarious employment in the educational sector has been argued to be caused by the teacher's inability to explore employment outside mainstream education (Lasekan, 2019: Lasekan, Moraga & Galvez, 2020). The authors stated this argument in the case of the English language teaching sector, where different teaching opportunities in non mainstream education are yet to be explored. For example, English teachers can teach English for Specific Purposes in private companies (Lasekan, 2019) and physical education teachers can offer teaching services in the fitness centers (Adeogu & Adeyemi, 2012). OTE can help students understand the job prospects available in mainstream and non mainstream education of their discipline. Thus, the main goal of EE is to instruct students to grasp the internal situation of the industry. Therefore, the OTE objective should be focused on the development status, the development pattern of several industries, to foster the comprehensive cultivation of students' employability based on industry needs (Li, 2017).

Perceived employability is described as achieving sustainable employment appropriate to one's qualification level (Rothwell, Herbert & Rothwell, 2008). A recent study has shown that the higher an individual perceived their future employability, the higher their entrepreneurial intention (Atitsogbe et al., 2019).

Figure 3: Conceptual research framework to investigate the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students’ teacherpreneurship competencies and intentions as well as employability. Adapted from “Conceptual Research Model for Studying Students' Entrepreneurial Competencies” by Draksler, T. Z., & Širec, K. 2018, Naše gospodarstvo/Our economy, p. 28 Discussion In reviewing the literature, no data was found on integrating online teacherpreneurship education in student teacher education. To fill the gap, it is critical to developing a competency framework needed to create a curriculum for the online teacherpreneurship program. Thus, this study set out to develop a research competency model for online teacherpreneurship that can be used to assess the impact of its education on students' EC, EI, and employability skills. This framework adopted involves a model that begins with a validated competency It is a method that generates a model based on an established competency model that contains the generic competencies required (Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999). For example, entrepreneurship, online teaching, instructional designing, and teacher leadership are adopted as the core competencies of online teacherpreneurship competencies. Key competencies from all these are

synthesized to develop online teacherpreneurship competency. This approach is similar to the system of competencies for sustainability entrepreneurship created by Foucrier and Wiek (2019) The second part of this study involves conceptualizing a model that can assess online teacherpreneurship education's impact on students' online teacherpreneural competence, intentions, and perceived employability. We argue that education's main objective is to disrupt precarious employment in the educational sector and promote teaching innovations. Thus, a robust OTE is expected to address all the core competencies of an online teacherpreneur. EI is the second level to evaluate the impact of education. This assessment is based on the learner's significant level of competencies acquired (Al Mamun, Nawi & Shamsudin 2016). This is also subjected to several affective and attitudinal factors (Liñán et al., 2011). Perceived employability skill is the final assessment used to evaluate the perceived degree at which students can secure a job easily and disrupt precarious employment. This conceptual model is similar to the model developed for examining the impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Competencies and Entrepreneurial Intentions (Draksler & Širec, 2018). This education is considered essential for both in service and preservice education. This is because of the emerging practice of online teacherpreneurship among teachers(Shelton,2018). Thus, it is possiblethat many prospective teachers will, at some point in the future, explore professional usage of social media for either collaborating or selling of ideas or instructional material (Carpenter et al., 2020). However, the authors' primary concern on the practice is centered on the possibility of some teachers to view their fellow teachers as potential clients rather than as colleagues with whom they should be in solidarity and with whom they could engage in collaborative action. The development of entrepreneurship competency frameworks is critical to the successful implementation of entrepreneurship education. Thus, we believe that the starting point for successfully implementing online teacherpreneurship education should be developing its competency framework. The justification of the need to inculcate online teacherpreneurship education in preservice education is similar to other reasons in several contexts (Whitty, 2000: Shelton & Archambault, 2019). These include fostering teachers' professionalism (Whitty, 2000) and training of teachers so that they can meet the demand of 21st century challenges, which require the utilization of ICT and the mastery of special skills (Trilling and Fadel (2009)) and supplement their income (Shelton & Archambault, 2019). For effective implementation, the competency framework should operationalize and assess online teacherpreneurship skills (Chapman & O'Neill, 2010). Thus, OTE needs to focus on the outcomes in terms of learners' competencies rather than on program specific information gains (Giangrande et al., Overall,2019).the approach adopted in this study is more application-oriented and is especially well known in the literature on training and development. It focuses on identifying the competencies that are supposed to be added to EE, which can be used to assess its effectiveness in the preservice teacher education program

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181 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (Gorman et al., 1997). It is also an approach that clarifies the importance of the skills and knowledge necessary for entrepreneurial success and the psychological traits that are appropriate for that purpose.

7. Conclusion This study was designed to conceptualize a research model for studying the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' teacherpreneural competencies and intentions in preservice teacher education. This requires developing a framework of competencies that online teacherpreneurs would ideally possess. The framework is constructed with various strands of competencies such as online teaching (Farmer & Ramsdale, 2016), instructional design (Koszalka et al., 2013), entrepreneurship (Draksler & Širec, 2018), and teacher leadership competence (Kho, Hamidah & Syed, 2015). This is integrated into a teacherpreneural educational discourse by creating a model that investigates its impact on students' learning outcomes in preservice education. A significant finding is a conceptual development of how to study the impact assessment of enterprise education among student teachers in preservice teacher education. This is a scholarly response to a call on the need to integrate online teacherpreneurship education in preservice teacher education programs to help aspiring educators leverage social media's learning affordances and mitigate its challenges (Carpenter et al., 2020). It is the first study to construct a competency frameworkfor Onlineteacherpreneurship education. Theproposed education has important implications for reducing precarious employment and foster innovation in the educational sector. Though the latest and comprehensive competence frameworks were adopted, the framework is still generic and therefore does not capture all context specific of the compiled competencies. For example, all existing competencies available in the literature from several contexts were not considered while developing the proposed competence. Thus, this compilation needs to be interpreted with caution when applying to a specific context. Therefore, further empirical research would be required to demonstrate real world online teacherpreneurship practices to verify the practices of online teacherpreneurs. This can be carried out by first developing and validating an instrument aligned with learning teaching settings and pedagogies that are most suited to convey the competencies of online teacherpreneurship.

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Keywords: academic major modules; curriculum structure; subject content knowledge; economics teaching; social transformation theory

190 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 190 207, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.10 Curriculum Structure and its Influence on Content Knowledge of Economics Student Teachers Mothofela R Msimanga University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5858 7973 Abstract. This study explored how the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification at one South African university impacts on content knowledge of economics student teachers Document analysis was undertaken on the university’s Faculty of Education prospectus. Due to meetings restrictions during lockdown, buteconomicsmoduleseconomicseconomicsstudentunfairlylearningnegativelyTcontentanalysed.transformationstudentemailfocusgroupinterviewswereconducted.Tenfourthyeareconomicsteachersparticipatedinthestudy.Thestudyadoptedsocialtheoryasatheoreticalframework.DatawasthematicallyDatarevealedthateconomicsstudentteachersstudythesubjectthatismeantforeconomistsandothereconomicsrelatedcareershesubjectcontentthatisnotrelevanttoschoolcurriculumeconomicsaffectscontentknowledgeneededduringworkintegratedandinintheirteachingcareer.Forthisreason,thecurriculumisstructuredTostrengthenthecontentknowledgeofeconomicsteachers,thestudyrecommendsthatarelationshipbetweencontentinacademicmajormodulesandschoolcurriculumcontentbeformed.Secondly,economicsacademicmajorshouldexposeeconomicsstudentteacherstoanintroductionincontentasawayofadvancingtheirsubjectcontentknowledgethefocusshouldbemoreonschoolcurriculumeconomicscontent.

1. Introduction There has been a call in South Africa for the reintroduction of teachers training colleges. The basis for the call follows from the claim that universities produce teachers who are not ready to teach because they lack pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) The aim of the study was to explore how the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification at one South African university impacts on content knowledge of economics student teachers. To achieve the aim of the study, the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification and its impact on content

knowledge of economics student teachers were examined. The study was conducted at a South African university to investigate the relevancy of the content presented in economics academic major modules to the content that student teachers are expected to teach during work integrated learning (WIL) and in their teaching career. It also explored the implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers. The study was guided by the following research questions: How is the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification structured? What is the relationship between the content presented in economics academic major modules and school curriculum economics? What are the implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers? The study will make a contribution by determining whether the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching curriculum is structured in a manner that improves content knowledge of economics student teachers and make necessary suggestions. The findings and recommendations of the study might be used to structure the curriculum in a manner that will improve content knowledge of student teachers.

Teacher education is the education that equips prospective teachers with skills, knowledge, values, and behaviours required to effectively perform expected tasks at schools and in the community (Mondal, Saha, & Baidya, 2015). It is professional education that ensures teachers meet the needs of society in an efficient and effective manner at any point in time (Osuji, 2009). It is based on policies and procedures designed for such a purpose (Mondal et al., 2015). Teacher education is offered formally or informally (Osuji, 2009), as pre service education and training for student teachers or in service education and training for working teachers (Katitia, 2015; Osuji, 2009) It aims at exposing pre service and in service teachers to new ideas and practices which makes them better teachers (Katitia, 2015). According to Islam (2012), there are gaps in teacher education which lead to inconsistencies. Such inconsistencies include teacher education being unable to produce adequate numbers of quality teachers because they focus more on meeting departmental prescriptions (Chisholm, 2009). The study conducted by Bahr and Mellor (2016) found that in Australia the inconsistencies in teacher education originate from the fact that teacher education programmes are highly theoretical, impractical, and disconnected which leads to poor quality teaching, whereas in South Africa, university education is very abstract and too theoretical (Chisholm, 2009) Teacher education is a professional education offered to prospective and in service teachers to meet the needs of society. There are inconsistencies in teacher education which need to be addressed to achieve the purpose of teacher education and one of the inconsistencies is the quality of Chakateachers.and Govender (2017) postulate that in Nigeria, colleges of education are crucial in providing teacher education There is a call in South Africa to re open teacher education colleges to overcome the challenge of teacher education that is not producing quality teachers in adequate numbers (Chisholm, 2009). But, Chisholm (2009) argues that re opening of teacher education colleges is not the

2. Teacher education

Teacher education is expected to produce teachers who can improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). This can be achieved when higher education institutions produce committed, professional, and well qualified teachers (Du Toit, 2011). There are concerns regarding poor teacher education which produce low quality teachers who in turn offer low quality of teaching and learning (Nomlomo & Sosibo, 2016) In congruence, Mashau, Mutshaeni, and Kone (2016) state that there are challenges in South African teacher education which amongst others include quality and relevancy of teacher education. Therefore, teacher education should be reconceptualised to address the concerns about the low quality of teachers which affect the quality of teaching and learning (Mahabeer, 2018). This will help to produce quality teachers, as quality of teaching and learning depends on quality of teachers (Osuji, 2009). In order to produce high quality teachers who can improve teaching and learning at schools, teacher education programmes should be well designed (Thaba Nkadimene, 2017). According to Vaillant and Manso (2013), there is no problem with teacher education but the problem lies with the structure of teacher Curriculumeducation. enhances teaching and learning, therefore it should not be neglected (Boughey, 2018). Although there is an idea that underperformance at schools is caused by teacher education programmes which do not prepare student teachers for their teaching job, there is no clear evidence that teacher education produces low quality teachers and that generally, teachers do badly with regard to teaching and learning (Bahr & Mellor, 2016). Poor performance at schools cannot be attributed to poor quality education at higher education institutions because secondary education performs poorly; additionally the tertiary education offered in South Africa is among the best in the developing world (Mlachila & Moeletsi, 2019). The quality of teacher education is key to the quality of teachers and quality of education. Different authors posit different views about the quality of teacher education and some argue that there is no problem with the quality of teacher education but the problem is with the structure of teacher education. Therefore, this study based on social transformation theory explored the views of student teachers on how the curriculum structure impacts their content knowledge.

3. Teacher education and quality of teaching and learning

solution to the challenges because such calls are mainly against provision of teacher education at higher education institutions, rather than improving teacher education The study conducted by Deacon (2016) found that there was no problem if teacher education is provided by universities because they are able to equip prospective teachers with pedagogical content knowledge. But, Mahabeer (2018) argues that the teacher education curriculum which is currently offered at higher education institutions is too theoretical and inconsistent with school curriculum, thus, it supplies teachers of low quality (Thaba Nkadimene, 2017) This is also the perception in South Africa. Yet, there are also differing views on this perception, thus this study looked into this matter.

The study focused on a four year Bachelor of Education qualification for student teachers following both academic and professional requirements at the same time and specialising in economics teaching.

According to the DHET (2015), the Bachelor of Education curriculum is structured in an integrated manner to include disciplinary learning, pedagogical learning, practical learning, fundamental learning, and situational learning. In South Africa, teacher education curriculum includes designs of teaching and learning and development of pedagogical content knowledge (Nomlomo & Sosibo, 2016), whereas, in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Finland, and Sweden, teacher education curriculum is structured to include research, alternative qualifications, and articulation between schools and universities (Vaillant & Manso, 2013). In the United States, teacher education curriculum includes schools and society, reading and writing, research, teaching practice (Chen & Mu, 2010), pedagogical content knowledge, and authentic assessments that link theory and practice (Darling Hammond, 2006). In Singapore, teacher education includes amongst othersschool curriculum syllabus and the use of teaching materials to integrate disciplines and teaching (Chen & Mu, 2010) Based on the aforementioned assertions, teacher education amongst others should articulate school curriculum.

Effectively developed curriculum should meet the current needs of the society served (Alsubaie, 2016). But, Booi and Khuzwayo (2019) found that there were gaps in curriculum structure, in what the curriculum structure expects from teacher knowledge, and teacher education. Student teachers who obtain a teacher qualification should be competent and effective when they apply content knowledge (Du Toit, 2011). Teacher education curriculum should help teachers to be able to continually access knowledge and carry investigations in their field of work (Darling Hammond, 2006). A study conducted by Booi and Khuzwayo

5. Bachelor of Education curriculum design and development

4. Initial Teacher Education in South Africa

In South Africa, higher education institutions provide initial teacher education that prepares student teachers to work in schools (Bernstein, 2015). Bachelor of Education and Postgraduate Certificate in Education qualifications are initial teacher education qualifications offered by higher education institutions to prospective beginner teachers for specialisation in a phase and/or subject (Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2015). Bachelor of Education is a four year degree in which student teachers study to fulfil both academic and professional requirements of a qualification (Bernstein, 2015). Its programmes mirror the curriculum implemented at schools (Du Toit, 2011). The primary purpose of Bachelor of Education is to equip graduates with knowledge and skills which will enable them to be academically and professionally qualified teachers, by providing a well rounded education that includes subject content knowledge, educational theory, and methodology (DHET, 2015). Bachelor of Education programmes should respond to societal needs and address education challenges (Du Toit, 2011). Bachelor of Education programmes include pedagogical content knowledge, practical, fundamental, and situational knowledge to achieve teacher effectiveness in the classrooms by acquiring and applying different knowledges in a cohesive manner (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016).

6. Teachers’ subject content knowledge

Subject content knowledge is the theoretical factual knowledge of the subject that teachers need to demonstrate their competency in and the ability of teachers to apply their subject competencies in different learning experiences (Du Toit, 2011) It is an understanding of specific subject matter relevant to the subject (DHET, 2015). Subject matter knowledge includes theories, concepts, facts, and procedures within the subject (Sosibo, 2012). In comparison to their peers, the content knowledge of South African teachers is lower and that affects effective teaching because teachers cannot teach what they do not know (Mlachila & Moeletsi, 2019). In studycontentattributedisRusznyak,totoimportantcreditstheofferedtheirastudyconductedbySosibo(2012),studentteacherswerealsoconcernedaboutcontentknowledgebecausetheiracademicmajorsubjectcontentwasnotuptothefourthyearlevel.Thismightbeduetothecreditsallocatedtosubjectcontentknowledge,asonly50%ofteachereducationqualificationfocusondevelopingsubjectspecialisationteaching(DHET,2015).Itisforsubjectcontentknowledgetaughtinteachereducationprogrammesberelevanttothesubjectcontenttaughtatschools(Sosibo,2012).Thiswillhelpdevelopteacherswhopossessexpertknowledgeandexpertskills(Kimathi&2018).SubjectcontentknowledgeiskeyinteachereducationandthereaconcernthatcontentknowledgeofSouthAfricanteachersislow.Thisistotimespentstudyingsubjectcontentandirrelevancyofsubjectstudiedatuniversitieswhencomparedtotheschoolsubjectcontent.Thelookedintohowchangecanbebroughtaboutwithregardtostudent

(2019) foundthat BachelorofEducation programmesin South African universities encountered hardships in obtaining accreditation as they were not competently developed. University academics werenot well equipped with curriculumdesign and development skills and lacked expertise in this area

teachers’ content knowledge.

Nomlomo and Sosibo (2016) recommend that stakeholders such as student teachers, teachers, school principals, communities, and policy makers should participate in teacher education curriculum design and development. Similarly, involvement of teachers in curriculum development is key for achieving effectiveness at schools (Alsubaie, 2016). Students’ involvement is also key in curriculum design (Du Toit, 2011) to ensure that curriculum is student focused (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). The study conducted by Sosibo (2012) found that collaborations and networks between the university and the department of education helps to ensure that the content taught in teacher education at universities is relevant to school curriculum content. There are concerns that teacher education curriculum was not well structured and had gaps. To ensure that teacher education curriculum is well structured, involvement of student teachers in curriculum development is recommended. Thus, student teachers participated in the study to give their views of how teacher education curriculum should be structured.

The theoretical framework that guided this study is a social transformation theory which is informed by the ideas of Habermas which promotes infusing social sense by promoting critical reflection, critical learning, and discursive understanding (Fleming, 2000). Social transformation is a necessary modification in the way society is organised by questioning social patterns in order to reconfigure them (Castles, 2010). It advocates for urgent attention required to address an identified problem (Aboluwodi, 2015) to bring fundamental social change through social processes (Dominic, 2011). Furthermore, social transformation is not specific on what societal change should take place (Dominic, 2011) and does not take place gradually or over a period of time (Khondker & Schuerkens, 2014). It is achieved when there is a shift in individuals, organisations, and society’s orientation that embraces new actions to achieve the results (Musa, Jimba, & Ogundele, 2015) Historical and cultural patterns facilitate social transformation by developing change and resistance agents (Castles, 2010). This leads to structural change of culture at institutions (Machonin, 1996), as institutional and cultural changes are incorporatedin social transformation (Khondker& Schuerkens, 2014). From social transformation theory, the study mainly focuses on critical reflection done by student teachers on the curriculum structure and change that is needed if identified in the curriculum structure. According to Brissett (2018), education and school systems are probable catalysts of transformation that support structural and individual change. Education is indispensable in achieving positive societal transformation as it brings hope to societies (Musa et al., 2015). Social transformation in education can be achieved if change occurs at multiple levels (Brissett, 2018). Teachers are central to social transformation in education as they transform learners by mediating between learners and educational content (Musa et al., 2015) Educational curriculum helps to promote transformation in education by challenging the old assumptions and developing new assumptions when necessary (Bunduki & Higgs, 2017). When the thought process of individuals is changed, social progress is driven (Sharma & Monteiro, 2016). Aboluwodi (2015) identified inclusion of marginalised groups of people and democratic culture as key aspects in achieving social transformation. In this connection, teacher education is the catalyst of social transformation because if it provides quality teachers, then they will be able to transform society through learners. Curriculum structure is key for social transformation because if the curriculum is well structured, it will provide teachers who will address the needs of society. A real transformation in South African universities can be achieved when students are involved in curriculum development, as involvement of marginalised groups (students) in curriculum development can lead to real social transformation When the content knowledge of economics student teachers is well developed, they will be able to teach the subject content in a better way which will promote social transformation for economics learners.

7. Theoretical framework

8. Methodology and design An interpretivist research paradigm was used in this study. The paradigm is based on the assumption that reality is constructed through social interaction of

Document analysis and email focus group interviews were used to generate data According to Mohajan (2018), qualitative research methods include amongst others document analysis and interviews. Document analysis was used to get information and understanding about the research context (Simion, 2016). The university’s Faculty of Education prospectus was examined to get information and understanding of the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification. To afford economics student teachers the opportunity to give their viewpoints on the influence of curriculum structure on their content knowledge, email focus group interviews were used Email focus group interviews were used instead of face to face focus group interviews because of meeting restrictions put in place during the Coronavirus pandemic period. A single email focus group interview which lasted for about two hours was organised and conducted at a date and time when the participants were available On the set day and time participants had access to their emails and internet connectivity. The researcher asked prompting questions and the participants responded to all to ensure that other participants were able to see whatthey had saidand add on given responses when necessary. Participants gave their views on the relevancy of the content presented in economics major modules to the content that they should teach during WIL and in their teaching careers. They were also asked about the implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification curriculum structure on their content Ethicalknowledge.clearance was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of the institution where the study was conducted. Participants’ informed consent to participate was

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. individuals from different backgrounds and experiences in a wider social context (Wahyuni, 2012). In this paradigm, the perceptions of the participants are used to understand and interpret their viewpoints about the context (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). A qualitative research approach was used to understand the perspectives of economics student teachers to discover the meaning given to the phenomena studied, as Bricki and Green (2007) assert. The participants interacted to construct knowledge by giving their viewpoint about the relevancy of economics academic major modules content to school curriculum economics content and how the curriculum structure of their teaching qualification influenced their content Convenienceknowledge.

and purposive sampling were used to identify participants who understood the phenomena, were willing to participate, and available. According to Simion (2016), convenience sampling is a non probability sampling used to select the participants who have a deep understanding of the phenomena studied and are easy to access. Furthermore, purposive sampling is used to select information rich participants. The participants were 10 fourth year Bachelor of Education in economics student teachers from a South African university. The participants were selected from a target population of 24 economics student teachers. According to Bricki and Green (2007), an effective focus group which yields sustainable discussions is comprised of six to 10 participants. Thus, a sample of 10 participants was sufficient for the focus group in this study.

The following three findings were made based on the research question: the structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching; the relevancy of economics academic major modules content to school curriculum economics content; the implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers The first finding is based on document analysis and the last two findings are based on data generated during email focus group interviews.

sought before data generation and they were assured of confidentiality, anonymity, voluntary participation, and voluntary withdrawal without any explanation at any stage of the research process Email focus group interviews provided data for the study and the participants were asked to delete the text of email focus group interviews at the end of the interaction process.

The findings were described and interpreted to make meaning. According to Korstjens and Moser (2018) trustworthiness in qualitative research is achieved through credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Data was transcribed verbatim, the findings and interpretations are based on original views of the participants and university’s prospectus. Methodology used is described and thick data is provided; the participants had an opportunity to confirm that truthfulness of the findings. Transcripts are kept for verification of the findings and recommendations by an independent person.

9. Findings

The structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching The university offers the Bachelor of Education Degree in Senior Phase and Further Education and Training Phase (Grade 8 12). All the modules in the programme are compulsory and completed over four years on full time study only. The qualification is aimed at producing professionally qualified teachers for Senior and Further Education and Training phases of schooling. Student teachers specialise in three specialisations which can be a combination of a Senior Phase, Further Education and Training Phase, and a support role. The qualification is organised through different domains namely: Humanities, Science and Technology, Languages, and Business and Management. Economics teaching is offered in the Business and Management studies domain. Below are the extracts from the prospectus: Duration of the programmes: 4 years full time study only. Curriculum (all modules are compulsory).

The purpose of the Bachelor of Education in Senior Phase (SP) and Further Education and Training (FET) teaching is to deliver professionally qualified beginner teachers for the Senior and FET phase of schooling. This is done by providing student teachers with a well rounded education that equips them with specialised teaching competence in at

Data generated was thematically analysed to recognise emerging themes and identify key emerging ideas (Mohajan, 2018). Themes that were relevant to the research focus, research question, research context and the theoretical framework were identified to make the findings, as asserted by (Roberts, Dowell & Nie, 2019).

During placement at schools, students will be required to take on teaching responsibilities. Student teachers contentknowledge is developedin academic major modules and teaching methodology and practicum modules help student teachers to teach the content that they have acquired from academic major modules.

The relevancy of economics major modules content to school curriculum economics content

least three specialisations: (one SP subject and two FET subjects or one SP subject, one FET subject and one support role). Business and Management Studies, Accounting, Business Management and Economics.

The curriculum includes subjects such as Education Studies, Teaching Studies, Methodology and Practicum, Academic Majors, English as Language for Teaching and Learning, and Academic Literacy for Education. The academic majors are offered by other faculties and those faculties are fully responsible for academic major modules. Academic majors are studied over two or three years. Students’ content knowledge is developed through coursework and practicum as they learn from practice, in practice, and from service. Student teachers are responsible for teaching in their specialisation subject area during practice teaching. This is supported by extracts below from the prospectus: Students do the academic majors with other faculties … other faculties take full responsibility for the modules.

The content taught in thefirst to the third year levels in economics academic major modules is not relevant to the content that student teachers are expected to teach at schools. Part of the content taught in the first year is relevant to school curriculum economics. The content of economics academic major is more complex and different from school curriculum economics. Economics academic major modules are not efficient in strengthening the content knowledge of student teachers for school curriculum economics. It does not prepare student teachers to teach effectively during WIL and in their teaching career. These assertions are supported by participants as follows: “Economics taught in first year is more of a foundation of Economics taught in Schools.”

Through integrating coursework at the University and practicum at schools the Faculty creates learning opportunities for student teachers to acquire sound subject knowledge. Teaching methodology and practicum are integrated. This implies that students will engage in learning from practice, learning in practice and learning from service, aiming at developing specialised pedagogical content knowledge and teaching competence in each subject area.

“I believe that the relation of the Economics major to the Economics content we have to teach from next year is only at a foundational level.”

“The biggest challenge becomes that the levels of complexity and detail in the major are appropriate for those students who are following a career in economics or finance. It becomes less appropriate for Bachelor of Education candidates because it does not allow for simplicity, which is at the centre of teaching such a complex subject at a high school level.”

“I agree with you … that the module gets irrelevant from that we're supposed to teach at schools as it moves to the other years. But the study builds on each aspect of the subject to an extent that it allows those certain education students who are not certain the field to divert to other Economics degrees.”

“The economics major module is not as efficient in teaching us the content that we teach in high school.”

“The content taught in Economics major differs a lot from the high school content and as a result does not help equip student teachers for WIL or for the start of their careers as teachers.”

“It is mainly significant for students who want to become economists, data analysts, economic researchers and investment analysts because it serves little purpose for students who will be teaching economics in high school, as it does not teach them the relevant content that they will require to teach in high school.”

“There are some similarities in first year, however they are very small. Economics major is more depth and complex. Economics taught in high school is completely different.”

Economics content in academic majors is relevant for students who are pursuing careers in economics, finance, and other related careers, not for student teachers These modules are irrelevant to teaching career expectations but allow student teachers who are not certain about their career choice to divert to economics and other related degrees The content is complex and for student teachers to be competent in their career they are required to study school curriculum economics content on their own to strengthen their content knowledge. This finding is supported by assertions of the participants stated below:

“As a student teacher the economics that I learnt from first year to the third year did not help me understand the content I teach during my work integrated learning practical.”

“The content taught in the economics major and the economics content we are to teach have some similarities which are only taught at first year as an introduction to economics, however going forward the content becomes different and more complex and this makes it challenging to teach the economics content that you were not exposed to.”

“This is evident in content tests we take in economics methodology, I struggle to do well in those because I don't have the foundation needed to partake in those but have a rather advanced level of knowledge learnt from

“The effects of this curriculum structure are that the major meant to prepare me as a teacher does little preparation and causes a student teacher to have to re learn economics content for high school in order to be able to teach.”

The finding from this section is that the academic major module does not develop the content knowledge of student teachers that is needed to teach school curriculum economics

The implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers Student teachers have to dedicate more time to studying school curriculum economics content because economics academic major modules do not prepare themfor teaching thesubjectcontentin high schools. Student teachers spend more time learning school curriculum content and their content teaching is affected. They find it difficult to teach the subject content because they are not well prepared in school curriculum content and this creates a negative attitude towards the subject. Students who could be good economics teachers end up not specialising in the subject. The complexity of the content of economics academic major modules creates a situation where students have to work backwards in order to teach effectively and at times they confuse learners which can make them lose interest in the subject. Student teachers find it difficult to perform well in tests based on school curriculum content, and to teach the content properly during micro lessons and WIL. Student teachers face these challenges even though they have studied the subject content knowledge at different levels of their studies. This finding came from participants’ views as indicated below: “The content differs a lot and as a result, during WIL I have to dedicate more time to learning the content myself rather than teaching which also affects the way I interact with learners during Economics lesson.”

“This is negative towards the methodology because students end up not taking economics as a major for their teaching career because of previous students telling them their experiences and difficulties to understand how it relates to high school work. Economics major is a barrier for students who want to teach economics because being good with economics in high school does not make you eligible to be able to qualify to teach it because the economics in higher education is a completely different type of content and application.”

“When I eventually went to my work integrated learning I realized that the work we learn in the Economics Major is way more advanced than what is learnt in economics for teaching in schools. I find that I have to work backwards from Economics major to try to understand economics in teaching.”

“In terms of subject content knowledge as a student teacher you gain content knowledge that is too complex to deliver for learners and may lead you to become a confusing teacher because the level of complexity may lead learners to fear the subject.”

“It is also time consuming because it needs Economics student teachers to develop personal preparation strategies for content tests, micro lesson presentations and WIL.”

“It becomes very difficult at times because to move between the content taught at the economics major and the economics that is to be taught at schools. This is because most of the time I am exposed to the content taught in the economics major which aims to equip you with the knowledge that concerns economic activity its challenges and how to approach it. And then when I have to teach the economics content that I have to teach I have to go back to the basics first and look through it again which almost feels like I'm studying the content that I have to teach. This is not fair for student teachers because I feel like we are learning two different economics content as and it becomes a lot of work to move from one content to another.”

Student teachers felt that the curriculum is unfairly structured because they study complex subject content that is meant for other qualifications and is not relevant to their career. The assumption in methodology modules that students have studied the subject content in academic major modules is an unfair assumption. Students are expected to juggle between two different economics subject contents They are frustrated as they are expected to move back and forth with the subject content at different levels of complexities and study unnecessary content which needlessly increases their workload. It is unfair for students to study and pay for modules (academic majors) which do not contribute to their academic success and careers by not developing their content knowledge as intended. An academic major module which will focus on economics teaching is needed to strengthen content knowledge of economics student teachers. The participants’ statements below support the findings: “It is not fair because the knowledge is so complex in a way that it ends up making the Bachelor of Education degree to seem as difficult to obtain with economics as a major. Another factor is that the major is fetched from the school of economics were they focus on commerce career students and not education. This is an unfair enrolment for the education students because they are not catered for in the module. The faculty of Education owes itself and future students an economics major which is constructed by them. In order to ensure that the content required to be taught is known by students.”

“I find that sometimes this complexity and broadened knowledge acts as a barrier to being able to understand the economics subject knowledge in the sense that you already know what happens beyond the specific concept

10. Discussion

The Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is not a standalone qualification but economics teaching is offered in the Bachelor of Education Senior and Further Education and Training phase qualification. Economics teaching is offered over four years in the Business and Management Studies field. All the modules are compulsory and they focus on educational theory (Education Studies and Teaching Studies), subject content knowledge (Academic Majors) and methodology (Methodologies and Practicum). The qualification includes subject content knowledge, as Katitia (2015) alludes that it is important for teachers to understandandknow thecontent oftheirspecialisation subjects.Thequalification adheres to the prescripts of DHET (2015) for the Bachelor of Education qualification as it includes disciplinary learning, pedagogical learning, practical learning, fundamental learning, and situational learning which are addressed by subject content knowledge, educational theory, and methodology. Content knowledge of student teachers is developed through coursework in academic majors offered at the university and practicum done at schools. Economics student teachers have the option of specialising in economics and another Further Education and Training subject or a support subject.

The curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is not fairly designed because it does not help student teachers to master the content knowledge they are expected to teach in schools.

“Even for micro lesson presentations, a whole new engagement with relevant documentation and textbooks is required and this is unfair because it means we are paying for a module that does not directly link with our academic success in most aspects of our degree.”

“During WIL, content tests and the micro lesson we find ourselves having to dedicate time to learning the subject knowledge and trying to explain it to ourselves and this is unfair because as a student teacher you end up having an attitude towards the methodology as you will feel like anything that has to do with it requires more time and effort to complete it.”

taught in schools from the economics major knowledge, making it a bit harder to backtrack to where it all started. I think it leads to teachers having difficulty breaking down and explaining simpler concepts to learners as they become a bit more difficult for them as teachers to interpret to.”

“I constantly have to revisit the textbook to gain subject knowledge on the content I have to teach. This puts a lot of pressure on me as I have to firstly learn the subject knowledge on my own before I can teach it to high school learners.” “I had to revisit the textbook and watch YouTube videos to try and gain more insight on how to teach the content of the lesson so that I can be able to contextualise lessons to learners.”

The economics academic major is offered in another faculty which is fully responsible for the module. Based on this, the economics academic major does not mirror the school curriculum, as suggested by Du Toit (2011), that academic majors should mirror the curriculum implemented at schools. The content of economics offered in another faculty is not relevant to the content in school curriculum, as Sosibo (2012) highlights the importance of relevancy of the academic major content offered at the university to the school curriculum content Student teachers can take economics as an academic major up to second year level or third year level of study. Studying an academic major subject content up to second year level can be a challenge because in a study conducted by Sosibo (2012), there was a concern from the students that the academic major subject content was not offered up to the fourth year level. The qualification is well structured but the subject content knowledge studied should be relevant to economics content taught at schools. Students should spend more time studying subject content to master subject content knowledge of their specialisation subject. Document analysis findings were corroborated by the email focus group interview’ s findings that the content studied in academic major modules is not relevant to the economics teaching qualification but relevant for economics and related qualifications Islam (2012) highlights that there are gaps in teacher education Chisholm (2009) and Thaba Nkadimene (2017) indicate that these gaps lead to producing poor quality teachers. Only partof the first year academic major module relates to the school curriculum which student teachers are expected to teach; this is corroborated by Mahabeer (2018), that teacher education curriculum is incoherent to school curriculum. Economics content studied in academic major modules does not strengthen student teachers’ content knowledge and this is evidenced by their performance in content tests which are based on school curriculum. Lack of content knowledge affects student teachers negatively when they present micro lessons and teach during WIL, this in turn might affect them in their teaching career. The significance of subjectcontent knowledgefor teachers has been emphasised by Bernstein (2015) and Katitia (2015). Learners who are taught by teachers who lack content knowledge do not perform well in that specific subject

The curriculum structure of academic major modules is unfair to student teachers as it does not address the needs of their career; this is supported by Vaillant and Manso (2013) when they indicate that curriculum structure of teacher education is problematic. It is also not fair for student teachers to pay for modules which are not relevant to their career. Student teachers spend more time studying the school curriculum content on their own, whereas they have passed the modules which were meant to prepare them in this regard In this case, social transformation is needed to ensure that actions undertaken lead to achievement of results (Musa et al., 2015). This unfairness affects learners because learners who are taught by teachers who are not competent in the subject content cannot perform well in the subject and that affects social transformation Brissett (2018) argues that education is a probable catalyst of transformation which means learners can be transformed through education. To overcome this unfairness and bring social transformation, students should study academic major modules which are meant for economics

11. Recommendations

To achieve social transformation, the study recommends that economics teachers should possess a good content knowledge which will help them to teach the subject effectively This can be achieved if the curriculum is well structured. A well structured curriculum for economics teaching studied in economics academic major modules should be related to school curriculum economics content. Notwithstanding this, student teachers should be exposed to introductory economics content to help them with advanced subject content but more focus should be on school curriculum economics.

12. Limitations The findings of this study cannot be generalised because the study was only conducted in one university in a particular context. Further studies can include more universities. Due to movement restrictions during the Coronavirus pandemic period, data was collected by means of email focus group interviews instead of face-to-face focus group interviews which could have shown the reactions of participants during discussions.

13. Conclusion To achieve social transformation, student teachers participated in an email focus group interview to reflect on relevancy of the content studied in economics academic major modules and its impact on their content knowledge. Student teachers reflected on the curriculum structure and made inputs on how it needs to be transformed to contribute in developing them for teaching during WIL and in their teaching careers. This can be achieved when the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is changed to ensure that the content of economics academic major modules is relevant to school curriculum economics content. Curriculum which is properly and fairly structured is important for realisation of social transformation. Curriculum can be regarded as fairly structured when it affords economics student teachers an opportunity to study the subject content intended for economics teachers. The findings of this study can serve as a wake up call for higher education institutions to check whether their economicsteachingqualification curriculumis fairly structured and if not so, the institutions should gradually change their curriculum structure to address the problem. This can partly contribute to the realising of social transformation in higher education institutions and improve student teachers content knowledge which in turn can improve economics teaching at schools In conclusion, the study managed to achieve its aim and objectives as stated in the introductory section.

204 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. teachers to develop their content knowledge. This is supported by Alsubaie (2016) when positing that an effectively designed curriculum should meet the needs of the society it serves.

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208 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 208 229, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.11

Abdul Majeed Mohamed Navaz South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka 0003 2042 652X

https://orcid.org/0000

Questions in English Medium Instruction Undergraduate Lectures in a Sri Lankan University: Why are they important?

Keywords: Teacher questions; English medium instruction; Teacher student interaction; Dialogic interaction

Abstract. Introduction of English Medium Instruction (EMI) is linked to language development, mainly in countries where English is not the mother tongue of the majority of the population. It is believed that teacher questions that trigger teacher student interaction, especially dialogic interaction in an EMI classroom, can help students’ content and language development. Hence, this study investigates the types of questions lecturers ask, and the patterns of interaction developed in the lecture deliveries in English Medium Instruction (EMI) undergraduate lectures of a Sri Lankan university. It also looks into the underlying reasons for such practices. Six lectures delivered by two lecturers were recorded for this purpose and they were transcribed verbatim The lecture transcripts were analysed to find the questions lecturers asked and the subsequent pattern of interactions developed. Interview with lecturers informed the underlying reasons for the existing questioning patterns. The majority of the questions asked by the lecturers were rhetorical in nature, and only a limited number of non rhetorical questions, which could create meaningful interactional episodes of dialogic nature, were found. This study enlightens that lecturers should be trained to ask non rhetorical questions in order to develop interaction if the objectives of EMI are to be achieved.

1. Introduction English Medium Instruction (EMI) can be defined as a method which uses English to teach academic subjects in countries where English is used as a second or foreign language. That is, the first language of the majority of the population in those countries is not English (Macaro, Curle, Pun, An & Dearden, 2018). EMI is, in different contexts, closely identified with different names; “Bilingualism” , “Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)” , or “Immersion programmes ”. Macaro et al. (2018) elaborate that in North America

The objective of introducing English medium instruction in Sri Lanka is said to enhance the students’ language proficiency by getting them immersed in the learning situations through the medium of English. Nevertheless, the researcher’s experience in the Faculty of Science (referred to as FS), where the study was conducted, informs that students after studying a degree in EMI for three to four years, in the case of a general degree or a degree with specialization respectively, have not reached the required language competency when they graduate. For example, in the year 2018, out of 97 second year students who sat for the second year second semester English Language examination, around 20% failed Even though students are exposed to limited hours of English as a Second Language (ESL) programmes, 120 hours for two years, they spend nearly 1000 hours a year in their EMI programme, which usually lasts for three years for a general degree programme. One of the reasons that could be linked to poor language proficiency of the students who studied in EMI is connected to the lack of opportunities given in lectures for the students to use the target language. According to Swain’s (1985; 1995) output hypothesis, opportunities given to ESL (English as a Second Language) learners to practise the language are important for language

EMI has grown globally in all phases of education and educational settings (Dearden, 2015; Macaro et al., 2018) Many countries in Europe and Asia have switched to EMI for various reasons. In Sri Lanka, the main reason for implementing EMI is said to be expanding employment opportunities since the government sector cannot accommodate all the graduates into its system, and therefore, urges the graduates to seek employment from the private sector, for which it is generally assumed that English language proficiency is a necessity.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the form of teaching through English or another language is sometimes called “immersion", “content based learning” , “content based language learning” , or “content based language education”. In Europe, generally, it is prominent in the name of “CLIL” , “integrating content and language in higher education” or “English taught programmes”

For the same reason, Sri Lanka’s major donor agency, the World Bank, is keen on introducing EMI in secondary and tertiary levels of education Moreover, the University Grants Commission (UGC) of Sri Lanka has very recently requested the universities to switch to EMI for external degree students too (University Grants Commission (UGC), Circular number, 01/2021 of 15 January 2021).

EMI is used in tertiary institutions in Sri Lanka to teach different subjects/courses to undergraduate and postgraduate students, while L1 instruction is also widely available for courses, especially in the Arts and Humanities stream (Navaz, 2012). All universities have a mandate to develop the English language competency of the students by means of teaching them through the medium of English. EMI was introduced in tertiary sector from the inception of the undergraduate studies, especially in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Medicine) related courses in the early 1940s and later it was expanded to Management and Humanities too. Individual universities decide on the medium of instruction of courses in humanities but, in general, for the courses in STEM there is no choice in any Sri Lankan universities and the courses are held entirely in English.

One of the objectives of introducing EMI in Sri Lanka is language development that it becomes imperative to assess the outcome of EMI. Macaro et al. (2018) consider that more research is needed to find evidence to prove that EMI is useful for language improvement and content learning However, no previous studies have been carried out in Sri Lanka with regard to measuring the effectiveness of EMI in developing language proficiency, except for the studies conducted by the present researcher on the perception of students in the EMI classes (Navaz, 2013) and on developing a framework for analysing lecture discourse (Navaz, 2012; 2020). The studies that were undertaken outside Sri Lanka have focused on the policy level changes and the perception of teachers and students in learning through EMI (Macaro, et al., 2018; Ekoç, 2020; Xie & Curle, 2020). Only a few studies have ventured into the discourse level details (Hu & Duan, 2018; Macaro, 2020; Martín del Pozo, 2017). Hence, the questions lecturers ask in tertiary level content classes are not much investigated in Asian countries. Therefore, this study arises from the argument that teacher questions are important in ESL content classes for developing the language competency through lecturer student interaction. At the backdrop that studies have rarely been conducted in Sri Lankan tertiary or secondary level classes concerning the teacher questions or teacher student interaction, this study is considered important Moreover, the EMI has been implemented in Sri Lanka as well as Asia without due consideration for measuring its perceived benefits of language and content development. Therefore, this study looks into, at a small scale, if the EMI lectures are favourable for students’ language development at a faculty of a Sri Lankan university. For this purpose, a few number of lectures were analysed to identify the discourse level details questions lecturers ask and the kinds of interaction those questions develop in the classroom.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. development. This is similar to the view of sociocultural (Vygotsky, 1978) and social constructivist perspectives which propose that interaction can enhance students’ cognitive development (both content and language) (Mercer, 1995) Social constructivists (Mercer, 1995; Staarman & Mercer, 2010) argue that teacher student interaction is important for learning in the classroom. Further, interaction is necessary for creating a suitable learning environment that promotes learners’ language and content development (Hall & Verplaetse, 2000)

For learning the content and developing the language knowledge of the students through EMI, lecturers should provide opportunities for students to involve in interaction with lecturers throughout the lecture. This could be achieved, in the study context, by way of asking questions and answering questions Generally, in the EMI classes in Sri Lanka, the focus is to convey the content abruptly without due consideration for language. As a result, it can be assumed that the intended outcome of language development has become a question In Sri Lanka, each year around 20,000 students are admitted into different EMI courses out of just over 30,000 annual intakes into different universities. Hence, employment opportunities at the private sectors are highly limited for the graduates, and lack of language proficiency of the graduates has been considered an important reason for this unemployment issue

At the bottom of the argument that teacher student interaction initiated by teacher questions can be helpful for language as well as content development in the EMI contexts, this review is focused initially towards teacher questions and their importance. Then the review is carried out to show the importance of interaction in content classes, especially the literature showing the influence of EMI on language development, in general, is reviewed Besides, the studies that investigated the influence of interaction on language development are also touched on.

3. What are the underlying reasons for the present questioning behaviours and what suggestions could be made to improve the outcomes of EMI?

Hence, this study will have the following research questions:

1. What types of questions do lecturers ask in EMI science classes?

1.1 Research questions

2. What types of interactional episodes are developed in the lecture discourse?

2.1.1QuestionsImportance of questions

The importance of questions in tertiary level EMI has been poorly researched (Chang, 2012; DaFouz & Sánchez García, 2013). Some of those studies that stressed the use of questions in academic lectures are of Crawford Camiciottoli (2008), Csomay (2002), Fortanet (2004) and Morell (2004) These researchers looked at the discourse features present in academic lectures. Recently, attention has been given to EMI classes for investigating questions for their ability to generate interaction Sánchez García (2010) explains that questions are the key tools in generating interaction in lectures Marton and Tsui (2004) claim that interaction gets momentum through the use of questions while Hu and Li (2017) assert that teacher questions play a key role in activating students’ content schemata, scaffolding learning activities, and facilitating concept development while bringing the language development. They describe that EMI aims to meet two goals subject learning and English proficiency. Hu and Li (2017) stress that teacher student interaction initiated through teacher questions provide opportunities for students to “engage in the extended receptive and productive use of English to develop their competence in the language” (p. 186). In addition, Chang (2012) elaborates that question has long been recognized as an important interactional device employed by teachers to activate and facilitate teaching and learning processes.

2.1.2 Types of questions In any classroom, the most common types of questions are ‘closed’ and ‘open ended’ and ‘display’ and ‘referential’ questions (Brock, 1986; Chaudron, 1988). Closed ended questions usually bring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, while open ended questions pave way for longer responses. Display questions warrant an answer which is already known to the questioner, usually the teacher, while referential questions request information from the respondents which is not known to the teacher (Brock, 1986).

2.1

2. Literature review

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Research on the questions teachers ask shows that about 60 percent require only recall of facts, 20 percent require students to think, and 20 percent are procedural in nature (Blosser, 1975) Blosser proposes among others a category called probing questions. This category of questions is important because it has several functions and that students can be encouraged to interact at a deeper level.

Morell (2004) identified four types of questions in EMI lectures. They are display, referential, rhetorical and indirect questions. Her rhetorical questions do not warrant a response from the students, while the indirect questions are similar to classroom management questions which require a response not necessarily verbal (as cited in Navaz, 2012) Morell (2004) in a similar vein argues that referential questions, which are open ended, bring more contributions from students. However, the common finding is that in lectures mostly display questions are asked. In a study conducted at the South Korean university among the engineering undergraduates, Choi, Tatar and Kim (2014) found that the authentic questions asked by the lecturers had brought many different answers from the students and also motivated them to answer the questions which in turn enhanced their communication skills. Further to this, DaFouz and Sánchez García (2013) identified in Spanish EMI lectures that lectures across different disciplines contained more display questions and also they concluded that when more teacher questions were asked, student answers also increased In another study in two Chinese universities, Hu and Li (2017) revealed that irrespective of the instructional medium in EMI classes, the majority of the questions are lower order questions. They had categorized the questions according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revision of Bloom’s taxonomy. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised taxonomy of educational objectives includes categories such as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and Larsoncreate. and Lovelace (2013) also used this revised taxonomy and identified questions in science lectures of a public university in the USA. To simplify the analysis, they grouped questions into two major categories based on their cognitive level (lower order thinking: remember and understand; higher order thinking: apply, analyze, evaluate and create). The findings revealed that most questions asked by instructors did not require higher order thinking skills to develop a response, and the majority of the questions were rooted in the remembering and understanding levels of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

In a study in a CLIL setting at secondary school content classes by Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015), teachers asked more fact questions. Their analysis was

2.1.3 Questions in EMI classes In Sri Lankan secondary or tertiary level EMI classes, research on teacher questions was rarely conducted. The present researcher in previous studies (Navaz, 2012; 2020) on discourse analysis categorised the questions into four novel categories which are described later in the methods section. In the absence of studies in the Sri Lankan context, the review is focused on other EMI contexts where English is used as a second language of the learners.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. based on Dalton Puffer’s (2007) classification of academic questions that include questions for facts, questions for explanation, questions for reasons, questions for opinion and meta cognitive questions. Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015) pointed out that “higher order questions or complex questions will contribute both to engaging students to use complex structures and to promoting more engagement with the academic content and deeper learning” (p. 18). This claim was already established by other researchers who corroborated this view by stating that complex questions tend to trigger complex students’ answers (see Dalton Puffer, 2007; Nassaji & Wells, 2000). It is also asserted that the linguistic complexity of teacher student interaction is important because it provides opportunities for students to listen to, process and produce language and develop their competence in the language.

The sociocultural theory proposed by Vygotsky (1978) stipulates that interaction between teacher and learner is important for learning in L1 or L2 classrooms (Mercer, 2001). Similarly, social constructivists (e.g. Mercer, 1995; Staarman & Mercer, 2010) claim that teacher initiated interactions are important for learning in which teacher has an important role in ensuring the construction, acquisition and transmission of knowledge. Moreover, Walsh (2011) considers that classroom interaction is important for students’ language development and such interaction should be paid attention. Many researchers (Gibbons, 2015; Gupta & Lee, 2015; Haneda, 2005; Haneda & Wells, 2010) believe that the academic skills, as well as second language of the ESL learners, can be developed through interaction. Thus, more evidence is being found that interaction favours students’ content knowledge and their English language proficiency (Georgiou, 2012; Stoller, 2004).

Despite the importance of higher order questions, Hu and Duan’s (2018) study among 20 Chinese universities revealed that the majority of teacher questions and student responses were cognitively and linguistically simple. As a result of the study, the researchers are sceptical that EMI would achieve its dual goals of facilitating students’ subject learning and improving their English proficiency envisioned by policymakers. Hence, it is the common criticism that in content classes teachers ask fact based inquiries instead of asking questions that engage in higher order processes (Larson & Lovelace, 2013). Similarly, in Sri Lanka, the common criticism is that teacher questions are mostly of display type or rhetorical in nature even though no any reported studies are available except the studies on discourse analysis by the present researcher (Navaz, 2012; 2020) Hence, it becomes necessary to investigate the existing situation before a meaningful conclusion or recommendations are made with regard to the possibilities of language learning in EMI classes in Sri Lanka At this backdrop, this study investigates the types of questions asked by the lecturers in science based undergraduate lectures in a small faculty of a Sri Lankan university with the assumption that interactions initiated through teachers’ questions could help learners with their language development At the next stage, the review is focused on the importance of interaction for language development with an emphasis on how the EMI lectures influence language development.

2.2 Interaction

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Interaction in the classroom is generally considered a dialogue between the teacher and students Recently, the dialogic interaction which is a variant of interaction has come into the teaching arena Generally, the interaction between the teacher and students can be of two types: Dialogic and Non dialogic, the latter is also known as authoritative. In dialogic interaction, the teacher and students explore ideas together and also generate new meaning. Dialogic interaction acknowledges multiple voices in the classroom (Matusov, 2009) as teachers ask students their views regarding the topic or phenomenon under discussion (Scott, Mortimer & Aguiar, 2006). Dialogic interaction, at this point, can be defined simply as a mutual dialogue that takes place between the teacher and students. In other words, it is an interaction in which both the teacher and students mutually contribute to the discourse with a view to exploring or developing a concept in a lesson (Navaz, 2020). The questions asked in dialogic interactions are non rhetorical and the teacher cannot predict what responses students would give The term ‘dialogic teaching’ was introduced by Alexander (2006) as a teaching approach and previously had gained attention as dialogic discourse based on the research of Scott et al. (2006).

With an understanding that interaction is important for language learning, studies in EMI context tried to investigate the influence of EMI on language learning (Hernandez Nanclares & Jimenez Munoz, 2015; Humphreys & Mousavi, 2010; O’Loughlin & Arkoudis, 2009; Rogier, 2012) Rogier (2012) investigated the students in universities in UAE after four years being in the EMI programme and found that there was a statistically significant improvement in all four of the English language skill areas that are tested by the IELTS exam. The most development occurred in the area of speaking, followed by reading, writing and listening. On the other hand, in the study conducted by O’Loughlin and Arkoudis (2009), greater improvement was found for listening and reading skills and the least average improvement was in writing skill.

However, studies that tried to investigate the effect of EMI on the language proficiency of the students took place mainly in study abroad contexts where students were learning along with the native speakers. Therefore, the assumption that EMI would develop language instantaneously has been subject to scrutiny. Several recent studies have come out with a conclusion that the effect of EMI would not reach the students as enhanced language proficiency because of various reasons such as the method of lecture delivery, students’ language proficiency, lecturers’ language proficiency, etc. (Lei & Hu, 2014). Chapple (2015) states that “the idea that merely taking a content class taught in English will lead to substantial linguistic gains is dubious” (p. 4). Among other reasons, the level of English language proficiency students possess becomes prominent in his study. He argues that students with poor language proficiency struggle to follow the course and language learning becomes a question Hu and Duan (2018) argue, as a result of a study in a Chinese university, that the present question and answer sequence would not help achieve the goals of subject learning and improving language proficiency. They dictate that teacher training is necessary to train the teachers to use higher order questions in classes. The training should focus on interactional strategies so that EMI teachers

2.2.1 EMI and language learning

The study was conducted at the Faculty of Science (FS) of a Sri Lankan university, which is one of the sixteen universities in Sri Lanka The Faculty of Science is a small faculty with an annual intake of fewer than 200 students admitted to Bachelor of Biological Science or Mathematics degrees. This study was a follow up of the researcher’s doctoral study and subsequent work (Navaz, 2012; 2020) which developed a framework for analysing lecture discourse in the same faculty.

Despite the fact that interaction in content classes could develop language has been a well established assertion in primary and secondary level classes (Dong, 2002; Gibbons, 2003; Haneda, 2005; Haneda & Wells, 2010), studies are yet to be conducted at tertiary level EMI classes where students learn in ESL or EFL contexts Of the few available studies that investigated interaction and language learning in tertiary level EMI classes, Morell (2004) at the University of Alicante found that the lectures which were identified as interactive were found to be promoting learning and communication. Kumar (2003), in another study at B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences in Nepal, experimented with interactive lectures along with the traditional lectures of monologic nature. Students who participated in the interactive lectures positively evaluated the lecture for their enhanced communication skills, though several methodological drawbacks were found in this study (see Navaz, 2012 for a review).

Initial approval was obtained from the dean of the faculty and she informed the three heads of the departments, asking them to inform the staff to volunteer for the study. For this study, out of the four senior lecturers, who were approached, two of them consented to be observed and their lectures to be recorded.

With the fact that only a limited number of studies have investigated that interaction influence language learning, this study investigates the questions and interactions developed in the EMI lectures as a preliminary step for investigating the influence of EMI on language learning in Sri Lanka. Hence, the following methodology was adopted.

For the present study, the informed consent was obtained from the two lecturers while the students were explained the purpose of the study by the researcher. Formal research ethical bodies were yet to be established in the university. The

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. could encourage the students for interactions. The same view was echoed by Ament and Pérez Vidal (2015) and Sánchez García (2018) that language awareness should be brought to the content teachers in EMI classes.

This study was based on the discourse analysis approach and mostly belonged to qualitative orientation. The data for this study came from the lecture discourse of six lectures delivered by two lecturers from Biology and Mathematics streams. In selecting the lecturers, a convenient sampling method was used, as only the senior lecturers who taught the second year students were considered for the study. In the faculty, there were 12 senior academic staff members attached to the three departments: Biology, Mathematics and Chemistry at the time of data collection.

3. Method 3.1 Research site and participants

Table 1.

F 35

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. details of the lecturers who participated in the study are given in Table 1. The lecturers were identified as BL and ML for Biology and Mathematics respectively. Both of them had teaching experience in EMI classes for around 10 years at the time of data collection, while their educational qualifications varied. Lecturers’ background information

The population of the faculty is just over 500 students at any year. In the faculty, Tamil and Sinhala are the students’ mother tongue. Their language proficiency was elementary to pre intermediate according to the CEFR (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) at the time of their entry to the faculty. The student participants of the study belonged to two second year classes in Mathematics and Biology related subjects, taught by the two lecturers Their numbers were 30 and 25 respectively. They all followed a general degree programme in Science and the duration of the degree is three years. The selection of students was dependent on the classes taught by the lecturers and therefore could be treated as convenient samples 3.2 Data collection and analysis

Three lectures of each lecturer, each an hour of duration, were recorded using a voice recorder which the lecturers carried with them. The lectures were identified as M1, M2, M3 and B1, B2 and B3 for Mathematics and Biology lectures respectively. The researcher was present in the lectures sitting at the back of the classroom to avoid unusual behaviours of the students. The lectures were recorded during the middle of the semester. The recorded lectures were transcribed verbatim and analysed manually looking for questions. The teacher questions of all types were identified at the first stage. Following Hu and Li (2017) and Hu and Duan (2018), any utterance identified as interrogative, imperative, or declarative which elicited a verbal response was considered a question. In addition, an unanswered utterance of the same type with lecturers’ wait time was also considered a question. Then at the next stage, those questions that built into interactional exchanges1 or episodes2 were considered non rhetorical questions irrespective of the length of the exchanges In addition, the lecturers had given a wait time of around five seconds minimum for a non rhetorical question and all of them were answered by the students in this study. All the others were treated as rhetorical questions which did not bring students’ answers. The lecturers answered the questions themselves or just passed on. A colleague of the researcher assisted in the identification of questions. These questions that initiated interactions were categorised into two types: Concept Development Questions and Knowledge Testing Questions. Further explanation of these question types are given below. In addition, the two lecturers were 1 Question answer feedback/evaluation is known as an exchange. Usually a teacher question, student response and teacher feedback (e.g. can you explain further) or evaluation (e.g good) 2 One or several exchanges that occur at one point in a lecture make an episode.

Sex Age Degree EMI Course Teaching Experience in YearsBL 40 Mphil in Biology Animal Physiology 13 ML M 30 35 PhD in Physics Electricity 10

Lecturer

At the next stage, questions were categorised into two novel categories. This categorisation of questions is based on the previous study by the researcher (Navaz, 2012) In the previous study, the researcher had categorised the questions into four types. They were (i) Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs): they test the memory of the students and include both rhetorical and non rhetorical questions and are explained further below; (ii) Knowledge Application Questions (KAQs): these questions test on how the knowledge or theory is applied in a practical situation; (iii) Concept Development Questions (CDQs): they are important type of questions which helps develop a lesson, as explained below; (iv) Classroom Management Questions (CMQs): they are not connected with the lesson but they deal with management and organisation of lessons and other academic activities like submitting assignments, arranging a practical class, etc. They are similar to the classroom procedural questions. e. g. Did you submit the assignment? In the present study, unlike the four categories in the previous study, the researcher identified two categories only: KTQs and CDQs. The reason for making two categories is based on the analysis in the previous study (Navaz, 2012) There were not many questions in the category of CMQs, out of the 12 lecture discourse of one hour duration each was analysed, there were only 3 CMQs. Further, KAQs are similar to the KTQs and can be put together.

Therefore, in the present study, the questions were categorised into two. 1. Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs) and (2) Concept Development Questions (CDQs) Each of these categories is explained below. In the process of identification of these questions, to check the reliability of the categories, the assistance of a junior colleague of the researcher was obtained. She was explained the categories and asked to identify the questions from the lecture discourse. The categories identified were compared with the researcher for consistency. As there were only two categories to identify, there was not much difficulty in identifying the question types.

When these two categories (KTQs and CDQs) are compared with Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Bloom’s revised taxonomy of educational objectives that include the categories such as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create, the KTQs cover the first three categories, while the CDQs cover analyse, evaluate and create

Initially, questions were classified as rhetorical and non rhetorical questions. In the observed lectures, lecturers asked many questions and answered themselves or did not expect any answer from the students. These types of questions are known as rhetorical and the opposite is non rhetorical. The latter type of questions was developed into either interactional exchanges and or interactional episodes The number of rhetorical and non rhetorical questions was counted in the observed lectures.

3.3 Developing an identification system for lecturers’ questions

(iii) Apply: apply the theory they learnt: e.g. Now let us take the half cycle to find the I average. Ok I average the second way to find the I average is equal to you know that how to zero to t ‘ov’ by two er what is that I₀ sine omega t over zero to t by two dt. Right? Can you workout? The same way? (..)). (From Mathematics lecture).

(i) Ability to remember: when the teacher asks a factual recall question: e.g. Can you remember from the molecular genetics what (is) central dogma? (From Biology lecture)

The careful analysis of the six lecture discourse exposed that the most predominant questions asked by the lecturers were rhetorical in nature. Lecturers did not expect the answer from the students when they ask this type of questions. Nor did they give a wait time for them to answer. Lecturers asked

e.g. You know anything about PCR technique? (..) What do you know? (From Biology lecture) These questions are asked by the lecturers as open ended questions to get different views of the students in order to develop a particular concept or a theme. “The teacher asks conceptual questions to elicit students’ ideas and facilitate productive thinking, invites and welcomes students’ responses and questions […]” (Chin, 2007, p. 817). Also, it is believed that during guided discussions, teachers primarily ask conceptual questions to elicit student thinking (van Zee, Iwasyk, Kurose, Simpson & Wild, 2001).

3.3.2 Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs) Within the scope of this study, questions that test students’ (i) ability to remember, (ii) understand and (iii) apply are included into KTQs These three parameters are the lower levels of Anderson and Krathwohl’s revised taxonomy of educational objectives. The following questions identified in the discourse collected can be given as examples:

These questions are similar to display questions and require short answers and are similar to factual recall questions, which ask the students to name, identify, recall, define, etc., and the emphasis is on memory or observation (Ellis, 1993)

3.3.1 Concept Development Questions (CDQs)

The importance of this question type comes from the value of the interactional episodes they are able to generate. When teachers ask questions which involve students to analyse a situation, evaluate a point or create or develop a concept, students can develop longer interactional episodes which are useful in terms of understanding a concept. Hence, as this question type helps the teacher and students involve in co constructing the lesson and developing interactional episodes, the questions of this type support the students to practise the language and develop language further. These questions are similar to open ended referential questions and also similar to Bloom’s synthesis questions.

(ii) Understand: check their understanding of the ongoing lesson: e.g. What is Biology? (From Biology lecture)

4. Findings In the sub sections that follow, the research findings are presented in accordance with the research questions

4.1. What types of questions do lecturers (or students) ask?

The observation revealed whenever the lecturers wanted to get an answer from the students, they adopted some strategies. Those strategies were giving adequate wait time, repeating the questions, naming the student, etc. When the lecturers gave enough wait-time, students tended to answer them. Students’ answers were limited to two to three words per utterance generally but in observed mathematics lecture, they were longer.

The non rhetorical questions that initiated interactional exchanges were identified from the lecture discourse. The questions lecturers asked in this type were mostly Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs). Most of the time, these questions were asked to check students’ memory, comprehension of the content matter and to apply the theory. The last one occurred, especially in mathematics lectures. The lecturer asked the students to apply the theory learnt in a novel situation and also for deriving equations. These functions are related to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revised taxonomy of educational objectives, as mentioned earlier. The number of KTQs were 30 across the lectures, while there was only one Concept Development Question (CDQ), which is believed to be contributing to the development of the conceptual knowledge of the students (Yip, 2004) found in the observed lectures Table 3 indicates these numbers.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. these questions and answered themselves or went on continuing the lecture. In addition to plenty of rhetorical questions, there were a few non rhetorical questions too. These questions initiated teacher student interaction and developed into interactional episodes. Hence, they were categorised using the two types of questions that are used in this study. Across all six lectures, there were only around 31 non rhetorical questions compared to 590 rhetorical questions as shown in Table 2

Table 2. Types of questions across the lectures Lectures No. of EpisodesdevelopedQuestionsRhetoricalNon(that) No. of QuestionsRhetorical Types of QuestionsRhetoricalNon Mathematics Lecture 1 (M 1) 7 111 7 KTQs Mathematics Lecture 2 (M 2) 6 124 6 KTQs Mathematics Lecture 3 (M 3) 3 85 3 KTQs Biology Lecture 1 (B 1) 3 65 3 KTQs Biology Lecture 2 (B 2) 7 80 7 KTQs Biology Lecture 3 (B 3) 5 125 4 KTQs; 1 CDQ Total 31 590 30 KTQs; 1 CDQ 4.1.1 Types of non rhetorical questions

Table 3. Types of non rhetorical questions across all 6 lectures Types of questions initiated the interaction Number KTQs 30 CDQs 1 Total 31

The episode below is taken from the Biology lecture 3 where the lecturer gives enough wait time (..) and in addition repeats the questions in order to get the answer from the students. These two strategies are important for making students involve in interaction. In this episode, the lecturer asks a non rhetorical question and expects an answer from the students. Even though students’ answers are shorter, the lecturer and students build the concept “PCR technique” and therefore this episode can be considered a CDE. The transcription conventions for the episodes are given in the footnote.3 3 T lecturer, M1, M2 male students, F1, F2 female students, (..) wait time/ long pause lasting 2 6 seconds.

4.2. What types of interactional episodes are developed?

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Examples for different questions can be found with the interactional episodes in the next section. When the questions that built on interactional episodes across the streams of biology and mathematics were identified, there was no difference in the number of questions asked across the lectures. In both lectures, 15 and 16 questions were found respectively, as shown in Table 4. Table 4. Total number of questions that developed interactional episodes across the two streams Stream Total number of questions Types of questions Biology Lectures 1, 2 & 3 15 14 KTQs, 1 CDQ Mathematics Lectures 1, 2 & 3 16 16 KTQs

The analysis of questions informed that lecturers asked more rhetorical questions and a few non rhetorical questions. Hence, all the questions did not lead to interactional episodes. It was found that only non rhetorical questions built into interactional episodes In this study, it is considered that CDQs led to Concept Development Episodes (CDEs) and KTQs made Knowledge Testing Episodes (KTEs). That is, the KTEs were developed as a result of lecturers asking InKTQs.the analysed lectures, there was more number of KTEs across the lectures compared to the CDEs of which only one was found. The CDEs are important for language development because CDEs involve students in expressing their thoughts and enhance students’ creativity. Further, the basic consideration is that for a lecture to be dialogic, it should have interactional episodes of the concept development category. Concept Development Episodes (CDEs), in comparison, have the potential to incorporate the students’ views into knowledge building. Compared to the other type of episode, CDEs give students opportunities to create longer utterances in meaningful communication. In the examples below, in the first episode (4.2.1), the lecturer asks non rhetorical question and students try to answer from their own perception. This is in contrast to the episode given under KTE (4.2.2) in which the lecturer asks the students questions to be answered from their memory of previous lessons 4.2.1 Example for CDE- Biology Lecture 3

4.2.2 Example for KTE – From Biology Lecture 2 In another example from Biology lecture 2, the lecturer asks a question that is to be answered from students’ memory. When the lecturer uses a question that does not require students to think or synthesise the answer, the outcome would be a recitation script. Here, the students’ answers consist of one or two words and these kinds of answers, it is alleged, would not help students’ language development, as discussed earlier. T: So from different organisms you don’t have to depend only on e coli now because of this replication (.) site you can use different types of bacteria to transform. Ok? You know why it is needed? Why? (.) Why this this is needed? (.) Ah? SAI (F8): to produce T: produce F8: restriction T: Why this origin of replication needed? M4: to replication xxxx ((inaudible)) T: M4:Ah?Tostart the replication T: Ah? For the replication of the plasmid. Even though you are transferring into the bacteria the bacteria cannot help the plasmid to replicate. It should has it should have its own replication to make it multiple copies. Ok? that’s why it carries origin of replication. Ok? (.) you didn’t get that point. So in addition to that we have another type of replication point here. Here, the lecturer asked a question as if she was revising the lesson. Similarly, in Mathematics lecture below, students answered the lecturer’s questions based on their previous knowledge.

F8: Three steps in PCR techniques T: F8:FromThree steps in PCR. T: Ok. First of all you tell what is PCR. What do you know about PCR?

T: You know anything about PCR technique? (..) What do you know?

M2: ((inaudible answer)) T: You can talk louder M2: New DNA synthesis T: New DNA synthesis. PCR is a new DNA synthesis. What else do you know?

M3: Artificial DNA replication. T: Artificial DNA replication. (.) OK. From this side.

F8: in DNA synthesis in T: Occurring in three steps. F8: Yeah T: Ok! Anything else? F: T:((inaudible))Thosethreesteps. Ok! Anything else? F5: DNA multiplication T: T:F5:DNA?MultiplicationMultiplicationT:Ok.Sooverall we will say DNA synthesis (..) in three steps process. (..) Ok processes.

4.3.1 Focus on content delivery

4.2.3 Example for KTE From Mathematics lecture 2 In this episode, the lecturer asks a question to which students can answer from their previous knowledge and it creates an interactional episode. Even though students make longer utterances, in the episode we can find more equations and content related vocabularies. It is claimed that such longer utterances could not help the general language development of the students. The length of Biology students’ answers is shorter when compared to mathematics students, 3 to 5 vs 15 to 20. The reason may be the easiness with which Mathematics students can answer questions because their discourse involves a lot of terms or content related vocabularies

T: We have two equations. What are they? M8: Total impedance equal to Fifty ohms. We have a R squared plus omega 1 plus all three squared T: Yes M8: Second one is hundred ohms equal to R squared plus omega two into all three squared. (.) We know R, omega 1, omega 2 T: Yes. T: And the relation between omega and t is equal to what? (.) Mn: Omega is two Pi over T. T: Ih? ((L1 questioning way)) Yes the same thing. What is that? Mn: T is equal to two Pi ((overlapped by T)) T: T is equal to two Pi over omega. Otherwise omega is equal to two Pi over? M5: ML1:Twhat [[text omitted name of the student MM7]] [..] what here↑? if you have any additional suggestion please MM7: [[clarifies with the lecturer in L1 when the lecturer was near the student]] phase two <L1 il oru> (one at) parallel <L1 warAthuthAne> (a parallel won’t come in Phase two?) ML1: no no no no MM7:  phase two <L1 warathu ippa> (won’t come) ( overlap) ML1: when we when we connected like this is like a single circuit right↑? <L1 Athila kulappam ontru irukkuthAn AnA ithula illai> (there is a chance for confusion there but not here). Ean entru theriyumA↑? (you know why) <L1 Neenga> parallel <entru ninakkeiriyal> (you think it is parallel). <L1 Ithu oru (this is a) single circuit [……………] In this episode, the lecturer switched to Tamil language in order to make the interaction comfortable for students. Generally, the use of L1 in the classroom may facilitate comprehension of the content matter, whereas it may not be useful for language development. Nevertheless, the effect of code switching on students’ language development was not looked into within the scope of this study 4.3 What are the underlying reasons for the present situation and how can it be improved? The reasons are discussed under three themes that emerged out of the discussions with the lecturers.

The lecturers were asked about the reasons for asking more rhetorical questions in lectures. These questions are asked without expecting an answer from

4.3.2 Pedagogical requirement

The lecturers did not have an idea of the types of questions they asked in lectures. For them, questions are one part of the lecture delivery. When they were briefed about the types of questions and their importance, they showed interest in them. This situation indicates that there is a gap in the knowledge of the lecturers about the types of questions to be asked and strategies for developing interaction

5. Discussion

This study is important considering the present status of EMI in Sri Lanka as well as in Asian countries. In Sri Lanka, English Medium Instruction (EMI) has reached an exponential growth presently and also it has become a fashionable term for learning in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in Sri Lanka. EMI was introduced with a view to enhancing the language proficiency of the

4.3.3 Nature of the discourse needed

In the observed lectures, lecturers usually did not give wait time for students to answer. Whenever they gave wait time, the students tended to answer. However, the Biology lecturer mentioned that even though she had given more wait time, students did not answer her The lecturer was sceptical about students’ ability, especially their language proficiency to answer questions. But, when the lecturer was indicated of the interaction that took place in the lesson with the students, she agreed that some students were able to interact. It emerged that focus on content delivery was the reason for not giving wait time.

In comparison with the biology students, the mathematics students’ answers were lengthy. The underlying reason given by the lecturers can be connected to the nature of the discourse needed. That is, in mathematics discourse, students mostly use the keywords or the content related vocabularies but in biology, they may need to use general words like nouns and verbs and need more language proficiency to use the language.

Students’ language proficiency and shyness could be some of the reasons for their reluctance to interact in the classroom. However, it cannot be assumed that all the students in the class lack language proficiency. It was made explicit in the study that lecturers could make use of the questions to develop and sustain longer interaction with the students Lecturers should try to develop dialogic kind of interaction in lectures for its benefits for language development. In addition, necessary skills and training should be given to lecturers for this.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students. The lecturers mentioned that even though they are aware of the importance of asking questions in general during lecture delivery, they are unable to spend more time on questions for the reason that they fear they may lose time to be spent on completing lessons. They were also concerned about completing the syllabi on time. Lecturers themselves had the idea that what they were doing was satisfactory for them. The point they raised is that the lectures cannot be conducted interactively throughout with several questions and answer sequences, because they feared the interactive sessions would consume the time available for conveying the content. Wells and Arouz (2006) have already established that a lecture cannot be interactive or dialogic throughout the lecture.

The findings of this study have many similarities with previous studies. Similar to the previous studies, teachers’ questions were linguistically and cognitively simple

The type of questions and the pattern of interactional episodes indicate that the lecture deliveries favour mostly monologic patterns Hu and Duan’s (2018) study among 20 Chinese universities revealed that the majority of teacher questions and student responses were cognitively and linguistically simple. The same finding was reported by Larson and Lovelace (2013) Their study revealed that most questions asked by the instructors did not require higher order thinking skills to develop a response, and the majority of the questions were rooted in the remembering and understanding levels of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Hu and Li (2017) also found that, in EMI classes, the majority of the questions were lower order questions. They also had categorized the questions according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revision of Bloom’s taxonomy. In this study, of the questions asked, the majority belong to KTQs which use lower order questions according to Bloom’s revised taxonomy Hence, the results of this study are in consistent with Teo (2016) who found that teachers asked more display type questions in a pre university programme in Singapore. In this present study too, lecturers asked many rhetorical questions which are similar to display questions for which the teacher knew the answer but students did not attempt to answer Morell (2004) too found plenty of display questions in her observed lectures Close discussion with the lecturers revealed that even though they asked questions to check the comprehension of the students, they did not feel it was important to wait for students’ answers. It is because of the limited time allocated for lectures, usually one hour for each lecture Lecturers felt that if they spent more time, they would not complete the lectures. The lecturers were not aware of the fact that through interaction they could develop the language of the Thestudents.results

of the present study inform us that lack of non rhetorical questions, especially the absence of CDQs in lectures, indicate that the lecturers need to be trained to ask CDQs as well as maintain longer interactional episodes that are useful for students’ understanding of the content as well as language development. Dalton Puffer (2007) and Nassaji and Wells (2000) describe that, as mentioned previously in the literature review section, linguistic complexity of teacher student interaction is important because it provides opportunities for

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students by getting them to learn the content through English. However, due to lack of consideration of pedagogy for EMI, the intended outcome of EMI has become a question. The results of the study revealed that at FS, lecturers generally ask rhetorical questions. Of the observed six lectures, lecturers asked 621 questions, and of which only 31 (5%) were non rhetorical questions. They are similar to genuine questions The genuine questions were identified when the lecturers waited for the answer from the students Of the 31 questions that developed interactional exchanges, there was only one Concept Development Episode (CDE). CDEs help in the construction of knowledge involving students’ contribution. In the analysed lectures, except for a single CDE, all the others were KTEs.

6. Conclusion This study was undertaken at a small faculty of a Sri Lankan university to investigate the questions asked by lecturers in EMI classes. Questions are important for generating interactions in lectures and that students’ involvement in interactions could be helpful for language development. At the backdrop that the Sri Lankan EMI context has not been investigated at a great deal, especially with regard to the discourse level analysis, this study could be considered important to unearth the discourse level details of EMI lectures, albeit with the following limitations in mind. Only a few samples were used in this study and the study was confined to a small faculty in Sri Lanka which lies away from the metropolitan areas. Hence, future studies that investigate lecture discourse should consider other streams of studies such as humanities and management

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students to listen to, process and produce language and develop their competence in the language In this study, however, the teachers’ inability to ask higher level questions, such as Concept Development Questions (CDQs), cannot be linked to lack of language proficiency of the lecturers. It should be considered as lack of awareness of the lecturers of the importance of questions or the necessary pedagogy to use questions in lectures

This study brings to light the existing situation of EMI at this faculty. The findings could be used to gauge the lecturing situations in other universities in Sri Lanka and in South East Asia where English is taught as a second or foreign language and the content courses are taught by the non native speaker teachers. However, precautions should be made considering the limitations of the study which are mentioned below in conclusion This study provides the EMI teachers an idea of their own lecture delivery and informs the educational authorities that there is a gap between what is expected out of EMI and what is achieved. As it was mentioned previously, EMI was introduced in ESL contexts to harness the dual benefits of understanding the content and developing the language. One way these aims could be achieved is through proper teacher training, especially for delivering the lectures. As Larson and Lovelace (2013) mention, due consideration should be given for pedagogy of lecture delivery in EMI contexts.

Within the scope of the study, difficulties of students in participating in classroom interactions were not focussed. Students’ language issues, shyness and cultural barrier of asking or answering questions could affect their participation in classroom interactions. A previous study by the researcher (Navaz, 2013) discussed these factors. This study indicates that there are possibilities for language development with appropriate training for lecturers in asking questions and using strategies for involving students in classroom interactions

BL mentioned: “we can’t keep on asking questions otherwise we can’t complete the lesson within the limited time” . (interview with BL) This view endorses the claim made by Cammarata and Tedick (2012) They claim that research on immersion teaching has consistently shown that immersion teachers tend to focus on subject matter content at the expense of language teaching.

Dafouz, E., & Sánchez García, D. (2013). ‘Does everybody understand?’ Teacher questions across disciplines in English mediated university lectures: An exploratory study. Language Value, 5(1), 129 151.

226 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and use larger samples. Also, it will be necessary to carry out research to investigate the lecture discourse in other universities which lie in the metropolitan areas where the student population may vary This study, as a pioneer one in investigating discourse in EMI classes in Sri Lanka, sheds lights on the details of present discourse in the faculty and informs the teachers and authorities that due consideration for pedagogy concerning lecture delivery should be made when implementing EMI. That is, education authorities should consider training EMI teachers/lecturers as a mandatory requirement if the dual benefits of learning the content and developing the language are to be achieved. Hence, future studies are needed to investigate the discourse of the EMI lectures further in Sri Lanka as well as further afield, especially in Asia 7. References Alexander, R. (2006). Towards dialogic teaching: Rethinking classroom talk. York: Dialogos. Ament, J. R., & Pérez Vidal, C. (2015). Linguistic outcomes of English medium instruction programmes in higher education: A study on economics undergraduates at a Catalan university. Higher Learning Research Communications, 5(1), 47 68. http://dx.doi.org/10.18870/hlrc.v5i1.239 Anderson, L. W., & D. R. Krathwohl. (2001). A Taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Blosser,Longman.P.E.(1975). How to ask the right questions. Arlington: National Science Teachers CammarataAssociation.,L.,&Tedick, D. (2012). Balancing content and language in instruction: The experience of immersion teachers. Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 251 269.

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1. Introduction In the past two decades, motivation for the choice of the teaching profession has become a prominent field of interest with an increasing number of both quantitative and qualitative studies exploring this construct in relation to various factors and contexts. Increased interest in the motivation for teaching is a result of changes in many countries worldwide which are facing a teacher shortage, an ageing teacher population, a decrease in the status of the teaching profession and the issue of attracting young people to pursue a teaching career

Exploring Pre Service Teachers’ Emotional Competence and Motivation for the Choice of a Teaching Career Tea Pavin Ivanec Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia 0003 3225 2272

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 230 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 230 245, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.12

Keywords: emotional competence; Factors influencing teaching choice (FIT) model; motivation for teaching; pre service teachers

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. The literature recognises the importance of teachers’ emotional competence for various aspects of the teaching profession, as well as the importance of attracting motivated and quality prospective teachers and retaining them in the profession. However, studies relating to the motivation to teach and some personal characteristics of prospective teachers are still relatively scarce. Therefore, this study aimed at contributing to this field of research by exploring the association between prospective teachers’ emotional competence and their motivation for the choice of a teaching career as proposed by the Factors Influencing Teaching (FIT) Choice model. This study used a quantitative methodological approach. Prospective teachers who were enrolled in a primary school initial teacher education programme (N=423) participated in this study The data were analysed using cluster analysis and multivariate analysis of variance. The results obtained revealed that the importance of almost all motives for the decision to pursue a teaching career, and the perception of demandingness of the teaching profession are rated higher by pre service teachers with higher emotional competence. Finally, pre service teachers with higher emotional competence also expressed a higher level of satisfaction with their career choice compared to those with a moderate level of emotional competence.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 231 (Han & Yin; 2016; La Velle, 2019). Hence, recruiting and retaining qualified teachers has become an important issue in many countries (La Velle, 2019; Suryani, Watt & Richardson, 2016). Teacher motivation is also related to the quality of teaching practice, student educational outcomes and teacher psychological wellbeing (Han & Yin, 2016; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2018), which is especially important in the light of continuous changes and challenges that teachers nowadays face Motivation for the choice of the teaching profession is important, not only for researchers, but for educational policy makers as well. A better understanding of motives for choosing the teaching profession can have significant practical implications regarding the retention and attraction of quality teachers. Bearing in mind the trend of a constant decline in the status of the teaching profession, it seems more important than ever to explore what motivates young people to pursue a teaching career, and which characteristics those highly motivated for this profession possess Therefore, it is not surprising that the researchers (and policy makers as well) have recognised the importance of teachers’ motivation within the broader construct of a teacher’s professional identity (Heinz, 2015).

More recently, the literature on the motivation for teaching also emphasises the importance of various non academic characteristics in recruiting prospective teachers. These include motivational antecedents such as personality, interpersonal skills and communication skills (Watt, Richardson, & Smith, 2017).

Furthermore, current studies on the motivation to teach revealed some of the characteristics associated with prospective teachers’ motivation, such as the chosen path of initial teacher education (pre school, primary, secondary education) and subject/discipline domain (e.g. STEM, non STEM). These studies provided a worthwhile insight into the motivation for teaching and implied the need for further exploration of this complex construct. An additional impetus for exploring the motivation to teach was a FIT (Factors Influencing Teaching) Choice model (and accompanying measurement tool) proposed by Watt and Richardson (2007). This enables a more systematic comparison of findings across different educational contexts. However, further studies are needed to explore other non academic factors that could also be relevant for the motivation for choosing the teaching profession.

Accordingly, the studies exploring the motivation for the choice of teaching career have become more prominent. The general research orientation of these studies is driven by specific motivational theoretical frameworks such as expectancy value theory or achievement goal theory. Studies exploring prospective teachers’ motivation for entering the teaching profession usually classify these motives as intrinsic, altruistic and extrinsic motivation (Han & Yin, 2016), or as intrinsic, extrinsic and social motivation (Lauermann, Karabenick, Carpenter & Kuusinen, 2017). Extrinsic motives include motives such as a stable income and a secure job position, intrinsic motives reflect an interest in teaching, while altruistic and social motives capture the desire to work with children and adolescents and contribute to society.

1.1 FIT Choice Model of Motivation for the Choice of Teaching Profession

Previous studies conducted within the FIT Choice model consistently indicate that the intrinsic value of teaching, the social utility value of teaching and the perception of one’s own teaching abilities are among the most important motives for the choice of a teaching career, while the fallback career motive is regarded as least important in different countries and contexts (Flores & Niklasson, 2014; Lin, Shi, Wang, Zhang, & Hui, 2012; Richardson & Watt, 2006; Wyatt Smith et al., 2017). Furthermore, some studies exploring motivation for teaching among different categories of prospective teachers (enrolled in different initial teacher education programmes) revealed certain differences concerning

232 This study focuses on one of these factors, more specifically on prospective teachers’ emotional competence a construct that can affect the quality of teachers’ work, job satisfaction and professional burnout (Brackett, Palomera, Mojsa Kaja, Reyes, & Salovey, 2010), and consequently, it can influence teachers’ intentions to remain in the profession. According to the literature, emotional competence is considered essential for the teaching profession (Vignjević Korotaj & Mrnjaus, 2020), and crucial for successful everyday interactions with pupils (Aldrup, Carstensen, Köller, & Klusmann, 2020) Hence, it is reasonable to assume that prospective teachers’ emotional competence can be related to their motivation to pursue the teaching profession. In the following sections, a brief overview of this construct from the perspective of the teaching profession will be provided, preceded by an overview of the FIT Choice theoretical framework which guided this study in exploring motivation to choose a teaching career.

Despite growing interest in the motivation to teach, a certain lack of methodological and theoretical consistencies often poses a difficulty in comparing findings of different studies, as noticed by Heinz (2015). The FIT (Factors Influencing Teaching) Choice model by Watt and Richardson (2007) attempts to address these shortcomings, offering a broad theoretical framework for exploring motivation for the teaching profession based upon expectancy value theory (Eccles, 2005) Different values and expectancies of success were adapted within this model to answer what motivates individuals to pursue a teaching career and to provide the opportunity for systematic research of this particular topic (Watt & Richardson, 2012; Watt et al., 2017). According to Watt and Richardson (2007), motivational factors assumed to be relevant for the decision to choose to teach and contained in this model are the intrinsic value of teaching (interest and enjoyment in teaching), the social utility value of teaching (including working with children/adolescents, shaping their future, making a social contribution and enhancing social equity), the personal utility value of teaching (referring to job security, time for family, and job transferability), the perception of own ability to teach, positive prior teaching and learning experiences, social influences by significant others, as well as the motive of choosing teaching as a fallback career. Further, the FIT Choice model also includes perceptions of the teaching profession in terms of task demand (required expertise and difficulty) and task return (salary and social status). Lastly, satisfaction with career choice and experienced social dissuasion regarding this specific career choice are also a part of this model.

Emotional competence is a component of a broader construct of emotional intelligence (Salovey & Meyer, 1990) In the literature it is also often explored under the construct of emotional or socioemotional competence, whereby the term ‘competence’ implies skills that can be acquired (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

Several studies explored the relationship between personality and motivation for teaching. For example, Jugović, Marušić, Pavin Ivanec and Vizek Vidović (2012) found that higher levels of agreeableness were related to higher intrinsic career value and the social utility value motive of prospective teachers Intrinsic career value was also positively predicted by extraversion, and both extraversion and agreeableness were positive predictors of prospective teachers’ satisfaction with their career choice. In their second study, Marušić, Jugović and Pavin Ivanec (2017) found that motivation for teaching and personality are also related to prospective teachers’ achievement goals. In a study conducted by Tomšik and Gatial (2018), personality traits predicted prospective teachers’ fallback career motive, whereby neuroticism was a positive predictor, and other personality traits were negative predictors of this specific motive

However, regardless of the broader theoretical framework, awareness of one’s own emotions, other people’s emotions, and the regulation and management of emotions appear to be crucial for coping with social and emotional situations

1.2 Teachers’ Emotional Competence

233 social utility and the intrinsic value of teaching, as well as fallback career motive (Watt, Richardson, & Devos, 2012; Watt, Richardson, & Morris, 2017; Wyatt Smith et al , 2017), while other studies did not indicate these differences (Akar, 2012; Glutsch & König, 2019). On the other hand, studies exploring personal characteristics (as antecedents) and motivation for choosing the teaching profession are somewhat less represented than those focused on different categories of prospective teachers

Studies generally indicate that personality traits are also related to in service teachers’ effectiveness and burnout (Kim, Jörg & Klassen, 2019), implying the importance of further research of non-academic characteristic as antecedents of the motivation for choosing a career in teaching Considering that personality traits also include certain aspects of emotional functioning and that various measures of emotional competence significantly correlate with personality traits (Aldrup et al., 2020), it seems reasonable to assume that the constructs related to emotional functioning could also be associated with the motivation for choosing a teaching career. Besides results implying the importance of personality in explaining the motivation for teaching, studies also revealed its association with teachers’ professional development, vocational motivation and career development in general (McKay & Tokar, 2012; McLarnon, Carswell & Schneider, 2015). Some studies also demonstrated that emotional competence is predictive of job satisfaction, even when the effects of personality traits are controlled (Urquijo, Extremera & Azanza, 2019). Drawing upon the results of these studies, exploring the relationship of the motivation to teach and different personality related characteristics of pre service teachers could provide additional insight into the motivation for the choice of a teaching career.

Previous studies indicate that emotional competence plays a significant role in social skills’ development; however, it can also be a determinant of academic and cognitive outcomes from childhood onwards. Interaction of teachers and pupils’ emotional regulation affects school performance, and teachers are also a relevant factor in the socialisation of pupils’ emotional competence (Garner, 2010). Thus, the importance of teachers’ emotional competence is two fold: on the one hand, it enables teachers to establish and maintain quality relationships with pupils (and parents and colleagues), while on the other hand, an emotionally competent teacher can be a role model of emotionally competent behaviour. Studies that linked teachers’ emotional competence with some aspects of the teaching job also demonstrated the importance of emotional competence. More specifically, teachers’ emotional competence substantially influences healthy teacher pupil relationships. It reflects not only in the quality of teacher-pupil relationships, which consequently affect pupils’ engagement in the classroom (Havik & Westergård, 2019; O’Connor & McCartney, 2007), but also in teachers’ perception of job self efficacy and wellbeing (Vesely, Saklofske & Leschied, 2013), and in their level of job satisfaction (Anari, 2012; Platsidou, 2010). Consequently, lack of job satisfaction combined with burnout can lead to low motivation of teachers, which additionally implies the importance of emotional competence for coping with the professional requirements and challenges of the teaching profession

234 successfully, including the complex demands of the teaching profession (Aldrup et al., 2020) These demands include providing support to pupils, negotiating, resolving conflict, and setting boundaries, and these interactions require emotionally competent behaviour. Additionally, emotional competence enables teachers to be more successful in encouraging and motivating pupils to engage in learning and school activities (Havik & Westergård, 2019). These personal characteristics referring to emotional functioning can also be related to the social type of vocational interests, which include the desire to work with others (McLarnon et al., 2015).

The literature suggests that more effective functioning in a school environment is expected of teachers with higher levels of emotional competence since they are more likely to regulate emotions better (elicit pleasant emotions or down regulate unpleasant ones). The ability to regulate emotions is related to perceived self efficacy and prevention of emotional exhaustion, while Mérida López and Extremera (2017) reported that the association of emotional intelligence and job performance is more robust in the case of more emotionally demanding professions. Respectively, the association of teachers’ emotional competence with better adjustment to different demands of their job implies the importance of emotional competence for teacher motivation. Moreover, the literature also suggests that emotional competence can increase in adulthood by using interventions aimed at its enhancement (Kotsou, Nelis, Grégoire & Mikolajczak, 2011) This also applies to teachers (Madalinska-Michalak, 2015). These findings can have practical implications for teacher development and education, both on initial and in service teacher education levels.

235 Previously described studies generally emphasise the importance of emotional competence for various aspects of the teaching profession, including effective teaching However, the literature review implies a lack of studies exploring pre service teachers’ emotional competence, especially concerning their motivation for choosing this profession, both within the FIT Choice model and in general. In line with some previous studies on teacher motivation and its antecedents, it seems reasonable to assume that emotional competence, among other personal correlates, can also be related to the motivation for choosing a teaching career

This study used a quantitative methodological approach The data were analysed by multivariate analysis by means of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (IBM SPSS, version 23). Research hypotheses were tested using cluster analysis and multivariate analysis of variance.

Participants in this study were 423 prospective teachers students of an initial primary teacher education programme at the University of Zagreb, Croatia, and the sample was convenient. Initial primary teacher education in Croatia is a five year university programme, and students from all years took part in the study. Participants’ average age was M=20.93 (SD=1.814), and their participation was voluntary and anonymous, and following prescribed ethical standards. Since a large majority of initial primary teacher education students at the University of Zagreb are females (about 96%), information on participants’ gender was not collected to grant additional anonymity to male students. A questionnaire was administered during one of the regular classes by means of a paper/pencil technique upon obtaining participants’ consent.

2.2 Instruments

2. Method

2.1 Sample and Procedure

The FIT Choice scale (Watt & Richardson, 2007) was used to assess participants’ motivation for the choice of a teaching career. The scale was validated in various countries (Watt & Richardson, 2012) and demonstrated good replicability and validity, including Croatian validation of the scale (for more details on validation and full version of the scale see Jugović, Marušić, Pavin Ivanec & Vizek Vidović, 2012). The Motivation for the choice of teaching is a part of the FIT

Hence, this study aimed at contributing to a better understanding of the motivation for teaching by relating these two constructs. This study is partly explorative, drawing upon previous findings on personal correlates of motivation for teaching that imply prospective teachers’ tendency to work with others in intrinsically motivating professions. However, it is generally hypothesised that prospective teachers with a higher level of emotional competence would have higher ratings of the importance of the intrinsic and social utility value of teaching. Further, it is assumed that prospective teachers’ perception of their own teaching abilities would be more salient for the choice of the teaching profession among participants with a higher level of emotional competence and that they would be more satisfied with their choice to pursue a career in teaching.

Table 1: Reliabilities, means and standard deviations for the FIT Choice factors and emotional competence factors

FIT Choice: Motivations α M SD Intrinsic career value .81 6.02 0.976 Social utility value .91 5.86 0.871 Ability .79 5.63 0.942 Prior teaching and learning experiences .80 4.88 1.579 Personal utility value .78 4.53 1.080 Social influences .88 4.63 1.818 Fallback career .62 2.21 1.345 FIT Choice: Perceptions Task demand .81 5.56 0.860 Task return .84 3.23 0.998

236 Choice Scale consisting of 34 items and measuring the importance of different motivational factors for the decision to choose a teaching career intrinsic value, social utility value and personal utility value of teaching, perception of own teaching abilities, prior teaching and learning experiences, social influences by others, and fallback career motive. Participants rated each motive’s importance for their career choice on a seven point scale ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important). The Perceptions of teaching profession part of the scale (12 items) includes the perception of demands (in terms of required expertise and demandingness); and returns (in terms of salary and social status) of the teaching profession. The FIT Choice scale also comprises additional subscales referring to satisfaction with career choice (2 items) and social dissuasion experience regarding that choice (3 items). For this part of the scale, participants expressed their agreement level with each item on a rating scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Results on each subscale were calculated as an average of associated items, and reliabilities of most subscales (calculated as Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) have demonstrated to be very good (Table 1) Emotional competence was assessed by the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ 45, Takšić, 2002) based on Mayer and Salovey’s model and previously validated in several international studies (for more details and the questionnaire see Faria et al., 2006). This questionnaire is a 45 item instrument consisting of three subscales: the ability to perceive and understand emotions (15 items), the ability to express and label emotions (14 items), and the ability to manage and regulate emotions (16 items) Participants assessed the level to which each item refers to them from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely). Results on each subscale were calculated as an average of associated items, and all subscale reliabilities are very good and ≥ .81 (Table 1).

3. Results and Discussion To obtain general insight into factors influencing participants’ motivation for choosing the teaching profession and their emotional competence, descriptive statistics and subscale reliabilities for all measured variables are calculated on a total sample (N=423) and their values are displayed in Table 1.

Ability to manage and regulate emotions .81 3.93 0.463

Satisfaction with choice .85 6.11 1 100 Social dissuasion 81 3.64 1.710

Emotional competence

Ability to perceive and understand emotions .92 3.88 0.596

Ability to express and label emotions .91 3.69 0.682

Based on the results displayed in Table 1, it can be generally concluded that prospective classroom teachers are mostly motivated by the intrinsic career value, the social utility value and their perceptions of their own teaching abilities. These results reflect prospective teachers’ desire to work with others in an intrinsically motivating profession which corresponds to their self perceived abilities. Although ratings of the importance of prior teaching and learning experiences, the personal utility value of teaching and social influences are lower compared to the first three motives, their ratings are also above the theoretical scale average. This implies that these motives were to a certain extent important for participants’ decision to become teachers. The fallback career motive was the only motive rated below the theoretical scale average, implying that participants in this study were not motivated to choose a teaching career because they failed to (or did not) pursue their first choice career. These results are in line with previous studies on motivation for the choice of teaching, as well as results indicating that prospective teachers perceive that their chosen profession is relatively high in demands and low in returns (concerning social status and salary) (Nesje, Brandmo, & Berger, 2017; Richardson & Watt, 2006; Wyatt Smith et al., 2017). The average results on emotional competence factors also shifted towards higher values, which is not surprising considering that these participants chose a profession which includes working with others Previous studies indicated an association between personality (which also includes emotional functioning) and social vocational interests and choices (Berings, De Fruyt, & Bouwen, 2004). Similar results regarding relatively high self ratings of emotional competence were also obtained on a sample of in service teachers in a recent study conducted by Vignjević Korotaj and Mrnjaus (2020). They also pointed out that these high ratings could partly reflect the respondents’ need to comply with the expected professional role of teachers. To compare results on FIT Choice factors with regard to participants’ emotional competence, the first step in the analysis was a cluster analysis. More specifically, participants’ self ratings of their emotional competence served as a basis for k means cluster analysis, resulting in two clusters which differ on all three emotional competence subscales. Mean cluster values are displayed in Figure 1 (differences between cluster centres were all statistically significant at p<.01). According to mean values, the first cluster (Q1; n=225) is characterised by somewhat lower (but not low) ratings, while the second cluster (Q2; n=198) is

Figure 1: Final cluster centres for the two groups of participants (Note Q1 moderate emotional competence; Q2 high emotional competence) Differences in the importance of proposed motives for the choice of teaching, perception of the profession and satisfaction with choice between the two groups (based on the cluster membership) were explored by multivariate analysis of variance. Results revealed a significant difference between the two groups and a large effect size of group membership (F (1,349) 5.21; partial η comparisons between the groups on each FIT Choice factor are displayed in Table 2. 2: Results of the FIT membership

Table

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 238 characterised by rather high ratings on all subscales of emotional competence. Hence, based on the mean values, the first cluster can be labelled as a moderate emotional competence, and the second cluster can be labelled as a high emotional competence

p<.001;

this

2 = .145). Further

the MANOVA for

Choice factors with regard to the cluster

Q1 Q2 Motivations M SD M SD F ηp 2 Intrinsic career value 5.88 0.999 6.22 0.911 10.87** .030 Social utility value 5.64 0.858 6.08 0.832 24.04** .064 Personal utility value 4.28 1.046 4.81 1.069 46.05** .117 Ability 5.38 0.897 6.00 0.816 7.51** .021 Social influences 4.35 1.769 4.92 1.808 21.99** .059 Prior teaching and learning experiences 4.63 1.546 5.09 1.576 8.77** .025 Fallback career 2.33 1.343 2.08 1.383 2.75 .008 Perceptions Task demand 5.49 0.829 5.69 0.873 4.90* .014 Task return 3.21 1.004 3.26 0.967 0,24 .001 Choice of teaching career Satisfaction with choice 5.96 1.113 6.28 1.076 7.58** .021 Social dissuasion 3.55 1.667 3.62 1.702 0.12 .001 Note. ** = p<.01; * = p<.053.54 3.24 3.68 4.28 4.23 4.225432 Perceiving understandingandemotions Expressingemotionslabelingand Managingregulatingandemotions Q2Q1

Jugović et al. (2012) found that these two motives correlate with personality traits, and personality traits also correlate with emotional competence (Aldrup et al., 2020; Alegre, Pérez Escoda, & López Cassá, 2019). Further, individuals who are more prone to positive emotionality, and who are warm and attentive in relation to others are more likely to express the social type of vocational interest (McLarnon et al., 2015). Hence, conclusions drawn from these studies could explain the results obtained in this study. More specifically, the importance of the social utility value of teaching, which includes working with others (in this case, children) is expected to be more pronounced among participants who have a higher level of emotional competence. From this perspective, higher intrinsic motivation is also meaningfully related to emotional competence, considering that it is not surprising that individuals who perceive themselves as better in emotions eliciting interpersonal situations are more likely to be intrinsically motivated to choose a profession in which these situations are common and expected.

239 As results presented in Table 2 reveal, a significant effect of cluster membership was obtained for most of the FIT Choice factors, whereby group ratings were similar only for the fallback career motive, the perception of the returns of the teaching profession and the level of experienced social dissuasion regarding the choice of this career. The groups’ average results indicate that the trend of obtained differences between the groups is the same participants who perceive themselves as more emotionally competent have higher ratings of all FIT Choice motivational factors. In addition, they perceive teaching as more demanding, and they also express a higher level of satisfaction with their career choice than participants with a moderate level of emotional competence.

Results regarding the importance of the perception of one’s own teaching abilities also support the previous assumption regarding the choice of the profession that corresponds to perceived abilities. Perception of one’s own teaching abilities is one of the highly important motives for the choice of the teaching profession among this study’s participants. Furthermore, ratings of this motive’s importance are significantly higher among participants with a high level of emotional competence, which is in line with postulated assumptions, and implies that emotional competence is also a significant (non academic) characteristic of quality (prospective) teachers. More specifically, if participants’ perceptions of own abilities to teach are an important motivational factor, it could mean that their self perception of some other characteristics, in this case, emotional competence, could also have a significant role in motivation for this profession. Teacher pupils interaction includes numerous situations and

The results obtained confirmed some of the initial assumptions. As hypothesised, results demonstrated more pronounced motives of intrinsic career value and social utility value of teaching among prospective teachers with a higher level of emotional competence As already mentioned, there is a lack of studies relating these two constructs; however, this finding can be explained in relation to some previous studies exploring (prospective) teachers’ personality (which also includes emotional functioning) and vocational interests in general.

240 challenges in which the ability to recognise one’s own and the emotions of others, as well as emotional regulation are required It is reasonable to assume that those individuals who perceive themselves as more competent in different emotion eliciting situations would feel more able to cope with these challenges and meet the demands of the teaching profession which include such situations on an everyday basis. Consequently, the decision to pursue a specific career, in this case teaching, is related to individuals’ expectations of success which are higher if a person perceives that she/he is able to meet the requirements of the profession (Eccles, 2005). In addition, higher levels of commitment to the choice of teaching are expected from individuals who perceive themselves as more efficacious in teaching (Lauermann et al., 2017).

On the other hand, those with lower emotional intelligence are somewhat more prone to career indecisiveness which can reflect on satisfaction with the choice.

Finally, this study’s results also revealed that participants with higher levels of emotional competence express higher degrees of satisfaction with the chosen educational path, which is in line with the initial assumptions. These results can be related to those obtained by Farnia, Nafukho, and Petrides (2018) which indicate that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more effective in career decision making owing to more effective coping strategies with challenging situations in life in general (with career choice being one of them)

In other words, the congruence of self perceived characteristic (emotional, teaching) and the demands of the teaching profession could result in higher levels of importance of different motives which could attract individuals to consider teaching as their career choice. Additionally, higher levels of the importance of social influences could imply that participants’ high level of emotional competence is also recognised by significant others who perceive them as highly suitable for a teaching career and who think that they should become teachers. The results obtained also indicated that participants with a higher level of emotional competence also perceived teaching as more demanding in terms of the required expertise, expected workload and emotional demands, which could also imply congruence between self perceived abilities and requirements of the profession

Prospective teachers who are more satisfied with their career choice are probably more likely to be committed to complete initial teacher education, and be more satisfied upon entering the profession, which can further be reflected in their engagement in the profession (Burić & Macuka, 2018).

Other than previously addressed results regarding some initial assumptions, this study also revealed that prospective teachers with a high level of emotional competence rate the importance of personal utility value of teaching, social influences and prior positive teaching experiences more highly compared to prospective teachers with a moderate level of emotional competence. It is possible that participants with higher emotional competence, in accordance with their self perceived characteristics, view the teaching profession as a generally more valuable choice in terms of different motives that could attract them to this profession. Hence, they perceive most of the motives as overall more important.

The ability to recognise one’s own and the emotions of others, as well as emotional regulation, is necessary to cope with everyday challenges arising from complex teacher pupil interactions. Therefore, it is not surprising that individuals who perceive themselves as more emotionally competent are more likely to be intrinsically motivated for a profession that requires such abilities and includes working with others. However, certain limitations of this study should also be considered when inferring conclusions. Firstly, participants in this study are prospective teachers enrolled in an initial primary teacher education programme. Hence, to obtain additional insight into the relationship of emotional competence and motivation for teaching, more heterogeneous samples of prospective teachers (in terms of initial teacher education programmes for different educational levels and domains) should also be included in future studies. Furthermore, results are based on participants’ selfratings, which evoke the question of socially desirable answers, especially considering relatively high ratings on most measured variables. Finally, it would also be useful to explore further the relative contribution of emotional competence combined with personality traits. The results of this study, as well as further exploration of antecedents related to motivation to teach, could also have practical implications for career counselling, and both initial and in service teacher education, especially bearing in mind that emotional competence can be enhanced through planned educational interventions. These interventions (either on initial or in service level) could additionally prepare teachers to respond appropriately to specific social and emotional demands of the profession. Initial teacher education should also consider potentially different motivational profiles among individuals who chose to pursue this career path. According to Richardson and Watt (2015), different types of motivational profiles can respond differently to specific school contexts and their level of professional commitment, responsibility and teaching effectiveness can vary Consequently, it is necessary to reconsider initial teacher education programmes in terms of matching different profiles, different interventions and support that would prepare pre service teachers for the demands of the teaching profession.

©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 241 4. Conclusion As hypothesised, both the intrinsic and social utility value of teaching are more pronounced among prospective teachers with a higher level of emotional competence. Additionally, the perceived ability to teach, as a motivational factor, is also more salient for this group of prospective teachers, and they are more satisfied with their career choice. This study revealed some meaningful associations between emotional competence and motivation for the teaching profession, and in spite of the lack of literature on this specific association, certain parallels are drawn with some previous studies in the field of teacher motivation, personality and career choices.

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University of Tlemcen (Algeria) Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa University of Abou Bekr Belkaid, Tlemcen, Algeria

https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.13

Abstract. The present study attempts to investigate Algerian EFL teachers and learners’ outlooks vis à vis the use of smartphones in learning English. The aim from undertaking this study is partially to gain insights into the awareness of Algerian EFL teachers and learners on the importance of integrating smartphones in EFL classroom and partially to find out how much convergent and divergent Algerian teachers and students’ beliefs are in terms of using smartphones in learning English. The study sample consisted of 10 teachers and 30 students of the Department of English in Master 1 level who were enrolled in the academic year of 2019 2020. Data were collected using a questionnaire to examine the students’ beliefs on their use of smartphones in learning English while semi structured interviews were conducted with teachers. Using the descriptive quantitative design, the findings reveal convergence in teachers’ and students’ responses in that they both show positive attitudes towards using smartphones in learning English. This is because learning English with smartphones results in more motivated students, increased exposure to English, extended vocabulary and easier access to information regardless time and place. Even though, a number of challenges were raised from the part of both teachers and students including the small screen size of their smartphones and slow network connections. On the basis of these results, some pedagogical implications and directions were recommended in the end.

Keywords: EFL; teachers; students, beliefs; smartphones 1. Introduction Over the last few years a lot of research has been conducted on the way Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can be used to support the process of English language teaching for learners at different levels, and particularly at the university level. Indeed, many educational practitioners are

Convergence or Divergence in EFL Teachers’ and Learners’ Beliefs on Using Smartphones in Learning English: The case of Master1 Students

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0075-8247

3. Is there convergence or divergence in Master 1 teachers’ and students’ beliefs vis à vis the use of smartphone in learning English?

Based on the above mentioned questions, the following research hypotheses are formulated:

2. Teachers may possibly hold negative attitudes towards their Master 1 students’ use of smartphones in EFL learning.

In view of that, the study will basically try to investigate the extent to which each of these hypotheses is valid or not based on the descriptive quantitative analysis of both the students’ questionnaire and teachers’ interview. Yet, the article continues with a literature review defining a smartphone and the benefits of its integration in the field of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) according to earlier research, followed by the roles and challenges faced by teachers and students and lastly, discussion including didactic implications and concluding remarks.

1. Master 1 students may hold positive attitudes towards the use of smartphones, in EFL courses.

The present study aims to raise awareness on some potential uses of smartphones in the EFL classroom and the roles it can play in aiding the processes of teaching and learning among Master 1 students at the University of Tlemcen, in Algeria. In particular, the researcher’s purpose from undertaking this study is to find out how much convergent or divergent are teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards the use of smartphones in the EFL classroom. Therefore, this study addresses the following research questions:

established fact that technology is widely employed for English language teaching and learning throughout the world at all stages of education. Typically the use of mobile technology for English language teaching and learning does not appear to be restricted to any particular age group or any particular educational program. Accordingly, educational practitioners and learners are increasingly using ICT innovatively throughout the entire world. In many contexts, learners are being exposed to a range of technologies, such as computers, tablets, smartphones and so on in English Language teaching, and Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is not an exception.

2. What attitudes do teachers hold about the use of smartphones by Master 1 students in their EFL learning?

trying to develop innovative English teaching methods that can be employed to satisfy the needs and demands of the new generation of students who are living in a progressively globalized world as a result of the rapid spread of Today,technologies.itisan

3. There might be divergence in teachers’ and students’ beliefs apropos the use of smartphones in learning English.

1. What attitudes do Master 1 students hold about smartphones use in EFL learning?

In the following sections, literature review about the definition of smartphones, advantages and disadvantages of using smartphones in the EFL context, and the roles and challenges faced by teachers and students while using smartphones in learning English are talked over.

It is widely admitted today that these small handheld communication devices are favoured by students and teachers as well. These have always exhibited positive attitudes toward using smartphones as learning or teaching tools. This is because, this device is seen as one of the best tools that can be used by educational institutions as they present several advantages. For Muir Herzig (2004), smartphones enable their users to: find instantaneous answers to their questions, have access to supported audio and video file formats which can be used in the classroom; enlarge their learning environment as they allow them to immediately connect with people from all over the world; make social learning easy; provide students with the possibility to work in groups on projects and therefore move together towards a common goal; record lessons in detail and support or supply them with references, pictures and videos to enhance retention; install amazing applications and hence make their lesson interactive, visual and fun; take down notes and even to record reminders; share annotations and reminders faster and easier as they can be used as paper and pencil. Besides those benefits; smartphones have unique features that might not be found in other

Today mobile phones provided with Internet capabilities are everywhere, a fact that has enhanced their usage. Huge amounts of knowledge can be browsed on the Internet, and smartphones are valuable means for acquiring that knowledge. Smartphone technology is improving day after day, and smartphones are becoming increasingly popular among all classes of society, and specifically among people involved in education. Accordingly, Kevin Kimberlin stated that “No other technology has impacted us like mobile phones; it is the fastest growing manmade phenomenon ever, from zero to 7.2 billion in three decades" K. Kimberlin, Chairman of Spencer Trask & Co, 2014, (cited in, Boren, 2014).

2.2. Advantages of Using Smartphones in the EFL Context

A smartphone is generally defined as a sophisticated cellular telephone with an integrated computer and other advanced and developed features that go beyond making simple phone calls, or sending and receiving messages not originally associated with ordinary mobile telephones. It is a small handheld device with an operating system that allows the user to browse the Internet, to download and run software applications as well. It also gives the capacity to display photos, play videos, check and send e mails (Merriam Webster Dictionary Last Edition, Furthermore,2019).the smartphone is in essence a mobile phone that can be used as a small sophisticated computer that gives the user the ability to connect to the internet and use social media, to get live news updates, to play music and video, and much more.

2. Literature Review

2.1.Definition of Smartphones

2.3. Disadvantages of Using Smartphones in the EFL Context

2.4. EFL Teacher’s and Learners’ Roles and Challenges in Implementing Smartphones in EFL Learning

It is widely accepted that the great development of smartphone functions and features nowadays have partially paved the way for English language educators achieve results that were impossible some years ago and have partially helped create greater opportunities for student engagement in learning. With the help of this educational tool, teachers and students can together make the learning experience more interesting and involving. Several researchers (Anshari, et al., 2017; Norris, et al., 2011; Twum, 2017) have investigated the effectiveness of

Smartphones can also have many disadvantages. To start with, Chartrand, (n.d.) claims that smartphones may be extremely distracting for students as they may not pay attention to what is being done in the classroom because smartphone users are generally tempted to interact on social networks, such as Facebook, checking their email boxes, or even playing games online. In this vein, Bllaca (2016) confesses that ‘the use of mobile learning can be of any kind, but when it comes to language learning, mobile learning technologies such as mobile phones or smart phone is being used for various purposes’ (p. 305).Moreover, smartphones may also be used for cheating in exams, like checking answers with classmates or using the Internet to find solutions to exercises. In addition, teacher and student’s privacy may be invaded at any time because anything that happens in the classroom can be video recorded and uploaded to any website where video sharing is permitted. It is widely admitted by a large number of practitioners of education (Sundari, 2015; Paulins, Balina & Arhipora, 2015) that smartphones, when used inappropriately, can cause a substantial disturbance to studying within the classroom. However, if the teachers use them suitably, smartphones may turn into powerful instruments and resources in the teaching/learning process.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. mobile devices in that they can supplement, but not replace, desktop and laptop computers, tablets, and other learning tools because they are within the reach of users any time they need them and can use them without any time limit. In the same line of thought, El Hariry (2015, p.299) acknowledges that ‘with the mobility, availability and flexibility of these devices, students can learn at any time and any place without the need for computer access and availability of learning material’. No one, however, can deny that smartphones have some disadvantages just like the advantages mentioned above.

Today, if used wisely, ‘mobile phones with internet connectivity can search thousands of web pages and provide details of a high degree of accuracy to the reader. They almost replace reference books and avoid the physical labor of visiting the university library’ (Nalliveettil & Alenazi 2016, p. 264). In view of that, students do not have to go to libraries and search for books in order to get the information they need in any case because with smartphones, the information students need can be gained with just some clicks on the screen of their smartphones.

It is worth noting that through the use of smartphones, enthusiastic and creative teachers can instigate a personalized learning environment, therefore encouraging the students to be more active, independent and more autonomous in their studies or research. In fact, these teachers consider that smartphones have significant impact on English language learning because they offer EFL learners the ability to learn anytime and anywhere (Zhang, Song & Burston, 2011). Teachers assert that mobile phones, particularly smartphones, help learners to learn independently, and enable them to use varied sources at their own pace. They also think that this device can be used for a variety of purposes such as storing useful information, looking words up in dictionaries, having access to websites on the Internet. Many of them believe that smartphones, if used properly, will certainly improve the students’ English language skills, because they are within the student’s reach at any time and can use them without any time limit. Learners can use them for checking pronunciation and using English words. In addition, materials related to grammar can easily be accessed. Smartphones help students to record and memorize lists of words; applications like WhatsApp helps students to form groups and contribute to improving their writing, reading, and speaking skills. Moreover, these smart devices provide easy, fast and efficient access to thousands of useful sources. Most of them agreed to conclude that using smartphones appropriately for language learning can contribute effectively to students’ English learning

Forprocesses.ensuring

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. using smartphones in the teaching/learning process and found out that the use of such instructional tools helped to increase the learners’ listening comprehension and their motivation in the EFL situation, and hence boosting their capacity to learn more and grasp knowledge easily. Similarly, Kukulska (2015) conducted a research work on the use of smartphone applications with English language learners and indicated that this instruction tool has the capacity to significantly improve the listening comprehension ability of learners and also enhance their motivation.

successful implementation of smartphone learning in the ELT situation a number of factors should be considered. First, smartphones are due to be used to support the pedagogical objectives of the classroom and curriculum In other words, these mobile phones must be subordinated to the learning objectives and that teachers should not use the smartphone simply for its own sake. Second, teachers should make smartphones accessible to all language learners. To say it differently, smartphones must be used to meet the learners’ educational needs and be applied in a variety of instructional activities. Third, their use should be limited to educational purposes. In fact, a great number of educational practitioners view smartphones as playing at least three roles in the classroom: private instructor, teacher, and tool. The smartphone as a private instructor presents exercises with some explanatory rules. Note that the smartphone cannot actually replace the teacher because it is not intelligent and is not capable of personalized or creative feedback. Therefore, the smartphone should be looked at as a tool that supports teaching and learning in a wide variety of manners. Last but not least, smartphones should be used efficiently

The present research was conducted with Master 1 teachers and students of the Department of English at the University of Tlemcen. The two samples were selected so as to detect how much convergent or divergent are the beliefs of Master 1 teachers and students towards the use of smartphones in studying English. For the purpose of carrying out the investigation, it was decided to select a sample of thirty (30) Master 1 students (see Table 1), regardless their specialty, and ten (10) Master 1 teachers (see Table 2).

Table 1: Students’ gender and age Gender Frequency Percent Male 9 30% Female 21 70%

3. Research Methodology

This section begins with a short description of the research method and subjects, within which the study was conducted, followed by the data collection procedure and analysis of data and lastly, discussion of main findings and didactic implications and concluding remarks are put forward.

Indeed, language learners may acquire knowledge better and faster if they use their smartphones in suitable ways. All things considered make of smartphones possible means for individuals to participate in developing, using or enjoying something jointly with others and even interact with a potentially global audience in a highly organized manner.

3.1. Method To collect the needed data and gather useful results, the researcher analyzed a number of surveys that appeared to be most research based in the literature (Kim, 2013; Yafei & Osman, 2016; Al Hunaiyyan, Alhajri & Al Sharhan, 2018; Al Aamri, 2011) in order to design a questionnaire and a semi structured interview that deal with questions related to the use of smartphones in EFL learning. Accordingly, the adopted method provides both quantitative and qualitative data. In view of that, this method guarantees that this research study will be more logical and reliable as the data will be supported by both quantitative and qualitative data analysis. In so doing, dada collected from the teachers’ interview together with those of students’ questionnaire are going to be analysed per dimension, namely ‘perceived usefulness’, ‘motivation’, ‘self management of learning’, and ‘intension to use using’ by means of the descriptive quantitative method.

3.2. Research subjects

Moreover, these mobile tools offer the possibility for autonomous language learning by using some online spaces, like YouTube for example, through which it is possible to share and discuss a whole range of facts (Benson & Chick, 2010).All in all, smartphones are recognized to offer the opportunity to greatly enhance the teaching and learning processes in ELT in general and in TEFL in particular.

252 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Total 30 100% Age Frequency Percentage 21 24 14 46.67% 25 28 8 26.67% Over 29 2 6.67% Total 30 100% Table 2: Teachers’ gender and qualifications Gender Frequency Percent Male 6 20% Female 4 46.67% Total 10 100% Qualifications Frequency Percentage Doctorat 7 70% Professorat 3 30% Total 10 100% 3.3. Research tools

The teachers’ interview. The interview is generally regarded as one of the main research instruments that may be quite helpful in assembling data instantly from the interviewee. The interview items and questions were the same of the students’ questionnaire with the exception of using the expression ‘students’ English learning’ wherever and whenever the words ‘I, my, or me’ are used in the students’ questionnaire (See Appendix 2). This was done for the purpose of checking divergence and convergence between teachers and students’ beliefs. In

The investigator applied a couple of research tools, namely a questionnaire intended for students and an interview for teachers, for the purpose of gathering both quantitative and qualitative data. The students’ questionnaire. It comprises two main parts. In the first part, there were 14 items scored on a four item Likert style scale consisting of “Strongly Disagree,” “Disagree,” “Agree,” and “Strongly Agree” (see Appendix 1). The choice not to include a “Neutral” or “No Opinion” option was on purpose, as it was deemed important to have a clearer measure of teachers’ and students’ perceptions on each item presented in the instrument. In this section, the research subjects point to the level of their agreement and disagreement with the statements regarding their attitudes towards using smartphones in improving their English learning as far as perceived usefulness, motivation, self management of learning, and intention to use are concerned. The second part of the questionnaire consists of three open ended questions, including what difficulties the research participants face when using smartphones in learning English, some suggestions to improve their implementation and other comments about the situation in question if any. It is worth mentioning at the end if this section that the validity of the questionnaire in terms of its relevance, clarity, and suitability was examined and checked by two experts in the EFL and instructional technology field before being administered to students. In view of the experts’ recommendations, the researcher made some revisions and modifications accordingly.

view of that, the structured interview type was used as the interview includes a standard and pre planned set of questions that the respondents were asked to answer in a systematic way. The researcher sees it important to use the interview with teachers instead of asking them to answer the questions in a questionnaire form for teachers’ unavailability and time constraints.

4. Results In this section, results of teachers’ interview together with those of students’ questionnaire are going to be analysed using the descriptive quantitative design for the analysis of the quantitative data obtained from each dimension in the first part of the teachers’ structured interview and students’ questionnaire. The dimensions are perceived usefulness, motivation, self management of learning, and intension to use. Each dimension result is presented in a table. A glance at the results obtained in the first dimension (Table 3) shows that students and teachers perceived the usefulness of smartphones in learning English. This is because, they believe that smartphones have the potentials to increase students’ exposure to English learning and improve their vocabulary knowledge. 3: Perceived usefulness results Teachers’ responses Students’ responses S D D A S A Items S D D A S A 70% 30% 1. EnglishimprovedsmarthroughLearningtphonemylearning 10% 6.66% 73.33% 10% 10% 60% 30% anywhere.anytimelearningpracticehelped2.SmartphonemetoEnglishand 3.33% 6.66% 90% 80% 10% 3. I use my English.somethingwhenmoresmartphonethanoncelearningin 3.33% 86.66 10% On the whole, the results gained from the items that tackled the motivation dimension (Table 4) towards smartphones indicate that both teachers and students think that smartphone have a good deal in raising students motivation to English learning. In fact, the research informants believe that smarphones have a propensity to increase students’ motivation when in learning English or doing classroom assignments better than the conventional way.

Table

254 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: Motivation results Teachers’ responses Students’ responses S D D A S A Items S D D A S A 10% 70% 20% 4. Smartphone use can motivate me to learn English. 10% 66.66% 23.33% 40% 30% 30% 5. Smartphone can reduce my anxiety in learning English. 20% 20% 46.66 13.33% 10% 60% 30% 6. I enjoy the exercises through my smartphone than the traditional way. 6.66% 10% 50% 33.33% By and large, the results presented in the third dimension (Table 5), namely self management of learning, indicate that students and teachers have positive perception on smartphones efficacy in providing feedback and engaging students to learn English even outside the classroom. This important finding is consistent with the findings of the previous studies (Klímová, 2018; Han & Gürlüyer, 2017). Yet, divergence between students’ and teachers was apparent when it comes to evaluating students and using smartphones without the help of their teachers. Similar findings are also found out by Elammari and Cavus (2019) when investigating the factors affecting the students’ smartphone purchasing behaviours when in mobile learning. Hence, success towards shifting to a more self management of learning should depend on teachers’ supervision and the learners’ willingness and intention to seek their self directed style of learning outside the classroom. Table 5: Self management of learning results Teachers’ responses Students’ responses S D D A S A Items S D D A S A 20% 60% 20% 7. Smartphone can provide immediate feedback while learning. 36.66% 13.33% 26.66% 23.33% 10% 10% 60% 20% 8. Smartphone can help me manage my English learning outside the classroom. 13.33% 30% 56.66 10% 20% 70% 9. Smartphone can help me evaluate my English language skills outside the classroom. 13.33 16.66 10% 60% 80% 20% 10. Smartphone can help me learn a variety of English vocabulary. 10% 26.66 63.33 60% 40% 11. I believe I can improve my English language skills alone through my smartphone without the teacher’s help. 43.33 26.66 20% 10%

As far as technical issues are concerned, the research informants stated that they met many problems when accessing the internet partly for the poor wireless network services and partly for the lack of internet coverage. In addition to that they complained about the loss of time when waiting for web pages to appear or a docx. downloading to finish, otherwise they use their own internet subscriptions to do so in order to gain some time.

As to the area of smartphone features related issues, both participants confessed complains about the screen size of their smartphone. They explained that the small size of the screen distract them while reading or looking for a specific information in texts and essays. Others added that even typing is difficult seeing that small size of their smartphone keyboard resulted in many typing mistakes in the queries they write or the answers they give, a fact that make them retype their queries and answers more than twice.

In respect of the distraction related issues, it was teachers who took the lion’s part in arguing this issue. Teachers explained that the use of smartphones in the classroom can impair the teaching/learning process during a lecture in that it reduces students’ attention and concentration on course material. Furthermore, they mentioned that they were generally frustrated when students use their smartphones in the classroom as texting, tweeting, and snap chatting in class is likely to happen and this can deeply distract students and therefore create a

255 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Generally, the results outlined in table 6 about the last dimension (intension to use) emphasize the students’ willingness to carry on their use of smartphones in their English learning further. The highest scores are on items 12 ( I would like to practice other English skills using my smartphone) and 13 (I encourage others to use Smartphone for English language learning). Table 6: Intension to use results Teachers’ responses Students’ responses S D D A S A Items S D D A S A 20% 50% 30% 12. I would like to practice other English skills using my smartphone. 3.33% 10% 70% 16.66 10% 20% 60% 10% 13. I learning.EnglishSmartphoneothersencouragetouseforlanguage 10% 66.66 23.33 20% 50% 30% 14. I am satisfied with using EnglishSmartphonetheforlearning . 10% 33.33 46.66 10% The thematic analysis method was used for the analysis of the open ended questions of the second part of both research tools. The qualitative analysis of those data resulted in three themes, the latter are: issues in smartphone features, technical issues, and distraction issues.

With reference to the teachers and students’ answers to the open ended questions in the second part of the teachers’ interview and students’ questionnaire mutual responses were noticed between both research subjects not only with smartphone features related issues and technical issues but also with the area of distraction related issues. In fact, both of them admitted the fact that smartphone can result in difficult teaching/learning environment in that smartphones prevent teachers and students perform well enough in the class due to lack of concentration and distraction caused by ring tones, stress, lack of internet connectivity.

5. Discussion

The above results are important to help check whether the two hypotheses proposed at the beginning of this research are valid or not. Regarding the first hypothesis which specifies that Master 1 students may hold positive attitudes towards the use of smartphones in EFL courses, the data collected from the students’ questionnaire prove the validity of this hypothesis. The main research findings indicate that students hold positive attitudes towards the usefulness of smartphones in enhancing English learning in that they have agreed with all the items involving the dimensions of ‘Perceived usefulness’; ‘Motivation’; and ‘Intention of use’. Similar results are found by Fernandez's (2018); Yafei and Osman (2016); Chen (2016); Chen, Hsu and Doong, (2016); Liu and He (2015); Rahimi and Soleymani (2015); Read and Kukulska Hulme (2015). The only items they disagreed with are two items in the dimension of ‘Self management of learning’ in which they consider smartphone use helpless in providing feedback and improving their English language skills without the teacher’s help.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. difficult teaching environment. Teachers also persisted that students might use them to access information while taking a test, therefore encouraging cheating. From their part, students mentioned that their use of smartphones in the classroom can be very upsetting especially when the phone rings in the class. For them, this would be very disturbing since it can cause interruptions in the teaching/learning process and sometimes a stop in the lecture. Some students mentioned even that smartphones are at times responsible for extra stress and frustration within the classroom especially when the task is unclear for them or when they experienced a lack of internet access.

A propos the second hypothesis, which suggests that teachers may possibly hold negative attitudes towards their Master 1 students’ use of smartphones in EFL learning, the data collected from the teachers’ interview, likewise, indicate that teachers are in favour of smartphone based learning, a fact that confirms the invalidity of the second research hypothesis. In reality, the interview main findings demonstrate that teachers repeatedly showed agreement with the items involving all the four dimensions in the first part of the interview while they indicated disagreement only with four items: two in the dimension of ‘Self management of learning’; they are the same items students disagreed with, one in the dimension of ‘Motivation’, it is n° 5 ‘Smartphone reduced students’ anxiety in learning English’ and another in the dimension of ‘Intension to use’; it is n° 14 ‘I am satisfied with using the Smartphone for English learning .

6. Pedagogical implications

Some recommendations on using smartphones in EFL classes deserve to be put forward:First,it is highly advocated to provide teachers and learners with special counseling on the way to use smartphones appropriately in the classroom for efficient learning. Indeed, it is worth noting that using smartphones in the classroom does not necessarily mean that teachers lose control of the class as long as they can control and monitor each and every student's usage and activities on their mobile devices

As regards the third hypothesis which reads “there might be divergence in teachers’ and students’ beliefs apropos the use of smartphones in learning English”, it is safe to say that the results of the above two hypothesis are enough to decide about the invalidity of the third hypothesis seeing that there exists a statistically significant convergence between teachers’ and students’ beliefs vis à vis the effectiveness of smartphones in learning English.

Third, with regard to the findings of the students’ questionnaire and teachers’ interview, it is suggested to better understand the mechanisms underlying the teaching-learning process using mobile wireless devices such as smartphones through a dynamic and interactive format.

7. Conclusion All of these facts considered, it must be concluded that smartphones can be beneficial and detrimental at the same time, depending on how to use them. The findings of the present study suggest that smartphones are perceived positive tools for learning English in the eyes of students and teachers alike; a fact that indicates that the presence of smartphones in educational institutions, particularly universities, should not be ignored. However, these findings do not dismiss the hypothesis that smartphones could have negative impacts on teaching/learning efficiency due to distraction. Yet, if used properly, teachers and students together can easily create a convenient teaching/learning environment seeing that smartphones are tremendously useful tools, with incredible potential for communication, information and research; quick access to educational applications; more exposure to learning English; and more interaction, participation and cooperation among teachers and learners. It is undeniable that no research involving human participants is ever without limitations. The limitations that characterize the current study are related to the random collection in Master 1 students in that the researcher did not decide on one specialty in Master 1 level, but in any student in Master 1 level for the particular circumstances caused by the breakout of Covid19 pandemic in the end of the first semester of the last academic year. Another limitation of the study is related to the data collection and analysis procedures and the relatively small number of participants which limited the transferability to other educational

Second, for smartphone use to be academically effective in EFL classrooms, it is strongly recommended for teachers to create a personalized learning environment, thus transforming the students into active and more autonomous researchers.

258 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. contexts. Future studies should focus on other research tools and methods as well as ways to facilitate learners’ intentional behaviour toward using smartphones so that they can develop the capacity to use them to increase their learning effectiveness with the help of their teachers. 8. References Al Aamri, K. S. (2011). The use of mobile phones in learning English language by Sultan Qaboos University students: Practices, attitudes and challenges. Canadian Journal on Scientific & Industrial Research, 2(3), 143 152. Al Hunaiyyan, A., Alhajri, R. A., & Al Sharhan, S. (2018). Perceptions and challenges of mobile learning in Kuwait. Journal of King Saud University Computer and Information Sciences, 30(2), 279 289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.12.001 Anshari, M., Almunawar, M. N., Shahrill, M., Wicaksono, D. K., & Huda, M. (2017). Smartphones usage in the classrooms: Learning aid or interference? Education and Information Technologies, 22 (6), 3063 3079. Retrieved from https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2 s2.0 85009914340&doi=10.1007%2fs10639 017 Benson,7&origin=inward&txGid=fd4b671bf51a507f669b42f30407c4199572P.,&Chik,A.(2010).Newliteraciesandautonomyinforeign language learning. In M. J. Luzon, M. N. Ruiz, & M. L. Villanueva (Eds.), Digital genres, new literacies and autonomy in language learning (pp. 63 80). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Bllaca, N. (2016). Smartphone use in English Language Learning. International Conference on Linguistics, Literature and Culture. Retrieved 9977https://www.researchgate.net/deref/https%3A%2F%2Fdocplayer.net%2F6359fromSmartphoneuseinenglishlanguagelearning.html

Advantages and Disadvantages

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Boren, Z. D. (2014). Active Mobile Phones Outnumber Humans for the First Time. from https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/there there Chartrand, R. (n.d.). of Using Mobile Devices in a University Language Retrieved from https://swsu.ru/sbornik statey/pdf/gaiken23_1 13.pdf Chen, X. (2016). Evaluating Language learning Mobile Apps for Second language Learners. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 9(2), 39 51. https://doi.org/10.18785/jetde.0902.03 Chen, Y. L., Hsu, C. C., & Doong, J. L. (2016, March). Self regulation Assessment of Mobile Game based Language Learning. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 882 886). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/171788/ El Hariry, N. A. (2015). Mobile phones as useful language learning tools. European Scientific Journal, 11(16), 298 317. Elammari, H. A. B., & Cavus, N. (2019). Investigating the factors affecting students’ smartphone purchasing behaviors in the context of mobile learning. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(22), 111 121. Fernandez,https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i22.11748S.(2018).

are more gadgets

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259 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. vocabulary. Erzincan University Journal of Education Faculty, 19(2), 19 36. https://doi.org/10.17556/erziefd.330085 Kim, H. S. (2013). Emerging mobile apps to improve English listening skills. Multimedia Assisted Language Learning, 16(2), 11 30. Klímováhttps://doi.org/10.15702/mall.2013.16.2.11,B.(2018).Mobilephonesand/orsmartphones and their apps for teaching English as a foreign language. Education and Information Technologies, 23(3), 1091 1099. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639 017 9655 5 Liu, Q., & He, X. (2015). Using mobile apps to facilitate English learning for college students in China (Bachelor’s thesis). University of Boras, School of business and IT, Sweden Merriam Webster. (n.d.). Smartphone. In Merriam Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved January 13, 2019, from https://www.merriam webster.com/dictionary/smartphone

Muir Herzig, R. G. C., Hossain, A., & Soloway, as Essential Tools for Learning A Call to Place Schools on the Right Side of the 21st Century. Educational Technology, 51(3), 18 25. Retrieved Rahimi,Paulins,_21st_centuryessential_tools_for_learning_A_call_to_place_schools_on_the_right_side_of_thehttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/304074656_Using_smartphones_as_fromN.,Balina,S.,&Arhipora,I.(2015).LearningContentDevelopmentMethodologyforMobileDevices.ProcediaComputerScience,43,147153.Retrievedfromhttps://cyberleninka.org/article/n/338577M.,&Soleymani,E.(2015).Theimpactofmobilelearningonlisteninganxietyandlisteningcomprehension.

English Language Teaching, 8(10), 152 161. Read, T., & Kukulska Hulme, A. (2015). The role of a mobile app for listening comprehension training in distance learning to sustain student motivation. J. UCS, 21(10),1327 1338. http://dx.doi.org/10.3217/jucs 021 10 1327 Sundari, T. T. (2015). Effects of mobile phone use on academic performance of college going young adults in India. International Journal of Applied Research, 1(9), 898 Timothy,905.R., & Kukulska Hulme, A. (2015). The Role of a Mobile App for Listening Comprehension Training in Distance Learning to Sustain Student Motivation. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 21(10), 1327 1338. Retrieved from _Student_MotivationApp_for_Listening_Comprehension_Training_in_Distance_Learning_to_Sustainhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/285356468_The_Role_of_a_Mobile_ Twum, R. (2017). Utilization of Smartphones in Science Teaching and Learning in Selected Universities in Ghan. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(7), 216 228. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1137622.pdf Yafei, O., & Osman, M. E. (2016). Mobile Phone Apps: An Emerging E Platform for Vocabulary Learning and Retention. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 3(7), 286 308. Zhang, H., Song, W., & Burston, J. (2011). Reexamining the effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phones. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(3), 203 214. Retrieved iveness_of_vocabulary_learning_via_mobile_phoneshttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/259442040_Reexamining_the_effectfrom

(2004). Technology and its impact in the classroom. Elsevier Pergamon Computers and Education, 42, 111 131. Norris,

E. (May June, 2011). Using Smartphones

260 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 1: Students’ outlooks towards using smartphones in learning English Part 1: Please read the items below and point to the level of your agreement and disagreement with each one. Items DisagreeStrongly Disagree Agree AgreeStrongly 1. Learning through smartphone can improve my English learning ability 2. Smartphone can help me to practice English learning anytime and 3.anywhere.Iusemy smartphone more than once when in need of learning something in 4.English.Smartphone use can motivate me to learn English. 5. Smartphone can reduce my anxiety in learning English. 6. I enjoye the exercises through my smartphone than the traditional way. 7. Smartphone can provide immediate feedback while learning. 8. Smartphone can help me manage my English learning outside the classroom. 9. Smartphone can help me evaluate my English language skills outside the 10.classroom.Smartphone can help me learn a variety of English vocabulary. 11. I believe I can improve my English language skills alone through my smartphone without the teacher’s help. 12. I would like to practice other English skills using my smartphone. 13. I encourage others to use Smartphone for English language 14.learning.Iam satisfied with using the Smartphone for English learning .

261 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Part 2: Please read the questions below and provide a full answer to each. 1. What difficulties did you face when using smartphones for learning English? 2. What do you suggest to improve the use of smartphones in learning English? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Any further comments? Please add them here Thank you for your time and collaboration

262 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 2: Teachers’ outlooks towards Using Smartphones in learning English Part 1: Please listen to each item and give the level of your agreement and disagreement with each one. Items DisagreeStrongly Disagree Agree AgreeStrongly 1. Learning through smartphones can improve students’ English learning 2.abilitySmartphones can help students practice English learning anytime and 3.anywhere.Students use smartphone more than once when in need of learning something in English. 4. Smartphone use can motivate students to learn English. 5. Smartphones can reduce students’ anxiety in learning English. 6. Students enjoy the exercises through their smartphones than the traditional 7.way.Smartphones can provide students immediate feedback while learning. 8. Smartphones can help students manage their English learning outside the classroom. 9. Smartphones can help students evaluate their English language skills outside the classroom. 10. Smartphones can help students learn a variety of English vocabulary. 11. I believe students can improve their English language skills alone through their smartphones without your help. 12. Students would like to practice other English skills using their 13.smartphones.Iencourage students to use Smartphone for English language learning. 14. I am satisfied with students’ use of smartphones for English learning .

263 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Part 2: Answering open ended questions: 1. What difficulties did you face when using smartphones for learning English? 2. What do you suggest to improve the use of smartphones in learning English? 3. Any further comments?

* Sumayah Goolam Nabee: snabee@uj.ac.za

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9095 7978 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3678 2986 https://orcid.org/0000 0001

Sumayah Goolam Nabee* , Joash Mageto and Noleen Pisa University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa 8987 2590

264 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 264 280, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.14

Investigating Predictors of Academic Plagiarism among University Students

Abstract. Academic plagiarism is increasingly becoming a challenge to academic integrity worldwide, owing to the ease of access to free information online. The aim of this paper was twofold; first, to ascertain the perceptions of transport and logistics management university students regarding academic plagiarism, and second, to determine the predictors of university students’ plagiarism practices. A self designed structured questionnaire was developed to collect information from the students of their understanding of plagiarism (UP), the plagiarism practices (PP), the understanding of the university plagiarism policy (UPP), the understanding of the departmental plagiarism policy (DPP), the awareness of the university and departmental training workshops (TOP), and the adequacy of the university and departmental training workshops (AOT). Independent t tests were computed for the differences in plagiarism, based on home language and gender Also, a one way ANOVA was computed to test if the year of study, the degree enrolled for, and race, had an impact on plagiarism practices. Lastly, a regression model was computed to determine the impact of the plagiarism predictors on the plagiarism practices. The results of this study revealed high levels of the understanding of plagiarism, and an awareness of the university and departmental plagiarism policies. However, an analysis of the plagiarism practices revealed moderate levels of plagiarism, indicating a likelihood of intentional plagiarism among students. Two significant predictors of plagiarism practices among university students were identified as; the understanding of plagiarism and the understanding of the university wide plagiarism policy. University instructors and education managers are informed through the findings of this study that clear plagiarism policies are important in reducing academic dishonesty among students. It is important to continuously train students on what plagiarism entails and how to avoid academic dishonesty.

Keywords: Plagiarism understanding; plagiarism education; academic integrity; higher education

Plagiarism is an academic misconduct, which includes unethical conduct in academic projects and intellectual dishonesty (Singh, 2017). Academic plagiarism affects both students and academic practitioners across the globe (Mohamed, Samat, Aziz, Noor, & Ismail, 2018). The internet with readily available data, is a significant source of information that students plagiarize with ease, and sometimes accidentally (Singh, 2017). Universities and other institutions are currently relying on software, such as Turnitin and iThenticate, to detect any similarity between the existing published texts available on the internet, and students’ essays, dissertations or theses. These applications help to ensure the originality of the submitted work. However, Singh and Remenyi (2016) argued that the software programs are not likely to solve the problem, as they only detect the degree of similarity with the freely accessible internet sources; yet in some cases, students can circumvent these databases. Given the availability of online ghost assignment writers, as well as readily available resources on the internet, universities and other training institutions face a significant problem because students sometimes plagiarize consciously and skilfully The remainder of this paper covers the literature review on academic plagiarism, the methodology, results, discussion and conclusion.

2. Literature Review

In 2015, 50 000 students enrolled at British Universities, were found to have plagiarized (Mostrous & Kenber, 2016). Similar observations were made by Chien

1. Introduction

Academic plagiarism is increasingly becoming a challenge to academic integrity for the managers of academic programs, instructors, as well as for students. Bell (2018)argued that academic plagiarism isa“crime”committedbyusingtheworks of others and presenting it as one ’ s own work, without proper acknowledgement. The academic plagiarism offense can affect students, faculties, institutional reputation or any other individual, who presents the plagiarized work as original (Bartley, Albert, & Liesegang, 2014; Bell, 2018). Academic plagiarism could be viewed as being deliberate, and undermining the intellectual honesty of the offenders (Babalola, 2012). Although plagiarism could be deliberate, it could also be committed unintentionally by students, who do not know how to reference correctly (Das, 2018). Intentional plagiarism is committed when students buy papers online or hire someone to write term papers, and present them for assessment as their own (Babalola, 2012) Plagiarism incidents among students are on the rise globally (Hopp & Speil, 2020) . Babalola (2012) posited that this is exacerbated by easy access to free online information. Babalola (2012) further pointed out that students might desire to have good grades without investing in sufficient study time, resulting in the pursuit of quick fixes, which increase the chances of submitting plagiarized work. McCabe (2005) reveals the findings of a survey of 83 universities across the US and Canada where 68% of students admitted to collaboration on individual assignments.. Other findings of significance include failure to cite when paraphrasing or copying directly from written sources (63%), failure to cite when paraphrasing or copying from internet sources(60%), and receiving assistance from unauthorized individuals (37%).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (2017) in Taiwan, Do Ba et al. (2017) in Vietnam, Baruchson Arbib and Yaari (2004) in Israel, and Arce Espinoza and Monge Nájera (2015) in Costa Rica. The nature of plagiarism is wide reaching but often underreported from many regions of the world (de Jager & Brown, 2010) Devlin and Gray (2007) indicate that the mass sharing opportunities the internet presents are a stimulus for a student to consciously plagiarize, either due to laziness or convenience. Students who confessed to plagiarism, cited limited time and the need to meet deadlines (67%), the burdens of course work (62%), the complicated nature of some assignments and tasks (56%), and the want for top grades (56%) as factors that influence plagiarism (Eret & Ok, 2014) Plagiarism does not only take place intentionally. Unfamiliarity with plagiarism rules and regulations, the lack of training, and the absence of plagiarism understanding justify some academic dishonesty and is termed unintentional plagiarism (Elander, Pittam, Lusher, Fox, & Payne, 2010; Gullifer & Tyson, 2010; Lankamp, 2009) Nevertheless, when the risk is perceived to be low, students often think that intentional plagiarism and getting caught are negligible (Cleary, 2012; Elander et al., 2010; Strittmatter & Bratton, 2016).

Following the 2015 survey of British universities, Ali (2016) found that 35% of these cases involved students originating outside the European Union. To categorize non English speakers as being prone to plagiarism is weak even if cultural perspectives, such as the approaches to language and learning, are predispositions to students from Western institutions to plagiarize (Ehrich, Howard, Mu, & Bokosmaty, 2016) Egan (2008) considered the establishment of English adeptness and elementary writing skills in academia are key to non English speaking students’ understanding of plagiarism. However, Lund (2004) argued the need for universities to recognize the role of cultural subtleties for non native English speakers and encompass these dynamics into plagiarism policies. As higher education moves online and e learning becomes more commonplace, there is a misconception that distance education lends itself to plagiarism. Irrespective of online or traditional learning environments, (Ison, 2014) found that because students use the same research sources, there is no significant difference in the propensity to plagiarize. The inclination to plagiarize may also be determined by the type of assignment (Youmans, 2011) concluded that when guidelines stipulate the number of citations as optional, less plagiarism transpires. It is therefore difficult to isolate definitive determinants of plagiarism in higher Existingeducation.academic literature identified a lack of proper training of undergraduate students on academic integrity as one of the causes of plagiarism (Bell, 2018). Students are given a list of ‘dos and don’ts’ regarding a high level of academic writing, without any embedded training on its integrity. Existing literature

The high occurrence of plagiarism can additionally be linked to the fear of failure (Devlin & Gray, 2007; Goh, 2015; Kent State University, 2014) and the pressure to perform academically well (Bayaa, Ablordeppey, Mensah, & Karikari, 2016; Dahiya, 2015; Goh, 2015; Hosny & Fatima, 2014). These reasons extend to financial concerns (Devlin & Gray, 2007) and personal or family problems (Goh, 2015)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. suggests that students are not provided with adequate information on intellectual property rights nor the likely consequences of their violation for themselves or for the university (Bell, 2018). Institutions of higher learning have plagiarism policies but have not promoted them to students to discourage academic dishonesty, but they rather encourage the development of academic writing skills (Babalola, 2012). Sometimes students lack self confidence in conducting research and resort to academic dishonesty when desperate Bell (2018) found that, although the internet has a plethora of information, which students are likely to use, institutions have made little or no effort in training them on how to use internet sources while maintaining academic integrity.

1. What are the perceptions of academic plagiarism among Transport, Logistics and Supply Chain Management university students?

2. What are the predictors of plagiarism practices among Transport, Logistics and Supply Chain Management university students?

Based on the identified causes, it is observed that incidents of plagiarism are on the rise, which is of great concern to institutions of higher learning. To counter the increase in plagiarism, Bell (2018) recommended that universities should do more than just promote citation mechanics by incorporating academic integrity in the pedagogical approaches. In addition, plagiarism incidents among students can be minimized by conducting tutorials all year round that help students sharpen their information literacy skills, rather than holding once off workshops (Babalola, 2012; Bell, 2018) Mohamed et al. (2018) asserted that plagiarism could be minimized when institutions develop transparent and consistent frameworks for preventing, detecting and penalizing offenders. On a global scale, plagiarism incidents can damage the reputation of a university, where its graduates become undesirable in the industry, thus, “it kills creativity, innovation and diligence” (Babalola, 2012). Across the globe, management related studies are popular among many university students. Vast amounts of management related content are available on the internet. The implication is that management students can easily access this information from the internet, making plagiarism a significant threat to the intellectual integrity of this group. Although the concept of plagiarism has been examined in prior studies, discipline specific enquiries; including veterinary studies in India (Singh, 2017), medical studies in Saudi Arabia (Alhadlaq, Dahmash, & Alshomer, 2020); medical students in Pakistan (Javaeed, Khan, Khan, & Ghauri, 2019); tourism and hospitality (Goh, 2015); nursing (Goodwin & McCarthy, 2020); pharmacy (Mohamed et al., 2018) and business science (Quispe, Núñez, Arias, Chávez, & Cara, 2019) have been carried out in different contexts. However, there are limited studies on the perceptions of student plagiarism among the management sub discipline of Transport, Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the predictors of plagiarism practices among such students, by them answering the following specific questions.

3. Research Methodology

A quantitative research approach was used in this study. The quantitative approach allowed for the collection of standardized data that helped determine relationships between the academic plagiarism variables. A descriptive survey design was most appropriate for this study, to completely describe and explain the plagiarism phenomenon. The descriptive survey ensured that data was collected from the lecture rooms in their natural form without any modifications.

The unit of analysis for this study was the students enrolled for transport, logistics or supply chain management related modules at the time of collecting the data The target population was approximately 2000 students. The suitable sample size at a 95% confidence interval was 322 students, in line with the guidelines provided by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2019). The sample size was considered sufficient to allow for the generation of the required statistical analysis to answer the research questions.

Primary data was collected from target respondents, who included 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year students at a South African university. A self designed structured questionnaire was developed to collect information from the students on the following aspects: 1) their understanding of plagiarism (UP); 2) plagiarism practices (PP); 3) understanding of the university plagiarism policy (UPP); 4) understanding of the departmental plagiarism policy (DPP); 5) the awareness of university and departmental training workshops (TOP); and 6) the adequacy of university and departmental training workshops (AOT). The opinions and perceptions of students regarding plagiarism of the listed areas mentioned above, were collected using a 5 point Likert type scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The questionnaire was piloted among a group of students in the transport, logistics and supply chain management domain; to improve clarity, certain items were revised. The questionnaire was distributed to the students during the last 20 minutes of the lectures, these were completed independently and collected at the end of the lecture.

Independent t tests were computed to determine the differences in plagiarism based on home language and gender A one way ANOVA was computed to test how the plagiarism practices were influenced by the year of study, the degree enrolled for and race. A relationship between the variables UP, UPP, DPP, TOP, AOT and PP was tested. Further, a regression model between the variables and plagiarism practices (PP) as an independent variable. The analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25. Scale reliability was tested for the latent variables to reveal internal consistency.

The Cronbach’s alpha for all the construct variables is illustrated in Table 1; all reveal acceptable levels of internal consistency. The reliability results imply that the items under each of the latent variables were measuring the same aspect as expected.

6) adequacy of university’s and department’s training workshops. (AOT) 0.752

Source: Research data

2) plagiarism practices (PP), 0.701

Of the 289 students, who completed the questionnaire, 45.7% were males, while 54.3% were females. The result of gender is an indication of more female than male students in the South African universities supporting the country’s population gender split (Evans, 2018) The respondents consisted of blacks and whites at 74 and 14 percent. Indians and coloreds were 7.6 and 3.1 percent. While, Asians made only 0.3% percent of the sample. The result of the degree enrolled for indicates that the vast majority (76.8%) were logistics management students, while 12.8%, 6.9%, 1.4%, 1.0% and 0.3% were enrolled for transport management, marketing, information, retail, and hospitality management degrees and the rest (2.4%) were in the other category. The results indicate that the transport, logistics and supply chain modules are attractive to students enrolled for other management related degrees. The sample comprised of 20.8%, in first year, 38.1% in second year, 30.1% in year three and 11% were enrolled in the honors programme. The majority of the respondents were second and third year students, who had already received adequate training on plagiarism, implying that the results obtained were valid.

4. Results The mean statistics for each of the variables was calculated. These indicated that the students perceived university and departmental training workshops to be adequate (M=3.708; SD=1.186); understood the university’s plagiarism policy (M=3.135; SD=1.112), as well as plagiarism (M=3.106; SD=1.268). In contrast, the mean scores revealed that the students’ understanding of the departmental plagiarism policy (M=2.813; SD=1.235), plagiarism practices (M=2.336; SD=1.205) and awareness of university and departmental training workshops (M=2.115; SD=0.769) was relatively low, as presented in Table 2 This could imply that as much as the training takes place, its effectiveness is questionable. Table 2 illustrates the mean statistics of all the items included in the survey instrument.

Basedonthemean scoresofthestudents’ opinions, it is evident that students were aware that ‘a passage copied directly from a source without proper citation’ is plagiarism. The students were also aware of the university’s plagiarism policy; they also consider the Turnitin application makes them more aware of plagiarism, as illustrated in Table 3. The least important item according to the mean ratings (M=1.87; SD=0.788 and M=1.56; SD=1.033) revealed that the students had not attended the department’s workshops on plagiarism and were likely to continue plagiarizing.

Variable Cronbach’s alpha

1) understanding of plagiarism (UP), 0.597

Table 1: Reliability analysis

4) understanding of the department’s plagiarism policy (DPP), 0.725

5) awareness of university’s and department’s training workshops (TOP), 0.681

3) understanding of university’s plagiarism policy (UPP), 0.608

Source: research data

DPP6 Other departments are not as concerned with plagiarism as this department. 2.51 1.236

DPP5 Compared to other departments, this department is not concerned with the use of Turnitin. 2.68 1.282

TOP1 I have not received any training on good academic writing practices. 2.05 0.710

DPP2 I feel that the penalties for student plagiarism according to the department’s policy are fair. 3.60 1.111

PP3 Students rarely plagiarise. 2.40 1.046

UJPP5 The penalties for student plagiarism are punitive. 3.13 1.027

DPP1 I am aware of the department’s policy on penalties for student plagiarism. 3.52 1.382

DPP4 The department is not concerned with plagiarism. 2.19 1.262

UP6 I am more aware of plagiarism because of Turnitin. 4.05 1.205

Table 2: Students’ perception of plagiarism Items MeanStd. Deviation

PP1 I have previously knowingly plagiarised on an assignment. 2.27 1.395

UJPP6 The penalties for student plagiarism are remedial. 3.19 0.986

PP8 Acting with academic integrity is difficult. 2.50 1.256

PP4 Plagiarism at the university is widespread. 3.09 1.148

AOT4 Attending the department’s academic writing and plagiarism workshops has improved my academic integrity. 3.36 1.140

UJPP2 I feel that the penalties for student plagiarism according to the university’s policy are fair. 3.85 1.127

UP5 Turnitin is a fair tool to assess plagiarism. 3.74 1.355

PP6 Plagiarism is an accepted practice because of the competitive nature of academics. 2.09 1.291

TOP2 I am aware of the various workshops offered by the university’s writing centre. 2.47 0.754

UJPP3 I do not understand the university’s plagiarism policy. 2.01 1.178

AOT1 Academic writing should be offered as a first year semester course as part of my curriculum. 3.96 1.342

UP4 I do not know how to reference a source. 2.22 1.253

TOP4 I have attended workshops offered by the university’s writing centre on academic writing. 1.91 0.788

UP1 An assignment submitted with passages copied directly from a book or article without citation is considered plagiarism. 4.41 1.187

PP5 Using a paraphrasing tool enables me to get away with plagiarism. 2.65 1.221

AOT3 Attending the university’s academic writing and plagiarism workshops has improved my academic integrity. 3.47 1.112

UJPP4 I do not understand the penalties for student plagiarism according to the university policy. 2.24 1.286

UP2 Information on the internet is freely available and therefore it is acceptable to copy and paste passages without citation. 1.88 1.305

DPP3 I do not understand the penalties for student plagiarism according to the department policy. 2.38 1.137

UP3 Copying text directly from sources (books, articles, internet etc.) is a means for me to survive the academic world. 2.09 1.252

PP9 If I have knowledge that a fellow student has plagiarised, I will report it to my lecturer. 2.39 1.242

UJPP1 I am aware of the university’s plagiarism policy. 4.39 1.065

AOT2 A revision assignment will enable me to improve my academic writing. 4.04 1.149

UP7 Paraphrasing is not plagiarism. 3.35 1.319

TOP3 I am aware that the department offers good academic writing practices and plagiarism workshops. 2.29 0.803

PP7 It is very easy to plagiarise without my lecturer knowing. 2.07 1.210

TOP5 I have attended workshops offered by the department on academic writing and plagiarism. 1.87 0.788

PP2 I will continue to plagiarise as long as I do not get caught. 1.56 1.033

271 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. In this study, it was necessary to test whether or not there were any significant differences in plagiarism practices based on home language and gender. The results showed that there was a statistically significant t (287) = 2.356, (p=0.019) difference in plagiarism practices between those whose native language is English or other languages (see Table 3). This could imply that, since the language of instruction in the university is English, non English speakers (English not being their home language) had difficulties writing assignments in English. There were no statistical differences in plagiarism practices between the males and females, implying that gender is not a factor in academic plagiarism. Table 3: English language versus plagiarism practices EqualityLevene'sTestforofVariances t test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df tailed)Sig.(2 DifferenceMean Std. DifferenceError LowerIntervalConfidence95%oftheDifferenceUpper PP assumedvariancesEqual .003 .958 2.356 287 .019 .22984 .09754 .03785 .42183 Source: Research data A one way ANOVA was conducted to test the likely influence of the year of study, degree enrolled for, and race, on plagiarism practices as measured by UP, PP, UPP, DPP, TOP and AOT (Table 4) Table 4: One-Way ANOVA summary variableGrouping variableDependent I (Groups) J (Groups) (IdifferenceMean-J) (pSignificancevalue) Year of study PP Second year Third year 0.358 0.018 TOP Second year First year 0.324 0.003 UP Second year Third year 0.453 0.005 enrolledDegree UP managementMarketing managementRetail 1.800 0.011 UPP managementMarketing Other 1.323 0.008 Race PP Black White 0.483 0.002 TOP Black White 0.244 0.040 Black Indian/Asian 0.318 0.043 UP Black White 0.408 0.039 AOT Black White 0.712 0.000 Source: Research data Using the year of study (first, second, third, fourth year, B.Tech and fourth year honors) as the grouping variable, the data revealed significant differences in opinions between PP (F4, 284 = 4.505, p<0.05) and TOP (F4, 284 = 4.343, p<0.05) and UP (F4, 284 = 3.797, p<0.05). Examining the multiple comparisons, the output revealed that for PP there were significant differences between second and third year undergraduate students. Second year students held opinions that were

Six factors were extracted using the principal component analysis method. The extracted factors explained a total of 60.26% of the total variance. The structure of the extracted factors was observed after a varimax rotation (as illustrated in Table 5).

The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant at 95% (p<0.05) confidence level, indicating factorability of the correlation matrix (Pallant, 2013).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. significantly different from those of first year undergraduates on the TOP variable. Student opinions were also grouped as per the degree enrolled (that is, logistics management, transportation management, marketing management, retail management and others) and the differences tested using a one way ANOVA. The results revealed that there were significant differences in UP (F4, 284 = 4.773, p<0.05) and UPP (and F4, 284 = 2.957, p<0.05). Further examination of the multiple comparison results indicated that the mean score of students enrolled for marketing management was significantly different from that of retail management and the other degrees. Based on race as a grouping variable, significant differences were revealed in PP (F3, 285 = 5.665, p<0.05), TOP (F3, 285 = 5.282, p<0.05) and AOT (F3, 285 = 5.426, p<0.05). Specifically, there were significant differences of the mean scores of black and white students on PP, TOP and AOT, as well as black and Indians/Asians on TOP as illustrated in Table 4. In addition, the degree enrolled for as a grouping variable, resulted in the highest mean difference as illustrated in Table 4 Factor analysis An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on all the factors to establish the underlying patterns among the scale factors. The Kaiser Meyer Olkin measure of sampling adequacy equaled 0.701, which is above the minimum acceptable value of 0.6, implying that the sample was adequate for factor analysis (Pallant, 2013)

.020

.022 .809 .006 .146 .023 .186

.190 .699 .051 .184 .118 .149

273 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 5: Rotated Component Matrix 1Component2 3 4 5 6 PP2 .726 .039 .194 .072 .125 .141 PP7 .686 .112 .063 .117 .107 .060 PP1 .663 .104 .146 .077 .106 .055 PP8 .578 .083 .156 .327 .152 .147 PP5 .570 .013 .055 .244 .154 .081

.093 .718 .058 .018 .075 .128

.131 .180 .025 .003 .844 .041

.079 .035 .130 .190 .040 .850

.086 .584 .022 .040 .315 .217

TOP4

.086 .009 .854 .128 .002 .101

.146 .054 .238

TOP5

.111 .029 .148 .788 .018 .023

TOP3

.207 .015 .560 .265 .072 .128

.315 .001 .032 .649 .101 .129

.055 .013 .858 .011 .040 .145

TOP2 DPP5 DPP6 DPP4 UP2 UP3 UP4 AOT2 AOT1 UPP3 UPP4 .094 .817

.032 .001 .125 .549 .119 .124

Source: Research data Five factors loaded strongly to component 1, four to component 2, three factors each to component 3 and 4, while components 5 and 6 had only two factors each. Pallant (2020) recommends that retained components should have at least three indicators; however, those with less than three can be retained if eliminating them will negatively affect the content validity of the model. As such, the two factor components were retained owing to their theoretical value to avoid having a content deprived model. The extracted factors formed scales for PP, TOP, DPP, UP, AOT and UPP as illustrated in Table 6. The scale factors were used to conduct a multiple regression analysis. Regression analysis model

The PP scale was selected as the dependent variable, while UP, UPP, DPP, TOP, and AOT, were the independent variable scales. Before regression model is developed, the data should meet the regression assumptions. Therefore, the assumptions were test for normality. All the assumptions were satisfied and the

.058 .009 .009 .086 .835 .004

274 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. data was ready for regression modelling. The correlations between the variables were conducted and the results are illustrated in Table 6 Table 6: Pearson correlations Variables PP TOP DPP UP AOT UPP PP 1.000 TOP .091 1.000 DPP .258* .001 1.000 UP .388* .010 .312* 1.000 AOT .100 .214* .004 .062 1.000 UPP .263* .027 .360* .301* .024 1.000 Note: * Statistically significant at 95% confidence level

Source: Research data The strongest significant positive correlation is between UP and PP, implying that plagiarism practices are impacted by the level of understanding the students have regarding plagiarism and its impact. However, there was no significant correlation between PP and TOP and AOT; thus these two variables were removed from the regression model. Given that there were no independent variables with high correlations above 0.700, multi collinearity was ruled out, and the data was fit for regression analysis. Regression analysis was conducted with PP as the dependent variable and UP, DPP and UPP as the independent variables. Regression analysis helped develop the predictiveness of UP, DPP and UPP on PP. The resulting model’s R squared of 0.184, reveals a weak predictive capability, as illustrated in Table 7. The results imply that the model can explain 18.40% of the change in plagiarism practices. Although, the model had a weak predictive capability, it reached statistical significance (p<0.05) as shown in Table 8

275 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 7: Model Summary ModelR SquareRAdjustedRSquareStd.Error of Estimatethe Change Statistics WatsonDurbinChangeSquareR ChangeFdf1 df2 Sig. ChangeF 1 .430a .184 .176 .74761 .184 21.491 3 285 .000 1.796 a. Predictors: (Constant), UPP, UP, DPP; b. Dependent Variable: PP Table 8: ANOVA Model Sum of Squaresdf Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 36.034 3 12.011 21.491 .000b Residual 159.290 285 .559 Total 195.325 288 Note: Dependent Variable: PP, Predictors: (Constant), UPP, UP, DPP The beta values reveal that UP (0.314) had the strongest unique contribution in explaining plagiarism practices in the model. UPP (0.127) makes a less unique contribution, while DPP (0.114) makes the least unique contribution. Statistical significance was observed to identify the variables that make a statistically significant unique contribution. As illustrated in Table 9, only UP (p<0.05) and UPP (p<0.05) made a statistically significant contribution in explaining the plagiarism practices. As such, plagiarism practices are dependent on UP and UPP. The model can be estimated as �� = ��0 +��1��1 +��2��2 (1) Where, PP = plagiarism practices, ��0,��1 and��2 are constants, and ��1and ��2 = UP and UPP respectively. Substituting the values from the model, we get. �� = 1.202+0.314��1 +0.127��2……………………………………………………...(2) Table 9: Coefficients Model CoefficientsUnstandardizedStandardizedCoefficientst Sig.Correlations StatisticsCollinearity B ErrorStd. Beta orderZero- PartialPart ToleranceVIF 1 (Constant)1.202 .139 8.629.000 DPP .093 .048 .114 1.936.054.258 .114 .104 .825 1.213 UP .282 .052 .314 5.446.000.388 .307 .291 .862 1.160 UPP .094 .044 .127 2.166.031.263 .127 .116 .831 1.204 Dependent variable: PP

5. Discussion of Results

The aim of the study reported in this paper was twofold; first to ascertain university students’ perceptions regarding academic plagiarism and second, to determine the predictors of plagiarism practices among university students. There is a difference in perceptions based on the year of study, black and white students, as well as the degree for which the students were enrolled. The differences between the year of study might be as the result of the number of workshops or training sessions that a student has attended and how they have perceived their effectiveness; however, this was not within the scope of this study. The black students are mostly non native English speakers and may have challenges with the language and that would influence their perceptions of plagiarism The differences across the degrees in which the sampled respondents were enrolled might be explained by the variations on how departments implement the policies on academic plagiarism. The study established that the sampled students understood that plagiarism involves direct copying from printed or online work without proper attribution to the source. This might imply that some students, who engage in plagiarism, do it intentionally (Strittmatter & Bratton, 2016) However, there could be cases where students plagiarize because they have language problems or they lack proper academic writing skills. Some of the challenges associated with plagiarism can be mitigated with adequate training of academic writing, as well as the use of the writing centres’ services offered by the university. The views on the effectiveness of the training of writing skills has also been fronted previously by Bell (2018) and Babalola (2012), who found that the training of high level writing skills reduces plagiarism. Therefore, it is confirmed that students understand to some extent what plagiarism entails, are cognisant of university wide workshops on plagiarism, as well as the policies, as established by Singh (2017) On the same note, in cases where the students do not understand plagiarism, Babalola (2012) recommended more effective and focused training as opposed to general plagiarism awareness workshops. Bell (2018) argued that students in universities could better understand academic integrity by the strengthening of library learning commons.

The model indicates that an increase of 0.314 and 0.127 in UP and UPP respectively, results in a unit improvement in student plagiarism practices. The results might imply that the departmental plagiarism policy is ineffective in influencing students’ perceptions of plagiarism. It would also mean that the departmental policy has not been communicated effectively to the students.

The findings of the study also showed that students were aware of the university plagiarism policy and acknowledged that the use of the similarity testing software helped them improve their academic writing. Awareness of departmental policies and training on plagiarism is recognized, although their effectiveness is not known Academic departments can enhance students’ writing skills when they are proactive by incorporating the awareness of plagiarism in each module, in addition to the university wide efforts. Information gleaned from the data alludes that university wide, as well as departmental based plagiarism policies positively enhance the understanding of plagiarism and deter students from engaging in

Prior studies identified other factors that fuel plagiarism; these include gender, academic pressure, lack of comprehension of content knowledge, lack of support from instructors and a lack of analytical skills (Jereb et al., 2018). Therefore, educators in higher education should provide an environment that empowers students to understand what plagiarism entails and how to avoid it, as well as policies to guide them.

6. Conclusion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. such activities. Therefore, the presence of policies and guidelines, as well as regular workshops, can help promote awareness and understanding of plagiarism; this is a great step towards minimizing it. Plagiarism practices in higher education is a concern to educators. As such, the goal has been to establish the factors fuelling the practices to curb it. In contributing to the discourse, two predictors of plagiarism practices among university students were identified as the understanding of plagiarism and the understanding of the university wide plagiarism policy. Understanding plagiarism involves appreciating what plagiarism entails, being conscious that copying without proper attribution to the source is not acceptable, knowing how to reference correctly, and appreciating the use of software to detect plagiarism. Students are also expected to be aware of university wide policies and penalties relating to academic plagiarism. We argue that when students have the knowledge of plagiarism, the policies and penalties to be faced if guilty, are likely to impact positively on the plagiarism practices. This implies that the university students would be forced to be more conscious of their writing skills and likely to minimise academic dishonesty The required level of understanding can only be achieved through university wide training workshops on plagiarism, including the promotion of library learning commons (Bell (2018). Singh (2017) claimed that the high prevalence of plagiarism can be reduced by teaching students how to reference correctly and improve their analytical skills to be better academic writers. Mohamed et al. (2018) argued that plagiarism can be fought successfully by universities if only they formulate the right policies and laws governing the processes and promote these to students and staff. The guiding principles, as stated by Mohamed et al. (2018), are likely to create a positive behavior change where students would want to avoid plagiarism by learning the best practices.

The major finding of this study was the identification of the predictors of plagiarism practices. The predictors are identified as how well students understand what plagiarism is, as well as the university wide policies and penalties on plagiarism. Policies are cross cutting and when well developed and implemented are likely to instil academic discipline, as well as discourage plagiarism. Based on the findings, one can assume that when students understand plagiarism they are likely not to engage in it, and that policies act as a guide on how to avoid it. Minor findings allude that the sampled students have an understanding of what plagiarism is, are aware of university wide policies on plagiarism as well as the workshops on avoiding plagiarism The understanding is expected to go beyond merely copying without correct attribution, to include aspects related to copying of ideas and presenting works that lack originality. The understanding would also be as result of the efforts of the department through workshops and relevant policies to guide students Therefore, academic

278 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. departments are called to do more to create awareness of plagiarism policies and conduct workshops for students and staff as a way of developing non plagiarism behavior In addition, non plagiarism behavior could be developed effectively by including plagiarism in teachings in every module to guide and create awareness.

Versus Internet Plagiarism: A Study of Students' Perception International Journal of Information Ethics, 1(6). Bayaa, M S S., Ablordeppey, E., Mensah, N., & Karikari, T. (2016). Academic dishonesty in higher education: Students' perceptions and involvement in an African institution. BMC Research Notes, 9, 1 13. doi:10.1186/s13104 016 2044 0

The findings have implications for university managers. To achieve the level of proficiency where university students do not engage in plagiarism, requires effort from instructors but more from managers or administrators. For instance, universities especially in non native English regions, may have to invest in writing centres, where students can get quick guidance on their writing. The institutions must also invest in the best plagiarism detection tools, given the increased use of the internet by students. In addition, university management must create an enabling infrastructure where the policies regarding plagiarism can be implemented smoothly to deter academic dishonesty among students. The investments will allow universities to prevent plagiarism as opposed to curing it. The study collected data from a single university, and at a single point in time Therefore, the findings and the conclusions made in this study, might not be generalized to all universities. The study can be expanded by collecting data from multiple universities and different regions or countries and to compare the results Another opportunity is available through a longitudinal study to get a picture of how student perceptions on plagiarism change over time. A future study might also explore how the internet influences plagiarism practices, as well as the effectiveness of the existing policies on plagiarism.

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Keywords: Social justice; sustainability; Fourth Industrial revolution; Mathematics teaching and learning

Abstract. In this conceptual paper, we provide some ways to think about sustainability and a social justice approach to teaching of mathematics in Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) classrooms. We imagine the mathematics classrooms in 4IR not only to provide sustainable education, but also to promote core values and qualities of social justice. The teaching of mathematics for social justice is a pedagogy that seeks to expose students to issues concerning power between social groups. It is an approach to teaching that seeks to enable students not only to maintain the status quo, but also to acquire the necessary skills to challenge current practices and offer alternatives.

281 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 281 294, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.15 Reimagining the Sustainable and Social Justice Mathematics Classrooms in the Fourth Industrial Revolution Tshele J. Moloi North West University Potchefstroom Campus https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3533 2852 Mogalatjane E. Matabane Sol Plaatje University, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7953 6729

While there is an increasing emphasis on incorporating technology into the teaching and learning of mathematics to produce educated citizenry that will be able to function in 4IR, it is equally important that one guards against unintended consequences brought about by 4IR and not deny access to learners from a low socio economic environment Using critical discourse analysis, the paper argues that, as we usher 4IR into the mathematics classroom, one should also be mindful of the social skills that constitute humankind. Social skills and human capital are good foundations for understanding mathematical concepts, and critical skills need to operate effectively and productively in 4IR. Moreover, social skills such as persuasion and emotional intelligence are in higher demand across industries and in education sectors than narrow technical skills, which include, among others, programming or equipment operation and control

This conceptual paper attempts to reimagine the 21st century teaching and learning of mathematics in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). The conceptual research is a “methodology wherein the research is conducted by observing and analysing already present information on a given topic” (Polit & Beck, 2010: p. 2). Again, Gilson and Goldberg (2015), point out that conceptual papers are without empirical data, the focus is on integration and proposing new relationships among constructs. However, it should be noted “that conceptual papers are not without empirical insights but rather build on theories and concepts that are developed and tested through empirical research” (Gilson and Goldberg, 2015:128) Participatory Virtual Community (PVC) was used observing and analysing the present information. PVC is understood as a social aggregation that emerges from the net when people carry on a public discussion long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form a web of personal relationships in cyberspace (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Karim, 2019). Thus, as the research methodology, PVC is compatible with 4IR, in the sense that it will require new ways of thinking about technologies, thinking about ourselves, and thinking about how we govern and teach collaboratively, wisely and with the flourishing of humankind in mind (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Karim, 2019). It can be noted that both PVC and cognitive science have become a widely discussed concept describing social behaviour in sociology, business, management, communication and other social sciences. Everyday technology opens opportunities to create different kinds of content easily in the virtual space. More and more data are generated for studying users’ attitudes and different behaviours (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Stauba et al., 2015) The mathematics classroom practices must be sustainable if the 4IR must realise human potential and promote core values and qualities of social justice. According to the Department of Basic Education (2011), Dowling (2013), Gerdes (2009), and Le Roux (2008), mathematics is a human activity for all cultural groups. Thus, for mathematics classroom practice to be effective and sustainable, it is important that cultural practices and lived experiences of learners be incorporated into our teaching and learning (Dowling, 2013). This view demonstrates the need for social justice in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the 4IR era, as it echoes that mathematics relates well to our daily activities and cultural practices. Drawing from daily practices and cultural orientations while teaching mathematics in the 4IR will alleviate the problem where learners view mathematics as an ugly, dull, boring and monotonous subject to learn, with having little application to their valuable sociocultural background. In line with this argument, Le Roux (2008) asserts that it is critical to use real world and contextual problems in school mathematics to challenge the beliefs by learners that mathematics is uninteresting and to make mathematics relevant to one’s daily activities The 4IR classroom has the potential to bring social injustices, inequalities and make the subject not accessible to underprivileged people.

1. Introduction

To sustain social justice in the teaching and learning of mathematics, mathematical knowledge must be inseparable from the learners’ cultural background. 4IR mathematics teaching should refrain from happening as if mathematical knowledge is out there in the world; unreachable, fixed, and made

3. Pertinent Literature on mathematics for social justice in 4IR Osman, Chuo, and Vebrianto (2013) argue that teaching mathematics that is divorced from learners’ daily experiences contributes to social injustice in teaching and learning, as that approach to teaching tends to limit learners’ access to mathematics knowledge. D’Ambrosio (2017) and Häyrinen Alestalo (2005) further amplify this, stating that such kind of teaching creates an instability of the inner and social peace of learners regarding the comprehension of mathematical knowledge. Such instabilities can be illustrated by mathematical knowledge that is out there, foreign to their thinking, and does not tap into their social background. The ontology of mathematics is given by the discursive realm of mathematics,” which have real existence in that domain and mathematical discourse as a living cultural entity creates the ontology of mathematics” (De Freitas & Sinclair, 2013:458). According to D’Ambrosio (2017), mathematical objects are created by made real by the activities of mathematicians. This is the basis of social nature of mathematics (Taylor, 2019) This view is corroborated by Hasbi, Lukito and Sulaiman (2019) and Hersh (1997) suggesting that “mathematical objects are created by humans not arbitrarily” but from the needs of science and daily lives. He further argues that mathematics objects are a distinct variety of social history and special part of culture (Hersh, 1997:22). Mathematicians often work together in groups on problems that they deem important or difficult and, in that process, they depend on other mathematicians to verify the correctness of their work and sometimes competing Thus, mathematical knowledge and practises of mathematical community are negotiated and socially constructed (Martin, 2009; Bozkurt, 2017). This process of working together signifies that mathematics is a social activity and the subject matter of mathematics is social.

2. Problem Statement It well documented in South African history that schools serving black rural students were systematically deprived quality education to keep them out of the modern economic sector (Khuzwayo, 2005; Maringe & Osman, 2016). Access to mathematics or careers that require mathematical knowledge has been exclusive and not accessible to all (Fiske & Ladd, 2004; Setati, 2001; Taylor, 2019). As such, a major task in post apartheid South Africa in 1994 was to promote racial equity in education (Ladd & Fiske, 2006; Setati, 2001; Gamede, 2017) While post apartheid South African has done a lot in addressing social injustices in education in general and mathematics education, the Fourth Industrial Revolutionary has the potential to bring imbalances of the past, if not well managed The 4IR can bring social injustices regarding the teaching and learning of mathematics and students; black rural students may be re denied the opportunity to learn this important subject, as the content and approach are divorced from their cultural orientations and daily practices. Hence, the paper explores how to reimagine the sustainable and social justice mathematics teaching and learning in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

D’Ambrosio (2017) states the same argument, namely that once teachers, mathematics educators and mathematicians start teaching mathematics, something like a barrier or social injustices in the teaching of mathematics appear and obscure their concerns. They continue to teach the way they were taught and to do what they have always done. For them, their priority is to publish their research in the best journals and prepare their students or learners to get good grades by means of a variety of assessment tasks imposed upon them with less consideration of to what extent the work is closer to or divorced from learners’ lived experience, thus ignoring social justice in teaching and learning of mathematics In this way, social injustice in mathematics learning prevails forever (D’Ambrosio, 2017; Piachaud, 2008; Volmink, 1994).

As argued elsewhere (Moloi, 2013), it is critical that culture and lived experiences of learners be the starting point in our mathematics teaching, and 4IR classrooms should not be an exception. When children socialise and play cultural and indigenous games, they not only learn mathematical concepts, but they also develop a positive relationship with one another. Such games also help to “develop the intellectual curiosity and emotional well being of young children” (Moloi, 2013:450). While there are contestations among researchers of what constitutes high quality learning and teaching of mathematics to children, the provision and support of rich contextual play opportunities are at the centre of the debates. From both researchers and policy makers, the provision of opportunities for cultural plays is evident in the discourse on the intellectual and emotional development in young children (Hedges, 2019); Carrington, 2020).

According to Panksepp and Biven (2007), one of the crucial roles of playfulness in children is the maintenance of friendships, which are, in turn, crucially important in supporting the healthy social and emotional development of young children. Moreover, tapping from the cultural background of learners when teaching mathematics helps learners to see that mathematics is not divorced from their culture and that mathematics is a social activity, not just a bunch of fixed and rigid rules where one must simply follow algorithms. When playing cultural games, children not only learn the social skills of sharing, teamwork, negotiating and resolving conflicts, but they also develop critical cognitive skills. When singing cultural songs, or clapping hands, children start to understand

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of discrete and irrefutable pieces of information or facts (Simms, 2016; Abaté & Cantone, 2005). For instance, the teaching of concepts such as: “Solve x and y simultaneously: 3�� =12 and 2y +�� =16” is taught in a narrow way, where teachers follow fixed algorithmic rules that must be learnt by heart, while no relevancy to their cultural background is addressed. Such absolutist approach accepts that mathematics consists of absolute and unchallenged facts and undermine the social responsibility of mathematics in human affairs. This type of teaching of mathematical content demonstrates a high level of the social injustices that both teachers and learners had to endure in the teaching and learning of mathematics. The mathematics for social justice acknowledges the subject as “product of human inventiveness and a human activity” ; (Stahl, 2013:168)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. patterns, which is a key foundation of mathematics. As such, we need to cater for this human element in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the 4IR Moreover, mathematics is considered as the key subject in addressing 21st century skills, such as “critical thinking, communication, collaboration and creativity” (Osman, Chuo, and Vebrianto, 2013:136). These skills symbolise the human elements. Again, these skills are embraced within technical and social skills in 4IR. According to Yenicioglua & Suerdema, (2015:1447), technical skills are characterised by “artificial neural network systems brought together in the same way as neurons in the human brain; they are capable of decision making by using what they learn while encountering problems”. On the other hand, human beings possess social skills, such as persuasion, emotional intelligence and teaching others (Oosthuizen, 2016). These social skills are in higher demand across industries and in education sectors than narrow technical skills, which include, among others, programming or equipment operation and control (Selamat, Alias, Hikmi, Puteh & Tapsir, 2017; Osman et al., 2013).

The social injustices manifest in mathematics teaching instructions such as “factorise the given expression: ��2 +2��”. Such instruction is very arrogant, because in the first instance, learners are not told why they must factorise, and how this relates to their cultural backgrounds (Abaté & Cantone, 2005; Le Roux, 2008; Orrill, 2003). The main emphasis of the teacher lesson is only on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ part. Hence, the learners perceive mathematics as obsolete and not relevant to their daily activities. This argument is in line with the opinions raised by D’Ambrosio (2017), and Noble III and Morton (2013), namely that the type of teaching and learning of mathematics is more concerned with attaining predetermined goals of proficiency, which favour sameness and may lead to the promotion of docile citizens and irresponsible creativity; of regurgitating the raw content learnt through rote learning. Moreover, the way the assessment tasks are designed supports the reproduction of the raw mathematics content, of which such assessment tasks silence creative and critical thinking in

As a result, the mathematics community, which is not limited to teachers, lecturers, tutors and learners, need to be clear about how these skills find a place in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the digital classroom of the 4IR. While Oosthuizen (2016:6) describes 4IR as the “technological advancement that is increasingly transforming the world” , humankind finds itself in an age of unprecedented digital technological progress, “which will continue to improve, bringing about not only beneficial transformations to human beings, but also socio economic challenges and rooting out elements of humanness” (Osman et al., 2013:18) Elements of humanness might include, but are not limited to ubuntu, caring and other key soft skills that are not embraced by 4IR. Mostly, these socio economic elements challenge human elements, and are likely to contribute to unsustainable and social inequalities and injustices in accessing mathematics epistemics. Hence, it is important that as we usher 4IR into the mathematics classroom, one should be mindful of social skills that constitute humankind. Again, D'Ambrosio (2017), and Froyd and Ohland (2013) caution us that we need to be aware of the past, when the teaching of mathematics perpetuated social injustices such as inequity, arrogance and bigotry.

On the other side, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (Midgett & Eddins, 2016) and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (National Department of Basic Education, 2011; Orrill, 2003), demonstrate that the teaching, learning and assessment of mathematics must be done to promote a high level of critical thinking. Midgett and Eddins (2016, p. 35) argue that NCTM principles state, “The curriculum is mathematically rich, offering students opportunities to learn important mathematical concepts and procedures with understanding … Students confidently engage in complex mathematical tasks … Students are flexible and resourceful problem solvers” Again, the National Department of Basic Education states that “To develop problem solving and cognitive skills. Teaching should not be limited to ‘how’ but should rather feature the ‘when’ and ‘why’ of problem types. Learning procedures and proofs without a good understanding of why they are important will leave learners ill equipped to use their knowledge in later life” (DBE, 2011, p. 8), of which the teaching, learning and assessment rarely demonstrate these succinctly. As D'Ambrosio (2017), Orrill (2003), and Froyd and Ohland (2005) argue, human beings should not imitate machines; rather, machines should emulate humans. Barsalou (2008) and Gerofsky (2016) illustrate this point that researchers use the grounded cognition design, a human computer (HC), and computer modelling with psychological and educational theories of learning. According to Barsalou (2008), grounded cognition theory “proposes that modal simulations, bodily states and situated action underlie cognition”. Grounded cognition agrees with Mixed Reality (MR) and Embodied Mixed Reality Learning Environments.

In addition, Schwab (2016) points out 14 different strategies for multiplication of integers, or why ( 1) ( 1) = +1, that 4IR in its scale, scope and degree of complexity will be an exceptional experience that humankind has never witnessed before. It is worth noting that 4IR holds unique opportunities to improve human communication and conflict resolution. These conflict resolutions in the teaching and learning of mathematics might include the understanding of why only few learners excel in mathematics, why mathematics taught in classes does not speak to our daily events (Dehaene, 2011), whereas

According to Lindgren and Johnson Glenberg (2013) and Johnson Glenberg, Birchfield, Tolentino and Koziupa (2014), respectively, there are no boundaries between cybernetic and physical learning environments where, for example, teachers and learners can use their bodies to simulate an orbit around a virtual planet and learning environment. With this argument it is possible to re imagine the new way of teaching mathematics within the 4IR sphere, which can tap into the physical and sociocultural background of learners, and which has a huge wealth of knowledge (Yosso, 2005) in understanding complex mathematics.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. mathematics teaching. Most of the questions are pitched at a low cognitive level of thinking. For instance, most tasks ask questions like, “solve the following equations: calculate the value of; or simplify the following expressions”. These tasks penalise creative thinking in mathematics. These are some examples of social injustices that the teaching, learning and assessment of mathematics perpetuate.

4. The theory guiding the study. This paper is guided by the Participatory New Product development (PNPD) as the framework. Participatory NPD by nature is integrative, collaborative and democratic, and takes social contexts into account in developing new products or process. Participants and users’ needs, desires, images and feelings for crafting new products are embraced within technological design elements. All processes of Participatory NPD acknowledge participants’ other roles in society, such as being a citizen, a parent, an employee, a community member, or a member of a global village with a sustainable future for the planet. Again, Participatory NPD allows all participants (including marginalised stakeholders) “to bring their own perspectives to the interactive relational exchanges in a naturalistic context” (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Stauba, Karaman, Kaya, Karapinara, & Güven, 2015). Nur Kareelawati (2018) adds that Participatory New Product development allows virtual and physical interactions of different role players in the teaching of mathematics. Griffin, Dodds and Rovegno (2012) argue that often, for some of the role players, like learners and parents, mathematical knowledge is marginalised. The system of education gives teachers authoritative powers that regard learners’ minds as blank slates, of which their sociocultural context is not considered in learning mathematics (Morin and Franks, 2009) Dehaene (2011) agrees with Charalambous (2008), namely that learners and parents’

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. human infants and other than human animals develop high numeracy in their brain (Dehaene, 2011; Gerofsky, 2016). Furthermore, in unpacking a sustainable and social justice mathematics classroom, the following key 4 type intelligence as described by Oosthuizen (2016), namely contextual intelligence, emotional intelligence, inspired intelligence and physical intelligence, which speak to social skills are needed in the 4IR Furthermore, artificial intelligence, advanced robotics, virtual reality, and the internet of things the more technical skills of 4IR ought to be encompassed in a new approach to accommodating 4IR. Oosthuizen (2016), Dehaene (2011) and Johnson Glenberg et al. (2014) consider contextual intelligence among role players in understanding and applying mathematics content in relation to their daily contexts and its relevancy to them. Emotional intelligence includes the affective domain of role players, who are not only limited to teachers, lecturers, tutors, learners, and community members. Emotional intelligence allows various role players to relate with one another, such that their thoughts and feelings are well harnessed in creating new mathematical knowledge, unlike the social injustices and ills that objectify participants in the teaching and learning of mathematical content knowledge (Weldeana, 2016). Again, considering inspired and physical intelligences, Oosthuizen (2016), argues that it deals with how those around us and the physical environment motivate each one of the role players to realise a common goal. Also included are digital systems that interact with humans to achieve the expected outcome. This will assist in achieving an understanding of mathematical concepts through visual and multisensory engagements with learning technologies, and much more (Gerofsky, 2016)

He/she does not provide clear justification why these rules or definitions are applied so rigidly and should be followed to the letter (Abaté & Cantone, 2005; Froyd & Ohland, 2013). Such an approach to teaching mathematics, divorcing mathematics from social practices, denies learners the opportunity for creativity and imagination, the very core goal of learning mathematics. About imagination, Mann (2006, p. 236) cites one of the great mathematicians, Augustus De Morgan, stating that “The moving power of mathematical innovation is not reasoning but imagination ” He conceptualises mathematics as a fluid domain, not a fixed

In the context of this paper, for instance, Advanced Human Machine and Mixed Reality (MR) (Lindgren & Johnson Glenberg, 2013; Vara, 2006), interfaces of the 4IR should allow the teaching and learning of mathematics be flexible and interactive in addressing the teachers and leaners’ needs. The paper maintains that 4IR is a mixed reality (Lindgren & Johnson Glenberg, 2013; Johnson Glenberg et al., 2014) to be grappled with through the creation of sustainable learning environments within the context of a 21st century mathematics classroom. As mathematics is conceptualised as a human activity, this theory/framework will incorporate the diverse learning of learners from various communities, especially the ones from low socio economic strata. In some instances, past revolutions happened to marginalise their mathematics knowledge creation (D'Ambrosio, 2017). Also, their social contexts were not used to create sustainable learning environments. Rather, 4IR must embrace the participants’ need and feelings in understanding mathematics key concepts, unlike where 4IR will perceived as denying access to mathematics to learners from low socio economic strata.

5. Discussions Learners usually regard the teaching of mathematics as uninteresting, obsolete and useless (D'Ambrosio, 2017; Weldeana, 2016; Abaté & Cantone, 2005). These assertions made by learners about the teaching of mathematics are largely logical, as the content is mainly divorced from the world within which they operate. For argument’s sake, learners are given mathematics problems such as the following to work out: Work out the sum of the following mathematical expressions: �� × �� =? �� ÷ �� =?

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. mathematical knowledge is not recognised when one teaches mathematical concepts such as functions. Teachers can use indigenous games (Moloi, 2013), when teachers and parents play a key role in learners’ mathematical knowledge. Oosthuizen (2016) posits that contextual intelligence embraces the sociocultural background in inspiring a high level of mathematical thinking.

As an explanation to the above expression to the learners, one will often hear responses where the teacher recites the algorithmic rules or definitions to work out the answer. It is common practice that the teacher will confidently sing, “To get the results of the above mathematical expression, you just multiply numerator by numerator, and thereafter multiply denominator by the denominator.”

body of knowledge to be mastered, and the essence of such fluidity is the creative application of mathematical knowledge in solving problems. This view is also shared by Gustlin (2002), suggesting that learners would not struggle so much with mathematics if the teaching were sensitive to political injustices and incorporates cultural and social contexts rich in creativity and imagination. To develop the mathematical creativity and imagination, changes in the classroom practices are necessary and it is critical to draw from learners’ lived experiences in our teaching and learning of mathematics.

It is then important that mathematics teachers need to show an element of social justice by elevating the environmental and cultural background in making mathematics content easily accessible to diverse learners. Thus, the teaching of mathematics in the 4IR era should curtail these socials ills in the teaching and learning of mathematics. D'Ambrosio (2017) demonstrates that 4IR operates within multiple intelligences, for instance, emotional intelligence, spiritual (cultural) intelligence and many others, which should include the nature of mathematics. He further argues that as one teaches numbers to learners, one needs to be mindful of the fact that behind those raw numbers there is a human being who has emotions and feelings. Most importantly, as the public is aware of the achievement gaps from the plethora of studies, we should be more careful that 4IR does not take us back to the long history of mathematics being accessed by people from a certain socio economic class It is critical that mathematics teaching in 4IR promotes increased participation and achievement in students who historically have been marginalised by the former South African school system (Abaté & Cantone, 2005; Orill, 2003). Our mathematics classroom in 4IR should strive to reflect social justice, equality and education, rather than maintaining the status quo. Thus, teaching of mathematics in the 4IR must resonate within the transformative perspective of teaching mathematics; that is, moving from the traditional or Platonist approach to the Crichton approach (Abaté & Cantone, 2005). According to Weldeana (2016) and Abaté and Cantone (2005), these transformative perspectives conceptualise mathematics as the product of social processes and social skills. Thus, the re imagined teaching of mathematics in the 4IR must take cognisance of the unjust past of teaching and learning to move into the sustainable future, which views mathematics as a human activity. D'Ambrosio (2017) coins the sustainable future of teaching mathematics for the 4IR as the “new world order”, which is urgently needed, and that will embrace humanness by its nature; a new world order that will not deny and exclude the cultures of the periphery (D'Ambrosio, 2017; Orrill, 2003), which was so common in the colonial process, and still prevails in modern mathematics classroom society. In addition, Gerofsky (2016) argues that cognitive science brings together various disciplines that allow suitable new ways of teaching mathematics in a respectful way and address the social injustices embroiled in mathematics teaching Among others, but not limited to, these disciplines that drive the 4IR include computer science, artificial intelligence, psychology, sociology, mathematics, mathematics education, philosophy of mind, anthropology, neuroscience and linguistics, and

6. Conclusion and recommendations

The 4IR teaching and learning of mathematics should recognise the social nature of mathematics teaching and learning. In the 4IR, teachers should not only pay attention to what mathematics is taught and how it is taught but develop critical pedagogies to start questioning what form of power and authority is used to determine what is taught. In the mathematics class, learners should be equipped to understand issues of social justice through the learning of mathematics and not just be happy with algorithms and technology. In the 4IR classroom, students should develop a kind of political and social awareness and be able to see humanity beyond the numbers and use mathematics as a tool to explore and analyse injustices in society. Thus, mathematics teaching in 4IR should disrupt the inequalities in the discourse that legitimate other forms of knowing and

many more. This suggests that as we move on to 4IR in the teaching of mathematics, we need to avoid situations where human beings are objectified. In maintaining mathematics cognitive justice to the 4IR, it is essential that technical skills be augmented with strong social and collaborative skills (Selamat et al., 2017; Dehaene, 2011) possessed by human beings. Again, Barsalou (2008) contends that grounded cognition embraces modal simulations, bodily states and situated action, which are helpful in making sure that mathematics is a human activity. Even human infants have a sense of this numerosity (Dehaene,2011). Since the advent of 4IR, it is imperative that the combination of both human and machines competencies is realised. This argument is intensified by Rubin (2017) making an assertion that it is good that computers obtain the ability to think like human beings, but humans should not think like computers, because computers do not have the social skills capital of human beings (Rubin, 2017). Human beings do guard against unintended consequences brought about by 4IR. Subsequently, proactive solutions can be embarked upon, as guided by the sustainable developmental goals (SDGs). These SDGs are the key pillars in assisting to address the education, societal and climate change issues, to mention but a few et al. (2017:22) and Brahim and Dahlan (2019:1109) define Advanced Human Machine (AHM) interfaces as “the method of teaching and learning for modelling and simulation of the real situation ” As we participate in virtual spaces; that is, teaching and learning in the digital mathematics classroom that embraces 4IR, teachers and learners need to embrace social justice values that acknowledge one’s humanness. Humanness is displayed when interaction takes place between machines and human beings (Asllani, Ettkin & Somasundar, 2008) in the learning and teaching of mathematics in the 4IR. As pointed out by Rubin (2017), it is crucial that as we teach and learn mathematics in the 4IR, human beings should not imitate machines. This paper will also demonstrate how these social skills need to be achieved as we teach and learn mathematics in the cyberspace classroom, of which the cyberspace is characterised by Oosthuizen (2016). At the same time, one should take care not to lose the human capital. Human capital, including social skills, forms a good foundation for understanding the mathematical concepts that are needed in the 4IR.

Furthermore,SDGs.Selamat

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Abstract. The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a training programme in increasing teachers’ knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia.

The sample comprised 124 teachers from schools in the said region, and effectivenesscharacteristicsofAwarenessexperimental62theseteachersweredividedintotwogroups:(1)experimentalgroupwithteachersand(2)controlgroupwith62teachers.Thequasiapproachwasemployedforcollectingdata;theCognitiveScaleofADHD(Melhem,2020)wasalsoemployed.Itconsists37itemsdistributedintothreedomains,namely,generalknowledge,anddiagnosisandtreatment.Resultsrevealedthattheofthetrainingpro

gramme in increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge was in favour of the experimental group. Moreover, no statistically significant differences were observed in the increase of the levels of ADHD knowledge amongst the teachers in the experimental group due to the variable of teaching experience. That is, the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental group are the same according to their teaching experience. In sum, the training programme significantly increased the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental group. Moreover, educational institutions in Saudi Arabia should include ADHD training programmes in teacher training curricula in Saudi Arabia

295 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 295 312, December 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.16

Corresponding author: Tareq Melhem; Email: tmelhem@kfu.edu.sa

Efficacy of Teachers’ In Service Training for Increasing Their Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia Tareq Melhem* King Faisal University, Hofuf, Al Ahsa, KSA https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6748-1967

Keywords: ADHD; in service training; teachers 1. Introduction Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a developmental biological disorder that is characterised by abnormal growth behaviour with deficits in the inhibition of behaviour, constant attention, resistance to distraction and self regulation (Rief, 2016) ADHD is one of themost persistentand divisivechildhood

DSM 5 also lists a number of symptoms that fall under the pattern of attention deficit, motor activity and impulsivity to prove that these symptoms must continue for at least six months with a degree that negatively affects growth level; moreover, these children have problems with paying attention continuously and diverting attention (APA, 2013). Additionally, ADHD leads to impediments to core human life practices, such as social relations, academic success, community, professional competence, and personality; in specific, adherence to social norms, directives, and regulations. (Barkley, 2015). Despite the fact that ADHD is a mental disorder, but usually first diagnosed in the first years of early childhood, childhood stage, of adolescence (APA, 2013), the preponderance of evidence suggests that 50%–65% of cases of children born with this disorder continuously experience symptoms until adulthood (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015). ADHD has a huge effect on society as a result of its economic implications; the pressure it imposes on teachers and parents alike; unwanted educational and professional outputs; and the damage it inflicts on the self esteem of people suffering from this disorder. (Poznanski, Hart, & Cramer, 2018). Melhem (2020) reported that ADHD is prevalent at the global, regional and local levels. However, statistical survey studies, which provide the prevalence proportion of this disorder, are fewer than studies on other categories of people with special needs in each western country. Such studies are also scarce in the Arab world. Research indicates that the prevalence of the number of children affected by ADHD globally expands. In 2013, APA indicated that the prevalence ranged 3% 5% amongst schoolchildren (6 19 years old). Rowland et al. (2015) revealed that the statistical survey estimates of their study have reached approximately15.5%, suggesting that 15.5% ofAmerican schoolchildren in grades 1 5 haveADHD in thediverse North Carolina County. Theprevalenceproportion in Canada is between 5.4% and 14% amongst schoolchildren (Dilaimi, 2013) However, in Britain and other European countries, the prevalence proportion is 1.8% amongst schoolchildren (Lazarus, 2011). At the Arab level, a clear dearth is observed in accurate statistical survey studies for this purpose. Obeidat (2014) indicated that the prevalence of ADHD in Egypt is between 4% and 20% of schoolchildren (6 12 years old), whereas the prevalence proportion of ADHD amongst Jordanian schoolchildren ranges between 5% and 10%. In Saudi Arabia, the most recent studies conducted in the western part of the country show that the prevalence proportion of ADHD amongst schoolchildren (6 12 years old) is approximately 5% (AlZaben et al., 2018). By contrast, a survey conducted in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia suggests that the prevalence proportion of ADHD amongst 1,287 students is 16.4% (Melhem, 2020).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. diseases and has gained considerable attention in the past thirty years from scientists, the public, and the media (Melhem, 2020; Rief, 2016) ADHD is also the most frequently diagnosed mental disorder in children of school age. The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM 5), which is the official source for diagnosing ADHD, indicates that the prevalence of ADHD ranges 3% 7% amongst schoolchildren(American Psychiatric Association, [APA], 2013). In addition, DSM 5 emphasises that the rates of male infection with this disorder are higher than those of females for approximately two to nine times.

Third is the academic interventions, such as adapting instructional materials to accommodate students with ADHD (Vasko, Oddo, Meinzer, Garner & ChronisTuscano, 2020). Fourth isthe cognitive behavioural interventions,which generally emphasise the development of the self management skills of students (Forresi et al., 2020; Ouellet, Beaulieu Bonneau, Savard & Morin, 2019). These findings highlight the positive effects of school interventions (from medium to large) on the improvement of the academic and behavioural outcomes of children with ADHD (Forresi et al., 2020; Prinstein, Youngstrom, Mash & Barkley, 2019; Vasko et al., 2020).

As a remedial move, different ranges of treatment interventions are tailored to assist handle the behavioural problems of individuals with ADHD. First is the interventions with medical drugs, such as, Concerta and Strattera, which are operative in reducing the essence symptoms of ADHD (Punja et al., 2016; Storebø et al., 2015). Secondis theinterventions classified as psychoeducational andsocial, both of which have been experimentally proven, including parent training and school interventions for children with ADHD (Alkahtani, 2013; Kauffman & Landrum, 2013). Parents’ training focuses on providing them with skills and strategies in implementing behaviour control and management techniques, whereas school interventions for ADHD pay attention to teachers’ training to use behavioural reinforcement and punishment for managing classroom disorders.

As a result, most teachers face a range of challenges when dealing with this group ofstudentswhosufferfromADHDwhich makethesituation helplessforteaching in dealing with these challenges. Hence, they have no idea what method is best to use for handling them; teachers sometimes resort to shouting at students to sit down or to pay attention to the lesson; other times, teachers refer students to the school principal, a social worker or a special education teacher to deal with them (Obeidat, 2014) However, referring students to the school principal may not work because these students often return to exhibit behaviours that disrupt the educational process in a classroom, leading to the annoyance of teachers and other students. Meanwhile, referring students to a social worker or a special education teacher may lead to a slight progress in their behaviours if such behaviours are controlled in the natural environment, that is, the classroom where they receive their education with the participation of a regular class teacher (Poznanski et al., 2018) As a result, many teachers tend to wonder about the reasons why these students have these behavioural problems and about the best methods to use to stop them or limit their effects(Melhem, 2020). As previously indicated, teachers must have sufficient knowledge about ADHD. On one hand, teachers should know the definitions, reasons and characteristics of ADHD. On the other hand, teachers must have a practical knowledge about how to identify students; diagnosis instruments and their applications; and intervention strategies, which can contribute to controlling their behaviours. Therefore, the study aimed to show the efficacy of an in service training program in raising the level of awareness of teachers about ADHD.

With regard to the discussion above, these interventions and endeavours are worthy in a valuable environment (the classroom) where students spend a long time to learn and develop adaptive skills, which, in turn, facilitate personal growth amongst social and academic students with ADHD (Poznanski et al., 2018). Therefore, teachers often play a pivotal role in performing the tasks of educational and behavioural interventions for students who suffer from ADHD in the classroom (Barkley, 2015; DuPaul & Stoner, 2014; Shroff, Hardikar Sawant & Prabhudesai, 2017). Expectedly, teachers usually monitor the progress of students after treatment even if such teachers fail to implement it (Al Moghamsi, 2018). For example, doctors heavily rely on the observations of parents and teachers to monitor the symptoms and side effects when children with ADHD begin to take prescription drugs (Alkahtani, 2013; Dilaimi, 2013). Moreover, teachers are responsible for implementing classroom management strategies, which are designed to help students with ADHD to achieve social, academic and emotional successeswithin the school environment (Latouche& Gascoigne,2019) Regrettably, results of previous studies indicated that teachers are perhaps unqualified enough to effectively provide the necessary bolster to children with ADHD due to limited training and ADHD knowledge (Alkahtani, 2013; Dilaimi, 2013; Melhem, 2020; Mohr Jensen, Steen Jensen, Bang Schnack & Thingvad, 2019; Rief, 2016; Soroa, Gorostiaga & Balluerka, 2013) At the same time, teachers who have undergone ADHD training have high levels of awareness and low misbeliefs about the disorder versus teachers who have not been trained (Abed, Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014; Barkley, 2015; MohrJensen et al., 2019) One of the greatest obstacles that stand in front of teachers to become capable of meeting the special needs of these students who suffer from ADHD is the limited knowledge about it (Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Melhem, 2020). Hence, teachers must know the symptoms, behaviours and diagnosis targeted by interventions; and the success of the school interventions for ADHD depends, to a large extent, on teachers’ knowledge of the disorder (Alkahtani, 2013; Shroff et al., 2017). When teachers’ levelsofunderstandingaboutthedisorderarelow

(in termsofitscauses, effects and consequences), the attempts to design intervention programmes within the classroom fail to have significant positive impacts (Poznanski et al., 2018) Previous studies, which employed training programmes to increase teachers’ ADHD knowledge, are few. The first randomised controlled study of 49 teachers from three schools in Karachi City, Pakistan tested the effectiveness of an intensive five-day in-service training programme for two hours every day, which aimed to increase teachers’ levels of ADHD knowledge; the results showed a significant increase in their levels of knowledge (Syed & Hussein, 2010). Graeper (2011) observed a significant increase in teachers’ ADHD knowledge after exposing 35 teachers to a training workshop in New York City. Similarly, Sarraf, Karahmadi, Marasy, and Azhar (2011) found an improvement in the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge after they intervened in a two day training programme for 67 teachers in Isfahan City, Iran. Aguiar et al. (2014) conducted a

Note that previous research was performed for increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge, and such studies were all conducted in non Arab environments, except for one (Obeidat, 2014), which was conducted in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia. The practical implications of these studies were conflicting between significant and slight increases in the improvement of the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge, including their apparent lack of training and low ADHD knowledge in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (Melhem, 2020) Therefore, future studies must design effective interventions to train teachers for increasing their knowledge about ADHD and for determining how they can handle students with this disorder. That is, this research attempts to address the gap between the theoretical and practical sides by contributing in a practical way, particularly in guiding educators and educational policymakers in Saudi Arabia to adopt practical steps regarding the in service training of teachers related to ADHD by providing a model of the training programme The Saudi Arabia environment is in essential need of such programmes in light of the infrequency of experimental studies in the Arab region addressing the same problem as previously mentioned. Moreover, the research proposes the inclusion of pre service training in the curricula of educational institutions by adding courses, seminars and training workshops related to ADHD during university studies.

The study seeks to determine the efficacy of an in service training programme to improve the level of knowledge of school teachers about ADHD. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study has been conducted in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia for the same purpose. Hence, the following research questions are put forward: Research Question 1: Does the in service training programme on ADHD have a significant main effect on increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge when the effect of the pre test results in the ADHD knowledge scale is controlled?

study on 37 teachers in Porto Alegre City, Brazil and aimed to increase teachers’ ADHD knowledge through an intervention training programme for six hours for one day. The results indicated a significant increase in teachers’ knowledge about ADHD. In the western region of Saudi Arabia, Obeidat (2014) aimed to increase the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge by conducting a training programme on a sample of 80 teachers who were divided into two groups (experimental and control groups). The effectiveness of the training programme in increasing the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge was in favour of the experimental group.

Lasisi, Ani, Lasebikan, Sheikh, and Omigbodun (2017) conducted a one day three hour training workshop in Nigeria, with a one and a half hour booster session on ADHD two weeks later for 161 teachers; the training programme significantly improved the knowledge and attitudes of the teachers in the intervention group towards students with ADHD. Latouche and Gascoigne (2019) also conducted a one day two hour training workshop on ADHD and self efficacy for 274 teachers in Australia. They found similar increases in ADHD knowledge, whereas the increase in self efficacy was modest.

1.1 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

Research Question 2: Based on the post test results in the ADHD knowledge scale, are statistically significant differences present in increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge due to participants’ teaching experience when the effect of the pre test results in the ADHD knowledge scale is controlled? Research Method and Procedures

2.1 Design

The research design is anoverall strategy or an outlineon how toconduct research (Mills & Gay, 2019) The quasi experimental design uses the pre test post test control group design Leavy (2017) emphasisedthat experimental studies offer the best proof on how something affects something else, and the best tests are double blind, randomised control experiments. This study employs the quasi experimental research design to examine the research problem, the objectives of the study and the research questions for obtaining an improved insight into the issues at hand. These considerations emphasise the importance of using the quasi experimental research design to fulfil the objectives of the study and to ponder on the research questions, which can be key to the solutions. This advantage warrants the use of this research design in this study. The main aim is to increase the ADHD knowledge of teachers through an in service training programme. An independent variable, which is the training programme, and one dependent variable, namely, the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge are also utilised, as illustrated in Figure (1) below: Figure 1: Study design Symbol (O1) indicates that a pre test is conducted. (XT) refers to the teachers in the experimental group who are exposed to the training programme on ADHD, whereas (XC) refers to the teachers in the control group who are not. A post test is conducted, as denoted by (O2)

Total

2.2 Study Population and Sample

The scale has 37 items distributed over the positive and negative on three domains, namely, general knowledge (15 items), characteristics and diagnosis (nine items) and treatment (13 items). The scale also has acceptable validity and reliability indications for the purposes of its use in the study. The value of the reliability coefficient for the total scale is 0.891; the values of the reliability coefficients for the first (general knowledge), second (characteristics and diagnosis) and third (treatment) domains are 0.840, 0.780 and 0.796, respectively.

experienceTeaching One

One way ANCOVA is used to adjust the differences between the means of the pre test scores of teachers from the experimental and control groups. Conducting a parity analysis on the pre test of the two groups is necessary to prevent the post test results from being affected. Note that one way ANCOVA solves this possible problem in case differences are observed during the pre test between the experimental and control groups.

2.3 Study Instrument A scale, which was developed by Melhem (2020), is used to measure the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. This scale is an adaptation of a 37 item scale previously developed by Sciutto, Terjesen, and Frank (2000) and is directed towards teachers’ ADHD knowledge. However, a scale that measures teachers’ ADHD knowledge is prepared for educational situations normally faced by teachers in schools. Melhem’s (2020) scale is translated into Arabic and developed on the basis of the scale of Sciutto et al. (2000). He also benefited from other scales, such as that of Jerome, Gordon and Hustler (1994) because he included studies on teachers’ ADHD knowledge (Abed et al., 2014; Al Moghamsi, 2018; Alkahtani, 2013; Anderson, Watt, Noble & Shanley, 2012; Dilaimi, 2013; Yarde Leavett, 2018)

The study population consists of 450 teachers who enrolled in the summer training programmes at King Faisal University during the academic year 2018 2019 from public education schools in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Amongst them, 124 volunteer teachers are purposely selected. These teachers are divided into two equivalent groups: (1) the experimental group subjected to intervention, with 62 teachers and (2) the control group not subjected to intervention, comprising 62 teachers. The study individuals are distributed according to the variable of teaching experience, as presented in Table 1 below: Distribution of study individuals according to the variable of teaching experience Group Percentage to five years 24 24 48 38.70% five to 10 years 23 23 46 37.01% Above 10 years 15 15 30 24.19% 62 62 124 100%

Table 1.

Variable Category ExperimentalGroup Control

Frequency

The necessary ethical approves were acquired from Ethical Review Committee at The King Faisal University. The online training programme was announced as part of the summer programmes offered by the Saudi Ministry of Education in cooperation with the School of Education at King Faisal University for the academic year 2018 2019. The teachers registered for the online training programme. The pre test of the ADHD knowledge scale was conducted amongst the participants before the intervention (training programme), and the teachers were divided into experimental and control groups. The intervention was performed on the experimental group only by implementing the training programme within approximately one week (five days, two training sessions per day). After the intervention (training programme), the post test of the ADHD knowledge scale was conducted amongst the two groups (experimental and control).

2.4 Intervention

The training programme was developed and built on the basis of the theoretical literature and previous studies related to ADHD (Aguiar et al., 2014; Alkhateeb & Alhadidi, 2019; Barkley, 2015; Corkum, Elik, Blotnicky Gallant, McGonnell & McGrath, 2019; DuPaul & Stoner, 2014; Lasisi et al., 2017; Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Melhem, 2020; Obeidat, 2014; Poznanski et al., 2018; Prinstein et al., 2019; Rief, 2016; Vasko et al., 2020). The aim of the training programme was to increase the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. It consisted of 10 training sessions for five days, two hours per session. The training programme was delivered in PowerPoint format. There was a time for questions and discussions throughout the training session and at the end of it. The following subjects were covered by the training programme: the importance of attention in the educational process; factors affecting attention; misconceptions about ADHD; and the historical development of the disorder, its definition and its prevalence rate. The causes of the disorder (genetic, neurological and environmental), its patterns and characteristics were also discussed. In addition, the programme covered methods of evaluation and diagnosis of the disorder; for example, the most prominent therapeutic interventions (behavioural, cognitive behavioural and medical) used for children with ADHD,classroom managementderived fromclassroom settings for children with ADHD, tools that assist teachers in implementing ADHD teachingstrategies, models that providestrategiesfor classroom management and video clips to facilitate learning. The researcher (Assistant Professor of Special Education) conducted the training programme.

2.5 Procedure

2.6 Data Analysis

One way ANCOVA was used to adjust the differences between the means of the pre test scores of the teachers from the experimental and control groups; the significance of the differences between the means of teachers’ post test scores was also determined to verify whether the in service training programme increased their ADHD knowledge from the pre intervention phase to the post intervention phase (effectiveness of the training programme). Eta squared (η2), which was obtained by following Cohen’s instructions, was used to identify the effect size of the in service training programme in increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge; note

Table 2 shows that virtual differences were observed in the overall mean pre test scores on the ADHD knowledge scale between teachers in the experimental and control groups. Such differences were also found in each of the three domains. These differences were statistically adjusted using one way ANCOVA. Table 2 also presents the virtual differences in the overall mean post test scores on the ADHD knowledge scale and in its three domains between teachers in the experimental and control groups. One way ANCOVA was used to determine if the differences in the overall mean post test scores of teachers from the experimental and control groups are statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). ANCOVA was also employed to statistically isolate the differences between the two groups of the pre test on the ADHD knowledge of teachers. Table 3 provides the results.

303 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. that ‘0.01 = small effect, 0.06 = moderate effect and 0.14 = large effect’ (Cohen, 2013). All assumptions were met for all statistical analyses.

Scale Domain Group N Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD General knowledge Experimental 62 5.66 2.46 10.32 2.53 Control 62 5.85 2.62 6.69 2.48 Characteristics and diagnosis Experimental 62 4.73 1.66 7.45 1.29 Control 62 5.15 1.64 5.74 1.57 Treatment Experimental 62 5.08 2.34 10.05 1.66 Control 62 5.03 1.86 6.60 2.31 Total test Experimental 62 15.47 5.50 27.82 4.50 Control 62 16.03 4.83 19.03 5.15

Table 2. Means and SDs of the pre- and post-test scores of teachers on the ADHD knowledge scale.

Table 3. Results of ANCOVA for the overall post test scores of teachers on the ADHD knowledge scale.

3. Results 3.1 Results of Research Question 1 To address the first question, the means and standard deviations (SDs) of the pre and post test scores of teachers (from both groups) on theADHD knowledge scale were calculated. The results are presented in Table 2.

Scale Domain Source Sum Squaresof df SquareMean CalculatedValues( F) Sig. Partial η2 knowledgeGeneral Pre test 0.249 1 0.249 0.039 Group 408.439 1 408.439 64.478 0.000* 0.348 Error 766.477 121 6.335 totalCorrected 1174.992 123 diagnosissCharacteristicand Pre test 1.205 1 1.205 0.583 0.000* 0.257 Group 86.534 1 86.534 41.879 Error 250.021 121 2.066 totalCorrected 341.839 123

121

123 Total

Scale Domain Source Sum Squaresof df SquareMean CalculatedValues( F) Sig. Partial η2 Pre test 5.056 1 5.056 1.252 0.000* 0.430 Group 368.278 1 368.278 91.181 488.719 4.039 863.097 test Pre test 4.865 1 4.865 0.207 0.000* 0.458 Group 2399.993 1 2399.993 102.105 2844.119 121 23.505 5244.347

* Statically significant at the .05 level.

Table 3 presents the statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the control and experimental groups on the post test of the ADHD knowledge scale and its three domains. The F values for the differences between the two groups ranged between 41.879 and 102.105; both values are statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05. Therefore, the in service training programme on ADHD has a statistically significant difference in increasing the ADHD knowledge of teachers, in favour of those subjected to such a programme. η2, where the total η2 on the ADHD knowledge scale reaches(0.458), with a large effectsize(1.14), wasused toidentify the effect size of the in service training programme on ADHD (Cohen, 2013). Accordingly, 45.8% of the variances in the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental and control groups were due to the in service training programme conducted in this study. The η2 for the three domains of the scale general knowledge, characteristics and diagnosis and treatment were 0.348, 0.257 and 0.430, respectively. These results indicated the effectiveness of the in service training programme in increasing the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge amongst school teachers.

Error

totalCorrected

Treatment

To determine the values of the differences in the overall mean post test scores of teachersfromtheexperimental and controlgroups on theADHD knowledge scale and its three domains, the estimated marginal means of the post test scores were calculatedfor statisticallyremoving the effect of the covariate. As a result, the total adjusted mean of the post test scores of teachers who received the in service training programme on ADHD was 27.83, whereas that of teachers who did not receive any training was 19.02 (Table 4).

Table 4. Estimate marginal means of the post test results of ADHD knowledge for teachers who received the in service training programme on ADHD and for those who did not receive any training. Test Domain Group Adjusted Mean Standard Error General knowledge Experimental 10.32 0.32 Control 6.69 0.32 Characteristics and diagnosis Experimental 7.44 0.18 Control 5.76 0.18

123

Error

totalCorrected

One to five years 24 5.63 2.14 9.92 3.18

Test Domain Group Adjusted Mean Standard Error Treatment Experimental 10.05 0.26 Control 6.60 0.26 Total test Experimental 27.83 0.62 Control 19.02 0.62

3.2 Results of Research Question 2 To answer the second question, the means and SDs of the pre and post test scores of teachers from the experimental group for the ADHD knowledge scale and its three domains were calculated according to the teaching experience variable (one to five years, five to 10 years and more than 10 years). This calculation determines the significance of the differences between the mean scores of teachers belonging to the experimental group. The results are shown in Table 5.

Five to 10 years 23 5.04 2.87 11.13 2.07 More than 10 years 15 6.67 2.06 9.73 1.71 andCharacteristicsdiagnosis

In Table 4, the results of the estimated marginal means of teachers’ post test scores on the three domains of the ADHD knowledge scale are also presented. After the pre test effect was isolated, the adjusted means of the post test scores of teachers who received the in service training programme on ADHD were 10.32, 7.44 and 10.05, whereas those of teachers who did not receive any training were 6.69, 5.76 and 6.60. It comes safe to say that the results revealed that the difference was in favour of the teachers who received the in service training programme on ADHD, whose adjusted means were relatively higher than teachers who did not receive any training. That is, the in service training programme on ADHD has a more positive effect on the increase of teachers’ ADHD knowledge than on that of teachers without training.

One to five years 24 4.92 1.32 7.50 1.22 Five to 10 years 23 4.09 1.98 7.52 1.12 More than 10 years 15 5.40 1.35 7.27 1.67 Treatment One to five years 24 5.54 2.27 10.17 1.74 Five to 10 years 23 4.43 2.59 10.30 1.55 More than 10 years 15 5.33 1.95 9.47 1.69

Table 5. Means and SDs of the pre- and post-test scores of teachers on the ADHD knowledge scale due to the teaching experience variable Scale Domain ExperienceTeachingVariable N Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD knowledgeGeneral

306 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Scale Domain ExperienceTeachingVariable N Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD Total scale One to five years 24 16.08 4.54 27.58 5.36 Five to 10 years 23 13.57 6.63 28.96 3.86 More than 10 years 15 17.40 4.29 26.47 3.64 Table 5 presents the virtual differences between the mean pre test scores of teachers in the experimental group on the ADHD knowledge scale and its three domains due to the teaching experience variable. These differences were adjusted statistically by using one way ANCOVA. Moreover, Table 5 indicates the virtual differences in the mean post test scores between teachers in the experimental group on the ADHD knowledge scale and its three domains due to the teaching experience variable. One way ANCOVA was also used to determine if such differences are statistically significant p ≤ 0.05 and to statistically isolate the differences between teachers in the experimental group in the pre test of scale. The results are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Results of the one way ANCOVA test of teachers’ post test scores according to the teaching experience variable on the ADHD knowledge scale Scale Domain Source Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. knowledgeGeneral Pre test 22.278 1 22.278 3.744 experienceTeaching 34.033 2 17.017 2.860 0.065 Error 345.097 58 5.950 Corrected total 391.548 61 andCharacteristicsdiagnosis Pre test 2.551 1 2.551 1.508 experienceTeaching 0.273 2 0.137 0.081 0.923 Error 98.121 58 1.692 Corrected total 101.355 61 Treatment Pre test 5.389 1 5.389 1.996 experienceTeaching 8.269 2 4.134 1.532 0.225 Error 156.548 58 2.699 Corrected total 168.855 61 Total scale Pre test 49.078 1 49.078 2.529 experienceTeaching 86.755 2 43.378 2.235 0.116 Error 1125.445 58 19.404 Corrected total 1233.048 61 As presented in Table 6, no statistically significant differences existed between the mean post test scores of teachers from the experimental group on the ADHD knowledge scale due to the teaching experience variable (one to five years, five to years and more than 10 years). The F values for the differences between the three categories of the teaching experience variable ranged between 0.081 and 2.860,

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. which were not statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05. That is, the improvement in the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge in the experimental group does not differ according to their teaching experience. This result suggests that undergoing the training programme affects the increase of the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge with the same degree regardless of the teaching experience.

4. Discussion

The study seeks to assess the efficacy of an in service training programme to increase the level of knowledge of school teachers about ADHD. As expected, the training programme increased teachers’ ADHD knowledge, and no statistically significant effect of the teaching experience variable was observed on the increase of teachers’ ADHD knowledge levels. Based on the total score and the three subdomains of the ADHD knowledge scale, the training programme significantly improved the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental group from low to high. By contrast, those of teachers belonging to the control group remained low. Consequently, the improvement in the total post test scores of teachers in the experimental group was higher than that in the total post test scores of teachers belonging to the control group, reaching 0.458 (according to η2), which is a large effect size. This result indicated 45.8% of the variance in the levels of ADHD knowledge amongst teachers from the experimental and control groups due to the training programme conducted in the study. The η2 of each domain was 0.348, 0.257 and 0.430, suggesting the effectiveness of the in service training programme in increasing the levels of ADHD knowledge amongst teachers. The results described in this study are consistent with those in several previous investigations (Aguiar et al., 2014; Bradshaw & Kamal, 2013; Graeper, 2011; Lasisi et al., 2017; Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Obeidat, 2014; Sarraf et al., 2011; Syed & Hussein, 2010), suggesting the effectiveness of in service training programmes in increasing the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. Such an increase mightbe dueto the programme’sreliance on various educational strategies and methods, such as dialogue, discussion and participatory learning. Thus, the trainees took an active role, apart from being recipients of information. The use of worksheets before the training session also helped in identifying the topics to be discussed and in determining whether information was accurate. Teachers then directed the procedures of the training session for correcting the misconceptions amongst the trainees. The researcher evaluated what the trainees gained during the training session by submitting worksheets at the end of each session to determine the extent of their acquisition of the information provided. Subsequently, corrective feedback on their responses was provided to the trainees. The effectiveness of a training programme in increasing knowledge about ADHD might be related to the use of modern educational technologies, such as PowerPoint presentations and interactive video clips, both of which helped in attracting the attention of the trainees, thereby facilitating the delivery and clarification of information to them. Moreover, teachers’ desire to obtain further information about ADHD might have played an important role in improving their levels of ADHD knowledge, increasing their motivation to listen and participate in the training programme session. The training programme provided the trainees with practical solutions, which are applicable in the

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. classroom; these solutions encouraged them to focus on the content provided during the training programme days. The strengthening and expansion of the limited research were also highlighted; such research has been investigating the effectiveness of the training programme to increase the ADHD knowledge of teachers. To the researcher’s knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the impact of a specialised training programme for teachers on handling children with ADHD in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Methodologically, certain limitations of previous studies were addressed in the current research by involving a large sample and using a reliable measure in terms of the indications of validity and reliability; doing so made the programme coordination easily applicable and repeatable. A control group was also formed for comparison. In sum, the training programme was effective in increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge. However, no statistically significant effect of the teaching experience variable was observed on the results. That is, the in service training programme was effective in increasing the levels of ADHD knowledge of all teachers from the experimental group despite the different years of teaching experience amongst them.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

5. Limitations and Further Research

Despite these favourable results, a set of determinants was considered. Firstly, teachers who are interested in the summer training programmes facilitated by the Ministry of Education in the Eastern Region were involved; particularly the programmes offered in the academic year 2018–2019. Volunteers may find such an involvement bias and therefore restrict the generalisation of findings to teachers who are more likely than others to involve in programmes of this kind. (Corkum et al., 2019). Secondly, only ‘teaching experience’ was the considered study variable. Future studies must pay attention to other variables, such as gender, specialisation and academic qualification. Thirdly, despite the effectiveness of the training programme, the degree of ADHD knowledge retention was unverified after the post application of the study scale was completed. This verification should be included in future research. Lastly, a difference was found in the mean years of experience amongst the teachers. However, the study failed to observe an effect of this difference on the increase of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. Nevertheless, previous studies found that the teaching experience variable has a positive relationship with knowledge (Abed et al., 2014;Al Moghamsi, 2018; Alkahtani, 2013; Anderson et al., 2012;Dilaimi, 2013; Melhem, 2020; Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014; Shroff et al., 2017; Yarde Leavett, 2018).

The conclusion has several beneficial effects on the practical field, despite the abovementioned limitations. Intensive in service professional development programmes could be used to greatly increase the knowledge of ADHD teachers which provides real support to resolve this proven gap in teacher training. (Bradshaw & Kamal, 2013; Gehrman, 2013; Lasisi et al., 2017; Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Obeidat, 2014). Moreover, all teachers in the sample have not undergone training and have low levels of knowledge before applying to the

7. References Abed, M., Pearson, S., Clarke, P., & Chambers, M. (2014). Saudi Arabian Teachers' Knowledge and Beliefs about ADHD. Journal of the International Association of Special Education, 15(1), 8. Aguiar, A. P., Kieling, R. R., Costa, A. C., Chardosim, N., Dorneles, B. V., Almeida, M. R., ...Rohde,L.A.(2014). Increasingteachers’knowledge aboutADHDandlearning disorders: An investigation on the role of a psychoeducational intervention. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18(8), 691 698. Al Moghamsi, E. a. Y. A. (2018). Elementary school teachers’ knowledge of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 7(5), 907. doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_183_18 Alkahtani, K. D. (2013). Teachers’ knowledge and misconceptions of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychology, 4(12), 963. Alkhateeb,doi:10.4236/psych.2013.412139J.M.,&Alhadidi,M.S. (2019). ADHD Research in Arab Countries: A Systematic Review of Literature. Journal of attention disorders, 23(13), 1531 1545. AlZaben,doi:10.1177/1087054715623047F.N.,Sehlo,M.G.,Alghamdi, W. A., Tayeb, H. O., Khalifa, D. A., Mira, A. T., . . . Koenig, H. G. (2018). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and westerncomorbidpsychiatricandbehavioralproblemsamongprimaryschoolstudentsinSaudiArabia. Saudi medical journal, 39(1), 52. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM 5®): American Psychiatric Pub. Anderson, D. L., Watt, S. E., Noble, W., & Shanley, D. C. (2012). Knowledge of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and attitudes toward teaching children with ADHD: The role of teaching experience. Psychology in the Schools, 49(6), 511 525. doi:10.1002/pits.21617

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. training programme. Therefore, professional development programmes must be conducted during or before service to increase teachers’ ADHD knowledge, similar to the programme developed in this study. Although this intensive in service training programme cannot substitute for the integrated and general training in student behaviour management and for the strategies used in the classroom, It can be an effective first step to help teachers better recognize and reinforce the behaviours of children with ADHD by using evidence based Theapproaches.research recommendations are arranged according to the results, as follows: Firstly, future studies may assess the impact of the training programme on other variables. Secondly, educational institutions should develop the positive attitudes of teachers towards individuals with ADHD by preparing an integrated system of procedures. Thirdly, the training programme can apply to different samples, such as teachers’ pre service. Fourthly, the actual trainingneeds of school teachers in the field of special education can be investigated. Lastly, the 124 teachers involved in the study suggest a great need for training programmes within the educational field. Although the years of teaching experience have no effect on the levels of ADHD knowledge, an intensive in service training programme is highly effective in increasing such knowledge; hence addressing the established gap in teacher training that prevents teachers from meeting the needs of students with ADHD.

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Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management

IJLTER.ORG Vol 19 No 12 December 2020

Articles inside

Efficacy of Teachers’ In‐Service Training for Increasing Their Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia

The Case of Master1 Students - University of Tlemcen (Algeria

Reimagining the Sustainable and Social Justice Mathematics Classrooms in the Fourth Industrial Revolution