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Ugorji Iheanachor Ogbonnaya and Melody Mushipe Vietnamese University Freshmen

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Kateryna Andriushchenko, Vita Kovtun, Oleksandra Cherniaieva, Nadiia Datsii, Olena Aleinikova and Anatolii Mykolaiets Pedagogical Students to Design and Organize Experience based Learning in Schools

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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 9 September 2020 Table of Contents The Efficacy of GeoGebra Assisted Instruction on Students’ Drawing and Interpretations of Linear Functions 1

Tuan Van Vu and Dinh Ngoc Tran School Heads of Departments’ Roles in Advancing Science and Mathematics through the Distributed Leadership

Framework 39

Transformation of Geospatial Technology Knowledge in Pre service and Experienced Geography Teachers as Pedagogical Tools in the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Purwanto ., Sugeng Utaya, Budi Handoyo and Syamsul Bachri

Thi Hang Nguyen, Huu Quan Nguyen and Hoang Mau Chu Teachers’ Challenges and Coping Strategies in Qatari Government Schools Shaikha R. AL Naimi, Michael H. Romanowski and Xiangyun Du Didactic Aspects of Teachers’ Training for Differentiated Instruction in Modern School Practice in Ukraine Nellia Nychkalo, Larysa Lukianova, Natalya Bidyuk, Vitaliy Tretko and Kateryna Skyba Being Gritty Mean Being College Ready? Investigating the Link between Grit and College Readiness Filipino K 12 Graduates Febe Marl G. Paat, Antonio I. Tamayao, Rudolf T. Vecaldo, Maria T. Mamba, Jay Emmanuel L. Asuncion and Editha S. Pagulayan of the Efficiency of China’s Distance Economic Education in Force Majeure Circumstances Kseniia V. Tsytsiura and Ganna M. Romanova

160

Demystifying Perceptual Learning Style Preferences of

Novice

among

Transformation of the Educational Ecosystem in the Singularity Environment

in English Academic Achievement 15

...... 143

Conditioning Factors in the Integration of Technology in the Teaching of Portuguese Non Native Language: A Post COVID 19 Reflection for the Current Training of Teachers ................................................................................. 196 Joana Carvalho, Inmaculada Sánchez Casado and Sixto Cubo Delgado The Impact of a Mosque Based Islamic Education to Young British Muslim Professionals 220 Nader Al Refai Applying Agile Learning to Teaching English for Specific Purposes 238 Liudmyla Lazorenko and Oksana Krasnenko Teaching History in Ways C21st Students Learn A Design Based Research Perspective 259 Dorothy Kyagaba Sebbowa and Dick Ng'ambi Analysis of Engineering Accreditation Process and Outcomes: Lessons Learned for Successful First Time Application 281 Tahar Ayadat and Andi Asiz The Attitudes of Tertiary Level Students Towards Cooperative Learning Strategies in Afghan EFL Context 301 Rahmatullah Katawazai and Aminabibi Saidalvi The Value of Competence based Assessment in Pre service Teacher Training 320 Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo Cognitive E Tools for Diagnosing the State of Medical Knowledge in Students Enrolled for a Second Time in an Anatomy Course ................................................................................................................................................................. 341 Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales Martinez, Alberto Manuel Ángeles Castellanos, Víctor Hugo Ibarra Ramírez and Magaly Iveth Mancera Rangel The Development of Writing Module on Enhancing the Writing Skills of Omani General Foundation Program Students 363 Moustafa Mohamed Abdelmohsen, Rohaya Abdullah and Yasir Azam COVID 19 and Online Learning: A SWOT Analysis of Users’ Perspectives on Learning Management System of University of Education, Winneba, Ghana 382 Dandy George Dampson, Richardson Addai Mununkum, Stephen Kwakye Apau and Joseph Bentil

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of GeoGebra assisted instruction on students’ achievement in drawing graphs of linear functions and interpretation of the representations of linear functions These aspects of linear functions tend to pose a challenge to many students. The non equivalent control group pre test post test quasi experimental research design was used in the study. The sample was 94 Grade 9 students from three secondary schools in a province in South Africa. Two schools formed the control groups and one school was the experimental group. Data were collected using achievement tests. The tests results were analysed using inferential statistics (Kruskal Wallis and Mann Whitney U comparison tests) at 0.05 level of significance Statistically significant differences were found between the groups with respect to drawing and interpretation of linear functions graphs with the experimental group obtaining the highest mean scores. The findings suggest that GeoGebra assisted instruction might be a way of enhancing students’ ability to draw the graphs of linear functions and analyse and interpret the representations of linear functions.

The Efficacy of GeoGebra Assisted Instruction on Students’ Drawing and Interpretations of Linear Functions Ugorji Iheanachor Ogbonnaya University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6243 5953 Melody Mushipe University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4005 898X

Keywords: Drawing graphs; Geogebra; interpreting graphs; linear functions; technology

1. Introduction In mathematics, “a linear function is a function �� on the real numbers that is given by ��(��) = ��x + �� , where ��, �� are real numbers and �� ≠ 0” (Marsigit et al., 2011, In Wijayanti, 2018, p. 475) Linear functions can be represented graphically with straight lines (Laridon et al., 2004). Functions are very critical in mathematics education; they are fundamental topics in school mathematics. They are applied in many branches of mathematics and other subjects. Various

1 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 1 14, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.1

2 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. aspects of functions are utilised in real life as a basis of decision making. For example, in an everyday economic situation, a function may be used to understand how the cost of fuelling a car is related to the quantity of fuel added or how the distance travelled is related to the quantity of petrol used. Today, most statistical data in the media (depicting a relationship between two or more variables) are presented in tables and graphs of which the knowledge of linear functions will help one to make sense of most of the statistical information Fair grasp of statistical information is a necessary and valuable skill for the socio economic wellbeing of an individual and a society at large in the 21st century.

In the South African school curriculum, linear functions is formally taught in the Grades 7 9. In the Grade 9 mathematics curriculum, students are to “draw linear graphs from given equations and determine the equations of functions from given linear graphs” . Besides, students are expected to “analyse and interpret linear functions with special focus on the x intercept and y intercept, and gradient” (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p.26). The representations and interpretations of linear functions seem to be challenging for many students. One possible reason for the students’ challenge on this topic could be their inability to relate the various representations of the function. To support students’ learning of some mathematical concepts, many researchers advocate the integration of technology with the teaching of those concepts.

Similarly, the South African school curriculum supports the use of available technologies in the teaching of mathematics (Department of Basic Education, This2011)study explored the efficacy of GeoGebra assisted instruction on Grade 9 students’ drawing of linear functions graphs and interpretations of the representations of linear functions using a non equivalent control group pre test post test quasi experimental design (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011), with a sample of 94 Grade 9 students from three secondary schools in a province of South Africa. The background of the study is presented, followed by the research methodology, the findings, discussion of the findings, and the Conclusion and recommendations 1.1 Background Historically, the use of various forms of technologies (teaching aids and manipulative) has been part of education. In the past few decades, development in technology has significantly influenced teaching and learning (Akcay, 2017; Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, Ross & Specht, 2008). There is strong evidence in the literature that technology combined with an appropriate teaching approach supports the learning of many school subjects. In mathematics education, the use of technology in teaching could date back to the use of the Abacus. In the recent years, Information, communication and technology (ICT) is found to support the

Hence, the learning of linear functions is important because it “provides students with their first experience of identifying and interpreting the relationship between two dependent variables” (Pierce, 2005, p 81). According to Pierce, this experience is a significant point of transition in the students’ mathematical development.

The integration of technology (e.g. GeoGebra) with mathematics teaching agrees with the constructivist theory of learning that learning is an active process; people learn through exploration and active participation in the learning process (Slavin & Davis, 2006). The integration of technology with teaching and learning mathematics could enable students’ active engagement with the learning as they strive to make sense of mathematical concepts using technology. Dynamic geometry software technologies, such as GeoGebra, stimulates students to develop their mathematical argumentation by making conjectures and explore the outcome of their conjectures (Disbudak & Akyuz, 2019). Exploration with this technological tool leads to reflection and knowledge construction in line with the constructivist perspective of learning Many research studies in mathematics education have found the integration of some ICT tools effective in supporting the teaching and learning of some mathematical concepts (Bester & Brand, 2013; Ogbonnaya & Mji, 2012; Bray & Tangney, 2017).

1.2 Research purpose

This study explored the effectiveness of GeoGebra assisted instruction on Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in linear functions The research questions addressed are: does GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction make a statistically significant difference in Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in (i) drawing of linear functions graphs? and (ii) interpreting linear functions?

Zengin, Furkanb and Kutluca (2012) noted that “GeoGebra is a dynamic learning environment that enables its users to create mathematical objects and interact with them. GeoGebra users, can model mathematical concepts and the relationships between them” (p. 184). GeoGebra can be used to carry out statistical analysis. Users can create statistical graphs, test hypotheses and simulate real life situations (Phan Yamad & Man, 2018). It can be downloaded for free from the internet. GeoGebra makes it possible for “dynamically linked multiple representations for mathematical objects” (Hohenwarter & Lavicza, 2009, p.3) in one window as shown in the graphical and algebraic representations of the lines y= 1.5x+20 and y=x+6 in Figure 1 This feature makes GeoGebra a powerful tool for learning most mathematics topics.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. teaching and learning of mathematical concepts by enabling the visualisation of some of these concepts and thereby making learning meaningful and joyful to students (Ogbonnaya, 2010; Thambi & Eu, 2012).

To help answer the research questions the following two hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction does not significantly affect Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in (i) drawing of linear functions graphs, and (ii) interpreting of linear functions.

1.3 GeoGebra GeoGebra is an interactive mathematics software created by Markus Hohenwarter in 2002 GeoGebra brings together the features of computer algebra systems and dynamic geometry software (Hohenwarter & Jones, 2007). It is user friendly and multilingual in its menu and commands (https://www.geogebra.org)

Many studies have explored the effectiveness of GeoGebra in teaching some mathematical topics at different levels of education (Aydos, 2015; Granberg & Olsson, 2015; Takači, Stankov & Milanovic, 2015; Wassie & Zergaw, 2018) Most of the studies reported a positive effect of Geogebra on students learning. For example, Arbain and Shukor (2015) studied the impact of GeoGebra on secondary school students’ achievement in solving statistics problems in Malaysia. The study found that GeoGebra positively impacted on the students’ learning achievement in statistics In a quasi experimental with university students’ study in Jordan, Alkhateeb and Al Duwairi (2019) explored the effects of GeoGebra on the students’ learning achievement in geometry. The results show that GeoGebra had a positive effect on the students’ achievement Pjanić and Lidan (2015) studied the influence of GeoGebra on pre service mathematics teachers’ content knowledge of the area of a trapezium, in a university in Turkey. The result of their study showed that the use of GeoGebra applet had a positive effect on the pre service teachers’ knowledge of trapezium In Pakistan, Khalil, Farooq, Çakıroğlu, Khalil and Khan (2018), studied the effect of GeoGebra aided instructions on the mathematical achievement of Grade 12 students in Analytic Geometry. The researchers compared the learning achievement of (i) high achievers in the GeoGebra aided instruction class and high achievers in the non GeoGebra aided instruction class, (ii) low achievers in the GeoGebra aided instruction class, and low achievers in the non GeoGebra aided instruction class. The results showed that in both the high and low achievers’ categories, the students in the GeoGebra aided instruction class significantly achieved better than the students in the non GeoGebra aided instruction class. Besides, the students of GeoGebra aided instruction class had low standard deviation indicating that the GeoGebra instructions positively affected all the students in the class In a similar research study, Seloraji and Eu (2017) found that Geogebra integrated teaching enhanced students’ performance in geometry in Malaysia.

Figure 1: Example of GeoGebra window

2.1 Research design and sample

The effect of GeoGebra on the mathematics learning of underprivileged students with low mathematical ability was explored by Amam, Fatimah, Hartono and Effendi (2017) in Indonesia. The mathematics topic of the study was trigonometry. The study showed that GeoGebra positively impacted the students’ mathematics learning achievement and motivation to learn InmathematicsSouthAfrica,

Pfeiffer (2017) found that GeoGebra enhanced pre-degree students’ understanding of functions and other mathematics topics Mthethwa (2015) explored the effect of GeoGebra on students’ learning of Euclidean geometry in some secondary schools in South Africa. The study found that the students enjoyed learning with GeoGebra and found the GeoGebra assisted learning motivating. Similarly, Godebo (2018) studied Grade 11 students’ experiences and perceptions on GeoGebra in learning Euclidean geometry in some secondary schools in South Africa. The researcher found that GeoGebra enhanced students’ understanding of Euclidean Geometry

Some other studies (e.g. Bulut, Akçakın, Kaya, & Akçakın, 2016; Jelatu, Sariyasa, & Ardana, 2018; Mustafa, 2015; Zulnaidi, Oktavika & Hidayat, 2020) show that GeoGebra is effective in enhancing students’ learning of some mathematical concepts. On the contrary, a few studies found reported that GeoGebra did not have any significant effect on students’ learning of some mathematical concepts when compared with the pencil and paper method. For example, Masri, Hiong, Tajudin, Zamzana and Shah (2016) in a study on the effects of GeoGebra integrated Teaching on Malaysian Secondary school students’ performance of Circle III topic did not find any significant effect of teaching the GeoGebra

2. Research Methodology

In all, the literature discussed in this section, show strong evidence of the positive effect of GeoGebra on students’ learning of many mathematics topics. Equally, the findings from the literature suggest that GeoGebra could have a significant effect on students’ linear functions learning achievement in the South African context.

The study used a non equivalent control group pre test post test quasi experimental design. Non equivalence control group quasi experimental design is a between subjects design in which the experimental and control groups are not equated by randomisation (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011). The students who participated had not been randomly assigned to the classes; instead, intact classes were used to avoid disruption of classes.

The participants were 94 Grade 9 students from three underperforming schools The schools are in rural communities in the same geographical area in a Province in South Africa. The students are from poor socio economic backgrounds hence they do not pay school fees and they are provided with free meals at school by the government. The schools were purposively selected because of their record of persistent poor achievement in mathematics over the years. The sample comprised 31 students (15 girls and 16 boys) from school A,

2.2 Data collection instrument

The teaching in the control groups involved the traditional teacher explanations, followed by some examples on the chalkboard and giving of exercises. GeoGebra was not introduced to these students either before or during the intervention. In the experimental group, GeoGebra was used to teach the lessons The students were introduced to GeoGebra in the first lesson. During the lessons, the teacher introduced the lesson, used GeoGebra to explain some of the concepts, and gave exercise to the students to work through using GeoGebra while the teacher monitors the students and helped them when they needed help or further explanations. The lessons in all the schools were taught following the lesson schedule provided by the Provincial Department of Basic

35 students (16 girls and 19 boys) from school B, and 28 students (16 girls and 12 boys) from school C. Schools A and C were the control groups while School B was the experimental group. School B was chosen as the experimental group because it had some computers that were donated to the school by an organisation. The computers were not used for teaching before the time of the study. The two control groups were used to ensure that the effects of any confounding variables are minimised because “two control groups can yield consistent and unbiased estimates of bounds on the treatment effect when conventional adjustments fail” (Rosenbaum, 1987, p.297).

The teaching in all the groups followed 10 one hour lessons designated for teaching the topic. The lessons were taught by the teachers in their schools. The teachers used the Department of Basic Education worksheets in teaching the topic. The worksheets were issued to the teachers during cluster meetings where teachers in an area meet and plan lessons together. The teachers were all professionally qualified mathematics teachers and have had a minimum of 5 years of teaching experience. They have all been given basic training on GeoGebra by the curriculum adviser before this study

The instrument used for data collection was a linear functions achievement test. The test consisted of five questions with sub questions that examined students’ knowledge of drawing and interpreting linear functions For example, draw the graph y = 2x 1 explored the students’ ability to draw linear functions graphs What is the y intercept of y = 2x 3? explored the students’ ability to interpret a representation of a linear functions. The test questions were developed by three mathematics teachers with over 5 years of teaching experience The test served as the pre test and the post test. The test was checked and validated by 2 mathematics education specialists (called mathematics subject advisers in the Department of Education). The validator adjudged the questions relevant for the study and at the appropriate cognitive levels. The reliability of the test was ascertained using data from a trial study conducted in another school. The reliability of the test was calculated using the Kuder Richardson (KR 10) formula (McMillan & Schumacher, 2013). An alpha value of 0.72 was obtained. This value indicates that the test was reliable (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009)

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

2.3 Interventions

2.5 Ethical considerations

31 2.00 50.00 17.74 10.80

7 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Education. Hence, the same contents were covered in all the schools over the same period according to the lesson plan. After the data collection, the teachers in the control group schools were encouraged to introduce GeoGebra to their students.

31 0.00 65.22 29.03 15.16

35 30.43 82.61 57.51 15.10

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the results of the tests Group N Min Max Mean Std. D Pre (General)test A 31 0.00 7.00 1.52 1.59 B 35 0.00 8.00 2.11 1.81 C 28 0.00 7.00 1.61 (General)test A B C Post Drawingtest graph A B C functionsofInterpretationtestlinear A B C

28 6.00 50.00 18.43 11.13

35 0.00 81.48 42.65 24.21

28 0.00 40.74 6.08 10.49 Post

35 16.00 74.00 48.49 15.01

28 13.04 60.87 32.92 13.97

To test for any statistically significant differences the a non parametric inferential statistics test namely the Kruskal Wallis (KW) conducted. The non parametric inferential because

Inferential statistics were used for data analyses. The tests scores were tested for normality using the Shapiro Wilk test to establish whether the data were normally distributed and thus determine whether a parametric or non parametric test should be carried out on the data. The results of the test of normality for both tests showed that the scores were not normally distributed (p<0.05). Hence, non parametric tests (namely Kruskal Wallis [KW] and Mann Whitney U [MWU] comparison tests) were conducted.

Permission was obtained from the provincial education authority and the management of the schools before the commencement of the study. Also, informed consent was obtained from participants in writing before the study commenced. To ensure the confidentiality of the participants and the schools, the names of the schools and students are not mentioned anywhere in reporting the research.

The summary of the tests results is presented in Table 1. The pre test mean scores were 1.52, 2.11, and 1.61 for groups A, B, and C respectively The overall post test mean scores were 17.74, 48.49, and 18.43 for groups A, B, and C respectively. Besides, the groups’ post test mean scores were 8.12, 42.65, and 6.08 in drawing linear functions graphs, and 29.03, 57.51, and 32.92 in the interpretation of linear functions, for groups A, B and C respectively.

1.64 Post

test was

statistics test was used

2.4 Data analysis

3. Findings

31 0.00 55.56 8.12 15.95

groups’ tests scores,

Table 3: KW Test result Drawing Linear Functions Graphs

Rank Test statistics Group N Mean rank A 31 43.00 Kruskal Wallis H 3.339 B 35 53.84 df 2 C 28 44.55 Asymp. Sig. .188 Total 94

8 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the students’ tests scores in the three groups were not found to be normally distributed. The result of the KW test of the groups’ pre test scores is shown in Table 2. Table 2: Result of the Kruskal-Wallis test of the pre-test scores

The descriptive statistics of the post test results (Table 1) show that group B (the experimental group) had the highest mean score among the three groups in the post test (in general and in drawing and interpreting linear functions). The interest of this paper was on the effectiveness of GeoGebra on the students’ drawing linear functions graphs and interpreting linear functions. Accordingly, further analyses of the post test results were carried out. 3.1 Drawing linear graphs

The KW test result shows that there was no statistically significant difference between any two groups (H(2) = 3.339, p>0.05) in the pre test. Based on this, one might say that mean pre test scores of the students in all the groups were similar. Hence, the three groups were of comparable ability in drawing and interpreting linear functions before the treatment.

The KW test result of the groups in drawing graphs of linear functions (Table 3) shows mean ranks of 34.18, 70.20, and 33.88 for groups A, B, and C respectively.

The KW test result (H(2) = 43.07, p<0.001), shows that a statistically significant difference exits between the mean ranks of at least two groups in drawing linear functions graphs. Therefore, a post hoc analysis (MWU test) was run to check where the differences existed in groups. MWU test descriptive statistics (Table 4) show that in all cases, the mean rank of group B (the experimental group) was higher than the mean ranks of Groups A and C (the control groups) in drawing linear functions graphs.

Rank Test statistics School N Mean rank A 31 34.18 Kruskal Wallis H 43.072 B 35 70.20 df 2 C 28 33.88 Asymp. Sig. .000 Total 94

3.2 Interpreting linear functions

The KW test of the groups’ achievement scores on the interpretation of the linear functions (Table 5) shows mean ranks of 31.87, 70.66, and 36.62 for groups A, B, and C respectively.

Table 5: KW Test result Interpreting Linear Functions Rank statistics Test statistics School N Mean rank A 31 31.53 Kruskal Wallis H 40.909 B 35 70.66 df 2 C 28 36.23 Asymp. Sig. .000 Total 94 The KW test statistics provide very strong evidence of a difference between the mean rank of at least two groups in the interpretation of linear functions (H(2) = 40.91, p<.05). To ascertain where the differences existed in groups, a post hoc

9 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 4: The MWU test result drawing Linear Functions Graphs Ranks Test statistics Group N Meanrank Sumranksof A 31 29.74 922.00 Mann Whitney U 426.000 C 28 30.29 848.00 Wilcoxon W 922.000 Total 59 Z .146 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .884 A 31 20.44 633.50 Mann Whitney U 137.500 B 35 45.07 1577.50 Wilcoxon W 633.500 Total 66 Z 5.375 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .000 C 28 18.09 506.50 Mann Whitney U 100.500 B 35 43.13 1509.50 Wilcoxon W 506.500 Total 63 Z 5.511 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .000

The test Statistics between Groups A and C (the control groups) show that no statistically significant difference existed between their achievements scores (U = 426, p > 0.05). However, the test Statistics between Groups A and B shows that the achievement of Group B was statistically significantly higher than the achievement of Group A (U = 138, p < 0.05, r = .66). Similarly, the test Statistics between Groups B and C shows that the achievement of Group B was statistically significantly higher than the achievement of Group C (U = 101, p < 0.05, r = .69). Based on these, the hypothesis that GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction does not significantly affect Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in the drawing of linear functions graphs was rejected. Hence, it was concluded that GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction significantly affected the Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in drawing of linear functions graphs. Moreover, the effect sizes (0.66 and 0.69) indicate that the differences between the experimental group and the control groups were large (Cohen 1988).

This study explored the effectiveness of GeoGebra assisted instruction on Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in drawing and interpreting linear graphs. The results showed that the students taught via GeoGebra assisted instruction, significantly achievement better than the control groups students in drawing and interpreting linear functions. The result appears to corroborate the findings of several previous studies (e.g. Kushwaha, Chaurasia & Singhal, 2014; Seloraji & Eu, 2017; Praveen & Leong, 2013; Rahman & Puteh, 2017). In particular, the finding of this study agrees with the findings of some other research studies in South Africa (for example, Godebo, 2018; Pfeiffer, 2017;), that GeoGebra has a significant positive effect on students’ learning achievement in some mathematics concepts. The positive effect of GeoGebra on students learning achievement found in this study could be because the interactive nature of GeoGebra (Hohenwarter &

10 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. analysis using the MWU test was carried out. The result (Table 6) shows that group B (GeoGebra group) achieved above each of the non GeoGebra groups. Table 6: MWU Test result - in Interpreting Linear Functions Ranks Test statistics Group N Meanrank Sumranksof A 31 28.24 875.50 Mann Whitney U 379.500 C 28 31.95 894.50 Wilcoxon W 875.500 Total 59 Z .833 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .405 A 31 19.29 598.00 Mann Whitney U 102.000 B 35 46.09 1613.00 Wilcoxon W 598.000 Total 66 Z 5.678 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .000 C 28 18.79 526.00 Mann Whitney U 120.000 B 35 42.57 1490.00 Wilcoxon W 526.000 Total 63 Z 5.141 Asymp. Sig. (1 tailed) .000

The test Statistics between the control groups (A and C) show that no statistically significant difference existed between their achievements scores (U = 379.5, p > 0.05). Nevertheless, the test Statistics between Groups A and B show that the achievement of Group B was statistically significantly higher than the achievement of Group A ((U = 102, p < 0.05, r = .70). Equally, the test Statistics between Groups B and C shows that the achievement of Group B was statistically significantly higher than the achievement of Group C (U = 120, p < 0.05, r = .65). Based on these results, the hypothesis that GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction does not significantly affect Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in interpreting linear functions was rejected. GeoGebra assisted linear functions instruction significantly affected the Grade 9 students’ learning achievement in interpreting of linear functions. The effect sizes of 0.65 and 0.70 indicate that the differences between the Geogebra group and the control groups were large.

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Jones, 2007) enabled the students in the GeoGebra assisted instruction to thoroughly explore and grasp linear functions better than the students in the control groups. Moreover, GeoGebra makes it easy for one to accurately draw graphs Correctly drawn graphs enhance visualisation, understanding, and interpretation.

The study adds to the evidence suggesting that the use of technology, and in particular GeoGebra, in teaching some topics in mathematics might result in higher levels of student achievement than the traditional ‘chalk and talk’ method. We recommend that teachers explore the effectiveness of integrating GeoGebra and other information and communication technologies with their teaching of mathematical topics in general. We also recommend that the Department of Basic Education and all other stakeholders in mathematics education in the country should encourage teachers to integrate GeoGebra in mathematics teaching. When teachers begin to use GeoGebra in teaching it will likely encourage students to learn mathematics by themselves. The concomitant effect would be improved student learning as desired by the Government and all stakeholders in mathematics education in the country.

Students’ enjoyment of technology assisted instructions has been observed in other studies to lead to more student engagement with the subject content and consequently higher achievement outcomes (Mthethwa, 2015, Ogbonnaya, 2010; Thambi & Eu, 2012)

Another factor that the findings of this study might be attributed to is the younger generations’ love for technology (Bester & Brand, 2013). In all possibility, students in the experimental group might have enjoyed their learning of linear function more than the students in the control groups.

The study found that GeoGebra assisted instruction had significantly affected 9th Graders learning achievement in linear graphs and interpretations of linear functions. The findings suggest that GeoGebra assisted mathematics instruction has the potential to enhance students’ achievement in linear functions. Hence, GeoGebra assisted mathematics instruction might contribute to improved students’ mathematics learning and consequently the technological and socio economic development of the country. We, therefore, recommend more research studies on the efficacy of technology assisted instruction on students’ learning of linear functions and other mathematics concepts.

Zulnaidi, Oktavika and Hidayat (2020) noted that “GeoGebra can illustrate mathematical concepts and procedures well through visuals and graphs, which considerably aid students in mastering and understanding concepts and procedures pertaining to functions” (p.1). In contrast, drawing graphs manually is prone to error and makes it difficult for one to understand and interpret the graphs accurately. So, accurately drawing of the graphs using GeoGebra could have helped the students in the GeoGebra assisted class to learn better than their counterparts did not learn using Geogebra

6. References Akcay, A. O. (2017). Instructional Technologies and Pre Service Mathematics Teachers’ Selection of Technology. JournalofEducationand Practice,8(7), 163 173. Alkhateeb, M. A., & Al Duwairi, A. M. (2019). The Effect of Using Mobile Applications (GeoGebra and Sketchpad) on the Students’ Achievement. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 14(3), 523 533. https://doi.org/10.29333/iejme/5754

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Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Many schools in the country do not have ICT facilities to enable the use of GeoGebra or any computer based technology in teaching. Hence, we recommend the provision of ICT facilities in all the schools in the country so that teachers and students will be able to use Geogebra for mathematics teaching and Furthermore,learning. we recommend that mathematics teachers be offered the relevant professional development workshops to acquaint them with the affordances of GeoGebra for mathematics teaching. This will likely enhance their knowledge and dispositions towards the use of GeoGebra in teaching.

Amam, A., Fatimah, A. T., Hartono, W., & Effendi, A. (2017). Mathematical Understanding of the Underprivileged Students through GeoGebra. Journal of Physics: Conf. Series, 895 012007, 1 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742 6596/895/1/012007 Arbain, N., & Shukor, N. A (2015). The effects of GeoGebra on students’ achievement. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172, 208 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.356 Aydos, M. (2015). The impact of teaching mathematics with GeoGebra on the conceptual understanding of limits and continuity: the case of Turkish gifted and talented students (Master’s thesis). İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Bester, G., & Brand, L. (2013). The effect of using technology on learner attention and achievement in the classroom. South AfricanJournalofEducation, 33(2), 1 15. Bray, A., & Tangney, B. (2017). Technology usage in mathematics education research A systematic review of recent trends. Computers and Education, 114, 255 273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.07.004

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Khalil, M., Farooq, R. A., Çakıroğlu, E., Khalil, U., & Khan, D. M. (2018). The Development of Mathematical Achievement in Analytic Geometry of Grade 12 Students through GeoGebra Activities. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education,14(4), 1453 1463. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83681

Laridon, P., Barnes, H., Kitto, A., Myburg, M., Pike, M., Scheiber, J., Sigabi M., & Wilson, H. (2004) Classroom mathematics: Grade 10 learners’ book Sandton: Heinemann Masri, R., Hiong, T. S., Tajudin, N. M., Zamzana, Z. Z., & Shah, R. L. Z. (2016). The effects of using GeoGebra teaching strategy in Malaysian secondary schools: A case study from Sibu, Sarawak. MalaysianJournalof Society and Space, 12(7), 13 25. McMillan, J., & Schumacher, S. (2013). Research in education: Evidence based inquiry, New York: Pearson. Mthethwa, M. Z. (2015). Application of GeoGebra on Euclidean geometry in rural high schools: Grade11 learners (Master’s dissertation). University of Zululand, South Africa. Mueller, J., Wood, E., Willoughby, T., Ross, C., & Specht, J. (2008). Identifying discriminating variables between teachers who fully integrate computers and teachers with limited integration. Computers& Education,51(4), 1523 1537.

Mustafa, A. (2015) The impact of teaching mathematics with GeoGebra on the conceptual understanding of limits and continuity: The case of Turkish gifted and talented students, (Master’ s dissertation). İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University, Turkey Ogbonnaya, U. I. (2010) Improving the teaching and learning of parabolic functions by the use of information and communication technology. African Journal of Research inMathematics,Scienceand Technology Education, 14(1), 49 60. Ogbonnaya, U. I., & Mji, A. (2012). Enhancing students’ learning of hyperbolic functions by the use of information and communication technology Proceedings of 5th Annual International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (Edulearn), Barcelona, Spain, 5619 5216. Pfeiffer, C. (2017) A study of the development of mathematical knowledge in a GeoGebra focused learning environment (Doctoral thesis). Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch. Pierce, R. (2005). Linear functions and the triple influence of teaching on the development of students’ algebraic expectations, Proceedings of the 19th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Melbourne, Australia, 4, 81 88. Pjanić, K., & Lidan, E. (2015). One Usage of Geogebra in Enhancing Pre service Mathematics Teachers’ Content Knowledge. Turkish Journal of Computer and MathematicsEducation,6(1), 18 30. https://doi.org/10.16949/turcomat.78085

Hohenwarter, M., & Jones, K. (2007). Ways of linking geometry and algebra: The case of GeoGebr. Proceedings of British Society for Research into Learning Mathematics, 27 (3), 126 131. Hohenwarter, M., & Lavicza, Z. (2009). The strength of the community: how GeoGebra can inspire technology integration in mathematics teaching. MSOR Connections, 9(2), 3 5. Jelatu, S., Sariyasa, & Ardana, I. M. (2018) Effect of GeoGebra Aided REACT Strategy on Understanding of Geometry Concepts International Journal of Instruction, 11(4), 325 336. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11421a

13 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Godebo, G. H. (2018). Application of GeoGebra on Euclidean geometry in rural high schools: Grade11 learners (Master’ s dissertation) University of Zululand, South Africa. Granberg, C., & Olsson, J. (2015). ICT supported problem solving and collaborative creative reasoning: Exploring linear functions using dynamic mathematics software. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 37, 48 62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2014.11.001

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Richardson, V. (2003) Constructivist pedagogy TeachersCollegeRecord, 105(9), 1623 1640. Slavin, R. E., & Davis N. (2006) Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. East Montpelier: Johnson State College Seloraji, P., & Eu, L. K. (2017) Students’ performance in geometrical reflection using GeoGebra Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 5(1), 65 77.

14 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Phan Yamad, T., & Man, S. W. (2018). Teaching statistics with GeoGebra. North American GeoGebraJournal,7(1), 14 24 Praveen, S., & Leong, K. (2013) Effectiveness of using GeoGebra on students’ understanding of circles The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 1(4), 1 11. Rahman, M. H. A., & Puteh, M. (2017) Learning trigonometry using GeoGebra learning module: Are underachiever pupils motivated? Sains humanika, 9(1 2), 39 42. https://doi.org/10.11113/sh.v9n1

2.1095 Rosenbaum, P. R. (1987). The role of a second control group in an observational study. StatisticalScience, 2(3), 292 306. Kushwaha, R. C., Chaurasia, P. K., & Singhal, A. (2014). Impact on students’ achievement in teaching mathematics using GeoGebra, Proceedings of IEEE Sixth International Conference on Technology for Education, Amrita University, 34 137.

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Takači, D., & Vukobratović, R. (2011). On the role of GeoGebra in examining functions. Proceedings of the International GeoGebra Conference for Southeast Europe, Novi Sad Serbia, 53 60. Thambi, N., & Eu, L. K. (2012) Effect of students’ achievement in fractions using GeoGebra SAINSAB, 16, 97 106. Wassie, Y. A., & Zergaw, G. A. (2018). Capabilities and Contributions of the Dynamic Math Software, GeoGebra A review. North American GeoGebra Journal, 7(1), 68 86. Wijayanti, D. (2018). Two notions of ‘linear function’ in lower secondary school and missed opportunities for students’ first meeting with functions. The Mathematics Enthusiast, 15(3), 467 481. Zengin, Y., Furkanb, H., & Kutluca, T. (2012). The effect of dynamic mathematics software GeoGebra on student achievement in teaching of trigonometry. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 183 187 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.038

15 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 15 38, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.2 Demystifying Perceptual Learning Style Preferences of Vietnamese University Freshmen in English Academic Achievement Tuan Van Vu Hanoi Law University 87 Nguyen Chi Thanh street, Dong Da district, Ha Noi city, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3066 7338 Dinh Ngoc Tran Hanoi Law University 87 Nguyen Chi Thanh street, Dong Da district, Ha Noi city, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4868 4758 Abstract. theespeciallyLearningstylesplayanimportantroleinteachingandlearning,insecondlanguageacquisition.Thisstudyaimstoinvestigateperceptuallanguagelearningstylepreferenceof385firstyear university students in Vietnam. Adapting Reid’s (1984) learning style questionnaire is used as a data gathering tool in which it was responded and retrieved via students’ emails incorporated with Google form. The results revealed that freshmen were active learners since they mostly comparisonbetweenIndividualKinestheticbelongedto4majorlearningstyles,namelyTactile,Auditory,Group,andlearners,and2minorlearningstyles,i.e.Visualandlearners.Inaddition,thestudydidnotfindthedifferencesgenderaswellasmajorandnonmajorEnglishstudentsinwit h learning styles. Besides, freshmen’s English academic achievement was highly influenced by their learning styles. The research findings contribute resourceful references to the formation of stakeholders’ policies on English language teaching and learning, teachers of English, and future studies. Keywords: Major learning style; Minor learning style; Model; Second language acquisition 1. Introduction In the educational setting, different learners have their own ways to acquire the second languages (L2), and the issue of learning style preferences (hereafter, LSP) has been investigated in a number of studies until now. Some learning style models have been proposed and widely acknowledged since 1970s (Dunn & Dunn, 1978; Kolb, 1985; Reid, 1984; Fleming, 2001). These researchers categorized

Moreover, language learning styles are also one of the most important determinants of educational achievement. Obviously, some learners can still gain simple knowledge even if there is a mismatch between the learning materials and their learning styles, but they can learn better and faster if their learning resources are in accordance with their learning style strengths (Stevenson & Dunn, 2001).

Raising awareness about learners’ LSP plays an important role in acquiring the second language (Sadeghiet al., 2012). Thus, motivating language learners is pertinent in the current language teaching and its associated learning environments. Besides, language teachers commonly blame their learners’ academic weaknesses and/or poor performance for the learners’ cognitive measures (i.e. intelligence and mental abilities), poor vocabulary knowledge, inability to listen well or reading disabilities, etc. while studying learners’ individual differences have been paid little attention. In practice, different variables have caused many debates on how to assess learner’s failure or success in academic performance (Furnham & Monsen, 2009). Oxford (1989) claims that language learning styles and strategies are the most essential variables which strongly affect learners’ performance in a second language. Language learning styles are considered as a valid psychological construct according to the notion which is put forward in a research in educational settings by Sim et al. (1989).

Therefore, getting to know students’ LSP helps teachers either design suitable learning materials to meet their students’ demands, who possess different stylistic preferences or improve students’ learning strategies. With reference to the related studies, many studies have been conducted to investigate the influence of LSP towards the academic performance (Almigbal, 2015; Bogamuwa,2017;Magdalena, 2015; Wilson, 2012;Ajideh etal., 2018),gender differences (Bidabadi & Yamat, 2010; Dobson, 2010; Choudhary et al., 2011; Sarabi Asiabar et al., 2014; Shuib & Azizan, 2015), English language achievement (Afshara et al., 2015; Al zayed, 2017; Gohar & Sadeghi, 2014; Komlosi, 2018; Moo & Eamoraphan, 2018; Santos, 2017), and teaching instructions (Gilakjani, 2012; Hallin, 2014; Khaki et al., 2015; Olivosa et al., 2016). Given the role of cultural background, the findings of some researches (Wu, 2010; Sywelem et al., 2012) indicate different frequencies of learning style categories which are employed by learners in ESL or EFL contexts. As the matter of fact, most learners have not thought about their learning style preferences, which are considered as a vital role in determining an individual’s preferred way of learning. Though in Vietnam, English has gradually grown and expanded since the period from 1986 to the present (Hoang, 2010), studies on learners’ learning style preferences have not been paid much attention and are kept marginalized. In other words, very few studies have been carried out to

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. LSP into some specific styles. Since then, many studies have been carried out to findout thecongruencybetween LSPandEnglish language achievement(Afshara et al., 2015; Al zayed, 2017; Gohar & Sadeghi, 2014; Tabatabaeia & Mashayekhi, 2013; Wilson, 2012). Other studies have investigated the influence of LSP on the academic achievement (Almigbal, 2015; Bhattacharyya & Sarip, 2014; Khanum, 2014; Yee et al., 2015), and other influential fields as well.

Different researchers share the similarities and dissimilarities in terms of the classification of language learning styles to some extent. Among the classifications, some language learning style models such as Reid (1995), Dunn and Dunn (1978/1992), Fleming (2001), Kolb (1985), Gregorc (1979), Felder and Silverman (1988) are widely recognized and accepted.

2. Literature review

2. What is the correlation between learning style preferences and gender?

2.2. Classification of language learning style models

1. What are Vietnamese freshmen’s English learning style preferences?

Teaching methodology has undergone the shift from teacher centered teaching approach to the state of art learner centered teaching one which focuses on the role of learners in second language acquisition. Up to the present, the definition of language learning styles has attracted educational experts’ and researchers’ attention. In simple term, a learning style, also referred as cognitive style or cognitive strategy is a particular way of learning preferred by a learner. Different learners have their own ways in learning, and an activity which is accomplished by learners whose learning style prefers a visual mode of learning, may not be helpful or successful with a learner who favours auditory or kinesthetic modes of learning. Therefore, it is teacher’s responsibility to recognize different learning styles among their learners because differences in learning styles are accounted for the way learners approach learning tasks, and the success of those tasks (Richards& Schmidt, 2014). The definition of language learning styles dates back to the late 1970s. Remarkably, Reid (1987) defines perceptual learning styles or interchangeably learning styles as the differences that learners use one or more senses to understand, organize, and retain experience. In another definition proposed by Dunn (1990), learning styles are defined as the way in which individuals begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and retain new information. Kolb (1985) defines learning style as the generalized differences in learning orientation, so learning is regarded as the process whereby knowledge is accumulated through the transformation of experiences. Gregorc (1979) defines learning styles as “distinctive and observable behaviors that provide clues about the mediation abilities of individuals and how their minds relate to the world and, therefore, how they learn” (Gregorc, 1979, p. 19). Meanwhile, Fleming (2001) defines learning style as “an individual’s characteristics and preferred ways of gathering, organizing, and thinking about information. VARK is in the category of instructional preference because it deals with perceptual modes. It is focused on the different ways that we take in and give out information” (Fleming, 2001, p. 1).

2.1. Definition of language learning style preferences

3. What is the hypothesis that there is no relationship between language learning styles and the English language achievement?

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. identify Vietnamese students’ English learning style preferences. This study attempts to investigate Vietnamese students’ English learning style preferences at the tertiary level using Reid’s perceptual learning style model taking into consideration the following questions;

Another popular learning style model is widely acknowledged by Gregorc (1979), which focuses on phenomenological model. He asserts that individuals have natural predispositions for learning together with four bipolar, continuous mind qualities which function as mediators because individuals learn from and react to the surroundings.Themodel Gregorc(1979) suggested isalsocalled Gregorc Style Delieator which includes four learning styles, namely concrete sequential, abstract sequential, abstract random, and concrete random. In line with Gregorc’s (1979) learning style model, Kolb (1985) has a different approach basing on the experimental learning theory (hereafter ELT). ELT combines between a holistic model of the learning process and a multi linear model of adult development. Kolb (1985) explains the terminology “experiential” for its intellectual source in the experimental work of Dewey’s philosophical pragmatism, Piaget’s cognitive developmental genetic epistemology, and Lewin’s social psychology, which shape a unique perspective on development and learning. Kolb’s (1985) ELT comprises of four basic learning styles, namely diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator on a model with two dimensions. Diverger refers to a strong imaginative ability, good judgement from different perspectives, creativity, and good interpersonal skills. Meanwhile, assimilators yield theoretical models, encourage inductive reasoning, and work with abstract ideas. Converger, however, has a strong practical orientation, promote deductive thinking, and seem unemotional. Finally, accommodators involve in risk taking activities, and dealing with problems intuitively.

Filder and Silverman (1988) introduced another learning/teaching style model which was originated in the engineering sciences. This model describes that individuals’ learning style preferences are included in five bipolar continua such as the active reflective, the sensing intuitive, the verbal visual, the sequential global, and the intuitive deductive. In particular, active learners enjoy working in

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Reid’s perceptual learning styles (1995) were used as the back up theory behind the current study. In his view, learning styles are classified into three main categories, namely personality learning styles, cognitive learning styles, and sensory learning styles. Based on learner’s personality, personality learning styles can be divided into some learning styles such as extrovert, introvert, sensing, perception, thinking, feeling, judging, perceiving, ambiguity tolerant, ambiguity intolerant, left brained, and right brained learners. Meanwhile, cognitive learning styles can be further split into field independent and field dependent, analytic and global, and reflective and impulsive. Finally, sensory learning styles can be classified into three main classifications, particularly personality learning styles, environmental learning styles, and perceptual learning styles. Basically, perceptual learning style preferences refer to the perceptual channels which students choose their own favoured ways of learning. According to Reid (1984), perceptual learning style preferences are categorized into auditory (involved in listening to lectures and radio recording), tactile (lab experiments, hand on), visual (reading and studying diagrams), group (group work, share study group), kinesthetic (relating to movement or physical activity), and individual learning (studying on own).

Dunn and Dunn (1992) propose a learning style model called the productivity environmental preference survey (PEPS). This model includes 5 learning style stimuli and sub elements within each stimulus, i.e. environmental with its representative elements, namely temperature, room design, light, or sound; sociological (individual learning, pairwork with either peers or teachers, or both); physiological (chronological energy pattern, perceptual, mobility needs, and intake while learning); and psychological processing (hemisphericity, global or analytic, and impulsive or reflective). This model strengthens the role of individuals to find out, synthesize, and retain new information.

Learning involves developing various aspects of learners’ progress and improvement in terms of self efficacy, self direction, self regulation, self control, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation. Academic performance, which is regarded as a directly observable indicator of learning, reflects the efficiency resulting from the mobilization of cognitive and emotional volitional resources of learners doing certain task based activities (Dobson, 2010; Yee et al., 2015; Hamdani, 2015; Almigbal, 2015; Moo & Eamoraphan, 2018). Learners’ performances refer to the level of obtained academic results, the qualititative and quantitative improvements in academic involvements. That is, it can be possibly predicted and explained students’ learning performance thanks to a certain degree of probability such as known factors and ways that their effects are implemented (Magdalena, 2015). The prediction of students’ academic performance includes the anticipation of certain results in learning. From pedagogical perspective, the success of

Fleming (2001) develops a sensory model which is referred to VARK model, standing for Visual, Aural, Read/write, and Kinesthetic. The four perceptual modes also have the differences among them. Visual learners prefer the intuitive representations, for example charts, flow charts, pictures, different spatial arrangements, etc. Aural learners, however, are dynamic because they like demonstrating themselves in actions such as topic discussion, group work, idea exchanges, retelling stories, and so on. Meanwhile, read/write learners tend to perceive receptiveness via textbooks, printed handouts, manuals, surfing the internet, or taking notes. Finally, kinesthetic learners prefer extroverted activities such as apprentice, laboratories, problem solving, project learning, field trips, or hand on experiences. Thus, VARK model describes the perceptual modes that learners prefer using to give out information.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Verbal learners want to participate in discussions, to listen and express their opinions, meanwhile visual learners enjoy perceiving symbols, words, flow charts, or reading books. Finally, sequential learners like step by step procedures, linear reasoning, and systematic solutions, global learners are, in contrast, regarded as synthesizers and integrators, who like making intuitive discoveries and connections to grasp the whole system.

groups while reflective learners need their own privacy to work individually to save time considering carefully the task before doing it. Sensing learners prefer data, figures, experimentation, and detailed work whereas intuitive learners would like theories and ideas, they especially like creating innovative and new initiatives.

2.3. Learning style preference with academic performance

2.4. Factors Affecting Language learning Style Preference

Second Language Acquisition

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. academic performance accounts for the application and implementation of instructive actions (Hamdani, 2015; Khaki et al., 2015; Almigbal, 2015). Academic performance depends onthe application and pedagogical practices by teachers on the interactions between strategies and educational goals (Ahmad, 2011; Komlosi, 2018; Muhtar, 2014; Li, 2012; Wong, 2015). Therefore, LSP plays an important role as a predictor of academic achievement and academic success default.

Cultural perspectives

The following factors greatly affect language learning styles to a certain extent. Different genders may have dissimilar views on LSP, learners’ cultural differences might lead to different perceptions towards LSP. Moreover, LSP can be clearly recognized in second language acquisition. Gender

Another factor which can influence LSP is learners’ cultural perspectives. Studies (Santos, 2017; Khanum, 2014; Shih, et al., 2013) have proved that it is important to get to know about the cultural perspectives in LSP. Investigating the English language learning style of the higher secondary learners in Bangladesh, Khanum (2014) stresses the importance of the cultural behavior in which he recommends. that teachers should incorporate culture related style differences into the learning styles. Different cultural background may happen at a small educational setting or in different educational environments, cultural background to a certain extent influences language learners’ learning style preferences (Santos, 2017).

Furthermore, understanding cultural background could help learners avoid cultural shocks in cross cultural tele communication exchanges (Shih et al., 2013).

Many researchers have investigated the relationship between LSP and gender. The hypothesis comes up with the assumption whether LSP is influenced by the gender. The research finding (Vaseghi et al., 2012; Bhattacharyya & Sarip, 2014; Alkooheji & Al Hattami, 2018; Tawir & Mustapha, 2017; Sarabi Asiabar, 2014) indicates that gender differences in LSP actually exist among learners. According to Manova, cited by Vaseghi et al. (2012), students would rather receive more peer interaction than learn alone, and more kinesthetic activities. Congruent with Sarabi Asiabar et al. (2014), their finding showed that using single model learning styles had a significant impact on gender in the way that female students would like to use aural learning style while male students preferred using the kinesthetic learning styles. On the other hand, some research results (Ahmad, 2011; Bidabadi & Yamat, 2010; Shuib & Arizan, 2015; Tae young& Miso, 2018) indicated that gender is not affected by learning style preferences. For example, Ahmad (2011) investigated the role of gender towards the learning style preferences of 252 Low English Proficiency students at a local tertiary school. The result revealed that there was no influence of gender on students’ learning style preferences. In another research conducted by Shuib and Azizan (2015) on learning style preferences among ESL students in Univesiti Sains Malaysia, the finding shared the same view with Ahmad (2011) that students’ learning preferences were not affected by gender.

Perceptual learning style preference questionnaire (PLSPQ) is likened to and used as the main backbone of this study. This pilot study dealt with native English speakers and ESL students. The second pilot study, which was revised and improved in comparison with the first pilot one, was conducted with solely on ESL students in 1990. The questionnaire includes two parts, particularly the first part collects the interviewees’ demographic information, while the second part explores the characteristics of learners based on 30 question items. These 30 question items are divided into six types of learners: auditory, visual, kinesthetic, tactile, group and individual learners. In reality, there are many different learning style inventories introduced by many researchers. Take the learning style survey (LSS) introduced by Cohen, Oxford and Chi (2009) for example, there are 110 questions which cover the learners’ perceptual and physical factors. Unlike the LSS, Reid’s PLSPQ addresses learners’ perceptual preferences in second language learning field. Renou (2011) claimed that Reid’s PLSPQ was the first well known instrument to assess the learners’ perceptual learning style preferences and it has been widely exploited in many other researches as well as this study.

3. Method 3.1. Research design

2.5. Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire

There are a number of studies examining the relationship between learning styles and second language acquisition. In the educational setting, the language knowledge intake of different learners can be the same in first language acquisition, however, when accumulating more languages, students could be influenced by their motivation to study as they could prefer visual, auditory or kinesthetic learning styles. On close investigation into English language learning, the adaptation of teaching methodology and course design are very necessary, this seems to be very challenging for teachers to adjust their teaching styles to match different learners in a classroom (Wong, 2015; Olivosa et al., 2016; Tee et al., 2015; Afshara et al., 2015; Komlosi, 2018; Khaki et al., 2015).

The study is basically designed to investigate the LSP of first year students in Vietnam. The research backed up the quantitative method, using descriptive approach to give out the references for teaching and learning English at the tertiary level in Vietnam. The contact with university administrators for permission to carry out the survey questionnaire was initially done. Using Cochran’s formula to determine the sample population, 385 participants were chosen through stratified sampling method. The respondents were asked to answer the questionnaire, including two parts, namely the demographic information and 30 adapted Reid’s questionnaire items. The questionnaires, with a supporting letter from the university administrators, were sent to the participants through email attachment with the active link of Google form. The freshmen were requested to return the questionnaires after one week and in the case of a low response rate, another email served as a reminder would be sent to participants. The collected data went through the data screening before it was treated by IBM SPSS program for the purpose of data analysis in answering the 30 item question.

The second part adapted 30 items of Reid’s (1984) PLSPQ, which masked into 6 categories examining four perceptual (auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic), and twosocial(group,and individual) learning style preferences.The participants were expected to indicate (1) strong disagreement, (2) disagreement, (3) undecided choice, (4) agreement, and (5) strong agreement.

The study was used Reid’s (1984) perceptual learning stylequestionnaire.Thefirst part, which was designed by the author, identified respondents’ demographic information such as sex, residence, learning English duration, and their groups.

3.3. Participants

The respondents were selected as freshmen from 3 national and regional universities in Vietnam, namely the north Vietnam National University, Hanoi; the central Hue university; the south Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh city. As clear explanation in the instruction, the target sample population was first year students. Owing to unknown number of participants, Cochran’s (1977) formula was used to determine the expected population, which was 385. In terms of gender participating in the study, the fewer number was 166 female students accounting for 43.1%, whereas the majorrity of male students was 219, equivalent to 56.9%. When examining the freshmen’s residence, over half of them camefrom rural areas with 195 first year students or 50.6%, then 117 students, making up 30.4% were from urban areas, and the rest population was from moutainous areas with the least propostion of 19.0%, similar to 73 first year students. As for the length of English learning experience, most of them spent fewer than 15 years studying English, namely 73% or 281 freshmen, then followed by lower 15.3% or 59 students who had fewer than 20 years of English education, and the least rank 11.7% or 45 learners had 10 years fewer acquiring English. On investigating students’ groups, the majority of respondents was English non major students with the proportion of 87.8%, equivalent to 338 freshmen, whereas 12.2% or 47 English major students who did an intensive English course at their universities participating in the study.

3.4. Procedures Having prepared the research instrument tools properly, the researcherhadinitial contacts with 3 national and regional university administrators to explain the purpose of the study and the assistance needed from the schools, and to seek permission for their students to participate the study in the second term of the school year 2019 2020. Once permission was granted, the questionnaire was sent to first year students’ email addresses provided by the universities concerned. The questionnaire, which was incorporated with the researcher’s instruction, explained the objectives and relevance of the study, assured the anonymity, and gave them the option of not participating in the study if they wished. The respondents were requested to return the questionnaire after one week since the date of email shot. A thanking email was sent back to the respondents as the confirmation of reception.

The researcher made a list of relevant questionnaires, then carried out the careful data screening process using the stratified sampling method to get the targeted number. Finally, the preset 385 samples were obtained, and the screened data

3.2. Research Instruments

Table

N Mean Deviationd.St

Visual I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard. 385 3.23 .655 3.13 31 When I read instructions, I remember them better. 385 3.27 .669 I understand better when I read instructions. 385 3.19 .774 I learn better by reading than by listening to someone. 385 2.84 .663 I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures. 385 3.13 .664 Tactile I learn more when I can make a model of something. 385 3.94 .612 4.08 41 I learn more when I make something for a class project. 385 4.12 .710 I learn better when I make drawings as I study. 385 4.27 .646 When I build something, I remember what I have learned better. 385 4.19 .707 I enjoy making something for a class project. 385 3.90 .594 Auditory When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better. 385 4.09 .622 3.76 38 When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better. 385 3.66 .740

23 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. were encoded for the purpose of the data treatment. The researcher used IBM SPSS program to analyze the questionnaire and the outputs of English proficiency test as well. 3.5. Data Analysis

The quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Specially, frequency count, and percentage were employed to analyzed the demographic information such as sex, residence, length of English acquisition, and students’ groups. Descriptive mean was treated to address 30 item PLSPQ to find out the legend of preferences in terms of 6 categories; auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, social, and individual learning styles, together with determining Likert scales, particularly (1.0 1.79) very low, (1.8 2.59) low, (2.6 3.39) neutral, (3.4 4.19) high, and (4.2 5.0) very high. Independent samples T Test was used to compare LSP andgenderdifferences,amongmajorandnon majorEnglish studentswithregard to LSP. One way ANOVA was employed to test the correlation between LSP with students’ English grade term to examine the relationship between LSP with first year students’ English academic achievement. Results and discussion Table 1 presents two sources of information. That is, the discription of 6 kinds of learning style preferences, and the self scoring intepretation. 1: The interpretation of perceptual learning style preferences meanWeighted Selfscoring

Group I get more work done when I work with other. 385 3.72 .562 4.01 40 I learn more when I study with a group. 385 4.17 .617 In class, I learn best when I work with other. 385 3.89 .840 I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three classmates. 385 4.14 .678 I prefer to study with other. 385 4.13 .621

Kinesthetic

In view of Tactile learning style in Table 1, this style refers to the opportunity for learners to do “hand on” experiences with materials. The respondents developed the skills of mind map via drawings in studying (M = 4.27%, SD = .646), freshmen needed to construct something to recall and review the previous knowledge (M = 4.19%, SD = .707). During the process of building something again, it is a good chance for them to exchange the knowledge, create something new, adjust the

24 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read. 385 3.06 .730 I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture. 385 4.12 .712 I learn better in class when I listen to someone. 385 3.89 .651

As glimpsed from Table 1, first year students preferred reading instructions by themselves (M = 3.27%, SD = .669), succeeding this ranking, reading what the teacher wrote on the chalkboard (M = 3.23%, SD = .655), then reading instructions (M = 3.19%, SD = .774), surprisingly reading textbooks rather than listening lectures (M = 3.13%, SD = .664). The lowest figure in this category was the reading preference over listening to someone (M = 2.84%, SD = .663). In general, freshmen kept neutral opinions on Visual Learning Preference as the weighted mean of this group is 3.13, which reveals the fact that first year students were unsure about their visual learning preference. Besides, the small standard deviation indicates that the respondents had slight differences in their viewpoints. Mean scores also supported the trend thatfirst year students preferred theirautonomiesin learning even though the weighted mean still belonged to the neutral scale accordingly. Basing on these figures, teachers should allow their students to be independent in their learning, schools and teachers should encourage their learners to actively involve the task based learning and teaching or practical works instead of academic learning policies (Hamdani, 2015; Nge & Eamoraphan, 2020).

I prefer to learn by doing something in class. 385 4.44 .605 4.20 42 When I do things in class, I learn better. 385 4.06 .655 I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments. 385 4.45 .713 I understand things better in class when I participate in role playing. 385 4.01 .727 I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities. 385 4.05 .645 Individual When I study alone, I remember things better. 385 2.30 .680 2.45 25 When I work alone, I learn better. 385 2.68 .677 In class, I work better when I work alone. 385 2.49 .700 I prefer working on projects by myself. 385 2.37 .684 I prefer to work by myself. 385 2.43 .574 Legend 1.0 1.79 very low 1.8 2.59 low 2.6 3.39 neutral 3.4 4.19 high 4.2 5.0 very high

When examining Auditory learning style, students showed high preferences as Tactile and Visual learning styles with the weighted means of 3.76. In particular, students confessed that their teachers’ lectures helped them learn better (M = 4.12, SD = .712). Similarly, students supposed that they understood their teachers’ instructions better (M = 4.09), and in such a situation that someone talking something in class enabled students to learn better (M = 3.89), which was clearly seen from Table 1. When instructed or explained how to do something during lessons, students could learn better (M = 3.66). However, students were unsure about the ability to remember things better in comparison to what they read (M = 3.06). From the data displayed in Table 1, the respondents indicated that they had no difficulty listening to teachers or classmates. Students believed that they could study and remember better when they were given instructions, lectures or something relating to the auditory means of communication. In other words, auditory medium in class could help students learn better which shared the similar findings in other studies (Alkooheji & Al Hattami, 2018; Tae Young & Miso, 2018; Gohar & Sadeghi, 2014; Shih et al., 2013; Bidabadi & Yamat, 2010). Teamwork plays an important role at work. In terms of educational setting, group learning style is also necessary to be categorized and examined. As glimpsed from Table 1, studying with a group brought more positive result for students, who revealed that they could learn better (M = 4.17, SD = .617). Besides, students confirmed that working on an assignment in a group of two or three classmates encouraged them to do better (M = 4.14). This was somehow similar to the preference of studying with other classmates (M = 4.13). Nowadays, work share is very common at workplace, so is learning. Students reckoned that they could learn best when cooperating with other class members (M = 3.89, SD = .840). In addition, freshmen asserted that they got more work done under the condition that they worked with other companions (M = 3.72, SD = .562). For this respective, first year students did not have much differences in their viewpoints as the standard deviation was small (SD = .562). On the whole, students had high preferences for the group learning style with the weighted mean of 4.01. As students highly prefer working and studying in groups, it is advisable for teachers to designcooperativeassignmentsandclassroomactivitiesfor studentstodo their best to learn more (Hallin, 2014; Khaki et al., 2015; Bhattacharyya & Sarip, 2014; Tee et al., 2015; Wong, 2015).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. models, and mobilize the whole understanding from theory to practice (Olivosa at al., 2016; Svarcova & Jelinkova, 2016; Yee et al., 2015). Participants confessed that they learnt more when involving in a class project (M = 4.12%, SD = .710). Tactile learners showed preferences for physical involvement relating to class activities (Magdalena, 2015; Dobson, 2010). Handling and building models are the remarkable characteristics of Tactile learners. When asked about this issue, the respondents remarked that they learnt better by making a model of something (M = 3.94%). Tactile learners enjoyed making something for a class project (M = 3.90), this means that they were creative and would like to cooperate with other class members in terms ofacademic performances.In general, the participantshad high preferences for Tactile learning style (M = 4.08), which is in line with other researches (Gilakjani, 2012; Marica et al., 2015; Santos, 2017).

Kinesthetic learning style concentrates on the classroom experiences through actively participating in activities, problem solving, field trips or role playing in the classroom. When examining Kinesthetic learning style, freshmen showed very high preferencesfor it bycalculatingtheweightedmean of4.20,which wasclearly shown in Table 1. In more detail, doing experiments in class activated students most (M = 4.45%, SD = .713). Followed this rank, doing something in class was students’ favour (M = 4.44%). Freshmen confirmed thattheylearntbetter by doing things in class, which indicated that they wanted to be active learners (M = 4.06%). This confirmation was supported by another viewpoint that they learnt best through the involvement in related class activities (M = 4.05%, SD = .645). Besides, students revealed that role playing in class helped them understand things better (M = 4.01%). The overall results of Kinesthetic learning style denote that students were activelearners, theyreally wanted to participate and experience related class activities, students understood and accumulated the knowledge best. Therefore, the necessity of changing curriculum or teaching methodology is necessary to create activelearningenvironmentsfor students todo theirutmost.Some research findings (Singh et al., 2015; Mulalic, et al., 2009; Ahmad, 2011; Bhattacharyya & Sarip, 2014) recognized that the adaptation of curriculum and teaching methodology was needed to meet the demands of students. Individual learning style stresses the important role of self study individually. This style confirms that learners understand new material best when learning it alone. On investigating individual learning style, the results came out that students showed low preferences for it as the weighted mean was 2.45, which was clearly presented in Table 1. In particular, students did not agree that they could learn better when working alone (M = 2.49%, SD = .677). Similarly, they disagreed that they could work better in class in case of working alone (M = 2.49%).

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Mentioning about working on projects alone, freshmen highly protested the opinion that they prefer to work by themselves (M = 2.37%). In addition, students claimed that they disliked working on their own (M = 2.43%), they also had a high similarity of choices as the standard deviation was quite small (SD = .574). The respondents had a low favor for the statement that they could remember better when studying alone (M = 2.30%). In comparison with group learning style which had a high weighted mean, this style had a low one. When taking this opposite into careful consideration, the difference in preference between two styles is relevant. This finding has not been found in any other studies, for example Wong (2015), Lui (2017), Moo & Eamoraphan (2018), Bidabadi & Yamat (2010), Al Zayed (2017), Khmakhien (2012), Marica et al. (2015), and so on. As the explanation adapted from the C.I.T.E learning style instrument, Reid’s PLSPQ is categorized into 6 kinds, i.e. Visual, Tactile, Auditory, Group, Kinesthetic, and Individual learning styles. The total conversion score of the whole PLSPQ isclassified into 3group preferences, namely (38 50) major LSP, (25 37) minor LSP, and (0 24) negligible use. Major preference denotes any learning method coming natural, normal to the learners, while minor preference refers to learning ways which learners can perform adequately to meet the demands of the tasks. Negligible preference mentions any learning method that learners find it difficult to study with, they consequently will not choose it spontaneously

27 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. (Psaltou Joycey & Kantaridou, 2011). By comparing between the results from Table 1 with 3 equivalent explanation preferences, the outcome goes that Visual and Individual learning styles belong to minor preferences whereas Kinesthetic, Group, Auditory, and Tactile learning preferences are grouped into major preferences. Table 2 presents the correlation between LSP and gender differences on the choice of language learning styles. The purpose of this comparison is to investigate whether there was a difference between male and female students in the choice of employing different language learning styles Table 2: The comparison between LSP and gender differences EqualityLevene'sTestforofVariances t test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.(2tailed) DifferenceMean DifferenceStd.Error Lower95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceUpper alVisu Equal variances assumed .056 .813 .874 383 .383 .138 .158 .173 .449 Equal variances not assumed .870 349 .385 .138 .159 .174 .451 Tactile Equal variances assumed .420 .517 .169 383 .866 .024 .143 .258 .306 Equal variances not assumed .169 352 .866 .024 .144 .259 .307 Auditory Equal variances assumed 7.94 .005 .67 383 .505 .103 .154 .405 .200 Equal variances not assumed .65 323 .515 .103 .157 .412 .207 Group Equal variances assumed 1.77 .185 .44 383 .658 .069 .155 .374 .236 Equal variances not assumed .45 369 .655 .069 .153 .370 .233 Kinesthetic Equal variances assumed 1.70 .193 1.4 383 .173 .213 .156 .521 .094 Equal variances not assumed 1.4 367 .169 .213 .155 .518 .091

28 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Individual Equal variances assumed .016 .898 .14 383 .891 .023 .165 .347 .302 Equal variances not assumed .14 354 .891 .023 .165 .348 .303 As clearly seen from Table 2, the data reveal that the Sig. values of Levene’s test for equality of variances of 6 learning styles are higher than the confidence level of 95%, so the Sig. (2 tailed) values in the equal variances assumed would be used to take into account. Obviously, the Sig. (2 tailed) values turns out to be higher that the confidence level (.005), too. Based on these findings, the conclusion goes that male and female freshmen did not have differences on the choice of learning style preferences. This finding shares the similarity with other researches (Bhattacharyya & Sarip, 2013; Shuib & Azizan, 2015; Bidabadi & Yamat, 2010; Tae Yong & Miso, 2018). Table 3 contrasts the dissimilarity between major and non major English students on the choice of language learning styles. It is clearly presented in the Sig. values of Levene’s test for equality of variances that the Sig. values of 6 language learning styles are higher than the confidence level (0.05), which leads to the decision on choosing the Sig. (2 tailed) values of the equal variances assumed. Similarly, the Sig. (2 tailed) values of 6 learning styles gethigherthan the confidence level(0.05). Therefore, from two sources of the data Sig. and Sig. (2 tailed), it is concluded that there was no difference between major and non major English students in terms of choosing language learning styles. This contrastive analysis has not been popular in the field of LSP as few studies have been conducted on the comparison among major and non major English learners and language learning style preferences. Table 3: The comparison between major and non-major English students VariancesLevene'sTestforEqualityof t test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.(2tailed) DifferenceMean DifferenceStd.Error 95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceLowerUpper Visual assumedvariancesEqual 1.4 .24 .11 383 .909 .027 .239 .498 .443 assumednotvariancesEqual .10 57.3 .915 .027 .256 .540 .485 Tactil eEqualvariancesassumed .356 .55 .78 383 .436 .169 .217 .257 .595

.619

29 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. assumednotvariancesEqual .75 58.7 .456 .169 .225 .282 .620 Auditory assumedvariancesEqual .001 .98 .97 383 .333 .225 .232 .232 .682 assumednotvariancesEqual .99 60.1 .329 .225 .229 .232 .683 Group assumedvariancesEqual .165 69 1.1 383 .270 .259 .234 .720 .202 assumednotvariancesEqual 1.1 60.5 .262 .259 .229 .717 .199 Kinesthetic assumedvariancesEqual .097 56 .47 383 .637 .112 .237 .577 .354 assumednotvariancesEqual .47 59.4 .640 .112 .238 .588 .364 Individual assumedvariancesEqual .453 .50 .58 383 .565 .144 .250 .347 .635

assumednotvariancesEqual .61 61.6 .547 .144 .238 .331 A far as the relationship between LSP and student academic achievement is concerned, the following data is obtained. Table 4 addresses the hypothesis that there is no relationship between LSP and English academic achievement. As seen in Table 4, Sig. values of 6 learning style are higher than the preset confidence level (0.05). That means the results reject the hypothesis and denote that LSP, to a certain extent, influences English academic achievement. The influence of LSP on English academic achievement reflects the students’ preferences as they are classified into major and minor learners as shown in Table 1. That is, freshmen are active language learners, which might somehow affect English academic achievement. Some researches (Fang Mei, 2013; Khmakhien, 2012; Gohar & Sadeghi, 2014; Tabatabaeia & Mashayekhi, 2013) have shared the similar results as this study.

30 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 4: The relationship between LSP and English grade term ANOVA Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. Visual GroupsBetween 6.12 6 1.02 .429 .860 GroupsWithin 899.98 378 2.38 Total 906.10 384 Tactile GroupsBetween 30.07 6 5.01 2.65 .016 GroupsWithin 714.07 378 1.89 Total 744.14 384 Auditory GroupsBetween 10.21 6 1.70 .760 .602 GroupsWithin 845.79 378 2.24 Total 855.99 384 Group GroupsBetween 16.84 6 2.81 1.24 .284 GroupsWithin 853.91 378 2.26 Total 870.74 384 Kinesthetic GroupsBetween 13.31 6 2.22 .960 .452 GroupsWithin 873.67 378 2.31 Total 886.96 384 Individual GroupsBetween 7.13 6 1.19 .458 .839 GroupsWithin 980.14 378 2.59 Total 987.26 384 5. Pedagogical implications It is important for teachers to understand students’ learning styles. Teachers are advisable to change the curriculum or teaching styles to meet the students’ expectations. In hope to do so, teachers should carry out the survey to find out students’ learning styles, thanks to the results of the survey, teachers will have relevant pedagogical activities to help students do their best to achieve the highest English learning outcome. Besides, first year students can modify and adjust their learning styles so that they can adapt themselves to meet the requirements of instructions, contexts, tasks or related English learning activities. Table 5 summarizes the learning strategies (Oxford, 1990) and recommended teaching activities which are in accordance with the styles they belong to.

Brainstorming, naturalistic input, applying rules to new situations, synthesis of information from randomly selected sources, inference tasks, tasks offering change and variety, skip around a text

Table 5: Proposed combination of language learning strategies and teaching activities matching the learning style preferences. Language learning strategies Teaching activities

Major/minorlearning styles

Discussions/debates, role playing, cooperative tasks, question generating activities, activities that make students act physically.

Extroverted Social: cooperating with peers/proficient users, asking for Metacognitive:clarification organise own learning, seeking practice opportunities (mainly out of Doclass)not use affective strategies. Do not favour solitary/concentrated Morstudy.eindirect strategies than direct ones.

Extensive reading, written instructions, using outlines, flash cards, TV, videos, internet Hands on Compensation: mimes and Memory:gestures using physical response Social: cooperating with others Making posters, collages, activities that allow students to move around, change groups frequently, projects, CALL, role playing, activities that make authentic use of the language, jigsaw.

randomIntuitive Memory: associating, elaborating Compensation strategies: guessing from anxiety,Affective:SocialreasoningCognitive:Metacognitive:contextplanninganalysingandstrategies:askingquestions(limiteduse):loweringencouragingoneself

Visual Memory: visualizing mental images Cognitive: identifying different Metacognitive:coloursmaking up goals and objectives

sequentialConcrete Cognitive: practising Memory: imagery, employing action, structured reviewing, rote Metacognitive:memorisation arranging and planning Activities with clear instructions, synthesis of information from carefully selected sources, well planned homework, drawings, kinesthetic input orientedClosure Memory: clarificationSocial:drillCognitive:linkingwithplanning,Mstructuredassociating/elaborating,reviewingetacognitive:arrangingandevaluating,goalsettingdeadlines,overviewingandwithpreviousmaterialpractising(formal,like)askingforcorrection, Activities that have a clear goal, tasks that follow a predictable sequence to get a sense of organisation

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Auditory Memory: representing sound in Cognitive:memory note taking from auditory input Social strategies: asking questions Reading aloud, discussions, group work, using songs, music

Negligiblelearningstyles

Analytic Cognitive: scanning, practising, analysing contrastively, reasoning Metacognitivedeductively strategies: centering one’s learning Drawing flowcharts with linkage of ideas, taking detailed notes, deductive tasks, dissecting exercises(suffixes/prefixes),vocabularydrilling

Introverted Metacognitive (generally preferred): planning for a language task, careful organisation of learning, Cognitive: analysing and reasoning (formal strategies)

Open Cognitive: recombining, analysing, getting the idea quickly, practising naturalistically Metacognitive: seeking practice Compensation:opportunities guessing Social: Affective:cooperatingUsinghumour to lower anxiety, rewarding oneself

Affective/social (generally rejected) Self encouragement

Global Memory: semantic mapping, Cognitive:grouping,

Social:Compensation:contrastivelysummarising,skimming,analysingguessingculturalunderstanding

This study aimed to identify the relationship between perceptual learning style preferences of Vietnamese university freshmen with English academic achievement. The pupose of the study is that learning styles are regarded as the

7. Conclusion

This study has not done a pilot study to see how effective the realization and application of known learning styles of students in teaching and learning English. The future research should undertake a quasi experimental study to find out the effects of recognizing students’ learning styles in reality. By the way, more researches should be done with more students’ scales, not only limited to the three national and regional universities. If possible, there should be researches conducted to compare and contrast between students’ English learning preferences and English teachers’ teaching styles.

Mind maps, inductive tasks, taskslearningextensiveidea,similarities/differences/mainfindingopenendedquestions,reading,discussions,throughexperiential

Individual cooperativetasks/work,tasksorpair work with trustedfamiliar/classmate in stress free CALLenvironment,

6. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Discovery learning, activities involving risk entertainment,taking,cooperation

9. Funding information

Ahmad, A. A. (2011). Language Learning Style Preferences of Low English Proficiency (LEP) Students in a Tertiary Institution. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research (MaJER), 7(2), 33 62. Retrieved from https://journals.melta.org.my/index.php/majer/article/view/158/73

affective factors contributing to be students’s success in English aquisition. In Vietnamese educational system, the expected learning outcomes of English competence at the tertiary level is clearly set by 6 levels of foreign language competency (MOET, 2014), based on the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR). The circular states that non major university leavers have to meet the requirement of B1 (CEFR) while major students have to pass C1 (CEFR). That is why investigating LSP would improve the fruit of learning and teaching English at the tertiary level.

This article is financially supported by Hanoi Law University.

10. Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authorswould like to express their deepestgratitudeandsincere appreciation to blind reviewers and the editors who encouraged, assisted and gave him constructive feedback to shape up this paper.

11.

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The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. References Afshara, H. S., Sohrabib, S., & Mohammadib, R. M. (2015). On the Relationship among Iranian ESP Learners’ Learning Strategy Use, Learning Styles and their English LanguageAchievement. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 192, 724 729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.079

Based on the classification of the perceptual learning styles which is categorized by Reid (1984), Vietnamese univesity freshmen are generally regarded as active learners. Among 6 learning styles, first year universitty students are determined as major learning styles with regard to Tactile, Auditory, Group, and Kinesthetic learners, whereas they are also classified as minor learning styles in reference to Visual and Individual learners. Regarding the gender differences on the choice of learning styles, no significant difference is recognized between male and female freshmen in terms of employing learning styles. Moreover, the disparity between their decision on choosing learning styles is very small. This study is considered opinionsresultandasoneofthepioneerinvestigationconductedonthedifferentperceptionsofmajornonmajorEnglishfreshmenonthechoiceoflanguagelearningstyles.TheindicatesthatmajorandnonmajorEnglishstudentsdonothavedifferentonchoosingtheirlearningst yles. Findings on the impact of students’ learning style preferences on their academic achievement indicate that language learning styles somehow influences on students’ English competency. As such, this conclusion is also supported by the fact that first year students are categorized into major and minor language learning style preferences. Acknowledgments

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Loyiso C., Jita University of the Free State, Bloemfontein Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6871 6820

Paul Nwati, Munje University of the Free State, Bloemfontein Campus, South Africa 0002 7948 9704 Maria, Tsakeni University of the Free State, Qwaqwa Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3208 1362

School Heads of Departments’ Roles in Advancing Science and Mathematics through the Distributed Leadership Framework

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. The prioritization of quality education, especially in science and in mathematics, positions effective teaching and learning as a major school leadership goal. Effective curriculum implementation hinges on power dynamics in schools; this puts distributed leadership in the spotlight. Heads of departments (HoDs) are important role players in the distributed leadership structures of schools. This qualitative case study explored the roles of HoDs in four South African high schools to determine how opportunities were created for teaching and learning science and mathematics in the context of distributed leadership. Unstructured interviews were conducted with 13 participants. The findings show that, in distributed leadership structures, HoDs in science and mathematics played the roles of instructional leaders; school based subject and classroom specialists; and that they were accountable for learner performance in their departments. Their actions supported other players in school leadership, including teachers in the classroom and principals, to improve teaching and learning through distributed leadership structures. We recommend that further studies explore and compare how HoDs navigate the complexities of their roles in different school contexts.

Keywords: Distributed leadership; Head of Department; Professional development; Science and mathematics

39 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 39 57, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.3

The positive outcome of the relationship between effective school leadership and school improvement is currently embedded in education policies and research across the globe (Botha & Triegaardt, 2014; Harris, 2003; Harris, 2013; Harris & Spillane, 2008; Harris, Day, Hopkins, Hadfield, Hargreaves & Chapman, 2013; Leithwood, Harris & Hopkins, 2020). The positive outcome emanates from the influence of school leaders on learning outcomes. This claim aligns with the assertion that ineffective leadership is one of many factors that contribute to underperformance in South African public schools (Kirori & Dickinson, 2020). In effect, poor instructional leadership could be among the causes of poor performance in a school (Seobi & Wood, 2016). The significance of this assertion explains why teacher leadership is increasingly becoming prominent in research that focuses on school improvement initiatives (Bipath & Nkabinde, 2018; De Lima, 2008). In recent years, the focus has been on distributed leadership, because it allows different voices to prevail in the leadership structure and to use a variety of human capital in a school to achieve a common goal. Rather than attributing school successes to the heroic acts of individuals, distributed leadership allows the roles and contributions of all other actors to be considered and recognized (Spillane, 2006). Unlike traditional notions of leadership that is “premised upon an individual managing hierarchical systems and structures, distributed leadership is a form of collective leadership in which teachers develop expertise by working collaboratively” (Harris, 2003, p.11). The roles of every individual, both formal and informal, are resources that contribute significantly to the achievement of set goals (Harris & Spillane, 2008). According to Bush (2018a), distributed leadership provides an opportunity to empower teachers in developing their leadership capabilities. Therefore, it is important to recognize what teachers, heads of departments (HoDs), deputy principals and principals do in their capacities and collectively to contribute to school improvement. Hence, this study explored HoDs’ roles in advancing science and mathematics through the distributed leadership framework.

1. Introduction

It is important to explore and to understand more about the leadership practices of HoDs in the distributed leadership structures and to understand the impact of their daily activities on the improvement of teaching and learning in science and mathematics. Spillane, Halverson, and Diamond (2001, p. 24) noted that “leadership involves the identification, acquisition, allocation, coordination, and use of the social, material, and cultural resources necessary to establish the conditions for the possibility of teaching and learning.” This assertion justifies our focus on the roles undertaken by HoDs to enhance opportunities for science and mathematics teaching and learning in selected South African high schools.

This claim is also a response to the plea by Spillane et al. (2001) for more inquiry that deviates from school leadership structures as such, to interrogate and to understand leadership as a practice which, according to Raelin (2016), is not about the traits and behaviors of particular individuals, but about what should occur in practice. Raelin (2016) sees leadership as a collective effort that aims to accomplish a common goal; it is not merely about what an individual thinks and does. Therefore, the study focused on exploring this practicality in selected South African high schools.

In South Africa, there is growing evidence that schools make use of distributed leadership structures that vary in effectiveness (Sibanda, 2017). Regarding science and mathematics, Tsakeni and Jita (2017) highlighted the role of teachers, who have traditionally been regarded as followers of school leadership for classroom improvement. This resonates with Leithwood et al. (2020) who guide us to investigate what HoDs do as curriculum leaders and not to explore the practice of distributed leadership itself. We ask the following question: Which roles do HoDs play to advance science and mathematics teaching and learning in selected South African high schools?

2. Literature review Considering the link between science, mathematics, and employability, and the impact of mathematics on the workplace (Durrani & Tariq, 2012), efforts are being made to improve its teaching and learning globally and in South Africa. However, poor performance in mathematics in South Africa is, for example, cause for concern This prompts research and policy initiatives on ways to improve teaching and learning (Nel & Luneta, 2017). To ensure an improvement in the teaching and learning of school subjects, including mathematics, instructional leadership becomes paramount (Zuze & Juan, 2018). However, Zuze and Juan (2018, p. 459) caution that there are “distinct relationships between school leadership and management and academic achievement based on the socio economic status of learner bodies.”

Theoretically, HoDs have a great responsibility to monitor and supervise instruction, though this is not the case in all school contexts (Weller Jr, 2001). Mokoena (2017, p. 284) reported that HoDs perform multiple roles in their quest to ensure effective curriculum delivery, of which some are visible in various school contexts. Some of these roles involve inquiry based decisions, reflective practice, and broad based skillful collaboration. Although the actual impact of supervising instruction could be debatable, there is no doubt that, when

Notably, due to the rapidly changing nature of the school environment characterized by increasing student enrolment and increasing workload (Harris & Spillane, 2008; Samancioglu et al., 2020), principals are progressively delegating powers to deputy principals and particularly to HoDs, who direct and monitor instruction (Rosenfeld, Ehrich & Cranston 2009 The delegation of key roles to HoDs is part of the drive by the South African education system to improve teaching and learning (Bambi, 2012). Patterson et al. (2020) consider that this drive could rewrite a school’s performance history provided that it is implemented effectively. In an attempt to emphasize the roles of HoDs, Syomwene (2018) identified educational supervision and leadership as ingredients that are instrumental in ensuring quality curriculum implementation. HoDs, as specialists in the subject areas in which they play leadership roles, are expected to direct and monitor instruction, which includes providing relevant support and guidance to teachers (Mpisane, 2015; Syomwene, 2018). HoDs are expected to provide motivation and to act as role models for teachers by establishing good interpersonal and working relationships (Bipath & Nkabinde, 2018; Ogina, 2017).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. properly conducted, it can have a positive influence on learner performance (Ankoma Sey & Maina, 2016; Patterson et al., 2020), on teacher professional practices, and on school climate (Abreh, 2018; Ma & Marion, 2019). However, this is only possible when supervision is used to identify impending challenges, to provide relevant guidance and support, and not as a punitive apparatus (Mpisane, 2015; Syomwene, 2018). Fundamentally, HoDs perform administrative and pedagogic roles to improve learner performance in specific subjects roles that are distinct in successful schools (Farchi & Tubin, 2019). Based on a Portuguese experience, De Lima (2008, p. 163) identifies three major roles of HoDs, namely: (1) ensuring curriculum integration through the promotion of cooperation among department members, and between the department and other organizational units of the school; (2) ensuring the coordination of department members’ pedagogy and student assessment practices; and (3) identifying department members’ training needs and promoting their adequate school based in service

Thetraining.phenomenon of teacher leadership which is embedded in the distributed leadership framework became prominent in South Africa after 1994. Teacher leadership was intended as a strategy to democratize schools and to introduce a collaborative approach to school management; it was regarded as a tool that could transform South African schools in the new democratic dispensation (Grant, 2016). The journey towards participatory decision making in schools, despite its gains, was marred by several challenges, among which were power struggles (Mncube, 2009; Mokoena, 2011). Principals saw themselves “as managers and not as instructional leaders” (Taole, 2013, p. 75). Recent research shows that distributed leadership practices are visible in well resourced and under resourced South African schools (Du Plessis, 2016). Distributed leadership gives HoDs, as instructional leaders, the authority to prioritize the monitoring of teachers’ duties. Nel and Luneta (2017) identify the following consequences of teacher monitoring: an improvement in the way mathematics content is disseminated, better instructional and lesson planning skills, and more teacher collaboration. The foregoing discussions indicate that considerably more needs to be known about distributed leadership; hence we contribute to the ongoing discourses by exploring the roles played by HoDs to advance the teaching and learning of science and mathematics in selected South African high schools.

This paper uses a theoretical lens that defines distributed leadership as an interactive web consisting of leaders, followers, and the situation (Spillane, Halverson & Diamond, 2004) According to Spillane et al. (2004), leadership does not reside in any of these three components, but the components viewed together facilitate the process of leadership. Therefore, coming from a perspective where school leadership is not considered to be centered on individuals, Spillane et al. (2004) define distributed leadership as a practice that involves leaders, followers, and their situation. In this paper, leadership is distributed among science and mathematics HoDs, who exert influence in their

3. Theoretical framework

Hence, Spillane et al. (2001) advocated more research that will help us to understand how distributed leadership structures influence the day to day running of schools. However, the process needs to deviate from concentrating on definitions and perceptions of distributed leadership, to exploring actual leadership practices in schools (Harris, 2003). This explains why Thorpe et al. (2011, p. 241) argued that distributed leadership should emphasize “conjoint actions rather than role or position.” Van Ameijde et al. (2009, p. 766) added that “leadership is a shared inﬂuence process to which several individuals contribute [and] … arises from the interactions of diverse individuals which together form a group or network in which essential expertise is a dispersed quality.”

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. departments; on the teachers (the followers); on other stakeholders, such as positional leaders in the school; and on the situation, which is to advance teaching and learning in the science and mathematics classrooms This distributed leadership structure enabled the exploration of interactions among the HoDs, the teachers, and other stakeholders, and the process of improving teaching and learning in science and mathematics. Despite the significance of distributed leadership in education establishments and its potential for implementation (sometimes informally in different spaces with immeasurable results), its complete recognition and application are still to be fully realized.

At the core of distributed leadership should be how and why school leaders, including HoDs, do certain things (Spillane et al., 2001) and their implications. In this paper, the focus is on what HoDs do to enhance school improvement. Effective distributed leadership prevails when what is shared is identifiable and has glaring implications, not only for those working at schools (including teachers) but also for school outcomes and learner performance (Harris, 2013). In retrospect, effective curriculum implementation reflects how well HoDs perform their duties to monitor and to direct instruction. Owing to the positive impact of distributed leadership, teacher motivation and job satisfaction are some of the expected outcomes (Samancioglu et al., 2020), although distributed leadership is not a “magic potion” for all the challenges faced by individual schools (Harris, It2003)isimportant

to note that unique and unavoidable factors may affect the outcomes of the distributed leadership roles exhibited by HoDs in individual school spaces. Bambi (2012) noted that the expected roles of HoDs may be actualized in different ways, due to the uneven power distribution in some school contexts. Hence, Christie et al. (2010) argued that context is among the factors which influence leadership effectiveness and school organizational capacity. Such assumptions do not mean that schools experiencing socioeconomic challenges cannot implement distributed leadership effectively.

4. Method This qualitative case study researched the phenomenon (Creswell, 2014) on roles that school HoDs play to promote science and mathematics through the distributed leadership framework. This phenomenon was explored through data collected during unstructured interviews in four high schools Two of these schools were suburban and two were township schools selected for

Question5:What kind ofsupport isavailabletoteachersfor teachingscienceand mathematics?

Question8:What arethedutiesand the rolesofscienceand QuestionmathematicsHoDsintheschool?9:Howdoscience/mathematicsHoDssupport the teachingand learning ofscienceand mathematics?

(2) andclassroomEnsuringimprovedpracticeinsciencemathematics

(3) Providingsupport to scienceand mathematics teachers

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. triangulation. Although the interview questions were not prearranged, the researchers referred to common themes that emerged from the literature to generate open ended questions These were followed up by probing to generate data that consisted of in depth and thick descriptions by the participants (Mathers et al., 1998). The suburban schools were located in a high socioeconomic status neighborhood in the Tshwane South district of South Africa. The two township schools were selected from neighborhoods of low socioeconomic status in Tshwane West. The inclusion of schools from the low socio economic district provided an opportunity to understand how distributed leadership is implemented in disadvantaged schools that also face other leadership challenges (Sibanda, 2017). The study was delimited by the choice of a qualitative case study design that focused on a phenomenon that was explored through the use of the four high schools selected from the city of Tshwane in South Africa, as described above. Although the findings of this study contribute to the literature on the role of HoDs in science and mathematics classroom improvement, they cannot be generalized. Unstructured interviews are appropriate for exploring complex human experiences (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). The unstructured interviews were guided by questions related to the following topics: (1) monitoring instruction, (2) ensuring improved classroom practice in science and mathematics, (3) providing support to science and mathematics teachers, and (4) the roles of HoDs in the broader distributed leadership structures of the schools. Table 1 provides a summary of indicators and key questions that were used as probes.

Table 1: Summary of interview schedule indicators and key questions Indicators Key questions

Question10:How arethescience/mathematicsHoDs supported by otherstakeholders at theschoolasthey lead their departments?

QuestionQuestion6:Whoprovidessupport?7:Howoftenisthesupport provided? Isthesupport sufficient? (4) structuresbroaderTherolesofHoDsinthedistributedleadershipoftheschools.

(1) Monitoring instruction Question1:Which processesareput inplacetomakesurethat teachingand learning are effectiveinscience/ mathematics Questionclassrooms?2:Whoisresponsibleformakingsurethat teaching and learning areeffectivein science/ mathematicsclassrooms? Which monitoring toolsare used? Which rolesdoHoDsplay?

Question4:Whoisresponsiblefortheimprovement of teachingand learning? What arethespecific rolesofthepeople whoareresponsiblefortheimprovement ofteachingand learning?

Question3: What doestheschooldoto improvetheteaching and learning ofscienceand/or mathematics?

SuburbanB Principal Positionalleaderand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Mathematicsteacher Subject teacherand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

MathematicsScienceandHoD Department leader, subject teacher,and part ofthe distributed leadership structure

teacherPhysicalScience Subject teacherand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

Principal Positionalleaderand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

Deputy principal Positionalleaderand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

MathematicsScienceandHoD Department leader, subject teacher,and part ofthe distributed leadership structure

TownshipC Deputy principal Positionalleaderand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

The 13 participants were allowed to provide narratives freely and emerging issues were followed up using cues (Mathers et al., 1998). Through the purposeful sampling technique, 13 participants from the four schools, which are identified as schools A, B, C, and D, were approached; they agreed to take part in the study and they were interviewed. The participants were chosen because they formed part of the distributed leadership structures of the schools in the teaching of science and mathematics. The criteria, therefore, suited the exploration of the phenomenon and therefore the focus was not necessarily the characteristics of the participants. Table 2 presents the 13 participants in the study and the criteria for selection.

Mathematicsteacher Subject teacherand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

TownshipD Principal Positionalleaderand part ofthe distributed leadership structure

Textual data were generated from the participants’ narratives. The data were analyzed through conventional qualitative content analysis techniques which entailed several steps starting with the reading of the data texts, putting labels on the texts (open coding), and grouping emerging concepts into larger clusters called categories. The categories were furthermore grouped into themes that emerged from the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The frequent mention of the role played by HODs to ensure that the curriculum policy was adhered to in science and mathematics teaching and learning, resulting in the emergence of

SuburbanA

MathematicsScienceandHoD Department leader, subject teacher,and part ofthe distributed leadership structure

teacherPhysicalScience Subject teacherand part ofthedistributed leadership structure

School Participants Criteria for selection

Table 2: Participant summary and selection criteria

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the theme, "curriculum implementation guidance." The use of the four topics in Table 1 in an unstructured manner allowed for inductive data analysis from which themes emerged, as explained above.

This section presents and explains the findings. The paper explored the roles played by HoDs in promoting the teaching and learning of science and mathematics in selected South African high schools. Findings show that distributed leadership provided room for accountability in the teaching and learning situation, as teachers had to report to HoDs and, in turn, HoDs had to report to either a deputy principal or to a principal. Therefore, HoDs paid attention to what teachers did and found ways and means to assist them to do better since teachers’ performance was a critical aspect in HoD reports These findings contribute to existing literature advocating schools’ serious engagement in distributed leadership practices, which is based on advantages accrued from the convergence of human capital, effective monitoring, and supervision of instruction. Three main themes emerged from the findings: (1) curriculum implementation guidance, (2) monitoring of instruction and forging collaboration, and (3) teacher professional development.

5. Findings and discussions

5.1 Curriculum implementation guidance

Curriculum implementation constitutes the core function of school HoDs (Atieno et al., 2018) who daily engage with teachers. Curriculum implementation in the classroom is the yardstick of success for any education policy initiative. The HoD for mathematics and sciences at School C explained how HoDs are instrumental in curriculum implementation to ensure that policy expectations are met: It is to see to it that the syllabus as prescribed by the Department is covered and that the educators are comfortable with the subject they are teaching, and to check their performance and to analyze their performance. Analyze the results and see where there is a need for intervention that is my role. (HoD, School C) Interventions assisted HoDs in identifying challenges faced by teachers and in providing alternative solutions by using varied mechanisms to ensure smooth curriculum delivery. The HoD at School B shared similar sentiments about the value of interventions to ensure the standardization of content knowledge, to smooth lesson delivery, and to improve classroom practices. The HoD said that intervention is, to look at the standard of teaching and learning of everybody, I must make sure that all the teachers know the content, they can discipline the learners and empathize with the learners… the standards of learning is very important so the whole story is [on] a high standard and that is about it. (HoD, School B) Different approaches to curriculum implementation emerged from diverse school contexts. The mathematics teacher at School A revealed that the HoD had established formal and informal structures to check the pulse of individual teachers regarding curriculum implementation. This teacher, however,

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. cautioned that the HoD’s supervision machinery focused more on teachers teaching Grade 12 since these teachers engaged in more revision activities to prepare learners for their exit level examinations. Furthermore, the mathematics teacher at School A explained how the HoD had intensified the monitoring and supervision of instruction in Grades 11 and 12 to improve learner performance: If we are teaching Grades 11 and 12, it’s a must every day, before we go to teach this concept every day you report to the office to indicate how far you are with a concept, if we are behind the HoD may ask you to do extra classes. But that only happens when we are teaching Grade 11 and 12. (Mathematics teacher, School A) When HoDs are constantly in touch with teachers, HoDs are alert and they are informed by feedback from teachers about what they do or fail to do in the classroom. Being informed is important because teachers are autonomous in their classrooms but accountable to the HoD, whose intervention creates room for efficacy (see McLean, 2013; Van Ameijde et al., 2009). Since HoDs are specialists in the subjects that they lead, their competence advantages them to determine whether teachers are on track or whether they are demonstrating deficiency and need assistance. Syomwene (2018) and Vanblaere and Devos (2018) corroborate that when HoDs monitor and coach teachers in specific subject areas, there is accountability and the likelihood of positive implications for teacher quality, improved classroom practices, and learner performance. Besides, when teachers report to HoDs before lessons, it ensures accountability (Harris, 2005; McLean, 2013). Consequently, it becomes easy for the HoD to know when a teacher is absent and to arrange for a replacement. The HoD at School C provided evidence of how absent teachers were replaced by checking the timetables of all the teachers present in the discipline to establish their availability during that period. One of the HoD’s jobs was to find replacement teachers in times of need: I go to that class, or I check the timetables because I always have the timetables for other teachers from my department. I will just see during that period if any teachers are free, then we will request a teacher to go and replace the teacher. (HoD, School C) However, the HoD explained that in critical situations, where a substitute teacher with expertise in the specific subject area was unavailable due to timetable clashes, they adopted the peer teaching methodology to ensure that learning took place. In this case, any other teacher at the school would go to the classroom to “babysit” the learners and to ensure that those learners continue working in the subject while teaching one another in the process. The impact of this approach on curriculum implementation speaks for itself when compared to a situation analysis of a scenario in School D, where negative consequences caused by a lack of intervention were obvious. The physical science teacher at School D said: Teachers sometimes might not [be] there in class then learners will start to relax when we get into the class when they haven’t done anything, it’s a little difficult for them to make sense of the subject matter by themselves. (Physical science teacher, School D).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Also, HoDs supported curriculum implementation by ensuring that teachers integrate technology when they delivered their lessons. Syomwene (2018) considered technology as fundamental in an era where constant technological advance warrants increased teacher adaptability in the classroom The HoD at School B elucidated: We use laptops and projectors here so I see to it that everything is intact, ensuring that all learners in a grade get the same work, the same slides which they show [to] the children and their homework that they have to do…we send each other emails or even Whatsapp. (HoD, School B)

Efforts such as these indicate how HoDs as instructional leaders in distributed leadership structures contributed to promoting opportunities for teaching and learning in science and mathematics.

5.2 Monitoring instruction and forging collaboration Monitoring instruction is an important tool that guarantees effective teaching and learning; monitoring manifests in the form of informal or unplanned class visits (Mpisane, 2015). HoDs used classroom visits to observe what teachers did and to identify possible gaps that required their assistance HoDs were specialists in the subject areas in which they served as instructional leaders (Spillane et al., 2001; Syomwene, 2018). The HoD at School C clarified the use of relevant skills to monitor and direct teachers in achieving subject specific objectives: If work is not done, there must be a reason why this was not done. You have to find out why what are the challenges, why was this not done?…If according to the syllabus, we are supposed to be at week 10 and the teacher according to the work schedule [and] according to the work brochure, [it] is in week eight, the teacher must account [on] what happened to those two weeks. (HoD, School C) This explanation aligns with the assertion that HoDs can determine the level of teacher planning and identify impending challenges by observing lesson delivery during class visits (Ampofo et al., 2019). Accordingly, they create spaces for improvement. In the context of distributed leadership, the collaboration aims to filter down leadership responsibilities to teachers, who are generally expected to exercise some form of autonomy in their classrooms. A collaborative process promotes peer mentoring among teachers. This process also leads to accountability, which guides the route to educational performance (Harris, 2005). Accountability guarantees an improvement in teaching and learning. Although the HoD for science at School B had such a heavy administrative and teaching load (see Mashapa, 2019) that he could only visit each teacher twice a year, arrangements for teacher teacher class visits existed as a form of collaboration and encouragement among teachers. Following this arrangement, each teacher needed to be visited by a colleague eight times a year Teachers reported that they had reaped immeasurable benefits. This procedure is consistent with Spillane’s (2001, p. 27) view of distributed leadership in a school context. He stated that “efforts to improve instruction that target more interactions among

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. more elements of the instructional unit may be more effective.” Hence, Syomwene (2018) encourages the use of class visits as a developmental opportunity for teachers, not for fault finding. However, even when the intention is not fault finding, some teachers are suspicious and uncooperative, as is the case in some South African schools (Du Plessis, 2016).

Furthermore, when teachers agree and collaborate, they share knowledge and find themselves on the same page. Thus, standardization is ensured as a viable way to raise teaching and learning standards at schools (Harris, 2005) The multiple roles of HoDs include forging collaborative engagements among teachers that assist in developing their collective expertise (Harris, 2003). De Lima (2008) considers this a sign of effective distributed leadership, which is visible in schools where quality education is a priority (Mpisane, 2015). The HoD for mathematics at School A corroborated this claim: I will tell them today we do this, and we have the same textbook and we have the same lessons. But you are not allowed if you’ve got Grade [twelves’] to do something with your learners and you don’t tell other Grade 12 teachers, you are not allowed to give them examples if you don’t present to other teachers, so we work very closely together. (HoD, School A) Additionally, in an attempt to monitor and support instruction, HoDs assist teachers to resolve classroom challenges, including learner misconduct. The HoD at School C explained: “There are many challenges inside the classrooms, where some learners are not well behaved. So, if they report such learners, we have to take steps and then assist…..

However, the HoD at School C declared that when teachers fail to do their work, a harsh tone is required “to find out what were the reasons.” This approach does not question teacher capacity nor does it take away their autonomy. Instead, it intends to ensure the requisite accountability for effective, distributed leadership. Participants reported that class visits generally improved teaching and learning because they constantly put them under pressure to keep up with work demands to avoid queries from management. It is noteworthy that the pressure caused by class visits also helped teachers to develop professionally; an idea that aligns with Mpisane (2015). Teacher output is likely to increase when HoDs intensify the monitoring and supervision of lesson planning processes and delivery through class visits (Ampofo et al., 2019). Evidence confirms that, when teachers’ lesson plans are not monitored, laxity may set in with negative consequences to the quality of teaching and learning (Munje, 2018).

The supposition is that such intervention measures indicated the existence of accountability at the school, which is an important element of distributed leadership, and confirmed the authority of teachers in the classroom. The HoD at School C further explained: They don’t report every case, some things they must be handled as class teachers in class, but they only report cases which they can’t handle in class. For instance, if a learner is continuously late if a learner is continuously not doing their work. They bring such learners to me…I

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. try to find out the reasons why the learners are behaving that way. (HoD, School C) This HoD reiterated that in situations where interventions aimed at resolving learner misconduct failed, they had solicited parental assistance, often with impressive results. Common causes of learner misconduct included late coming and failure to do homework. Similarly, HoDs monitored teachers to ensure that those teaching the same grades and specific subjects were on the same page. The HoD for science at School B saw this as a form of standardization, “I check their assessment tasks, pre moderation, and post moderation and I make sure that everything is [on a] standard.” The role of the HoD, therefore, is to ensure that there is accountability and that teachers are in line with the program set for the completion of the syllabus (Bush, 2018b). Besides, the principal at School D explicated a trend of checks and balances that was aimed at ensuring standardization among teachers, which could lead to improved learner performance: They must check if the teacher has some challenges and give them support … to see the work of the children and make sure that [the] teacher relates well [with] the students, and there is a successful outcome from the teacher learner relationship in the classroom, in terms of the learner results in the class. The HoD has to support the teachers and to moderate their work. (Principal, School D) The HoD at School C corroborated that such interventions have the potential to provide a positive direction for teaching and learning because constant checks conducted by teachers, who teach similar grades and subjects, ensure content alignment and standardization. HoDs also checked teachers’ files to ensure efficacy. The deputy principal at School C explained that controlling educators’ files gave HoDs a better understanding of how teachers did their daily planning, of their preparedness and effectiveness during lessons, and of learners’ results, which ought to be a true reflection of good planning and lesson delivery. From this information, HoDs were able to determine teachers’ successes, challenges, and the nature of assistance required individually or collectively. Ampofo et al. (2019) support the supervision of teachers’ planning by HoDs because planning is an individual responsibility that has a great deal of influence on teaching and learning (Naicker & Mestry, 2013). In addition to monitoring and directing instruction, HoDs also played a coordinating role, by acting as coordinators between teachers, deputy principals, and principals to ensure effective curriculum implementation and an improvement in learner performance (Du Plessis & Eberlein, 2018; Harris, 2003). Hence, when HoDs are unable to resolve certain challenges faced by teachers, they ask for the assistance of deputy principals This is usually only needed when they have exhausted all alternative avenues to resolve the problem. The HoD at School C reported: We check the teachers’ work and when we are aware of some of the challenges, we call the teacher. Then we advise and we recommend what

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. could be done. But sometimes if the problem persists, that is when we involve the deputy principal as to say this is how far I’ve gone with this teacher, but there is nothing we are achieving, can you assist? (HoD, School C)

It is worth noting that the ability of HoDs to successfully monitor and support instruction in schools is based on their accessibility. The physical science teacher at School B commented that the HoD’s open door policy created supportive spaces for effective curriculum implementation: “We have meetings every week with her her door is always open for any problem or questions. Every time we have a problem, we go to her. So, she is there in a supportive role for us.” Similar sentiments about the HoD’s role were echoed by the mathematics teacher at School B: “Whatever you need, he is fantastic, he helps us a lot and we meet every Thursday morning and in that meeting, we will ask anything and he is just ready to help.” This sentiment reiterates the role of HoDs in supporting instruction despite their multiple responsibilities. Because HoDs also teach, they make considerable sacrifices to balance administrative duties and their teaching load. In response to a question on how HoDs balance their administration and their teaching load, the HoD at School C said, Eish, it’s tough but we try to balance. We usually do administrative work in the afternoon. It needs some sacrifice. Usually we as HoD’s, we remain here when the school knocks off at fourteen thirty in the afternoon. We usually remain behind until 15:30. Yeah until 15:30. We sacrifice one hour most of the time so that we can do admin work. Because there is not much time to do admin work and also teach. So we try, we sacrifice our time. (HoD, School C) Tapala et al. (2020) and Jacobs et al. (2016) agree that HoDs face challenges, including time constraints, as they maneuver between administrative tasks and their teaching workloads. They are often required to work extra hours and during weekends, which sometimes leads to burnout and which could have a knock on effect on the quality of their work.

Furthermore, this HoD explained how collaboration with the principal overcomes unforeseen setbacks that are, for example, caused by teacher absenteeism. He indicated that “[i]f there is a teacher in your department who is not in, you have to report to your principal so that we can find a replacement.” This procedure offers evidence that distributed leadership does not render those in formal leadership roles redundant, as they are required to oversee the overall functionality of the institution through certain forms of interventions to “hold the pieces together” (Harris, 2003, p. 11).

The inadequate capacity of teachers appointed to senior positions (Mbhalati & Jita, 2018), renders teacher professional development a fundamental tool to close existing gaps and to ensure efficacy. Teacher professional development enables teachers to acquire new skills (Du Plessis, 2016) and to enhance their competence

5.3 Teacher professional development

the view of the physical science teacher at School A, teacher professional development empowers teachers widely by covering different aspects, based on individual needs. For example, training could assist teachers to develop the types of questions in which they are deficient and in which they need assistance. In the process, HoDs can identify unexploited teacher potentials and they can provide professional development to assist them in developing to their full potential. The science teacher at School A clarified that “sometimes the development is quite good which means that they have the ability, but they are not spending a lot of time studying to know the basics.” In this case, the applicable professional development approach should aim to improve the classroom practice of the teachers concerned In a Ghanaian study, Abreh (2018) found that, when teachers have professional development opportunities that could ameliorate existing challenges, teaching and learning in science and mathematics are likely to improve.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. and confidence (Harris, 2003), which leads to effective curriculum implementation (Syomwene, 2018). In addition to guiding new teachers about a school’s culture, it improves learner performance, motivates teachers, and guarantees job satisfaction (Syomwene, 2018). In an environment where effective distributed leadership prevails, teacher professional development becomes part of the core functions of the HoD. Schools B and D had school cultures that warranted HoDs to develop new teachers professionally: Yeah, you see that’s part of the school’s culture, so mainly the head of the department…will be involved in orientating the new staff members, various science teachers, and through that, we are upholding the culture of science in our schools through the younger teachers. We try to develop them well. (Principal, School B) If the teacher is new, they [HoDs] must orientate that teacher; they must show what is expected from the teacher and how everything is going on…the HoDs must ensure that the teacher preparation is well conducted (Deputy Principal, School D) Although professional development is not a novel practice in South African high schools, Ajani (2019) endorses the need for proper structuring to ensure its efficacy in all school contexts, so that it meets the needs of individual teachers in the Furthermore,classroom.in

Additionally, HoDs engaged in follow up sessions with teachers after class visits to provide professional development in response to challenges that they observed. This resulted in the improvement of classroom practices and learner performance (Musyoka et al., 2017). The science HoD at School B said, “I discuss my visit with the teachers … , we sit around the table and I just say I saw that maybe you can do better, maybe you can teach the subject in this manner or this and that.”

In the same vein, the school principal at School A explained how the HoD, as an instructional leader in the distributed leadership framework, conducted quality

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. evaluations, and assessed teachers to identify possible challenges for improvement. Teacher evaluation forms completed after class visits provided feedback that guided HoDs in formulating the necessary support to teachers (Mpisane, 2015). Classroom observations that are followed by feedback and reflection sessions (Nel & Luneta, 2017, p. 4) are developmental for teachers. In alignment, Abreh (2018) reported that interaction with teachers allow HoDs to gather first hand information that assists with critical decision making aimed at school improvement and change (Harris, 2009).

6. Conclusion

This paper explored the roles played by HoDs in advancing science and mathematics teaching and learning through the distributed leadership framework at selected South African high schools. The evidence reveals that the roles played by science and mathematics HoDs in high schools assisted in maintaining the principles of distributed leadership, such as accountability, which is instrumental in ensuring effective teaching and learning opportunities. Some of the findings align and/or confirm some of the literature used in this study, but with a focus on science and mathematics teaching and learning. The HoDs were engaged in guiding curriculum implementation, monitoring instruction, forging collaboration among teachers, identifying teacher needs, and providing professional development opportunities to enhance science and mathematics teaching and learning. These actions of HoDs were mindful of the need for guided teacher autonomy in the classroom. Since HoDs are subject specialists in the disciplines that they head, they possess the competency to identify teacher challenges and to provide the necessary assistance employing problem targeted professional development opportunities. Although they faced time constraints caused by their teaching and administrative workload, HoDs managed to maneuver the terrain to perform their duties as instructional leaders. The implementation levels of distributed leadership in South African schools are probably affected by contextual factors that lead to a variation in HoDs’ experiences as instructional leaders. Thus, this paper recommends further research to explore the roles played by HoDs in various school contexts to create opportunities for science and mathematics teaching and learning. More evidence will offer a more holistic picture of HoDs’ opportunities and challenges as instructional leaders in the context of distributed leadership.

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58 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 58 76, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.4 Transformation of Geospatial Technology Knowledge in Pre-service and Experienced Geography Teachers as Pedagogical Tools in the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework Purwanto, Sugeng Utaya, Budi Handoyo and Syamsul Bachri Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5434 4528 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3239 5273 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7352 2932 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4576 5616 Abstract. practicedthethatteachers.GSTmappedThendescriptiveTheconceptualconsistingsemester,fivesurveyespeciallybasisframework.onexperiencedTechnology)ThisstudyaimstouncoverGST'sgapsandpatterns(GeospatialknowledgetransformationamongPreserviceandgeographyteachersusingGSTasaneducationaltoolbasedtheTechnological,Pedagogical,andContentKnowledge(TPACK)GSTintegrationintomaterialcontentisimplementedasaforthinkingandactingtosolveproblemsanddecisionmaking,geographiccontentThisstudyisdoingacrosssectionalwith600respondentsofthepopulation.Theyweredividedintogroups,suchasPreserviceteachers,inthebeginning,middle,finalandthenbeginnerandexperiencedteachers,andeachgroupof120respondents.ThemeasuredGSTcomponentincludesknowledge,implementation,andreasoningacquiredbytests.obtainedtestvalueswereanalyzedbytheSPSSsoftwareforstatisticandplottinggapknowledgevalueinthescatterplotgraph,deviationvalueswereobtained;thetransformationmodelwasandinterpretedintheCartesiandiagram.TheresultsshowedaknowledgegapbetweenPreserviceandexperiencedgeographyThelowimplementationabilityofexperiencedteachersmeansGSTisnotoptimalasapedagogicaltoolingeographylearningwithTPACKframeworkTherefore,theTPACKframeworkneedstobeincontinuousgeographylearningandchangingtheparadigm learningfromGST Be learningwithGST to strengthen the curriculum. Keywords: Transformation; Geospatial technology; Gap knowledge; Technological pedagogical content knowledge; Geography study 1. Introduction Geospatial Technologies(GST),including GeographicInformation Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing, and Global Positions System (GPS) is now a universal tool for

GST's potential as a pedagogical tool in geography learning is identified (Muñiz Solari et al., 2015). A survey of 47 geography teachers by Kerr (2016) showed 70% are interested in using GST, and even the rest have been practiced. Through a series of surveys in community service activities and GST training workshops, geography teachers in Indonesia are also interested in using GST. In particular, experienced teachers who have low implementation skills have never used GST. The condition shows that GST implementation as a pedagogical tool has a strong appeal and is proven effective (Curtis, 2019; Hong & Stonier, 2015; MaKinster et al., 2014; Oda et al., 2020).

However, the effectiveness of GST as a pedagogical tool in its implementation still reaps problems.Theapplication'scomplexityisacommon obstaclefacedbymany people (Kerski et al., 2013). The same thing was revealed by The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), where the complexity of GST applicationsis a major obstaclefor pre serviceandgeography teachers in America (Boehm et al., 2018; Langran, 2016). Other studies by Mzuza & Van Der Westhuizen (2019) are obstacles faced by geography teachers in Africa in using GST because it is increasingly complex The complexity of GST as a pedagogical tool is due to the pre service teachers and geography teachers having little GST knowledge. This matter means that pre service teachers and geography teachers lack strong GST knowledge, specifically on implementing Lack of experience, knowledge, technical expertise, and teachers' reluctance to change the way they

solving problems geographically and in several scientific disciplines (Liu et al., 2019). Since its introduction, GST has been proven to create geography learning more effectively (García de la Vega, 2019; Verma & Estaville, 2018). The effectiveness affects people's awareness of its use as an educational tool (Clarke, 2013; Kim, 2011; Kouziokas, 2015) GST's use as a pedagogical tool in geography learning is increasingly open along with internet technology development. These developments have encouraged the GST industry's growth globally and ultimately provided unlimited geographic learning opportunities (Moorman & Crichton, 2018). Distance and time are no longer an obstacle since they present various accurate geospatial information from various places in the world. This openness offers the opportunity to broaden the new knowledge and skills of the 21st century through the ability to think critically, creatively, communicatively, collaboratively, and in technological competence with GST (Belgiu et al., 2015) Therefore, Pre service teachers and geography teachers need to have the capacity to use technology as an orientation to obtain new knowledge. Geospatial information technology knowledge in geography learning in colleges and schools is an important component in learning geography. GST has been widely implemented in learning practices as a new strength in learning that uses a technology base to acquire knowledge. GST, as a pedagogical tool, offers a new way to view, study, and analysis information in transformative learning in spatial contexts (García de la Vega, 2019). The practice of using GST as a pedagogical tool as a basis for reasoning and thinking in learning spatial thinking (Jo & Hong, 2018; S. Metoyer & Bednarz, 2017; S. K. Metoyer et al., 2015) geospatial thinking (Baker et al., 2015; Clarke, 2013; García de la Vega, 2019), and geographical thought (Brendel, 2017; Muñiz Solari et al., 2015)

1. The transformation of pre service teachers to experienced teachers is directly proportional to the GST knowledge level increase.

Some studies have suggested that GST has a positive impact on learning in the field of geography studies. However, the practice of GST is still a challenge in some countries, especially Indonesia. However, prospective teachers and geography teachers have been provided with GST knowledge during lectures and training. A low level of GST knowledge is still an optimal constraint of GST as a pedagogical tool and the complexity of the application. According to Taimalu & Luik (2019), GST knowledge and other technologies are related to three main concepts: conceptual, implementation, and reasoning. These three components are important to master, especially prospective teachers and geography teachers, to useGST asa pedagogical tool. The reasoningcomponentisconsideredthe heart of technology (Taimalu & Luik, 2019). There has not been much research that reveals the in depth incongruity of GST knowledge. Therefore, this research aims to uncover the process of transforming GST knowledge from prospective teachers to geography teachers. GST knowledge is obtained through survey activities by conducting tests divided into three components: conceptual, implementation, and reasoning. The trend of transformation and the GST knowledge gap is the findings in this study.

According to Muñiz Solari et al. (2015) and Mathews & Wikle (2019), the importance of engaging prospective teachers and geography teachers directly to use GST. Besides, teachers should have a framework of knowledge about Technology (T), Pedagogy (P), and Content (C) called TPACK (Mishra, 2019) The framework has a strong influence on practices in teacher education and professional development on a broad scale. GST integration as a pedagogical tool within the TPACK framework affects the correlation between technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (Elas et al., 2019)

2. There is a GST knowledge gap between pre service teachers and experienced teachers.

teach, underfunding, and inadequate resources. These constraints triggered the non continuation of the geography teacher's professional development program in the implementation of GST as a pedagogical tool (Collins & Mitchell, 2019; Curtis, 2019; Hammond et al., 2018).

1.1 Geospatial Technology (GST) Geospatial technology (GST) consists of geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing (RS), Global Position Systems (GPS), and digital globes com prize (Baker et al., 2015). The potential of geospatial technology has not been widely explored and considered in the teacher education literature, despite its ability to function as an interesting pedagogical tool with pre service teachers (Kerr, 2016) GIS as a geospatial technology inherently, GIS has the potential to facilitate problem based learning and inquiry based learning (Favier & Van Der Schee, 2012; Howarth & Sinton, 2011). Likewise (Hong & Stonier, 2015) has integrated

Research Hypothesis:

Transformation is the creation and change of a completely new form, function, or structure. Transformation means creating something new that has never existed before and cannot be predicted from the past. According to Ross (2020), transformation is a change of shape, nature, and function. Meanwhile, Paralič et al. (2013) assume that transformation is practically converting understood knowledge into personal knowledge. In the context of GST knowledge, transformation is defined as a change in GST knowledge conceptual, implementations, and reasoning. Based on this concept, a series of knowledge transformation processes includes several stages: knowledge acquisition and storage, sharing of knowledge, and synthesis of knowledge. Changes in time have an important influence on the transformation process, which forms a new pattern of knowledge (Paralič et al., 2013), which positively affects learning geography in the classroom because it can build students' thinking abilities (Bodzin, 2011)

The pedagogical and content technology framework (TPACK) presents ways of thinking about effective technology integration, specifically knowledge related to integrating technology effectively into the learning environment (Brinkley Etzkorn, 2018; Mishra, 2019; Pamuk, 2012; Sickel, 2019). Wongsopawiro et al.

The imbalance in the development of GST with the knowledge of the teacher causes inequality. This study's function and purpose are to reveal the GST knowledge gap from transforming stages into teachers. Here is the difference between this study and the previous one in uncovering GST issues as a pedagogical tool from previous studies. The discovery of the knowledge gap is then used as an orientation in improving the geography learning component.

Non fulfillment of GST knowledge The value of inequality obtained is used to assess teacher readiness using GST as a pedagogical tool.

TPACK in GIS training to assist pre service teachers in using GIS as a tool in learning with the consequences of using sustainably.

TPACK as a framework for integrating technology as a pedagogical tool depends very much on GST knowledge from teacher candidates and geography teachers.

According to (Kholoshyn et al., 2019), there are three fundamental reasons for using remote sensing GST as a pedagogical tool, namely 1) remote sensing can present the Earth's surface by reality to increase student motivation in learning geography, 2) in small scales it allows students constructing regional relationship patterns, 3) high temporal resolution capability allows monitoring of environmental changes. Remote sensing and GIS provide valuable spatial frameworksforscientificinquiryandareveryeffective inintegrating earthsystem science (Bihrer et al., 2019). Through the power of spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution, sensing data is much more dynamic, so that it can be categorized as a type of modern representation because it measuresnot only cognitive competence but also students' ability to think sustainably (Kholoshyn et al., 2019; Saputro et al., 2020). The integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Satellite Remote Sensing (RS), and the Global Position System can be very effective tools for many subjects in the field of Geography Studies (Cheung et al., 2011)

1.3. GST as a Pedagogical Tool in the TPACK framework

1.2 GST Knowledge Transformations

Likewise, Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) is an integration of technological knowledge with pedagogical knowledge. In this context, a teacher does not know enough about technology, but conceptually, the teacher's

Figure 1. Representation of Geospatial Technology (GST) Knowledge within the TPACK framework (Mishra, 2019)

(2017) explained that pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) produced the idea that teachers must know content and pedagogy in teacher professional development programs. TPACK has strongly influenced research and practice in teacher education and professional development on a broad scale (Mishra, 2019)

The integration of technology into the PCK concept makes TPACK unique to Theteachers.TPACK framework consists of 3 main components, namely Technology Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Content Knowledge (CK) (Mishra, 2019; Rahayu, 2017). Technology integration as a pedagogical tool in the TPACK framework can be interpreted from two relationship contexts: TK CK, which generates Technology Content Knowledge (TCK), and TK PK that results in a Technological form of Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) relationship. TCK is knowledge about how to integrate technology with related content. The success of teachers in integrating material with technology depends on how far the teacher can use technology. There is no understanding of how the technology works with the material's content to be integrated; it is difficult to realize effective learning.

2. Methods 2.1 Research Design

This research is a cross sectional observational study conducted to assess the level of GST knowledge by pre service students (generation of 2016 to 2019) and geography teachers. The survey was conducted from 2017 to 2020. This research is quantitative by collecting data on GST knowledge scores. The score in question results from a GST knowledge test created and uploaded online via the web (https://geoedu224. wordpress.com/) with uses the google forms platform as a data collection tool. Because online surveys are an alternative to traditional surveys (face to face surveys, posts, or telephones) that can cost and time and reach a larger and diverse sample (Braun et al., 2020; Regmi et al., 2017) GST knowledge questions and answers are visually represented, so it is necessary to consider the file size that can affect the download process due to internet speed (Regmi et al., 2017) Score data is obtained from the pre service Teacher's GST knowledge pedagogical test at the end of each odd semester with a different class of students. Meanwhile, in geography teachers, this pedagogical competency test is carried out during the Teacher Professional Education program [PPG] (Ningsih et al., 2016) The score data were then analyzed to reveal the GST knowledge gap between pre service teachers and geography teachers

implementation and reasoning can use the technology (Coogle et al., 2019) in teaching practice. The use of GST as an analytical tool in the TPACK framework depends very much on implementation ability. Without being supported by this ability, candidates and geography teachers have difficulty establishing the GST logic. According to the National Research Council (NRC) and the National Academy of Engineering (NAE), there are three main components of using technology as an orientation in thinking, namely knowledge, abilities, and critical thinking in decision making (Pleasants et al., 2019). From this concept, it can be interpreted that to utilize GST as a pedagogical tool, candidates and geography teachers should have conceptual knowledge, implementation, and use of these technologies to solve problems and make decisions.

Table 1. Characteristics of Geospatial Information Technology Knowledge No Geospatial Information Technology Knowledge

GSTAbilityConceptual GST ImplementationAbility GSTAbilityReasoning

1. GIS MethodsTheory,Concepts,and GIS: Geometric Correction, layer creation, digitize, data editing, buffer analysis, Networkinterpolation,overlays,3D,andAnalysis.

Doing reading of maps, decisionsummarizinggraphs,images,tables,,andmaking.

is n = 92 per group. Determination of the number of samples can be spelled out with the following formulas (Survey

64 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. No Geospatial Information Technology Knowledge GSTAbilityConceptual GST ImplementationAbility GSTAbilityReasoning 2. RS MethodsTheory,Concepts,and Remote sensing: Digital Interpretation, Land use, NDVI, and Temperature. Interpretation of temperature, land changes, and density vegetation,of water, and capabilitiesmakingdecision

Source: (Gu et al., 2019; Knieova et al., 2016; Pleasants et al., 2019)

We determine the population because of

The number of samples specified in

total quota in geography education per

2.2 Research Strategy to GST knowledge testing used stratified random sampling, in the sense of taking samples from grouped populations, including pre service teacher first semester, mid semester, final semester, beginner teacher, and experienced teacher, especially for geography study. population per group is 120 out of 600 the whole. students' generation [PPG] many (Shi, 2015) this study Monkey, 2014): 2018; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011).

teachers as

as 120. This method's advantage is to narrow the differences in individual types through classification by determining the number of representative samples

The

��= ȥ�� ×��(�� ) �� +ȥ�� ×��(�� ) �� where, �� = population size, �� = margin of error (percentage in decimal form), ȥ = z score. Z score is a standard deviation number with a given proportion of the Webaverage.based research instruments have calculated the value of internal consistency or reliability by Cronbach Alpha at 0.774, with 27 items asked questions. The acceptable alpha value of instrument reliability is ≥ 0.7 or more (Taber,

3. GPS MethodsTheory,Concepts,and Global Positions System (GPS) including Plotting location, coordinates,readingaltitude, and accuracy check using a compass. Way to read, using GPS to plot locations, and decision making.

for

Respondents

and

Table 2. GST knowledge gap design using the IPA method

The data collection analyzed in this study is a question of GST knowledge divided into three components, including conceptual understanding (11 items), implementation capabilities (9 items), and reasoning (7 items) to understand and solve problems in a geographical phenomenon. Researchers created an original question. Before taking the test, respondents are advised to fill in academic information first as identity (student or teacher number [PPG], (student only), and class codes). The maximum score of each component is 100.

Pre service teacher for the first semester Pre-service teacher midPretermservice teacher for the final Groups

In descriptive statistical analysis, we use tools like IBM SPSS version 24. The average value on each component of GST knowledge and per group of respondents is calculated to find the gap value. The method used is Importance performance Analysis (IPA) adopted from student perception research on academic services by Saggaf et al. (2017) and Zulfahri et al. (2019) The test score is the actual performance per group of education level, while the passing grade value = 76 is the average value that has been set (Kemendikbud, 2020). Gap values can be entered into positive or negative categories by comparing the average value of actual performance and the value of interests that have been reduced by the passing grade value. The GST knowledge component's average gap value is the x axis, while the per group is the y axis. Deviation value, transformation model, mapped in cartesian diagram through SPSS software. Matrix of four quadrants plotted on the cartesian diagram (figure 2). Stage of Being a TeacherGeography

2.3 Data Collection and Analysis

AbilityConceptual AbilityImplementation AbilityReasoning ValueImportance Knowledgebetween (Components x ) ValueKnowledgeGap Componentsbetween

KnowledgeImportanceExperiencedBeginnersemesterTeacherTeacherValuebetweenGroups( ��) Gap Knowledge Value between

66 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Figure 2. Representation of Gap Analysis with Cartesian diagram. 3. Result 3.1 Geospatial Technology Knowledge Pre service and Geography Teacher The results of tests on GST knowledge from pre service teachers to teachers are described in Figure 2 Following. Figure 3. GST Knowledge scores for teacher candidate and geography teacher 54.4358.3862.5955.9758.24 57.9 69.72 52.5254.43 36.9846.3955.1164.1560.0455.98 0 20 40 60 80 Pre-service teacher first-Pre-servicesemesterteacher mid-Pre-servicesemesterteacher finalExperiencedBeginnersemesterTeacherTeacherReasoningAbility Implementation Ability Conceptual Ability avg. = 50.4 avg. = 56.18 avg. = 51.75 avg. = 62.47 avg. = 60.14

Therefore, the first hypothesis we have proposed is rejected, in the sense that the transformation of pre service teachers to experienced teachers is not directly proportional to the increase in the level of GST knowledge.

The test results showed that the highest GST knowledge was achieved when pre service teachers were still students in the middle semester, with an average knowledge component of 62.47. The second highest average knowledge when pre service teachers sit as students in the first semester. The lowest knowledge is achieved when pre service teachers are students in the experienced teacher, and the second lowest is a student in the final semester. Based on the results of the analysis, it can be seen that the trend of GST knowledge has declined when becoming an experienced teacher. Based on these facts, it can be seen that the length of time the acquisition of knowledge with the waiting time to become a teacher has a long influence on the GST knowledge of geography teachers.

Stages of

3.2 GST Knowledge of Pre service Teachers and Geography Teachers As Pedagogical Tools In The TPACK Framework To determine the readiness of pre service teachers and geography teachers in using GST as a pedagogical tool, an in depth analysis of GST knowledge iscarried out. The analysis showed a GST knowledge gap between pre service teachers and geography teachers, which has been proven in the second hypothesis. The results of the gap analysis of GST knowledge from pre service teachers are presented as Table 3 GST Knowledge analysis at the stages of becoming a geography teacher Being a GeographyTeacher

Con* Imp* Rea* ImportanceValue Gap Con* Gap Imp* Gap Rea* P* 58.38 57.9 64.15 15.86 1.76 2.24 4.01 P** 62.59 69.72 55.11 13.53 0.12 7.25 7.36 P*** 54.43 54.43 46.39 24.25 2.68 2.68 5.36 Beg* 55.97 52.52 60.04 19.82 0.21 3.66 3.86 Exp* 58.24 36.98 55.98 25.6 7.84 13.42 5.58 Importance Value 18.08 21.69 19.67 Gap P* 0.46 3.59 7.82 1.76 ; 0.46 2.24 ; 3.59 4.01 ; 7.82 Gap P** 4.67 15.41 1.22 0.12 ; 4.67 7.25 ; 15.41 7.36 ; 1.22 Gap P*** 3.49 0.12 9.94 2.68 ; 3.49 2.68 ; 0.12 5.36 ; 9.94 Gap Beg* 1.95 1.79 3.71 0.21 ; 1.95 3.66 ; 1.79 3.86 ; 3.71 Gap Exp* 0.32 17.33 0.35 7.84 ; 0.32 13.42 ; 17.33 5.58 ; 0.35 Note:P*(Pre serviceTeacherFirst semester);P**(Pre serviceTeacherMid semester);P*** (Pre service Teacher Final semester); Beg* (Beginner Teacher); Exp* (Experienced Teacher); Con* (Conceptual Ability); Imp* (Implementation Ability); Rea* (Reasoning Ability). Besides, it shows two characteristics of the GST knowledge gap, namely strong and weak. A positive value indicates a substantial gap, while a negative value indicates a weak gap on both axes. Based on the two characteristics' comparison

Table 3. Results of

10 13 12 9 1 4 2 6 11 14 7 5 3 8 15

4 I IIIII IV Conceptual

The mapping results of the GST knowledge transformation pattern based on becoming a teacher are presented in the Cartesian diagram, as shown in the following figure Ability Ability Ability

Figure 4. The pattern of GST knowledge transformation on Pre service and Geography Teachers

results, the Pre service Teacher in the first and final semester is the most powerful stage of GST knowledge acquisition. This matter is showed in the dominance of the positive gap value. However, in terms of the gap range, the Pre service Teacher in the mid term semester has the highest by 7.25;15.41 on the implementation ability. When analyzed from the gap value composition, the pre service teacher has a relatively balanced transformation pattern between knowledge components in the final semester. Conversely, the negative gap with the highest range was achieved by experienced teachers with a value of 13.42; 17.33 in the implementation content.

Based on the type of knowledge, the conceptual ability is the most powerful knowledge mastered by Pre service and experienced geography teachers. This matter is showed in the dominance of the positive gap with the highest value of 7.84;0.32. This fact further strengthens their GST knowledge capacity

Implementation

Reasoning

Based on the three components of GST knowledge, each has a different model and dynamic. Furthermore, based on the Cartesian diagram, the mastery of conceptual knowledge is spread in all quadrants. This matter means that

Note:P*(Pre serviceTeacherFirst semester);P**(Pre serviceTeacherMid semester);P*** (Pre service Teacher Final semester); Beg* (Beginner Teacher); Exp* (Experienced Teacher); Con* (Conceptual Ability); Imp* (Implementation Ability); Rea* (Reasoning Ability) GST knowledge of reasoning ability is divided into two quadrants, including I and III. Quadrant I reflects strong reasoning ability, and III is weak. This condition shows that the reasoning capacity at each stage has a different capacity. This gap is not as large as the implementation ability and even tends to be accommodating since it covers the design and conceptual ability.

geography teachers (7.84;0.32) have a strong mastery level with a positive gap value. The lowest gap was found in the Pre service Teacher for the first semester with a comparative value of 1.76;0.46.

Table 4. Cartesian diagram legend (figure 4) Gap Con* Gap Imp* Gap Rea* Label(Quadrant) Gap P* 1(IV) 6(I) 11(I) Gap P** 2(I) 7(I) 12(III) Gap P*** 3(II) 8(I) 13(III) Gap Beg* 4(III) 9(III) 14(I) Gap Exp* 5(II) 10(III) 15(III)

The high knowledge gapin implementation ability shows that it is still an obstacle for Pre service and experienced geography teachers in using GST. This matter is in line with research findings (Boehm et al., 2018; Hong & Stonier, 2015; Kerski et al., 2013; Langran, 2016). Its application complexity is still a major obstacle to Pre service and experienced geography teachers. The absence of a curriculum structure that examines the use of GST as an educational tool means that the knowledge of the Pre service teachers does not develop sustainably. This matter means that the GST learned is still limited to meeting the needs of the subject.

GST knowledge of implementation ability has dynamic patterns and transformations. This ability is divided into two quadrants, including I and III. This matter shows that the implementation of knowledge is strong and weak. GST knowledge with strong implementation skills occurs among students in the middle semester, and it is weak experienced teachers (table 4). Based on this pattern, it is seen that the implementation ability trend tends to decrease from Pre service to experienced geography teachers (figure 3).

The GST knowledge transformation pattern in Pre service and experienced geography teachers has not occurred continuously based on the results. The high implementation ability gap showed that this is still a major obstacle for both teachers(beginner and experienced) whenusing technology asa pedagogical tool. This matter is certainly a challenge for universities and geography teachers in Indonesia, especially in utilizing GST as a pedagogical tool.

Third, the learning experience with GST has not been supported in the curriculum. Previous results showed that the Educational Personnel Education Institution [LPTK] curriculum has a GST course weight of 7 14% of the total courses presented. This matter is still limited to basic GST courses, such as remote

The challenge for geography teachers at schools includes implementing a tight study schedule and the high burden and assignment and administrative matters. The implementation of GST requires a planning process with sufficient time. The tight schedule is the main obstacle for GST when implemented in the classroom by the teacher. Discussion

The implementation of GST skills that were not optimal in the TPACK framework is due to the course's unsustainability, which specifically teaches students' skills regarding GST use. Furthermore, Pre service teachers need to understand this technology on a cognitive level and use it theoretically as a basis for reflection. This knowledge is still fundamental and should be trained in different implementations as a pedagogical tool. This activity certainly has positive effects and experience for Pre service geography teachers. To create a learning experience with sustainable GST, Baker, et al. (2015) recommended four components as a pedagogic tool such as (1) examining the relationship between GST and geospatial thinking; (2) learning GST; (3) curriculum and student learning through GST; and (4) professional development of educators with GST Based on the statement, Pre service and experienced geography teachers have the knowledge, experience, and abilitytouse GST in an integratedway. Also, Rubino Hare et al. (2016) emphasize that the use of GST as a pedagogical tool takes 1 to 2 years in continuous learning. Therefore, Pre service and experienced geography teachers focus on learning about GST and how to teach it (Donert et al., 2016; Zwartjes & de Lázaro y Torres, 2019). As Curtis (2019) stated, geography teachers should know the relationship between geospatial thinking skills and GST before using it as an educational tool. Geospatial thinking that uses location as a basis for thinking has important meaning for the Pre service and experienced geography teachers in generalizing the relationship between spatial components and decision making. Based on the Verma & Estaville (2018), students that learn geospatial technology have better thinking abilities. Geospatial thinking with the basis of reasoning processes, spatial conceptualization, and representation tools, is a set of cognitive skills with some knowledge form and operators used to change one's way of thinking and to act towards the phenomenon in the Earth's surface through problem solving (García de la Vega, 2019).

Second, in the context of the learning experience, itcan be reported that thisability is an important element in the implementation of GST as an educational tool. GST applications' complexity is a major challenge for Pre service and experienced geography teachers (Boehm et al., 2018; Kerski et al., 2013; Langran, 2016). This matter can be overcome when GST is consistently used as a pedagogical tool (Clarke, 2013; Kim, 2011; Kouziokas, 2015)

sensing, Geographic Information Systems, thematic cartography, and photogrammetry integrated with Global positions system (GPS). No GST course development covers its ability to be implemented, and it certainly becomes an obstacle for Pre service and experienced geography teachers since they lack authentic experience.

Fourth, as uniqueness in geography learning, it should make a distinction between geography and other fields of study integrated with spatial approaches. This ability needs to be strongly mastered by experienced or professional teachers. However, it is inversely proportional. This matter is because of weak implementation skills in using GST for changes orientation in geography learning. Students' impact is strong with conceptual understanding because the teacher has a reinforced mastery concept, and it ultimately causes geography to lose its uniqueness in learning.

The lack of GST knowledge on the implementation ability is the main obstacle for Pre service and experienced geography teachers in using GST as a pedagogic tool with the TPACK framework. This matter can cause a non optimal correlation between technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge. The integration of technology in the learning context needs mastery ability in its implementation. As a pedagogical tool, Pre service and experienced geography teachers need to understand how GST works in an integrated way to solve problems, ways of thinking, and decision making process.

Second, it needs to be technically supported by the ability to integrate technology with content knowledge. Understanding this material is important in terms of the thinking logic taught to students and GST methods' accuracy. A lack of content knowledge means that students do not develop their thinking logic due to limited knowledge (Pamuk, 2012). Furthermore, Rubino Hare et al (2016), developing thinking skills, need to be supported with strong knowledge, which occurs when Pre service and experienced geography teachers can ultimately connect one concept to produce new knowledge.

For the GST to function as an educational tool, the teachers need to have a good knowledge understanding of the GST in terms of implementation, design, and reasoning. Besides, Langran (2016), it has been argued that its solid knowledge is important since it stimulates the thinking capacity of users. Strong GST knowledge can be achieved by placing it as a pedagogical tool in geography learning.

Pre service teachers' lack of experience in using GST as a pedagogical tool harms geography learning. The wide gap in the ability to implement the concept shows three different strengths. Due to the transformation process, the three GST knowledge is not well integrated into Pre service or experienced geography teachers. This weakness makes GST ineffective towards learning geography. According to, direct involvement in implementing GST as a pedagogical tool provides meaningful learning experiences. Furthermore, Kang & Keinonen (2017) andMasters(2013) reported that directlearningexperiencescouldremember 90% of the material being studied. Therefore, it has an impact on memory.

5. Acknowledgment

Thank you to the students, teachers, and all those who have contributed to writing this article.

8. Limitations

9. References Baker, T. R., Battersby, S., Bednarz, S. W., Bodzin, A. M., Kolvoord, B., Moore, S., Sinton, D., & Uttal, D. (2015). A Research Agenda for Geospatial Technologies and Learning. Journal of Geography, 114(3), 118 130. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2014.950684 Belgiu, M., Strobl, J., & Wallentin, G. (2015). Open Geospatial Education. ISPRS International Journal of Geo Information, 4(2), 697 710. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi4020697

In this study, GST knowledge for prospective teachers to experienced geography teachers was obtained from the test results. There are three components of GST presented, including conceptual, implementation, and reasoning. To uncover the GST knowledge gap between education levels, the importance performance analysis (IPA) method is used based on the average test result score of each level of education and each component of GST as the actual value. Meanwhile, the passing grade value is set at 76 as a requirement of professional teachers. The GST knowledge gap value is plotted into a cartesian diagram divided into four quadrants. Results show that GST knowledge for pre service teachers and experienced teachers is not strongly categorized because there is a negative gap value. The implementation ability of experienced geography teachers should be widely practiced to strengthen pre service reasoning further weakened in the semester’s final stages. The inconsistency of GST knowledge from pre service teachers to experienced geography teachers is due to the inconsistency of understanding GST knowledge.

This study's limitation is that surveys are not conducted continuously, focusing on one generation ranging from prospectiveteachers to experienced teachers. This research is still limited to the invisible implications of GST knowledge that could increase geospatial technology as a learning tool such as google earth, map, or Web GIS applications in the future. Of course, research needs to be done in the future to seetheimplications of GST mastery on the use of worldballapplications.

6. Conclusions

7. Recommendations

This research is supported by the Faculty of Social Sciences, State University of Malang, Indonesia, through the dissertation grant from the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia, contract number: 053/SP2H/LT/DRPM/2020.

The findings of the problems revealed in this study need evaluation. Our recommendations for solutions address the unconscionable understanding of GST knowledge. First, the TPACK framework needs to be integrated into geography learning practices. This matter is to achieve the goal of gaining a strong and consistent mastery of GST knowledge. Second, it is necessary to change the paradigm of geography learning from GST to learning with GST through strengthening the curriculum.

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77 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 77 98, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.5 Transformation of the Educational Ecosystem in the Singularity Environment Kateryna Andriushchenko Kyiv National Economic University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6274 5310 Vita Kovtun Kyiv National Economic University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7212 6700 Oleksandra Cherniaieva Interregional Academy of Personnel Management, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6981 2491 Nadiia Datsii Zhytomyr National Agroecological University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0640 6426 Olena Aleinikova University of Educational Management, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4876 3563 Anatolii Mykolaiets Interregional Academy of Personnel Management, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2580 0736 Abstract. This study was aimed at creating an effective model of the educational ecosystem in a singularity environment. The study is based on a system of general scientific methods of scientific knowledge, in particular, the method of expert assessment, the method of analogy and comparative analysis. The experts, with the support of facilitators, visualized the possible future of education as a symbiosis of individual and collective learning paths that connect learners with many learning spaces and educational opportunities. To ensure the operability of such a model of the educational ecosystem, it is necessary to create tools and processes that support personal and collective learning and development throughout life, including: processes and tools that help determine the goals of learners; educational processes integrated into the educational trajectory and developing various aspects of personal and collective existence through holistic educational experiences, including play and co creation; processes and tools that measure

1. Introduction

While industry is entering the fourth industrial revolution, education has stalled in its development, and what we attribute to transformations is not enough. In addition, it is necessary to recognize the fact that a large part of the education system is not ready for technical singularity. The industry is rapidly developing, the pace of technical singularity is surprising, while the education system is slowly lagging behind. Approximately 80% of the time teachers spend on administration and transfer of knowledge and only about 20% on emotional development (UNESCO, 2020). Technological singularity, which leads to the use of artificial intelligence in the educational process, contributes in the future to more effectively assess learners and focus on building relationships and the formation of emotional development in learners.

Masayoshi Son (he is the richest Japanese tycoon and the largest sponsor of technological singularity) predicts that in 30 years the number of smart robots on earth will be 10 billion and exceed the number of people (Kovtun et al., 2020). He argues that any industry created by humanity will be redefined: the medical industry, the automotive industry, the information industry, in general all the industries that have ever been created by humanity, even agriculture. Because

At the recent Global Education Forum in Dubai, Harry Patrinos (World Bank Education Manager), said about how workplace automation will affect the quality of learning and the skills that learners need to be competitive with regard to the speed of technical singularity (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018).

According to scientists, in 2045 artificial intelligence will exceed human intelligence (Mead & Kurzweil, 2006). Some scientists call technical evolution a singularity. With all the positive aspects, it is necessary to take into account that technical evolution also brings big threats and changes for the education system.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. learning outcomes; educational spaces and technologies that help to combine personal and collective educational trajectories, coordinating individual educational needs with the evolving needs of communities These processes can be integrated into "ecosystem" systems of educational process management (in which personal and collective learning paths can be combined, and which connect learners with many learning spaces and educational opportunities).

Keywords: Singularity; Educational ecosystem; Competencies; Self guided education

The rapid development of material and digital technologies and new management tools in the 21st century gives mankind unprecedented opportunities to create a desired future on a global scale. At the beginning of the 20th century a new hypothesis related to technological evolution (Armstrong, 2017) appeared, namely the concept of technological singularity (TC), which is closely connected, first of all, with the rapid development and introduction of innovations. In 1996, when the three main factors of the economy (labor force, nature, capital) were related to information (information and communication technologies of ICT), a new theory the digital economy arose (Tapscott, 1997).

According to UNESCO (UNESCO. 2020), there are 750 million illiterate people on the planet who live mainly in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America and one of the main goals of the UN sustainable development is the complete elimination of illiteracy by 2030. The global demand for higher education continues to grow: by 2025. the number of learners in the world should increase by 95 million, and in order to satisfy this demand, it is required to open three new universities every week over the next 10 years (Jacobs, 2014).

According to the Hays Global Skills Index (Hays Global Skills Index, 2018), the growing mismatch of employee competencies with employers' requirements remains one of the key market problems labor for all major economies of the world. That is even without major changes, education can remain one of the most sought after areas of society. From this point of view, the main tasks of education in the coming decades will be to increase the capacity of educational institutions, develop curricula that are more consistent with the requirements of the labor market, as well as reduce the cost of learning with the help of new educational technologies.

The transformation of the education sector in accordance with modern challenges is inevitable, and the technologies that have already become the driver of large scale socio economic changes have great potential for use in schools. Already today, the use of big data processing technologies, artificial intelligence, personalization in learning is no longer the subject of academic discussion and is becoming the content of real projects, educational services and platforms. To be able to respond to global challenges, participants in the educational ecosystem must very well understand the main trends in its development. This is especially important for our country, for historical reasons it has for many decades been exposed to "raw material dependence" and the accompanying significant centralization of public administration in everything, including education. Today, when natural wealth ceases to be the basis and guarantee of success of individual countries in global competition, it is necessary to focus all our attention on the development of the only truly inexhaustible resource for creating a better future for everyone and everyone human potential in all its manifestations.

79 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the tools that we created in the past were inferior to the human brain. Now tools are becoming smarter than themselves. Education systems, built on the patterns of the century before last, are no longer meeting the requirements of the times. Given the development of exponential technologies in the information sphere, the production of new materials, biology and genetics, the future "comes" to us faster than we manage to react to what is happening. Adaptive and conservative models of education are not just ineffective they pose a tremendous danger to our future, making us unprepared and blind to the coming changes. First of all, education needs to stop reproducing outdated models of thinking and activity. The time has come to carry out the required transformations, and we need a qualitatively new educational paradigm that meets the challenges of the complex world of the 21st century (Global Education Futures, 2020).

2. Literature review and problem statement

Researchers drew attention to the fact that, since technological progress, determines how we live, is constantly accelerating, there must come a moment when people can’t keep up with technology that is, it will come what mathematicians call a singularity (Neumann, 1993). But this time it will not be a feature in a certain physical system, but a feature in the history of mankind.

Ulam S. systematized the idea of a singularity, which was considered as the evolution of cybernetic systems (that is, control systems), both biological (mainly the nervous system as a natural cybernetic system) and cultural (Ulam, 1958). The evolution of these systems consists of a sequence of metasystem transitions, each of which consists in the emergence of a next level control system that selects between different states or instances of already existing lower level control systems.

Currently, a paradigm shift in the development of mankind is taking place. A fundamental transformation of all forms of life activity is underway throughout the world. Today's world needs innovations, since the resource base of nature has been largely exhausted and only the innovative potential of man can lead the world forward. At the same time, the modern innovation process can be both manageable and spontaneous and unfocused. It is a clear understanding of the content and structure of modern innovative technological transformations such as information technology, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, nanotechnology, communications, etc. allowed Ray Kurzweil to formulate the law of acceleration of returns in 1999 (Kurzweil, 1999).

According to American researchers, the singularity point will come in 2020 (Tsirel,2020) or in 2027 (Panov, 2020).

The research steps undertaken in this area by Eden, A. in 2012 in his essay “Singularity Hypotheses” indicate, on the one hand, insufficient theoretical elaboration of the problem, and on the other, the lack of effective mechanisms for implementing the planned social transformations (Eden et al., 2012).

The ultimate limit of physical and social conditions is the point of singularity. In a mathematical sense, a singularity is a phenomenon in which the number of crises becomes infinite, and the gaps between them tend to zero (Vinge, 2008).

Singularity is the point at which our old models will have to be discarded, where a new reality will reign. This is a world whose outlines will become clearer, approaching modern humanity, until this new reality obscures surrounding reality, becoming commonplace (Vinge, 2008). The scientist stated that society simply went to the limit of both physical reality, studied by natural and mathematical disciplines, and the social limit, studied by philosophy and social sciences (Vinge, 2008). The appearance in the social and philosophical sciences of the physical and mathematical concept of “singularity” is not accidental.

The aim of this paper is to form an effective model of the educational ecosystem in a singularity environment as a symbiosis of individual and collective learning paths that connect students with many learning spaces and educational opportunities.

In the idea of a technological singularity, human intelligence is replaced in many areas of activity. People gradually and steadily refuse to participate in the production process (Mole, 2011). In a study (Calum, 2018), the author suggests identifying several types of singularity: technological, associated with the creation of artificial intelligence superior to human intelligence; economic, in which acts of production and consumption reach absolute agreement and are combined; political, when political governance as such becomes meaningless; cultural, the main feature of which is the transition from the total priority of successive artistic styles to the parallel, simultaneous existence of all the possible diversity of cultural forms, to the freedom of individual creativity and individual consumption of the products of this creativity. From the point of view of technological development, a researcher (Calum, 2018) connects technological progress with the economic crisis; avalanche like innovation generates crisis

Scientists in their study presented the idea of considering technological singularity as a predicted convergence of people and machines (Solez et al., 2013). Researchers are talking about combining the strengths of a person and a computer, where a person uses intuition, associations, and his understanding of processes, and the computer's function is to carry out cumbersome accurate calculations and expand the volume of operational and long term human memory. The main message in the paper is the interaction of man and computer when the core value is formed (Solez et al., 2013) In a study (Good, 1990) Irving John Good in the context of technological singularity defined the superintelligent machine as a machine that can significantly surpass all the intellectual actions of any person, no matter how smart he is. Since the ability to develop such a machine is also one of these intellectual activities, the superintelligent machine can build even more advanced machines. This will undoubtedly be followed by an “intellectual explosion”, and the human mind will lag far behind the artificial. Thus, the first superintelligent machine will be the last invention that will fall on a person’s lot, provided that the machine is humble enough and tells us how to keep it under control. And the likelihood that in the twentieth century the superintelligent machine will be built and become the last invention that a person will make is higher than the likelihood that this will not happen (Good, 1990).

The concept of the singularity was widely popularized by Raymond Kurzweil, who argues that the moment at which the mind of machines exceeds the human let's call it the Turing point is not only inevitable, but also awaits us over the next several decades (Kurzweil, 2008) In support of this idea, Kurzweil talks about the merging of people and machines, after which there will be many niches in which equivalent human autonomy will be claimed: embedded systems in self governing devices, autonomous robots of lower functionality in larger intelligent creatures (Kurzweil, 2008). Later, Kurzweil developed the idea that technological singularity is a futuristic concept, where the intellectual capital of people in a constant “connect” with artificial intelligence is integrated into artificial intelligence (superhuman intelligence). In other words, people will become elements of information technology systems, and their manifestations will be limited by their functionality in these systems (Kurzweil, 2016).

Likewise, changes in social norms have also been under the influence of an accelerating trend over the past hundred years, albeit to a lesser extent.

The concept of "ecosystem" began to figure in discussions about the future of education in the early 2000s, but there is still no single definition of it. Some define the ecosystem through a balance of different stakeholders (stakeholders) in the education process, including teachers and learners (Pearce & McCoy, 2007; Hannon, 2017); others emphasize the role of the ecosystem as an alternative to the traditional education system (Knowledge Works, 2012). Increasingly, the concept of an ecosystem is used to refer to the collection of educational technology solutions (eg social media and educational platforms) that are available to individual learners and educational institutions.

Studies in evolutionary biology, from where the concept of “ecosystem” is taken, offer a more precise definition: an ecosystem is a community of living organisms in connection with a natural inanimate environment (air, water, soil, etc.): for example. forest, coral reef, or lake (Chapin et al., 2002). Given this definition, we

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. phenomena in the social, cultural and economic life of people and is a mechanism for overcoming crisis situations. according to cyclical theories, destruction and creation in the development of matter are repeated forever.

Accelerating change (Heylighen, 2015) is an integral qualitative characteristic of an industrial society, which was the result of three key events (Johannessen & Sætersdal, 2020): • the emergence of “social machines” for knowledge creation and innovation (from research universities and corporate research and development departments to regional and national innovation systems), which provide a steady flow of new technologies (Coser & Mumford, 1972);

• the emergence of institutions supporting the processes of globalization, which are gradually developing from agreements on free trade to systems of global technology standards, professional requirements and educational processes.

• the emergence of network technologies (from telegraph and television to the Internet and social networks), which are becoming a vehicle for the rapid spread of new technologies and norms (Bilan et al., 2017; Nitsenko et al., 2019; Andriushchenko et al., 2020).

In this study, the educational ecosystem can be defined as a dynamically evolving and interconnected network of educational spaces made up of individual and institutional providers of education who offer a variety of educational resources and experiences to individual and collective learners throughout their life cycle.

Approximately 50 years ago, the American sociologist Alvin Toffler wrote in the book "Shock of the Future" that the continuous and accelerating process of change is the main trend of industrial civilization (Toffler, 1970). The impact of technological acceleration is especially pronounced in the mutually reinforcing spheres of "exponential" technologies: digital, biotechnological, and nanotechnological (Kurzweil, 2005).

• diversity: different providers of education that play many different roles and ensure the structural stability of the ecosystem;

• maximum productivity and closed circulation of resources in the ecosystem:

• education providers enter into mutually beneficial relationships in which they create and reallocate resources among themselves, including interested learners, knowledge, quality assurance and funding (as opposed to earlier “hierarchical” educational organizations that tried to control the educational trajectory and future fate of learners , increasing competition within the system);

• scalability: ecosystems can operate at different scales, from groups of learners or individual schools to the scale of the entire planet.

• quick adaptability: ecosystems are able to adapt and respond to learner requests and changes in the institutional environment (this is a critical hallmark of ecosystems in relation to the earlier and more rigorous approaches of centralized educational systems);

Accordingly, a fully developed educational ecosystem is an open and growing community of different education providers that serve the different needs of learners in a specific context or territory. A territory or region becomes the minimum unit of the educational ecosystem while a separate educational institution (school, university, etc.) can never be a full fledged ecosystem on their own, although they can have “ecosystem” properties and can become a central structural element of the ecosystem (like a large tree, in the crown of which a wide variety of organisms can live, from moss to birds). A full fledged ecosystem requires not only providers of educational experiences, but also various integrators (“connectors”) that create trajectories for learners through the system, help to record and record their achievements, find and connect public resources, etc. In this way, the educational ecosystem is always localized, it meets local needs and brings learners together in this context.

The modern world is facing a huge number of threats, including climate change, declining biodiversity, growing risks of personal and collective security on a global scale, threats to global wealth and growing global inequality. All these threats are direct consequences of the dominant organization model of industrial civilization (Hansson, 1990) and their mutual influence reinforces each other, creates the cumulative effect of growing global turbulence, and calls into question the ability of mankind to survive the next century. Amid these growing threats, management systems (including not only formal structures, but also cultural patterns and a dominant way of thinking) simply stop coping with the growing complexity. The reason for this is the mass education of the industrial

3. Research

• the ecosystem creates the “maximum benefit” for society (for example, a developed ecosystem should provide skills learning on a scale comparable to secondary vocational education, with greater quality and lower costs);

Today, education is mainly aimed at maintaining the status quo and reproducing the values inherent in industrial society. Although in recent decades developed countries have been trying to change the current situation through the formation of a “knowledge economy”, the seeming changes in fact largely continue the previous model and preserve all the old contradictions, including the imbalance between humanity and nature.

Figure 1: The emergence of a wisdom based society

3. Active development of information and communication technologies, mathematics, cognitive sciences, biopharmaceuticals and other related sciences,

1. The growing complexity of socio technical systems (such as transport, energy, telecom, mass production, etc.), socio economic, political and cultural environments, which are increasingly acquiring the features of VUCA.

era: it does not prepare for life in a complex world, does not develop thinking, reduces creative potential and innate ability to cooperate, deprives people of sensitivity and compassion.

Transformation of educational systems on a global scale is facilitated by three main factors.

2. The growing inefficiency of the modern education system due to insufficient possibilities for its transformation, along with continued investment in industrial models of education and the reproduction of outdated “ways of cognition” (epistemology) that do not prepare society for answers to the challenges of the 21st century.

Any deliberate change in education systems in the 21st century should be inextricably linked with the solution of problems of economic, environmental and political injustice, and should create the possibility of free access and dissemination of human wisdom and welfare. It is necessary to develop a new model of society based on collective wisdom or “the fundamental pragmatism of life” (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000), which plays a key role in decision making and human development. Figure 1 shows the process of transformation of society, which includes three stages: industrial society; knowledge economy; a society based on wisdom.

85 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. providing incredible mobility, the ability to process "big data", automation of a number of cognitive processes in artificial intelligence systems, as well as new ways of personal and collective learning and development based on these tools. This creates ideal conditions for the emergence of open personal (network) education based on relevant and advanced content, involving many new educational providers, cooperation between learners and teachers, creating motivating interactive educational environments and spaces. All this will allow educational systems to become more flexible, varied and personalized and at the same time more and more global.

Professional and social life is radically changing: more and more people are involved in creative activities in horizontal, globally distributed organizations and communities supported by information technology. Work in such organizations does not contradict the achievement of personal and more global social goals, and continuous development in them becomes a requirement and an integral part of life. These changes are reinforced by the accelerating transformation of global markets and supply chains, the massive disappearance of traditional areas of employment and the emergence of new areas of work caused by the flow of technological and social innovations, the spread of new global technological, financial and environmental standards. In these conditions, organizations, communities, regions and economies seek to strengthen their competitive advantages and this leads to massive demand for “competencies of the future”, allowing people to successfully operate in the context of the expected socio economic and technological changes. A common understanding of future competencies includes (SES, 2012; PwC, 2013; OECD, 2019; Skidelsky, 2020): 1. various professional (“hard”) competencies and knowledge associated with changes in technology and organization of work;

Numerous global challenges not only pose a threat to our existence but also open up opportunities for updating ways of thinking, creativity, decision making and activities. There is an unprecedented basis for cooperation, creativity and innovation on a global scale. Education becomes both a response to emerging challenges, and the main point of influence for the emergence of a complex society and the self realization of every person on Earth. If “evolution is the way of learning the Universe, and learning is the way of man’s evolution” (Laszlo, 2018), then the human community expects a focused development of the ability to learn and lead in such a way that together create a prosperous and desirable future on Earth and, possibly, beyond. Global changes in attitude towards work and lifestyle mean a growing demand for new individual and collective competencies. In a complex society, universal knowledge and methods of action disappear, and much more important than specific competencies (that is, the ability to act effectively in a given context) are meta competencies such as creative abilities, the ability to negotiate and collaborate, empathy, etc. Similar “soft” skills are becoming increasingly important for getting a job, building a successful career, professional self realization, improving the quality of life and implementing an active citizenship.

2. “soft” professional competencies and universal knowledge that can be applied in all professions, social and personal situations (including those associated with the wave of technological transformation), such as (Regine,2020; Singh & Sharma, 2020):

• competencies and knowledge that help to cope with the fundamental variability, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity of the future including competencies of cooperation, creativity, entrepreneurship, etc., as well as competencies related to strengthening personal “sustainability” (for example, acquisition healthy habits and the ability to cope with stress) and the ability to understand the future (understand and / or implement various scenarios of the future and develop appropriate strategies for individual and collective actions);

• competencies and knowledge that help to cope with the growing complexity of civilization including systemic thinking, the ability to solve problems and find new opportunities (as well as artistic, poetic and other thinking), etc.

• knowledge and competencies related to what “machines cannot do” including empathy / emotional or interpersonal intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence and naturalistic intelligence, as well as strengthening the ability to create and sincerely serve others;

Probably, the classification of “soft” skills is also worth clarifying, since many of them (for example, cooperation skills) are much more complex, based on more basic and universal competencies (for example, communication skills or emotional intelligence).

In addition, the ability to succeed in the expected future depends on the fundamental aspects of the human personality that determine how she lives and acts what is often called “character” (OECD, 2019). Character traits are usually considered congenital or emerging at an early age. Nevertheless, modern approaches to psychotherapy and human development methods show that even fundamental character traits (eg. optimism) (Rashid & Seligman, 2018) or “developmental orientation” (Diener & Dweck, 1980) can be acquired and adjusted in any age. Therefore, such “life strategies” can be considered competencies of a special type, which we designate as “existential competencies”. These competencies include the ability to set goals and achieve them (willpower), the ability to self awareness / introspection (awareness), the ability to learn something / unlearn / relearn (self development) and others.

• knowledge and competencies that help to live in the world of information and communication technologies including basic programming skills, information retrieval, processing and analysis skills (for example, “knowledge mapping”, mind mapping), information hygiene / media literacy, etc. One of the most important skills is the ability to manage your attention, the basic ability to direct and hold attention in the face of information overload (which can be trained through many contemplative practices);

• knowledge and skills related to focused multidisciplinarity, the desire to achieve mastery in various fields of work and life.

Highly specialized knowledge and competencies (for example, knowledge of anatomy and surgical techniques for the surgeon), special physical skills (for example, cycling) or special social skills (for example, video blogging) From several months to several years

CROSS (INCLUDINGCONTEXTOVER-PROFESSIONAL)KNOWLEDGEANDSKILLS

ANDKNOWLEDGESKILLS

CONTEXT

Knowledge and competencies that can be applied in more areas of socio economic and individual activity, for example, reading, writing, time management, cooperation, etc. From a few years to decades

Ways to operate objects in consciousness or in physical reality. First of all, various methods of cognition and creativity, including logical and cognitive, emotional, physical and other intellects

KNOWLEDGEEXISTENTIALANDSKILLS

TYPE OF EXAMPLES KNOWLEDGEOFANDSKILLS DEVELOPMENTAPPROXIMATEDURATIONOFACTUALITY,TIMEFORTHEIR

The fundamental competencies that determine the essence of a person’s behavior in life, his perception of situations and his character, including competencies that determine willpower, health, emotional self regulation, self knowledge and introspection abilities, self development skills, etc. From decades to a lifetime

To take into account the diversity of competencies, we propose the use of the following four level competency model, presented in Table 1, where four types of competencies are presented: competencies associated with a specific context; cross contextual competencies; meta competencies (primarily, types of thinking); existential competencies. It takes different amounts of time to master the competencies of different levels. Context competencies can be mastered or adjusted in a short learning period,

METAANDKNOWLEDGESKILLS

KNOWLEDGEPROFESSIONAL)NARROW(INCLUDINGANDSKILLS

The “competencies of the future” (or “competences of the 21st century”) are aimed at satisfying the need to change economic and social systems. By mastering the “competencies of the future”, we can become more complex people and communities that are able to live in a new complex society.

The question arises, what part of these skills should be studied and at what level (secondary education, higher education). In the 2020 GRALE report (Global Report on Adult Learning and Education), rethinking the concept of literacy begins with the conclusion that “literacy” is usually perceived as the ability to read and write. In addition, the report increasingly mentions language skills, since most people live in a multilingual society or have a migrant background, using oral and written communication in different languages (Walters,2020) This scheme determines that many future skills will be based on technical competencies, using ICTs and the Internet. The skills of the 21st century (Bourn, 2018) are the integration of skills in technological singularity. It is the formation of such skills that will be the main component of the curriculum in higher education institutions for adaptation in the business environment.

Today, few doubt that the future of any company directly depends on its ability to manage knowledge. The development of procedures for the detection, transmission, replenishment and exchange of knowledge becomes one of the main areas of activity of leading companies. A good tool for this is knowledge management, which is defined as the interaction between People, Places, and Things in a meaningful context. In the conditions of an innovative economy, in the process of knowledge management, one must also take into account a number of factors, the priority of which is: human, technological, individual, organizational, global, factor of time.

Thus, according to the report “The Future of Education” (Cedefop, 2010), Cedefop predicts an increase in demand in Europe for higher and secondary education. The report provides an analysis of how to change the demand in different professions in the future. The demand for highly qualified specialists is increasing: legislators, top managers, technical support professionals, and salespeople. The demand for clerks, artisans, workers in agriculture and fisheries is decreasing.Visualization of future learning outcomes is shown in Figure 2.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. but they can also quickly become obsolete due to a constantly changing situation (for example, the competencies of working with word processing programs or a machine for mechanical processing, as they may become unnecessary due to changes in technology.). Cross contextual competencies retain their relevance longer (over years or even decades), but they take more time to master. Meta competencies, especially existential ones, remain relevant for the longest time. They usually develop early in a person's formation and rarely change during life. However, those who are capable of intentionally improving their “existential competencies” can also change many aspects of their lives.

KeyEuropeanCommission:Competences(2006)

Reading skills for all Languages High level of mathematics for all Media literacy; Finding, selecting and processing information quickly; using ICT effectively; Creating digital information; Being online 24/7; Web 2.0; Management of digital identities Innovation; Creativity; Entrepreneurship Mobile learning; Learning to learn; Self learning; Making investigation in Internet; Learning by doing Active participation in society; Collaboration skills; Co operation; Conflict resolution skills; Networking Understanding diversity; Intercultural dialogue; Cultural identity Environment; Nature Problem solving; Analysing; Criticizing; Keep things short and simple Identity; Self confidence; Self esteem; adaptingFlexibilityindependenceKeeptochange;Opennesstochange;tochange;Stressmanagement Present andthe Future 02030 Twinningworkshopparticipants:KeyCompetencesforthefuture

Communication

Communicationin

The

Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology digital competence learning to learn pursueandorganize one’s own learning sense of initiative entrepreneurship& turn ideas into action involves innovation,creatively,risktaking social and competencescivic engageinactiveanddemocraticparticipation awareness & expression ofideas, emotionsexperiencesanddifferentmedia skills

cultural

Figure 2: Visualization of future learning outcomes

2010

confidentandcriticaluse

Moreover, the development of society and the economy in the direction of greater complexity will occur faster and will be all the more sustainable as the larger percentage of the population in large numbers can master these competencies of the future. However, today there is a gap between traditional Communicationinthe mother tongue foreign languages

Accelerating social and cultural change places additional demands on the continuous updating of skills and knowledge. As a result, the processes of the “new” education should have greater flexibility and greater diversity compared with existing educational systems. In contrast to the “hard” educational practices of institutions of the industrial era, educational ecosystems allow the most comprehensive way to integrate the diversity of educational opportunities available in a particular territory. Educational ecosystems can include both real and virtual spaces, provide opportunities for individual and collective development in a wide range of human activities. They can also take into account the needs of learners that appear and change throughout their lives, including the processes of transition through life stages, social roles and skill levels the processes of “initiation” education, which should again revive in our Princetonculture.

According to the constant technological singularity, algorithms of machine learning are developing rapidly. And the software, approaches and models on which they learn are enormous. That is why, in the era of digitalisation, the competence to use information and communication technologies are the necessary and crucial condition for survival and the search for good work. The gap between those who can freely use ICTs and those who cannot even afford access to ICT will eventually scale (Hubanova et al., 2020).

In 2009, the Joint Research Center of the European Commission, the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies in Seville, began a large scale research to study “Future Education”. The purpose of this research, which is shown in Figure 3, is strategy formulation in the field of the education system that would adequately prepare learners for life in the future society. As well as what competences they will need for self realization and development of society in

China is actively using robots in classrooms as teachers and learners assistants. The State Council of China announced the use of artificial intelligence in primary and secondary education. In 2018, the first textbook on artificial intelligence for high schools was created in China. Japan also began using robots to teach English in their private schools (Andriushchenko, Kovtun et al., 2019).

University and University College London conducted a study aimed at determining how the use of artificial intelligence could affect the education of students (Driscole,2018). Princeton University commissioned a research company McKinsey & Company research, the essence of which was that during the course of the semester, an MRI scan of students is carried out to study artificial intelligence and understand how the learning process affects changes in the brain. Namely, it analyzes how many times a student looks at lectures, how quickly he understands the essence, which parts of the learning he is given the hardest. The research results help to create a more personalized learning product that promotes learning even faster.

91 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the period 2020 2030. This research is based on the “Learning Spaces in the Future” (Badia, 2006; Redecker & Punie,2013; Anastasiades, 2016) Figure 3: Conceptual map of the future of learning Drivers Demographyy Globalisation Immigration Technology LabourMarket Education & Learning New skills New ways of learning PersonalskillsSocialskills Learning skills Initiative, CoEmpathy,Team,RiskResponsibilityresilience-taking,creativitynetworkingcompassionconstructing learningLearnercentredSocial Lifewide learning PersonalisationCollaboration InformalisationManaging, organising Meta cognitive skills Falling forward Tailormade & targeted Active & IncollaboratingSharingPeerengagingMotivatingconstructive&learning&communitiesAnywhere,anytimeBlendingvirtual&realCombiningsource/providers Labour market trends & demands ICT Trends ? Augmented Reality Data mining ? ? Learning analytics ? Electronic tutors 3D virtual works Social networks Games Mobiles E books OER ePortfoliosLMS

• processes and tools that help define the goals (individual or collective) of learners, analyze their motivation to learn and preferred learning formats (for example, learning in a competitive environment, in collaboration or through individual research; reward based on internal or external rewards, etc.);

3. Solutions combining individual and collective educational processes, including:

• educational processes that are integrated into the (individual or collective) educational trajectory and develop various aspects of personal and collective existence (cognitive, social, emotional, physical) through holistic educational experiences, including play and co creation;

• processes and tools that measure learning outcomes (such as new acquired competencies, artifacts created as a result of creative learning, reputation gained through participation in educational experience, etc.), as well as indicators of the quality of the educational process (level of interaction, level of joy, etc.);

• knowledge repositories (online libraries of books, articles, simulations, online encyclopedias), as well as educational online platforms (with curated content);

• educational technologies that support personal and collective education processes, including virtual personal assistants and various educational resources; • educational spaces and technologies that help connect personal and collective educational trajectories, aligning individual educational needs with evolving community needs.

• educational spaces for cross learning (peer to peer) training and mentoring support, including social networks and online gaming universes (including virtual and augmented reality);

2. Solutions that enhance collective educational processes, including: collective virtual assistants (facilitators, moderators) that support the productive work of the group; collective self regulation tools, etc.

These processes can be integrated into "ecosystem" systems of educational process management (in which personal and collective learning paths can be combined, and which connect learners with many learning spaces and educational opportunities). In the logic of such a model, the educational institutions that we are familiar with (schools and universities) may exist as some of the sites offering educational opportunities or, they may become centers of educational ecosystems, where educational processes are supported by a number of educational technologies, including:

To ensure the health of the educational ecosystem, it is necessary to create tools and processes that support personal and collective learning and development throughout life, including:

1. Solutions that enhance the individual educational process (due to applications using "big data" and artificial intelligence), including: virtual tutors, personal virtual assistants ,; personalized interactive learning materials and applications; personal wearable devices for monitoring the psychophysical state, etc.

93 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. • “markets of opportunities”, connecting individual learners with educational opportunities existing in organizations and communities, including requests for participation in a project / task / game (such “markets” can be imagined as online platforms for job search with significantly wider functionality. Figure 4: Visualization of the learning process of the future Since learners can participate in one or several educational communities, and any community will involve many simultaneously studying people at different stages of development, it is necessary to create synergies between educational LEARNCOLLECTIVEINGPROCESS Ontology and community practices, collective intelligence and ability to solve complexTheproblemsquality of connections, the level of trust, the ability to collaborate in and betweenandofCollectivecommunitiesmanagementcommunityenergyresources WarehousesKnowledge/GlobalEducationalOnlinePlatforms Social mentor(includingnetworksnetworks)andgaminguniverseswithvirtual/augmentedreality Project / task / markets participantsof Sharedassistantsvirtual Biofeedback Tools for CollectiveGovernmentSelfSETTING GOALS BY COLLECTIVETHE Collectively Defined Goals (Formation of FollowingVision) the example / implementation of a Thefranchisegoals of external stakeholders: cities, governments,companies,etc. RESULTS COLLLEARINGOFECTIVE CompetencyCollective Profile ReputationCommunityPAchCommunityievementortfolioCapital. LEARNINGINDIVIDUALING PROCESS Body development, control of emotions and state of mind and body SETTING GOALS BY INDIVIDUALTHE Self developmentdefined goals Role models and / or goals defined by mentors or with their stakeholders:Externalhelp family, government,employer,etc. Social / managerial / entrepreneurial skills and knowledge Creativity (including artistic / right brain Worldview,abilities)languages, models of thinking Learner motivation analysis / learning style Quality indicators of an individual / collective process (level of interaction, pleasure, state of “flow”, etc.) RESULTS INDIVIDUALLEARNINGOF communitymentors,assessmentIndividualachievements(includingCreativecompeteIndividualncyprofileportfoliogaming)reputation:ofpartners, members Virtual assistantspersonal/tutors Individual biofeedbackportabledevices

94 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. experiences through their dynamic interaction. In the course of collective learning, learners are offered certain roles and specific tasks, and their individual educational experiences “collect” collective educational experience. At the same time, collective learning possesses the properties of synergetic phenomena and cannot be reduced to the “sum of its parts” in the process of such learning, collective competencies arise that are unique to each educational community. Visualization of the learning process of the future is presented in Figure 4. Thus, education becomes an integral part of human life: part of work, creativity, family, play, love and any other human affairs. In VUCA the world, responsibility for one’s own life and development cannot be shifted solely to external forces (school, teachers, parents), and development cannot be ensured through a system of rewards and punishments (Liezina et al 2020). At present, schools and universities often perform a disciplinary function and force people to study and engage in self development. But as the world becomes more complex and less predictable, the only way to strengthen the sustainability of society in the long run is to assign to everyone its responsibility for their own education. Moreover, all the main educational innovations that have been discussed over the past 20 years personalization and individual trajectories, online platforms and learners studying from each other, etc., require the transformation of a critical mass of society from passive consumers of knowledge into active “self guided” learner

From the leaner's perspective, this multidimensional space can be described through at least two semantic axes: • Local / global formats: some educational opportunities are built around local content and direct physical contact (for example, group projects at school or

. The architecture of the educational ecosystem of the future is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Model of the educational ecosystem of the future

• global educational online platforms will become the ultimate providers of global knowledge and educational content;

5. Conclusion

The increase in the percentage of self guided learners to the level of “critical mass” (according to recent studies (Global Education Futures. 2020), about 10%) is the main prerequisite for the start of a “revolution in education ". Therefore, we believe that in the next decade, educational innovations should be aimed primarily at developing formats that ensure the transition to a new state: first of all, at pedagogy and andragogy, which can significantly increase the level of independence and self government. Educational institutions interested in joining this process and wishing to become part of the “new” educational environment need to strengthen the component related to the formation of relevant competencies, including the formation of motivation for learning and development, setting personal goals, choosing educational technologies and practices, selecting / creating leading content. If we move to mass self guided education throughout life, it is obvious that it is necessary to move away from the usual concept of “continuing education” as professional development in adulthood (and often in the workplace) on the contrary, it is necessary to develop and maintain various aspects of the human personality, and not just those associated with a dominant social role. Genuine continuing education will

In addition to schools and universities, which will remain a significant part of ecosystems, but will gradually turn into “pillars” of educational network spaces as ecosystems develop, at least three other spaces will become increasingly important:

• urban education formats will continue to evolve in response to the growing needs of “self guided” learners of all ages;

• spaces of continuing education will be built around high tech personalized educational experiences, as well as collective experiences of human interaction and co creation. A “self guided” learner is able to set the goals of his learning, determine the pace and other parameters of the learning process, use and create the necessary educational resources, and immerse himself in various educational experiences (including experiences whose results cannot always be predicted) that ensure holistic development throughout all life. Moreover, it is “self guided” learners that create a request for new personalized educational formats using new technologies, including online courses, educational applications, training through practice, etc. So, the learning process should be diverse (limited in time, personalized, comprehensive). Learners should be at the center of this process, and this is important in order to acquire the competencies of the 21st century.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. learning in an urban environment), while others are based on global content and remote interaction (for example, learning on global online platforms);

• Human to human / human to technology contact: some educational processes take place in the form of mentoring or peer education, while others are created by technology, online resources, video games and wearable devices.

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Abstract. In Vietnam, experiential activities and experience based learning models were first introduced in 2018 into the general education curriculum and they will be applied when implementing this program. Therefore, the teacher training program at university of education should meet the requirements of general education reform. In particular, it is essential to guide pedagogical students to design and organise experiential learning activities in the school. This study describes the design, implementation, and evaluation of a course of guiding to design and organise experience based learning in schools for Vietnamese pedagogical students who will plan to implement experience based learning activities into their teaching. A course in a 60 hour instructional process (including 30 hours of self studying) with 5 activities designed to be experiential, enables our students to simultaneously explore and practice experience based learning activities. The results of designing and organising 55 experience based learning activity plans were obtained from one hundred and nine participants of the Faculty of Biology, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Vietnam who assessed the instructional process beneficially. The research group also proposed five effective measures to organise experiential learning in high school. This tutorial process will continue to be improved and implemented in subsequent courses to contribute to the renovation of higher education and meet the general educational improvement in Vietnam.

Guide Pedagogical Students to Design and Organize Experience-based Learning Activities

Thi Hang Nguyen

99 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 99 117, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.6

in Schools

Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen City, Viet Nam

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9259 746X Hoang Mau Chu* Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen City, Viet Nam

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8260 6369

Corresponding author: Hoang Mau Chu, Email: chuhoangmau@tnue.edu.vn

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7254 968X Huu Quan Nguyen Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen City, Viet Nam

Association of Colleges of Teacher Education has suggested an increased focus on clinical experiences in teacher education, including supports, and complements the innovative and requisite skills, strategies, and tools that improve teacher preparation by using high leverage practices as part of a commitment to continuous renewal for all learning sites (AACTE, 2018) Besides, providing teacher candidates educative experiences through critical service learning can better prepare future teachers and can foster a social justice stance (Tinkler, Tinkler, Reyes & Elkin, 2018). These methods are based on the student's prior knowledge of experiential learning. But as for pedagogical students in Vietnam, experiential learning activity is a completely new issue. So, the way to do this is to provide experiential strategies for them in designing and organising experiential learning activities, rather than the traditional teaching models. Experience based learning is a process of developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes of learners by using the practical experiences (Miettinen, 2000; Cao, Tran & Phan, 2017; Supardi & Hasanah, 2020) and learners can reflect and analyze their progress based on their own experiences (Chapman, McPhee & Proundman, 1984). The reflection quality of learners gained from experience based learning is more meaningful than the learning outcome, because “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). In an experience based learning form, the learner's experience occupies a central place. The learner's

Keywords: Experiential activity; Experience based learning activities; Educational renovation; Pedagogical students; Programs of training teachers

1. Introduction In pedagogical universities, the training of teacher candidates to become effective teachers is an urgent requirement. This preparation includes supporting the development of knowledge and skills for working with diverse learners (Nieto, 2013). As well as helping teacher candidates recognize how power and privilege affect educational opportunity (Gorski, 2009). It is becoming more important due to the increasing diversity of students in the university. In particular, general education in Vietnam is towards the innovation program whose objectives are to form and develop the learners' qualities and competencies. Therefore, the teacher training program in university of education is to prepare the necessary instructions for future teachers so that they be able to implement the innovative general education curriculum. Experience based learning activities that are applied in the subjects and educational activities are in the new directions because the general education curriculum has identified experience based learning activity as one of the compulsory education activities Each of the experience based learning activities is a mix of different fields of education, knowledge, and skills with a focus on practical, autonomous activities of students [Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2018] So, what and how should the teacher training program be prepared to guide pedagogical students to perform experience based learning activities in high Americanschools?

Data Collection and Analysis: The group of researchers set up assessment criteria to assess designing plans and practice of organising experience based learning activities. Then assessment tables were provided to students to proceed with self assessment and peer assessment. Assessment criteria relate to students' awareness of designing principles and skills and the organisation of experience based learning activities. Linkert scales are commonly used to measure attitude, providing a range of responses to a given question or statement (Jamieson, 2004). So, the collection and analysis of data from the survey result that using the 3 level Likert scale of students' awareness, skills, attitudes, and behaviors of the

Pedagogical Context: The data used in this case study is generated from references vocational education related to experiential learning for students and David Kolb's four stage experiential learning cycle. Approaching the data, the 60 hour instructional process (including 30 hours of self studying) for pedagogical students was proposed. It can be conducted according to the operation of 5 activities that reflect four stages in Kolb’s experiential learning cycle: Activity 1. Start (1) having a real experience; Activity 2. Learning some of the theoretical issues of experience based learning (2) observation of and reflection on that experience; Activity 3. Building experience based learning plan (3) the formation of abstract concepts and generalizations; Activity 4. Practising performing experience based learning activities, and Activity 5. Evaluation (4) being used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

2. Methods

Participants: The participants of this study are 109 pedagogical students attending the Bachelor of Pedagogy program at the Faculty of Biology, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Vietnam, the academic year of 2018 2019 and 2019 2020. The participants are allowed to attend courses to design and organise experience based learning activities in high schools in the process of direct instruction, enhancing practice and experience which help to generate the results of designing and organisation 55 experience based learning activities plans.

Therefore, the way which the article mentioned has focused on the process of forming and developing students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes through practical experiences in the learning process.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. experience may be events in a learner's life or present life, besides the skills arising during the learner participating in activities following the guidance of the teacher (Andresen, Bound & Cohen, 1995). Experience based learning is based on a set of hypotheses learned from experience, in which learners analyze their prior knowledge by reflecting, evaluating, and reconstructing it to receive new skills (Boud, Cohen & Walker, 1993; McLeo, 2017; Patil & Meena 2018).

Theoretical and practical studies allow us to explore ways of experiential learning in guiding pedagogical students to perform experience based learning activities in high schools. The purpose of this paper is to propose a process to guide pedagogical students to know how to design and organise experience based learning activities in schools that suit the renovation period of general education in Vietnam.

The obtained research data has solved the research problem of the necessity and feasibility of guiding pedagogical students to practice designing and organising experiential learning activities. The above research data is the basis for us to propose measures to improve the implementation of experiential learning activities in high schools.

3. Results and discussion

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. guiding process are effective and suitable. There are few research on instructing pedagogical students to perform experience based learning activities in Vietnam, the research findings contribute to outline the evaluation criteria of the learning outcomes to provide information about the effectiveness of the instructional process.

3.1. The process of instruct students to perform experiential learning activities in the schools

David Kolb's experiential learning theory, which is developed from Kolb and Kolb's research, works on two levels: a four-stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles) (McLeo, 2017) studying experiential learning and exploring how this work can enhance experiential learning in higher education.

The principles and practices of experiential learning have been widely adopted in models, programs to conduct academic courses such as competency based education (Miettinen, 2000; Ahmed, 2018), professional training (Richard, Cowen & Kolb, 1995; Akhigbe, 2018; Amolloh, Lilian & Wanjiru, 2018; Tiessen, Grantham & Cameron, 2018; Stefano, Ruvolo & Mauro, 2019), college programs for adult learners, and prior learning assessment (Simosko, 1998; Andrews, Brown & Mesher, 2018; Awidi & Paynter, 2019; Bhati & Song, 2019), service learning (Angela, Bruce, Kevin, Mandar & Kurtis, 2011; Aissaoui, Alami, Oughdir & Allioui, 2018), problem based learning (Bethell & Morgan, 2011; Gomez & Nasir, 2019; Harfitt, 2019; Stephanie, Lockwood, Hill & Randell, 2020; Setiyani, Harnanik, Lianighsih & Susilowati, 2020), action learning (Louise, 1994). The experiential lessons provide students with an opportunity to experience concepts, give students a more productive, more meaningful understanding of course concepts, and of how they operate in the real world. So, the affective quality of the course content is enhanced. A wide range of forms of experience based learning has been used in vocational and professional education such as internships, work placements, on the job training, excursions, adventure, wilderness trips, studios, laboratories, workshops, clinical, practicums, case study approaches, action research, role plays, hypotheticals, and simulations, active learning in lectures, computer simulations, realistic models, video based activities, group discussions and syndicate methods, autobiographical writing, problem based learning, group work, reflective journals and self directed projects

Kolb and Kolb (2005) introduced the concept of learning space as a framework for understanding the interface between the student's learning style and institutional learning environment, showing the principles for enhancing of experiential learning in higher education and suggested how experiential learning should be applied throughout the educational environment by

1. Concrete Experience a new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing knowledge 2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience of particular importance are any inconsistencies between knowledge and understanding. 3. Abstract conceptualization reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle includes concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation was used to create the innovative framework integrated between experiential learning with project planning in civil engineering and construction management courses (Zhang, Xie, Schmidt, Xia, Li & Skitmore, 2019). It was also used to research experiential learning in engineering education by comparing the practising of Spoken Tutorial with placement activity of students and lastly, identifying the environmental and structural effects of the experiential learning process (Patil & Meena, 2018). Kolb Learning Cycle was employed as the fundamental pedagogic of the ‘Heat Transfer’ course in mechanical engineering education, to facilitate students’ understanding of tricky mathematical concepts (Widiastuti & Budiyanto, 2018). A model for laboratory education based on Kolb's experiential learning theory is used in modern teaching technologies and a combination of remote, virtual, and hands on laboratory sessions to apply in the teaching of the undergraduate process control laboratory (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2013). Kolb’s

Figure 1: Diagram of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle (McLeo, 2017).

4. Active experimentation the learner applies their concept to the world around them to see what happens.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. institutional development programs. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Fig. 1) divides the learning process into a period of four essential theoretical components. Therefore, the development of new concepts provided by new experiences will be emerged. “Knowledge is continuously derived from and tested out in the experiences of the learner”. The process of learning from experience is ubiquitous, present in human activity everywhere all the time. The holistic nature of the learning process means that it operates at all levels of human society from the individual to the group, organisation, and society (Andresen, Bound & Cohen, 1995; Kolb and Kolb, 2017) were applying experiential learning in the accordant educational environment and learning styles to develop curriculum, students and faculty.

3) Introduce their partners with known personal information after discussion. 4) Request the students to cover the name, give them a location map, and then ask the students to fill in the name of their classmate with encouragement to write the most accurate name.

Activity 1: Start 1) theobjectivesruleswithand3)members;withinformationpersonal2)members;withAcquaintclassShareotherProposingagreeingtheandofcourse. Duration: 2 seatdiagrampaper,colopaper,materials:LearningLectureLocation:hours;hall;A4uredofposition.

ActivActivityactivities.1.Startity2.Learnsome of the theoretical issues of experience based learning Activity 3. Practice building an experience based learning plan Activity 4. Practice performing experience based learning activities Activity 5. Evaluation

Studies of experiential learning show that learners' experience based learning activities occupy a central place in the experience based learning process. The application of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, when instructing students to organise experience based learning in schools can be conducted according to the operation of

The above procedure reflects four stages in Kolb’s experiential learning cycle: (1) having a real experience (activity 1) → (2) observation of and reflection on that experience (activity 2) → (3) the formation of abstract concepts and generalization (activity 3) → (4) used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences (activity 4, 5). The following are detailed guidelines for implementing the above process (Table 1).

Learning Cycle theory is the overarching theory of learning, include a range of teaching methods that are useful for quantitative reasoning (Wallace, 2018).

Activity Objectives Preparation Process Assessment

1) Students are provided color paper and A4 paper. They are required to write their names in capital letters on coloured paper, proposed rules of the class and expectations of the course on the A4 paper (short written, limited to 10 words), and then put in front of them.

2) Two students who sit next to each other exchange their personal information.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

5) Unify objectives and rules to be implemented by voting proposals of students. Note: The instructor plays a moderated role to give Ask thehowrulesthemeaningaboutparticipantsthetheofcourseandtosetuprules.

Table 1: The process of guiding students to organise experience based learning activities

105 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. important information as well as a member of the class. Active 2: learningeexperiencissuestheoreticalthesomeLearnofofbased 1) Analyse the activitylearninbasedexperiencespecificorganising6)schools;activitieslearningbasedexperienceorganisea5)schools;activitieslearningbasedexperienceofoforganisationthe4)schools;activitieslearningbasedexperienceofandthe3)inknowledgebasedexperienceevaluatingandmethodscriteria,learningbasedexperiencescharacteristicconcepts,of;2)Identify,toolsforschools;DeterminecontenttheforminExplaineachtypeinConstructplantoinPracticeagin

1) The class is divided into small groups to do specific 2)tasks;The groups search for information, discuss the content in index cards and write their discussion results in the A0 paper; 3) Instructors direct the groups to read the relevant information carefully in the 4)brochure;Groups present their results with A0 paper in turn. The other groups raised the question; 5) The class is in agreement with the content.

1) A representative of the group introduces how to conduct the experience based learning activities that the group has planned since Activity 3; 2) Other students play the role of participants in the experience based learning 3)activities;Thestudents make comments on the organisation of the experience based learning activities. Thus, each group gains valuable experience in Based on the plan lorganisationofeffectivenessandfeasibilityconsiderbuild,theactivitieslearningbasedexperienceorganisingofthatgroupsthetheaproject.

Duration: 54 includinghours, 30 hours of

1) The class is divided into small groups to make an EBL plan; 2) The groups discuss and write their idea on A4 and A0 paper. The groups also compose the presentation on the computer; 3) Groups present their products with their posters and the display on the computer in turn. The other groups raise the question and make some comments; 4) The group is in agreement with their EBL plan.

Consider contentaboutinformationadequacytheoftheof each group’s plan, how to present their idea Active activitieslearningeexperiencorganisingforPractice4:based

Consider oneachcontentaboutinformationadequacytheoftheofgroupA 0 attitude.teamworkpresentation,productpaper,

Active activitiesplandesigningforPractice3:EBL

self projector.connection,internetwithComputeractivities;learningbasedexperienceLeafletIndexmarkers;paper,paper,materials:Learningplan;thedependsvenueTheactivities.learningbasedexperiencetoplacesandLectureLocation:study;hallsomewhereorganisechoiceofondesignedA0A4cards;ofan

2) The instructor summarises the main activities of the 3)course;Instructor agrees with the student about the next specific application plan; 4) Students discuss the advantages, disadvantages, and remedies for practising planning and organising experience based learning activities in high school; 5) Students comment and draw experience for the content, organisation of the course.

The instructional process was conducted on a schedule of direct instruction, with clear objectives focusing on two outcomes: (i) designing of the experience based learning activity plans that are ulterlized as direction to develop students' competencies, and (ii) organising experience based learning activities that are recorded to be able to review, analyse, evaluate, and respond. During the instructional process, the researchers encouraged students to give feedback on their understanding of the content and their experience in activities, so that appropriate modifications could be made.

3.2.1. The results of the designing of experience-based learning activities plans When students design experience based learning activities plans, they should identify the essential components. These are realistic goals; exciting topics or learning contexts; learners’ needs and talents; teaching approaches and methods; appealing resources and experiences that are relevant and linked to the learners’ lives and context; fair assessment and evaluation (Kumar & Kumari, 2019).

Duration: 2

inorganisationlearningbasedexperienceofapplicationplanAIndexmaterials:LearningLectureLocation:hours;hall;cards;specificfortheschools

activity.foroftheschools,activitieslearningbasedexperienceaboutattitudesskillsknowledge,Students'andinandprogressthemselvesthis

The above experience based learning guideline process was conducted in the second semester of the school year 2018 2019 and the first semester of the school year 2019 2020 in the Faculty of Biology, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Vietnam with 109 students participating. The results are reflected in the designed plans for experience based learning in schools and the organisation of these plans.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. schools. the organisation Besides, they can improve their plan as well as the feasibility of the project Active nEvaluatio5: plans.teachingtheiractivitieslearningbasedexperienceorganisingplanning3)coursecomparedachievementofassessment2)theactivitiestheSystematise1)mainofcourse.Doselfselftogoals.Applyandto

1) The instructor distributes the index card to students and requests them to complete the index card;

3.2. Results of designing and organisation of experience based learning activities

b/ Main activities: Activity 1, Activity 2, etc. Each activity introduces the objectives, facilities, measures, forms, performers, activities, and products.

Table 2: Experience-based learning themes in the designed plans Form of learningExperience-based activities

Produce sprouts from seeds; Growing hydroponic vegetables;Waterand daily life; Plant cell and tissue culture; Protect plants properly and safely; "Biological" vegetable, Organic vegetable; Microbiological technology in the treatment of environmental pollution;

V. Evaluation of activities: Students were assessed on the capacity to perform activities, drawing experience for the activities.

Themes

c/ Ending activities: Discussion, completion, and summarization

3/ Stage 3 (after the lesson): Students were required to complete their products, write a report, self study, and prepare for other activities.

based learning activities

2/ Stage 2 (during the lesson): Warm up activities: a/ Starting activities: Role plays, games, etc.

formdivisionresearch,scientificThe Project resescientificandarch

formdiscoveryThe practicalFieldwork,SightseeingCampGame

4/ 1/IV.AssignmentsProgressStage1(before the lesson): Students have introduced the activity plan, content preparation, and facilities necessary for the activity, and the product of the activity.

1/III.II.ReasonsObjectivesPreparationsContentsofexperience

Based on detailed instructions, students have designed 55 experience based learning activities plans. The plans have shown the richness and diversity of topics (Table 2), contents, forms of organisation, presentation style; and ensure the science, feasibility, and effectiveness.

Sightseeing: + Vegetable field …; + Clean vegetable garden at...; + Tea Village ...; + Mushroom growing facility...; + See circus animals; Discover: + Primary forest in forest … + Traditional village; + Make friends with farmers: Plant protection chemicals Friends or Hostility; + Surveying the environment in trade villages ...; + Green lungs of the earth; + Fair for recycled products

Designing the plans to organise experience based learning activities are conducted according to flexible principles and processes and are described by the following structure:Thename of the experience based learning activity I.

2/ Methods and organisation form 3/ Facilities and learning materials

108 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Clubs Shark tank for the student; Green Environment Club: + Climate change; + Domestic Waste + Join our hands together to make our environment clean, green, and beautiful environment;SexEducation Club: + I have grown up; + Adolescent reproductive health; Biological Club for Life: + Biological colors; + Young biological manufacturing; + Microorganisms andCareerlife;Club: + I am in the future; + Microbiologist + Microbiological kitchen. forminteractiveal,eThexperiment WorkshopExchangeForum / stageSeminarChemicalCompetition

3.2.2. The results of the students’ organising experience based learning activities

Earth's Vietnamesefuture;Lao cuisine; Care and protect adolescent health; Care and protect reproductive health in schools; Health is a diamond; Food hygiene and safety; The microbiological arena; HIV/AIDS and the community; Join hands to fight HIV/AIDS; Garbage: Angel or Devil? Production of biological insecticides; Designing biological experiment models; Designing models of Biological teaching formDedication activitiesvolunteerschoolhousework,PracticeworkSocial/ Growing clean vegetables. Making black garlic. Planting, tending, and harvesting local specialty treesMaking... friends with the Tan Cuong tree (Dai Tu, Thai Nguyen). A day as a farmer. Campaign for waste collection and treatment. Environmental sanitation campaign and new rural construction.Propaganda and prevention of HIV/AIDS. Propagate, care for, and protect the reproductive health of Propagatingadolescents.andpreventing infectious diseases. The war: "Stealing rubbish" Organic waste. Among the topics of experiential learning activities that have been designed, we are very interested in STEM (Science Technology Engineering Mathematics) education oriented activities, such as the Production of biological insecticides; Designing an experiment of biological models; Making Bio Products for environmental protection, etc. The design and organisation of STEM experience based learning activities is a direction that needs to be studied deeply and fully (Razali, Manaf & Ayub, 2020). In the next studies, we will introduce STEM experience based learning activities.

Before the activity, including three steps: Step 1. Plan to organise experience based learning activities

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Step 3. Prepare for the plan Stage 2. During the activity, including three steps: Step 1. Check the preparations Step 2. Conduct experience based learning activities

The students applied the process to organise experience based learning activities. The process includes three stages, each stage is concretized by steps or Stagetasks:1.

The following pictures show the organising experience based learning activities of students (Fig. 2).

Step 2. Disseminate the plan

After the plans of the experience based learning activities are approved, students practice for organising experience based learning activities in the lecture hall, at schools, and venues. Students were trained as cameramen, photographers for recording the process of experience based learning activities

Pedagogical students practice organising activity Plant cell and tissue culture Experimental activity of scientific research

Pedagogical students practice organising activity To make water purification equipment Project activity.

Step 3. Evaluate the experience based learning activities Stage 3. After the activity, including the works: Write the report Answer questions, do homework Self learning

Some other students also had similar comments and intended to integrate experiential learning and aspects of the course into an apprenticeship and apply it in their lessons. Some participants wished to have more material and time to complete activities and more activities organised directly in schools rather than practice at the pedagogical university. The researcher is going to review this idea and add it to the guiding process.

Pedagogical students practice organising Green Environment Club Seminar activity Students practice organising activity Propaganda and prevention of HIV/AIDS Social/volunteer activity

Survey on awareness, skills, attitudes, and behaviours of students by Likert 3 level scale questionnaire (about knowledge of the plans’ contents: Suitable, Not appropriate, Not Suitable; about design and organise experience based learning activities skills: Proficient, Not proficient, Not proficient; about attitude: Agree, Unsure, Disagree; and about behaviour: Often, Sometimes, Never) with related contents and activities, showing the degree of differentiation of students in the course (Fig. 3, Fig.4, and Table 3).

Students participate in activity The campaign for environmental protection organised by pedagogical students

Figure 2: Photos of the students doing the experience-based learning activities When being encouraged to give feedback on their understanding of the content and experience in activities, generally, the participants gave very favorable reviews to the instructional process. They said that process helped them to have an understanding of knowledge and skills to practice designing and organising experience based learning activities, which is very useful for their teaching in the future. For example, one participant highlighted her initial reluctance to the approach. However, after participating in discussing and implementing the assigned tasks, she recognised the benefits of the instructional process: I have learned a lot and been able to apply it to my teaching. At first, I didn't think it would suit me but the course turned out to be very effective and helpful.

The analytical results in Figure 3 have shown that most students when designing experience based learning activities plans are interested in the principles: Meet teaching goals (66.97%), ensure scientific of the contents (70.65%), meet the requirements of the general education program (79.82%), meet practical requirements (77.98%) and suitable for students (77.07%). However, some students (5.5% 12.84%) are not fully aware of these principles. These students were incorporated into more aware student groups.

Figure 3: The analytical chart of the awareness of students for design principles of experience based learning activity plans

Figure 4: The analytical chart of the proficient student rate in designing and organising experience based learning activities

The analytical chart in Figure 4 showed that the skills that students have mastered as writing activity objectives enough three fields (knowledge, skills,

112 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. attitude: 87.16%), name the activity (84.4%), other skills as identify organisational needs, select the form of activity organisation, complete the activity organisation plan, identify and use the conditions necessary to organise the activities, determine the activity content, plan of specific activity, students were practiced quite competently. Besides, there are many students (nearly 30%) who are not proficient and not proficient in designing and organising experience based learning activity skills. These students need to practice more by referring to the skills of other students. Table 3: Students' attitudes and behaviour towards experience based learning activity design and organisation course Activities Attitude (%) Behaviour (%) Agree Unsure Disagree Often Sometime s Never 1. Familiarise and share informationpersonal 100.00 0.00 0.00 82.57 13.76 3.67 2. Building and unifying the course rules and objectives 87.16 12.84 0.00 82.57 17.43 0.00 3. Learn theoreticaltheissues of experiential learning 84.40 14.68 0.92 72.48 26.61 0.92 4. Explain the content organisationand of experiential learning activities 74.31 13.76 11.93 64.22 18.35 17.43 5. Develop a plan for experientialorganising learning activities 81.65 16.51 1.83 64.22 30.28 5.50 6. participateActively in the organisation of experiential learning activities 85.32 14.68 0.00 76.15 15.60 8.26 7. advantagesIdentify activitiesexperientialorganisingdisadvantagesandwhenlearning 77.98 18.35 3.67 68.81 28.44 2.75 8. Self improvement of the plan of experientialorganising learning activities 73.39 17.43 9.17 64.22 22.02 13.76 Table 3 shows the differentiation of students' attitudes and behaviours towards the activities in the course. The majority of students agreed with the course's

1) Encourage and respect students' choices on the form and the content of experience based learning the instructor gives specific guidance and suggestions to students from planning to implement.

Some students do not participate and do not agree with some activities (less than 12% and less than 18%) should be considered causes, can look at the attractiveness of these activities.

The above survey results show the necessity and feasibility of activities in the process of guiding students to design and organise experience based learning activities in schools. However, the difference in survey outcomes among course participants shows that some students were not interested in the course activities. By observing the course activities, some students were reluctant to participate in group activities or did their jobs. When being asked about the reason for that, they replied that they often had to work part time or be influenced by other jobs, so they did not have time for self study exercises, did not have enough knowledge and skills to perform activities which leads to an idea for our further studies on the distribution of group participants and having plans to design online courses or the course that combination of face to face and online learning for participants groups.

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The student's consent is expressed through the habit of regularly participating in activities that account for a high proportion (over 64%). However, some students are uncertain about the activities (12 19%) and only occasionally active (13 31%).

3.3. Suggested measures to improve the performance of experience based learning activities in the schools

Based on the results of the process of the guide to the organisation of experience based learning activities, researchers have proposed some measures below in order to implement experience based learning activities effectively.

2) Co ordinate with the schools, promote high levels of student attendance in school to organise experience based learning, mostly experience based learning activities belong to discovery and dedication mode

3) Develop evaluation tables with appropriate evaluation criteria for each step of the process.

4) Encourage the application of experience based learning to other subjects in the Bachelor of Biological Education Program.

activities: Familiarise and share personal information (100%), Building and unifying the course rules and objectives (87.16%), Actively participate in the organisation of experiential learning activities (85.32%), Learn the theoretical issues of experiential learning (84.4%), Develop a plan for organising experiential learning activities (81.65%), Explain the content and organisation of experiential learning activities (74.31%), Identify advantages and disadvantages when organising experiential learning activities (77.98%), Self improvement of the plan of organising experiential learning activities (73.39%); Low percentage of students disagree with these activities (nearly 10%).

5) Encourage students to promote their advantage of information technology and self efficacy in experience based learning activities.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168

4. Conclusions Today, experience based learning is developed in many countries and is widely used in the education system, including professional education. Theoretical and practical studies allow us to study experience based learning and explore how it works in instructing our students to conduct experience based learning activities in high schools. From Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, the process of guiding students to conduct experience based learning activities in schools according to five activities was introduced. Implementing this process in two student courses in the academic year 2018 2019 and 2019 2020 in Faculty of Biology, Thai Nguyen University of Education. One hundred and nine students participated in the courses and 55 experience based learning activities plans have been designed and organised. The results survey by the Linkert scale on awareness, skills, attitudes, and behaviours of the participating students in the courses showed the usefulness and feasibility of guiding students to approach the perform educational and teaching activities in high schools. The tutorial process will continue to be improved and implemented in subsequent courses. Since then, the research results have contributed to the improvement of the efficiency of experience based learning activities in schools, and to the renovation of higher education to meet the renovation of general education in Vietnam.

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Abstract. This study examined the challenges novice teachers encountered inQatari governmentschools andthecoping strategies they adopt. A qualitative study was conducted using semi structured interviews with 15 novice teachers during their initial years of teaching. The findings demonstrated that most participants faced several personal challenges and other challenges within and beyond the school. Findings also indicated that these teachers confronted these challenges using various coping strategies. The challenges facing novice teachers include teaching and classroom, government, and administrative, and professional challenges Novice teachers' coping strategies included individualinternalpeace strategies,activecommunication,andchanging environment. Finally, based on these findings, suggestions are provided to support novice teachers' long term success in Qatari government schools or similar contexts.

Novice Teachers’ Challenges and Coping Strategies in Qatari Government Schools

Keywords: Novice Teachers; Challenges; Coping Strategies; Governmental Schools

Shaikha R. AL Naimi Qatar University, Doha, Qatar 0002 3230 8478 Michael H. Romanowski Education Research Center, College of Education, Doha, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2454 3571 Xiangyun Du Education Research Center, College of Education, Doha, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9527 6795

https://orcid.org/0000

1. Introduction The novice teacher completed a university based teacher education program with less than five years of teaching (Kim & Roth, 2011). Michel (2013) suggests that novice teachers could be viewed as strangers in a new land since they are unfamiliar with the school's culture and norms, and they must navigate through planning, teaching, assessing, and an assortment of other responsibilities and demands. Corcoran (1981) describes novice teachers' initial years as a "transition shock" or as a "not knowing" period, where new teachers discover that their

2.1 Novice teachers’ challenges Research supports that novice teachers' challenges are intrinsic to the teaching profession and conditions of the school environment (Glickman, Gordon & Ross Gordon, 1995; Gordon, 1991; Lieberman & Miller, 1984). Cody (2009) suggests that novice teachers struggle with various challenges upon graduation from teacher education programs designed to prepare them for teaching. However, novice teachers face challenges seldom addressed in their professional preparation.

the government schools have difficulty recruiting and retaining new teachers. Novice teachers in Qatar face a shifting educational policy landscape, with many reform issues prevailing within the education system (Chaaban & Du, 2017). Qatar's education reform, known as "Education for a New Era," moved from a centralized to a decentralized system, converting government schools to independently operated schools with limited government control. The implementation of this change began in 2002, and the first independent schools opened in 2004. The Independent School System modified the curriculum and the criteria used to determine quality teachers (Khodr, 2011; Nasser, 2017). As Qatar is undergoing educational reforms designed to transform into a knowledge society, teachers playanessential rolein enforcing educationalinnovation(Akyol, 2016). Therefore, teachers' stability and job satisfaction are of particular importance for the quality of teaching and learning.

Nevertheless, Qatar’s novice teachers are being expected to bear the same teaching loads and responsibilities as their more experienced colleagues (Alloh, Hasan, Du & Romanowski, 2019). This study demonstrated that novice (less than five years of teaching experience) and experienced (between five or more years of teaching experience) teachers reported high levels of EE burnout. Furthermore, the first year of a teacher's career is significant because it provides insight into whether the teachers will remain in the classroom (Sözen, 2018; Wang, Odell & Schwille, 2008; Watt & Richardson, 2008). Thus, it is essential to examine the challenges that novice teachers face and how they attempt to cope (Chaaban & Du, 2017) to improve current practices and teachers' work conditions. This study aimed to examine the challenges facing novice teachers and explore the coping strategies employed to accustom themselves to daily work in Qatari government schools. The study focused on understanding novice teachers’ experiences and gaining insight into their coping mechanisms rather than assessing their performance.

2. Literature Review

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. idealism of teaching is quite different from the realities of the classroom. More specifically, novice teachers are characterized as having a 'survive and thrive' encounter (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009) or 'sink or swim' experience during their first year teaching in which they experience new and unknown situations (Sabar, 2004). These experiences have led to significant numbers of teachers exiting the profession. Literature has documented the ongoing trend of leaving the profession citing between 25 to 50 percent of novice teachers resigning within the first five years (Bang, Kern, Luft & Roehrig, 2007; Massengill, Mahlios & Barry, In2005).Qatar,

More specifically, the pedagogicalchallenges thatbeginning teachers may include classroom management and organization, demands of teaching face loads, student diversity and motivation, assessment, and addressing individual student problems (Anhorn, 2008; Kelly & Northrop, 2015; Liu, 2007; Quinn & Andrews, 2004; Schlichte, Yssel & Merbler, 2005; Yost, 2006). Improving student participation in classroom activities and developing supportive teaching materials is a challenge (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Roehrig and Pressley (2005) found that dealing with individual student differences and challenges posed by students were most cited as challenges, not just by first year teachers, but also by their experienced counterparts. Furthermore, many novice teachers lack the advanced skills that experienced teachers have acquired for years. Unlike experienced teachers, novices are not as organized as their experienced counterparts and had limited pedagogical content knowledge. They cannot predict where in the curriculum, students could have difficulty, and therefore, struggle to make effective decisions around prioritizing content coverage (Gaikhorst, Beishuizen, Roosenboom & Volman, 2017). Novice teachers often take more time in the planning process for each lesson than the experienced teachers, due to a wide variety of lesson characteristics including timing, content, scope, pacing, instructional and behavioral management concerns, and sequencing activities. Therefore, novice teachers see planning as time consuming compared to other core tasks they must fulfill for their students (Koni & Krull, 2018). Another aspect that impacts novice teachers' experiences is contextual challenges. Novice teachers’ understanding of their school contexts, for example, the collegial climate, influence their intentions to continue with their teaching career (Borko & Livingston, 1989; Coburn and Russell, 2008; Coleman, 1988; Penuel, Riel, Joshi, Pearlman, Kim & Frank, 2010). School policies and administration demands could also influence novice teachers' feelings about job conditions and satisfaction (Coburn & Russell, 2008; Ivanitsky, 1998; Penuel, Riel, Joshi, Pearlman, Kim & Frank, 2010; Powell, 2014).

Nevertheless, beginning teachers, in particular, face a wide range of challenges to navigate during their first years in the classroom (Ergunay & Adiguzel, 2019) Besides, they face multiple challenges that are fundamental to the teaching profession and the school environment's workplace conditions. New teachers realize that curricula and materials designed for them in their professional programs differ from those used in theschool context(Lee,2017).Previous studies examining beginning teachers outline the challenges related to many tasks associated with the school setting. For instance, increased demands beyond pedagogical tasks, frequent curriculum changes, additional administrative work, a growing need for technological competence, and increasing diversity among students (Tschannen Moran & Hoy, 2007; Cody, 2009; Le Maistre, & Pare, 2010; Öztürk & Yildirim, 2013; Collie & Martin, 2016).) all confront novice teachers.

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2.2 Novice teachers' coping strategies

When facing challenges and stress, teachers subjectively perceive the school environment's quality, and the support available to them is vital for dealing with a stressful situation (Montgomery & Rupp, 2005). Developing strategies to cope with stress and adversity is vital to ensure teacher retention (Prilleltensky, Neff & Bessell, 2016).

Coping strategies are categorized into several areas. There are direct action strategies that attempt to eliminate the source of stress (Austin, Shah & Muncer, 2005; Sharplin, O’Neill & Chapman, 2011). Direct action strategies can include seeking assistance, obtaining information, accessing professional development opportunities, connecting with others and reflecting, reframing, and establishing boundaries (Sharplin, O’Neill & Chapman, 2011). Research indicates that direct action strategies seem to alleviate job distress and are efficient in reducing teacher burnout (Pogere, López Sangil, García Señorán & González, 2019).

There are also societal factors that influence teachers. The social status of teachers can be an essential area of how teachers perceive their profession. For example, in a society where teachers are highly respected and hired as civil servants with life long job security such as in Japan and Germany, teachers experience higher satisfaction with their jobs and enjoy a relatively higher social status than teachers in other countries where the status of teachers was lower (Fwu, & Wang, 2002).

These factors influence the novice teachers' reaction to their first teaching position experiences and play a role in their choice to stay or leave the profession.

Palliative strategies attempt to reduce internal or emotional reactions (Austin, Shah & Muncer, 2005; Pogere et al. 2019). These include adopting a goal focus, establishing psychological boundaries, using humor and maintaining health and well being, and maintaining relationships. Finally, avoidant and distancing coping strategies lead to withdrawal from the cause of stress, depersonalization, and emotional fatigue, and lack of accomplishment (Chan & Hui, 1995; Gustems Carnicer, Calderón & Calderón Garrido, 2019). However, these coping strategies increased psychological symptoms (Chan, 1998; Pogere et al. 2019).

Regarding the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, there are fewer studies that address novice teachers. Dickson, Riddlebarger, Stringer, Tennant and Kennetz (2014) studied novice teachers in the United Arab Emirates, reporting that novice teachers leaving the profession were high. These new teachers were challenged with classroom management issues, coping with their new workload, managing lesson planning, navigating inter cultural relationships with colleagues, and balancing work with their demanding home lives. Chaaban and Du (2017) investigated the challenges and coping strategies of five novices and five experienced teachers in Qatari governmental schools. They reported differences in the challenges facing experienced teachers and their novice colleagues and the different coping strategies used by these teachers. Their findings indicated that novice teachers in Qatar governmental schools used several of the above mentioned direct action strategies, while experienced teachers used direct action and palliative strategies. It was evident that new

The Qatar National Vision 2030 depends on the fundamental goal of a knowledge based economy (Al Mansoori & Koç, 2019). Education is the key to developing and unlocking human potential and building a sustainable society. The Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) and Qatar’s leaders have recognized the value of educating the country’s citizens and residents in order to ensure future social, political and economic success (Hassen, 2020). Since Qatar places education as a national priority, it is worthwhile to examine the problems and challenges novice teachers face providing possible recommendations that enable schools to develop a supportive atmosphere

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. teachers also employed strategies to seek help, mainly to deal with classroom management problems and manage a heavy workload.

Qatar's Ministry of Education Education's (MOEHE) Strategic Plan of 2017 2022 has been implemented in the education system. One aspect of the plan centers on developing a system that assures the recruitment of highly qualified teachers and ensures their continued professional development to effectively implement and achieve student centered learning education and the achievement of 21st century skills (Strategic Plan of Ministry of Education and Higher Education, 2017)., Qatari government schools still facing a severe lack of qualified teachers (Ahmed, 2018; Nasser, 2017; Romanowski, Cherif,AlAmmari &AlAttiyah,2013).Chaaban and Du (2017) posits that the numerous organizational changes and educational reform demands have also increased the challenges and stress for novice teachers as they struggle to address new pedagogical practices and the use of digital technology in the classroom. Statistically, Qatar's government schools contain 3,721 female Qatari teachers working in government schools, compared to 230 male teachers; in contrast, there are around 10,937 non Qatari female teachers and 3,660 non Qatari male teachers. Candidates for teaching positions must have earned a bachelor degree in the specialization required. The dataalso reveals thenumber ofnoviceteachers who enrolledin governmental schools, including Qatari teachers from different grade levels and majors numbered around 183, while the non Qataris were 155, with both genders included (The Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, 2017).

3. Background

Interestingly, Qatari teachers receive several economic benefits, including bonuses and allowance related to the years of experience, qualifications, and yearly performance evaluation results. However, the burnout level in Qatar's schools remains high and the schools suffer from a high rate of shortages of both female and male new Qatari teachers (Alkhateeb, 2013; Alloh et al. 2019; Ridge, Kippels, Shami, & Farah, 2014).

4. Methods

This research aims to understand novice teachers' experiences as they face challenges in school environments and their coping strategies, rather than assessing their performance. Therefore, a qualitative research design was

developed because it provides a deeper understanding and offers insight into teachers’livedexperiences(Kvale,1996;Punch&Oancea,2014;Creswell&Miller, 2000). This small scale qualitative study used semi structured interviews to examine novice teachers' challenges and coping strategies. In particular, the study was guided by the following research questions:

4.1 Participants

Semi structured interviews were used for data collection to capture the lived meanings and experiences of the subjects' everyday world (Kvale, 1996; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). The interviews centered on these teachers' challenges during the early years of their teaching. Participants convey in their own words their situations and from their unique perspectives. Each interview was guided by an interview guide developed based on the research question that directs this study. Two interview guides were utilized for this study (Appendix B provides details) one designed for teachers currently working in schools and another for those who left teaching. Fifteen interviews were conducted in Arabic, transcribed, and then translated. All interviews were audio taped, with each interview lasting approximately 30 60 minutes. Throughout the interviewers probing was used to further develop teachers' responses and collect relevant examples when possible. A thematic bottom up approach was employed for data analysis in this study, which allows for the discovery of unconsidered themes that produce new meanings (Namey, Guest, Thairu & Johnson, 2008). The interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis guided by the research questions (Fereday & Muir Cochrane, 2006). The recorded interviews were transcribed and manually coded to identify emerging themes, subthemes, and patterns reported in detail in the next section. Data analysis was conducted collectively, with individual

The target population for this research was novice teachers at diverse levels of the Qatar government schools. Participants had teaching experience ranging from 0 to 3 years.The sample included novice teachers currently teaching in government schools and teachers who had left the teaching within the first three years. Both Qatari and non Qatari residents who were born and raised in Qatar selected for this Snowballstudy.sampling was used to select participants. The sample included fifteen teachers, nine females, and six males. Eight of the participants are current teachers, while seven left the teaching profession. Concerning the participants' teaching levels, seven taught or are teaching at the primary level, six at the preparatory two have experience at several levels. Of the 15 teachers, 12 are Qatari nationals, with the remaining three born and raised in Qatar. Six teachers were contracted by "Teach For Qatar" and organizations that recruit individuals from various careers as teachers providing a two year contract to teach in the Qatari government schools (Teach For Qatar, 2019). For detailed participant information, see Appendix A. 4.2 Data Collection and Analysis

1) What challenges beginning teachers in Qatar encounter during their first years' teaching experiences? 2) What coping strategies they developed to overcome these challenges?

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5.1.1 Teaching and classroom challenges

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. analysis by all coauthors first followed by collective discussion before consensus was reached to improve the study's credibility. The analysis included several rounds of readings of the transcripts. In the first reading, the thematic analysis approach was applied to analyze the supporting and constraining factors early career teachers experienced and the challenges in Qatar's government schools. Identified patterns, themes, and sub themes were coded to answer the research question for this study. Participants' quotes were used to develop the findings. To develop a compelling narrative and interpretation of the data and ensure confidentiality and identity protection, each teacher is identified using an interview number and F for female and M for male. Findings

5.1 Challenges facing novice teachers in Qatar

1) What challenges beginning teachers in Qatar encounter during their first years' teaching experiences? The challenges faced by novice teachers in Qatari governmental schools can be classified into three interrelated themes namely, teaching challenges, challenges created by government policies and administrative demands, and professional challenges.

Second, the number of classes and size was reported as a fundamental challenge that led to other teaching problems. Teachers (T2, T4, T6, T7, T8, T10, and T11) indicated that a large number of classes that they were assigned their first year was too much for them and what I made it more difficult was the high number of students in each class (33 40) or more. This concern is expressed by one teacher (T6) who stated: at first the most challenging thing was the workload that they gave me, as it was my first year. They should not give me these many periods they gave me 12 periods per week. Yes, most teachers teach as much, and it is not easy, but I was new. They could have given them to me little by little, 4 periods/week, one section, then two sections, then three, and then I

There are a variety of teaching challenges novice teachers faced during their initial years of teaching. First, these teachers reported many challenges they faced concerning the tasks of teachers. Classroom management was discussed by ten teachers (T2, T4, T6, T7, T8, T10, T11, T12, T14, and T15) who considered classroom management a key challenge. They indicated that classroom management issues included students not following instructions or arguments between students during an instructional period. More importantly, these teachers reported that they lacked classroom management techniques. Several female teachers (T12, T14, and T15) suggested that some administrators would not receive punishments if there was poor behavior among the students and that misbehaving students posed a challenge for novices who lacked classroom management techniques. However, teachers often discussed classroom management in terms of class sizes, indicating that these management problems would be reduced if they have lower class sizes.

cher’s productivity. For example, for the writing lessons, the English teacher wanted to have the students write two to three drafts of each writing prompt in the class and then have the students share their writing pieces with their peers. Besides, the teacher needed time to review student writings and correct mistakes in class. T4 described the problem of class, size stating: I wanted to make a student improvement plan. So, students’ levels are A, B, and C, and I take the C group because they are the most in need for improvement while giving the other two groups exercises. I am alone in the class, so everyone is calling for me, but I want to focus on C group, see and touch stuff to understand, and need time… To be able to produce a well educated generation. 20 25 students is good for the teacher to be able to focus on each student.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. would be able to manage 4 sections. Giving me 12 periods/week at the beginning was hard. Large class sizes for these novice teachers created several instruction problems, thatsuchasnotcoveringallthelearningobjectivesforlessons.Also,teachersindicatedthehighnumbersofstudentsintheclassespreventedthetea

Finally, the participants addressed the challenges they faced with planning lessons. Seven among fifteen participants in this study, namely (T1), (T2), (T9), (T11), (T12), (T13), and (T14), mentioned the planning issues arose from various perspectives. Many teachers were disappointed with the standardized lesson plan,which they viewedasunfairandrestricted their planningabilities somehow T9 stated: They [MOEHE] standardize the lesson plans, so everyone delivers the same lesson, asks the same questions. I tried once to change something, and they did not like it in the department, regardless if it was better or not. So, this standardization is good for teachers to raise their levels, but it is also bad for creative teachers and dulls their skills. Teachers in governmental schools do not have much freedom or independence to alter lesson plans, and they are required to hand the lesson plans to their department coordinators weekly, as requested. The teachers’ interview data shows that their department coordinator controls the selected educational objectives and the instructional strategies for each daily lesson. Teachers also could be questioned if they did not finish the required educational objectives on Moreover,time.

addressing individual differences among students was another challenge for the participant teachers because of their limited teaching field experience. As T15 explained: Several students enter preparatory schools not knowing how to read, multiply or add numbers. They did not cover the standards from the previous year. . . students move up a grade without completing the

According to participants, principals did not consider novice teachers’ needs when it came to the load or the number of students in a class.

Finally, four teachers (T1, T2, T6, and T9) reported that some of the demands the Ministry of Education and Higher were the main reasons behind feelings of self doubt, which had the effect of lowering their self confidence in their teaching Manyabilities.of these teachers were unaware of the additional administrative demands assigned by school administrators. Most thought that they would only have a teaching load and responsibilities connected to students. Nine among the fifteen participants (T1, T2, T3, T5, T6, T8, T10, T11, and T14) mentioned that the school administrators ask teachers to take on an extra workload is not directly related to their primary teaching responsibilities. Some teachers were surprised by the tasks they were asked to perform, as female teacher T1 commented: There are many administrative demands. For example, in my last school, I used to look after the girls during their break time. … And If I didn't

Female teachers (T12, T13, and T15) who left the field voiced disappointment that the MOEHE does not listen to its citizens' suggestions, and in a related way, the Ministry does not trust Qatari competence in further developing its educational Participantssystem.

claimed that in taking the opinions of outside experts who do not

This year it is a new curriculum. They should have given us a chance to examine it, you know, or give it to the teachers a year before getting good feedback. Instead, they bombarded us with new curricula and asked for new plans, new formats, and new everything without notice or research or workshops. Just like that, take it and get going.

The amount of additional work required by the MOEHE and the school administration was a challenge and the primary source of stress and perceived pressure. For example, ten out of the fifteen participants (T1, T3, T4, T5, T6, T10, T11, T12, T13, and T15) reported that governmental policy decisions were the second biggest challenge that novices faced beyond the context of the school itself. The majority of teachers were displeased with policymakers’ overnight decisions in the MOEHE, which translated into a sudden regulatory change in their schools.

Several teachers (T 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, and 15) reported difficulties in dealing with students’ academic levels within the same classroom and applying strategies to address the individual needs.

standards and every time a student goes up a level, the burden is on the teacher; should he teach the student from zero or just give the current year’s curriculum. It was how the students treated you and you handle them, it was the biggest challenge as I taught 8th grade, which is the most difficult level to teach.

country'sunderstandindicatednationalstudyinQatarigovernmentalschools,theMOEHEislettingoutsideexpertsshapepoliciesinsteadofteachersfromwithinthesystem.ParticipantsthevalueintakingtheideasofcompetentQatariprofessionalswhoQatarihistory,society,culture,andhavepreviousexperiencesintheschools.AsT5said:

5.1.2 Government and administrative demands

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want to come, the administrators, I have to sign a warning paper. ... For us as teachers, the academic vice principal, she demands a lot. ... If we do not want to do something, she gives warnings, so I feel terrified.

The other two female teachers were stressed from the teaching system in government schools in general as well as paperwork and exhaustion arising from administrative demands.

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The school administrators ask teachers to take on extra workload, taking time from their primary teaching responsibilities. In addition, some teachers were surprised by the tasks they were asked to perform T10 stated, “there is a written item that the teacher should do whatever the administrators required them to say. This means that the teacher should do everything without questioning why arguing with the school administration." T14 describes what work is involved stating: The essential tasks for me are to prepare, plan, get my material and tools ready for the class; these things already take much of my effort besides paperwork, grading, and other mandatory tasks. But, then, come other tasks like preparing for the morning line up, and after morning line up, write a report, and during the line up do this and that, so many things, events, anything they put such a big load on teachers. Even the scientific research is considered a big load because it is mandatory. . . all at once, the teacher is a social worker, an officer, a principal; it is all in the classroom. The teacher is responsible for everything. Participants reported that was these demands created significant personal stress. Four female teachers (T1, 2, 12, and 15) believed they shared similar feelings of stress or exhausted throughout their workdays and at home. Two of them expressed that this stress was caused by school administrators and students in the classroom space. One teacher (T1) described having feelings of panic all day in school because of the warning letters that she may receive from the school administrators if she did something wrong. She stated: I am already exhausted with all the preparing, and they come and tell me take them to the morning line up or go with them to..., so many tiring tasks, it would be better if they left the teacher to do what she came to do, in the classroom.

5.1.3 Professional Challenges There are several what we term professional challenges reported by manyof these teachers. There was a sense that several teachers lacked competence and a sense of the lack of self efficacy during their first months of teaching. Three participants (T2) (T8) and (T14) discovered in their first months of teaching that they were unable to master their teaching goals with their students due to a lack of competence and skills. T14 stated: my first year was really hard. I needed to work a lot on myself, by myself. So, the load was on me, I had to develop myself; I worked hard and never expected anything from the school. Yes, some people offered help, but the perception of weakness was always there.

Finally, for teachers in this study, the low social status of teachers in Qatar became a challenge for several participants. Two female teachers (T5 and 15) andfive male teachers (T6, T7, T8, T9, and T10) reported similar viewpoints regarding this issue.

This teacher describes the lack of skills and the stigma associated with teachers who are not prepared or effective. Another teacher stated, “I was not good with computers, and everything was done electronically. … I felt depressed at the beginning, I had to make PowerPoints that covered the material in a suitable way for the students.” For many, novice teachers were viewed as experienced teachers with the expectation of possessing well developed teaching skills. Furthermore, two of these teachers (T2) and (T14) reported that they had received insufficient support in developing competencies required in the teaching profession.

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One concern raised by these novice teachers was their preparation to be teachers. Five teachers (T1, 5, 9, 12, and 13) suggested that they faced the challenge of an existinggapbetweenwhat they learnedin the preservice education and thereality they faced in their classrooms. These teachers argued that they received the knowledge, practices, and beliefs about teaching practices from their undergraduate studies, but they found it challenging to experience a disconnect between their studies and practices and experiences in schools. Two teachers who eventually left teaching reported that it was difficult to reconcile what they experienced in the college and what occurred in schools. For teachers (T2, 3, 4, and 6) who were graduates from a local College of Education, they reported that what they learned during their studies was useful and helped them in their daily routine in the school environment. They thought they were effective in their roles and had a sound knowledge of the subject or curricula.

Regarding the schools’ attempt to possibly reduce this gap by providing professional development programs for teachers, teachers (T1, 2, 3, 9, 12, 13, and 14) suggested that the school workshops dealing with instructional strategies and classroom management tools addressed topics that they were learned in their teacher preparation programs. They suggested that the PD was not effective and appropriate for their particular challenges. T13 expressed this concern, stating: They [the PD program] are not offering anything new. They could offer new strategies that would be great to learn, offer the latest research, global research, and apply new concepts to our classes. Instead, they teach us how to write objectives, of course we know how… they are not helping me to develop they are just repeating old stuff. Pertaining to the workshop in schools, several viewed these workshops as not beneficial and a waste of time after a long day of work and following multiple other meetings that day.

However, the two teachers (T7 and T8) reported that school workshops were useful, and were overall more satisfied. These teachers enjoyed attending the professional development sessions and looked forward to attending more and applying new things in their classrooms. T7 said: we attended 4 or 5 workshops at Al Faisal Foundation; they offered a teacher package…there are plenty of courses and development workshops for those who are looking to develop themselves.

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Female teachers were suggested that they had to earn a graduate degree to gain respect in terms of social status. Since it was difficult to study full time, some opted to leave the profession and seek a higher degree rather than stay as a

had suggested that teaching is not an appropriate career path for Qatari men. It seems that men in Qatar do not see teaching as a prestigious job to hold; consequently, there is a shortage of male Qatari teachers. Besides, the work culture in schools is very different from other companies. For example, the militaryishighly regarded in Qatarisocietyduetospecialservices offered tothem to facilitate their transactions throughout Qatar. Likewise, they have better salaries than teachers, including healthcare and airline tickets for them and their families. Teachers only receive salaries at the end of each month. T9 describes this issue stating: Guys here look for prestigious positions, so they look for any position with the title of manager, head, or coordinator. A teacher is… they tell me ‘You went into teaching?’ as if it’s such a low job that’s the perspective. Often, they tell me ‘Are you serious? A teacher? You were an engineer!’ Even my family tells me, ‘You went to university to become an engineer, and you became a teacher’… they look down on the job, unfortunately. For both genders, the low social status seems to play a role in teachers leaving, but it presents a challenge to recruiting and retaining Qatari teachers.

Maleteacher.teachers

2) What coping strategies they developed to overcome these challenges? The teachers reported several coping strategies that they use to deal with the challenges they face during the initial years of teaching. Twelve out of the fifteen teachers interviewed suggested an assortment of coping strategies as their first choice in dealing with schoolwork challenges. These strategies are internal peace strategies, active communication, solving problems through networking or seeking professional development outside the school, and changing schools or leaving the profession. The first strategy used by six teachers (T1, T2, T4, T12, T13, and T15) demonstrates several of what we term individual internal peace strategies. Teachers reported that they immersed themselves in activities, isolation, and taking short time to de stress and regain equanimity. Other teachers were able to manage their emotions, health, and well being by seeking health professionals' assistance. Also, four participants (T1, T2, T4, and T15) used several activities to relieve daily stress. For example, some of the participants used to call their best friends and share their experiences at work, which made the teachers feel refreshed and allowed them to receive some advice about the challenges they faced.Othersusednegative copingstrategiestorelieve theirfrustrationsbybinge eating sweets, which led to an uncomfortableness with their appearance because of being overweight. For others, isolation became a strategy for stress relief. For example, two participants (T12 and T13) who left the profession avoided the teachers' break room since it contained a very negative atmosphere. T12 stated:

5.2 Coping strategies used by novice teachers

I would isolate myself from them [other faculty]. I don't react [to] their negativity; it's as if I didn't hear a thing. In this school, I sat in my own corner, [and] I left the teacher's room. [There] was so much negativity and complaining, so I had to leave the room so that they don't make me hate my work and dislike teaching.

Their coping strategy was simply to evade the teachers' room to avoid negative Thefeelings.second strategy that these teachers utilized included active communication.

Ten out of the fifteen participants (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, and T14) preferred to make directrequests forhelpfrom school administrators, department coordinators, or experienced teachers whenever they wanted to learn new regulations in their schools or to solve problems they faced. Teachers said that ongoing administrative support such as the principal's open door and informal meetings with academic vice principals and other teachers were effective in their first year. One participant describes this strategy and its effectiveness. An experienced teacher, ... made me love my profession even more, and made it easy for me because she taught me how to reach my goal[,] which is to make the students love the subject and find it easy not difficult. She taught me how to leave an impression on them, either morally or education wise. (T1) These individuals realized this strategy was useful while working with supportive administrative and academic vice principals because they offered these novice teachers some space to voice their opinions and concerns. However, this coping strategy might be ineffective in another school setting.

An alternative strategy used by five participants (T7, T8, T9, T10, and T12) dealt with findings solutions to challenges through networking or internet searches and seeking out opportunities for professional development outside of school rather than asking anyone at their schools. Males teachers were more likely to use technology and the Internet to solve problems they faced, seek new teaching methods, and increase their knowledge of the subject. For example, a male participant tried to teach students the skills they would require later in life. The participant said he observed a student who had advanced technology skills and asked him to make a video with iMovie. The student then explained the lesson on camera, edited the video, and performed multiple other related tasks. Students appreciate such gestures, and it encouraged them. Other interview participants expressed their need for individual professional development plans with some professional development sessions in their first probationary months; therefore, participants were particularly grateful for professional development opportunities during this period.

Finally, these teachers coped with teaching by changing schools or leaving the profession. Teachers who are still in the classroom (T1 and T2) decided to change the location where they worked from one school to another, hoping to find a place that suited their teaching beliefs. One participant changed to a new school and chose to teach primary rather than preparatory and secondary levels. This participant thought that she would never teach secondary after what she went

Some teachers left to complete their master's degrees or found other places to work, such as universities or offices which did not have any teaching loads. One teacher (T12) stated: I did a Master's of Arts in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment … Now, I am looking to get my PhD and work at the College of Education … You know, after leaving school, the administration would always contact me and tell me that the students were still asking about me. That's because there was love.

Several male teachers who finished two years of the "Teach for Qatar" contract viewed themselves as excellent engineers and knew that they would have better options in private companies, especially from a financial point of view. Males focused on the financial aspect, and therefore, they generally preferred not to continue teaching. T11 said, "When I completed my teaching assignment, I still had my salary and all the benefits from QP, and I did not want to lose that. Teaching salaries, compared to the petroleum and private sectors, [are] very low."

Novice teachers reported in the current study that they encounter challenges in planning the lesson plans and challenges in students' differences. This aligns with what was reported previously by Du and Chaaban (2020) that all lesson plans were identical and were restricted by MOEHE and had specific directions by subject coordinators, which created teachers' lack of understanding of PBL and

6. Discussion 6.1 Challenges This study explored the challenges that novice teachers' faced teaching in Qatari government schools and the coping strategies that they adopted. Qualitative data from interviews with 15 participants showed that the majority of the participants face several challenges, including teaching and classroom, government and administrative demands, and various professional challenges. Participants reported various coping strategies employed to address these challenges. These teachers reported various challenges that are compatible with the findings Dickson et al. 2014 findings that reported similiar challenges faced by the novice Emirati teachers concerning the school environment. It is important to note that Qatar and UAE have similarities in their Arab culture and education systems, with both systems undergoing substantial educational reform and rapid changes in school every year, causing the same types of challenges to teachers' work in governmental schools. The addressed challenges were included as (1) implementing the new curriculum and (2) administrative demands, (3) classroom management, and (4) a perception of a lack of support (Dickson, Riddlebarger, Stringer, Tennant & Kennetz, 2014; Tennant et al., 2019).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. through in the previous school at the secondary level. However, when she transferred to a more suitable environment for students. However, some participants left the teaching profession. One teacher (T9), a new teacher in his school and new to the teaching world, was looking forward to going back to his old job as soon as he finished his two year contract with Teach for Qatar. He said, "I worked for 8 years in QP, it's a whole different culture there ... And after I finish my two year contract, Iwill go back to my previousjob atthe QP company." Other teachers (T10, T11, T12, T13, T14, and T15) ultimately left the teaching profession.

Concerning new policies and decisions from MOEHE, which affect instructional practices and the daily performance of teachers, some participants of this study hinted about implementing the PBL in Qatar's primary government schools as a new instructional approach in the classroom, and it is similar to a previous study obtained by Al Said et al. (2019). The study examined math teachers' beliefs regarding their roles, practices, and perceived change; half of the interviewed teachers mentioned that some of their peer teachers were resisting the change strategy and the top down decision from MOEHEand school. They have negative attitudes toward participating in the daily practice of PBL and did not believe in the benefits of PBL that may be helpful to their students' achievement. Therefore, both the current study and the previous study concluded that the policy changes and decisions need to be better communicated if they are to be well understood by teachers and especially novices. The directives are not clear, and a meaningful discussion and improved communication would help schools offer extensive professional development for any new changes and regulations.

In addition, novice teachers in the current study mentioned the distinction between the pre-service teachers' programs and the reality of teachers' work in schools revealed by female and male teachers that is similar to research by Qadhi, Hendawi, Mohammad, Ghazi, Al Dosari and Du (2020) when the interviewed teachers identified some significant challenges involved, the feeling a gap between the program and work-life; in terms of, the difficulty of using students' assessment results to provide feedback and confusing between theories of classroom strategies they learned from college and handling students in a classroom setting. The considerable gap between what novice teachers learned at

Novice teachers in this study lacked self confidence and self efﬁcacy beliefs that could eventually cause a lower job satisfaction among teachers (Klassen, Bong, Usher, Chong, Huan, Wong & Georgiou, 2009), it may also create barriers to professional development (Renbarger & Davis, 2019). The novice teachers' self efﬁcacy beliefs will increase gradually along with the higher job satisfaction and positive energy in the profession as they gain years of experience and know their students' needs (Chaaban & Du, 2017).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. avoided them to be creative while delivering the lessons. Although PBL and PBL addressed the individual differences among the students, teachers still had issues of a lack of motivation among Qatari schools (Al Said et al. 2019).

Several female participants in this study expressed their feelings of stress or being exhausted working at government schools, which is in line with what was reported previously by (Alloh et al. 2019) when female novice teachers in Qatari primary schools with less than five years of experience were scored high levels in theirEmotionalExhaustion burnout(EE).In thisstudy,itseemsthatmale teachers sufferedlessfromtheburnoutlevels,feelingofexhaustion,anddepression,which align with the ﬁndings of (Boström, Björklund, Bergström, Nybergh, Schäfer Elinder, Stigmar & Kwak, 2020), female participants were signiﬁcantly more stressed than their male colleagues, with 20.2% of female teachers reported "very much stress" compared to 4.5% of male teachers.

Furthermore, male teachers preferred to work in companies with higher salaries, life insurance, and other job privileges for them and their family and this result is supported by previous literature (Hall & Carroll, 1973; Rumberger, 1987) in that males' concern for higher salaries because male teachers are more likely to be the primary breadwinners in their households than women. This also explained why in the Gulf countries and Emirati education systems, most males who work at schools are administrator staff rather than the classroom teachers (Badri & Al Khaili, 2014).

6.2 Coping Strategies Regarding coping strategies, this study identified several strategies that the participant teachers utilized to deal with the multiple demands of the teaching tasks in Qatari governmental schools. In this study, strategies that included active communication tended to be the most often used strategy by the study participants. According to Barber (2020), novice teachers prefer sending given information via an email daily with (51.9%) or in person discussions or meetings at least monthly with (27.8%) as active communication with administrative staff. Another coping strategy expressed by teacher participants was finding a solution or seeking assistance, such as professional training outside the school. Male teachers in the study used YouTube and attended professional training outside the school to learn new teaching methods, considering these useful ways to get answers for problems they faced rather than asking anyone at their schools or waiting for assistance. Previous studies addressed this finding termed 'direct action strategies' or 'problem focused coping,' and it is a traditional strategy suggested by scholars. Beers (2012) and Sharplin, O’Neill, and Chapman (2011) described earlier that beginning teachers could directly address challenges and problems byutilizing variousstrategiessuch asgettinginformationfromwebsites and accessing professional development without the schools' help. It is similar to male participants in the current study who graduated as engineers, and it seems that they enjoyed searching the Internet about anything related to the subject taught or students' learning in classrooms.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the College of Education and the reality of the schools' daily practices, which ultimately caused participants T12 and T13 to leave the teaching field. According to Kim and Cho (2014) and Mahmood (2013), beginning teachers who experience a high reality shock tend to leave teaching in their first years.

The concern for teachers' social status was isolated to Qatari male teachers in the Qatari educational system and Qatari society. As five male teachers responded in their interview answers that being teachers for males is not prestigious in Qatari society compared to professions in engineering or the military, as well as they do not have privileges such as health care and airline tickets for themselves and their families, and salaries are much less than those of engineers or military personnel. Though the literature has highlighted the importance of recruit men and there is a need for male teachers in the education system to benefit young boys from having male role models (Hansen & Mulholland 2005; Mills, 2000; Mills, Martino, & Lingard, 2004).

8. Recommendations Based on these findings, we provide several recommendations. Institutions of higher education should provide the pre service teachers two years of practical experience under the mentorship of an experience teacher before the completion of their undergraduate degree. This could aid in gaining knowledge and understanding more about the school environment teaching and its challenges by developing a shared vision between the program and schools. It could also prove useful to address teachers' work related stressors, their perceptions of coercion effectiveness, isolation or rejection, and their struggles in their daily work. Therefore, it is recommended that schools assign professional mentors who can listen to novices' concerns and needs, especially in the first three years, and help them cope with these challenges.

Finally, the working environment (to another school) and changing to other professions were also considered by some participants. Novice teachers in the study identified changing the school environment is an essential coping strategy, and since they changed their schools, they perceived high degrees of collaboration among administrators and experienced teachers and increased their level of self efficacy. Chester and Beaudin (1996) encouraged novice teachers to convert to a collegial school culture with the opportunity for collaboration and support for beginning teachers. However, six of the novice teachers later dropped out of the profession and worked in different careers. There are four main factors regarding teachers dropping out within the first teaching years. These are the teacher's core task related factors, individual factors, social environment factors, and socioeconomic conditions (Karsenti & Collin, 2013). All of these factors are associated with the participant teachers who left the teaching profession.

7. Conclusions In summary, the current study aimed to investigate the challenges novice teachers face and the coping strategies they employ during their first three years of working in Qatari governmental schools. The results demonstrate various, interrelated challenges novices face and that there are several coping strategies teachers use daily.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Equally important was strategies that sought personal internal peace. Female participants considered individual internal peace strategies as essential ways to relieve stress. These strategies included immersion in activities, isolation, and taking a brief time out. Specifically, they would call their best friends, go to a spa or salon, and stop spending time in the teachers' room to avoid negative feelings. These personal internal peace strategies have been presented in previous studies as palliative or avoidant coping (Sharplin, O’Neill & Chapman, 2011). The current study as well the past studies, support novice teachers to choose their own choice or way to release the stresses they feel and reduce the stress resulting from the teaching workload, including setting realistic expectations, positive thinking, blocking negative comments, pragmatism, sport, watching TV, listening to music, simply relaxing or talking, and reading (Murray Harvey, 2001).

perspectives,teachersWeofmalestrategictheoccupationalbyprofessionaldevelopmentreducingthefrustrationanddisappointmentexpressedthesenoviceteachers.Finally,teachers'socialstatusandimageplayaroleinprestige,therecruitment,andretentionofteachersandcanimpactsatisfactionofhavingateachingcareer.Qatar'sMinistryofEducation'splanandfutureagendacoulddevelopanationalstrategytorecruitmoreprimaryschoolteachersbecauseofitseducationalneedsandtheimportancepositivemalerolemodelsinboys'schools.suggestthatfuturestudiesusesurveyresearchtocollectdataaboutnovicegatheringalargesample.Furthermore,futurestudiesmayincludeothersuchasthoseofschoolleadersandexperiencedteachers. Ahmed, F. B. J. Math Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Belief Change in Implementing Problem Based Learning in Qatari Primary Governmental School. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(5). Alkhateeb,https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/105849H.M.(2013).Attitudestowardsteaching

9. References

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T5 Female Current teacher (3 years) Primary Bachelor Education/ Math and Science Qatari

T1 Female Current teacher (11 months) Secondary Preparatoryand Bachelor Education/ Islamic Studies Born raisedandinQatar

T12 Female Left teaching (2 years) Primary Bachelor Education/ English Language Born raisedandinQatar

T 2 Female Current teacher (3 years) andPreparatory,Primary,Secondary Bachelor Education/ English Language Born raisedandinQatar

T4 Female Current teacher (3 years) Primary Bachelor Education/ Math and Science Qatari

T11 Male Left teaching (2 years) Teach for Qatar Preparatory Bachelor EngineeringMechanical Qatari

T14 Female Left teaching (3 years) Teach for Qatar Preparatory Bachelor Social Work Qatari

T13 Female Left (months))teaching Primary Bachelor Education/ English Language Qatari

T8 Male Current teacher (3 years) Primary Bachelor Shariah & Islamic in KSA Qatari

T6 Male Current teacher (3 years) Preparatory Bachelor Islamic Studies/ University in KSA Qatari

T7 Male Current teacher (8 Months) Primary Bachelor Shariah & Islamic in KSA Qatari

T10 Male Left teaching (2 years) Teach for Qatar* Preparatory Bachelor EngineeringChemical Qatari

T 3 Female Current teacher (3 years) Primary Bachelor Education/ Math and Science Qatari

T15 Female Left teaching (2 years) Teach for Qatar Preparatory Bachelor Social Work Qatari

T9 Male Left teaching (2 months) Teach for Qatar Preparatory Bachelor Texas A&M/ EngineeringMechanical Qatari

4) What do you think the reasons behind the challenges that novice teachers are facing in their daily life of teaching?

4) What are the challenges that you have faced so far as a young teacher?

5) What are the reasons of these challenges from your opinion?

1) Could you please tell me something about your background? For example, Educational background, past teaching experiences, how many years have you lived in Qatar? How long have been working in Qatari governmental schools as a teacher before you changed your job?

1) Could you please tell me something about your background? For example, Educational background, past teaching experiences, how long have been working in Qatari schools and the current schools.

3) Could you provide me with some reasons behind leaving the teaching career?

5) When you had some challenges, who do used to ask for help?

Sample of interview questions: Teachers who still working in teaching field

7) Do you feel that the training prepared you well for your job? And what other support needs might be helpful for your teaching career?

6) Anything else you would like to address?

3) How do you feel about your confidence and qualification in managing the job (specifically in your teaching career)?

2) Do you get any pre service education or training before you been a teacher?

8) What is your career plan in the future?

6) Where do you go/whom do you ask when you have any questions or if you need help?

2) How do you describe your daily life of being a young teacher in Qatari governmental school?

9) Anything else you would like to address. Teachers who left the teaching field

Abstract. The paper describes modern approaches and principles for implementing differentiated instruction in school teaching and learning. New expectations of qualitative changes in school education depend on teachers’ personal and professional roles in this process. The paper reveals the core characteristics of “differentiated instruction” and its functions in teaching. The authors consider “differentiated instruction ”to increase the efficiency of education; as the means of individualized learning; as the educational principle; as a method to ensure cognitive students’ activities; as the technology for learning activities in different student groups. The main idea of research is to identify the appropriate pedagogical conditions to ensure the effectiveness of improving teachers’ mastery in differentiated instruction implementation.

Specifically, this study examines English teachers’ use of differentiated instruction in school and explores the empirical results of their training in Ukraine. The authors suggest the ways to improve the content, organizational and technological components of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction in modern school practice

1. Introduction

The activation of democratic processes in global society has led to reconsider approaches and education principles in a new school. The psychological characteristics of school students and teachers’ professional activities should

143 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 143 159, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.8 Didactic Aspects of Teachers’ Training for Differentiated Instruction in Modern School Practice in Ukraine Nellia Nychkalo and Larysa Lukianova National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5989 5684 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0982 6162 Natalya Bidyuk, Vitaliy Tretko and Kateryna Skyba Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6607 8228 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3608 1378 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2911 5461

Keywords: teacher’s training; differentiated instruction; learning and teaching; school, methods and techniques

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. create relevant conditions for developing the students’ values and ideals, enhancing learning progress, self revelation, and readiness for an active life position. The new school requires teachers who can effectively apply the innovative techniques and methods, have a high level of pedagogical mastery, perform professional duties based on democratic and humanistic principles, and are ready for creative practice (OECD, 2018). Teachers should turn to the model of differentiated instruction to meet the educational needs of all students. As far back as the 17th century, John Amos Comenius, the father of modern education, emphasized that “children should perform those activities that correspond to their age and skills” (Comenius, 1896). Differentiated instruction challenges learners to make decisions, take responsibility for their learning, and allows them to demonstrate unique advantages, interests, and strengths of knowledge. The teacher plans and adapts teaching according to the individual students’ needs, focuses on relevant pedagogical situations, and believes in each student’s learning success. Differentiated instruction differs from the traditional one by strengthening individual students’ development in accordance with their unique attributes. The decisive factor in implementing differentiated instruction in school practice is the teachers’ mastery and readiness for its quality. The authors believe that effective teachers’ training for differentiated instruction is necessary to meet students’ varied needs and teaching personnel. The differentiated learning is a complex process that reveals the students’ individuality, develops their educational potential (psychological aspect), and educational self regulation (pedagogical aspect). Differentiation is a decisive factor in reviving the cultural and creative function of secondary education, humanization, and the education process’s democratization. It provides for the full development of children with different levels of skills.

2. Literature Review

In scientific researches, scholars discuss new approaches and principles to organizing differentiated instruction, in particular, to provide an individual educational trajectory for students’ development by their personal needs, interests, and aptitudes, to develop and support teaching talents. While researching, we have taken into account various scientific resources. Scholars select manuscripts that are to be involved in the study’s theoretical framework exceptionally carefully since its success depends on the originality and authenticity of these chosen ones. We analyzed many outstanding scholars’ works to cover the problem of implementing differentiated instruction in school practice. Thus, theoretical framework of our study is based on works by such scholars as: Comenius (1896) (differentiation as a didactic principle), Gregory and Chapman (2013), Heacox (2001), Holloway (2000) (differentiated instruction as a philosophy of teaching, complex concept), Kennedy (1999), Burton (2003), RobertsandInman (2007), Coffey (2007), Glazzard et al. (2019) (the phenomenon

The purpose of the study is to identify the appropriate pedagogical conditions to ensure the effectiveness of improving teachers’ mastery in differentiated instruction implementation. Specifically, this study examines English teachers’ use of differentiated instruction in school and explores the empirical results of their training in Ukraine.

Of great importance are research findings by the American scholar Bloom (1956), who distinguished three categories of learners: slow learners (35%), high ability learners (5%), and ordinary learners (60%). He noted that the education process organization in American elementary schools, especially for high ability students, is based on a differentiated approach and differentiated programs (10 20 levels of differentiation). However, experience shows that younger students acquire the proposed content in different ways. In this regard, differentiated instruction contributes to eliminating the “average student” stereotype. Accordingly, there are schools (classes) for students with different educational abilities and interests: interested, capable and diligent students, who are often called “gifted;” students with average educational skills (the majority of them); students with special needs. Simultaneously, students’ rigorous differentiation and subsequent involvement in the activities based on specific content and teaching methods have significant pedagogical advantages and disadvantages (paid education, the examination system) (Bloom, 1956). Enriching classes with complex educational material enhance the activation and development of talented students. However, the facts these students prefer elite schools and lyceum classes somehow affect the atmosphere in regular courses, and not in the right way. If there are no “stars,” namely, talented students in a class, other students have no one to compare themselves. Besides, teachers may lose interest in what they do as well. To efficiently differentiate student activities, Heacox (2001) developed two matrices to help teachers differentiate using Bloom’s Taxonomy. With Bloom’s Taxonomy, the complexity of the tasks increases as one moves through the six levels. These six levels are: (a) knowledge or basic facts and information, (b) comprehension or understanding the: information, (c) application or utilizing the data, (d) analysis or examining the data, (e) synthesis or formulating new ideas based on the data, and (f) evaluation or judging the value of the data. When differentiating instruction, a teacher can create activities of different

According to Brimijoin et al. (2003), differentiated instruction aims to develop each student’ s interests and talents, enhancing their creative and intellectual potential. Scholars agree that the concept of differentiation by its very nature is narrower than individualization (differentiation by gender, age characteristics, geographical features, etc.).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. of classroom differentiation in theory and practice), Tomlinson (1999; 2000; 2003; 2005) (fundamental considerations in diversity, standards based teaching and differentiation), Babbage, Byers and Redding (1999), Henderson (2006), Oaksford and Jones (2001), Newby (2005), Holloway (2000) (preparing and improving teachers’ pedagogical mastery through advanced training, self education and self development for planning effectively differentiated learning), Heacox (2001), Pozas and Schneider (2019) (some aspects of using differentiated instructional strategies in inclusive education), Kupchyk and Litvinchuk (2020), Steele (2006), Jennek, Gronostaj and Vock (2019) (content and technological provision of teachers' readiness for differentiated instruction in classroom, as well as modeling the system of differentiated teachers’ training).

One more important problem concerns the use of differentiated instruction in classes of students with special educational needs. Glazzard (2016) examined the barriers to inclusion in primary school and stated that some teachers worked in good faith to develop the integration for special educational needs. Others displayed negative attitudes towards these pupils, which negatively impacted the school’s commitment to inclusion. To his mind, the lack of teachers’ training is a crucial barrier to integration. Glazzard et al. (2019) propose practical recommendations and strategies (case study, reflective tasks, “picture exchange communication system,” “visual timetables,” “social stories, and comic strips”) in teaching and supporting children with special educational needs in primary schools. Considerable attention is paid to some aspects: individual teaching, group learning, and classroom environment. As evidenced by many research types, classroom differentiation is highly dependent on positive teachers’ behavioral changes in core areas. Studying mathematics and science programs, Kennedy (1999) proved that teachers use strategies related to the content that show their students’ results. Thus, differentiation is a modified instruction that helps students with diverse academic needs and learning styles master the same educational content (Bearne, 1996; Bender, 2005). To facilitate school teachers’ learning decisions, Pozas and Schneider (2019) propose a systematic practice, trying to bridge the gap between theory and everyday learning practice. The taxonomy provides teachers with practical and specific advice on the differentiation of their learning to overcome diversity in the classroom. The taxonomy of practice has several steps: tiered assignments, tutoring systems within the learning group, step by step non verbal textbooks, masterful learning, open education/granting autonomy to students, careful monitoring of students’ achievement. According to Tomlinson (1999; 2000; 2003; 2005), educators need to find an appropriate match between diversity in students’ characteristics and the curriculum to be assessed to become more responsive practitioners. Scholar believes that understanding each student’s capabilities increases the student’s motivation to learn. The teacher should know that differentiation is not a guarantee of instant achievement of the same level of all students. The level of opportunities that will increase learning outcomes will be better, but not the same. Therefore, it is imperative to widely consider diversity and study teachers’ experiences in different contexts. In its broadest meaning, scholars define differentiation as “a philosophy of teaching purporting that students learn best when their teachers effectively address the variance in students’ readiness levels, interests, and learning preferences” (Tomlinson, 2005, p. 263).

146 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. complexities based upon a student’s readiness and Bloom’s Taxonomy. A struggling student may need additional practice and complete activities at the first two levels, while an advanced student may work at the final level and combine prior learning and the new learning.

3. Methodology of Research

In our research, we used various methods: theoretical (analysis and summary of philosophical, psycho pedagogical and methodical literature, interpretation, deduction and induction, generalization, systematization, modeling) to justify the methodological principles, concepts, and terminology; to develop a model of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction and an algorithm for its methodological implementation; empirical diagnostic methods (interviews, questionnaires, tests, observations, ranking) to verify the effectiveness of the developed model; experimental methods (search, ascertaining, formative, control stages); statistical methods (quantitative and qualitative analysis of experimental data), methods of mathematical statistics to assess the reliability of the obtained results of the pedagogical experiment. The empirical basis of the research includes the results of the survey of 408 English teachers from Ukraine (the experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups (204 teachers per each)).

The following scientific approaches underlie the research: axiological, systemic, humanistic, personality oriented, communicative, activity based, subjective, interdisciplinary, and competency based). The effectiveness of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction depends on essential educational principles: continuity, self-education, self-determination, self-correction, the actualization of learning outcomes, joint activities, creative thinking.

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Indeed, it is difficult for trainee teachers to differentiate students’ learning (Henderson, 2006). Many teachers are not very successful in the practical use of differentiation in school (Babbage, Byers, Redding, 1999). According to O’Brien (2000), Oaksford and Jones (2001), planning effectively for differentiated instruction teachers should consider four interactive elements: pedagogical, emotional, cognitive, and social. Carolan and Guinn (2007, p. 46) identified four characteristics of effective differentiation in practice. They include the following elements: personalized scaffolding to support learners in bridging the gap between learner’s needs to complete the tasks; using flexible means to reach defined results by offering multiple paths to achieve set goals; “mining subject area expertise” by using various navigations; creating caring classrooms that acknowledge and value the unique learner’s attributes. Spanou and Zafiri (2019) proposed the ways of applying differentiation via the implementation of information technologies. The analyzed studies on the outlined problem indicate an inadequate level of its theoretical and practical justification. In particular, the issues of content and technological provision of teachers’ readiness for differentiated instruction, as well as the process of its modeling, are open for discussion.

The analysis of scientific sources and teachers’ training for differentiated instruction is not sufficiently justified in pedagogical theory and practice of education. Simultaneously, there are some contradictions in the practical aspect of the problem that must be resolved, such as: between new schools’ expectations of qualitative changes in the education process and teachers' insufficient

Pedagogical determinants for the teacher’s professionalism in differentiation instruction include enriching self study content and motivation to gain individual experience of self reflection. The practical implementation of the author’s methodological contributions involves ensuring positive dynamics in the determining conditions of the teachers’ training for differentiated instruction.

4. Findings and Discussion

Analysis of specificity in teachers’ training has shown that effective implementation of differentiated instruction in secondary education requires a reconsideration of teachers’ postgraduate education’s organizational, content, and technological components. The content of training courses for teachers needs to update and focus on achieving a new school’s education standards.

Some factors influence the effectiveness of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction: socioeconomic (fostering teachers’ creativity and professional self development due to modern training facilities; enhancing the prestige of the

comprehension of their personal and professional role in this process; between high requirements of new schools for teachers’ professionalism and an inadequate level of their preparation for systematic and effective implementation of differentiated instruction; between the need to improve teachers’ training as regards differentiated instruction and the lack of appropriate pedagogical conditions to ensure the effectiveness of this process.

On the bases of scholars’ interpreting the concept of “differentiated instruction” , the authors’ generalized core characteristics of this phenomenon: 1) the way to increase the efficiency of the education process; 2) the form and means of teaching individualization; 3) the academic principle according to which a complex of educational conditions is created taking into account typological features of students and the goals and the content of education, teaching forms and methods are selected and differentiated; 4) the way to ensure maximum productive educational and cognitive activities of students based on the subject subject interaction; 4) the technology for organizing the individual learning, which takes into account the interests and aptitudes; 5) the system of instruction based on differentiation.

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Contradictions correspond to the analysis of teachers’ experience in differentiated instruction, the state of teachers’ training for using it in practice, and the opportunities of the educational process in a new school.

Based on the teachers’ training, we found insufficient attention to the need to enhance their motivation to master differentiated instruction strategies. Most teachers are interested in implementing differentiated instruction in school, but not all are ready for this educational activity. Indeed, the teachers’ training for differentiated instruction is unsystematic and inconsistent. Fragmental information on various aspects of differentiated instruction and its potential resources, lack of specialized knowledge, skills, and practical experience in implementing differentiated instruction caused the need to improve teachers' training in the context of differentiated instruction in secondary education.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. teaching profession; providing financial support for teachers’ professional development, etc.) and psycho pedagogical (motivation and stimulation, creating favorable psychological and pedagogical conditions for teachers’ professional development, promoting research activities and leading educational innovations, etc.).

The realization of such a task needs teachers’ well developed system of professional motivation toward differentiated instruction implementation based on humanism and child centrism. Kupchykand Litvinchuk (2020) recommended the practical approaches and methods to improve foreign language instruction at tertiary schools. A wide range of teachers’ professional functions requires constant improvement of their mastery through advanced training, self education, and self development. A continuing creative professional and personal growth presents teachers with the opportunity to improve their acquired profound knowledge, develop their qualities and skills required to master their professional competence, and become proficient at a pedagogical activity. Therefore, teachers’ training for differentiated instruction must be carried out based on the practical application of educational technologies to use the professional experience of a well developed personality. It's essential for developing students’ skills to navigate and critically analyze information, synthesize, and store the retrieved sources. As Newby (2005) summarized, learners should be taught discovering things, identifying them, and packaging differently to use them in more comprehensive and diverse forms with different functions. Teachers need to provide for effective education of students within a changing

Due to the analysis of scientific sources, the authors determined that teachers’ training for differentiated instruction is a systematic process aimed at improving professional knowledge, mastering pedagogical skills, developing motivations, and enriching educational experience using differentiated instruction. Consequently, preparation for the specific professional pedagogical activity, in particular, differentiated instruction in school is, on the one hand, a crucial component for teacher training and, on the other hand, it’s an essential outcome.

The authors consider differentiated instruction as the educational process which provides conditions for students’ realization in cognitive activities, enhancing their value orientations, self awareness, self affirmation, taking into account their psychological characteristics that encompass the whole system of their behavior. The main factors in effective implementation of differentiated instruction are individual peculiarities of students, teachers’ mastery, instruction content, procedural support for differentiated instruction, educational and methodological support, school facilities, student groups, administrative management. Therefore, teachers are to engage all students in educational activities to reveal their talents and capabilities. Moreover, they should be ready to find new teaching strategies (content, goals, and structure of English lessons), developing differentiated tasks, correcting students’ achievements, determining their needs, fostering their differentiation skills (EL Education, 2020).

To implement differentiated instruction, teachers should define students’ general readiness to engage in educational and cognitive activities and perceive specific material. Moreover, teachers should anticipate the difficulties students may have while mastering new learning information; apply differentiated individual and group tasks; analyze the tasks planned at different stages of the lessons. A differentiated group activity is the most effective. Thus, students can freely express their thoughts, take an active part in solving educational assignments following their interests and abilities. Students want to work with classmates who have similar interests, work style, and friends (Granås, 2019).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. educational landscape, with a different emphasis on particular skills, requiring the provision of a specific pedagogy for creating inclusive classrooms. It is essential to discuss with teachers and students their preexisting expectations. It is necessary to talk with teachers and students about their previous expectations for differentiated learning, as well as to agree on the goals of the curriculum and diagnostic tools (Biggs, 2001).

Subjective and objective difficulties may occur during differentiated instruction implementation into the education process. They are the lack of differentiated knowledge and skills; choosing optimal differentiated methods and techniques; inconsistency between tasks for different levels of differentiation in textbooks, insufficient number of study hours allocated for complex material; unnecessary information overload in books; lack of modern methodological developments on differentiated instruction; and inadequate role of administration in introducing new achievements of pedagogy and differentiated instruction; the lack of individual courses on using methodological approaches or techniques of differentiated instruction within advanced training programs.

To help teachers understand the differentiation, Campbell et al. (2003) created a useful framework to encourage them in this process. The teachers can be successful if they consistently apply different activities, subject areas, attitudes toward differences in students’ background factors (differences in the teaching of students of different ages, abilities, genders, social and economic background, ethnicity, etc.). It is essential to consider students’ cognitive and learning styles, motivation, self esteem, cultural traditions, unique individual needs for self learning. The critical question and issue here, therefore, becomes “at what point in the trainees’ development are they able to take on these issues and fundamentally, can they afford not to?”(Campbell, 2003). It is essential to disseminate the best pedagogical international experience, representing the examples of the best teaching practices and describes criteria for identifying the levels of teachers’ competence for differentiated instruction. We found that group differentiation has different variants. It depends on the particular programs and educational tasks (Germany); studying specific subjects (France); students’ abilities (UK). According to the dividing students into groups, it causes competition between them (Japan). Group instruction is pedagogically justified in general. However, there is always a possibility of narrowing the general outlook of the students who work in a group. When

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We share scholars’ (Suprayogi, Valcke & Godwin, 2017) opinion regarding the need to define the particular conditions that contribute to active using differentiated instruction. The scholar proposes to systematically apply the differentiated tasks, taking into account the lesson’s aim, the effectiveness of assignments, students’ readiness, and ability to anticipate the difficulties. It’ s essential to organize the necessary verification of completed tasks. Moreover, the creation of differentiated instruction would ensure identical conditions for all students so that a weak student could proceed to a more complex task.

Existing practice shows that among methods and techniques of differentiated instruction teachers apply differentiation according to complexity of tasks (selection of the functions that require different generalizations and conclusions, are designed for varying levels of activity, increasing complexity, reproductive and creative nature), autonomy level (selection of tasks with an identical level of complexity, but different degrees of assistance; accessibility and variation of information for independent range), volume (variety of tasks with similar content, but differentiated by time for its completion, additional tasks (educational games, etc.)); the level of creativity and logical thinking development (selection of original based on students’ cognitive activity); assistance (dispensing assistance to students through additional tasks, preparatory exercises, hints,

dividing students into bright and weak, it’s necessary to pay attention either to vulnerable students or strong ones. Both options can be detrimental to one or another student group (Deunk et al., 2018).

Considering different students’ cognitive activities is essential to develop combined differentiated tasks for students with special educational needs. However, such tasks’ main aim is to ensure optimal educational and cognitive activities for each student. For this matter, different tasks were used to increase students’ level of program acquisition, since the paces of advancing were qualitative students’ characteristics. The implementation of differentiated instruction involves several stages: defining the criteria; performing diagnostics based on the selected criteria (multi level tests are the most effective); dividing students into groups; defining methods and techniques of differentiation, developing differentiated tasks; implementing differentiated approach at different stages of the lesson; diagnosing control over the results. The criteria that define the suitability of using differentiated instruction can be erudition and educational abilities.

In this increasingly personalized learning context, teachers should understand “how to learn,” “how to think,” “how to create,” “how to reflect” in their teaching. Jackson and Evans (2017) research findings show that teachers also have to be theoretically informed and aware of individual learning differences to involve every student in the co construction teaching and learning process. Teachers should acknowledge and develop their approaches and teaching styles, which would fit the curricular call to focus more on what beginning teachers need to know (Jackson & Evans, 2017).

An experimental study confirmed the effectiveness of the designed model application. During the formative stage of the experiment, the criteria, indicators, and levels of students’ readiness for differentiated instruction, we diagnosed the level of teachers’ training required to conduct differentiated instruction. Based on the analysis of the results of the formative experiment, we found that most teachers (CG 22.30%, EG 21.99%) were at a low level of readiness for differentiated instruction, whereas 47.62% of CG participants and 46.28% of EG participants were at sufficient one. However, only 30.08% of CG participants and 32.47% of EG participants were at a high level of readiness for differentiated instruction.

instruction requires profound teachers’ theoretical knowledge and well developed practical skills and abilities, readiness for using differentiation, pedagogical intuition, improvisation, reflection, and striving for continuing professional self development. We justified educational conditions for successful teachers’ training for differentiated instruction. They are the following: enhancing teachers’ motivation towards active using differentiated instruction; improving the content of the education to widen the teachers’ views on differentiated instruction; using training technologies and tools to implement differentiated instruction. When organizing advanced training programs for teachers, we designed and implemented a model (see Figure 1).

Differentiatedadvancement.

visualization), educational actions (selection and performance of functions in accordance with substantive, perceptual and intellectual actions). The range of tasks based on their volume is the most affordable option for students since they choose only those tasks they can complete. This way of differentiation is the simplest one. It is possible to use the differentiation at several stages of the lesson, such as explaining a new topic, to ensure an individual pace for students’

Figure 1: The authors’ model of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction

Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the obtained diagnostic data showed that it was expedient to introduce the designed model at the experiment’s formative stage. At this stage, we activated teachers’ motivation toward the active use of differentiated instruction by involving them to work in creative labs on preparing the presentation (“This is how I do it ...”) and participate in a specially organized online seminar on “Organizing Teachers Creative Activities.” Pedagogical coaching, webinars, online forums, online consultations, etc. were useful for teachers. Problem based interactive teaching methods have proved to be somewhat valuable, namely, the educational game “New Format of Differentiated Instruction,” various types of discussions (“Synthesis of Thoughts,” “The Carpet of Ideas,” “Macro and Micro Structure of Different Forms of the Education Process Organization in New School,” “Methodical Harvesting” etc.). Teachers were offered individualized differentiated tasks and cases with a specified number of points for their performance: compiling tests to identify the level of knowledge acquired in the course; drawing algorithms of students' educational activities and providing instructions; conducting mini studies; creating one’s website, blog, etc. Among effective methods, we can distinguish independent work, modeling situations, individual tasks, creative projects (“Differentiating the Schooling Education Practice,” “Instruction Differentiation and Individualization in Secondary School: New Experience,”) interactive exercises, brainstorming (“Interest in Differentiated Instruction,”) “diving” into a professional environment, round table, reflective tasks. Teachers trained to use innovative open resources (online learning platforms and tools) “Quizlet,” “Nearpod,” “Kahoot,” “Canvas,” “Google Classroom,” “EdPuzzle,” “FlipGrid”. These learning tools allow creating differentiated English lessons through the use of smartphones and computers responsibly. 1: The dynamics of EG

Table

and CG teachers’ readiness levels based on indicators of the motivational criterion (%) Indicators Levels CGs (204 participants) EGs (204 participants) Before experimentthe After experimentthe Before experimentthe After experimentthe Motivation implementationinstructiondifferentiatedtoward low 39.2 33.6 38.7 12 9 sufficient 35.3 36.8 35.3 39.3 high 25.5 29.6 26.0 47.8 Motivation toward performanceprofessionaleffective low 40.7 34.7 41.2 15.5 sufficient 37.3 40.7 36.3 41.7 high 22.0 24.6 28.4 42.8 Motivation achievementspedagogicaltoward low 29.9 22.8 29.9 8.5 sufficient 42.1 45.0 41.7 44.3 high 28.0 32.2 28.4 47.2 Value orientations, low 25.0 20.0 26.5 8.3

While implementing the research program, it was possible to ensure EG participants’ positive attitude toward differentiated instruction. Table 1 presents the number of EG teachers with a high creative level of motivation toward differentiated instruction, which increased by 21.8%, while in CG by only 4.1%.

We used a questionnaire during the pedagogical experiment’s formative stage to identify differentiated content teachers’ knowledge. The results showed an increase in teachers’ theoretical, methodological, and applied knowledge of differentiated instruction. Substantial changes were among EG teachers and less significant among CG teachers. The dynamics of teachers’ readiness levels based on the content and gnostic criterion indicators are in Table2. Table 2: The dynamics of EG and CG teachers’ readiness levels based on indicators of the content and the gnostic criterion (%) Indicators Levels CGs (204 participants) EGs (204 participants) Before experimentthe After experimentthe Before experimentthe After experimentthe knowledgeTheoretical low 16.2 14.5 15.7 6.8 sufficient 49.0 50.2 49.0 45.3 high 34.8 35.3 35.3 47.9 Possession of informationrelevant low 17.7 14.4 18.6 8.0 sufficient 49.5 52.0 49.0 47.7 high 32.8 33.6 32.3 44.3 Understanding of conceptsprofessionaland views low 18.1 13.9 17.7 3.7 sufficient 48.5 50.9 48.5 51.0 high 33.4 35.2 33.8 45.3

As evidenced from Table 2, EG teachers increased their knowledge of the content of pedagogical differentiation, differentiated approach to instruction, and found out about differentiation levels. The implementation of the experimental directive into EG teachers showed the difference between the individual and differentiated approach to education (the indicator in EG has increased by 12.6%, whereas in CG by only 0.5%). A high creative level of possession of relevant information in EG teachers increased, too. The indicator increased by 12.0% (from 32.3% before the experiment to 44.3% after the experiment). Instead, CG teachers’ knowledge grew by 0.8% (32.8% before the experiment, 33.6% after the experiment). The pedagogical experiment’s formative stage of the showed that CG teachers' understanding of professional concepts and views increased from 33.4% to 35.2%. Simultaneously, this

The transformations in teachers’ motivation fixed the pedagogical mastery changes, practical skills performance, value orientations, needs for knowledge, and creativity. The respective levels for each indicator included comparing these levels in teachers in EG and CG before and after the formative experiment.

Acquisition of knowledge,education use of innovative methods and technologies low 16.2 13.3 15.2 3.9 sufficient 53.4 54.8 54.4 55.1 high 30.4 31.9 30.4 41.0 Creative masterypedagogicalcreativity,activities, low 16.7 15.6 17.6 7.9 sufficient 53.9 54.1 51.5 53.2 high 29.4 30.3 30.9 38.9

Table 3: The dynamics of EG and CG teachers’ readiness levels based on indicators of the activity based and creative criterion (%) Indicators Levels CGs (204 participants) EGs (204 participants) Before experimentthe After experimentthe Before experimentthe After experimentthe Active instructiondifferentiatedlessonsimplementationorganizationparticipation,andofbasedon low 14.7 12.0 15.7 4.2 sufficient 54.4 55.7 52.4 52.9 high 30.9 32.3 31.9 42.9

Table 3 presents the dynamics of teachers’ readiness levels for differentiated instruction based on activity based and creative development indicators. According to the data presented in the table, we concluded that only 31.9% of EG teachers and 30.9% of CG teachers were at a high level of readiness based on the first indicator (active use of differentiated instruction) before the experiment. After the proposed model of teachers’ training for differentiated instruction, these high level indicators changed by 11.0% in EG and only by 0.5% in CG. The following changes occurred: 52.4% of EG teachers and 54.4% of CG teachers were at a sufficient level of readiness before the experiment and after the investigation 52.9% and 55.7% of EG, respectively. Subsequently, 14.7% of CG teachers and 15.7% of EG teachers were at a low readiness level based on the first indicator before the experiment. After the investigation 4.2% of EG teachers and approximately 12.0% of CG teachers, respectively.

155 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. indicator in EG teachers increased by 15.5% (from 33.8% to 45.3%). The research findings proved that the number of EG teachers with a high level of development of the content and gnostic component increased during the formative experiment. An important indicator of research effectiveness was a decrease in the number of EG teachers with a low level of the development of the theoretical components by 11,2%. In CGs, the number of teachers with a low level decreased by 3.1%. The level of activity based and creative development based on teachers’ ability to identify differentiated features of educational material, the ability to apply differentiated knowledge to perform complex practical tasks; and skills required to differentiate the acquired knowledge. The criteria for evaluating professional skills were the number of actions, the sequence of operations, quality of each activity, the time used to perform the actions.

The diagnostics results also documented positive changes in teachers’ creative activities, creativity, and pedagogical mastery. Based on the initial data, 22.1% of EG teachers and 20% of CG teachers had high results. The increase in the data from the final testing in EGs was significantly higher (20.8%) than in CGs (3.9%).

Table 4. presents general descriptions of teachers’ readiness levels for differentiated instruction before and after the experiment.

teachersGroupsof Levels Criteria andMotivationalaxiological Contentgnosticand Activity based and creative 1 2 1 2 1 2 CG, n = 204 low 33.7 27.7 17.33 14.27 15.87 13.63 sufficient 39.95 42.2 49.00 51.03 53.9 54.87 high 26.35 30.1 33.67 24.70 30.23 31.50 EG, n = 204 low 34.07 11.30 17.33 6.17 16.17 5.33 sufficient 39.35 42.05 48.83 48.00 52.77 53.73 high 26.58 46.65 33.84 45.83 31.07 40.94 Note 1 before the experiment, 2 after the experiment.

The number of EG teachers who were at a sufficient level of readiness increased by 20.4% after the formative experiment. They can analyze their activities, which contributes to developing one’ s “self”. In CG, the number of teachers who were at a sufficient level increased by only 3.1%.

The experiment results show the outlined levels of teachers’ readiness for differentiated instruction. The number of EG teachers at a high level increased by 13.97% (from 30.50% to 44.47%), and in CG by 1.02% (from 30.08 to 32.10%). The number of EG teachers who were at a sufficient level of readiness for differentiated instruction increased by 0.95% (from 46.98% to 47.93%), whereas the number of CG teachers increased by 1.75% (from 47.62 to 49.37 %). The most significant changes observed at a low level: in EG, the number of teachers at a low level decreased by 14.92% (from 22,52% to 7.60%), in CG by only 3,77% (from 22,30% to 18.53%). The statistical validity of differences in the levels of EG and CG teachers’ readiness for differentiated instruction was verified by the Xi square statistics, which applied to any patterns of independent samples, the volume of which should be no less than 30 (Rudenko, 2012, pp. 206 208). Before the experiment, it was a significant difference in indicators of EG and CGs, which proved its validity.

Table 4: General dynamics in teachers’ readiness levels for differentiated instruction before and after the experiment(%).

Positive changes in the teachers’ ability to apply differentiated instruction after the experiment indicated a significantly higher level in EG compared to CG teachers. The results showed that the number of EG teachers who were at a high level increased by 11,9%, the number of CG teachers by 1,1%. The number of teachers at a sufficient level increased in both groups: by 1.0% in EG and by 0.95% in CG. The number of teachers at a low level was also different: in EG, it decreased by 10.8%, in CG by 2.2%.

Under the conditions of reforming education (diversifying and enhancing education quality in school, developing students’ attributes, and motivating them toward self cognition and self development), teachers’ requirements for pedagogical activity and personality traits are changing. Teachers should be a source of cognitive and moral growth for their students. Students’ educational progress can be ensured only through coordinated educational activities, enhancing high level moral and ethical interaction, applying innovative educational technologies. Among the demands put forward by the new school system for teacher personality, the following moral qualities needed for implementing differentiated instruction: love for teaching, general culture, justice, tolerance, honesty, dedication, caring attitude. Therefore, their professional activity includes well developed psychological and methodical skills, masterly, social responsibility, and the ability to generate new ideas and implement innovations, self reflection, and creative self realization. To effectively implement differentiated instruction ideas in secondary education, it is necessary to reconsider organizational, content, and technological components of teachers’ training. In particular, the content of teachers’ training needs updating to relevant school education standards. Teachers’ readiness for differentiated instruction is the unity of motivational, cognitive, and procedural components, ensuring the effectiveness of secondary education. The experiment results confirmed the validity and effectiveness of the proposed model in teachers’ training for differentiated instruction. The perspective of further research concerns the training of subject teachers and school leaders in providing differentiated instruction at all stages of school education. In future studies, the problem of using differentiated instruction for the development of learner’s self educational activity and independent cognitive activity may be interesting.

157 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. The results show that numerical values of readiness levels in EGs differ significantly from those in CGs, and this discrepancy is not accidental. It is obvious the influence of both experimental methodology and model. Expert assessment methods confirm the effectiveness of the proposed model.

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5. Conclusions

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Keywords: Grit; College readiness; K 12 graduates; Constancy in work; Persistence of effort

160 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 160 174, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.9 Does Being Gritty Mean Being College-Ready? Investigating the Link between Grit and College Readiness among Filipino K 12 Graduates Febe Marl G. Paat, Antonio I. Tamayao, Rudolf T. Vecaldo Maria T. Mamba, Jay Emmanuel L. Asuncion and Editha S. Pagulayan Cagayan State University, Tuguegarao City, Province of Cagayan, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2290 4548 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2720 2641 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1723 3487 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6676 6151 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0701 5689 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2066 3808

Abstract. This study challenges the basic assumption that college readiness is accounted to senior high school (SHS) graduates’ cognitive abilities. It proffers that certain non cognitive personality traits like grit may influence the college readiness of SHS graduates in a non Western context. The study used descriptive correlation design to examine the relationship between grit and college readiness of 7,533 K 12 graduates enrolled in one public university in the north eastern part of the Philippines. The results reveal that K 12 graduates admitted in the respondent university are “mostly gritty,” and a more significant proportion of them are college unready. The students' grittiness is exemplified in the Filipinos' grit related concepts such as sigasig (persistence of effort) and tiyaga (constancy in work) that are pursued because of their concept of “relational self.” The test of the relationship shows that grit has a positive influence on the college readiness of SHS graduates. This finding proves that cognitive traits may not be a good factor in making SHS graduates admitted and successful in college. Essentially, some non cognitive traits like grit are as vital as intellectual abilities in influencing college readiness. Given these results, it is imperative that educators and school administrators of the K 12 program need to develop further not only the intellectual abilities of the students under their care but also to give equal emphasis and development among elementary and secondary students as it is a valid and essential personal trait to better prepare them for a college education.

Academic success has traditionally been associated with students’ cognitive ability in various learning areas in the different academic levels. This concept has gained significant interest in various settings and has been pervasive through time. However, academic success is not a monopoly of a single factor but an influence of numerous interplaying factors. Grit, a personal attribute of arduous perseverance, is among the fundamental mechanisms in successfully achieving goals. Duckworth (2016) attached the word "grit" to passion and perseverance to achieve long term goals. Reed and Jeremiah (2017) perceived it as a significant aspect of one's character as it uniquely grows and develops to contribute to an individual's success eventually. Through the years and across cultures, it has grown and expanded in parallel with various fields such as leadership, workplace, and education. Today, grit is highly encouraged in education because of its considerable contribution to students’ academic success and Sinceachievements.achievement springs from talent and effort, grittier learners who work harder, longer, and more deliberately produce enhanced success (Hogan and Wong, 2013; Kelly, Matthews & Bartone, 2014). Because of the significant impact attached to grit in the academic milieu, it has been recognized as a major variable connected to different academic constructs such as academic motivation (Eskreis Winkler, Shulman, Beal & Duckworth, 2014), task values, and goal orientation (Muenks, Wigfield, Yang & O'Neal, 2017), and learning strategies (Weisskirch, 2018). Previous studies laid that grit is an essential indicator of learners' better performance in the school setting and the real world. Another educational concept connected to grit is college readiness, which is the ability of the SHS graduates to be admitted and succeed in college (Conley, 2007; Barnes, Slate & Rojas LeBouef, 2010; Barnes & Slate, 2013). Conventionally, college readiness has been proven to be related to grade point average, class rank, and scores in various academic tests or academic performances (Bridgeman, 1991; Kobrin, Patterson, Shaw, Mattern & Barbuti, 2008). However, previous studies claim that it is also connected to non cognitive factors such as student personality traits and family resources (Porter & Polikoff, 2012). If any, few of the existing literature relate grit with college readiness; thus, this study.

Given the foregoing context, this paper contributes to establishing the connection of grit in further explaining students' college readiness, which is limited in the pool of existing literature on non cognitive research. This study

It comes clear to record that students’ grit and college readiness are two sides of the same coin. Hence, the paper aims to: (1) establish the connection between grit and college readiness among Filipino SHS graduates; (2) examine the applicability and usefulness of the grit scale in ascertaining the level of the perseverance of effort and consistency of interest of the Filipino students in accomplishing their long term academic goals; and (3) provide an answer whether the K 12 graduates possess durable psychological resources like grit that could assist them to progress to tertiary education considering the additional two years of their schooling (Datu, 2015).

1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study In the Philippines, college readiness is a new concept brought about by the K 12 program's implementation. As tertiary education is one of the curricular exits of the program, educators, students, legislators, and other stakeholders are interested in determining SHS graduates' college readiness who pursue a college education. Along this line, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) created the College Readiness Standards (CRS) in 2011, which defines the competencies that graduates of the K 12 Program need to master in the General Education Courses (GEC) to guarantee continuity of the competencies acquired from the K 12 curriculum. The purpose of creating the CRS is to minimize the remediation interventions among Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and to measure up with international quality standards (CHED En Banc Resolution No. 298 2011). The CRS has seven (7) learning areas: English, Filipino, Literature, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and Humanities. These learning areas contain both content and performance standards. Content standards pertain to what students need to know, while performance standards refer to what they need to manifest through what they know. Although no test is administered measuring the college readiness of the Filipino K 12 graduates, the Department of Education (DepEd) has conducted the Basic Educational Exit Assessment to Grade 12 students. The result of this test is exclusively for the consumption of the concerned agency purposely for enhancing its instructional delivery and crafting curricular interventions. HEIs could not use such a result as a basis for admitting SHS graduates. Thus, they are given the blanket authority to admit their students upon exercising their academic freedom. Given such a situation, they commonly use college admission tests, which may be teacher made or standardized tests. These tests measure different competencies that may not be aligned with the CRS.

1.2 Purpose of the Study In establishing the link between grit and college readiness shifts the paradigm to the understanding that college readiness is predicted beyond cognitive measures such as high school grade point average, SAT, and ACT (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth, Quinn & Tsukayama, 2012; Hiss & Franks, 2014; Nasim et al., 2005). However, the caveat is that cognitive measures are still the primary factors predicting academic success in college. Non cognitive factors such as character traits and psychosocial constructs are considered additional factors that may facilitate college readiness. Given the foregoing context, this study examines the correlation between grit and college readiness among Filipino K 12 graduates, which addresses this

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. aims to supply theoretical and pragmatic implications for both Philippine basic and higher education. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate the grit level and college readiness of the K 12 Filipino graduates and examine their relationship. The results will be valuable in providing vital data in refining admission policies, crafting transition interventions from basic education to tertiary level, and enhancing guidance services and other personal and learning support systems to students.

2.1 Understanding Grit as a Psychological Construct Grit, also called "gumption" (Przystas, 2016), pertains to the passion and perseverance essential to achieve long term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). It is a personal trait common among most achieving and successful individuals (Bashant, 2014). In a more specific sense, it is recognized as the "unshakable" long term accomplishment of goals despite challenges and setbacks (Duckworth & Gross, 2014).

Figure 1. Conceptual Paradigm of the Study 2. Related Literature

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Further, Duckworth (2016) creates the formula that talent plus effort equals skill, while skill plus effort turns into achievement. Regarding the fact that grit matures over time together with life experiences, several psychological assets help develop it, namely, interest or passion, practice or continuous improvement, purpose, and hope after challenges and failures. When these are combined with hard work, they become formidable psychological resources (Reed & Jeremiah, 2017).

Fundamentally, grit is a multifaceted construct as it is a trait level personality. While it is very much akin to conscientiousness, Duckworth et al. (2007) came up with a two factor construct consisting of the perseverance of effort (PE) and

concept's scarce literature, especially in the Philippines. The grit level in this study is measured in two (2) dimensions propounded by Duckworth et al. (2007), namely perseverance of effort (PE) and consistency of interest (CI). On the other hand, the college readiness, in this study, is a three dimensional construct composed of (a) advancement and mastery of the entry competencies defined in the CRS; (b) ability to be admitted in college; and (c) ability to pass the GEC without remediation. Operationally, these constructs are all measured in the College Readiness Test (CRT), which is an achievement test anchored on the Philippine College Readiness Standards (CRS). The CRT measures content and performance standards along with the seven (7) learning areas. Figure 1 below presents the conceptual paradigm of the study consisting of the independent and dependent variables.

2.2 Grit in the Philippine Context Since grit is generally a western construct, its adoption in the Philippines raises potential and critical issues on its applicability and generalizability in a collectivist setting like the Philippines. The emphasis of this is essential because the society's culture is a significant shaper of an individual's psychological construct (King & McInerney, 2014), which means that grit may come in diverse forms based on cross cultural differences. Among Filipinos, grit is conceptually related to sigasig (persistence) and tiyaga (constancy in work). Sigasig is the ability to go forward by force or by pushing or pressing hard to accomplish something. On the other hand, tiyaga is the ability to show diligence, industry, and zeal to pursue one's goals. Unlike the western personality trait, which emphasizes individuality, the Filipinos' concept of grit is not performed for individualistic reasons or purposes. Instead, it is pursued in relation to kapwa (others), which is not interpreted as 'other person' but 'together with the person' (Reyes, 2015). Thus, Filipino students are more inclined to pursue academic goals based on their purpose in maintaining and preserving their relationship with their family members, friends, and other significant others. Filipino youth value education, and they consider it to have personal relevance in shaping their academic aspirations and achievement (Bernardo, 2003).

2.3 College Readiness as an Academic Construct College readiness is a concept that ascertains the fitness of SHS graduates to enter college, considering that a high school diploma does not guarantee and exhibit sufficient college preparation (Porter & Polikoff, 2012). Using Conley's (2007) framework, the elements of college preparation include (a) knowledge of content; (b) application of content; and (c) cognitive strategies. These elements are construed holistically and should not be taken singly or separately because they constitute an interplay of factors necessary to hurdle the challenges of college education (Conley, Aspengren, Stout & Veach, 2006). Measuring college readiness has been a challenging task in most countries, which paved the way for its multiple measures (Leonard, 2013). Through the years, college readiness meant differently to different people depending on the context and the index to which it is based. Conventionally, grade point average (GPA) has been used as a predictor of college readiness (Camara & Echternacht, 2000). Other predictors include class rank and scores in various academic tests (Bridgeman, 1991; Kobrin, Patterson, Shaw, Mattern & Barbuti, 2008) and rigorous workload (Greene & Foster, 2003). In the USA, most universities still rely on the use of standardized tests like the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Test (ACT) and other questionnaires or checklists in predicting the college readiness of its students. This fact suggests that

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. consistency of interest (CI). PE denotes one's ability to continue and endure efforts amidst life's odds or setbacks. At the same time, CI refers to staying focused on the goals at hand over a long period and working hard to accomplish it (Duckworth et al., 2007). Between the two dimensions, Alhadabi and Karpinski (2019) claimed that perseverance of effort has a stronger influence on academic achievement than the consistency of interest.

The respondents of the study were the first year students enrolled in the respondent university for SY 2019 2020. Among 8,601 first year enrolled students, complete enumeration was employed among the K 12 graduates, constituting 7,533 (88%) of the entire first year student population. Graduates of Alternative Learning System (ALS) and the Revised Basic Education Curriculum (RBEC) were not included in the study because the competencies developed by their curricula are different from the K 12 program. The respondents were distributed in the eight (8) campuses of the university, as shown in Figure 2 below:

Figure 2. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Respondents by Campus

165 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. standardized tests are better measures in ascertaining the students' preparation for and chances of succeeding in college education (Landmark College, 2009). In conjunction with high school grade point average, standardized test results have high predictive value to college success (Sparkman, Maulding & Roberts, 2012).

3.1 Research Type and Participants

The study employed descriptive correlation design as it examined the relationship between the respondents' grit and college readiness. Employing a descriptive correlational design effectively describes two or more variables and shows their associations but not necessarily presenting their cause and effect (Sousa et al., 2007; Williams, 2007).

3. Methodology

Moreover, admission offices in some universities and colleges use holistic review by using a mix of cognitive traits, personal qualities, and behavioral measures in rating each college applicant (Rigol, 2003), which has predictive value for academic success in college.

3.2 Instrument

The respondents' college readiness was measured using the CRT, a criterion referenced, contextualized, and gender sensitive test, developed and validated by the Project Research Team of the Discovery and Applied Research and Extension Trans/interdisciplinary Opportunities (DARE TO) Research Grant. It has 200 items measuring learning competencies along with the seven (7) learning areas. The CRT measures the content with 30% and the performance standards with 70%. The content standards determine knowledge and comprehension while performance standards ascertain application, analysis, evaluation, testing assumptions, hypotheses, and relevant information. Furthermore, the CRT has 65.64 difficulty index, 0.22 discrimination index, 68.91% distractor efficiency, and r=0.798 inter item consistency.

3.3 Procedures

The Grit Scale being developed by Duckworth et al. (2007) was utilized to determine the respondents' self reported grit levels. It measures the extent to which the students can maintain focus, interest, and perseverance in obtaining long term goals. It comes in a 12 item statement rated as 1 5 with 1 = not at all like me to 5 = very much like me. It also has two (2) dimensions, namely, the perseverance of effort (PE) and consistency of interest (CI). The test's internal consistency is high, as it ranges from 0.77 to 0.90 based on previous studies (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). In this scale, no sub score is reported because only the overall grit score is considered. Although the Grit scale is self scored, the psychometricians nonetheless scored the said test for better analysis.

3.4 Data Analysis

The Grit and CRT results were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation). SPSS version 24.0 was used to analyze the data. In interpreting the grit result, the following 5 point Likert Scale was used: Table 1. Arbitrary Scale for the Interpretation of the Grit Score Range Interpretation 4.2 5.00 Extremely Gritty 3.4 4.1 Mostly Gritty 2.6 3.3 Somewhat Gritty 1.8 2.5 Not Much Gritty 0.2 1.7 Not at All Gritty

The administration of the two (2) tests was done after securing permission from the university authorities. An orientation on the ethical standards and protocols was given to the team members and all test administrators to abide by test administration standards and ethics. The free and prior informed consent form was developed and distributed to the respondents before the test administration. The CRT and Grit Scale were administered in the morning and afternoon, respectively. Both tests were administered, checked, and scored by the registered guidance counselors and psychometricians.

Figure 3. Grit Level of the Respondents by Campus Figure 2 shows that generally, the respondents across campuses are 'mostly gritty' (71.9%), which indicates their high tendency to maintain focus and interest and persevere in obtaining long term goals. Moreover, they tend to work strenuously towards challenges and sustain effort and interest over the years despite failure, adversity, and plateaus in progress. A further perusal of the data indicates that Campus G obtained the highest grit score (9%), and Campus F registered the lowest grit score (3.8%)

4.2 College Readiness of the K 12 Graduates as Revealed by the CRT Results

4.1. Grit Level of the Filipino K-12 Graduates as Revealed by the Grit Scale

167 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Since the overall grit score is only considered, students with higher scores (composed of PE and CI) tend to be stronger learners. They are likely to be less demotivated in times of challenges and adversities. They, too, are more inclined to strategize and sustain positive behavior to achieve their goals. Concerning the CRT, students who obtained at least 100 correct responses from the 200 items were considered college ready (Tamayao et al., 2020). Finally, Pearson r was used in ascertaining the relationship between grit and college readiness. 4. Results

Figure 4. College ready and College unready K 12 Graduates

168 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. As reflected, a greater proportion of college unready students (62.7% versus 37.3% college ready students) have been admitted to the respondent university. This result implies that only 2/5 of the first year K 12 graduates enrolled in the university are ready for college. Using the passing score of 100, the CRT's university wide mean score is 93.49, which is way below the acceptable passing score. The 37.3% of college ready students are the ones who have acquired mastery of the competencies set in the CRS and have a greater possibility to hurdle the GEC without remediation.

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed) Table 2 presents that grit is highly correlated with the respondents' CRT scores, as reflected in the computed r value of .107 at a 0.01 level of significance. This finding means that grit plays a significant influence on the college readiness of the respondents. Students with high grit scores tend to score higher in the CRT and vice versa. Hence, grittier students are more able to master the entry competencies defined in the CRS. They, too, tend to have shown a higher potential to be admitted in college, and they have more likelihood to pass the GEC without remediation.

5. Discussion The results reveal that SHS graduates admitted in the respondent university are "mostly gritty" as they show the consistency of interest and perseverance of effort in realizing their academic aspirations in life. Amidst challenging situations, these students demonstrate persistence in accomplishing their lifelong aspirations in college or even beyond. Moreover, these "mostly gritty" students have the likelihood to demonstrate mastery of the content and performance standards set in the CRS in the sense that they can use their grit in acquiring the essential knowledge, skills, and values necessary for them to be admitted and to succeed in college. The finding affirms numerous researchers

A closer look at the data illustrates that the greatest number of college ready students were admitted to Campus A (1,078 or 66.3%). In comparison, the smallest number of college ready students (25 or 11.7%) were admitted in Campus F. The result of the CRT also reveals that all campuses have a bigger number of college unready students except for Campus A. These findings reveal that most campuses have admitted students who tend to have low chance to succeed in GEC. Further, Campus F needs to craft and implement immediate transition intervention measures considering that it registered the lowest total mean score in the CRT (78.93).

4.3. Correlation between Grit and College Readiness Table 2. Correlation Between of Grit and College Readiness Parameters Grit Score CorrelationCoefficient P Value College Readiness Test Score .107** <0.001

The test of the relationship shows that grit is positively correlated with college readiness. Grittier students are more able to show college readiness than their counterparts. These students are more likely to demonstrate persistence in acquiring content and performance standards, which are essential in accomplishing their long term educational goals and college ambitions. In this

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Although grit is a borrowed western construct in the study, Filipinos have always been known for their cultural trait as being masigasig (persistent) and matiyaga (diligent). Rungduin and Reyes (2016) highlight this as one of the Filipino learners' developmental characteristics and values. Fundamentally, Filipinos' persistence and diligence in accomplishing long term goals emanate from their relational will, that is, the ability to contribute primarily to their families' well being and significant others. For example, students in Philippine universities value and pursue long term educational goals, not for personal motives but mainly for family reasons, i.e., fulfilling their dutiful and familial obligation (Reyes & Galang, 2009). The show of one's grittiness demonstrates the Filipinos' likelihood of being relationship oriented as their loob (better understood as relational will) seeks to preserve and strengthen their human relationships. The Filipinos' concept of grit goes beyond the focus on self; instead, it is always pursued in relation to their kapwa a shared identity with others which according to Enriquez (1992), is a reflection of the Filipino's concept of pagkakaisa, known to be their supreme level of interpersonal relationship. The value given by Filipino learners to their kapwa starts at an early age of their socialization (Rungduin & Reyes, 2016), which helps in the development of their relational self as proven by previous studies (Ching et al., 2014; Datu, 2015; Grimm, Church, Katigbak & Reyes, 1999). When they persevere in their effort and maintain consistency of focus in achieving their long term goals, it is always done to secure their family's interest and welfare and significant others. In so doing, they can preserve and strengthen their relationship, which is an essential index of their success and purpose in life. The CRT result illustrates that a greater proportion of students enrolled in the respondent university are college unready. While these students have been admitted to the university, the finding indicates that they are less likely to succeed in their GEC and perhaps their chosen academic programs. As they are college unready, they may also experience difficulty in accomplishing their college coursework. This college unreadiness may be accounted for because they fall short in acquiring the necessary content and performance standards in the seven (7) learning areas identified in the CRS. The lack of college readiness of the respondents affirms the numerous studies showing that the Filipino students have the low ability in science and mathematics; they are ranked 79th in reading (Paris, 2019); and they fall short in demonstrating literacy and numeracy skills, particularly in the English language (Philippine Institute of Development Studies [PIDS], 2020).

claiming that the students' ability to persevere in times of challenges and adversities, especially in the academic setting, plays a significant role in determining their academic success and beyond (De Beer & van Heerden, 2017; Duckworth, 2016, Grant Halvorson, 2012; Hattie, 2009).

regard, the finding affirms Mason (2018) assertion that grit is a valid personal trait in explaining students' success in college learning. Thus, grit must be nurtured or reinforced in basic education (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2019; Christopoulou et al., 2018) as it enhances students' potentials and facilitates positive educational outcomes, especially on college readiness.

The Grit Scale and the CRT, which were utilized in the study, are still in the process of undergoing further validity tests. In this regard, the results obtained may not present greater generalizability in the Philippines' different HEIs and geographical locations. However, their use bridges the gap on the dearth of literature and studies about grit and college readiness among Filipino K 12 graduates. Although grit is a multifaceted concept, it is limited to two dimensions: consistency of interest and perseverance of effort. On the other hand, college readiness is limited to students' ability to demonstrate advancement and mastery of the CRS's entry competencies, ability to be admitted in college, and ability to pass the GEC without remediation. The results will be the basis for conceptualizing a framework explaining the nexus of grit and college readiness among Filipino K 12 graduates in the Philippine context. Furthermore, a local norm may be developed to establish the validity of the Grit Scale in the Philippine context and to include its translation in the Filipino languages. Conflict of Interest As a funded research project by CHED, the authors declare no conflict of interest in the study, considering that ethical standards and relevant research protocols were strictly followed.

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Acknowledgment

It is a commonly held assumption that students' cognitive capacities influence college readiness. However, this paper argues that non cognitive trait like grit plays a crucial and indispensable role in SHS Filipino graduates' college readiness. Such an argument is anchored on the belief that college readiness is not a monopoly of a single factor but a confluence of numerous interplaying factors. This study affirms that indeed grit has a positive influence on the college readiness of SHS graduates. It proves that cognitive traits may not be a sufficient factor in explaining college readiness. Essentially, some non cognitive traits like grit are as vital as intellectual abilities in influencing college readiness. Given these results, it is essential that educators in the K 12 program need to further develop not only the intellectual abilities of the students under their care. Grit needs to be enhanced and be given equal emphasis and development among elementary and secondary students to better prepare them for a college education. This can be carried out by strengthening the homeroom program, guidance services, and student organizations, as well as co curricular and extra curricular activities in the basic education.

6. Conclusion

7. Limitations of the Study and Further Research

The authors express their heartfelt gratitude to the CHED Central Office for funding the project through the Discovery Applied Research and Extension

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. towards Transdisciplinary/ Multidisciplinary Opportunities (DARE TO). Special thanks is accorded to CHED Commissioner Lilian de las Llagas, President Urdujah Tejada, DARE TO K 12 Staff, and the technical committee members for their indefatigable efforts in accomplishing this research.

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Ganna M. Romanova

Analysis of the Efficiency of China’s Distance Economic Education in Force Majeure Circumstances

State Institution of Higher Education “University of Educational Management” of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 2388 6997

Abstract. This article focuses on the latest approaches to the effective delivery of distance education for the students of economic specialties in China’s higher education institutions in force majeure circumstances. Distance education was introduced due to the complex global epidemiological situation, unpredictable for the entire world community. The growing role and importance of distance learning in contemporary higher education overall and the education of economists in particular have been outlined. The need to use and constantly upgrade software and distance learning platforms is emphasized. The current Chinese approaches to the provision of the economists’ distance education in higher education institutions are outlined. The efficiency factors of the economists’ distance education in China’s higher education institutions were determined and substantiated Namely, the following efficiency factors were considered: importance of approbation and implementation of the new interaction methods among the participants of the teaching and learning process, game approach application aimed at the formation of motivation of students to study, the creation and continuous modernization of the informational and educational environment of the university, the provision of a free access to up to date digital technology and information and communication learning technologies, the use and efficient combination of distance learning platforms in teaching disciplines, the formation of digital competence of students and teachers, as well as the openness of the colleges and university management and faculty to change. The effectiveness study of distance education provision for the students of economics was experimentally tested The results of distance learning and teaching during the semester in force majeure circumstances were

State Institution of Higher Education “University of Educational Management” of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China http://orcid.org/0000 0002 4606 9287

Kseniia V. Tsytsiura

175 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 175 195, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.10

analyzed on the basis of empirical data from the students’ survey at the Department of Economics of a state owned Chinese higher education institution. The research findings emphasize the feasibility of studying and analyzing China’s positive experience in the provision of distance learning economic education in force majeure circumstances.

Due to the quarantine caused by the COVID 19 pandemic, the problem of distance learning has become more acute at all levels of education. Modern university teachers, usually with sufficient autonomy in the choice of methods and forms of teaching, are faced with a set of technical, methodological and psychological problems, which took little time to solve. On the one hand, distance learning and its elements are widely used in higher education, however the urgent need for mass transition to distance learning forced quick organization of new interaction methods with students, updating the content of learning, applying different methods and forms of activity, developing and ensuring quality control. In our opinion, at this stage of development of higher education, including economic education, it is expedient to unite the efforts of scientific and pedagogical workers of different countries in ensuring education quality in a distance format, which determines the analysis of best educational practices around the world.

Keywords: distance education; economic education; force majeure circumstances; distance learning platform; digitalization of education

The rapid development of information technology is a prerequisite of the modernization of education worldwide. Distance learning has already become widespread, and it is gaining popularity rapidly every year. For example, in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, virtual universities have been established as an alternative to traditional learning, where each student can be educated in basic distance learning courses at any university. Nowadays the European education policy takes into account “The Digital Agenda for Europe” initiative (European Commission, 2010a) and the European Economic Development Strategy “Europe 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth” (European Commission, 2010b), which emphasize the importance of using the benefits of information and communication technologies in the education sector and beyond the national borders.

The introduction of the new educational technologies into the organizational channel in Europe is expressed in the form of such novel social institutions as TV universities, tutoring and information centers, distance learning centers and retraining centers, which allows anyone to receive a proper education and obtain the desired major even in a systemic crisis and severe financial constraints of resources. However, despite the large number of scholarly works, the contemporary distance education in Eastern European countries occasionally

1. Introduction

Recommendations for the implementation of China's experience in economists’ training in Eastern European universities were elaborated and presented.

continues to apply the outdated approaches, does not sufficiently use the opportunities of the fundamentally new teaching forms and methods.

In the post totalitarian countries of Eastern Europe, there is a great number of contradictions in the distance learning system of specialists’ training: between the need for a student centered approach and an insufficient implementation of the students’ individual educational trajectories; between the requirements for the formation of graduates’ competencies and the imperfection of the information and educational environment of universities; between the development of distance learning technologies and the unwillingness of teachers to use them. Currently, an urgent problem of training the university educated specialists in Eastern Europe is the use of modern advances in science and technology, the implementation of ideas aimed at integrating education and production, fostering the search for innovative pedagogical technologies. The introduction of groundbreaking foreign initiatives into the university programs of these countries contributes to the modernization of higher education and ensuring its quality assurance Currently, in Eastern Europe the organization of the educational process in the distance form remains local and unequally accessible. Moreover, it requires a continuous modernization and active digitalization training of the teachers. A significant role in the effective organization of this education form is played by the search and testing of the feasible interaction forms, in particular “teacher student” and “student student”. The factor of no less importance is the competent selection of the functional software the computer and mobile platforms that will provide for high quality learning under the conditions of distance education (Khan & Ally, 2015). To handle such complex tasks at the stage of reforming distance education in Eastern Europe, it is expedient to analyze, study and apply the trend setting experience of other countries in the field of effective provision of distance learning, in particular the Chinese best practices. Due to China's policies of reform and openness, this country has created a real economic miracle over the past 40 years, having transformed from a poor country with outdated infrastructure into a flagship of the world economy. In recent decades, Chinese universities have joined in the world’s top rankings, and research has become an important part of the production processes. Thus, it is not surprising that the state pays great attention to economic education, the main purpose of which is training professionals in the field of international economics and business to ensure further GDP growth, to maintain living standards and economic growth. However, the global epidemiological situation in the world, which arose in early

Compared with the countries of Western Europe and North America, where as early as in the late 1960s early 1970s the introduction of open and distance learning began, in Eastern Europe a variety of correspondence training had been used for a long time. These included, in particular, extramural programs, such as in the former Soviet Union countries since the 1920s or “non attendance” in Romania since the 1980s and other varieties in the countries of the former socialist camp.

According to the purpose of the study, the following tasks were set for the experiment: to develop a questionnaire for the students (see Appendix A), to conduct a survey among the target audience, to identify the factors that determine the efficiency of distance economic education in China. A study of teachers’ work and students’ education in Chinese higher education institutions during a special epidemiological situation was conducted from February 2020 to June 2020. An anonymous questionnaire survey was conducted with the students of the Department of Business Economics, Jiaxing University, the city of Jiaxing, China. 498 students (including freshmen, sophomores, third year and undergraduate students) majoring in Business Economics from the Department of Economics of Jiaxing University (n. d.) took part in the survey. The survey of students was aimed at determining the needs of future business economists in distance learning, identifying its problems and development trends. During the survey, the students were asked 15 questions regarding the overall evaluation of distance learning level in their educational institution, determination of the feasibility of using different educational platforms, as well as the forms of interaction with teachers and classmates in the learning process, assessment of the teachers’ and their own digital literacy, personal opinion as for the identification of the most effective forms and methods of learning the material during the distance learning process.

2020, makes it especially important to find new forms, tools and methods of teaching the university students in general and the future economists in particular, which could be used during the academic year without compromising the effectiveness of teaching and learning material. That said, the development and reform of distance economic education is becoming especially important globally.

1.1. Empirical background

In China, distance learning provision has been successfully integrated with the traditional education for many years, but now, when the epidemiological situation in the world leaves no chance to make use only of the traditional learning principles, gaining insight about the effectiveness of online platforms as well as of the teaching methods in force majeure circumstances, and testing the new forms of educational interaction between teachers and students came to the fore of the country’s national policy aimed at the development and reform of distance education. However, at the very beginning of the distance learning introduction in force majeure circumstances, the teachers of Chinese universities held that creating an atmosphere of fruitful online learning is no easy task at all, and there was no guarantee for the effectiveness of such learning. Some methods of interaction between students and teachers are not sufficiently deployed in the distance form. For instance, during the learning process the network or platform used for classes can be overloaded and thus experience delayed actions, which will tell on the learning outcome. That is why work has begun to enhance the educational content and quality of distance learning, which should be guaranteed by China’s higher education institutions.

The purpose of the study is to identify and experimentally substantiate the effectiveness criteria of China’s distance education in business and to elaborate the recommendations for the implementation of good practices in the Eastern European university training of economists.

2. Methodology

To identify problem areas of distance economic education, namely Business Economics major, at Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China, an anonymous survey was conducted with participation of 498 students of the 1st 4th year of study majoring in Business Economics from the Economics Department. The quantitative research conducted at the university involved the actual general quantity of respondents, as all the students of this specialty took part in the survey.

Analysis of China’s distance education effectiveness in force majeure circumstances can form the rationale for the transfer of innovative elements of distance learning to the context of Eastern European economic education. In particular, the results of evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of distance learning in force majeure circumstances by Business Economics students will help to develop effective recommendations for the implementation of positive experience in methods of interaction among teachers and students, improving educational content, providing effective online learning control, development of digital competencies of teachers and students.

1.2. Research hypothesis

To achieve the purpose of the study, address the tasks set and test the research hypothesis, a toolbox of methods was used, in particular: • theoretical ones: the method of analysis, which allowed examining the concepts and approaches outlined in the scientific sources; the method of synthesis, which was applied to shape the framework of the research; the method of comparison, which was used to identify the peculiarities of students' attitudes to various aspects of distance learning; the method of systematization, which was applied to determine the factors of effectiveness of distance education; the method of generalization, which allowed formulating recommendations and conclusions.

• empirical ones: diagnostic methods (questionnaires) were applied to study the effectiveness of distance economic education in terms of force majeure circumstances on such indicators as the use of online platforms, content analysis of online classes, effectiveness and efficiency of online learning; praximetric methods (analysis of activity products) were used to monitor the training quality; statistical methods (processing of experimental data) were applied to analyze the results of empirical research.

3. Theoretical background In the 1950s, when China was not yet such a highly developed country, the government began to look for the initial ways to increase the accessibility to broad educational opportunities. At that time, television technology was not yet available for a wide range of users, and the first television universities were set

up in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenyang to offer science, engineering, and liberal arts courses, which were a real breakthrough in adult education (Gao, 1991).

A Chinese researcher Liu (2017) holds that the reform, which specifically concerns higher education, is an important impetus to increase the level of social development in China. However, such advances in higher education would be impossible without the digitalization of the economy, the elements of which are increasingly penetrating the citizens’ everyday life. Since the beginning of China's policy of reform and openness in 1978, there has been a huge increase in the country's information and communication technologies. According to Peng (2017), with the advent of large data technology “Big Data”, it’s getting increasingly difficult for the teachers to arouse students’ interest in learning by traditional methods and fully meet their needs for self improvement.

Furthermore, since the development of microelectronics and the advent of computers in the 1980s and the Internet in the 1990s, in the 2000s emerged robotics, artificial intelligence, blockchain technology, and in recent years there has been even a more robust growth in economy digitalization, primarily in such areas as e commerce, financial technology, manufacturing, and education.

According to a report by the Chinese Academy of Information and Communication Technologies (CAICT) under the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of China, China’s digital economy in January June 2018 has already reached CNY 16 trillion (USD 2.32 trillion), which is equivalent to 38.2% of the country’s GDP (in 2017 32.9%) (Xinhua, 2018).

Currently, China is regarded as one of the most promising countries in the world, being a leading choice in cultural and educational content, as well as an affluent economy dominating the global market. The achievements of Chinese economy would have been impossible without a properly organized educational system in the country. The development of the economy inevitably entails a need for highly qualified specialists. Therefore, the Chinese government is putting in great efforts to promote economic education, investing tremendous resources in education, and currently the level of education in China meets the highest world standards.

Up to date, China is not at the forefront of digitalization descriptors, but the World Bank's Digital Adaptation Index already ranks China 50th out of 131 countries, and the World Economic Forum's Digitalization Index puts China 59th out of 139 countries. This demonstrates China’s strong position among innovation leaders, which is also confirmed by the government’s ambitious goals of achieving a 50% share of the digital economy in GDP by 2030 (Zhang & Chen, 2019). Alongside with internationalizing the Belt and Road initiative, China’s leader is using cross border platforms to place a special emphasis on the growing role of digital technologies in the country’s economy. Thus, the processes of digitalization and technological advances of China are associated with global trade operations, which is fundamentally important for the country’s export oriented economy.

The development of the digital economy in China is impossible without the introduction of modern information technology (IT) in education overall and in economic education in particular. According to Chinese researchers Chen and Fan (2018), the spread of the Internet, modernization of infrastructure and enhancing the technology of the educational process promote the quality of educational programs and foster relevant knowledge, insights and new digital skills of the students. Such skills are indispensable nowadays in the digital society; they largely contribute to nurturing the students’ creativity and improving their critical thinking. That is why contemporary students duly appreciate all the benefits of the Internet, which is not only a technology but also a new environment that makes it possible for them to obtain the necessary information, regardless of the location in time and space, providing the individualized learning in a networked environment beyond the traditional higher education system and other generally accepted forms of schooling (Volkova, Plotnikov & Rukinov, 2019). Digitalization of Chinese higher education in general and higher economic education in particular infers the implementation of a set of measures, which are developed taking into consideration the global trends in digitalization, the analysis of the state and prospects of education in modern schools, as well as the priority areas of the state project “Human Resources for Digital Economy” within the framework of the program “China’s Digital Economy” (Xinhua, 2018). Let’s consider the abovementioned measures in more detail. – development and implementation of the new digital educational content, digital educational and methodological complexes (programs, materials, tools for assessing the formation of key competencies); gamification of the educational process, development and active implementation of educational games and digital simulators (training aids, virtual laboratories) on the basis of modern visualization technologies and augmented reality solutions. The Vietnamese and Australian researchers note that students do not sufficiently understand the benefits of the game design of the classes and are not yet accustomed to educational games as a teaching method. They believe that the gamification of learning as a process needs to be constantly adjusted to handle potential problems (Nguyen, Nguyen & Tan, 2020). Similarly, the Chinese researchers Wang, Wang and Hu (2017) maintain the necessity to develop the game teaching methods for students. They proposed and tested a game model of curriculum design for college students and hold that such methods help to increase the level of activity, motivation and involvement of students in classroom work; development of distance education, expansion of the range of MOOCs (massive open online courses) conducted by the best instructors in a wide range of comprehensive subjects and areas of informal education, the importance of which is emphasized by Xiong (2018). The Chinese researcher believes that the teaching based on MOOCs can be successfully combined with traditional forms ofdevelopmentlearning; of educational mobile apps, that the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2019) recommends registering in the national public register, also known as The National Digital Education Resources Public Service

4. Results In

System (n. d.). Mobile applications for educational purposes must have a standardized data management system, which is to be continuously updated in the national public register and monitored by the Department of Education for feasibility, modernity, efficiency (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, 2019). According to Chinese researchers Zou and Li (2015), as well as researchers Yang, Zhou and Ju (2013), mobile applications are particularly effective for learning foreign languages. Moreover, they provide for a rapid information exchange and implementation of new interaction methods between teachers and students in learning experiences; training of a modern teacher of the digital future, who must be able not only to efficiently use the available IT, utilize various editors, information processing tools and programs to create electronic presentations, but also to master new technologies, be particularly interested in personal growth and improvement of digital literacy and digital skills. Chinese researchers Ma, Lin and Lin (2013) believe that such training should specifically address the development of the excellent teacher’s competency model, which consists of personal and professional skills. According to the experts, such measures will enable China to set higher requirements for teacher student interaction, to effectively implement the high profile blended and distance learning without compromising its viability, and to motivate students toward the active engagement in the learning experiences. June 2020, Chinese

a study of the effectiveness and efficiency of distance learning of economists received 498 questionnaires of students majoring in “Business Economics” at a

university. Let’s analyze the empirical data obtained in the survey. The first general question involved identifying one or more online platforms that were used for distance learning. The most popular platforms for organizing and conducting distance learning for students majoring in Business Economics at Jiaxing University are provided in Table 1. Table 1. Use of online platforms for distance learning by Business Economics students at Jiaxing University Question Answer options Percentage ratio What online platform do you use for distance(multiplelearning?choiceoptions) SPOC University Platform 7.34% 37 MOOC of Chinese universities 73.75% 367 Superstar Online (mobile app) 16.3% 81 School Online 4.25% 21 Wisdom Tree 78.82% 393 Rain Class 35.99% 179 Superstar Online PlatformLearning 89.07% 444 WeChat 35.65% 178 Tencent Classroom 43.9% 219 QQ 78.28% 390 Other 35.96% 179 The source was developed by the authors

The source was developed by the authors The specific questions on the quality of distance learning were grouped into 3 clusters. Cluster 1 “Analysis of the online platforms and digital literacy effectiveness” contains 4 questions with 4 5 answer options. Students had to choose one option from the responses given that matched their views most Highclosely.percentage of the students (63.5%) believe that the platform chosen for use in distance learning works “perfectly” or “very well”, as well as 66.3% of them rated their digital literacy in online platforms as an “expert” or an “advanced user”, and 72.46% rated the teachers’ digital literacy at the same level. If we were to choose among the most effective methods of teacher student interaction, 38.54% of the students prefer the classes to be conducted in the form of online video conferencing using the presentation materials prepared by using Microsoft Power Point (PPT) software, while 34.78% find the pre recorded video from the screen with the help of screen casting technology effective, which contains the teacher’s video lecture accompanied by a PPT presentation in the subject under study, making use of the visual aids.

Superstar32%Talk12%MOOC6%WeChat2%WisdomTree7%Rain3%ClassOthers[] WHICH

The respondents’ answers regarding the platforms they consider the most effective for distance learning were distributed as follows (see Figure 1):

All answers to the questions of Cluster 1 and the percentage ratio of the respondents’ answers are given in Table 2. Dingding ONLINE PLATFORMS FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ARE THE MOST EFFECTIVE FOR YOU?

37%QQ

Figure 1. Effectiveness evaluation of online platforms for distance learning by the students majoring in “Business Economics” at Jiaxing University

184 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 2. The data from the survey of students majoring in “Business Economics” at Jiaxing University on Cluster 1 of questions “Analysis of the online platforms and digital literacy effectiveness” How do you evaluate the functioning of the distance learning platform that you used? Perfect 49 9.89% Very good 267 53.61% Fine 153 30.79% Bad 29 5.7% How do you evaluate your proficiency level in the distance learning platform that you used? Expert 61 12.21% Advanced user 269 54.09% Confident user 149 29.86% Novice 19 3.84% How do you evaluate the teacher’s proficiency level in the use of the distance learning platform? Expert 63 12.7% Advanced user 298 59.76% Confident user 128 25.68% Novice 9 1.86% In your opinion, which method of interaction with the teacher during a distance lesson works best? Pre loaded PPT + audio recording of the lesson 46 9.17% Pre loaded PPT + video recording of the lesson 173 34.78% PPT + online audio conferencing 75 15.14% PPT + online video conferencing 192 38.54% Other 12 2.37% The source was developed by the authors Cluster 2 “Analysis of the distance learning content” contains 5 questions with 4 5 possible options. Students had to choose one option from the responses given, which matched their views most closely. Most of the students (95.33%) students said that they review and study the materials provided by the teacher on the online platform before distance learning. Large percentage of the students (82.03%) fully or very well understand the objectives of the disciplines, assignments, homework requirements, assessment types used during distance learning, and 76.79% have a “very convenient” or a “convenient” access to online materials on the platforms in accordance with the learning objectives. More than half of the students (57.16%) believe that in the format of distance learning it is possible to efficiently cope with the difficulties and master the complexities of each subject, while 65.12% noted that the tasks provided by the teacher in the online format had been fairly useful and interesting, and could enhance their interest in learning.

185 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. All answers to the questions of Cluster 2 and the percentage ratio of the respondents' answers are given in Table 3. Table 3. The data from the survey of students majoring in “Business Economics” at Jiaxing University on Cluster 2 of questions “Analysis of the distance learning content” Do you review the materials provided by the teacher on the online platform before the distance lesson? Almost always 81 16.33% Very often 164 32.87% Occasionally 230 46.13% Never 14 2.89% Hard to answer 9 1.78% Do you fully understand the objectives of studying the disciplines, assignments, homework requirements, assessment types? I fully understand 88 17.65% I understand very well 320 64.38% I partly understand 82 16.39% I do not understand enough 8 1.57% Is it convenient for you to access the online materials in accordance with your learning objectives? Very convenient 103 20.79% Convenient 279 56% Fairly convenient 94 18.86% Not very convenient 22 4.35% Can you effectively cope with the difficulties and master the complexities of each of the disciplines in the distance learning format? I always can 54 10.74% I almost always can 231 46.42% I often can 182 36.56% I can’t always 31 6.28% Do you think that the tasks provided by the teacher are useful and interesting? Can they stimulate your interest in learning? Always 67 13.47% Almost always 257 51.65% Often 155 31.02% Not enough 19 3.86% The source was developed by the authors Cluster 3 “Effectiveness and efficiency of distance learning” contains 5 questions with 2 4 answer options, from which students had to choose the one that most closely matched their views. More than half of the students (69.19%) consider the delivery of the online courses in distance learning format to be “very effective” or “effective”, 63.03% of them noted a variety of interactive forms, methods and technologies of distance learning, and 68.18% believe that the various methods of online knowledge control (surveys, essays, online tests) used by the teachers help them better master the content of academic disciplines in format of distance learning.

186 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Almost all the students (91.37%) noted that their teachers were “always insightful” or “almost always insightful” about organizing online discussions, explaining answers to difficult questions, assessing homework. Despite the fact that students highly assessed the quality of delivering and conducting the distance learning, at the end of the survey in response to the last question about whether the students would choose distance or classroom learning in view of the atmosphere, activation of learning, effectiveness of lecture material, interactive forms, learning efficiency, 72.33% of the students still preferred classroom forms of learning. All answers to Cluster 3 of questions and the percentage of respondents’ answers are given in Table 4. Table 4. The data from the survey of students majoring in “Business Economics” at Jiaxing University on Cluster 3 of questions “Effectiveness and impact of distance learning” Do you consider the organization of online courses in distance learning format to be effective? Very effective organization 65 12.96% Effective organization 280 56.23% Well organized 130 26.12% Organized not well enough 23 4.69% Do you think that the tasks of online courses involve a variety of interactive forms and technologies which is wide enough? Always 82 16.46% Almost always 227 45.57% Often 166 33.43% Not enough 23 4.54% Do different methods of online knowledge control (surveys, essays, online tests) help you to better master the content of academic disciplines in the format of distance learning? Always 340 68.18% Almost always 143 28.72% Often 15 3.11% Is your teacher insightful enough about organizing online discussions, explaining answers to difficult questions, and assessing homework? Always insightful 252 50.7% Almost always insightful 203 40.67% Insightful enough 39 7.81% Not insightful enough 4 0.82% Do you prefer distance or classroom learning (given the atmosphere, intensification of learning, the effectiveness of learning material, interactive forms, learning impact) Distance learning 138 27.77% Classroom training 360 72.33% The source was developed by the authors

As a result of the analysis of the teachers’ experience in conducting distance learning disciplines and applying the benefits of the Internet development in China (Tsytsiura & Gao, 2020), it was shown that students' attendance on the Internet was monitored on a daily basis, and the level of attendance was high as a rule. Teachers’ choices of online platforms / tools for distance learning are mainly focused on QQ (Tencent Classroom), DingDing Talk, Superstar Online, open MOOC courses from Chinese universities and Wisdom Tree. Many teachers also chose the ZOOM platform for distance learning, making note of a good feedback effect. Apart from the fact that each teacher had the opportunity to choose alternative platforms and methods of interaction with students, most still chose the method of “PPT + online audio conferencing” or “PPT + online video conferencing”. So, while preparing for the lesson, each teacher pre uploaded the lesson materials on to the teaching platform or to the self created groups in messengers.

Teachers of Chinese universities were the first ones to face a new format of education. The experience of training students majoring in Business Economics in China in force majeure circumstances indicates high level of the educational process organization. At the same time, high quality technological support does not guarantee a comprehensive solution to all tasks related to distance learning.

5. Discussion

Training of specialists in Business Economics in quarantine conditions provided for the selection of such platforms for classes that would ensure the implementation of cognitive, practical and motivational learning goals. During the survey, the students of Business Economics at the Chinese university noted that the platforms / apps for distance learning that they most often use are Superstar Online Learning Platform, Wisdom Tree, QQ (Tencent Conference, Tencent Classroom), MOOC platforms of Chinese universities, as well as Dingding Talk. Let us consider that all these platforms have a wide range of functions to conduct distance learning classes: a chat for communication between teachers and students, a possibility of group audio and video conferences, a screen casting function (Washburn, 2009), which is given special relevance in modern distance education, as well as a separate unit for downloading homework in the format of audio, voice messages, photos, text files, presentations, etc. WeChat, which has also been singled out as one of the apps often used by both students and teachers of Chinese higher education institutions, is also a platform that has not lost its relevance for many years due to the wide range of educational content for distance learning by creating group chats between teachers and students, thus making the information exchange more efficient (Tu, Yan, Jie, Ying & Huang, 2018).

Modern university teachers around the world have been adapting themselves to distance learning in force majeure circumstances caused by the COVID 19 pandemic. In particular, they had to organize communication with students, ensure their active participation during distance learning, prepare learning content, monitor and evaluate the results of training, provide correction.

The results obtained during the study confirm the hypothesis about the effectiveness of distance business education in force majeure circumstances in China and the feasibility of introducing the Chinese innovative elements of distance learning into Eastern European economic education. Based on the results of the experiment and research conducted, the recommendations were formulated to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of online learning in Eastern European countries.

(1) Enhancing the monitoring of the teaching quality To enhance the monitoring of the teaching quality it is advised to systematically improve the quality of distance learning, the college and university management should fully highlight the quality of the teaching process, learning and interaction between the participants of the educational process in distance form; improve the timeliness of feedback from both the teachers and students for a timely correction of errors and problem solving. It is also advised to continuously promote the teachers’ digital competence, which will provide for a high level of distance economic education. It is vital to improve the accuracy and depth of the teachers’ feedback information analysis, to use the data of such analysis for a timely discussion and solution of distance education problems, if

We emphasize that the degree of compliance of educational resources from online platforms with the content of the courses on the educational and professional program “Business Economics” (Jiaxing University, 2018) is high; prior to distance learning on the Internet, teachers chiefly informed students about the content of the discipline, its objectives, requirements for learning and homework, etc. In the course of online instruction, the teachers followed a set plan for the most part. The interactive forms of online teaching used in the distance learning process are quite diverse, and teachers are usually quite knowledgeable in the online platform operation. The structure of the courses, the general outline of the educational activity is organized fairly well, and all students have completed the tasks of academic disciplines according to the schedule by the end of the semester. According to the survey statistics, students generally have a positive experience of online learning, which was introduced by the university in a special epidemiological period, but most students feel the need for classroom learning.

A similar position is observed among students of universities in Eastern and Central Europe, who do not agree with the statement that distance learning could replace face to face learning (Vasilevska, Rivza, Alekneviciene & Parlińska, 2017). So, Chinese universities have been constantly exploring the ways to enhance the quality of online teaching, trying to achieve the same quality, efficiency and effectiveness from online teaching as from traditional or blended forms. This is emphasized by Chinese researcher Li (2019), who believes that traditional methods are becoming increasingly difficult to adapt to a changing society, and the web based teaching and visualization are especially effective for students of the XXI information century

Chinese researchers agree that one of the best motivating components of learning for economics students is the use of problem based learning, which also improves their communicative competence and active independent learning skills, which are very important prerequisites for future economists (Lin, 2017; Liu, 2016).

6. Conclusions Thus, distance learning in force majeure circumstances should ensure the effectiveness of professional training, have appropriate methodological support, and meet the requirements for accessibility, interactivity, and high quality feedback. Analysis of the good practices in distance learning during the training of economists in China allowed identifying the following factors of its

189 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. any, in the respective departments of relevant institutes and to promote good practices. The adoption of these measures will ensure the objective recognition of the development status and competitiveness of higher education, which is an important prerequisite and rationale for its transformation (Wen, Yin & Xu, 2018).

(3) Effective improvement of the online teaching level and the online education content It is advisable to identify the best online courses and programs in order to organize networking activities, to identify difficulties and ways to handle them.

It is advised to proceed with studying the students' online learning experiences, taking into account their needs and learning performance indicators. An important step in this direction is the exploration of the styles of social media and smartphones use in higher education (Gumeta & Khan, 2017). It is essential to encourage the teachers to choose QQ (Tencent Meeting, Tencent Classroom), DingDing Talk and other experimentally tested platforms, as well as the interaction methods “PPT + online video conferencing” and “Pre loaded PPT + video recording of the lesson”, which, according to the students’ opinion, increase the efficiency of their learning material; strengthen the interaction between teachers and students in the learning process, enrich the variety of interactive forms and means of enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of distance learning. A particularly important component of this process is the study of the teachers’ acceptance and intentions of using Web technologies in distance learning in current educational context and perception of the realities for the teachers to make use of these technologies for pedagogical purposes (Li & Kim, 2018; Teo, Guoyuan, Mei & Hoi, 2018). It is important to encourage the teachers to motivate their students for independent education, promoting initiatives, boosting personal growth, shaping a positive attitude to distance learning and self demand while studying in force majeure circumstances.

Encouraging teachers to timely adjust the online training content, the teaching methods and interaction with students based on students’ feedback and suggestions is necessary. It is also important to strengthen the links between universities by organizing video conferences, discussions of effective forms and methods of distance learning aimed at promoting an effective performance on the Internet.

(2) Continuous enhancement of learning performance for students

effectiveness: the quality information and educational environment, the openness of the college and university management and faculty to change, the corporate training of the educators, the motivation of students and formation of their digital competence, a comprehensive support of distance learning.

Important features of the educational process in force majeure circumstances are variability and flexibility, when each teacher has the opportunity to choose the alternative platforms and methods of interaction with students. The most effective distance learning platforms highlighted by the students who took part in the survey are the ones that are multifunctional, provide ample opportunities for the use of interactive learning technologies, have the capabilities of the "flipped classroom", provide high quality feedback. The quality assurance of distance learning content involves the development and implementation of a new digital educational content, digital educational and methodological complex (programs, materials, tools for evaluating the formation of key competencies). Both teachers and students need special training in the use of distance technology, which was provided at Jiaxing University through corporate teacher training based on online conferences, webinars, online student counseling. The results of the survey indicate that the majority of respondents evaluate the level of mastering the platform by both students and teachers as sufficient (an “advanced user”). The results show that distance learning has certain organizational advantages over the classroom instruction: all procedures related to the presence, timeliness of tasks are formalized, control methods are diversified, opportunities for flipped learning are fully provided, when students are exposed to the theoretical material in advance, and in the course of online classes it is consolidated in an interactive learning environment. Regarding the presentation of educational information, it is important to note that in terms of the quantity of answers, given in the survey, the majority of the respondents are those who prefer online conferences, the second place is given to pre recorded video lectures, and the third to audio conferences. This gives us grounds to conclude that live communication is important for the students, however they highly appreciate the visualization of information as well. A significant number of students admit that they review the materials provided by the teacher on the online platform before online classes, which allows us to state the lack of readiness of students for flipped learning, when classes are mostly practice oriented rather than theoretical. At the same time, the fact that distance learning has its limitations cannot be underestimated. In particular, most students highlighted the need for face to face learning in the context of dynamic interaction effectiveness between teacher and students, as well as students among themselves in the classroom. In force majeure circumstances, this need was to some extent underwritten by a synchronous communication during online video conferencing classes with the use of presentation materials. Availability of the pre recorded video from the screen with the help of screen casting technology improves the students’ knowledge assimilation capacity but cannot replace the face to face communication.

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193 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix A Questionnaire for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of distance learning in force majeure by students majoring in “Business Economics” at Jiaxing University Question Answer options What online platform do you use for distance learning? (choose multiple choice options) SPOC University Platform MOOC of Chinese universities Superstar Online APP School WisdomOnlineTreeRainClass Superstar Online Learning Platform TencentWeChatClassroomQQOther CLUSTER 1. Analysis of the online platforms and digital literacy effectiveness How do you evaluate the functioning of the distance learning platform that you VeryPerfectused?goodFineBad How do you evaluate your proficiency level in the distance learning platform that you AdvancedExpertused?userConfidentuserNovice How do you evaluate the teacher’s proficiency level in the use of the distance learningAdvancedExpertplatform?userConfidentuserNovice In your opinion, which method of interaction with the teacher during a distance lesson works best? Pre loaded PPT + audio recording of the lesson Pre loaded PPT + video recording of the lesson PPT + online audio conferencing PPT + online video Otherconferencing

Do you consider the organization of online courses in distance learning format to be effective? Very effective organization Effective organization Well organized Organized not well enough

Do different methods of online knowledge control (surveys, essays, online tests) help you to better master the content of academic disciplines in the format of distance learning?

CLUSTER 2. Analysis of the distance learning content

Can you effectively cope with the difficulties and master the complexities of each of the disciplines in the distance learning format? I always can I almost always can I often can I can’t always

Do you fully understand the objectives of studying the disciplines, assignments, homework requirements, assessment types? I fully understand I understand well I partly understand I do not understand enough Is it convenient for you to access the online materials in accordance with your learning objectives? Very NotFairlyconvenientconvenientConvenientveryconvenient

Do you think that the tasks provided by the teacher are useful and interesting? Can they stimulate your interest in learning?

CLUSTER 3. Effectiveness and impact of distance learning

AlmostAlwaysalwaysOftenNotenough

Do you think that the tasks of online courses involve a variety of interactive forms and technologies which is wide enough?

Do you review the materials provided by the teacher on the online platform before the distance lesson? Almost always Very HardOccasionallyoftenNevertoanswer

AlmostAlwaysalwaysOftenNotenough

195 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. AlmostAlwaysalwaysOften Is your teacher insightful enough about organizing online discussions, explaining answers to difficult questions, and assessing homework? Always insightful Almost always insightful Insightful enough Not insightful enough Do you prefer distance or classroom learning (given the atmosphere, intensification of learning, the effectiveness of learning material, interactive forms, learning impact) Distance Classroomlearningtraining

Keywords: teaching second language; resources in language teaching; digital resources; digital literacy; post COVID 19

1. Introduction Besides Portugal and the other eight Portuguese Language (PL) countries (Nadais, 2018), Portuguese is spoken by millions of people in diasporas and as a foreign language (Flores, 2013; Grayley, 2014)

Conditioning Factors in the Integration of Technology in the Teaching of Portuguese NonNative Language: A Post COVID 19 Reflection for the Current Training of Teachers Joana Carvalho, Inmaculada Sánchez Casado and Sixto Cubo Delgado Extremadura University (UEx), Spain

https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.11

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-013Xhttps://orcid.org/0000000151658003https://orcid.org/0000000188029980

Abstract. This presentation is the result of a mixed research and part of a PHD investigation, aimed to understand whether in the process of integrating technology in teaching Portuguese as a Non Native Language (PNNL), external conditions such as age, time and teacher experience justify the low use of digital resources in language teaching, even though we live in the digital era currently modulated by the COVID 19 pandemic. It was also sought to understand whether training (initial and continuous) endows the teacher with skills to integrate technology in teaching. Data were obtained from 101 PNNL teachers with experience in Portugal and abroad. The results showed that training has no influence on the use of digital resources in education; age and experience influence low utilization due to lack of confidence and teacher’s attitudes; and, regarding time, it was noticed that these digital resources could be facilitating elements in time management. It was concluded that we should focus heavily on CALL training for PNNL teaching, in particular due to the standardization that occurred in distance learning, caused by COVID 19, in order to provide teachers with digital literacy, thus enhancing greater time management, greater confidence and a more adjusted attitude to socio constructivism.

is a broad concept and it is characterized by its diversity and heterogeneity. It highly affects its Didactics (Carvalho, 2013). Simultaneously, multiculturalism and multilingualism imply the adoption of specific teaching approaches, far from traditional pedagogical practices.

The knowledge of PNNL teachers is not expected to be only linguistic. It must be global where digital competence is integrated as well It is expected, therefore, that teacher training will be programmed according to the demands of modern, socio constructivist teaching, working with diverse knowledges, preparing teachers for the pedagogical use of technology, working with various teaching methodologies, considering the multiplicity of contexts and the heterogeneity of the target audience, developing materials considering numerous application scenarios (e.g., Massive Open Online Courses MOOC, Virtual Environments VLE, Flipped Learning). The teacher must have a variety of knowledge and the training of (future) teachers should play a particularly important role in this regard. In the process of teaching teachers, that begin to be proven by successive generations, that is Gen Y, Z and Millennials (Goh & Abdul Wahab, 2020), one must bear in mind "that the current teaching staff may lack the pedagogy to teach in this 'digitized' world and to be competent to lead future teachers into the new era of technology driven environment" (Goh & Abdul-Wahab, 2020, p. Research163) in language education has been set aside for the benefit of learning, although for close to two decades this scenario has begun to subvert itself (Van den Branden, 2016). This task is not naturally easy and requires a (re)construction of teaching training practices (Missel, 2018; Moreira & Monteiro, 2015; Wünsch, 2013). Language teachers need technology level preparation, and

The multidisciplinary of the knowledge of PNNL teachers presumes a strong commitment to training, a profound scientific, pedagogical didactic, and technological updating. However, there is a huge rift in this field owing to the lack of didactic material. Its elaboration, as Castro (2015) mentioned, is generally based on the experiences of the authors, to the detriment of an effective integration of the recent results of research developed in the area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) (Castro, 2017); and very focused on discrete forms and frequent use low level practice activities as listen and repeat, dialogue repetition, matching and filling in the blanks (Tomlinson, 2012), that is, in the presentation practice production approach (Tomlinson, 2012).

With European, Brazilian and African variants, PL brings together linguistic particularities such as sociolects, dialects or regionalisms, as well as standards that influence its use, communication and teaching (Branco, et al., n.d.). From all this, the concept Portuguese as a Non Native Language (PNNL) emerges, which comprises a conceptual problem given its scope, concentration of different types of acquisition, learning and mastery of the language (Carvalho, 2013; Flores, 2013). Furthermore, PNNL integrates Portuguese as a Second Language (PSL), Portuguese as a Foreign Language (PFL) and Portuguese as a Heritage Language PNNL(PHL).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to put into practice such knowledge in teaching contexts or in similar scenarios; contextualized tasks that simulate real teaching situations; support at the level of training, and even institutional; and opportunities for collaborative and reflective hands on practices (Aşık & Gonen, 2019).

H2. The use of digital resources decreases depending on age, experience, and time.H2.1. The use of digital resources decreases depending on age. H.2.2. The use of digital resources decreases depending on experience. H.2.3. The use of digital resources decreases depending on time.

Training practices (initial and continuous) of teachers in the use of technologies, in Portugal, is still very attached to traditional practices and models of teacher preparation in general (Costa, 2013). In the international context the scenario is not substantially different (Goh and Abdul Wahab, 2020).

With the accelerated and global advance in technology, teachers ought to develop digital competence, in order to obtain access, analyze and synthesize, reflect and validate and, finally, transmit knowledge, using technologies in general and ICT in particular (Bastos, 2014). However, introducing technologies in teaching implies bearing in mind two major groups of constraints: internal (e.g., teachers; instructors; beliefs; views on technology; views on teaching, learning and knowledge) (Costa, 2012); and external (e.g., lack of time; inadequate preparation; lack of knowledge; lack of will, lack of resources; age; inadequate use; experience) (Kessler & Hubbard, 2017; Mahdi & Al Dera, 2013; Sjöberg & Lilja, 2019; Uzunboylu & Tuncay, 2010). Technology, among the multiple beneficial contributions to language teaching and learning, allows interaction and collaboration between PNNL teachers; sharing, reflection and analysis of methodologies adopted; development of digital materials and other resources, depending on the needs and contexts of teaching. It is precisely at this point that the question that led this research arises: what training do PNNL teachers receive to use digital resources in the teaching Thereforeprocess?, this investigation aimed to find out which variables would limit the adoption of technologies in education. Throughout the analysis of this objective, a relationship was also established with the consequences of the COVID 19 pandemic. Since external constraints are perhaps more determinant than internal constraints (Costa, 2012), we wanted to understand (specific objectives) whether the variables age, time and experience of the teacher would be at the origin of the obstacle of the use of technological resources in the teaching of PNNL At the same time, we tried to understand whether the training (initial and continuous) that the teacher received was, per se, a justification element for not integrating technologies in language teaching. Focusing on these objectives, we have outlined the following hypotheses: H1. The use of digital resources does not increase due to continuous training.

Since the great voyages of discovery around the world, PL has been exposed to different contact situations, as well as different learning contexts. With three variants (European, Brazilian and African) (Leiria, 2001), PL brings together linguistic particularities (e.g., sociolects, dialects, regionalisms), as well as standards that influence their use, communication and teaching (Branco, et al., n.d.), in addition to being spoken by a wide spectrum of speakers (e.g., children of Portuguese emigrants; immigrants living in Portugal; non native speakers; individuals who learn it as a language subject in school). For all this, the concept Portuguese as a Non Native Language (PNNL), comprises a conceptual problem (Grosso, n.d.), given its scope; and concentrates different types of acquisition, learning and mastery of the language (Carvalho, 2013; Flores, 2013). There are three types of PNNL: Portuguese as a Second Language (PSL) (J. Ferreira, 2014); Portuguese as a Foreign Language (PFL) (Osório & Meyer, 2008); Portuguese as a Heritage Language (PHL) (Barbosa & Flores, 2011; Flores & Melo Pfeifer, The2014).concept PNNL vastly contemplates a whole diversity and heterogeneity about the context in which its teaching can occur, complexing the task of its Didactics (Carvalho, 2013). On the other hand, there is another factor relating to those who learn it. This is the heterogeneity of students who, per se, are deserving of a specific teaching approach. Multiculturalism and multilingualism in the classroom lead teachers to distance themselves from traditional pedagogical practices (Ndiaye, 2010). For all this, teaching PNNL (PSL/PFL/PHL) implies specific skills (Bolívar & Ruano, 2013), which go beyond linguistics. Amateurism, the range of good intentions, the idea that anyone can teach their language, which by the way has guided successive generations of teachers, are incompatible with the demands of modern teaching.

The multidisciplinary of the knowledge of the PNNL teacher presupposes a strong bet on scientific, pedagogical didactic and, of course, technological training and updating. However, in practice, there is still a huge rift in this field, and in many cases there is a significant lack of pedagogical preparation for many teachers, who are also faced with a huge lack of adequate, diversified and certified teaching material (Tavares, 2008), despite the tremendous and valuable work that has been done in this regard (Silva & Marçalo, 2015; Castro, 2017; Melo Pfeifer & Araújo e Sá, 2013). In the case of PSL material aimed at adult audiences, Castro (2015) mentioned that there are several gaps that roughly translate into the trend of drawing up materials that are not addressed to a specific audience or learning context; and, on the other hand, the fact that they focus on communicative skills, to the

2. Literature Review

The Portuguese Language (PL) is the national and official language of nine countries Portugal, Brazil, East Timor, Angola, Mozambique, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau and Macau , and holds a privileged position in the world, both in cross border education and in Portugal’s increasingly growing demand for a diverse audience (ERASMUS students; students from African speaking countries Portuguese Official PALOP; and East Timor, among others) (Bizarro, Flores & Moreira, 2013).

Although, nationally and internationally, there are materials of some quality intended for language learning, it is a fact that they tend to be based mainly on the intuition and experience of the authors, and are still poorly guided by current learning principles, concluding that the preparation of materials could benefit much more from the investigations around the Acquisition of Second Language (ASL) (Tomlinson, 2012). Indeed, teacher training courses have a very important role to play in promoting knowledge about the L2 acquisition process and the principles underlying various current pedagogical approaches, so that the action of teachers and their combination for the development of teaching materials can be more informed and sustained. Training should, among many other functions, include a critical observation of existing materials, which corresponds, at least, to introducing them to procedures close to those of research, at the methodological level (Leiria, 2001). Technologies then emerge as an added value, to the extent that they enhance a renewal of teaching (Xambre & Morais, 2014).

The materials for learning a language are, as Tomlinson (2012) suggested, "anything that can be used to facilitate the learning of a language, including coursebooks, videos, graded readers, flash cards, games, websites, and mobile phone interactions, though, inevitably, much of the literature focuses on printed materials" (p. 144). In fact, the difference between paper materials and digital materials lies in how content and methodology are communicated, and what really matters is the impact of certain materials on learners and the quality of their learning (Masuhara & Tomlinson, 2018). Digital materials are defined as materials that are made available digitally. In theory, can be used anywhere, anytime, with all their multifunctionalities and interconnectivities (Reinders & White, 2010). Digital materials can be foreign language teaching materials, and therefore CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), available on websites, computer software, courseware and online courses, web sources of language experience (e.g., Google, YouTube, Facebook) and ICT applications which can be made use of both, to deliver materials and to facilitate interaction (e.g., mobile phones) (Tomlinson, 2012). But regarding delivery, in which software and applications (e.g., apps) change rapidly (e.g., Web 2.0 for Web 3.0, and Web 3.0 for Web 4.0; smartphones; tablets; smart watches; phablets (i.e., phones with a larger screen, hybrid phone and tablet), the benefit it will confer on the quality of learning should be borne in mind.

The process of material development implies procedures (evaluation, adaptation, design, exploitation, production, and research) (Tomlinson, 2012) that, ideally, should establish a synergy in the process of developing materials aimed at language teaching. In the case of the development of digital materials for language learning (Masuhara, Mishan & Tomlinson, 2017; Mishan & Timmis, 2015), Masuhara and Tomlinson (2018) highlighted the work developed by

detriment of fundamental general competences, such as learning competence or intercultural awareness, contrary to what is the case in equivalent manuals aimed at teaching other foreign languages.

Reinders and Pegrum (2016), a model composed of five categories, which aims to evaluate Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) resources. In Masuhara and Tomlinson’s (2018) point of view, this model could be adapted in the process of evaluating any type of digital material.

The proper use of digital materials and resources is therefore the key to the success of teaching and learning, as they are mediators between learners and the reality that is the subject of study (Navarro Pablo, López Gándara & García Jiménez, 2019). In fact, technology confers several benefits to Education in general, such as: it allows individual autonomy and collaborative interaction (e.g., Skype, Google Meet, SMS texting); collaborative and interactive writing (e.g., Google Docs, wikis); work collaboratively outside the classroom (e.g., eTwinning program) (Masuhara & Tomlinson, 2018). How technology has been standardized in our environment will depend on personal and teaching Thecontextschallenges facing language teacher education under CALL, mentioned by Kessler and Hubbard (2017), should be the subject of in depth analysis in teacher preparation. And, in the pandemic times we live in, COVID 19, these challenges need even more attentive and in depth reflection and analysis, since teachers, with more or less digital skills, were forced to normalize their work of face to face teaching to distance teachers (Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development [OECD], 2020; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Culture Organization [UNESCO], 2020). Going back to the challenges of language teachers' education under CALL, the focus is on preparing teachers for change Teachers should know and understand how to use new techniques in teaching, such as MALL (Kukulska Hulme, Norris & Donohue, 2015), and be aware and know how to direct new course settings (e.g., VLE; MOOC); receive preparation for the creation of interactive materials that are as authentic as possible, as well as language experiences and environments; receive, for example, preparation at Gamificación level (Moura, 2018, 2019); to work on iCALL (intelligent CALL) field tools (e.g., natural language processing NLP) (Meurers, 2012); to prepare teachers for the social future, in which social networks offer a multitude of benefits for language teaching, but require new skills and attitudes, since many activities developed in social networks distance themselves from conventional teacher focus; and prepare teachers for the challenges of "standardization", a "stage when a pedagogical technology such as a textbook or pen has become in effect invisible, so seamlessly is it employed in our everyday practice in the service of language learning" (Bax, 2011, p. 1), but it is imperious to apply what Bax (2013) designated Needs Audit, to determine the desirability, need and adoption of specific aspects in the field of language teaching and teacher preparation. Therefore, "Needs Audit should focus on learning and not on learners" (Bax, 2013, p. 43). The integration of digital information and communication technologies in the educational context has suggested changes in the attitude of both teachers and students, with the purpose of enhancing pedagogical actions to be led by both. Introducing technologies in the educational field implies bearing in mind two

Research in the field of language teacher education has been set aside for the benefit of learning, although about two decades ago this scenario began to subvert itself (Van den Branden, 2016). This is a non naturally simple job that requires a (re)construction of teaching training practices (Missel, 2018; Moreira & Monteiro, 2015; Wünsch, 2013). Language teachers need technology level preparation, and put into practice such knowledge in teaching contexts or in similar scenarios; contextualized tasks that simulate real teaching situations; support at the level of training, and even institutional; collaborative and reflective hands on opportunities (Aşık & Gonen, 2019).

major groups of constraints: external and internal (Costa, 2012). Internal include teachers, instructors, beliefs, views on technology and views on teaching, learning and knowledge (Wünsch, 2013). In the external, perhaps more determinant than the internal ones, there is lack of time, inadequate preparation, lack of knowledge, lack of will, lack of resources, insufficient technical support, inadequate use, age (Uzunboylu & Tuncay, 2010), or even lack of experience (Mahdi & Al Dera, 2013). Kessler and Hubbard (2017) added that "teachers are often overwhelmed by such potential tools Or they may simply be uncertain how to implement new technologies in their classroom" (p. 284).

Kessler and Hubbard (2017, p. 282) reported that some studies indicate that, in teacher education for CALL, there is inadequate breadth; lack of contextualization; failure to implement the knowledge acquired in a given training; and a dependency on informal preparation.

• Adequate assessment of learning (computer assisted language testing CALT). The two fields closer to classroom evaluation are: automated writing evaluation (AWE) and automated speaking evaluation (ASE). The future flows in the direction of computational feedback and automated evaluation.

• Feedback

• The observation and monitoring of learners’ behavior, as well as their progress which digital media provide, are highly beneficial for teacher training.

Kessler and Hubbard (2017) suggested that the training of the language teacher for CALL should focus on:

In addition to personal factors, one of the main issues of integrating ICT into an educational context is directly related to the knowledge and skills teachers have about the ways in which ICT is integrated and explored in the specific teaching and learning contexts, and in many cases with the lack of infrastructure (lack of computers and internet) (Neto & Cerny, 2018). From the reluctance that still persists (on teachers’ behalf) regarding the integration of ICT in an educational context, or even mistrust, it is inferred that training should be structured in order to make teachers recognize the benefits that the use of a computer can bring to learning and become aware of its importance as an intellectual work tool, as a condition of changing their practices (Rodrigues, Oliveira, Cassundé, Morgado & Barbosa, 2018).

The research instruments adopted were questionnaire (F1) and semi structured interviews (F2). In F1, IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0 software was used to verify the

3. Methodology As mentioned in the Introduction of this presentation, this research began by delimiting the problem which should bring knowledge to the scientific community (Cubo, Martín & Ramos, 2011); and, subsequently, defining the specific objectives. Given the delimited problem, hypotheses were established.

• Social networks (i.e., the preparation of language teachers should be on par with the most emerging social networks, adopted for educational purposes, which have had a direct impact on communication and learning).

Within the Portuguese context, teacher training practices for the use of initial and continuous ICT are still very attached to traditional practices and models of teacher preparation in general (Costa, 2013). In a world dominated by technological advances, it is peremptory for teachers to develop their digital/technological competence, in order to gain access, analyze and synthesize, reflect and validate and, finally, transmit knowledge, using technologies in general and ICT in particular (Bastos, 2014). Digital skills include a set of knowledge, skills, attitudes (including skills, strategies, values and awareness) that are required when using ICT and digital media to perform tasks; solve problems; communicate; manage information; collaborate; create and share content; and to build an effective, efficient, adequate, critical, autonomous, flexible, ethical and reflective knowledge to work, for leisure time, for participation, for learning, for socialization, for consumption and for aggrandizement (Rodrigues et al., 2018; Silva & Behar, 2019). For the training, Costa (2012) warned of the need to focus on peer collaboration and professional reality problems that allow teachers to reflect, question, learn, share, and develop new teaching methods with digital technologies. It is not enough to recognize the importance of technologies and be motivated for their use, but it is essential to have some technological knowledge, without which it will be difficult to make a reasoned and informed decision. It is peremptory, in this case, to try to know what technologies exist, what they do, what their degree of learning difficulties are, and what technical requirements are necessary for them to be used by students.

The research methodology was selected according to the most appropriate strategy for assessing hypotheses; the sample, according to the methodology; and the assessment instruments according to the hypotheses and subjects This presentation is then the result of a mixed investigation. The chosen model was follow up explanations (Creswell, 2003). The quantitative and qualitative phases, which will from now on be designated as F1 and F2, respectively, were carried out spatially. Firstly, F1 and, secondly, F2. Data was collected and analysed quantitatively (F1); next qualitative data was collected and analysed (F2); and, ultimately, the entire analysis was interpreted (Dal Farra & Lopes, 2013).

4.2. Qualitative phase (F2) The qualitative sample (F2) resulted from a population that derived from the quantitative sample (F1). The F1 subjects, who made themselves available to conduct remote interviews in F2, provided their contacts (e-mails). From a total of 40 contacts established, there was a return of 20 responses (Table 1). The interview, semi structured, as mentioned, was carried out remotely, in a time frame that varied between 20' and 30'; through Skype, Hangouts, Gmail chat and phone, depending on respondents' preference.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. internal consistency of the questionnaire, but also to accomplish descriptive and inferential analysis. In F2, NVivo 12 software was used for content analysis

4.1. Quantitative phase (F1) To reach the sample (F1), several stages were considered: 1) population identification; 2) sample selection method; and 3) sample dimensions. We started with the population, whose characteristics should be common to each other This population had in common the fact that they had taught and/or still teach PNNL (PSL/PFL/PHL) in an endolingual context and/or in an exolingual context. The sample selection method adopted was the non probabilistic sampling method, more specifically the convenience sampling. Therefore, we first contacted Camões, I.P. an institution under the Portuguese Ministry of Affairs that aims to promote Portuguese worldwide. Teaching Portuguese Language and Culture is one of the areas Camões, I.P. relates to. The questionnaire, validated by five experts in the area and later formulated in Google Forms (Internet based survey), was sent by email to 375 institutions associated with Camões, I. P., all of them related to the teaching of Portuguese Language and Culture, in order to obtain answers from teachers. Over a period of 75 days at the end of 2016, 101 valid responses were obtained. The Questionnaire was organized in four dimensions (first Sociodemographic Data; second, Teacher Training; third, Digital Educational Resources; and fourth, Language Teaching Methods). For this presentation, the variables under analysis were obtained from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Dimensions, consisting of a total of 8, 20 and 10 questions, respectively. Dichotomic and Likert scales (5 categories) were applied, although in the 1st Dimension there were also 2 sub questions with gaps to fill in. Reliability was obtained through internal consistency, and the coefficient α was applied. The values obtained for each dimension were: α = .225 (Dimension 1); α = .847 (Dimension 2); and α = .889 (Dimension 3).

Methodological procedures will now be presented. First, we present the procedures of F1 and, later, of F2. Procedures

205 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Distribution of Quantitative and Qualitative Samples S1 S2 Age Frequency Percent Frequency Percent 20 29 8 7.9 30 39 53 52.5 13 65 40 50 25 24.8 5 25 >51 15 14.9 2 10 Total 101 100 20 100 Note. S1=Quantitative Sample; S2=Qualitative Sample 5. Results The investigation results will be presented in the following order: first (5.1.) quantitative results (F1), including descriptive data (5.1.1.) and inferential data (5.1.2); second, (5.2.) qualitative results (F2), including (5.2.1) results from content analysis; and finally, (5.3), the discussion of the results of the investigation. 5.1. Quantitative results 5.1.1. Descriptive analysis In the descriptive analysis, five questions of the questionnaire were considered: one of the Sociodemographic Dimension (Q1. Age), the results of which are available in Table 2 and Table 3; one of the Teacher Training Dimension (Q2. Have you attended any continuing training of PNNL?) and three of the Digital Educational Resources Dimension (Q3. For PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools?; Q4. Considers that teachers, generally, do not use Web 2.0 tools due to lack of experience; and Q5. Considers that teachers, generally, do not use Web 2.0 tools due to lack of time), the results of which are available in Table 4. Table 2: Frequency distribution of the variable “Teacher's Age” Age Frequency Percent Valid 20 29 (age) 8 7.9 30 39 (age) 53 52.5 40 50 (age) 25 24.8 > 51 (age) 15 14.9 Total 101 100.0 Table 3: Trend measures of the variable “Teacher's Age” Descriptive Statistics Age N M SD Variance 101 2.47 .843 .711 Valid N (listwise) 101

For

Variable No Yes Total For WebyouLearningTeachingPNNLdousuallyuse2.0tools? No Count 24 11 35 % 40.7% 26.2% 34.7% Yes Count 35 31 66 % 59.3% 73.8% 65.3% Total Count 59 42 101 % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Have you attended any continuing

Table 6: Exact Chi Square Results for H2.1 Pearson Chi Square Hypothesis Value df Asymptotic Significance (2 sided) H1. 2.274a 11 .132 a0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.55. In the case of H2, more specifically the H2.1 sub hypothesis (Table 7), as an association between a binary variable and an ordinal categorical variable was PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools? training PNNL? training PSL/PFL/PHL?

206 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: Distribution of frequencies and trend measures of the variables “Continuous Training” , “Use of Technologies” , “Experience” and “Time” . Question Nominal scale (Frequency) Likert scale (Frequency) Y/N TD D A TA DK M SD Q2a 42/59 .42 .495 Q3b 66/35 .65 .478 Q4c 6 11 28 3 6 3.00 .825 Q5d 2 45 37 11 6 2.74 .902 Note. Y=yes; N=no; TD=totally disagree; D= disagree; A=agree; TA=totally agree; DK=doesn’t know. a Have you attended any continuing training of PNNL? b For PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use web 2.0 tools? c Considers that teachers, generally, do not use Web 2.0 tools due to lack of experience d Considers that teachers, generally, do not use Web 2.0 tools due to lack of time.

5.1.2. Inferential analysis In the inferential analysis, the procedures applied for each work hypothesis were: first, a relationship was established between the study variables to decide which of the tests, parametric or non parametric, would be adopted; second, the statistical test. In the case of H1 (Table 5), as an association was made between two binary variables and as the assumptions for the use of the asymptotic chi square test were satisfied, this nonparametric test was the most appropriate.

The result of the applied test is presented below (Table 6), and it was verified that H0 was accepted, and therefore the work hypothesis was rejected.

Table 5: Cross tabulation of variables “Use of Web 2.0 Tools in Pedagogical Practice” and "Frequency of Continuing Training for PNNL”

Crosstabulation Have you attended any continuing

207 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. performed, we chose to consider the nonparametric chi square for trend test to test whether the percentage of teachers using Web 2.0 tools increased or decreased according to the age group. Table 7: Cross tabulation of variables "Using Web Tools 2.0 in Pedagogical Practice" and "Age" The results are presented below (Table 8), and it was verified that H0 was accepted, and, therefore, the work hypothesis was rejected. Table 8: Exact Chi Square Results for H2.1 Pearson Chi-Square Hypothesis Value df Asymptotic Significance (2 sided) H2.1. 1.800a 33 .615 a1 cells (12.,5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.77. Sub hypotheses H2.2. (Table 9) and H2.3 (Table 10), as an association was made between two variables, one binary to another categorical with more than two unordered categories, and whereas one of the assumptions for the use of the asymptotic square chi test was not satisfied (at least 20% of the cells in the contingency table have an expected value of less than five), the exact non parametric chi square was considered to be the most appropriate. Table 9: Cross tabulation of variables “Using Web Tools 2.0 in Pedagogical Practice" and "Lack of experience" For PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools? Age Crosstabulation Age (years) Variable 20 29 30 39 40 50 > 51 Total For PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools? No Count 3 19 10 3 35 % 37.5% 35.8% 40.0% 20.0% 34.7% Yes Count 5 34 15 12 66 % 62.5% 64.2% 60.0% 80.0% 65.3% Total Count 8 53 25 15 101 % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% For PNNL Teaching-Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools? * a) Lack of experience Crosstabulation a) Lack of experience Variable TD D A TA DK Total For tools?WebusuallydoLearningTeachingPNNLyouuse2.0 No Count 1 5 19 4 6 35 % 50.0% 23.8% 31.7% 36.4% 85.7% 34.7% Yes Count 1 16 41 7 1 66 % 50.0% 76.2% 68.3% 63.6% 14.3% 65.3% Total Count 2 21 60 11 7 101 % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Note. TD=totally disagree; D=disagree; A=agree; TA=totally agree; DK=doesn’t know.

208 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 10: Cross tabulation of variables “Using Web Tools 2.0 in Pedagogical Practice” and “Time” The results of the tests applied in the analysis of the H2.2 and H2.3 sub hypotheses are presented below. It was verified that, regarding the sub hypothesis H2.2, H0 was rejected, and therefore the work hypothesis was accepted; and as for the H2.3 sub hypothesis, H0 was accepted, and therefore the work hypothesis was rejected (Table 11). Table 11: Exact Chi Square Results for H2.2 e H2.3 Hypotheses Pearson Chi Square Hypotheses Value df SignificanceAsymptotic(2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided) H2.2. 9.609a 44 .048 .040 H2.3. 3,303b 44 .408 .524 a5 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .69. b5 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .69. 5.2. Qualitative results 5.2.1. Content analysis Regarding the results obtained in F1, and to better understand them, we wanted to assess what kind of difficulties teachers experience in pedagogical practice, particularly in terms of ICT integration. Thus, out of a total of 6 questions formulated for the interview, we analyzed the question What difficulties do you feel/felt while teaching PNNL (PSL/PFL/PHL)? The category Difficulties in ICT Use was created, and 7 subcategories were identified (Figure 1). For PNNL Teaching Learning do you usually use Web 2.0 tools? * c) Lack of time. Crosstabulation c) Lack of time Variable TD D A TA DK Total For 2.0useusuallydoLearningTeachingPNNLyouWebtools? No Count 1 15 12 3 4 35 % 2.9% 42.9% 34.3% 8.6% 11.4% 100.0% Yes Count 1 30 25 8 2 66 % 1.5% 45.5% 37.9% 12.1% 3.0% 100.0% Total Count 2 45 37 11 6 101 % 2.0% 44.6% 36.6% 10.9% 5.9% 100.0% Note. TD=totally disagree; D=disagree; A=agree; TA=totally agree; DK=doesn’t know.

As for the subcategory Time, the teachers’ lack of time turned out to be another restrictive element in the use of digital tools in teaching practice. Teacher "Amelia" alluded to the time that usually needs to be spent, which for her is a lot, to be able to complete a certain activity that she had thought of: "I really wasted so much time, so much time to insert an image, a simple thing... they had to identify parts of the house and, okay, I think this is one of the flaws." (L. 121 123).

Regarding the subcategory Lack of Conditions, Classrooms [Salas] (Figure 2) is the word that most often arises, relating, roughly, to the lack of conditions of the rooms, as evidenced in the segments that are subsequently available. To ensure the anonymity of the interviewed teachers, we have assigned them fictitious names. "I use ICT when I can and when possible in the classroom. I don't always have all the materials I need to be able to do that, that is, I don't have internet in all classrooms and sometimes I don't even have a computer." (teacher “Vasco”, L. 28 31).

Figure 1: Distribution of segments of Difficulties in ICT Use category

" Because, okay, I do not know how it is like at other universities, but in mine the rooms are basically not equipped." (teacher “Clarisse”, L. 37 40). “there is always that daily problem of: today there is one that does not work; the keyboard was broken; or any other problem.” (teacher “Vitória”, L. 64 66).

Figure 2: Most accounted terms in the Lack of Conditions subcategory.

The following segments also indicate the Lack of Training as an inhibitor in the use of digital tools in teaching practice: “So, we honestly did not have the training to use them. We often have to figure it out, don't we?” (teacher “Inês”, L. 77 78).

In the analysis of the segments it was noticed that another element that conditions the process of using ICT, in addition to Time, is the Lack of training, as teacher "Emilia" admitted: " I confess, in addition to the scarce or no training offer... at least that I know about in this area, is time." (L. 49 51).

The same was expressed by teacher “Raquel”: "I think it is a common feeling among colleagues in my age group, the biggest problem is the scant or insufficient mastery of these same technologies by digital migrants." (L. 25 27).

Another teacher said: “There is also a problem of lack of training in this regard.” (teacher “Cláudia”, L. 38).

However, as teacher "José" said, although the lack of preparation is clearly sensed, the relevance of ICT in PNNL teaching practice is recognized: “In fact, I feel that people of my generation are not as well prepared as they should be, and I acknowledge that, in the little that I see, there is a lot of potential in information technologies and technological means, to teach PL or PNNL.” (L. 100 104). In the Teacher's Age subcategory, the age of the teacher would be referred to as an aspect that would serve as a conditioning factor in the use of ICT: "I'm still from the time of “Portuguese Without Borders”, a prehistory. I am still from the prehistoric age." (teacher “José”, L. 80 81).

The fact that teachers admitted they have little and/or rudimentary knowledge in terms of digital tools for use in teaching practice, is another element that supports the subcategory Lack of training, as teacher “Rita” revealed: “My computer skills are restricted to the basic computer user skills, even Word and Excel.” (L. 89 91).

Teacher "Ema", despite the lack of time she admitted to not having, acknowledged, however, that many of the existing digital tools serve precisely to fight the lack of time: " I do lack time to research properly because many of these tools are exactly to fight against lack of time." (L. 149 151).

Teacher “Ana” said: “I have some difficulties using the computer at a higher level… Let's say I'm a simple user. I am not an expert in any aspect.” (L. 39 42).

5.3. Discussion of results

Teacher “Teresa” also shared an identical opinion: “As I normally teach C levels, I have little recourse to this type of things, because this type of things is more for A, B1 and even B2. If it's a strong B2, it starts to fail a lot, in terms of manuals, materials.” (L. 24 27).

The results of H1. hypothesis revealed that teachers no longer use digital educational resources, regardless of the ongoing training they have attended, assuming that these trainings will not be contemplating a development of technological and pedagogical didactic knowledge and skills (Costa, 2012; Kurek, 2015; Nakashima & Piconez, 2016; Santos & Costa, 2013). For all this, it appears that, as suggested by several authors (Costa, 2013; Felizardo & Costa, 2016), training practices for the use of ICT remain very attached to traditional teacher preparation practices and models, at least as far as Portugal is concerned.

The Learner's Level subcategory, associated with the level of language proficiency, was referred to as another inhibiting aspect in the use of ICT in teaching practice. In other words, if the learner’s level of proficiency were more advanced, it would not be justified to resort to its use, as teacher “Inês” said: " I have used it. It's not systematic, because they're actually students of a higher level, they're students who need other approaches." (L. 51 52).

On the other hand, if the group of learners is made up of an adult audience, it was argued that the use of ICT would not make as much sense, since this public would not be receptive to the adoption of different teaching strategies, as pointed out by teacher "Nuno": “At this moment, as it is an adult audience, it does not make much sense, even on their behalf I do not notice great difficulty, in learning in a more traditional way as it has been, I would say. On the other hand, I don't notice that they really want to do different things.” (L. 62 66).

In addition to the attempt to portray the training scenario (initial and continuous) for the teaching of PNNL, the reason why the use of ICT among

Teacher “João” also shared a similar opinion: "I'm almost 40 years old, so I'm already one of those Word whizzes, I work with Word and I like it, I'm already specialized in it. I consider them useful but I rarely integrate them. " (L. 171 175).

In the Learner's Age subcategory, the most advanced age of the learner would also be referred to as being a condition, especially when the teacher is faced with groups whose age range is not homogeneous, as teacher “Cláudia” said: " you must be patient, because I had students up to 83 years of age. He didn't even have an e mail, and we had to e mail them so we could interact, I mean... and sometimes also depending on the class, depending on the group, there is no time to stop sometimes with some people, or help them to be able to pursue”. (L. 142 146).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. teachers was still extremely limited remained unclear. Thus, we tried to understand whether factors such as age (H2.1.), teacher experience (H2.2.) and time (H2.3.) contributed to the low use of ICT in the exercise of these teachers.

With regard to the sub hypothesis H2.1., which was rejected, the results suggested that the age factor would not justify the low use and integration of ICT in PNNL teaching, coinciding with several studies (Inan & Lowther, 2010; Van der Kaay & Young, 2012). However, these results contrast with other studies (Mahdi & Al Dera, 2013; Uzunboylu & Tuncay, 2010), as well as with the results of content analysis, more specifically with the subcategory Teacher’s Age, deriving from the subcategory Difficulties in the use of ICT. In other words, the interviewed teachers linked the age factor to two essential aspects: trust and competence. This ambivalence leads us to a gap in terms of age, as a motivating or repressive factor for the use of ICT. In the analysis of the results of the sub hypothesis H2.2., which was accepted, it was found that the teacher's experience emerges as an element that conditions the use of technologies, as supported by a few authors (Baek, Jung & Kim, 2008). However, typically, a more experienced teacher will also be an older teacher, thus constituting a countercensus if compared with the result of the previous sub hypothesis (H2.1.). As for age, there are two pendulums, which, in part, may justify these paradoxical data (Russell, Bebell, O’Dwyer & Duffany, 2003): the degree of confidence and beliefs.

Also, in the course of content analysis (F2), in particular in the analysis of the subcategory Time, deriving from the subcategory Difficulties in the use of ICT, some of the teachers interviewed mentioned the non use of ICT was due to lack of time (Harrell & Bynum, 2018). But, going back to the result of this hypothesis, it may well be understood that it would be related to the fact that technologies can be seen as a facilitating element in time management (Ramos, Teodoro & Ferreira, 2011; Mustafina, 2016), an opinion shared by one of the interviewed teachers (F2).

The same authors, in the study they carried out, Use, Support, and Effect of Instructional Technology (USEIT), found that teachers who had five or fewer years of experience were significantly more confident than teachers who taught between 6 and 15 years or more That is, younger teachers are more confident in the use of technologies than those who have been in the profession for 6 years or more. However, the same study indicates that younger teachers tend to believe that technologies have a negative impact on students' learning (e.g., makes them lazier; decreases their ability to research; compromises orthographic quality), contrary to what happens with more experienced teachers. Thus, the results obtained in both subhypothesis may be related to the teacher's confidence in the use of technologies (Buabeng Andoh, 2012; Peralta & Costa, 2007; Kamalodeen, Figaro Henry, Ramsawak Jodha & Dedovets, 2017), on one hand, and with the teacher’s attitudes (Hew & Brush, 2007; Keengwe, Onchwari & Wachira, 2008), on the other. As for the time factor, it was interesting to verify that the sub hypothesis H2.3. would be rejected. But there are studies that indicate the opposite. In other words, lack of time is one of the variables that conditions the use of ICT in teaching practice (Harrell & Bynum, 2018; Kamalodeen et al., 2017).

6. Conclusion It was concluded that training (initial and continuous) is not preparing PNNL teachers for the integration of technologies in teaching, because there is no relationship whatsoever to the integration of technology in pedagogical practice. However, when analyzing the variables that condition the use of ICT (age, experience and time), a link to training was detected, because age and experience are associated with the confidence and attitudes of teachers, which can be acquired and changed, respectively, if there is good training, in particular one that establishes a real synergy between pedagogy and technology, especially now with the new normality, the result of the COVID 19 pandemic. On the other hand, if digital literacy were prepared, technologies would also be facilitating elements in time management. If the almost marginal importance given to digital literacy in Education were to be countered, the focus on the use and integration of mobile devices in teaching PNNL, for instance, would help to overcome the problem of infrastructure: that is, classrooms that are not properly equipped and prepared for the use of ICT. Frequently, the houses themselves are not equally equipped. In the training of PNNL teachers, the guiding principles of CALL, and even the proposed future challenges (e.g., MALL, VLE, interactive materials, iCALL, social networks), that in the pandemic times we live in are so current, should be a target of analysis and reflection, in particular the practices adopted in teaching, in the sense of teaching contexts, multiculturalism, multilingualism and globalization. But for the standardization of technology in teaching to be complete, the education of PNNL teachers must also audit learning needs 7. References Aşık, A., & Gonen, S. (2019). A review of studies on CALL teacher education: Trends and issues. In G. Y. Ekşi, L. Guerra, D. Werbińska & Y. Bayyurt (Eds.), Research trends in english language teacher education and english language teaching (pp. 343 363). Universidade de Évora. Baek, Y. G., Jung, J., & Kim, B. (2008). What makes teachers use of technology in the classroom? Exploring the factors affecting facilitation of technology with a korean sample. Computers and Education, 50(1), 224 234. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.05.002

But for this to happen, interoperability, digital literacy and infrastructure creation (Muslem, Yusuf & Juliana, 2018), this last aspect being pointed out in content analysis as an impediment factor in the use of ICT, must be implemented. In other words, in the analysis of the sub subcategory Lack of conditions, it was said that the classrooms where teachers taught did not meet the conditions for the use of ICT in teaching practice, due to limited or conditioned access to the Internet; lack of computers; obsolete computers; or even the lack of audiovisuals. As for digital literacy, closely related to training, which should cross both technological and pedagogical skills (Mahdi & Al Dera, 2013), and which would facilitate the time management process, it was found that, if this was inexistent it became another castrating element in the use and integration of ICT. The same was advocated by the teachers interviewed in F2, an opinion also shared in some studies (Bordbar, 2010; Drent & Meelisen, 2008).

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The Impact of a Mosque-Based Islamic Education to Young British Muslim Professionals Al-Refai Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan 0003 5778

Abstract. Thisarticle exploresthe contributionof the mosque towardsthe social, mental, and spiritual development of young British Muslims (YBMs) through their educational system. This qualitative inquiry investigates this social phenomenon in its ‘real’ context from the perspective of a purposive sample of five young British Muslims who experienced ‘mosque education’ throughout their childhood, and now as young adults are highly qualified professionals in different sectors. The data were collected through five deep semi structured interviews; the analysis of the data followed a qualitative thematicanalysis. Keyfindings were that mosque education has helped these YBM to develop their social, mental and spiritual skills in British society, participants recognized the contribution of this education towards their social and mental development to a greater degree than if it were merely their spiritualdevelopment, participants observed thatthe ‘mosque education’ has great potential, and should be expanded. Participants identified several limitations of mosque education that were hindering its role and presented challenges to teachers, imams, curriculum, pedagogy, and integration efforts in an age of Islamophobia

1. Introduction In the Islamic understanding, education is viewed as a fundamental obligation of any observant Muslim. Prophet Mohammad says: “Seeking knowledge is an obligationupon every individual Muslim, male and female.” (Ibn Majah, 2007 No: 224). There are three terms in the Arabic lexicon used to mean education, each differing in connotationbut embodying the various dimensions of the educational process as perceived by Islamic thought The first term is Tarbiyah, which implies a state of spiritual and ethical nurturing following the will of the Lord. According to Halstead (2004), this term refers to the development of individual potential and to the process of nurturing and guiding the child to a state of completeness or maturity (Al Hashimy, 2006). In the Qur’anic context, Tarbiyah has two meanings: “bringing up” (Qur’an 26:18) and “growth” (Qur’an 22: 5). The second term is Ta’dıeeb, which refers to the process of character development and learning, as a

Keywords:Mentaldevelopment;Mosqueeducation;Socialdevelopment; Spiritual development; Young British Muslims

Islamic Education (IE) is meant to be a comprehensive concept that covers the complete scope of spiritual, social, and mental development of humans. In the same vein, Ikhwan and Jaelani (2014) argued that IE entails building up the complete character. As such, it should be oriented to the construction and renewal of the intellect, taking into account science, creativity, and the progress and morality of the human personality and society in order to build a satisfying quality of life. The Islamic view of education focuses therefore on wholeness that covers all aspects of an individual’s life and prepares individuals not only for this world but also for the Hereafter. Islam considers seeking knowledge as a way to please Allah the Creator, a concept which puts the onus on the Muslim to fulfil certain personal responsibilities, such as seeking education for oneself and one’s children, in ways which will ensure their spiritual enrichment, teach them their duties as citizens, and prepare them to live and work in ways which serve the community. Islam views education not only as a means to learn, but also as a tool to develop the society by preparing its individuals to become excellent citizens, taking part in constructing and developing society while living according to Muslim values (Ikhwan & Jaelani, 2014) Indeed, this implicit role of Islamic education is as important as its more formal role (Tamuriet al, 2012). At the heart of the Islamic educational system of the Muslim minority in Britain are the traditional social institutions of the family (Al Usrah), the mosque (Al Masjid) and the school (Al Madrasa), elements that bear great importance in the Islamic perception of education (Abdel Hady, 2010). These three different institutions contribute significantly to the process of teaching IE to YBM and complement each other to a great extent. However, there are a few differences in the way they interact with children and in the formality of the type of education they provide. It is believed that these institutions need further independent research to highlight the main challenges facing their existence. The mosque (Al Masjid) is considered one of the most important educational institutions in the life of the Muslim community. It is the first institution from which the rays of science and enlightenment were emitted in the early days of Islam. The nature and history of Islamic upbringing and education have inseparable ties to the mosque (Zaimeche, 2002). It has a very important role and duty since the dawn ofthe Islamic era(Triayudha et al,2019).According toTamuri (2012), the mosque was the first and for most Muslims, most important institution in teaching Islamic education since the days of Islam’s foundation. It has been and remains the central place for all kinds of different activities of Muslim communities. For example, an important aspect of mosque activity involves the

221 ©2020 Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. sound basis for moral and social behaviour within the community and society at large. This includes the process of understanding and accepting the most fundamental social principles, such as justice and citizenship (Al Hashimy, 2006; Al Refai & Bagley, 2008; Halstead, 2004). The third term is Ta’leem, which refers to the imparting and receiving of knowledge, usually through training, instruction, or another form of teaching including Arabic language skills, and Qur’anic learning and recitation (Al Hashimy, 2006; Halstead, 2004).

The Contribution of the Mosque Throughout the different phases of Islam, the mosque has contributed to forming the Muslim character. According to Zaman and Memon (2016), the comprehensive nature of religious education provided in mosques, covering all aspects of life both in this world and the hereafter, offered to the whole range of age groups and genders alike, has an important impact on the educational process for individuals and the community as a whole. It exemplifies the principle of universality and continuity of education in both Muslim majority cultures, and in Muslim communities of the diaspora. The Masjid has contributed to the development of the Islamic Education concept in different parts of the world take as examples the mosque’s impact on teaching Islamic education in Indonesia, or to Malaysian students (Triayudha et al, 2019; Tamuri et al, 2012).

Today, we are dealing with the term “Mosque Education” to encompass all the teaching within the Masjid such as unofficial religious education, Qur’anic schools, hifiz, and tajwid classes,andfurther toincludelessons on Sirah andIslamic mannerisms and behavior (Zӧzeri et al, 2017). The mosque carries out a variety of educational functions, including instilling the doctrine of Tawhid, educating young people to cherish their religion, developing the inclination to self sacrifice, building a system of moral and social values, addressing misguided negative behaviours and alerting Muslims to the danger of cultural invasion, in addition to supporting school education through various programs Clearly, the mosque performs a wide variety of educational functions. It is here that young Muslims learn the concept of Tawhid and to cherish their religion. Additionally, the mosque teaches them the inclination to self sacrifice and a solid system of moral and social values, while addressing misguided negative behaviours and alerting Muslims to

social side of the prophetic life. The Prophet’s mosque contained a special room called Suffah, from where support was distributed to needy people (Triayudha et al, 2019). According to Spahic (2009), the establishment of the mosque represented a nucleus for the believer’s existence, an epitome of the endless struggle between good and evil on the earth. Therefore, during the significant period of the Prophet’s era, the mosque was seen as the ultimate centre for the Muslim Ummah (nation) where various activities were conducted (Tamuri et al, 2012).

The Prophet was careful to make effective use of this institution as a place for holding dialogue and spreading his educational message to the Muslim community in Madinah (Al Ghazali, 2018). The mosque was profoundly important to Prophet Mohammad, and it was the first thing he founded after migrating to Madinah to escape the persecution he and his followers were suffering in Makkah (Triayudha et al, 2019). The mosque then became the first educational institution for the Muslim community in Madinah. According to Mortada (2003), in the early periods of the Islamic State, the mosque was the place where teaching and learning religion related subjects were conducted by ‘Ulama

The role of the mosque established by the Prophet continues until the present time. His companions and followers utilized this educational institution in the preparation of a generation thatwould stand out through the ages, for the mosque produced succeeding generations which served as a beacon of science and guidance around the globe (Al Ghazali, 2018)

Mosques in the UK In 1961, only seven mosques were registered in the UK. Two years later, this number had risen to thirteen. In subsequent years, the number jumped to at least 1,000 (with many more being unregistered) according to Naqshbandi (2017) This reflects not only the increase in the number of Muslims in the UK but also the greater spiritual awareness and commitment of the new generation of Muslims.

The growing number of mosques in Britain is an indication of how important this institution is to the Muslim community. According to Triayudha et al (2019), the role of the mosque in the West today is as relevant as it was in the earliest days of Islam, when the first masjid performed the function of a centre for the Muslim Ummah where they could practice all of the activities of worship, in addition to receiving education, welfare, and even shelter. In other words, the mosque is both a community centre and a place where one can participate in several social and educational activities under one roof (Tamuri et al, 2012). To limit the view of the mosque as being ‘merely’ a place of worship is to severely underestimate the role of this institution, as well as the great part it has to play in creating a new generation of good citizens (Tamuri et al, 2012).

In the UK, Islamic religious leaders have resisted the pressure to “assimilate”, avoiding pressures to imitate the Christian model, which largely marginalises the

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the danger of cultural invasion and supporting school education through various programs (Rasdi, 2014). The role of the mosque as an effective and influential educational medium in building the new generation can be attributed to several factors, the most important of which is the link between the mosque, and faith and spirituality. It is a place imbued with an atmosphere of worship and performance of rituals, thus making it a focused environment possessed of an air of ever present energy, a place of refuge, and righteousness (Rasdi, 2014).

In addition, mosque learners feel a sense of security and peace of mind in the richly carpeted interior of the mosque in which young people, learn, relax, and pray. All of these are derived from being in the privacy of a place which is warm, welcoming, and both physically and ritually clean (Rasdi, 2014). This appears to have a profound effect on the learner’s frame of mind and helps to create a comfortable learning environment. A further factor is that the prestige of the mosque and its distinguished status affects the attitude of the studentswhoattend regularly, and this can create in them a serious desire to commit to the educational process, and work to achieve their envisaged educational goals. The fact that students come to the mosque to learn decreases the problems of motivation, as it is not compulsory, in contrast to school learning This may have a great impact on the response of learners and helps them to reap the benefits (Abu Daf, 2007).

According to Alsaawi (2017), there are now more than 1,834 mosques Many of the new purpose built mosques in the UK have been designed in the likeness of the Islamic architectural styles seen in mosques in the Muslim world, unlike most of the Muslim places of worship which were converted from terraced houses, commercial plants, and former churches (Naqshbandi, 2017) In Islam, the person who dedicates their wealth to the building of a mosque may be rewarded with special favour on the day of final reckoning.

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. place of worship to a single day’s activity. Larger mosques in Britain are open daily from the time of the dawn prayer until late in the evening, and contain facilities for wudu (ritual washing), places for food preparation and consumption, meeting and teaching rooms, and large and small prayer halls for different groups. During the holy month of Ramadan, larger mosques will remain open for 24 hours, with continuous periods of Qur’anic reading, worship, and the shared meal following the breaking of the fast. The mosque is a warm, welcoming place with shoes left at the door, and the feet of the visitor are welcomed by the rich softness of the carpets on which the believers prostrate in prayer. The entire ethos of the mosque trembles with prayer, surrender and devotion to Allah. It is a place not only of worship, but of sociability, conversation, warm greetings, and hours of study by the young and old. In the Islamic world over the centuries, the relation between mosques and schools has gone through several distinct stages. The mosque was the main media of teaching Islamic Education to Muslims before the introduction of schools by the state (Tamuri et al, 2012). After the establishment of state schools, the mosque lost part of its traditional educational role, and was reduced to being largely a centre for rituals and worship in the form of the five daily prayers, the congregational prayers on Fridays and the two annual Eid festivals (Rasdi, 2014; Tamuri et al, 2012).Therewasfor along period adecrease in therole of themosquetotheextent that teachers, in Malaysia for example, made it clear that they preferred to teach Islamic Education in school classrooms rather than in mosques (Tamuri et al, However,2012). with the resurgence of Islam in Britain, teaching and learning are now taking place in the many UK mosques, including “Qur’an schools”, “Madrasah” or“Masjid Madrasah”(Zӧzeri et al., 2017).According to Tamuri et al., (2012),many mosques today are well equipped with teaching and learning and ICT resources e.g computers, big screens, purpose built teachinghalls, andclassrooms. The only problem is the lack of coordination between the mosque and the schools since competing groups make demands on space and facilities in the Masjid.

The available research on today’s impact of mosque education on children reveals two main standpoints: with and against (Zӧzeri et al , 2017). Critics argue that attending the mosque may have a negative impact on students’ reading and writing skills, their civic values, and social cohesion within the society, but these criticisms are often framed in Islamophobic terms by those who wish Muslims in Europe to keep their religious values, dress, and personal modesty “under the radar” (Zӧzeri et al , 2017). Rosowsky (2013) argued that students who read and recite holy texts and scripture (i.e. reciting and memorising Qur’an) without comprehending its meaning are subjected to further negative impact related to their school education, mainly in terms of reading and comprehension skills, which might be a disadvantage for bilingual migrant students. The tenor of Rosowsky’s negative and, in our opinion, biased thinking, may be judged from the summary of his article. Authors also warned about the irregularities taking places such as child abuse and maltreatment of the children attending mosques for learning. There was a concern in the discussed literature about corporal

The Impact of the Mosque on Children

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. punishment during lesson time in the mosque (Cherti & Bradley, 2011; Rajabi Ardeshiri, 2011). Criticism has also been directed at pedagogical training of mosque teachers since some of the volunteer teachers have not been trained or inducted into Western, secular forms of psychological instruction (Khan et al, 2005; Sieckelink et al , 2012)

In a study by Cherti and Bradley (2011) for instance, they reported that 40% of their sample was taught by imams who were not supporting children “in understanding their dual British Muslim identity” . Lewis (2002) argued that among their mosque sample, there were teachers who had graduated in religious education abroad who were allegedly unable to relate religious knowledge content to the social andcultural demands of the life of the new generation(Zӧzeri et al., 2017). These are biased views that appear tantamount to declaring that Islam and its teachers are no longer relevant in the modern age. The believing Muslim certainly holds that the Qur’anic revelation and the Sunnah (the life and teaching of Prophet Muhammad) remain highly relevant in today’s world and are indeed of timeless relevance. Modern pedagogy is charged with the task of transmitting these ideas, knowledge and values to a new generation. The same argument counters critics who have argued that mosque education indoctrinates learners while promoting acceptance of authority and inhibiting a learner’s autonomy (Halder, 2013; Sahin, 2013). The counter argument is that Qur’anic knowledge is a prelude to exegesis, a critical understanding of Islamic theology and the moral rules (Sharia) which are derived from this understanding Those who argue that the type of education delivered in the mosque is ‘not compatible with citizenship education, failing to develop critical thinking and respect for opposing views’ (e.g. Cherti & Bradley, 2011; Schuitema et al., 2005; Ten Dam & Volman, 2004) do so on the basis of flimsy evidence or biased perceptions, without understanding the role of the Masjid and its meaning in the lives of Muslim citizens. In this regard, Adam Bagley and Al Refai(2019) have tried to offer a more balanced view of the evidence. Bhuiyan (2010) pointed to some studies which argue (or allege) that mosque education promotes traditional gender roles and ‘sexist attitudes’ through offering teaching on the modesty of dress and guidelines on the behaviour which Islam requires in gender relationships. These biased views fail to understand Qur’anicteaching of the absolute equalityof males andfemales (e.g. Husain, 2018), and the central principle that modesty should inform all human social institutions (Adam Bagley & Abubaker, 2019). These ideas are based on the Islamic principle which reflects the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad: “Every faith has its own identity, and ours is modesty” (An Nawawi, 2014) On the other hand, research in the field of mosque education has highlighted the positive impact of this type of education upon thelearner’s self confidence,school performance, and social intelligence (Zӧzeri et al., 2017). Ahmed (2012) and Meer (2009) pointed out that mosque education has a positive impact on improving students’ sense of belonging to their country of settlement, increasing their confidence, and developing students’ moral resolve. Gent (2011); Berglund and Gent (2019) have observed that Qur’anic learning helped them transfer some study skills such as memorisation into their formal school education. Further, Maylor et al., (2010) confirmed that attending mosque education increases enthusiasm for attending state schools. Pels (2014) noted that in some mosques,

instructors have managed to replace previous authoritarian teaching styles with reformed pedagogical practices ‘child friendly’ instruction with a role for new sorts of participatory learning activities, such as discussions, singing, and learning with an element of play. Furthermore, Moutselos (2019) reported that mosques in the UK and Germany contribute positively to political awareness since people attending these mosques are now taking part in democratic elections. The results of this and other studies counter critics who allege that mosques are places for self, social and civic isolation, rather than for participation in the democratic life of Western societies (Moutselos, 2019).

Finally, among the second and third generation of YBMs, there is a growing number of professionals who survived the classical traditional education system and managed to give good examples and be role models for their peers and the generations to come. Studying the views and perceptions of this group will have many implications for the British Muslim education system.

The mosque education experience in the British context is rich and different from other European countries, due partly to the nature of British society and partly to the nature of the British Muslim minority Mosque education in Britain is diverse and is influenced by the diversity of the ethnic origins of the various Muslim groups. The Muslim minorities running these institutions reflect different cultures, traditions, languages, and religious groupings within Islam. This diversity came with the first generation of Muslims to the UK and became institutionalized in the later stages of multicultural integration in Britain (Modood, 2013). English mosques tend to reflect not only local Muslim communities but also the linguistic and cultural interests of the communities they serve. Thus, in the same city, there may be mosques that serve a Pakistani origin community, parallel to mosques that serve populations of Middle Eastern origin.

The Research Problem and Questions

In one, the khutba (Friday sermon) is delivered in Urdu (perhaps with a summary English translation), while in another the sermon is delivered in Arabic. Mosques where Arabic is the predominant language have the benefit of being able to directly access the Arabic text of the Qur’an. In an Urdu speaking mosque, adults and children have to learn Arabic to fully understand the message and meaning of the Qur’an.

This issue must receive some focus in the form of serious research, firstly due to the aforementioned rise in the number of mosques and students attending their educational programs in the West; and secondly, due to the fact that there is relatively little research in this field, as noted by Barger (2014), Moore (2012), Pels (2014) and Zӧzeri et al., (2017). Thirdly, mosques have great potential to impact the religious education of YBMs and consequently, they can play a vital role in achieving social securityand promoting positiveintegration in the multi faith and multicultural society. Fourthly, exploring areas of concern within the mosque education may help policymakers to provide better help to activate the role of the mosque in the wider society. For instance, there is a wide spectrum of Islamic religious sects preaching their classical understanding of Islamic Education to YBMs in a very diverse society which might impact their views of modern society.

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2. The Research Rationale and Importance

Data Collection

The present study is qualitative, as it deals with the social phenomenon in its real context through investigating the perspectives of a selected sample of the second and third generation of Young British Muslims on the contribution of their mosques to their social, mental, and spiritual development. By Young British Muslims, I mean the children of the first generation of British Muslims who migrated to the UK after the Second World War. These YBMs were born, raised and educated in the UK, attending both the official British educational system and the supplementary traditional system (including mosques and madrasas). Thus, they managed to accomplish the requirements of professional training and succeeded in finding employment in either the public or private sector and started to establish their independent families.

Today, the second and third generation of British Muslims may be evolving a different Islamic identity than that of their immigrant parents and grandparents. There is certainly a need to know the extent to which the mosque is still playing an important role in providing the Islamic education of Young British Muslims (YBMs) Therefore, the current research tries to explore the experience of a selected sample of YBMs on the contribution of these institutions to their Islamic education, and later to their professional life and social identity This research may, therefore, identify some shortcomings of mosque education from the standpoints of the participating YBMs. Thus, the current research aims to answer the following research question: RQ: To what extent has mosque education contributed to the social, mental, and spiritual development of a selected group of YBMs from their perspectives?

Designing Interview Schedules

3. Methodology

The evidence for this research was gathered through five deep semi structured interviews conducted with young British Muslim professionals (one medical doctor, two software engineers, one imam, and one qualified teacher). Those five individuals were selected purposely as they make good ‘Key informants’ for the studied phenomenon since they attended ‘mosque education’ in their early childhood and completed their traditional memorisation (Hifiz) of the entire Holy Qur’an by heart. This is a highly selective sample of a group of ideal youth, who are manifestly successful in achieving the moral, spiritual and social goals set by Islam. The results show the ideal working of mosque education and its desired outcomes. It is wise to bear in mind that in some areas and for many individuals,

The design of the interview questions was informed by two factors; firstly, the researcher’s long experience in the field (nearly 14 years as a researcher and Islamic Education teacher in different institutions in the Muslim community); and secondly, the literature review conducted prior to designing the research tool. An external audit was performed by an expert in the British field. The audit included validating the interview schedule, the collected data and the initial data analysis findings. All the feedback was collected and addressed in different phases of the research.

Social Development

The fieldwork provided sufficient data with which to understand the contribution of the mosque education on YBM’s Islamic education. The interviews were used to elaborate and explore outcomes and opinions of a group of young Muslims selected because of their manifest success at combining Islamic and British identities in a multicultural society where being a Muslim is subjected to different kinds of pressures, including the negative pressures of Islamophobia.

These findings were informed by the main research questions, which cover three main areas: social development, mental development, and spiritual development. Within these main areas, the following topics were explored.

4. Findings and Discussion

Data Analysis

The notes and the data collected from the interviews were subjected to extensive and deep analysis following three phases, as follows: The first phase of the analysis started with a deep reading of the transcribed material and the notes taken during the interviews. The first reading aimed at making codes and categorizing certain points found throughout the scripts. Second and third deep guided readings were conducted and data were represented in tables for a better understanding. The first phase revealed different codes and categories. The analysis benefited from the steps suggested by Tesch (2013) but was heavily based on the thematic analysis model outlined by Attride Stirling (2001). In the second phase of the analysis, a more organised effort was made to establish relations between themes that had emerged during phase one. According to Attride Stirling’s model (2001), this is known as the process of ‘organising themes’. The last phase of analysis was geared towards identifying a systematic approach to presenting the main findings in a narrative style. This is called the ‘global themes’ according to Attride Stirling’s model (2001). These are 1) ME’s impact on social life; 2) ME’s contribution to mental development; 3) ME’s contribution to spiritual development. Research Limitations

The current research was confined in scope with regard to some issues. Since the researcher no longer resides in the UK, it was challenging to pinpoint more than five successful professionals who meet the selection criteria for this research. Therefore, the current research is limited to the views and perceptions of five participants. Additionally, interviews were conducted over the phone and using different means of communication i.e. the WhatsApp application, Skype, and emails. Finally, since the sample is small, there is no intention to generalise the findings to fit a wider community.

Research findings show that mosque education can play a very important role in the social life of YBMs in the UK. Those interviewed described the mosque as a

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. outcomes may not be so ideal. This particular method has been chosen in order to exemplify ‘ideal cases’, whose multifaceted accounts elaborate on the strengths and challenges of mosque education in Britain today. The aims of this kind of methodology are well described by Crowe et al. (2011).

. Participants demonstrated that attending different activities provided by the mosque was the main factor in shaping their identities in childhood (Zaman & Memon, 2016) Further, they believed that it is the mission and duty of the mosque in the community to inform thebuilding of a strongMuslim identity and to equipit with the needed skills to excel in the multifaith society. One study participant said: …[it helped me to] develop a young Muslim identity which I was very confident with as a young boy (under 8 years)…being connected with a masjid or multiple masjids, is critical in building a strong Muslim identity for YBMs and this can be further helped through regular social activities …, the masjid education should be managed in a way whereby it creates individuals with a strong confident Muslim identity. This can be through public speaking exercises, regular diversity and tolerance workshops, courses, and interfaith activities. (Saj)

Mosque Education is an important agent of change for the YBMs and it can contribute towards preparing them to live in a British society through the provision of educational programs to limit the widely spread culture of irresponsibility among the new generations of YBMs (Cholil, 2016). One participant said: “… it helps them [students] understand what it means to be British, what it means to be Muslim, and how we [YBMs] should engage with the people of this country as British Muslims” (Ham). One study participant, who is an Imam, added: “we [Imams] can organize outreach programs to curtail a culture of irresponsibility, particularly amongst millennials and we [Imams] can develop partnerships with local youth groups” (Zai).

Mosque education promotes tolerance through a variety of social activities in place (Tamuri et al., 2012). Encouraging tolerance with the wider society and

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. social hub and a venue for daily social activities. This is similar to the role of the mosque in the early stages of Islam during the time of the Prophet (Al Ghazali, 2018; Triayudha et al., 2019). For YBMs and the whole of the Muslim minority living in the West, the mosque is potentially a place to carry out many social activities e.g. marital connections, invitations, professional gatherings, offering advice, and healthcare facilities (Tamuri et al., 2012). It helps the youth to enjoy out of school time through regular social activities such as sports and various capacity building workshops. Ideally, it can be a platform for the community to receivesupportformentalhealthandothertypesofsupport.Oneparticipantsaid: Firstly, if we look at the Seerah of the Prophet (saw), we learn that the masjid was a social hub for the community… for young adults, the masjid could be a place where marital issues, aqiqahs, professional connections can be made…and this can be further helped through regular social activities, for example, football tournaments, weekly football sessions, ...table tennis, indoor football facilities, wrestling area, archery workshops, calligraphy courses… I feel an added dimension would be community activism and social work. With the rise of mental health problems in the UK and amongst the Muslim community, ensuring that families are well supported and receive the relevant counselling is also critical (Saj)

Mosque education has contributed to the building of YBM identities

Similarly, in the context of teaching and learning happening inside the mosque, participants showed their interest in seeing more attention being given to promoting authentic content about non Muslims as a highly beneficial practice One participant expressed the value he gave to “respecting and teaching authentically about non Muslims. Without bigotry, without hatred, without simplistic explanations or oversimplifications” (Ham). The taught curriculum in the mosque education system should contain aspects related to empowering YBMs to live in the society even if the practices of that society contradicted their basic beliefs: they still had to understand the haram (forbidden to Muslims) practices of the wider society. Participants believe also that this is not going to be easy for mosque education. Also, the informants felt, they had to face the challenges and limitations posed within their community. For example, religious importancecommitteessectarianisminsidetheMuslimcommunityanditsnegativeimpactonthemosquewereseenasplayingaroleinthedeclineofthemosqueinissuesofforthenewgeneration.Aparticipantsaid: For example, if a child wants to know about homosexuality in Islam, they need to be answered. They should know what the Islamic stance is, what the average British non Muslim's stance is, and why they have their stance. They should be told what the difference is between Muslims and non Muslims and why some things seem to be okay for non Muslims but are not acceptable for Muslims…it is impossible to prepare YBMs to face the challenges they will inevitably face if the mosque itself does not understand those challenges…Sectarianism is a huge challenge…The mosque committees focus on trivialities and irrelevant arguments that have no place in our time. (Ham) Despite the mosque’s efforts in this context, participants were reluctant to confirm the contribution of ME towards preparing them for life in a British society (Ahmed, 2012; Meer, 2009). Living in a multifaith and multicultural society presents challenges to YBMs. Two of the participants made it clear that mosque education has very little impact on them in terms of preparing them to live in society as British Muslims. One said: “…the mosque education did not prepare me for life as a British Muslim in the real world” (Ham). A second added: “…Possibly, maybe it took up time which could have been used to integrate with non Muslims, which would have made integration into Western society much easier as a teenager” (Moh). Further, they raised concerns to be addressed by the mosque management in order to fulfil their dutiestowards YBMs. One participant

establishing good relations with the non Muslim community is one of the main aims for each mosque committee (Rasdi, 2014). Participants have addressed this issue in many ways and highlighted the role of the mosque in reaching out to the non Muslim community through its activities to promote tolerance in society. Yet, participants emphasized that they expect more of these efforts from the mosque committees. One participant said: … I believe masjid communities and Muslims, in general, should establish strong positive relationships with their fellow neighbours and non Muslims. This can be done through regular open days, feed the homeless events, blood donation drives, working with local charities, hospitals, hospices, and facilitating for Dawah work. (Saj)

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The interviews also stressed that mental and cognitive development were important reasons why YBMs were attending mosque education during their childhood. According to the participants, mosque education contributed positively to their mental and cognitive development through different types of learning that helped them to reach where they are today (Berglund & Gent, 2019; Gent, 2011; Tamuri et al., 2012). They also highlighted several advantages of attending ME. For example, one participant stated: “The [mosque] education was very useful in providing me with a basis in Islam and providing me with an opportunity to memorise the Quran. This has been incredibly helpful in my life” This(Ham).was consistent among participants in this research. Further, some of them believed that the mosque should be at the heart of Islamic education in the West as it can play an important role in their lives. One participant stated: “Masjid education as a whole has had a very positive impact on me, alhamdulillah. As a young child, I attended madrasah. This allowed me to learn my masnoon duas for daily life, develop an understanding of the Arabic language” (Saj).

On another level, mosque education offers YBM professionals an opportunity to further educate themselves about Islamic topics, including those that are necessary for their personal development According to these informants, it helped young individuals to develop their professional skills, such as communication skills, teamwork, planning events, etc. One participant stated: My most recent mosque education …was where I attend a weekly class covering; Fiqh, Tafseer, Aqidah, Seerah studies. As a young professional, this weekend class allows me to continue with my Islamic development and has given me an understanding of aspects of the religion that I may have overlooked as a young boy… being involved in the masjid in a voluntary capacity has allowed me to develop skills that I use in my professional life. For example, good communication skills, leading and planning events, dinners, working in a team, and giving ideas in different community projects. (Saj) The data from the five key informants suggested that limitations and challenges are facing ME, which in turn hinders its contribution to YBMs’ mental and cognitive development. These are issues related to teachers, imams, and Teacherspedagogieswho are in charge of the teaching and learning process in the mosque are seen in two different ways (Pels, 2014). Some participants viewed teachers as amazing and good teachers who helped students achieve success in life. One participant said: “Yes, due to having good teachers, these teachers are now rare” (Msi). Another added: “… I met many amazing teachers who served as role models for me in a physical sense…” (Saj).

Mental Development

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. said: “ the mosque should prepare (youth) to live in the world as a practising Muslim despite all the challenges involved and prepare them to contribute to it, prepare them in how to interact with Muslims and non Muslims socially and professionally (Ham).

One participant stated: “… [because of the teacher], I disliked going to madrasah and my Qur’an studies only improved from the age of 10 onwards (very late) when wehad a personal Qur’an tutorin the homeenvironment” (Saj). Second was the issue of unqualified teachers being responsible for educating young minds in the mosque, and their educational abilities to respond intellectually to related contemporary life issues. One participant stated: “The lack of qualified teachers, most teachers do not have a university education and have no idea how to respond intelligently to questions about life in the 21st century” (Ham). Thirdly was the issue of foreign born teachers, and the gaps in their knowledge concerning students born and raised in the UK, and the relevance of teachers’ experience to the student’s reality. One participant said: I think the biggest challenge is the fact that the teachers at the mosque were from abroad and their students were UK born and raised. It was difficult for them to relate to us as children and so the culture within lessons very much became a “hear and obey” culture the teacher tells us to memorise, so we memorise and don't question (Moh). Imams are similar to teachers in that they do teach in the mosque. Therefore, the above criticism is true. However, the negative impact of these criticisms was hypothetically larger in the case of imams as they are in charge of other services in the mosque, and in that, they have more religious authority in the eyes of the community. Among the criticisms directed at imams, in the context of teaching YBMs, was that of ignoring current and contemporary religious content related to YBMs, when teaching about Islamic studies. The negative impact of this problem increases when YBMs start talking about it as an obstacle to their religious education. One participant said: There are many challenges that we need to tackle. The first is probably the fact that our Imams, trustees, and main people involved with the masjid are not born and raised in this country. Naturally, they are therefore at a disadvantage when it comes to trying to understand the problems and issues facing the youth today in the socio political climate that we find ourselves in (Saj) According to participants, training is a key factor in changing the status quo of mosque education. There should be training for all those involved in the mosque education and on several issues, such as teaching strategies and ways in which to offer support and counselling for students, parents, and anyone who attends the mosque activities. One participant said: “… offering training to Imams, training for counselling and mentoring, pedagogy but with a caveat. Training for committee members and trustees, the Imam, committee, and all stakeholders wanting and supporting the same targets” (Zai).

Knowing pedagogy, or how to teach, is an important factor to achieve effective teaching and learning. Participants identified some important areas related to

Some other participants claimed that mosque education is facing many challenges, one of which concerns current teachers and imams (Khan et al., 2005; Lewis, 2002; Sieckelink et al., 2012; and Zӧzeri et al., 2017). Criticisms directed at teachers took three forms: first, not being friendly with students during lesson time, which caused some students to be reluctant to continue going to the mosque.

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. pedagogy in mosque education. The teaching and learning environment inside the mosques is sometimes limited and there is no chance to discuss some issues freely and openly. Participants confirmed that there are issues that students cannot ask or enquire about. One participant said: “… some of these include the generation gap and the shame involved in discussing seemingly taboo topics in the masjid setting” (Saj). Failing to address these issues could, according to participants, lead to further damage in the personalities of YBMs. One participant stated: “This leads to some YBMs becoming isolated, cut off and unable to voice their inner challenges. This could lead to further stigma and possibly more drastic consequences for the individual and community as a whole” (Saj).

The lack of experience in classroom management strategies among teachers leads students to undergo some unpleasant experiences during their learning journey in the mosque. It is confirmed that these discipline measures have hindered some students’ progress. One participant said: It is here where I realized that if I fell behind a little, I would be punished with different types of disciplinary measures, including standing outside the classroom, or in another isolated area... I felt picked on, isolated and my progress was further hindered. (Saj)

Other participants argued that this issue is very important and that mosque committees should plan more learning activities that are relevant to achieving a good level of Tarbiyah and spiritual development among YBMs. They suggested the mosque committees organize courses during school holidays to maintain strong spiritual connections among the mosque attendees. One participant said: From a spiritual development perspective, it is vital that the masjid offers regular courses and workshops to maintain a strong spiritual connection amongst the congregation. I believe this is especially important for our children and such programs and courses should be run in synchrony during school holidays (Easter, half term, Ramadan, Summer, and Christmas) to provide an alternative form of entertainment for our YBM (Saj) One of the main roles of the mosque is to give YBMs a space to engage in different religious duties and perform daily prayers. This important role has its implications on developing the spiritual character of Muslims. One participant

The findingsconfirm thatmosque education has an important input to the tarbiyah or spiritual development of YBMs. Since the main content of ME is studying and memorising the holy book of Qur’an, then the link with spirituality is strong as the holy Qur’an is the book of tarbiyah and spirituality, according to Muslim belief. Participants believe that Mosque education has an important role to play in supplementing the work of the Muslim family in developing their children’ s identity spiritually by attaching the children to the Qur’an and sunnah. One participant said: “… [it] provides spiritual foundations” (Zai). Another added: “I think the mosque is there to supplement the Islamic tarbiyah of parents. It keeps children busy whilst they are young and keeps their hearts attached to the Qur’an and the sunnah of the Prophet (saw)” (Moh).

Spiritual Development

The participants identified another role for the mosque which has its spiritual impact over the YBM, and that is counselling. This is important as many people do not find the courage or the needed support from the family to visit counsellors due to cultural taboos. Further, the mosque could be the first station in identifying those who need help or those who need a clinical referral. One participant said: “…counselling is a first choice point of reference” (Zai). Another added: “…with the rise ofmentalhealthproblems in theUK andamongst theMuslimcommunity, ensuring that families are well supported and receive the relevant counselling is also critical” (Saj). Developing the YBMs personality is yet another added benefit to attending ME, according to the participants, who said that mosque education had contributed to the development of their personalities. They felt that it had helped them in building their emotional, psychological, and mental capacities. One participant highlighted that mosque education had helped him in many ways: It helped in creating a mindset that helps in processing moments and happenings whether personal or global, in a positive light… it made me demarcate safety perimeters around me…I read today and love books only because of my initial positive introduction to reading which took place in the mosque setting. (Zai)

Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. said: “The roles of the mosque for Young British Muslims are multiple, including of course providing a prayer space… for older adults, the masjid is a place for their worship and staying in touch with the community” (Saj).

It is evident that mosque education has a weighty impact on the educational, social, and spiritual aspects of the lives of young British Muslims. However, there are important areas that require more attention from different stakeholders to maintain a good relationship between the mosque and society at large. I put forward the following recommendations to policymakers, Muslim community leaders, mosque committee members, Imams, Muslim educationalists, researchers, and research centres: First, there is a need to review and evaluate the content of the delivered Islamic knowledge to YBMs, or at least to develop general guidelines and a framework to organize the religious content imparted to YBMs. It is recommended that these guidelines be sensitive to pluralism and diversity. Second, it is suggested to have an agenda for capacity building initiatives for people working within these institutions. Empowering teachers, Imams, and administration teams in mosques through training programs and professional development workshops contribute to better outcomes and help overcome the many criticisms directed at mosque education. Third, the mosque has a strong spiritual impact over YBMs, yet there is no effort made to deeply investigate the relationship between spirituality and being a well informed Muslim citizen in a multicultural society. Fourth, it is believed that research centres and research students have plenty of scope for their work as there are many areas which require further exploration and more focused research projects to reflect the importance of integrating the YBM into the wider society. Fifth, the society at large, as well as the Muslim minority, will benefit from any further efforts geared towards bringing youth together, Muslims and non Muslims, religious and secular, practicing and non practicing. Therefore, the research

5. Recommendations

235 ©2020 Theauthorand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. centres are encouraged to explore this area and prompt appropriate research to better understand how to help YBMs navigate the challenges that face them.

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238 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 238 258, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.13 Applying Agile Learning to Teaching English for Specific Purposes

Keywords: English for Specific Purposes; Agile learning; eduScrum practices; criteria based assessment; IT students

1. Introduction Our modern world is more complex and unpredictable than ever. For its description, even a special acronym VUCA has appeared. It stands for volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity, a combination of qualities that, taken together, describes the nature of some difficult situations. Bennis and Nanus (1985) firstly used VUCA in the leadership theory in 1987 The term became frequently used and discussed from 2002. Nowadays, VUCA is in new ideas of strategic leadership that apply in a wide range of organisations, from non profit

Liudmyla Lazorenko and Oksana Krasnenko Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0067 7471 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9758 3801

Abstract. The present paper aims to analyse the Agile learning implementation and describe the eduScrum practices in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) at Information Technology and Cybernetics Faculties of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (Ukraine). Based on a mixed method research design, our research studied Agile learning both qualitatively, and quantitatively through the use of observation, interviews, pre and post tests, and the questionnaire. The experimental focus group research proved the efficiency of applying Agile methods in a project learning environment to teach Information Technology (IT) students. It showed that Agile learning through eduScrum practices encourages communication, knowledge sharing, critical thinking, creativity, enhances student engagement and the development of a mindset aimed at constant improvement. Planning, processing, presentation making, as well as analysis, and assessment practices were outlined in the ESP eduScrum teaching. They facilitated students to acquire and retain the practical experience and become confident lifelong learners in a modern VUCA world. The criteria based assessment resulted in drawing students’ attention to the problematic aspects of learning and evaluating their knowledge and skills more reasonably The proposed eduScrum practices could be applied alternatively into the traditional classroom academic environment due to their productivity

The situation is continually changing, becoming more uncertain each day In today’s management, projects have more and more practical importance because they flexibly meet the requirements of a changeable labour market. A modern VUCA world needs some professional features from employees: the ability to be flexible, the openness to new ideas, readiness to cooperate in mutual teamwork Consequently, soft skills are not less important skills as they are critical for being diligent and prosperous in today’s workplace. As a result, students have to study quickly, think critically and creatively: globally in prospects as well as tactically in short iterations, putting into practice possibilities that appear. As for future IT specialists, it’s better to supplement their technical skills with strong social and collaboration skills. Language proficiency, communication and listening skills, teamwork, agility, patience, persuasion, time and task management enable them to work more effectively, productively and harmoniously with other people (Lazorenko & Krasnenko, 2019, p. 282).

Applying innovative methods of teaching ESP such as Web quest, Project method, Flipped and Problem based learning at Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, we focused on Agile learning methodology that increases collaboration, team productivity, and students’ engagement, so that it solves problems responding to challenges of contemporary education. Thus, we conducted the experimental focus group research to prove the efficiency of applying Agile methods in a project learning environment to teach IT students. Agile learning takes its origin in the world of technology. IT professionals widely use it in Agile software development. Agility was coined by a small group of software industry leaders in 2001 in the influential “Manifesto for Agile Software Development” (Beck et al., 2001) to describe the flexible nature of software developed in iterative stages. It represents a new algorithm of actions for software engineers because it advocates adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early delivery, continual improvement, and encourages rapid and flexible response to change. Agile software development involves a dynamic requirements formation and implements them successfully as a result of a continuous interaction of experts from different fields. The majority of its methods aim to minimise risks through transforming software development to a series of short cycles or iterations lasting for a week or two. Each iteration looks like a programme project on a small scale and includes all tasks necessary for a minimum increment as for functionality: planning, analysis of requirements, encoding, testing, and documenting However, every iteration, as a rule, is insufficient for producing a new version of a product. That’s why team members revalue priorities of development.

Agile learning principles There are three approaches to Agile learning: 1) Agile in the development of educational products; 2) Agile in individual learning progress; and 3) Agile in pedagogical technology implementation.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. corporations (Wolf, 2007) to education ones (Gaultier Le Bris, Rouvrais & Waldeck, 2019; Rucker, 2007).

9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances 10.adaptability.Simplicity

3. Cycles of meaningful learning should be experienced frequently, from a couple of days to a couple of weeks, with a preference to the shorter timescale.

7. Meaningful learning is the primary measure of progress.

We can introduce Agile learning into the courses both as a content and practical method for students. It includes the idea that learners create content and develop skills alongside teachers in a collaborative but competent environment equipped with technologies Teachers work closely with students, understand their specific needs, respond to them, and adjust accordingly when those needs change (Razmov & Anderson, 2006). In the process of learning/teaching, the educators rather have the role of a learning facilitator, supporter, or guide and students play the part of the clients. The increments that introduce new functionality in short cycles (sprints) correspond to the continuous growth of students’ skills. As a result, they become more self directed, team oriented, as well as individually resilient lifelong learners. Agile provides a manageable set of proven principles that inform the culture and behaviour of organisations. The latter are mostly interested in high results through simple approaches aimed at solving significant problems in unpredictable environments. Peha (2011), an instructional coach, elaborated a version of the twelve principles as characteristics of agile schools:

4. Educational institutions, students, and a teacher should work together daily to make meaningful learning possible for all participants of this process.

5. Motivated professionals should work on an educational project. Giving them the environment and support they need and trust them to get the job done.

1. The highest priority is to satisfy the needs of students through early and continuous delivery of meaningful learning.

the art of maximising the amount of work not done is essential.

12. At regular intervals, teams reflect on how to become more effective, then modify their behaviour accordingly (Peha, 2011, Principles for Principals, para. 2).

2. Changing requirements are even useful in the late stages of the learning process. Changes are necessary for students as well as for teachers.

6. Face to face conversation is the most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a team.

8. The educational process promotes sustainability. It is of paramount importance to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.

11. The best ideas and initiatives emerge from self organising teams.

The principles mentioned above motivate students to achieve high results and become active participants of the whole educational process. Furthermore, the regulations could boost constant development and readiness to generate and practice innovative ideas. Thus, the basis of Agile includes three components: the process of continuous learning, people motivation, and qualitative changes. At present, they are the most essential for our educational system.

In eduScrum, students make assignments on their pace. They plan individual activities and keep track of progress. Teachers, as coaches and inspirational servant leaders determine the “Why” students have to study and the “What” they have to get as a result. The students define the “How” they have to learn and achieve their goals. A team works in a targeted way through a set of tools chosen on purpose. Thus, the students “own” their learning process resulting in intrinsic motivation, fun, personal growth, and better results (Wijnands & Stolze 2019, p. 96).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate Agile learning implementation, particularly eduScrum practices, in ESP university courses and to prove its efficiency through the experimental study and a criteria based assessment. Specifically, we aimed to answer the following research questions:

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The main principles of the Scrum framework educational diagram include the following:1)Think (the teacher defines the product backlog); 2) Design (in each sprint, a subset of the backlog activities is selected);

Scrum and eduScrum framework Scrum is the most widely used framework for agile development. Sutherland (2014), a co creator of the Agile software development process and a co writer of the Agile Manifesto, affirms that any organisation in different fields can apply scrum. It explains how to precisely define what it is that you’re eager to achieve, how to achieve it, and how to monitor progress until the project is completed (Sutherland, 2014) Based on “the three pillars: Transparency, Investigation, and Adaptation” (Wijnands & Stolze, 2019, p. 106), eduScrum has become an educational version of a scrum since 2011. According to Wijnands (2019), its founder and a team member of the worldwide initiative “Agile in Education”, the core task to deal with is the development of students’ personality. It is believed that teachers should provide learners with opportunities to improve their skills. The focus is not on rigid plans, but flexibility is required to take into account students’ feedback and their different abilities, interests, difficulties, and experiences, aiming at unlocking their hidden strengths and passions. The emphasis is on delivering the highest value, in terms of both discipline specific learning outcomes and soft skills as an organisation, planning, collaboration, and teamwork (ibid).

3) Do (during the sprint, the teams solve the problems of the sprint backlog); and 4) Deliver (a product of sprint, reports of the solutions are delivered) (Dinis Carvalho, Fernandes & Filho, 2017; Reston & Lima, 2018).

The second value is interpreted as “meaningful learning over the measurement of learning” (Peha, 2011, A Manifesto for All Seasons, para. 3). These values are about to become very powerful for effective ESP teaching.

Originated in the IT field, Agile learning methods were quickly adopted to teaching technology related courses (E commerce, Information Systems, Computer Science courses on Programming, Software engineering), as well as the courses on Project Management and General Market Management (Sharp & Lang, 2018). Today Agile is used as a familiar concept for such practices as Scrum (Schwaber & Beedle, 2002), eXtreme Programming (XP), Feature driven development, Lean soft development etc (Cohen, Lindvall & Costa, 2004). Agile methodologies also include Adaptive Software Development (ASD), Crystal methods, Dynamic Software Development Method (DSDM), and Kanban (Salza, Musmarra & Ferrucci, 2019).

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3. Which practices does the eduScrum framework in ESP imply?

The relationships between Agile methodologies and Education have given birth to Agile Education that “creates a learning environment favourable for the creation of responsible and sustainable citizens” (López Alcarria, Olivares Vicente & Poza Vilches, 2019, p. 1 2). Consequently, students become prepared for lifelong learning. The acquired skills enable them to learn on their own and self develop. At present more and more high educational establishments are implementing Agile as a prospective approach in the academic environment (Andersson & Bendix, 2006; Chun, 2004; Lang, 2017; Monett, 2013; Pinto Ferreira, Mendonça & Nicola, 2017; Razmov & Anderson, 2006; Reston & Lima, 2018; Vuokko & Berg, 2007). The Agile framework is well suited both for the classroom environment and individual learning. Peha (2011) affirms that “we in education have much to learn from the world of software development and that Agile gives us a well reasoned, well researched methodology from which we derive effective practice” (Peha, 2011, Shall we have a go, then? para 1). Galés and Galon (2019) regard it as “an opportunity to enter a dynamic mindset where transformation and improvement are the goals. It is a bridge between technique, strategy, and values, and it must be seen as an opening for teachers to reflect, debate, and rethink not only procedures but the purpose of education” (Galés & Galon, 2019, p. All109).educational approaches adapted Agile are based on four crucial values from Manifesto for Agile. They are the following: 1) individuals and interactions over processes and tools; 2) working software over comprehensive documentation; 3) customer collaboration over contract negotiation; and 4) responding to change over following a plan (Beck et al., 2001, p. 1).

1. Could Agile learning be implemented in the framework of ESP in the Ukrainian academic settings?

2. Literature review

2. To what extent is Agile learning effective in the experimental versus control groups?

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In Chun hui and Fu’s paper (2016), the Agile English teaching methods based on the constructivism theory “solve the long existing problem of separation between teaching and scientific research in higher special English teaching, speeds up the transformation of the scientific research achievements in the teaching practice” (Chun hui & Fu, 2016, p. 319). Unfortunately, their study hardly represents the practical implementation of this methodology.

Jurado Navas and Munoz Luna (2017) describe the fruitful application of the scrum methodology into the English Studies course at the University of Málaga. They give three main reasons why a scrum methodology can be considered as an excellent proposal to accomplish a teaching learning process of high quality at universities. The researchers admit that it improves the capacity of using knowledge in a disciplined, critical, and creative way. Additionally, it promotes the coexistence in heterogeneous human groups, and develops the ability of thinking, living, and acting with complete autonomy (Jurado Navas & Munoz Luna, 2017). Thus, some research on Agile learning methodology within the business and academic environment has been done. Yet, the issue of Agile learning application at the ESP classroom has been hardly studied.

3. Methods Research design To investigate the efficiency of applying Agile methods in teaching ESP, we employed a mixed method research design. It involved the study of experimental and control groups’ results through the use of pre and post tests to obtain quantitative data. The qualitative research method focused on investigating a problem within its real life context through observation and interviews It helped describe career situations in project making when students study circumstances, gain the problem understanding, propose possible solutions, and choose the most appropriate one. To collect qualitative data, we developed a range of assessment criteria to evaluate students’ presentations. We verified the theoretical data experimentally collected in the current paper.

The population of the study and participants A total of 72 participants were involved in the investigation including two Experimental Groups (EG1 16 and EG2 19 students) and two Control Groups (CG1 18 and CG2 19 students) from Cybernetics and IT Faculties at Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (Ukraine) in the spring term of 2018

Computer based communication plays a crucial role in enhancing IT students’ quality learning (Rebenko, Nikolenko & Rebenko, 2019). We could implement Agile practices through popular applications (for example, Slack, Jira, Trello), collaborative apps (Google Docs, Office 365) for document editing in online learning. Teachers and students successfully use Cloud based online platforms for videoconferencing (Skype, Zoom, MS Teams, Google Meet Hangouts etc). They lead live discussions, cooperate in teams, prepare joint projects and as a result, develop their decision making and critical thinking skills. Students could share online data using such technologies as “blogging, commenting, instant messaging, wiki and XML RSS” (Chun, 2004, p. 11).

Sample The research groups were selected following the authors’ teaching load. Krasnenko and Lazorenko taught ESP in EG1, EG2, CG1, CG2 of IT and Cybernetics Faculties of the Kyiv University. That’s why the current study was limited by four groups, where the number of participants varied from 14 to 19 students. All students gave agreement for the participation and data processing. Nobody refused taking part in the experimental focus group research.

2019 academic year. They were the first year university students who attended the ESP course. All participants were native Ukrainian speakers. Their ages ranged between 17 19 years. To determine participants’ initial language level, we tested them at the beginning of studying. To select four groups of students, we took into account their approximately similar English level. They had B1 B2, and none of them had officially studied English in any English speaking

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Data collection and data analysis tools In this study, we collected and processed data through observation, interviews, pre and post tests, and the questionnaire Observation aimed to collect data by implementing eduScrum in the classroom environment during the whole experimental study. Group discussions and interviews enabled us to find out more about teamwork They also helped students organise their work, understand how to collaborate effectively and improve their soft skills. Interviews took place in the middle of the experimental study and before presenting the projects. The students’ results of pre and post tests were checked, analysed, compared, and revealed in Tables 1 2 (see The experimental research findings) The anonymous questionnaire (Appendix 1) was run at the end of the experimental study to find out the participants’ opinions on Agile learning methods. The obtained data proved the validity of the study and the set objectives. Thirty five students were willing to learn ESP in eduScrum, so they found the Agile learning principles productive Data collection procedures We visualised the data collection procedures in experimental groups (Figure 1)

Thecountry.ESP training course was organised according to the University official curriculum for the first year students of IT, Computer Science and Cybernetics Faculties. It covered 44 academic hours in the spring term, particularly 26 academic hours of classwork and 18 of individual work (2 ac. h. of in class ESP and 1 2 ac. h. of individual work weekly). It included three modules: Storage Devices, Basic Software, and Faces of the Internet. All groups learnt ESP through the Infotech textbook (Remacha Esteras, 2008). The experimental groups followed Agile learning through eduScrum practices, while the control groups the traditional teaching training. Thus, the comparison of these models resulted in revealing the benefits of eduScrum practices in the ESP classroom.

Figure 1: Data collection stages Validity In ESP teaching, we apply mainly criteria based assessment or assessment for learning, that is “the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there” (Broadfoot et al., 2002, p. 2).

2. Pre test assessment: teacher evaluates participants’ initial language level before project preparation

1. Instructions: the key ideas of Agile learning and eduScrum practices revealed in classes at the beginning of the experiment

4. Team learning: students discuss tasks to solve and prepare their project; teacher monitors student learning, gives feedback and run interviews

5. Project work presentation: students make their projects; teacher evaluates and analyses them according to project making assessment rubrics

3. Team distribution : four five students per a scrum team; team members choose a scrum master

6. Post test assessment: teacher evaluates final language level of each participant

The main assessment criteria are the following: grammar structures and professional vocabulary knowledge (knowledge and grammarunderstanding);andprofessional vocabulary skills in use (communicative masterycompetencies);ofreading and listening comprehension of job focused material, question answering, and multiple choice making (thinking and reconsidering); and skills of writing letters and emails, holding conversations on job focused themes (application).

We followed the modern trends in the social and educational development of PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) results. Our methodology applied a range of criteria, project making assessment rubrics, in particular, to measure students’ achievements

2. An experimental study to prove the efficiency of Agile based assignment system, and to select a course of iterations for a productive Agile application among IT students.

The research was vertical and open and conducted in the natural environment; that is, all participants’ level was tested at pre and post test studies

The focus group experiment proved the efficiency of the implementation of Agile methods in ESP as well as the benefits of using criteria based assessment. To demonstrate the external validity of the research results, we applied the Mann Whitney U test (Laake, Fagerland, 2015).

Pre test and post test assessment results are shown in the tables below (Table 1, 2).

4. Results and Discussion

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The research included three stages:

The experimental research was conducted to prove the effectiveness of Agile learning implementation within an IT student audience. The theoretical study allowed advancing a hypothesis that ESP would be more productive under Agile principles

1. Pre test assessment to determine participants’ initial language level before the project preparation

4.1. The experimental research findings

3. Post test assessment to evaluate participants’ final language level and acquired skills in project modelling according to the exact structure: planning, requirements’ analysis, projecting, testing, documenting (4 ac. h. overall).

The criteria based assessment reveals educational problems and facilitates productive feedback between a teacher and a student

Calculating ALR, the average learning rate, we applied the formula k=n/100 where n is the points the students got (max 100) We used the Mann Whitney U test to prove the research results’ validity As it is shown in Table 2, the value has become 0.18 and 0.21 in EG1 and EG2 correspondingly, and 0.05 and 0.09 in CG1 and CG2 correspondingly. These values prove the effectiveness of the Agile learning application (post test study is nearly three times as much as in Experimental groups than Control ones). The post test results proved our success in the hard skills formation of 2/3 of all participants. Students developed general and professional skills, particularly in eduScrum iterations. Additionally, the participants strengthened their soft skills as well as motivation to self development and applicability to the modern labour market’s requirements. 4.2. eduScrum practices In the ESP classroom, we applied a set of eduScrum practices as shown in Figure 2

247 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 1: Pre test assessment results of EG1 2 and CG1 2 High level Sufficient level levelIntermediate Low level ALR Group No % No % No % No % EG1 3 18.8 7 43.7 4 25 2 12.5 0.57 EG2 4 21.1 8 42.1 4 21.1 3 15.7 0.61 CG1 2 11.1 10 55.6 5 27.8 1 5.5 0.59 CG2 3 15.8 9 47.4 4 21.0 3 15.8 0.52 Table 2: Post test assessment results of EG1 2, CG1 2 High level levelSufficient Intermediate level Low level ALR Value Group No % No % No % No % EG1 5 31.3 9 56.2 2 12.5 0 0 0.75 0.18 EG2 5 26.3 10 52.6 3 15.8 1 5.3 0.82 0.21 CG1 2 11.1 10 55.6 6 33.3 0 0 0.64 0.05 CG2 3 15.8 10 52.6 3 15.8 3 15.8 0.61 0.09

. We divided our students into groups (scrum teams) of four five taking into account students’ preferences. The whole training process involved themes, modules. The time for completing each task was equal.

Figure 2: eduScrum practices framework in ESP Planning

PROCESSING

Tasks were grouped into sprints (themes) as the parts of a scrum (a module). Within the sprint, the participants got involved in relevant to ESP problem solving practices, and then they had to deliver the training outcome. Each sprint ended in students’ reflection on the completed assignments, the project analysis, and future activities planning (so called sprint retrospective).

The first year IT students had three scrums in the spring term of 2018 2019 academic year represented in Table 3: PLANNING PRESENTATION MAKING ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT&

Every student had to identify himself or herself and his/her skills within the team. The team participants managed to organise themselves, understand possible difficulties, distribute the tasks equally, and take over their roles in each eduScrumgroup practices included three roles: the product owner is the teacher who knows the outcome of every scrum team; the scrum master is the student who guides each team; team members are the rest of the participants in each team, including the scrum master (Jurado Navas & Munoz Luna, 2017; Pinto Ferreira et al., 2017; Salza et al., 2019).

Processing. Agile learning includes standups, sprints, and scrums. In a standup, scrum team members organise their future work, answering three critical questions of Graphic Organiser (Appendix 2).

Due to the assessment criteria mentioned in Methods, it was more useful to draw students’ attention to the linguistic problems and facilitate them to understand their gaps much clearer.

The practised eduScrum activities aimed at handling students’ timidity are exemplified in Appendix 3. Such actions will make productive vocabulary and, or grammar revision and communicative skills development, as well as motivate students to learn professional English and interact with each other in the team Analysis and Assessment. We evaluated the students’ presentation making skills and asked them to give feedback on eduScrum practices using the Questionnaire in Appendix 1

For instance, below there is a criteria based assessment scheme on the sprint “Internet Security”, the part “The History of Hacking” (Infotech, Module 5, Unit 19), grammar section The Past Simple The students’ task was to prepare and present a project on the history of hacking Table 4 demonstrates the rubrics of evaluating project making skills.

Table 3: Scrums and sprints Scrums Sprints Scrum 1. Storage Devices Magnetic storage Optical storage Flash memory Scrum 2. Basic Software The operating system (OS) Word processing (WP) Spreadsheets and databases Scrum 3. Faces of the Internet The Internet and e mail the ChatWeband conferencing Internet security

Presentation making. The students are supposed to demonstrate the eduScrum project work in different forms (reports, multimedia presentations, posters) at the end of each scrum. It happened that students were shy about what to say or hesitated about how to start the presentation. To help the learners to become confident, we equipped them with a positive and supportive learning environment, familiar and engaging topics, sufficient time to think, plan and accomplish the tasks, and relevant assessment.

Students manifest insufficient knowledge of grammar and vocabulary on the history of hacking. They miss essential information which leads to distortion of all content Students do not show the system and expediency of using non verbal units.

61 74

75 89 Students manifest good knowledge and understanding of both the professional vocabulary on the theme and the grammar structures. Although they a few content related units, the key idea is not significantly distorted. Students demonstrate without the content slides. Some non verbal information is either not always used or represented excessively. There are some errors in information representation (for instance, the lack of underlined font, imprecise graphics, or too long text messages Students render the project idea comprehensively despite few grammar mistakes (3 4).

90 100 Students manifest excellent knowledge of both the professional vocabulary on the given theme and the grammar structures. They reveal all the essential and necessary facts in the presentation.

The project assessment criteria included the following standards: complete disclosure of received information; data compression and representation in the project; the reasonable use of non verbal communication; logical data representation; and - esthetic design of the presentation (Lazorenko, 2016).

Students apply relevant non verbal means with the proper links and visualise the material graphically. Their presentation is easily perceived, interactive, well prepared with appropriate font size, colour emphasis, reasonable use of text messages. Students render the project idea comprehensively with 1 2 lexical or grammar mistakes.

Key ideas are difficult to comprehend due to a tiny font, unclear pictures, and the lack or excess of text messages. Speakers do not disclose the project essence and do not use the required grammar structures (more than ten mistakes).

Supporting Sadler’s ideas on criteria based assessment (Sadler, 2005), the students became aware of their project work assessment criteria before working in eduScrum. Such a criteria based Agile learning approach makes the process of assessment more transparent and understandable for students.

Students manifest satisfying knowledge and understanding of the thematic vocabulary and grammar structures. Although the lack of some content related information distorts the overall idea, the key message is clear Non verbal communication (tables, graphs etc) is poorly or excessively represented Text messages are also numerous. Students render the project idea in a vague manner (5 7 mistakes).

Table 4: Project making assessment rubrics Scoring Description 0 60

5. Conclusions

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Our investigation showed that eduScrum practices had many benefits in the ESP classroom:they created more opportunities for students to think creatively and critically in a self regulated environment as they had to prepare a joint project in teams; helped build social skills and social esteem as students appreciated and accepted the perspectives and world views of their teammates when interacting;fostered stronger in class relationships and a positive learning environment;madelearning memorable as students were able to apply their knowledge in real life situations; and made students motivated, more attentive, and willing to participate as they understood their contribution to the general result and felt responsible for a team. We reckon that Agile learning is worthy of attention and requires a lot of planning, many explanations, as well as a significant amount of one on one student support. Learners and teachers need some time to get used to this process.

The English speaking educational space is one of the most dynamic in terms of the development, the borders’ and boundaries’ expansion, and the potential of our civilisation. It is an ambitious goal for educators to improve ESP teaching in academic settings and create an efficient modern language didactic model. Agile learning is a promising approach for ESP project making as it involves the methods that contribute to the rapid and high quality development of English professionally oriented speech production. It emphasises the continuity of the learning process, goal orientation, seeking students’ feedback, and flexibility in responding to their needs. We were the first to implement and evaluate Agile learning in the Ukrainian tertiary education, mainly to teach ESP at Cybernetics and IT Faculties of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. Following Research Question 1, we concluded that Agile learning could be implemented successfully in the ESP learning of IT students In Research Question 2, we measured the progress the students made. The obtained data showed that there was a tendency for the improvement of the project making skills of the students from experimental groups. The applied Agile learning proved to be efficient as the students acquired job focused language proficiency and the required 21st century competencies: team collaboration, communication, creativity, problem solving, and decision making skills. The investigation of Research Question 3 showed that eduScrum practices including planning, processing, presentation making, analysis, and assessment emphasized the student-centred ESP learning process As a result, the learners became self directed, team oriented, and individually sustainable experts for the future in today’s fast paced and uncertain world. A criteria based assessment made project making skills evaluating more open and explicit due to the worked out rubrics We consider that the obtained experience

252 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. through Agile learning and eduScrum practices could be productive not only in Ukrainian ESP classrooms but also in other international academic curricula 6. Research limitations This research was limited by two experimental focus groups that learnt ESP in eduScrum during one term. Future researchers might conduct a quantitative and qualitative study for a more extensive period targeting more students as well as teachers. 7. References Andersson, R., & Bendix, L. (2006). eXtreme teaching: A framework for continuous improvement. Computer Science Education, 16(3), 175 184. doi:10.1080/08993400600912335 Beck, K., Beedle, M., Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M., Thomas, D. (2001). Manifesto for Agile Software Development. Retrieved from www.agilemanifesto.org Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders:Strategiesfor taking charge. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Broadfoot, P., Daugherty, R., Gardner, J., Harlen, W., James, M., & Stobart, G. (2002). Assessment for learning: 10 principles. Research based principles to guide classroom practice. Assessment for learning. London, UK: Assessment Reform Group Retrieved from nciples.pdfhttp://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/Eng_DVD/doc/Afl_pri Chun, A. H. W. (2004). The Agile teaching/learning methodology and its e learning platform. In W. Liu, Y. Shi, Q. Li (Eds.), Advances in Web Based Learning ICWL 2004. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 3143, (pp. 11 18) Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag Heidelberg doi:10.1007/978 3 540 27859 7_2 Chun hui, Z., & Fu, L. (2016). Research on agile English teaching based on constructivism. US China Education Review, 6(5), 316 319. doi:10.17265/2161 623X/2016.05.006. Cohen, D., Lindvall, M., & Costa, P. (2004). An introduction to agile methods. Advances inComputers,62, 1 66. doi:10.1016/s0065 2458(03)62001 2. Dinis Carvalho, J. D., Fernandes, S., & Filho, J. C. R. (2017). Combining lean teaching and learning with eduScrum. International Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive Advantage, 10 (3 4), 221 235. doi:10.1504/ijssca.2017.086599

Galés, N. L., & Gallon, R. (2019). Educational agility. In M. Kowalczuk Walędziak, A. Korzeniecka Bondar, W. Danilewicz, & G. Lauwers (Eds.), Rethinking Teacher Education for the 21st Century. Trends, Challenges and New Directions, (pp. 98 111). Opladen, Berlin & Toronto, Canada: Verlag Barbara Budrich doi:10.2307/j.ctvpb3xhh.10 Gaultier Le Bris, S., Rouvrais, S., & Waldeck, R. (2019). Learning methodology for VUCA situations. Methods and Interdisciplinarity, 1, 117 148. doi:10.1002/9781119681519.ch6. Jurado Navas, A., & Munoz Luna, R. (2017). Scrum methodology in higher education: innovation in teaching, learning and assessment. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(6), 1 18. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n6p1

Laake, P., & Fagerland, M. W. (2015). Statistical inference. In P. Laake, H.B. Benestad, B.R. Olsen (Eds.), Research in medical and biological sciences: From planning and preparation to grant application and publication (1st ed.), (pp. 379 430). Amsterdam, Holland: Academic Press/Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978 0 12 799943 2.00011 2.

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Remacha Esteras, S (2008). Infotech English for computer users (4th ed.) Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Reston, F. J., & Lima, R. M. (2018). Application of the eduScrum methodology to a higher education institution in the Amazon. Proceedings of the PAEE/ALE’2018, 10th International Symposium on Project Approaches in Engineering Education (PAEE) and 15th ActiveLearning inEngineeringEducationWorkshop (ALE),8, 331 335. Rucker, J. (2007). Memorisation is no longer key to learning. Converge, 3(2), 32 36. Retrieved m/Converge_Mag/pdfs/issues/CON_June07_lorz_PDF.pdfhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120227195322/http://media.centerdigitaled.cofrom Sadler, D. R. (2005). Interpretations of criteria based assessment and grading in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), 175 194.

Peha, S. (2011, June 18). Agile schools: How technology saves education (just not the way we thought it would) InfoQ. Web Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.infoq.com/articles/agile schools education/ Pinto Ferreira, E., Mendonça, J., & Nicola, S. (2017). Eduscrum methodology in mathematical engineering education. INTED2017 Proceedings of 11th International Technology, Education and Development Conference. Valencia, Spain. doi:10.21125/inted.2017.0791 Razmov, V., & Anderson, R. (2006). Experiences with agile teaching in project based courses. Proceedings of the ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition. Chicago, IL Retrieved from https://peer.asee.org/1018 Rebenko, M., Nikolenko, O., & Rebenko, V. (2019). Listening comprehension proficiency development of Information Technology students in ESP classroom. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(11), 245 264. doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.11.15

Salza, P., Musmarra, P., & Ferrucci, F. (2019). Agile methodologies in education: A review. In D. Parsons, K. MacCallum (Eds ), Agile and Lean Concepts for Teaching and Learning (pp. 25 45). Singapore: Springer doi:10.1007/978 981 13 2751 3_2 Schwaber, K., & Beedle, M. (2002). Agile software development with Scrum. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR.

253 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Lang, G. (2017). Agile Learning: Sprinting through the semester. Information Systems Education Journal, 15(3), 14 21. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1140882.pdf

Lazorenko, L V. (2016) Navchannia anhlomovnoho monolohichnoho movlennia maibutnikh matematykiv z vykorystanniam Veb kvestu [Learning English monologue speech future mathematicians using Web Quest]. (PhD thesis). Taras Shevchenko National University of Taras Shevchenko, Kyiv, Ukraine. Lazorenko, L., & Krasnenko, O. (2019). The importance of developing 21st century skills for advanced students. In A. Jankovska (Ed.), New Stages of Development of Modern Science in Ukraine and EU Countries: monograph (1st ed.), (pp. 249 288). Riga, Latvia: Baltija Publishing. doi: 10.30525/978 9934 588 15 0 13

López Alcarria, A., Olivares Vicente, A., & Poza Vilches, F. (2019). A systematic review of the use of agile methodologies in education to foster sustainability competencies Sustainability,11(10), 1 29. doi: 10.3390/su11102915 Monett, D. (2013). Agile project based teaching and learning. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference in Software Engineering Research and Practice. CSREA Press USA, 377 383. Retrieved from Based_Teaching_and_Learninghttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/257414622_Agile_Project

254 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Sharp, J. H., & Lang, G. (2018). Agile in teaching and learning: Conceptual framework and research agenda. Journal of Information Systems Education, 29(2), 45 52. Retrieved from http://jise.org/Volume29/n2/JISEv29n2p45.pdf Sutherland, J. (2014). Scrum: the art of doing twice the work in half the time. New York, NY: Crown Publishing Group. Vuokko, R., & Berg, P. (2007). Experimenting with eXtreme teaching method assessing students’ and teachers’ experiences. The issue in Informing Science and Information Technology,4, 523 534. doi:10.28945/3133. Wijnands, W., & Stolze, A. (2019). Transforming education with eduScrum. In D. Parsons, K. MacCallum (Eds.), Agile and Lean Concepts for Teaching and Learning (pp. 95 114). Singapore: Springer. doi:10.1007/978 981 13 2751 3_5 Wolf, D (2007). Prepared and resolved: The strategic agenda for growth, performance and change Traverse City, MI: DSB Publishing

255 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1 Questionnaire 1. Do you think that Agile learning is an excellent experience to accomplish meaningful learning? 2. Did you like to learn ESP in eduScrum? 3. In your opinion, what are the disadvantages of eduScrum practices? 4. How did you find a criteria based assessment in Agile learning? 5. Would you like to continue learning ESP in eduScrum?

256 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Appendix 2 Graphic Organiser Name Student A Data _________ Topic: The Software Development Cycle What did I accomplish before? What will I do today? How will I deal with? 1. Worked out the professional vocabulary ND grammar structures on the topic The Software Development lifeition/22193/softwarehttps://www.techopedia.com/defin2.https://stackify.com/whatCycle:issdlc/LearnedabouttheHistoryoftheSoftwareDevelopmentLifeCycle:developmentcyclesdlc 1. Select the best definition of the words ('RC' or 'freeware''alpha'shareware',candidate','releaseversion',etc.) 2. Make a list of decades of MethodologiesDevelopmentSoftware. Create descriptionsexpandedthe of the andMaintenanceDeploy,Design,Planning,stagingtraditional(e.g.Build,Test,Release.

Assignments to Boost Students’ Confidence in Public Speaking:

2) Some sample dialogue: Support Specialist: Technology Support, Alex’s speaking. How can I help?

Customer: Which one is the third power supply? Support Specialist: It's the smaller black box in the corner. Customer: I'm unplugging both. What's next?

The teachers should give as clear instructions as they can help timid students become more confident.

Support Specialist: Next, take out the two small screws. They fasten the hard drive to the Customer:case.Isee, and then it slides out. Thanks!

B) Games and funny activities often make shy students forget about their problem to express themselves: Word race (students in two teams should write as more words as they can on the topic they study, or they have to write words with a given initial letter on the IT theme); Truth or lie (students write three sentences about themselves where two statements are factual and one of them is false; then they ask each other to find a lie); Write a story (every student draws a picture on the board; the group is divided into teams, each of them consists at least of 4 5 people; then each team has to make up a story using pictures); What should I do? (different commands are written on pieces of paper, and stuck to the students’ backs; then they ask each other to find out what they should do. For example, you have to create a Website / to delete a file / to write an e mail);

Customer: I have an old hard drive and need help taking it out.

A) Role-play exercises: e.g , student A is a customer, and student B is a support specialist. Student A asks about taking out an old hard drive / the power supply / the next step in dismantling the old hard drive. In this case, it’s better to give students: 1) some helpful and useful phrases and structures to make up a conversation. For example, I need help taking out... Disconnect the... What is the next step?

Support Specialist: Okay. Unplug the connection to the power supply first. Then, disconnect the motherboard cable.

Who am I? (stickers with names of the most remarkable people in the IT sphere (Ada Lovelace, Charles Babbage, Steve Jobs, Tim Berners Lee, Bill Gates, James Gosling, Linus Torvalds etc) are stuck on students’ foreheads, and they try to guess their name asking different questions); In Lucky Bingo students are given bingo cards where they have to write a random set of seven words into their grid (for example, on the topic Developing software (access method, application, archive, consultant, back end, drawback etc)). The teacher reads out the definitions of these words in random order, and students must decide if one of these words fits the gap. The winner is a student who crossed all terms on the card). Similarly, they can also learn some jobs. For instance, Computer System Analyst (an IT professional who specialises in analysing, designing and implementing information systems), or Web Developer (a programmer who specialises in, or is specifically engaged in, the development of World Wide Web applications using a client server model)

Abstract. One of the challenges of teaching current students’ history is how to transform a generally boring subject to appeal to 21st century students. The continued use of traditional methods in teaching history by lecturers emphasizes recitation and narration This makes student inactive. In this paper, we propose a model for teaching history using emerging technologies in ways that stimulate learners’ interest and draw on historical contexts Following the four stages of design based research methodology, two iterations were designed and examined where pre service teachers (C21st students) used multimodal affordances of emerging technologies (modern tool) to interrogate historical facts (history) in creative and engaging manner The findings suggest that design principles and guidelines have potential to help students and teachers to restore interest in history teaching and learning while simultaneously guiding and interpreting the human past. A major outcome of this research was the development of five major design principles and guidelines for teaching history in ways that C21st students learn connecting with the present, appreciating heritage, dialogue in history, doing history and validating history.

Teaching History in Ways C21st Students Learn –Design-Based Research Perspective

Keywords: History Education; Emerging Technologies; Design principles; Salmons 5 stage model 1. Introduction While history is a core subject at Ordinary level among secondary schools in Uganda, the discipline will only become a compulsory subject in South African Schools in the year 2023 (Nussey, 2018) However, the current state of History education around the world, particularly in Africa, consistently indicate a predominant use of traditional methods of instructional approaches (Barbosa, 2018: Rifin, Awang, Ahmad & Dahalan, 2019). This is reflected in narrations, constrained dialogue between students and educators, wide content coverage

259 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 259 280, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.14

Dorothy Kyagaba Sebbowa Makerere University, Uganda https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5705 3029 Dick Ng’ambi University of Cape Town, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7281 2292

Sebbowa and Muyinda (2018) found that, mobile phone technologies enhance interactions between lecturers and students, students and students and provide a helpful precondition for collaborative learning and reflection about the human past. Consistently, Miguel Rerilla, Martinaz Ferreira and Agusti (2020) carried out a study aimed at examining whether the TPACK model, and specifically a version based on 21st century competences, is a coherent and useful assessment tool for analyzing the acquisition of digital competence in social studies prior teacher training. Prospective teachers created

2. Literature Review

260 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” drawn primarily from textbooks and focused on passing examinations (Sebbowa & Muyinda, 2018; Bentrovato & Wassermann, 2018). History education is continuously threatened, as it does not always relate to the C21st (21st century) students, who often find learning history pointless with limited importance to the present day job skills and demands. This implies that, teachers need to diversify into C21st teaching and learning methods that focus on major skills such as: historical thinking, collaboration, historical consciousness, communication, digital skills and creativity (Rifin, Awang, Ahmad & Dahalan, 2019). In this paper, we propose a model for teaching history using emerging technologies in ways that stimulate learners’ interest and draw historical contexts in relation to the contemporary situation A recent study that engaged with Kahoot in a history classroom reports that students were more excited to learn history when a technological tool was introduced (Brims, 2019). Brims concludes that the use of a gamified quiz in the classroom also engaged learners. While there is an increase in the number of Emerging Technologies (ETs) for teaching history, there is paucity of resources with specific focus on C21st students and African history. ETs are digital artifacts, tools, concepts and innovations associated with a disruptive potential to transform or generate changes to serve emerging practices in discipline specific educational contexts (Velestianos, 2016; Sosa, Salinas & De Benito, 2019). Examples of such ETs are blogs, wikis, skype, face book, zoom, mobile phones and WhatsApp that emerge according to particular contexts. In this paper, we draw on ETs, particularly wikis in teaching and learning of history to serve a discipline specific purpose of mediating dialogical conversations between educator and students.

There is growing evidence supporting the use of ETs in history pedagogy. Researchers such as Aying, Awang and Ahmad (2019); Syaripuddin, Ahmad and Awang (2019) revealed that the Digital Game Based Learning (videos, video games and computer games) model fosters history learning with an entertained experience as opposed to the memorization and recitation of history facts reminiscent in history classrooms in Malaysia. Similarly, Virtual reality was used in teaching history among Primary Education learners in Spain. The results revealed that ETs afford comprehension of some cultural and artistic manifestations in history and arouse interest and motivation in a positive way in contrast with course boards (Villena, Cózar Gutiérrez, González Calero & López, Subsequently,2019).

Salmon’s five stage model Salmon’s five stage model was used as a model to support ET. The rationale for engaging with this model was firstly to; illustrate how participants in the wiki can benefit through dialogue, networking and collaboration. Secondly, to highlight the roles of the educator and student at each stage with an aim of enhancing learning (Wright, 2015). Salmon’ s five stage model is a strategic approach to structuring course content and conversations on the basis of a natural stage by stage progression that a student is likely to go through in online

261 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” an online platform based on the implementation of a learning management system (Moodle), and a content management system (Drupal) where the results indicated a commendable progress towards competence after the assessment. However, these authors did not look at the possibility of using ETs to address the persistent use of teacher centric pedagogies in history classrooms that have resulted into passive learning and loss of interest in History Education. We argue that, the developing a model inform of design principles for teaching history can be relevant in guiding learning activities mediated by wikis (ETs).

Wikis are interlinked web pages that allow multiple authors to collaboratively store add and edit content as well as invite dialogical conversations between teachers and students (Samalieva, 2018). Wikis are particularly relevant to this paper because they contain an affordance function of preserving history versions and of tracking changes through evolution and progression of raw concepts and ideas (individual interpretations) into shared understanding. Moreover, wikis facilitate fostering and sustaining collaborative versions of history from which meanings can be continually edited, iterated and revised through a dialogic process of validated meanings as well as promoting students’ initiative in problem solving (Medero & Albaladejo, 2020). Wikis enhance students’ interest in history through interpreting images, videos and pictures as representations from the past. These created historical artifacts might be sustained and transferred from one generation to another. This therefore implies that, wikis have the potential to mediate conversations between the past (relics left) and the present (students and educators). However, studies conducted by Alghasab, Hardman and Handley, (2019); Fisher and Allred, (2020) revealed that, wikis are not inherently collaborative even though they possess features that facilitate collaborative writing and learning. They proposed that greater teacher scaffolding, orientation, guidance on use and incentives to edit and add content, would be useful for successful implementation of wikis for pedagogical purposes. Moreover, Ismail, (2020) recommends that, educators stay updated with technology and encourage students to engage in collaborative creation of content. Correspondingly, wikis have been recommended as user friendly support tools that enhance collaborative learning and knowledge construction among teachers peers and peers peers while they stay home during the COVID 19 era (Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang, Wang, 2020). Accordingly, Huang et al argue that ETs can afford flexibility in learning while simultaneously addressing the challenge that students cannot go to campus and study in a regular way.

Hans Geog Gadamer (1900 2002) developed historical hermeneutics theory. Historical hermeneutics acknowledges that understanding is shaped by past reflected in the students’ experiences of being in the present world (Gadamer, 2004). Thus, the historical hermeneutics philosophy agitates for movement beyond our individual isolations by asking questions to break through closed opinions, preconceptions and the unknown (Risser, 2015). The key concept of dialogue through openness to meaning is translated from bildung in German, which means keeping one’s self open to what is the other, and detaching ones’ self from one’s immediate desires and purposes (Ibid, 2015). Gadamer argues

Salmon’s five stage model (Salmon, 2002) has been proposed as design principles to ensure appropriate online educator scaffolds and technical support while also illustrating students’ roles of increased independence and self directed learning (Korhonen, Ruhalahti, & Veermans, 2018). For example, Kovacic, Bubas and Zlatovic (2008), and Wright (2015) investigated the use of Salmon’s five stage model (e tivities) in writing English as a second language and designing Community Inquiry course components on wiki platforms respectively. Findings revealed that, the five stage model (e tivities) highlighted systematic educator and learner roles as well as a solid framework for deeper engagement with English writing content and appropriate designs for the course components. Although the above studies reported the potential benefits of engaging with Salmon’s five stage model for structuring content and interaction on the wikis, none of them refined Salmon’s five stage procedural steps to design principles that enhance dialogic teaching and learning of history.

Theoretical Framework Historical Hermeneutics

262 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” learning (Wright, 2015). Salmon’s model (2002, p.180), also known as the progression five steps, includes “access and motivation, online socialization, information exchange, knowledge construction and development.” At each of those stages, there are proposed activities to ensure dialogue and conversations between the educator and students to promote insightful learning. In the context of this paper, educators and students have the potential to engage in a collaborative dialogue mediated by wikis that can lead to collective construction of Previoushistory.studies by Kovacic Bubas and Zlatovic (2008); Su and Beaumont, (2010); Salmon, Nie and Ediringha, (2010); Wright, (2015) and Ruzmetova (2018) show that Salmon’s five stage model provides existing draft principles for dialogue and interaction in online pedagogical processes by highlighting how an educator scaffolds learning and the role of students in the process. Particularly, Ruzmetova (2018) demonstrates a deep analysis of using Gilly Salmon’s five framework in the development of an initial short blended course for master’s students at Uzbekistan State World Languages University. In this paper, the design principles were shaped by Salmon’s five stage model because of its procedural structure on utilizing a learner centered pedagogy (Kovacic, Bubas & Zlatovic, 2008). Design principles are re usable guidelines for others wishing to create their own solutions to educational problems across sectors (Herrington & Reeves, 2011).

Historical hermeneutics alludes to understanding as a unity of shared dialogue by listening to the other’s voice. This is reflected in sentiment: ‘If there is dialogue, the relationship must be reciprocal and each must be prepared to listen to what the other has to say.’(Gadamer, 1989, p. 205). In this paper, we closely align with historical hermeneutics, which aims to understand how human actions (between students, peers and educators) share interpretations of history meanings when mediated on a Wiki. Dialogical conversations between educators and students focus constantly on attaching multiple meanings to the past through the lens of the present mediated by Wikis. Closely linked to the Historical Hermeneutics, the Design Based Research (DBR) methodology employed in this study agitates for corroborations with multiple sources, experts and novices, as a means of validation and critique by other people aimed at obtaining true meaning (Lambert and Jacobsen, 2019).

Thus, we engaged with the DBR Methodology to propose a systematic structure as an approach for supporting dialogical conversations between students and teachers mediated by ETs. This was guided by the key research question: What design principles guide history teaching with emerging technologies of C21st students?

263 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” that the achievement of this openness is precisely what is enacted through dialogue of question and answer, as the art of questioning is the art of thinking that takes place in dialogue (Risser, 2015, p. 337). Consistent with the Gadamerian views expressed above, the educator and students engaged in shared dialogical conversations of history meanings mediated on the Wiki.

3. Research Methodology Design Based Research (DBR) DBR is a systematic methodology aimed to create research based solutions to authentic problems in the educational practice through implementations, based on collaboration among researchers and practitioners, leading to contextually sensitive design principles (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). The rationale for engaging with DBR in this research was for two reasons. Firstly, DBR methodology (educational domain) was viewed appropriate for the current research as it proposed an intervention that would work in an authentic learning environment to address the research challenge in history education. Secondly, DBR methodology is a viable approach in designing interventions to solve real problems in students’ everyday life with grounded theoretical underpinnings (Papavlasopoulou, Giannakos and Jaccheri, 2019). Given that, DBR is typically context bound. A wiki intervention applicable to the Ugandan context was designed tested and re tested at the Makerere University, School of Education That said, the proceeding section presents the four phases of DBR that guided this research coupled with observational findings at the respective steps. DBR consists of four phases that ensure a systematic research process, with each phase informing the other through a cyclic and iterative process of refinement of problems, solutions, methods and design principles (Reeves, 2006).

As already stated in the introductory section, the dominant use of teacher centric methods results into anti dialogue and disengagement in history education Thus, C21st learners seem unimpressed with teachers’ didactic approaches (Lambert and Jacobsen, 2019) that limit their active participation. This is exacerbated by the perception that learning history is pointless and insignificant to their contemporary needs Perhaps the question that educators could be grappling with is; how can history be taught to attract C21st authentic learning approaches? In cognizant of other methods of teaching history, we proposed an innovation of learning through blended ETs with a possibility of enhancing dialogue between educators and students

DBR Phase 2: Design Principles

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DBR Phase 1: Analyze problem

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Figure 1: Four Phases of DBR (Adapted from Reeves, 2006)

As a continuation of the DBR phase 1 above, solutions to the research problem were developed by consulting literature on how similar problems had been addressed This focused on historical hermeneutics theory and existing design principles. Salmon’s five stage model provided the existing design principles for mediating effective dialogical conversations (hermeneutical construct) between the educator and students on a wiki. Consequently, a wiki was designed as a

Informed by the DBR phase 1, we needed to redefine our understanding of the problem by interacting with practitioners. To this end, informal consultations with practitioners, history teachers, teacher educators and a curriculum expert from National Curriculum Development Centre. The consultations with practitioners were particularly relevant because experienced personnel suggested possible solutions to the problem given that they faced similar pedagogical challenges on a daily basis. Through informal interviews and collaborations with practitioners, the problem was refined and analyzed with new horizons in two ways. Firstly, that history was/is being taught with limited or no shared dialogue between students and teacher, and that learning will continue to dissipate from one generation to another. Secondly, that there is a need to obtain multiple perspectives about the past mediated by ETs to capture the way 21st century students learn.

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In the DBR methodology, all stages, from the analysis to the development of design principles, include interactive and iterative formative evaluations. From the beginning of the cycles' implementation, starting with the design, to the execution and evaluation of each workshop, the researchers and instructors were in constant collaboration (Papavlasopoulou, Giannakos & Jaccheri, 2019). We engaged with thematic analysis greatly informed by the historical hermeneutics key constructs such as dialogue

Data findings and Analysis

The importance of DBR phase 3 was to implement, test and evaluate an intervention (wiki) in practice at the Makerere University authentic context. Consequently, the design intervention was implemented through three iterative cycles in which design principles were refined to improve practice. In the next section, we reflect on the implementation of the Salmon’s five stage model captured in two implementations with diverse participants.

The participants were pre service teachers (C21st students) in their third year of study taking history as one of their teaching subjects at the School of Education, Makerere University. Consequently, each cohort of participants was informed that recruitment to join the wiki platform was voluntarily on a free entry and exit basis. Thus, participants were free to join the platform and free to leave at will. Those willing to join the platform had to register their names, emails and mobile contacts to participate in the research for strictly research purposes. Volunteered participants were requested to attend a face to face orientation workshop scheduled at the Computer Laboratory, School Of Education, Makerere University

Implementation 1 Participants’ selection

technological innovation customized to Salmon’s five stage model (reflected in the preceding sections) with a focus of addressing the identified problem. The choice of wikis as an innovative intervention was informed by its affordance of preserving and fostering shared conversations of history understandings from which meanings can be continually edited, iterated and revised to attain authentic understanding. Having designed a wiki and engaged with Salmon’s five stage model, the next focus was on DBR phase 3.

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Eight participants from the history methods class volunteered to take part in the ET integration in history project. It is more likely that volunteer participants had internet enabled ICT tools, required skills and interest in engaging with ICTs for pedagogical purposes. The participants unanimously agreed to discuss the topic; “Manifestations of Neocolonialism in Uganda” citing that they were all experiencing its manifestations in their present lives and that it was topic covered in the secondary school history curriculum. Thus, the impact of the introduction of ET might be tested during school practice where pre service teachers practically engage with ETs in the actual teaching.

Phase 3: Test and refine solutions

• Question and obtain responses on the texts, pictures and images.

• Welcomes, motivate and guides participants through obtaining technical support.

• Creates a protected Wikispaces site.

• Ask participants to get in to groups of two and identify a history topic.

• Sets an authentic pre engagement task.

• Sends out SMS, email invitations for a face to face orientation meeting.

• Facilitates questioning and answering on the meaning.

• (Preconceptions of History Education in Uganda).

• Sends invitation emails to participants from Wikispaces.

The participants:

• Post and share views on preconception task, comment and respond to peers.

The Researcher:

• Share history texts, pictures and images on the agreed upon topic of interest.

The participants:

• Brainstorm and unanimously agree on the history topic of interest.

The participants:

266 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” Salmon’s five stage model implemented and customized to History Table 1: Formulated design principles from Salmon’s five Stage model Salmon’s five stage model design principles CharacteristicsemphasisSubstantive ProceduralMethodemphasis Access motivationand Improve digital literacy skills by playingaround with accesstheuserinterfacetoWikisite . Blended learning interestofGroupCollaborationidentificationahistorytopicofbylinkingto the students’ interests

• Attend the face to ace orientation meeting. online Authenticidentities task

The Researcher

• Introduce themselves by name and year of study.

• Guide and direct participants on accessing the pre engagement task

The Researcher:

• Tasks participants to introduce themselves by name and year of study.

• Asks participants about their access to computers, mobile phones and internet facilities

• Sign into Wikispaces site • Familiarize with the Wikispaces.

ExcInformationhange

Exchange of historical texts, pictures and images Open questioning & answering

• Access and engage with the required task.

socializationOnline Providing

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developmentFostering Linking the past to the present The Researcher:

The Researcher:

• Attempt the authentic task

Step 1 was conducted through three stages. Firstly, after successfully designing a wiki and posting a welcoming message to the participants as a way of initiating and inviting them. The rationale for posting a welcoming message was to recruit participants understanding about why they are learning in this way, as well as what they had to do to take part in the online activities (Salmon, 2011). Secondly, sending out invitation emails from the wiki and requesting participants to sign up and create their own accounts. Thirdly, to enhance blended learning; invitation of participants for face to face meetings to afford physical socializations, clarifications, and instant feedback. Observations were an appropriate strategy to provide direct experiences of how participants accessed the wiki. The participants would receive instant communications and notifications from the wiki about any updates. Out of the eight participants, seven were able to access the wiki using various means and avenues such as their mobile phones, desktop computers: through guidance from the educator, face to face orientation workshops and peers. Participants were able to introduce themselves by writing their names and years of study. Therefore, step 1of access and motivation were largely successful. Although most of the participants gained access to the wiki, there were some challenges recorded in the written interview. For example, one participant highlighted a need for further guidance on where to obtain technical support. Technical support was earmarked as relevant and significant for the success of online learning (Ismail, 2020).

• Facilitates the exploration of multiple sources of evidence.

• Share their experiences by linking the past to the present Table 1 above is substantiated in procedural steps as follows: Step 1: Access and motivation

• Guides participants to collaborative construction of knowledge.

• Tasks participants to reflect on their lived experiences of learning history

The participants:

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constructionKnowledge historycocollaborativeSupportnstructionofmeanings.

• Presents an authentic task.

• Collective negotiation of the history meanings.

• Explore multiple sources of evidence to obtain history interpretation.

The participants:

Similarly, it was observed that more time and online space should be created on the wiki to enable participants easily to play with the user interface and acclimatize themselves with the online environment.

Following the successful implementation of Salmon’s steps 1, 2 and 3 presented above, the expectation was that participants would begin to work together on the active co construction of knowledge through dialogical interpretation of history meanings at the steps 4 and 5, to promote knowledge construction and to foster development respectively. However, this level of engagement was not reached. This paucity could be explained as a challenging move from information exchange, to knowledge construction, onto development that required a longer period for the participants to become comfortable with being open minded and critically reflective of their own views and positions. Given that the DBR approach employed in this paper places emphasis on iterative

Online socialization involves building online confidence and ease of interaction. Thus, participants were requested to contribute to the pre engagement task by introducing themselves hence posting their names and year of study. Online introductions were deemed important to build solid online identities, networks and friendships that would later support collaborative learning (Salmon, 2013).

Step 2: Online Socialization

Step 3: Information Exchange Step 3 was characterized by activities, exchange of historical texts, pictures and images, open questioning and answering. Such characteristics or activities were to be evident on the wiki. Participants engaged with the topic, Manifestations of Neocolonialism in Uganda on the wiki. Subsequently, viewed through online observations, participants made online contributions on the concept of neocolonialism in Uganda while others shared pictures exhibiting their understanding of the Manifestations of Neocolonialism in Uganda The argument developed in this paper is that the process of attaching meaning to the past through sharing of pictures and photographs provides a form of innovative approaches to learning and reconstructing history through the lens of the present. Thus, to substantiate the above statements participants engaged in an online discussion on neocolonialism in Uganda. Participants interacted with each other and exchanged ideas about the concept of neocolonialism in Uganda, the Salmon’s step five; information exchange was to a larger extent successful. To this end, Salmon (2002) argues that, information exchange is deemed successful when participants learn how to search and exchange information productively through e tivities. However, it was to a lesser extent successful in that, there were limited uploaded pictures and images on Manifestations of Neocolonialism in Uganda. Hence, this was documented under lessons learnt and recommendations.

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To a larger extent, the focus of online socialization among participants was achieved, yet the lesser extent should not be ignored. For example, it was earlier observed that some participants (three out of eight) did not engage with sharing their online identities. This could have been due to the voluntary participation on the wiki, perhaps another explanation could be that participants were not motivated to participate online. Therefore, this observation served as a basis to inform the refinement of online socialization at implementation 2 in the proceeding section.

Steps 4 & 5: Promote Knowledge Construction and Foster Development

“@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” cycles of re testing and refinement of design principles, this was not effectively implemented (Herrington et al., 2009). Steps 4 and 5, knowledge construction and development would be executed and re tested at implementation 2.

Lessons learnt from Implementation 1

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Salmon’s five stage model is to be re worked and customized to history pedagogy. The potential of this step is the dialogical conversations informed by the Historical Hermeneutics evident at information exchange. That said, Implementation 2 was to be effected within a longer period This was relevant in engaging the researcher and participants in construction of history meanings mediated by the wiki. To suit the DBR approach employed in this paper, different cohorts of participants were used. The rationality for the different cohort of participants was to ensure that the conclusions adequately represent the entire range of variation that could be generalized to similar contexts of Public Universities in Uganda.

These cohorts of participants were pre service teachers who took history as one of their teaching subjects. Following the lessons learnt in preceding section, the small number of participants (eight) may have limited the findings, as some students did not ably engage in collaborative construction of history meanings. To that end, Herrington and Reeves, (2011) argue that at the second implementation a different group of students is often used considering the different years of study and the different times at which the course runs. Subsequently, 20 participants voluntarily joined the wiki comprising of three PGDE students, eleven second year students and six third year students. Consequently, participants were informed that recruitment to join the wiki platform was voluntarily on a free entry and withdrawal basis. Thus, using diverse groups in DBR adds value and enables a critical analysis of the history content materials, as these can identify issues with the design prior to the final design principles (Akker & Nieveen, 2017). Step 1: to access and play Salmon’s step 1 ‘Access and motivation’ was renamed ‘Access and Play’ so as to customize it to the history pedagogy local context The argument for access and play was to provide an ongoing support to participants to gain access and to motivate and arouse participants’ interest. Thus, a play page on the wiki that had no structured ground rules, where participants could obtain access and learn how to use the wiki environment through trial and error was created. In this paper, we conceptualize play as an open, free practice for gaining confidence in the wikis intervention without a set ground rules and procedures to follow (Fairfield, 2015). We realized that, to access and play, was closely aligned to the study problem of teacher centric approaches reminiscent in history pedagogy which limit the art of dialogical conversations about the past. This was followed by the educator’s task that required participants to engage with Access, play page, and familiarize themselves with learning on the wiki. The educator further cautioned participants that this was a trial, play and fun page and that nothing was to be taken seriously. In response to the educator’s

Implementation 2 Participants’ selection

270 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” task, participants tried out several encounters and trials of making postings, uploading images and videos. Observational findings were further coded and categorized into themes: History Education dialogue, and Fun and Play dialogue. Out of the 20 participants, 10 were themed under History Education dialogue while the remaining 10 fell under the category of fun and play dialogue as reflected in table 2. Table 2: Participants’ activities at step 1-Access and Play Educator’s task/activities Participants/ students’ activities Description of activities and themes arising from data No. participantsofoutof20 Representativecomment Uploads a PBwiki video and TaskspictureUploadsuserguideaplayforHistorytimelinesparticipantstofamiliarizethemselveswiththePBuserguides Refers to userguiPBwikithede&videoforguidance Compliments from the questionnaire and interview revealed that participants refered to the PBuser guide for guidance capturedcommentsrepresentativeNo participantsCautionsthat this was a trial play page and nothing was to be taken seriously on this participantsSupplementedpage ’ posts Engaged with trial sessions ofpictures/uploadingimages Five trial images uploaded (images from the historical artifacts and the present pictures)(family 3 uploadedparticipantstrialimages capturedcommentsrepresentativeNo Played and had fun at Access and play ofconversationsdialogicalMadepagequestioningandrespondingto each others’ questions fromcomplementswithEducator Students’ activities coded and catergorized into two themes: representatativeThreecommentsfromeachtheme Historydialogueeducation 10 dialogueHistoryengagedparticipantsinrelated ‘I would like to know whom historians regard as the mother of history.’ (C1) Fun and play dialogue 10 dialogueandengagedparticipantsfunplay ‘Hi friends, I am seeking for advice in a project am starting in my village. This shall friendscommunityconflictssomeknowledgeapplycommunitylikecoverbasicaspectsenablingmytohistoricaltosolveproblemslike;inmysodearadvise me.’(C10).

Explanation: The student created a dialogical question, which seemed funny but required an answer. For example, she used the phrases and words, ‘whom historians regard as the mother of history’. Teachers and educators always teach about Herodotus (484 425 B.C), an ancient Greek historian as the father of history who spearheaded the world’s first piece of historical writing known as historians. It was quite funny that the student inquired about the ‘mother of history’. Such a question could yield into endless probing and multiple interpretations that explain the fact that there is no one right answer in history.

Step 2: to promote online introductions

Theme: History Education dialogue Extract: ‘I would like to know whom historians regard as the mother of history’ (C1).

Theme: Fun and play dialogue Extract: “Hi friends, am seeking for advice in a project. I am starting a project in my village. This shall cover basic aspects like enabling my community to apply historical knowledge to solve some problems like; conflicts in my community so dear friends advise me.” (C10) Explanation: The above statement is indicative of the student’s need to use history knowledge to solve a problem in the present. The student uses the phase, ‘enabling my community to apply historical knowledge to solve some problems like; conflicts in my community’. This statement was deemed relevant because, it linked educators and teachers to students’ thinking in the present where the student sought advice from ‘friends’ to solve challenges in the present, ‘conflicts in the community.’ The statement suggested that dialogical construction of history meanings could potentially become an interesting, exciting and fun learning activity mediated by wiki. This view partly provides a solution to today’s students who find learning about the past boring. Therefore, the historical hermeneutics construct of dialogue in history was evidently manifested at step 1.

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Firstly, this could be because some participants felt shy to upload family history images In some instances, especially in Africa, sharing of images of the family lineage on social media may not be allowed. Secondly, some cultural relics

The argument for promoting online introductions was driven by the desire for participants to introduce themselves and identify with each other on the wiki site. This was achieved through sharing names, year of study and making posts/images of something about their culture/family history. The rationale for sharing their cultures was important in making them feel part of their own history, family and tradition. To this end, Seixas, (1996) argues that family history gives students a chance to learn about the past in a way that is meaningful to them as it connects to their lives. All the 20 participants shared their online identities and highlights about their family history by mentioning tribe, origin and something significant about their culture, while only seven uploaded images about their cultural history. Two reasons are highlighted for the small number of image uploads as follows.

Following table 2, two extract examples that represent the illuminated observational themes are analyzed: Observational analysis example 1

272 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” (representations of the past) are not available in electronic format. Therefore, observational findings suggested that participants shared online identities and family histories for ease of interaction and understanding each other on the wiki as reflected in table 3 below. Table 3: Participants’ activities at step 2: to promote online Introduction Educator’ activities/task Students’ responsesactivities in themes fromthemesresponsesstudentDescription/inarisingdata No. ofantsparticipofout20 examplerepresentativeQualitative Asks participants to subjectsstudy,name,statingthemselvintroduceesbytheiryearofteaching themselvesIntroduced identificationOnline 20 Hi,I am xxx athird yearstudent at (C9).fromMugwereEducation.ReligiousandsubjectMyartspursuingMakerereuniversitybachelorofwitheducation.teachingsarehistoryChristianIamabytribeKibukudistrictTasked to history.ofpictures,texts/uploadMakeHistorytheirinterestingsomethingshareaboutFamilywrittenimagestheirfamily Share a highlight about andculturaluploadedandfamilytheirhistorysomeimagespicture Supplements students’ questions familyresponsesandonhistory Peers welcome each other on the otherrespondquestioncomment,platformlearningWikiandtoeach Family highlightshistory 20 (C10).EasternSamiaEducation.ReligiousHistoryBAEDamHulloeveryone,Ixxx,offeringanddoingandIamabytribefromUganda Shared images about culture 7 I am BugandaKatikirroBpicturesshareculturetribeamugandabyandIlovemysomuch.Isomeofthefromugandaandtheof(C11).

historysharinggiveTaskshistoryfamily/culturalngsignificant/interestisomethingaboutyourparticipantstoreasonsfortheirfamily

To make shared interpretations of history meanings was created with a rationale of enabling collaborative construction and interpretations of history meanings. Importantly, this principle is aligned to the link of exchanging history artifacts through pictures, images and audios. Thus, this step was achieved through reading and consulting multiple sources of history information, such as journal articles, newspaper extracts, video clips, pictures and images about the suggested topic under study. Participants would analyze all the information from the historical sources, post their interpretations and receive comments, questions and responses from their peers with supplements from the educator.

presenttoofTransitionuralfamily/cultinterestingSharedhistoryculturesthe

7 When one shares his family history, it enables one to appreciate his culture and heritage and compare with other cultures (B9)

andbelongingsenseprovideCulturesheritagecultureAppreciatingandaofidentity

theofPreservationculturetopresent 6 I feel part of history when I describe, appreciate and write about my culture it’s a way of keeping and preserving it (B2)

Step 3: to make shared interpretations of history meanings

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Thus, step 4 would be successfully accomplished if participants engaged in doing history through active engagement of sharing history meanings to reach understandings afforded by the wiki. Out of the 20 participants who engaged with the principle of making interpretations of history meanings, 7 shared cherished cultural values, 7 revealed that, they appreciated culture and heritage, while, 6 indicated that cultures can be preserved to the present.

7 I have just realized that cultures have specific values; I really cherish my culture. For example we visit the bush and elongate the labia (B14)

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valuesculturalcherishedShared

Table 4: Participants activities at step 3: making interpretations of history meaning Educators’ activity Students’ activity Description/ Students’ responses in themes No. sparticipantofoutof20 Salient comments Tasks participants to

Step 4 & 5: to support open questioning and clarifications The argument for creating step 5 ‘to support open questioning & clarifications’ was to engage participants in an open inquiry, comment and respond to each other’s posts while receiving supplements and clarification from the educator/researcher. This was envisaged to enhance the collective interpretation and understanding of history meanings hosted by the Wiki. Thus, questioning and responses were intended to help participants see history as issues still being inquired and deliberated on by historians, rather than facts that could not be revised (Maloy, Poirier & Smith, 2010). The DBR methodology postulates that, after the first and second implementations of the solution, the learning environment is refined, design principles renamed and then implemented again (Reeves et al., 2005).

Analysis Example 1

Explanation: B14 appreciated the diversity and uniqueness among cultures while also expressing great interest in her own culture. For example, she used the words and phrases such; “I really cherish my culture’ and went on to provide an example of the cherished cultural practice” She also gave an example of diverse cultural practice practiced by another ethnic group Sabiny culture, “cutting the clitoris‟ in preparation for marriage. This is relevant in History education as students relate to their lives and peers’ life, which makes them see themselves in the academic version of the history discipline.

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Following table 4 above, the hermeneutic cycle driven analysis was employed to analyze examples of excerpts following a procedural process of theme, text and explanation.

Theme: Cherished cultural values Text: “I have just realized that cultures have specific values; I really cherish my culture. For example, we visit the bush and elongate the labia in preparation for sex in marriage while people from the Sabiny culture cut the clitoris women off’’ (B14).

Analysis Example 2

Theme/subtheme: Appreciating culture and heritage/ preservation of culture Text: “I feel part of history when I describe, appreciate and write about my culture.” It is a way of keeping and preserving it (B2) Explanation: B2 attached relevancy to history and therefore adhered to preserving it. This was reflected in the student’s words: “I feel part of history when I describe, appreciate and write about my culture” it’s a way of preserving it.” These statements were analyzed in two ways: firstly, feeling part of history reflected a self conception of belonging to tradition thus relating to one’s identity. Secondly, there was an expression of a need to preserve “such a tradition, which is pertinent in History education. These sentiments suggest that, if students are taught history in relation to their own life, they will definitely find the relevancy in learning about the past. History Education ought to engage students and educators in dialogical conversations about each other’s lives, for example, sharing stories about each other’s culture such that, through multiple interpretations meanings are validated (valid history)

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The validation process of each design principle was achieved through documenting the reflection of what was successful and what failed so that it would be re tested in at implementation 1 and 2. Thus, the change in names of the design principles was guided by the findings at each implementation. Moreover, the names adopted for the final design principles were obtained from dominant words, phrases and themes in the study findings. Therefore, in response to the key research question of the paper: what design principles guide history teaching with emerging technologies of C21st students? Design principles generated were; to connect to the present, to appreciate heritage, to validate history and to promote dialogue in history.

The refined designed principles provide the pillars for defining a robust environment for teaching history in ways that C21st students learn. In this discussion, each of the five principles are revisited.

One of the main outcomes of the DBR approach is the development of design principles and recommendations to guide both theory and practice in specific educational contexts (Pais Marden & Herrington, 2020). After the implementation and evaluation of the proposed solution, Salmon’s five stage model guided the design of the solution through analysis and reflection, revision of principles to produce final design principles for teaching history using ETs as discussed below.

Figure 2: illustrating Design Principles refined from Salmon’s five stage model

Given that the desired outcome of the DBR approach was the creation of design principles customized from Salmon’s Five Stage model the research question was: what design principles guide the teaching and learning of history using emerging technologies? The responses were obtained from a reflection of the design principles procedural steps as summarized in figure 6 below.

From figure 2 above, all the sticky notes representing design principles touch each other somewhere. This suggests that, no design principle stands in isolation they are interconnected. Importantly, the design principles are refined and progress through a consecutive process from one step to another.

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DBR Phase 4: Design Solution

4. Discussion of findings

Four: Dialogue in history Dialogue in history is informed by the historical hermeneutics construct of dialogue (Gadamer, 2004) through open questioning and responses between the

In connecting to the present, a history teacher or educator should first find out if every student has access to computer devices and the internet. This could be achieved through sending out a survey to find out which type of access learners have in their particular contexts. Moreover, Access and play enables students to harness the wiki (or any ET) to log in, play around, and become orientated to learning with others. Students’ participation through play is very important as it motivates and arouses their interest to stay on line ( Salmon, 2013). Teachers normally assume that students will continuously participate but if the activities are not enjoyable and are too structured, they will not participate. However, teachers should note that this can take some time, as access has proven to be a challenge in online learning environments (Korhonen, Ruhalahti & Veermans, 2018) The principle of connecting to the present is vital as it implies that, if C21st students are to participate in interpreting history they need to be acquitted with information literacy skills to afford access to ET tools and internet connectivity.

276 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.”

Two: Appreciating heritage In appreciating heritage, the history educator or teacher encourages students to introduce themselves and share something about their family history that interests them. The rationale behind ‘appreciating heritage’ is to ensure that students feel part of history and identify with the past through sharing their cultural history (students share personal stories about their families). Correspondingly, appreciating heritage affords student development of C21st skills such as; historical thinking and historical consciousness based on evidence from multiple sources of the past. This is relevant as it allows students to express how they understand the past from the inferences they make from sources and to become aware of their orientation in historical time (Carrasco, Martinez, Fontal & Etxeberria, 2020).

Three: Validating history In validating history, the role of the educator/teacher is to scaffold the learning process by tasking students to read a variety of history texts while taking into consideration (exhibiting awareness) of the authors' intentions, context and time in which the texts were written and share this information mediated on the wiki. In congruence with this view, Carrasco, Martinez, Fontal and Etxeberria, (2020) assert that History Education should absolutely aim at helping students explore and interpret multiple perspectives about the past, stimulate student’s historical thinking and enable acquisition of historical knowledge. Indeed, the teacher’s role at this step is to scaffold and respond to questions, supplement students’ responses and motivate learners by providing feedback. For example, during the COVID 1 lock down, validation of the shared ET or social media texts, videos and audios was achieved through official communications from the World Health Organization, Ministry of Health, Uganda and Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES, 2020) for Educational related issues.

One: Connecting to the present

The study encountered two major limitations. Firstly, there was a conflict of interest in my roles as a researcher and educator at the same time. This bore a minimal impact on the process of data gathering and the outcome of the research finding as all research activities were recorded and monitored.

Secondly, the limited number of participants who engaged in this study may not have been representative of the general status of History Education at Makerere University Future research should engage more participants with a quantitative focus on in service teachers in school settings. This could include plans such as conducting iterations and workshops in school settings to explore impact of ET in actual teaching of history at the secondary school level. In terms of theory, it would be interesting to see more studies in the area that ground their findings in social constructionism theoretical perspective.

277 “@2020 The authorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.” educator, students and course content. Therefore, under this principle, students engage in dialogue and make meaning to the history content shared by asking for clarifications and questioning in form of the conversations between the past and the present as mediated by the wiki. For example, in the contemporary COVID 19 era in Uganda. While, educational programs for primary (social studies) and secondary school (history) are currently aired on television and radio stations, the teacher is the sole dispenser of knowledge as students listen and note down issues arising out of the lessons This is seemingly constrained with no interactivity and collaboration between teacher student, student student, as students’ questions are never answered. The only feedback or comments on the lessons aired is given to teachers or head teachers through sending SMS, WhatsApp, emails or writing reports. There is need for dialogical conversation as well as instant questioning and responding to students’ questions afforded by ETs such as wikis.

The research was initiated to support history educators/teachers to embrace pedagogical approaches aimed at arousing C21st students’ interest, identification and engagement in the study of the past DBR methodology provided a systematic structure for supporting dialogical conversations between C21st students and educators mediated by ETs. The study revealed that, ETs such as, wikis are useful environments that attract and interest C21st students into active engagement and learning about the past.

5. Conclusions, Limitations and Future Research

Five: Doing history In ‘doing history’ students collaboratively interpret and attach meaning to the past by using the wiki as the mediating tool. The educator/teacher provides tasks that enhance learners to make their own interpretations by considering multiple sources; representations, relics from the past like videos and texts, and visiting elders as sources of evidence from which collaborative interpretations about history meanings As reflected in the preceding section, C21st students participated in doing history through sharing texts, pictures and videos. Doing history might be achieved through active engagement and making sense of images, videos, pictures and texts obtained from the past (Sebbowa & Nabushawo, 2019).

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281 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 281 300, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.15 Analysis of Engineering Accreditation Process and Outcomes: Lessons Learned for Successful First Time Application Tahar Ayadat Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4107 8544 Andi Asiz Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6554 5018 Abstract. The aims of the paper are to share and analyze engineering accreditation experience starting from the preparation through the outcome, and to discuss lessons learned particularly for first time applicants. Securing accreditation from a well recognized international body, such as the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) can indicate quality of an engineering program. To qualify for an accreditation up to six to seven year period, an engineering program must meet a set of accreditation standards or criteria. The article is not computercoursecurriculumexerciseaccreditationtheduringinternationalwillaccreditationArabia.ProgramaccreditationaccreditationapplicablearelimitedonlyfornewengineeringprogramsoutsidetheUnitedStateswhowillingtopursueengineeringaccreditationfromABET,butitisforanexistingaccreditedprogramwhowillundergonextcycle.TheauthorspresentedandanalyzeddetailexperienceforanewestablishedCivilEngineering(CE)atPrinceMohammadbinFahdUniversity(PMU)inSaudiAlthoughtheABETwebsiteprovidesdetailprocedureforthesteps,thedetailcasesexperiencedbythePMUCEprogramenrichknowledgeonhowtoprepareandhandlesuccessfulaccreditation.Theauthorsalsodiscussedissuesraisedtheaccreditationactivities,includingprogramcompliancewithnineABETcriteria,andpresentedkeylessonstoprepareforasmoothprocess.Themainsignificantresultoftheaccreditationaboutcontinuousimprovementwassummarizedintermoftheupgrade,includingaddinganothersemesterforseniordesignandofferingnewsustainabilityengineeringcourse,andaddingaideddesigncourseattheearlysemester. Keywords: Engineering accreditation; quality assurance; student outcomes assessment; continuous improvement

1. Introduction Actually, securing accreditation from a well recognized international body, such as Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) can indicate quality of an engineering program. The definition of accreditation within an academic institution context is an evaluation process conducted by a group of educational professional to determine whether teaching and learning practice meet specified standards or criteria set by an accrediting body. The primary purpose of accreditation is to maintain quality of education and to ensure public that graduatedstudentsof an educational institution or programhavea minimum level of skills and competencies ready for use in their respected professional fields (Urquizo, 2019). There are two types of accreditation level, institutional or program level and these can be a mandatory or voluntary process depending on the policy of government in the educational sector (Prados et al., 2005). For example, in the United States accreditation is a voluntarily process governed by a non governmental body associated with educational and professional organizations. Whereas in Saudi Arabia accreditation is mandatory at both levels.

The Saudi Ministry of Education through the National Commission on Academic Accreditation and Evaluation (NCAAA) evaluates and accredits universities and programs throughout the country (Onsman, 2010; Darandari et al., 2009; Abou Zeid & Taha, 2014; Albaqami, 2019). Accreditation at the institutional level involves much border standards covering university operation in teaching, research, community service, and resource administration and management.

Meanwhile program accreditation sets specific standards for preparing students to develop professional skills and competencies needed in their respective fields. In this regards, ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) is one of the accreditation bodies widely used to gauge whether an engineering program meets its standard. It was initially purposed for accrediting US engineering programs with the primary objective to prepare engineering graduates to meet criteria set by respected professional engineering associations. Since mutual recognition agreements were established between ABET and various countries represented by their engineering associations. Since mutual recognition agreements established between ABET and various countries, ABET has gone international and accredited more than 4,000 programs in 32 states as of 2019 20 accreditation cycle (Prados, 2005; ABET, 2020a). In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) alone, 358 engineering and technology programs spanning over 11 countries have been accredited by ABET with Saudi Arabia at the top getting more than 140 programs accredited (Marzouk, 2019; Elnajjar et al., 2019). Most of engineering programs in MENA and another part of the world because of its shifting philosophy from resources to outcomes based evaluation (Al yahya & Abdel-halim, 2013; Zahed, et al., 2007; Husain, et al., 2017; Barret, et al., 2019; Calderon, et al., 2016). Also, it is due to simplicity in the accreditation documentation, which emphasizes more on the continuous improvement criteria based on self assessment outcomes of teaching and learning criteria (Abou Zeid & Taha, However,2014).there have been challenges faced by young engineering programs outside the US to undergo an ABET accreditation process. The most common

challenge is that culture of teaching quality based on student learning outcomes achievement is not a widespread practice among teaching staffs and university administrators (Onsman, 2010; Abou Zeid & Taha, 2014; Anwar & Richards, 2018). Teaching quality is simply measured by overall student grade achievement without needs assessing performance attributes or indicators required in professional work. Teachingimprovementare mostly dependenton stakeholder’s (students, faculty, alumni, employers) comments and suggestions derived via surveys (Retnanto, et al., 2018; Kim & Song, 2017; Meyer, et al., 2016). Switching to a culture of comprehensive learning outcome assessment used as the main driving force for continuous teaching improvement takes serious commitments, efforts and time. The next challenge is that adequate resources such as qualified instructors and teaching infrastructures are always a valid concern for young engineering program during its establishment, considering budget constraints (Sriraman & Stapleton, 2012; War, et al., 2012; Barr, 2013). Maintaining numbers of faculty according to an acceptable student faculty ratio is another issue for a program that is dependent heavily on international expatriate resources such as the case for most of GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) universities. In other words, retention is a big issue because tenure position is non existent for international faculty working in this region, making it more challenging to invest in a continuous commitment of improvement under the accreditation framework. Last but not least is the challenge of coordination between various levels within university administration in conducting accreditation work and quality assurance in general. Unlike Western universities, it is common practice in GCC universities to establish deanship of quality assurance and accreditation governed under vice rector of academic, which in principle is independent of college or program leadership (Onsman, 2010; Darandari, et al., 2009). Although it could be useful resources in term of administering accreditation process, without strong coordination, this could lead to unwanted bureaucracy slowing process of curriculum upgrade. At Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University (PMU), all engineering programs under the College of Engineering (COE) have ABET accreditations, representing some of the earliest engineering programs in Saudi Arabia getting internationally accredited under the category of small private universities. The civil, mechanical, and computer engineering programs have undergone ABET accreditation exercises during the 2016 17 cycle, with all the three experiencing the same time of the site visit evaluation by the end of Fall 2017 term. During that cycle, two existing programs had already been ABET accredited a year earlier, electrical engineering by EAC (Engineering Accreditation Commission) and information technology by CAC (Computer Accreditation Commission). This paper focused on the Civil Engineering (CE) Program accreditation experience with comparative observations and lessons also taken from those of the other engineering programs under COE. The CE Program is the smallest program within COE in term of the student population. PMU established the CE Program in 2008, two years after the other engineering programs operated. Currently, the CE program has enrolled 179 students and graduated nearly 100 students since the first batch of graduates in 2011. It has seven teaching staffs (five professors and two instructors), one administrative staff and one lab engineer. Concerning the curriculum, the CE

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

• Graduates have successful and professional careers in civil engineering and related industries, and meet the expectations of the prospective employers.

• Graduates demonstrate leadership and effectively undertake services within their profession and contribute to sustainable development in their communities.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. program offers 139 total credit hours completed within four years, excluding a preparatory year. Out of the 139 credit hours, 79 are for civil and general engineering courses and the remaining 60 credit hours are for math, science, and social science, and competency based courses. The credit hour requirement and composition for engineering, math, and science courses followed the ABET curriculum criterion. Among the university in Saudi Arabia, PMU is considered to be unique in term of offering explicit competency based courses such as Team Work and Leadership, Professional Development, and Critical Thinking and Problem Solving in addition to standard communication based courses such as writing, oral, and technical communications. Concerning the learning outcome achievement, there are three explicit courses called Learning Outcome Achievements I, II, and III offered at the end of first year students, junior, and senior levels, respectively with the latter associated with senior (engineering) design Startingcourse.fromthe academic year 2019 2020, the CE program has migrated to the new 1 to 7 Student Outcomes (SO) from the previous version of ABET a to k SO which was used during the program accreditation cycle 2016 17 (ABET, 2020b). In this paper, any discussion about SO and their assessments refer to the a to k SO. The program educational objectives (PEO) of the CE program were developed considering alignment with the SO and the university mission, and they were about a set of technical skills and competencies expected to achieve by young graduate within five years of their graduation. The following is the CE PEO, including their relationship with the a to k SO:

• Graduates pursue their professional development through continuous lifelong learning; advanced studies; and membership in professional societies.

2. Methodology

The main method of the study was qualitative and analytical approach of the accreditation processes and reviews that were based on compilation of communications between PMU and ABET including the actual visit review. The communications between ABET and the CE program teams were presented and analyzed in each activity including written responses to program evaluator’s comments and recommendations, and direct interaction and discussions with the EAC team during the visit and post visit. The accreditation outcomes were critically analyzed to facilitate strategy for quality improvement in teaching and learning at the CE program. Lessons learned from these accreditation activities were summarized in the discussion section, before recommendations were given in websitestartorganizedwilltheconclusionpurposedmainlyforuniversityanditsassociatedprogramswhoundergotheprocessoffirstaccreditationorreaccreditation.ThispaperwasaccordingtosignificantmilestonesofABETaccreditationprocedureedfromprevisit,sitevisit,andpostvisitactivities.AlthoughtheABETprovidesdetailprocedurefortheaccreditationsteps,thedetailcases

The CE Program conducted assessments using one academic year data (Fall 2016 and Spring 2017), including a summer internship course. Performance indicators for each SO were carefully measured and analyzed for ten courses representing

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. experienced by the CE program will enrich knowledge on how to prepare and handle successful international accreditation.

The official pre visit activity started with Request for Evaluation (RFE) for the CE Program that was submitted to ABET by 31 Jan 2017 along with the other two programs at PMU, Mechanical Engineering (ME) and Computer Engineering (CompE). Also, Request for Acknowledgment from Saudi’s accrediting agency (i.e. NCAAA) and one academic transcript from recent civil engineering graduate accompanied the RFE submission. ABET requires that program requesting accreditation be under a nationally recognized institution that is accredited by the highest national accrediting body (ABET, 2020c). By the time of RFE submission, PMU received full institutional accreditation by NCAAA for up to seven years. There was no need to submit Readiness Report since two PMU programs (Electrical Engineering, EE and Information Technology, IT) received ABET accreditation. During the period between RFE and Self Study Report (SSR) submission, there were discussions between PMU and ABET about sharing biographical sketches of Team Chair (TC) and Program Evaluators (PEVs) to ensure that there was no conflict of interest. Unlike the previous accreditation review for the PMU EE and IT programs which involved regional (middle eastern) university as one of the evaluators, all PEVs and TC assigned by ABET this time were from American university professors with substantial experience in international accreditation. The next critical step was about updating Self Study Report that the CE Program have well developed since the beginning of the academic year 2016 17. The SSR document, along with eight student academic transcripts under the CE Program, was submitted to ABET headquarter in Maryland before the dateline July 1, 2017. The student academic transcripts were selected based on a recommendation from the PMU Registrar Office after input from the CE Program since there was no specific request from ABET about the selection criteria. By that time, the CE Program had graduated 44 students since the first graduate in the academic year 2011 12. The SSR was developed according to the nine general criteria for an accrediting engineering program, as follow: Background Information; Criterion 1 (Students) Criterion 2 (Program Education Objectives); Criterion 3 (Student Outcomes); Criterion 4 (Continuous Improvement); Criterion 5 (Curriculum); Criterion 6 (Faculty); Criterion 7 (Facilities); Criterion 8 (Institutional Support); Program Criteria; Appendix A (Course Syllabi); Appendix B (Faculty Vitae); Appendix C (Equipment); and Appendix D (Institutional Summary). The Program Criteria was not Criterion 9, but it was as important as the other eight criterions. Among all these criteria, Criterion 4 (Continuous Improvement) was arguably the most critical chapter in the SSR (Estes & Ressler, 2007). This chapter described assessment strategy, data collection and analysis of the SO and PEO assessments, and summary of findings for improvement strategy. Figure 1 illustrates the cycle of the continuous improvement practised at the CE Program.

3. Pre-visit

TIEC: Texas International Education Consortium External Advisory Board TIEC* Decisions and approvals

Senior Design Projects Internship 6 12 months cycle

Figure 1: Continuous improvement cycle (PMU Civil Engineering, 2017)

Alumni Survey Graduate Exit Survey Employer Survey Program Review and Recommendations (by faculty) Review curriculum/syllabi, refine program and/or course outcomes (by faculty) Course Evaluation Course Assessment Reports and Portolios Course Learning Outcomes Evaluation Direct assessment of program and course learning outcomes Implementation Data compilation and Analysis (by faculty)

The CE Program anticipated that PEV would give review results including comments and suggestions during initial or mid fall term. Timeline receiving comments from the EAC visit team varied between programs. Among the three reviewed PMU programs, CE received the comments around two months before to the site visit, while the other two programs (ME and CompE) received around three months before the visit. The EAC Team expected responses from the reviewed program before to the site visit. There was no formal requirement from ABET to submit the answers. However, the reactions were a very important way of communication between the reviewed program and the EAC visit team to ensure compliance with all criteria. If there were issues raised by PEV or TC, the program would have taken immediate actions. After careful review, the CE Program submitted the responses two weeks after receiving the PEV comments. Table 1 showed the review and comments given by PEV about the submitted SSR and corresponding responses by the CE Program. the authors provided summary of the comments and responses without losing their important contexts. TC also sent separate reviews to the COE Dean, but they were mostly about general comments such as updating website content about program enrollment statistics since the first batch of graduates (e.g. the number of enrollments for each level, graduated students per cohort).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. key civil engineering subjects. Detail method for the assessment is available in a journal paper developed by the CE Program team (Ayadat, et al., 2020). It was very challenging to propose improvement steps in the teaching and learning practice based on one academic year assessment. However, the authors proposed restructuring key curriculum change including: offering important senior design project course in two semesters; offering new courses either as required ones or technical electives; upgrading laboratory facility; and improving student to faculty ratio.

Criterion 4:

• Describing that currently there was no policy within department for substituting course credit with vocational, placement, or dual enrollment etc. The only exception to this was the Internship module which is a 3 Credit Hour course attended as 8 full time weeks with a company (typically in the summer). SSR report was updated to include this section.

• Asking whether published PEOs in the CollegeorUniversity catalogue.

• Submitting all requested course syllabi responses.inseparatefilesquotedandlinkedtothe

• Requesting to address unanswered section titled “Have and enforce policies for courses taken at the institution”.

• Requesting to provide written documentation of advising records that might show the rationale and conscious decision making process for allowing students to take courses out of proper sequence.

• Updating College and University catalogs to include PEOs and posted in the departmental website with the link information provided to PEV.

• Providing hard copies of various recorded minutes between PMU and constituents during the visit.

• Requesting to showcase and discuss further senior design projects and their assessment rubrics.

• Describing the process of developing PEO to reassure that the CE Program follows ABET criteria.

• Describing general policy that the Department of Career Services under Deanship of Student Affair provided for students from freshman through senior levels with services that promise students a brighter career.

• Displaying samples of senior design project report and (rubric based) assessment methods separately.

• Commending about summarizing the KPI assessment.reports2016scoresforeachoutcomefortheacademicyear2017withgivenexamplesofcourseandothermeasuresforthe

• Requesting to address career advising and how toaccomplish thisand by whom

awardingacademiccreditforworkinsteadof

Criterion 2:

• Stating availability during the visit about sample of direct measure instruments (exams, assignments, projects and others) according to ‘outcomes’ in the displayed room.

• Requesting during the visit to display examples of the direct measure instruments and the assessment rubrics used, and to organizethem by student outcome

• Giving sample of advising records showing justification about allowing students to take courses out of sequence for the submitted student transcripts.

• Requesting documentation during the visit that meeting with the program constituents (External Advisory Board, Employers, andmeetingPEOs,creation,Alumni,Faculty,Staff)wasconductedinthereviewandrevisionprocessofandthesecouldbeintheformofminutesthatshowthediscussionapprovalofPEOs.

• Appreciating PEV for the commendation and highlighting key course assessment.

Criterion 3: Nocommentsweregiven

Table 1: PEV review and CE responses Comments Responses Criterion 1:

Criterion 5: • Requesting course syllabi for Learning Outcome Assessment II, Material curricularEngineeringandallMATHcoursestoassesscompliance.

• Addressing faculty requirements of the inprogramcriteriaandincorporatingthemtheSSR.

• Addressing all program criteria to incorporate four laboratory based courses, six design based courses including senior design project, three sustainability based courses, and six courses covering basic concepts of management, public policy, leadership, ethics, and professional licensures.

• Updating the syllabus of those courses to reflect the program criteria.

The CE Program sent twenty page written response including the original comments via email to PEV and carbon copied to TC and COE Dean. Before to the submission, Dean and the other program chairs conducted general meeting to ensure consistency in the responses since some of the comments were similar, particularly those concerning the institutional support queries. As can be seen in Table 1, the PEV review and comments covered verification or clarification of statements described in the criteria, requesting more information, and correcting some statements. No comments were provided in Criterion 3 since the SO were precisely similar to the a to k SO outlined by ABET. The mapping between the SO and PEOs was provided to indicate that PEOs were attainable by assessing the

• Requesting to incorporate program criteria and how they are met in the curriculum, these include: (1) Laboratory experimentations; (2) Design of a system, component or process in at least two civil engineering contexts; (3) Principles of licensure.Leadership,projectsustainabilityindesign;(4)Basicconceptsofmanagement,Publicpolicy,Ethics,andProfessional

288 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. • Suggesting courses Engineering Geology and Material Engineering to cover three credithoursshort ofBasicMath and Science requirement, and cannot assume Introduction to Computing as a Basic Math or Science since it is neither of those under the EAC definition of Math and Basic Science. • Appreciating PEV for the valuable suggestion. After revising the curriculum to include Engineering Geology (3 credit hours) and Materials Engineering (2 credit hours), Basic Math minimumcredandSciencerequirementamountedto34ithourswhichwasmorethanrequirementof32hours. • Updating and submitting SSR. Criterion 6: • attendanceuniversityanydemonstrateconferences,developmentRequestingevidenceoftechnicalprofessionaloffaculty(attendanceatworkshops,etc.)thatwouldcurrencyintheirfieldaswellasfinancialassistancethedepartmentormightprovidethemfor • Giving statement describing about budget allocated to support faculty travel to present at national, regional and international conferences. • workshops.forconferencestoDescribingeachfacultymemberentitledreceivefundingforuptotwoScopuswithlimitedfundsallocatedprofessionaltrainingand • Submitting a list of attendance and participation for each faculty member in various conferences, seminar, and workshop. Criterion 7: Nocommentsweregiven Criterion 8: Nocommentsweregiven Program Criteria: • Correcting inconsistency of the credit hour requirement between Curriculum and Program Criteria. • Requesting to include faculty requirements oftheprogram criteria.

• Correcting credit hour requirements to be consistent with those mentioned in Criterion 5 (Curriculum) of the SSR.

A specific meetingwith representative math and science professorswas requested by the CE PEV. All schedules must fit with the ABET standard visit of two and a half days. Days before the visit, the PMU team arranged display materials including the SO assessment rubric and tools, samples of course portfolio, samples of senior design project report, and meeting minutes about PEOs development, and civil engineering textbooks in a room intended for the EAC visit team. Since there were three programs under review, the room selected was spacious to accommodate display materials for each program and to facilitate a meeting for various parties.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

SO. The other reason was that PEV focused on Criterion 4 that discussed the SO assessment and analysis, which was used as one of the main input for continuous teaching improvement. PEV comments were not given also in Criterions 7 (Facilities) and 8 (Institutional Supports), since presumably the ABET team would verify them during the site visit. The CE Program obtained helpful recommendation for Criterion 5 (Curriculum), to adjust math and essential requirement by incorporating specific existing courses (Engineering Geology and Materials Engineering). ABET requires that program must offer 32 credit hour math and science courses, and in the Curriculum Criterion of the CE Program, they were short of three credit hours before including those two suggested courses. One of the crucial remarks from PEV was on the Program Criteria which asked the CE Program to provide undescribed several Program Criteria in the curriculum. The issue emerged due to insufficient information received by the CE Program about utilizing recent Program Criteria issued by the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE). After reviewing all syllabi, including courses offered by other departments, the CE curriculum met the program criteria. To comply with the PEV query, several contents in the course syllabi were modified to reflect ASCE requirement of the Program Criteria such as sustainability, project management, public policy, professionalisms, ethics, and licensure. For examples, sustainability topics were covered explicitly in Materials in Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering courses; public policy in Construction Management course; professionalism, ethics and licensure in Introduction to Engineering, Professional Development, and Leadership and Teamwork courses.

The PMU team made detailed arrangement around a month before to the visit. COE Dean and the Program Chairs (CE, ME, and CompE) communicated about detail scheduling with TC and PEVs. The schedules were proposed first by the dean and the program chairs and adjusted by TC and PEVs according to ABET standard needs and their own planned ones. At minimum, the PMU team must arrange PEV meetings with the program chair, faculty members, supported staffs, and students. In addition to meeting with representative faculty and students, the PMU program team scheduled TC activities to meet with the university administrators and support staffs (rector, vice rector for academic affairs, deans, registrar and admission officers, librarians, and budget and accounting director).

4. During the visit After the arrival of all four EAC members by Friday, informal activity was started on Saturday by conducting social meeting between the EAC Team and the university representatives (Public Relation, Deans, and Program Chairs). This

h, and senior design project. The CE PEV recommended that inexpensive testing apparatus for geotechnical and material engineering labs replicated to avoid idleness for students conducting experimental exercises, despite the CE Chair clarified about creating another section to avoid the issue. Based on the course material review, the CE PEV asked clarification about assessment method and tool for outcome h, which was soft skill about understanding the impact of engineering solution in a global and societal context. The PEV and CE Chair agreed from the discussion that this particular outcome was very challenging to assess, and the CE Chair showed more examples of rubric based scoring of senior design project assessment (Chowdhury, et al., 2020). The CE PEV raised another issue about the senior design course that did not apply multiple realistic constraints and applicable design standards as required in the curriculum criterion. Samples of the displayed senior design report did not discuss economic constraint (i.e. simple cost estimate). Also, one of the senior design samples was about research based project with conceptual design work only, and ABET did not recommend this practice. At the end of Day 1, the PEV and CE chair discussed findings obtained from the meetings with faculty, staffs and students. The PEV raised a concern about student over faculty ratio was raised considering the projected number of students within next few years. The original design of the program aimed to have a student faculty ratio less than 20 with a projected enrollment of 300 students. In andraisedthebriefedusingjustificationstudentadministrators.showingChairsoftwarebasedpotentiallyWithcomparison,atthetimeofaccreditationreview,theratiowas25with174students.seventeachingstaffs,thePEVanticipatedtheratiotoincreaseandledtoteachingperformanceissue.AnotherissuedetectedbyPEVonmeetingwithstudentswastheavailabilityofessentialcomputerforcivilengineeringdesigncourses.Parallelwiththis,DeanandCEgaveclarificationsaboutstudenttranscriptsthatwereoutofsequencesbytheactualadvisementformsapprovedbyrespectedprogramThisincludedtheadditionalissueinatranscriptabouttransferraisedatthelastminuteofDay1.Again,theCEprogramconfirmedallowingtransferstudenttotakecourseswithoutnormalprerequitesrecordedadvisingdocument.AroundmidmorningofDay2,thePEVdraftstatementstotheChairandDeanbeforethefinalexitmeetingwithuniversityrector.TheauthorsofthispaperobservedthatsomeoftheseissuesduringtheprevisitcommentsbyPEVwasduetoincompleteinformationjustificationintheprevisitresponses(Table1).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. social activity was optional and intended to get to know each other better before the accreditation review started. Table 2 shows the final official schedule for the CE PEV. In general, the program falls into three primary activities: Day 0 was about evaluating teaching facility and materials, Day 1 interviewing personnel involved in teaching, and Day 2 reporting evaluation results. PEV and, or TC

missuesCEaccreditationofdebriefedpreliminaryfindingswiththeprogramchairsandCOEDeanattheendsDay0andDay1beforetheEACteamconstructeddraftstatementsofthereviewinDay2.AttheendofDay0,theCEPEVdiscussedwiththeChairaboutfindingsthatneededfurtherclarification,andtheseincludedrelatedtoadequacyoflaboratoryequipmentforteaching,assessmentethodforspecificoutcome

• A weakness indicates that a program lacks the strength of compliance with a criterion, policy, or procedure to ensure that the quality of the program will not be

291 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Table 2: CE PEV schedule Sunday (Day 0) Monday (Day 1) Tuesday (Day 2) 12:30 EAC Team Departs Hotel to PMU 1:00 1:15 PM Meet and Greet 1:15 1:30 PM Tour Administration Building 1:30 – 3:00 PM Visit CE Facilities (labs, classrooms, lecture hall) 3:00 5:00 PM Review Course Related Materials, DesignMinutes,Assessment,OutcomesRecordedandSeniorReports.

8:00 – 8:30 AM COE Dean Presentation 8:30 9:00 AM EAC Team Conference with Dean,COEand Program Chairs 9:00 10:30 AM CE PEV Conference with CE Chair 10:30 11:50 AM CE PEV Conference with math and science professors 12:00 1:00 PM Luncheon: EAC Team with Deans, Chairs, Invited Administrators, Students, Staffs, Alumni and Industrial Advisory Board Members 1:00 3:30 PM CE PEV Meetings with CE Faculty and Staffs 3:30 – 4:30 PM CE PEV Meetings with Senior Graduating Students, ASCE Student Club Representatives. 4:30 – 5:00 PM EAC Team Out brief CEO Dean and Chairs 8:30 – 11:30 AM PEVs/TC Works on Statements and Seeks Clarifications as Needed 11:30 11:50 AM EAC TC and PEVs Debrief COE Dean and Chairs 12:00 – 2:00 PM EAC Team Closed Meeting and Lunch 2:00 3:00 PM Exit Meeting with Rector and Selected University Officials 3:30 PM EAC Team Depart Campus to Hotel

The initial statement issued by EAC Team at the end of the visit was called Program Audit Form (PAF). It contained information about the shortcomings of the program concerning criteria, policies, or procedure. Shortcomings can be in the form of concern (C), weakness (W), and the deficiency (D) with the following definition: • A concern indicates that a program currently satisfies a criterion, policy or procedure; however, the potential exists for the situation to change that the criterion, system, or practice may not be sufficient.

• Student (W): Issues detected were four transcripts containing the pre requisites violations with incomplete documentation for justification, including transfer students who took upper level engineering courses out of sequence. This criterion requires the program to have and enforce policies for awarding academic credit for courses taken at other institutions and to have enforced procedure to ensure and document that students who graduate meet all graduation requirement [21].

• A deficiency indicates that a criterion, policy or procedure is not satisfied. Therefore, the program is not in compliance with the criterion, system, or practice (ABET, 2020d).

• Faculty (C): Despite having moderate of student to faculty ratio (1:27), the current number of faculty were not acceptable for a planned target population of 320. This criterion requires that there be sufficient faculty to accommodate adequate levels of student faculty interaction, student advising and counselling [21].

During the exit meeting, TC gave general summaries about ABET EAC activities during the visit, their findings, responses required to address shortcomings, and timeline for accreditation effort. TC also cited two institutional strengths including: (1) the educational facilities that were above international benchmarks, and (2) the articulation of student outcomes implemented in six core competencies: communication, teamwork, leadership, technological competence, professional competence, and critical thinking. Although they were not written directly in the PAF, the CE PEV cited two strengths of the CE Program. These included: (1) mandatory eight week professional internship course attesting the use of technical and professional skills in the engineering workplace, and (2) solid ties of the CE faculty members to engineering and business professional in local community enhancing student learning opportunities. Five shortcomings observed for the CE Program included three weaknesses and two concerns. The CE Program needed to provide responses during the due process period, which began after the departure of the EAC visit team. The following is a summary of five shortcomings:

• Curriculum (W): Some senior design projects were research based and no design elements associated with them, and for those with design oriented, students did not consider or document any set of realistic constraints. This criterion requires that students be prepared for engineering practices through a curriculum culminating in a significant design experience based on knowledge and skills acquired in earlier course work and incorporating engineering standard and realistic constraints [21]

• Facilities (W): Insufficient replicates for test setups in the geotechnical and material engineering labs were not adequate to accommodate all students during the lab period. Also, engineering softwareused in teaching was not available on campus. This criterion requires that modern tools, equipment, computing resources, and laboratories to be open, accessible, and systematically maintained and upgraded to enable students to attain the student outcomes and to support program needs [21]

compromised. Therefore, remedial action is required to strengthen compliance with the criterion, system, or practice before the next evaluation.

5. Post visit

ABET provided immediate post visit activity mostly allocated to provide a seven day response to the EAC initial findings in case of errors of fact, and to document due process (30 day) response after receiving a draft statement that was composed by two ABET editors. After revisited the PAF, the CE Program did not submit seven day response. The draft statement saying about the official review result was received three months after the visit, around mid March. From this point onward, the CEProgram communicated with TC and two editors appointed by ABET EAC. The CE Program submitted the 30 day response highlighting actions taken to correct the shortcomings mentioned in the draft statement (Table 3). The CE Program provided written responses about most of the five shortcomings stated at the end of the visit without too many editorial changes, except for the weakness cited in Criterion 1 (Student) about transcripts showing courses taken out of the program sequence. The CE program gave clarifications to Editors about courses taken out of sequence in those transcripts. All justifications for the course pre requisite overrides shown in the advisement records seemed not accordance to initial PEV finding.

Table 3: Summary of the 30 day response Shortcoming(type) Issue Responses

• Program Criteria (C): The curriculum did not cover explicitly principles of sustainability, basic concepts of business, public policy, professional ethics, and licensure as topical coverage in a course or as course learning objectives.

Criterion 1: (W)Student StudentCoursetranscripts:overrides Submitting documentation for allowing students taking courses out of sequence for the mentioned transcripts, including justifications recorded in the student advisement Submittingforms. information about the university general policy for course pre requisite overrides, and the procedure for awarding credit transfer, along with enforcing them with computer based advisement practice.

Criterion 7: (W)Facility Facility:Thenot adequate test replicates Submitting a copy of the proposal theandquotationfromlabsuppliersfortestequipmentreplicates.

semester.presentation)projectSubmittingsamplesofseniordesignproposal(reportsandforthespring

Criterion (W)Curriculum5: Senior design project: research oriented not applying realistic constraints Updating syllabus for senior design project to explain about applying multiple realistic design constraints and associated design standards.

(C)CriteriaProgram Not addressing explicitly sustainability concepts, basic concepts of project management, business, public policy, leadership, professionalism and ethic in the curriculum Updating syllabi for civil engineering and general university courses related to the mentioned topics including course outlines, topics, and learning outcomes.

Because of ongoing processes, the CE Program gave updates on the faculty recruitment and lab equipment acquisition to TC during the due process period and before the July 2018 ABET meeting. The CE Program supplied all senior design final reports to TC and ABET EAC to demonstrate compliance with the curriculum criterion about the culmination of design experience. ABET issued the final statement to the three PMU Programs around mid September 2018 summarizing the actions taken to overcome the shortcomings and the final conclusion about the accreditation results. For the CE Programs, two issues out of five shortcomings were still not resolved, one weakness and one concern. The remained weakness cited was about the incomplete acquisition of the lab equipment replicates recommended by ABET EAC, and the concern was about the number of faculty which was still under the recruitment process. From these evaluation results, ABET recommended that the CE Program be accredited up to the following year (September 2019) and be required to initiate a reaccreditation process by January 2019. The accreditation was extended retroactively three years from the announcement (October 01, 2015). The authors of this paper anticipated the accreditation result since the CE Program was still in the process of correcting those remaining shortcomings and had developed a rigorous action plan to undergo the reaccreditation process. The main reaccreditation exercise was about providing an interim report addressing the shortcomings, particularly the remained weakness, and ABET did not recommend another visit. The process was the same as the regular accreditation steps, started by submission of RFE by the end of January 2019. Then, ABET assigned a new TC who would evaluate the interim report and concluded with another final statement issuance by early fall term. The CE Program submitted the temporary report to TC and ABET EAC before end of June 2019. The report mostly contained documented actions to correct the weakness in criterion 7 (facility) and the concern in criterion 6 (faculty). The CE Program submitted the interim report with documented evidence including purchase

294 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. No software available for engineering design teaching Submitting a copy of the purchase order issued to a local vendor to acquire the mentioned engineering software.

Criterion 6: (C)Faculty Not an adequate number of faculty based on future enrollment Submitting approval from the upper level university administration about recruiting threemore teachingstaffsunder the CE Program. An explanation was given about the recruitment process, including the timeline for job offering and contract signing.

Technically, the PMU CE Program has been accredited for a seven year period (Oct 2015 Sept 2022) and will restart another cycle of accreditation on January 2021 with RFE submission followed by ABET visit near the end of fall 2021 term. It has not resulted in Next General Review (NGR) with a seven year period from the year of review. However, according to the ABET policy, the period of accreditation does not indicate the accreditation quality, since ABET does not recognizethelevelof accreditation. In otherwords, allABET accreditedprograms met the quality and fulfil the accreditation criteria set in the accreditation policy (ABET, 2020d). Furthermore, ABET did not recommend exposing the accreditation period in a program website and required to publish only the final official statement saying a program accredited by EAC. Each program has unique accreditation experience due to the nature of evaluator’s background, and the accreditation process experienced by the PMU CE program was considered normal for the first time application. The following paragraphs will discuss lessons learned from ABET accreditation exercise, particularly for the first time applicant. Accreditation Training. It is suggested for the first time application to get the information about the accreditation policy and procedure by actively participating in its various training, workshops, seminars or conferences sponsored by ABET. Sharing information about the accreditation exercises between multiple programs around the world is one of the best strategies to prepare the accreditation. Learning from the PMUCE Program experience trained internally by the previouly accredited programs (EE and IT) in the university, there were different aspects of accreditation criteria that a reviewed program can learn by looking directly the accreditation exercises experienced by another similar program. Accreditation training can be a good source for those who are involved in the quality and accreditation work. After receiving the training, they can conduct an internal workshop to spread the knowledge to the other faculty members within a program. If a program has more budget allocated for the accreditation spending, it is not a bad idea to hire a consultant to advice on developing strong SSR and responding to evaluation reviews. In addition, the reviewed program needs to have mock up review and visit by another similar program within a similar region to improve readiness for the actual accreditation visit.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. order acquisition of the test equipment replicate, photos of those installed equipment, courses and their schedule for lab sessions, and pictures of students working with the equipment in a lab experimentation course. Also, signed and redacted contract letters of new faculty recruits were incorporated in the temporary report to indicate there were additional faculty joining the program.

The CE Program also updated all CE departmental websites such as new SeptemberEAClinksenrollmentfigures,labfacilities,andfacultyprofiles,andprovidedtheirrespectedinthereport.Byaroundmidfallterm,afinalstatementwasissuedbyABETthattheCEProgramresolvedalltheshortcomingsandaccreditedto2022retroactivelyfromOctober012015.

6. Results

Assessing competency based outcomes. Assessment of the ABET competency based outcomes such as communications, teamwork, leadership, professionalism and ethics, understanding the impact of engineering solutions, and life long learning skills is challenging task to measure and document. These skills are typically assessed comprehensively in the introduction to engineering and senior engineering design courses using what so called rubric based scoring (Felder, et al., 2003; Ghaly, 2019). The reviewed program can use regular engineering courses to assess such skills, for example, laboratory based courses where students conduct learning exercises involving teamwork, written lab report, and oral presentation. Again, the rubric is as one of the assessment techniques to obtain quantitative values for these skills. Some non engineering courses offered by English and social science departments sometimes cover these competency skills explicitly in their syllabi, and coordinating learning outcome measure with the instructors from those departments would be helpful in supplying part of the overall SO assessment.

Curriculum familiarity. It is crucial to understand the program curriculum comprehensively. In addition to the civil and general engineering courses, the accreditation committee needs to be familiar with courses that are taught by other departments such as mathematics, sciences and competency courses. The reviewed program needs to coordinate with those departments to perform assessment of course learning outcomes strongly correlated with those of the ABET SO. Although not required in the SSR, the reviewed program need to perform curriculum benchmarking with other similar accredited programs, nationally and internationally. This is to anticipate providing critical findings in the SSR, particularly in the continuous improvement criterion, which can be in term of curriculum upgrade when there are significant differences in the course offering and sequence.

Adequacy of resources. Despite shifting to outcome based, teaching resources and infrastructure including faculty, facility and institutional supports, must meet acceptable ABET criteria concerning the quality and quantity. As the acceptable student to faculty ratio is one of the indicators to fulfill the faculty criterion, the criteria for infrastructure (equipment) and institutional supports are not immediately apparent. Lesson learned from the EAC recommendation given to the PMU CE Program about providing more test replicates despite modern and up to date equipment available for student lab experimentations is that adequacy of the facility concerning the number of students is needed. Solutions to create more lab sections or sifting experimentation module are not acceptable practice according to the facility criterion. As was suggested in the curriculum, benchmarking of teaching facility and infrastructure with other similar accredited programs is critical here. Senior design course. Is arguably the most important course in the engineering programs, and ABET will evaluate thoroughly the course practice including assessment tools and methods, grading policy, and samples of final report and prototype as well as a final oral presentation. It is crucial to provide high quality samples for a senior design project since this will be the first item to be evaluated

Accreditation process and outcome is analogous to a professor assessing student performance in a course using a set of criteria; it is always stereotyped with subjectivity due to various factors including the background of the accreditation evaluators. However, the accreditation standard and criteria are the same and should be applied relatively to either new or existing programs, national or international programs with different cultural education practices. Regardless of the criteria and the associated evaluators who will interpret the criteria based on his or her background knowledge and experience, a program must prepare to demonstrate that its educational practice meets all criteria set by the accreditation body. Based on the experience of the PMU engineering programs having first ABET accreditation evaluation during two different span periods, ABET has acted relatively in assessing the quality of the programs. Various recommendations given by ABET EAC to varying programs at PMU have resulted in enriched knowledge on how to continuously improve teaching and learning efficiently using collaborative actions. To experience a smooth and successful accreditation process, small universities with new established engineering programs requires strong support from and good coordination with the upper level administrations. The decision by university or college quality assurance committee to submit the

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. by the EAC visit team. The project must be design oriented and comply with the criterion stating that project must capture previous student design experiences (i.e. capstone based courses) and be as realistic as possible by applying actual (practical) constraints and design standards. Assessment tools and methods must capture the requirements stated in this criterion by using comprehensive rubric based scoring for the project design constraints and specifications (Chowdhury, et al., 2020; Felder, et al., 2003).

Continuous improvement. For the first time application, the period of data collection for the SO assessment is not a crucial factor as the PMU CE Program had performed assessment using two semester data. It was considered too early to propose essential continuous improvement such as curriculum upgrade based on a limited period of evaluation. The ABET message here was that a program must develop a robust method for assessing the SO that can conclude the assessment cycle at some point. The PMU CE Program upgraded the curriculum based on the ABET accreditation outcomes and has implemented a new CE degree starting from Fall 2019 term. Fundamental curriculum changes included the following: (1) splitting senior design course into two semesters to boost the quality of student ability in mastering culminating design experience; (2) offering a new course in sustainable engineering to cover ABET Program Criteria set by ASCE; and (3) adding computer aided design course to improve student ability in math (geometry) application in civil engineering. The new curriculum applies to incoming 2019 student at the freshmen level with the anticipation that during the ABET next evaluation visit in fall 2021 the CE Program will document and report progress assessment, since there will be no graduating student by that time under the new curriculum. The next SSR under the old curriculum practice will still be significant content in the SO assessment with expected continuous improvement on reinforcing rolling the new curriculum.

7. Discussion and Conclusion

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298 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. program accreditation process either as individuals or as a group along with other programs within a college requires consideration. It is important decision for a small university offering various engineering programs considering budget constraint andcollaborative workbenefit gained for doing accreditation processes at the same time. Acknowledgments

The authors appreciated the contributions by PMU civil engineering professors, instructors, technician, and staffs for the successful ABET accreditation of the CE Program. In addition, the authors appreciated strong supports from the PMU COE Dean and Senior Management.

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300 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Urquizo,H.G.(2019,Sept). ProfessionalProfileofEngineeringProgramsforNationalLicensing andInternationalAccreditation InternationalSymposiumonEngineeringAccreditation and Education (ICACIT), Cusco, Peru. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICACIT46824.2019.9130368 Wear, L., Baiocchi, O. R., Alden, M., Gutmann, R., & Sheng, J. (2012, June). Getting ABET accreditationrightthefirsttime.ProceedingoftheAmericanSocietyforEngineering Education Conference and Exposition, San Antonio, TX. https://doi.org/10.18260/1 2 21425 Zahed, A., Bafail, A., Abdulaal, R., & Al Bahi, A. (2007, June), Preparing for ABET accreditation in a non western, non English speaking environment, Proceeding of the American Society for Engineering Education Conference and Exposition, Honolulu, USA. https://doi.org/10.18260/1 2 3421

https://orcid.org/0000

Aminabibi

Abstract. Educators use various active learning strategies over the last decades in different educational contexts globally. The current study aimed to investigate the attitudes of Afghan tertiary level students towards cooperative learning strategies in the Afghan EFL context. The currentstudyuseda questionnaireasa primaryinstrumentforcollecting the data employing a descriptive survey design for data collection and analysis. The participants were 165 undergraduate students from the Department of English, Languages and Literature Faculty, Kandahar students.techniquesstrategiespointedtowardsUniversity.Thefindingsrevealedthatparticipantshavepositiveattitudescooperativelearningstrategies,andseveralreasonswereoutforpositivechangestotakeplace.CooperativelearninghavealsobeenconsideredasusefulteachingandlearningthatincreaseclassroomparticipationfromtheperspectivesofThus,itisrecommendedforAfghanteacherstoadopt cooperative learning strategies due to the positive effects on students’ attitudes and classroom participation. The findings of the current study will help educators to incorporate cooperative learning in their courses. The result will be a guide for curriculum developers to include cooperative strategies in designing curriculum and textbooks.

Keywords: Cooperative learning strategies; EFL context; Afghan 1. Introduction In the Afghan context, the English language is considered to be taught and treated as a foreign language. In the schooling system of Afghanistan, English was to start in Grade 7 during the years 1985 2004, but after 2005 it starts at Grade 4 in primary schools (Alamyar, 2017). English Language in both schools and universities is being taught by Afghan teachers (Ahmadzai et al., 2019), who are actually not

301 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 301 319, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.16

The Attitudes of Tertiary Level Students Towards Cooperative Learning Strategies in Afghan EFL Context Rahmatullah Katawazai Kandahar University, Kandahar, Afghanistan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia 0003 4869 9087 Saidalvi Universiti Teknologi MARA Johor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8040 5136

The current research aimed to investigate the attitudes of students towards cooperative learning in the Afghan EFL context and the efficacy of cooperative learning in terms of increasing classroom participation. Thus, the focus of this

native speakers of the English language. Therefore, one reason that students are not as good in using the English language communicatively as they could be is that non native speakers cannot teach English in Afghan context well (Ahmadzai et al., 2019; Alamyar, 2017) and it is because they sometimes fail to foster students to experience the communicative usage of English in the real life situation.

Another reason is that English teachers in Afghanistan still rely on teacher centered methods (Ahmadzai et al., 2019; Katawazai et al., 2019), where students are passive receivers in the process of teaching and learning. Alamyar (2017) stated that “often these teachers are not familiar with the new English language teaching methods due to lack of training, facilities, and materials.” In her research, she stated that this could be the cause of low proficiency in Afghan learners. It means that the non native Afghan teachers have not been trained enough to teach English implementing new teaching strategies effectively. Furthermore, Azizi (2014) conducted a study to find out the opinions of teachers regarding interactive teaching in Kapisa Province of Afghanistan. The findings of his research indicate that teachers use interactive teaching in their classrooms. However, teachers stated that there are some obstacles that avoid the implementation of interactive teaching as; lack of time for preparation and large class size. The study shows that teachers claimed the usefulness of interactive teaching in the classrooms, but the obstacles avoided full implementation of interactive teaching in the Afghan context. On the other hand, the current trends in ELT suggest new ways of teaching and learning, where students are actively engaged in teaching and learning environments globally (Peña López, 2009). One of the frameworks is cooperative learning strategies thathelp learners to have actively participated and engaged in classroom activities. Cooperative learning is one of the terms in CLT that comprises many cooperative activities. Within other significant aspects, the primary outcome of using cooperative learning activities is that it can increase students’ participation in the process of teaching and learning (Tran & Lewis, 2012; Zakaria, 2010). Slavin (2015) explained a linear relation between multiple cognitive, social, interactional, and motivation based approaches to cooperative learning and its success in classroom activities, which contribute to not only students’ participation during in class activities but results enhanced learning as well. In his dissertation, George (2017) mentioned that the theoretical background of cooperative learning focuses on cognitive, developmental, and democratic elements of the scholars (Piaget, 1926; Vygotsky, 1978; Wittrock, 1978). Furthermore, Dewey (1938) explained the role of democratic social theories, which he considered as one of the significant theories about group working and helping others during group work activities. It means: social, cognitive and democratic theories of Second Language Acquisition, cooperative learning is to be counted as one of the significant teaching and learning approaches that helps learners not only to pursue their educational objectives but to foster social skills, critical skills, problem solving skills and the ones included in 21st-century requirements as well.

Since the existing literature offers some shreds of evidence and emphasizes that in order to successfully incorporate cooperative learning in various classrooms and contexts globally, it is crucial to structure teaching and learning materials based on the elements of cooperative learning that are perceived to be key to success in this process (Ballantine & McCourt Larres, 2007; Gillies & Boyle, 2010; Hsiung et al., 2014; Lièvre et al., 2006). Hence, these components of cooperative learning are known as the foundations to ensure its success. Likewise, scholars and researchers, (Johnson & Johnson, 2018; Johnson & Johnson, 2011; Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 2007) listed five elements and emphasized these as the basic ones and the key features to be considered while implementing cooperative learning strategies. Johnson and Johnson (2018) indicated these five elements underpinned with two theories as Interdependence theory and Structure Process Outcome theory. This means that missing one of the components of cooperative learning would lead to a lack of connection with the associated theories. Johnson and Johnson (2011) strongly focused on these five elements for teachers to structure their lessons in the base of these elements in order to implement the cooperative learning strategies effectively in classroom activities. Figure 1 based on (Johnson et al., 2007; Neo et al., 2012), connects the five elements to the outcomes or behaviors

2. Literature Review

2.1 What does cooperative learning mean? Many language scholars and psychologists defined cooperative learning variously. Kagan (1994) explained cooperative learning as one of the active learning types where students work for completing specific tasks that they have been assigned by teacher(s) during classroom activities into small groups. Oxford (1997) opine that cooperative learning strategies are pedagogical procedures that are effective in fostering students' critical thinking skills, group working skills, interdependence, and social interactions. Similarly, Slavin (2011) asserts CL as a kind of instructional method, students have been organized by teachers into small groups, and they are assigned for the purpose of working together, helping each other and achieving their group goals together. Yusuf et al. (2019) stated that cooperative learning is an instructional strategy, and the base is on the instinct of humans to cooperate. Cooperative learning is, therefore, based on the definitions above, a type of group learning where students can be allocated to small and large groups depending on the context of the classroom to discuss and work together for achieving their common goal(s).

study is to explore the attitudes of students about cooperative learning strategies and to investigate the use of cooperative learning strategies from the perspective of students. Therefore, the current study tries to find out appropriate answers for the following research objectives.

2.2 Elements of Cooperative Learning

2. To explore whether implementing cooperative learning increases participation in classroom activities from the perspectives of students.

1. To investigate the attitudes of Afghan tertiary level students towards cooperative learning.

Figure 1: Five elements of cooperative learning 2.3 Benefits of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning strategies have been defined by language teaching scholars as to the effective pedagogical procedures, and learning strategies in developing students’ engagement skills, critical thinking skills, social communication skills, problem solving skills, and many more skills that are the requirements of the ongoing 21st century (Estrada et al., 2019; Garcha & Kumar, 2015; George, 2017; Healy et al., 2018; Indrayati, 2019; Ismail & Al Allaq, 2019; Johnson & Johnson, 2008; Oxford, 1997; Slavin, 2015; Yusuf et al., 2019) and the application of such teaching and learning approaches have helped students universally in different periods of time and a variety of contexts. Moreover, both teachers and learners are having agreed to claim that using cooperative learning strategies should be embodied in the educational curricula and should be emphasized by school and Healyfaculty.et al. (2018) conducted research, and their findings indicate that implementing cooperative learning strategies benefited learners in terms of social interactions, peer learning, and transferable skills. They added that even where the manner of implementation was not fully prepared for the ideal framework of cooperativelearning,using CLwaseffective in teaching andlearning.Within that, implementing cooperative learning strategies can improve students’ motivation as well. Like in the study of Fernandez Rio et al. (2017) where the summary concluded that the implementation of cooperative learning strategies caused a considerable increase in the self determined motivation and intrinsic motivation in the learners of secondary education. Schipke (2018) found out that using the CooperativeLearningModel (Neoetal.,2012;Johnson,Johnson&Smith,2007)

Elements Actions Positive Interdependence Promotive Individual InterpersonalAccountabilitySkillsGroupProcessing “Sink or swim together” No one “hitchhikes” on others’ works “sharing resources and encourage,help,support,andpraise each other’s efforts to Learning both ‘task work’ and Teamwork “How well to achieve thegoalsandmaintaineffectiveworking

Kyndt et al. (2013) conducted a meta analysis study of the effects of cooperative learning strategies in all the levels; primary, secondary, and tertiary from 1995 onwards. The study explored the impact of cooperative learning in all the levels as mentioned above of education into three categories as achievement, attitudes, and perceptions. The results from all the 65 research articles reveal that the students of all three levels of education have positive attitudes towards cooperative learning strategies, and they recommended such kinds of learning techniques as the useful procedures in the process of teaching and learning in different educational contexts. Similarly, Capar and Tarim (2015) investigated the effectiveness of implementing cooperative learning strategies and the attitudes of

2.4 Attitudes of Students towards Cooperative Learning General literature about students’ attitudes towards cooperative learning shows that its implementation has positive attitudes of students towards it. They viewed such kinds of strategies as one of the useful teaching and learning techniques, and they recommend teachers to use them in classrooms activities and to emphasize on it (Capar & Tarim, 2015; Farzaneh & Nejadansari, 2014; Hossain & Tarmizi, 2013; Kyndt et al., 2013; Al Tamimi & Attamimi, 2014; Zakaria, 2010).

Besides, when compared with the conventional methods, cooperative learning may benefit students to a great extent and may have the most positive effects on the proficiency level of the students (Darmuki, 2018; Lu et al., 2019; Lucha et al., 2015; Sijali, 2017). As Sijali (2017) conducted a longitudinal research to find out whether cooperative learning strategies improve students’ proficiency level or not. The findings of the study revealed that using cooperative learning strategies were effective and increased the level of proficiency among learners. The difference among the results of the experimental group (M = 26.71, SD = 4.478) and control group (M = 16.50, SD = 5.619) with the p value (p < 0.001) indicated a greater variance among the mean and standard deviation of the quantitative Theresults.researcher emphasized that based on their findings of the study, they recommend ELT teachers to utilize cooperative learning strategies that improve student’s English language proficiency instead of using conventional teaching method(s). Finally, as stated earlier that in the cooperative learning approach, the emphasis is on enabling learners to not only achieve their learning goals and objectives but to strengthen their skills of leadership, social communication, problem solving, critical thinking, and almost all of the requirements of the 21st century.

socio instructional approach of cooperative learning allows for social interaction and communal knowledge making. In this case, a socio instructional approach of cooperative learning fosters students’ social interactions, so this causes students to develop their skills in a shared community. Similarly, Parsazadeh et al. (2018) found that interactive and cooperative settings in learning environments can enhance students' motivation and foster greater student communication. Additionally, cooperative learning strategies can be used for many other skill developments as well.

students and their achievement in mathematics studies. They reviewed many reports, research articles, and master and Ph.D. theses and selected 26 studies in total. The results of their meta analysis research showed that when compared with the classical (teacher centered) methods, cooperative learning is considered as one of the more successful teaching and learning methods that not only affect the achievement of the learners positively but their attitudes as well.

2.5 Critique on the Research Findings of Cooperative Learning

Researchers conducted a variety of research studies that display the usefulness of cooperative learning and recommended that it can benefit learners in many social, interactive, critical, problem solving, and other skills. However, some of the studies indicate that if cooperative learning strategies are not structured to be socially and culturally fit with the social and cultural norms of an educational context, it might not be as successful as thought. George (2017) opine that if we want to implement cooperative learning effectively, they should be used correctly in order to raise the academic performance of the students. It means that if the language instructors fail to use them correctly during classroom activities, cooperative learning will lead to negative results.

Moreover, within the positive aspects that cooperative learning strategies have, some research studies found that there are some drawbacks during implementation as well (Deiglmayr & Schalk, 2015; Hänze & Berger, 2007; Hsiung et al., 2014a; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Kshetree, 2019; Mesfin, 2015; Pescarmona, 2011; Sabah & Du, 2018; Scherman & Du Toit, 2008; Stiles, 2005). The researchers proposed some of the solutions to avoid the obstacles towards implementation, which includes both instructors’ expertise and institution follow up in order to make sure that CL strategies are socially and culturally fit with the norms, structured well, and are going well. Chen and Goswami (2011) opine regarding the factors impacting cooperative learning implementation in English learning that the learners might have been confused by experiencing two changes; 1) the format which is unfamiliar to them and 2) the role of the teacher as ‘simply the facilitator’ in the classroom. They further added that the cultural aspects must also be taken into account, and it is that ‘cross cultural adjustments’ should be made while implementing cooperative learning strategies in the classrooms.

Likewise, Celik et al. (2013) conducted a study to find out the perspectives of Turkish teachers regarding the implementation of cooperative learning in language classrooms. The findings reveal that although the teachers had positive beliefs about cooperative learning strategies and stated that group learning strategies are beneficial for their students, the practical implementation of so called strategies caused a failure in the process. They pointed out some of the factors to be considered as the main challenges in this regard. One of them is the standard curriculum of educational institutions. It means, the participants of the study are facing with difficulties while applying cooperative learning and group working as such most of the students were not participating during group activities because one particular student in a group was doing all the task, which was avoiding other students’ participation and a fixed ELT curriculum made it

Researchers employed descriptive survey research design. The aim of the study is to investigate the attitudes of students towards CL and whether it increases the classroom participation of the students, so researchers have found this design suitable for the study. Creswell (2014) views survey design as a part of quantitative research design to be used in order to find out the attitudes, perceptions, behaviors, or characteristics of both population and sample.

Similarly, Ferguson Patrick (2018) pointed out the importance of the teacher's role in the process of implementing cooperative learning strategies in the classrooms. The study added that if teachers fail to understand the roles of being a facilitator and being organizer, it means that cooperative learning can also be failed because of the incorrect structure. It is further recommended that teachers must play a significantrole in terms of facilitating students, assisting them in the small groups, and resolving the confusion that learners may have. It will help learners to go on the right path and to develop their cognitive and social skills, which is only possible when the teacher performs the role of a successful facilitator and an enthusiastic helper with students.

3.2 Sampling Table 1 draws a summary of the process of how the researcher determined the sampling size regarding the population size of the total numbers of the target population. Method

The target population for the current study is the undergraduate students of the Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Literature, Kandahar University, Afghanistan. The total number of students enrolled in the Department of English is two hundred and ninety (290), and all of them are studying in the day shift. Among them, male students comprised the majority in the number 273 while the females are 17, and they included the minority in the number.

3. Research Design

problematic to implement group working strategies in the Turkish context. The second one is the traditional manners of students about cooperative learning strategies. It means that such kinds of students were still in a traditional manner and were not mentally ready to work in cooperative groups.

of Participants Class Students N Total Freshmen Male 106 N=290 Female 8 Sophomore Male 71 Female 4 Juniors Male 42 Female 3 Seniors Male 54 Female 2 S=165

3.1 Target Population

Table1: Sampling

Creswell (2014) states three ways that researchers can use regarding research instruments; the first one is that when the researcher develops a new instrument for a research study (but it takes much time), the second one is to locate, and the third way is to modify an existing instrument. In the case of the current study, an existing instrument (questionnaire) has been used as a primary data collecting tool for the same issue (cooperative learning) but a different context (Afghanistan). The researcher adapted the sections of the questionnaire developed by (McLeish, 2009) and Reda (2015). The reason why the researcher chose existing instruments is that all the items closed ended and open ended in both of the questionnaires were closely appropriate for the research questions and research objectives of this study, and they have been organized by the originators to find out the attitudes of students towards cooperative learning. The questionnaire of (McLeish, 2009) consists of 23 items, both open ended and closed ended items, where the closed ended questions are in a 5 point Likert scale of measurement ranging from 1 “strongly agree” to 5 “strongly disagree.” In addition, the questionnaire consists of four parts where the first part is ‘demographic’; the second is ‘the assessment of group involvement’; the third is ‘attitudinal scale’, and the last is ‘free response’. Similarly, the questionnaire of Reda (2015) consists of 21 questions, and only 4 items in regard to the attitudes scale have been used. In the case of the measurement scale of the questionnaire, the researcher used the same Likert scale of measurement for the closed ended questions starting from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” The questionnaire was then shared with the participants using Google Form. The validity and reliability of each questionnaire were already tested by the originators of both questionnaires. However, for the current study, the questionnaire was re tested in SPSS in order to indicate the validity and reliability in calculating the Cronbach’s alpha level for the new sample of participants. The Cronbach's alpha level attained from the new sample, is (.824) reliability coefficient. The value achieved suggests that all the Likert scale items have relatively higher internal consistency. It means that the test is acceptable, and the tool selected for the current study is reliable and validated enough for this sample.

3.3 Research Instrument

3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

For the current study, a survey questionnaire was used for collecting the data. The datawereanalyzedusingStatisticalPackagein SocialSciences(SPSS26.0)inorder for the outputs of frequency distribution, descriptive statistics, frequency, percentage, and tabulations.

Table 1 shows that there are two hundred and ninety (290) students in the target department (N=290), so accordingly, based on the table of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) for determining the sample size from a population, the sample size for (N=290) is (S=165), and this number of students in the target population participated in this study. After that, the researcher then used a random sampling method. Creswell (2014) views simple random sampling as one of the most used techniques commonly used by researchers.

309 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 4. Results and Analysis Table 2. shows the demographic data of all the respondents who participated in the study. The total number of the participants who took part in the current study was 165, and all of them were pursuing bachelor studies in the Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Literature, Kandahar University.

Table

about

(3%)5 (2.5%)4 (0%)0 2. I willingly participate in cooperative learning activities. (64.8%)107

(5.5%)9 (0.6%)1 (0%)0 3. Cooperative learning can improve my attitude towards work. (63%)104 (33.4%)55 (2.4%)4 (0.6%)1 (0.6%)1 4. Cooperative learning helps me to socialize more. (60.6%)100 (33.9%)56 (4.9%)8 (0.6%)1 (0%)0 5. Cooperative learning enhances good working relationships among students. (66.1%)109 (29.7%)49 (3.6%)6 (0.6%)1 (0%)0 Total 64.97% 30.06% 3.88% 0.97% Note0.12%:SA=StronglyAgree,A=Agree,N=Neutral,D=Disagree&SD=StronglyDisagree Age Frequency Percentage (%) <20 24 14.6% 20 25 136 82.4% 26 30 2 1.2% >30 3 1.8% Total 165 100% Gender Male 155 93.9% Female 10 6.1% Total 165 100% Year of Study Freshmen 50 30.3% Sophomore 44 26.7% Juniors 40 24.2% Seniors 31 18.8% Total 165 100%

Items SA A N D SD 1. When I work together, I achieve more than when I work alone. (70.3%)116

Table 2: Demographic Information Table 2 highlights that the majority of the respondents, 82.4% were in the age of 20 25, and 14.6% of them were below 20 years of age. However, a very small number of them were between the age of 25 30 and above. Within the majority of the respondents 93.9%were malestudents,and asmallnumber 6.1% ofthem were female students. Looking into the attitudes of students towards cooperative learning strategies, the following Table 3. presents the results regarding the attitudes of students towards CL. Attitudes mean that what students think and feel cooperative learning, as in table 3 below. 3: Students’ Attitudes Towards CL (24.2%)40 (29.1%)48

Also, 70.3% of the respondents strongly agree, and 24.2% agree they can achieve more while working in groups than working alone. However, a very small number of the 3% remained neutral, 2.5% disagree, and no one strongly disagrees with this item. Furthermore, 64.8% strongly agree, and 29.1% agree that they have the willingness to participate in cooperative learning activities. On the other hand, still, a small number of 5.5% remain neutral, with 0.6% disagree. To add more, 63% of the respondents strongly agree, and 33.4% agree that they can improve their attitudes towards work through cooperative learning. However, 2.4% remain neutral, 0.6% disagree, and the same number strongly disagree that they cannot improve the attitudes of work via cooperative learning. Moreover, 60.6% of them strongly agree, and 33.9% agree that they can improve their social skills with the help of cooperative learning strategies. On the other hand, 4.9% remain neutral, and 0.6% disagree that cooperative learning can socialize them. In the last item, it is about whether cooperative learning strategies enhance good working relationships in students or not, so it seems that 66.1% of the respondents strongly agree, and 29.7% agree that yes, cooperative learning can increase the working relationships among students. However, 3.6% remain neutral, and 0.6% disagree with that they cannot improve working relationships with their peers through cooperative learning strategies.

6. It enables you not only to depend on the result rather it helps to have a good knowledge.96(58.2%) (34.5%)57 (5.5%)9 (1.8%)3 (0%)0

Table 3 shows that most of the attitudes of the students are so favorable towards cooperative learning strategies. It seems that overall, 64.97% strongly agreed, and 30.06% agreed with the items about attitudes in this section. However, 3.88% of the students remained neutral. In addition, a very small percentage of the respondents 0.97% disagreed and strongly disagreed with 0.12% with the items asked regarding their attitudes.

1. Cooperative learning increases class participant. (64.3%)106 (32.1%)53 (3%)5 (0.6%)1 (0%)0

3. Group activities make the learning experience easier. (69.7%)115 (26.7%)44 (3%)5 (0.6%)1 (0%)0

4. It encourages teachers to prepare themselves well and deliver effective information.94(57%) (30.3%)50 (7.9%)13 (3.6%)6 (1.2%)2

7. It makes or creates self confidence. (67.3%)111 (25.4%)42 (6.1%)10 (1.2%)2 (0%)0

Note: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, N=Neutral, D=Disagree & SD=Strongly Disagree

Now, how does CL influence students’ participation in the classroom activities? The following Table 4. presents the percentage of their responses, whether classroom participation is increased by cooperative learning.

Table 4: Does CL increase classroom participation? Items SA A N D SD

5. It makes both you and your friends have a good relationship. (71.5%)118 (22.5%)37 (4.8%)8 (1.2%)2 (0%)0

2. Creativity is facilitated in the group settings (55.2%)91 (35.1%)58 (7.3%)12 (1.8%)3 (0.6%)1

Total 63.29% 29.52 5.36% 1.55% 0.28%

64.3%oftherespondents strongly agree; 32.1 %agree thatcooperative learning increased their classroom participation. However, 3% remain neutral, and 0.6% disagree. Within, 55.2% of the students strongly agree, and 35.1% agree that cooperative learning can facilitate the creativity of the students in the group setting. However, remaining are 7.3% neutral, 1.8% disagree, and 0.6% strongly disagree with. In terms of group activities, whether they make learning easier or not, 69.7% strongly agree, 26.7% agree that yes, group activities make it easy. On the other hand, remaining are (3%) neutral and (0.6%) disagreed with it. Similarly, students strongly agree with 57% and 30.3% that cooperative learning activities can encourage teachers to be fully prepared for their teaching. However, 7.9% stay neutral, and the other 3.6% disagree, and 1.2% strongly disagree with this. It will make the classroom environment have good relationships among students; 71.5% strongly agree, 22.5% agree with this. Though 4.8% stay neutral and 1.2% disagree with this. In addition, 58.2% of students strongly agree, 34.5% agree that while working in cooperative learning activities will not only depend on the result but rather can help students to have good knowledge as well. Still, 5.5% remain neutral, and 1.8% disagree with it. In terms of self confidence, around67.3% of the students stronglyagree, 25.4% agree that their self confidence improved working in cooperative learning strategies. On the other hand, the remaining 6.1% of them stay neutral, and 1.2% disagree that their self confidence was not improved.

Table 4 presents their overall percentage of agreement and disagreement and shows that 63.29% of the students strongly agree, 29.52% agree that cooperative learning increases classroom participation, creativity, relationships among students, and self confidence. However, a very small number of the students, 5.36% remain neutral, 1.55% disagree, and 0.28% strongly disagree with the role of cooperative learning in increasing classroom participation and other social Inskills.addition,

5. Discussion Results indicated that the tertiary level students in the Afghan EFL context expressed their very positive attitudes towards cooperative learning strategies. As presented in Table 4, it shows that students have positive attitudes towards all the items in this section. As the study of Thompson (2018) also found that students who worked in cooperative learning had very positive attitudes towards this method. Within, the study indicated that students also performed well after working in a cooperative classroom environment. The study of Reda (2015) also found that the students have positive attitudes towards cooperative learning methods. The study also indicated that although students have positive attitudes towards cooperative learning methods, they stated some of the suggestions as well for the better implementation of cooperative learning methods. As well, in the meta analysis study of (Kyndt et al., 2013), the findings from 65 research articles in regard to the attitudes, perceptions, and achievements of the students towards cooperative learning show that students have positive attitudes towards implementing cooperative learning strategies. They recommended cooperative learning strategies to be used in the process of teaching and learning to a greater extent.

6. Conclusion In this paper, the attitudes of Afghan tertiary level students towards cooperative learning and whether implementing cooperative learning increases participation in classroom activities from the perspectives of students in the Afghan EFL context were investigated. Using a descriptive survey design, the study used a questionnaire to collect data from 165 undergraduate students. The paper established the pedagogical effectiveness of implementing cooperative learning

In terms of whether cooperative learning strategies increase classroom participation or not, Table 4 shows their overall agreement that implementing cooperative learning increased their classroom participation. Within classroom participation, most of the students strongly agree and agree that cooperative learning helps them in terms of creativity, making the learning experience easier, encourages the teacher to be well prepared, improves good relationships among students, improves to have a good knowledge rather than depending on your exam results and increases self confidence. As in the study of Healy et al. (2018), the findings show that the implementation of cooperative learning improved peer learning, transferable skills, and social interactions skill. They further added that within these skills, the motivation of the students was also improved even though the framework used by the teacher was not entirely the same as cooperative learning. The study of Paksi (2017) also suggests that using the jigsaw method of cooperative learning increased students’ classroom participation. Researchers recommend teachers use this cooperative method in order to increase their students’ participation inthe classroom activities. It is also supported by thestudy of Fitriasari(2019) that team games tournaments of cooperative learning increased the classroom participation of the students. Thus, using different types of cooperative group works ensures that student’s participation in classroom activities will be increased noticeably. To sum up, cooperative learning strategies helped all types of students to increase their classroom participation. Either in large or small groups, they will have the chance to work in different tasks inside the group and outside the groups as the group leader/presenter in order to share their group work with other classmates. For this reason, the results showed that cooperative learning, in any mean, increased the classroom participation of the Afghan EFL students during working in cooperative groups in the classroom

Similarly, the findings of the Healy et al. (2018) also show that utilizing cooperative learning not only improved social interactions but peer learning and as well as transferable skills as well. Also, Fernandez Rio et al. (2017) state that implementing cooperative learning has a tremendously positive influence on students’ self motivation. In addition, Quines (2017) conducted a study andfound out that cooperative learning strategy improved greater attitudes of the students while compared with the teacher discussion method. It means that cooperative learning improved college students’ linguistic competence in a greater influence.

The current study also shows that Afghan students gained other skills such as communication skills, socialization skills, group working skills, and other skills as well after working in cooperative learning group activities and assignments.

7. References

INTESOLJournal,

Azizi, M. F. (2015). Interactive teaching in Afghanistan.: Opinions and practice among Afghan Kapisa schoolteachers Karlstads Universitet Retrieved from http://www.diva portal.se/smash/get/diva2:813279/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Ballantine, J., & McCourt Larres, P. (2007). Cooperative learning: a pedagogy to improve students’ generic skills? Education + Training, 49(2), 126 137. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910710739487

Creswell,J.W.(2014). EducationalResearch:PlanningConductingandEvaluatingQuantitative and Qualitative Research, Fourth Edition United Stated of America: Pearson New International Edition.

International

Ahmadzai,S.,Katawazai,R.,&Sandaran,S.C.(2019).TheUseofDeductiveandInductiveApproachesinTeachingGrammarforAfghanUniversityStudentsofEnglishandLiteratureStudies. Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology 8(5C), 1230 1235. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijeat.E1175.0585C19

in the classroom environment. The findings indicated that overall students have very positive attitudes towards cooperative learning. The result confirmed the findings from Thompson (2018), Reda (2015) and Kyndt et al. (2013) that students have positive attitudes towards implementing cooperative learning strategies.

Alamyar, M.(2017).EmergingRolesofEnglishinAfghanistan. 14(1),1 24. Retrieved form https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/intesol/article/view/21733

Literature recommended cooperative learning strategies to be used in the process of teaching and learning to a greater extent. The study also embarked on investigating whether implementing cooperative learning increases participation in classroom activities from the perspectives of students in the Afghan EFL context. It was found that students also agreed that implementing cooperative learning increases students’ participation in classroom learning activities. It was found that using cooperative learning activities can positively influence students’ communication skills. Students were able to interact better with peers in completing tasks. This is similar to the claim in the literature that cooperative learning effective in promoting group working skills and interpersonal skills (Healy et al.,2018; Fernandez Rio et al., 2017; Quines, 2017). Students also agreed that cooperative learning activities conducted in the classroom enhanced their self confidence. In conclusion, implementing cooperative learning encourages interactions among students which promotes self motivation, social interaction skills, self confidence, and classroom participation skills. Therefore, it is recommended for the teachers to implement cooperative learning in the classroom and could be used as a form of meaningful learning experience for the students.

Capar,G.,&Tarim,K.(2015).Efficacyofthecooperativelearningmethodonmathematicsachievementandattitude:Ametaanalysisresearch. KuramveUygulamadaEgitim Bilimleri. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2015.2.2098 Celik, S., Aytın, K., & Bayram, E. (2013). Implementing Cooperative Learning in the Language Classroom: Opinions of Turkish Teachers of English. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 1852 1859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.263 Chen, H. Y., & Goswami, J. (2011). Structuring Cooperative Learning in Teaching English Pronunciation. English Language Teaching, 4(3), 26 32. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n3p26

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Farzaneh, N., & Nejadansari, D. (2014). Students’ attitude towards using cooperative learning for teaching reading comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.2.287

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McLeish,K.(2009).Attitude ofStudentsTowardsCooperativeLearningMethods atKnox Community College: A Descriptive Study. OnlineSubmission Mesfin, A. (2015). Challenges, Opportunities and Implementations of Building Effective Education Critical Mass Organization for Cooperative Learning: The Case of DMCTE. International Journal of Computer Applications, 127(8), 30 40. https://doi.org/10.5120/ijca2015906433

Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child New York. NY:HarcourtBrace. Quines, E. (2017).Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Approach in Developing Critical Thinking Skills of Secondary Students. In Empowering 21st Century Learners Through Holistic and Enterprising Learning (pp. 115 123). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 981 10 4241 6_12 Reda,T.A.(2015).Attitude ofStudents towardsCooperativeLearningMethods(theCase of Wolaita Sodo University Psychology Department Second Year Students). International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR), 24, 33 44. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/249334796.pdf

Sabah, S., & Du, X. (2018). University faculty’s perceptions and practices of student centered learningin Qatar: Alignment orgap? JournalofAppliedResearchinHigher Education, 10(4), 514 533. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE 11 2017 0144 Scherman, V., & Du Toit, P. (2008). Cooperative learning in postgraduate lectures: Possibilities and challenges. South African Journal of Higher Education, 22(2), 423 438. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajhe.v22i2.25795 Schipke, R. C. (2018). Cooperative Learning and Web 2.0: A Social Perspective on Critical Thinking. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 27(2), 193 208. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/178525/ Sijali, K. K. (2017). Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning For Improving Learners’ Proficiency Level of English Language in Secondary Level Education in Nepal. JournalofNELTA, 22(1 2), 13 25. https://doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v22i1 2.20038 Slavin, R. E. (2011). Instruction based on cooperative learning. In Handbook of research on learningandinstruction (pp. 358 374). Routledge. Slavin, R. E. (2015). Cooperative learning in elementary schools. Education 3 13, 43(1), 5

Pescarmona, I. (2011). Working on cooperative learning: Challenges in implementing a new strategy. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning, 6(3), 167 174. https://doi.org/10.5172/ijpl.2011.6.3.167

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Section I 1 Gender □ Male □ Female 2- Age □ Under 20 □ 20 25 □ 26 30 □ Over 30 3 To which year group do you belong? □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4 4 Have you ever participated in a group activity/assignment? □ Yes □ No 5 If yes, where do you usually participate in group activities/assignments? □ In class □ Outside of class □ Both 6 What has been the typical size of your group? □ 2 4 □ 5 7 □ 8 10 □ Other please specify

The purpose of this questionnaire is to assess or gather information about the attitudes of students towards cooperative learning in Afghan EFL context. The students belong to English Department, Faculty of Languages & Literature, Kandahar University, Afghanistan. The success of the current study is highly depending on the accurate and relevant information that you will provide. So, you are kindly requested to read each question carefully and to give your genuine response to each item of the questionnaire. I would like to assure you that response will be used only for the purpose of the current research and will keep confidential. Instruction: Read the following questions carefully and select the best answer for each question. Cooperative Learning: cooperative learning is a type of group learning where students work with other classmates to achieve the group goal(s). For example, A Freshmen class of English Departmentwith (45) students may be placed ingroups to discuss a reading passage in (Reading Textbook) and to share each students’ understanding about the passage with all the group members in the classroom.

Appendix 1 Questionnaire

319 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Section II Read the following and indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements. SA Strongly Agree A Agree N Neutral D Disagree SD Strongly Disagree SA A N D SD 1 When I work together, I achieve more than when I work alone. □ □ □ □ □ 2 I willingly participate in cooperative learning activities. □ □ □ □ □ 3 Cooperative learning can improve my attitude towards work. □ □ □ □ □ 4 Cooperative learning helps me to socialise more. □ □ □ □ □ 5 Cooperative learning enhances good working relationships among students. □ □ □ □ □ Please read the following items and answer accordingly. 6 Do you prefer to work on your own rather than in a group? If so Why? 7 Name the course/courses in which you believe greater learning could be facilitated via group activities. 8 Do lecturers give clear guidelines for the completion of group activities/assignments whether in/outside of the class setting? If yes, do these guidelines enable the task to be clearly understood and completed in the specified time? 9 If no, how are you able to complete your assignments? 10 Would you prefer if your lecturers used more group activities/assignments? Please give a reason/reasons for your answer. 11 Would you be more comfortable if more group activities were incorporated in your course of study? Give a reason for your answer.

Keywords: Competence based assessment; teacher student; perception; learning process 1. Introduction

Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa

The findings presented in this article are in keeping with the national requirements for the transformation of the curriculum for teacher education and training. The rationale for focusing on the issue of assessment reflects a need to shift away from content driven assessment, and towards competence based

The Value of Competence-based Assessment in Pre-service Teacher Training

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4084 8773

Abstract. Given the focus on developing an alternative approach toward improving the quality of teacher education and training in South Africa, teacher educators and curriculum developers face increasing responsibility to implement competence based assessment in initial teacher education and training. This exploratory examination of the scaffolding assessment of foundational, practical, and reflexive competences conducted through a case study intended to gather data on the experiences, views, and performance of a sample of 42 students in the third year level of a teacher qualification program. The analytic rubrics with performance descriptors and the rating scale of outstanding, excellent, good, satisfactory, and weak were instruments for gathering quantitative data. The second source of data was face to face verbal commentsand the diagnosticevaluationconducted by the participants in a focus group on their performance under the codes feedback, feed forward, and feed up in the templates. The analysis of quantitative data presented in the pie chart highlighted different levels of proficiency achieved by participants in foundational, practical, and reflexive competences. The data summarized in the bar chart point to the improvement attained by participants in the focus group. Findings proved that scaffolding assessment into phases allows learners to: regulate their attainment of higher levels of proficiency; work independently; and develop a piece of comprehensive and integrated knowledge, set of skills, and abilities. This study revealed that competence based assessment is perceived by students to be both an processaccuratewayofgaugingtheirperformanceandavitalpartofthelearningitself.

320 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 320 340, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.17

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. assessment. Theoretical aspects of competence based teaching, learning, and assessment in higher education have received critical attention in educational research from 1997 after the norms and standards for teacher education and training were introduced. This research sought to establish the principles underlying the practice of competence based assessment. Thoughts gathered from the pioneers of competence based assessment and furthermore the guidelines for assessing levels of proficiency promulgated by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) in 2001 and 2011 provided this research with guidelines for planning assessment activities. Even though competence based assessment is a recommended discourse for evaluating learning and training in higher education, research indicates that the evaluation of the professional and academic performance of students in teacher education and training is still inclined towards the principles of content based assessment. Researchers have contended that the process of grading students in teacher education focuses on the scores achieved from tests, assignments, and examinations. In this case, the assessors are the oneswho provide feedback on the students'attainment. Students do not have a space to reflect on their performance and to learn from their mistakes. The argument in this study is that the continual practice of the content driven approach to assessment in teacher education and training deprives students of the opportunities to demonstrate their professional capabilities to the optimal levels of proficiency. In contrast, the principles of competence based assessment advocate for: aligning criteria for competent performance; integration of teaching, learning, and assessment; transparency, clarity of focus; validity; and fairness, continuity and consistency, all of which define a different view from traditional methods of assessing performance in teacher education and training. This article endorses an emerging trend in educational practice that favors competence based assessment for monitoring professional growth and development of teacher education and training in higher education. This article begins with an examination of the term 'competence' and approaches to assessment adequate for monitoring or measuring progress used to demonstrate competent performance. The article takes into account the principles and models proposed by previous research for planning, developing, and conducting assessment activities, for example, constructive alignment, student centeredness, transparency, fairness, and reliability. The conceptual and theoretical framework established in the literature review served as parameters for data analysis and interpretation and discussion of conclusions.

2. Context of the Study

The changes introduced in the curriculum for teacher education and training programs enforce the implementation of competence based teaching, learning, and assessment. The modules and courses should reflect new ways of profiling students' competence performance. The undertaking of this research is part of the initiative to explore the feasibility of integrating teaching, learning, and assessment envisaged in the current curriculum to transform teacher education and training in South Africa. Outcomes based education and competence based assessment dominate the narrative about the paradigm shift in teacher education

The conceptual framework for this study draws from two bodies of literature: competence based assessment and the preparation of teachers for professional practice. Teacher development research has highlighted the proposal for the shift from traditional content driven assessment to competence based learning. Competence based assessment recommends the active participation of students in their learning and assessment through self reflective practice and self assessment instead of conforming to the judgments of the lecturers. This study draws upon the two bodies of knowledge to explore the efficacy of competence based assessment to encourage students to reflect on their performance of learning outcomes set out in the educational studies module.

The review of documents and sources produced at the advocacy stages of competence based education in higher institution of learning in South Africa revealed the definition of concept competence based assessment as a holistic approach to gathering evidence about the levels profiency students demonstrated to perform abilities, knowledge and skills in a broader sense. The competences are generic statements that articulate the specific abilities, skills, and attitudes concerning professional practice (SAQA, 2019; Department of Higher Education and Training, 2019). The purpose of competence based education and training in South Africa was to produce able teachers who can solve problems creatively, develop activities, carry out exercises, pose questions, search for relevant information, analyze, understand, and reflect by applying their knowledge in answering the demands of the real work environment. An advocate of the

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. and training. The conceptual application of the term initial teacher training in the context of the transformation of teacher education and training refers to the four year program for preparing teachers. This concept is used interchangeably with pre service teacher training in the policy documents of the Department of Higher Education in South Africa.

3. Literature Review

In the analysis of Navio, Dominguez, and Zagalaz (2019), Misbah, Gulikers, Dharma, and Mulder (2019), Sayed and Kanjee (2013), and Boyer and Bucklew (2019), competence based teaching, learning, and assessment allow not only the clustering of abilities, skills, and attitudes but also the motivation that is developed gradually all along the education and training process. In the follow up of an assessment of competences in teacher education and training, synthesis of the literature revealed that a competence based approach is a trend that is adopted internationally (Wesselink, Biemans, Gulikers, Runhaar, & Mulder, 2018; Gessler & Peters, 2020; Lassnigg, 2018).

This study explores the efficacy of scaffolding instruction in the integration of learning and assessment. Traditionally, content based assessment dominated the assessment procedures in teacher education in South Africa. Critics condemn confining assessments to summative and judgment because students do not get opportunities to reflect on their performance (Whalley, 2014; Boyer & Bucklew, 2019; SAQA, 2019). This research upholds the view that assessment is an integral part of instruction and learning in the professional training of teachers.

323 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. adoption of competence based assessment in teacher education and training in South Africa argued that: Assessment that catalyzes both teaching and learning can play a role in guiding and supporting the processes aimed at the attainment of applied competence. The response of the South African government to this challenge in higher education is to use assessment formatively and summatively in attaining applied competences. Beets (2009, p. 183) Although competence based assessment overwhelms local and global research in standardtheup,underpinnedthatimplementationCebrián,practiceprofessionalactivitiescompetenceandKillenoutcomesassessment:Theknowledge,which(Beets,atermsassessmenteducationexittrainingAccording2018).skillscollectiveincentral(Bettsresearcher,ctoexactthatprofessionalandacademiceducationandtraining,theliteraturereveals,however,thereisnocompleteagreementamongscholarsandresearchersaboutthedefinitionofthetermcompetence.Thetermcompetenceinthisworkrefersthebroaderandmorecomprehensivedescriptionofperformance,whichisharacterizedbytheprofessionalattributes:independentthinker,lifelonglearner,curriculumdeveloper,andreflectiveandinnovativepractitioner,Huntington,Lao,Dillon,&Baayard,2019;Boyer&Bucklew,2019).Apremiseofcompetencebasedassessmentinthisviewisthatproficiencytheprofessionaldevelopmentmustbeconcernedwiththeperformanceoftheclusterofworkrelatedcognitiveabilities,knowledge,andpractical(Martinez&Hurtado,2018;Gessler&Peters,2020;Watling&Ginsburg,totheSAQA(2019)assessmentguidelines,highereducationandqualificationprogramsinSouthAfricashouldprovideacarefullylucidleveloutcomescurriculumwithintheframeworkofcompetencebasedandassessment.Theprincipleofintegratingteaching,learning,andunderliescompetencebasedassessmentinprofessionaltraininginofthreebroadcompetences:foundational,practical,andreflexive,whichrelinkedtoexitleveloutcomesforallprofessionalandoccupationalprograms2009;SAQA,2019).SAQA(2019)indicatedthatthelearningoutcomes,arethepredeterminedstatementsoftheenvisagedabilities,skills,andshouldlinktotheassessmentcriteria.bodyofliteratureonassessmentrevealedthattherearethreeperspectivesoncontentbasedassessment,competencebasedassessment,andbasedassessments(Black&William,2014;Beets,2009).Accordingto(2015),thesethreeapproachestoassessmentdifferbasedonprogrammingprinciples.Proponentsofcompetencebasedassessmentassertthatbasedassessmententailscarefulplanningandorganizationofandconsistentfeedbacktoensurethatallstudentsmasterbasiclevelskills,abilities,andknowledgerequiredintheworldofprofessional(VanderVleuten,Sluijsmans,&Brinke,2017;Black&McCormick,2010;Junyent,&Mulà,2020).Thebodyofknowledgeabouttheofcompetencebasedteaching,learning,andassessmentassertsassessmentofcompetencesisnotaonceoffevent.Rather,itisaprocessbyformativeprinciples:consistentfeedback,feedforward,andfeedmeaningaprocessofgradualupwardgrowthmovingfromthebasicleveltolevelofcomplexity.Theassessmentcriteriaspecifytheleveloftheexpectedduringtheprocessofmonitoringandsupervisingtheattainmentof

This research drew thoughts and opinions from the scaffolding instructions in the social constructivist theory of learning. The principles of constructivism promote learner centeredness, active participation, and reflective thinking (Woolfolk Hoy, 2018; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2014). The scaffolding model applied in the designing of the assessment activity into three phases and the data collected from the reflective exercise carried out by participants in this research were informed by the model of scaffolding instruction and assessment. The principles of scaffolding instruction and assessment stipulate that monitoring and supervision of growth and development of competences in learning begin with the foundational abilities, knowledge, and skills, and the assessment provides students with information about their progress.

5. Methodology and Research Design

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

The second level of reflection expected participants to analyze the rubrics to understand the expected acceptable performance at a higher level of proficiency, and this was called feed forward. The last level in this reflection continuum assessed skills, capabilities, and knowledge at the level of complexity, and the focus was on relating performance to diverse settings and situations in the real place of work (Barnett, 2018; Crisp, 2012).

proficient development in the training of professional practitioners. The rating scale used to evaluate the progress on the rubrics is a tool used to gather evidence of the progress or milestones towards the achievement of the level of proficient performance (Lassnigg, 2018; Boyer & Bucklew, 2019; Van Griethuijsen, Kunst, Van Woerkom, Wessenlink, & Poell, 2019).

The consideration of the proficiency levels for designing the scaffolding of the assessment activity in this research was to encapsulate the principles of flexibility, reliability, transparency, and fairness. The scaffolding model provided a platform for flexible engagement to participants to learn from mistakes and to utilize those weaknesses to improve their performance to the optimal level of proficiency.

According to Van der Vleuten et al. (2017), scaffolding assessment enables individual students to find answers from reflective questions such as: Where am I? (feedback), Where am I going? (feed forward), and Where to next? (feed up).

4. Theoretical Framework

The first level of reflections focused on feedback, where participants used the rubrics to identify gaps under the foundational category of performance of competence, and improved their performance before moving on to the next level.

The case study design was preferred for this research. The process of data collection and data analysis utilized quantitative and qualitative procedures. According to MacMillan and Schumacher (2018, p. 26), employing qualitative and quantitative research techniques allows the researcher to use more than one research instrument to collect data in the study. The purpose of the triangulated data collection procedure was for the credibility and validity of the results and Thefindings.primary source of data in this research was the results of the quantitative analysis of the levels of proficiency identified in the performance of foundational,

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. reflexive, and practical competences by the group of 42 students in the assessment activities.Theprocess ofdata analysisfocusedfirst onelucidating theset ofresults obtained through the quantitative procedures. The categories of data manifested from the rating scales led to the frequency distribution of data summarized in the pie chart and bar chart (Figures 1 and 2, respectively). A sub sample of 25 students was used as focus group to solicit qualitative data from reflective exercises and face to face verbal comments concerning experiences, views, and opinions on the scaffolding assessment. This data were related to the ratings of their performance. The qualitative data were the yardstick to evaluate participants' perspectives of the competence based assessmentand the possibility of itsimplementationin pre service teacher training.

6. Ethical Considerations

The researcher informed participants in the focus group of the purpose of the assessment activity, which was to explore the benefits of a scaffolding assessment for gauging skills, abilities, and capabilities gained in the process of learning. Participants in the focus group knew that participation was voluntary, and they were entitled to discontinue the assessment activity if they chose to do so and knew that there was no risk of victimization. Participants willingly provided verbal consent before the assessment activity commenced. For the sake of confidentiality and anonymity, the lecturer guaranteed participants that their names would be replaced by pseudonyms. Students who took part in the focus group for the empirical study were not coerced but considered participation as an opportunity to improve their performance.

7. Data Collection

The source of quantitative data was the rating scale on the analytic rubrics. The assessment criteria were descriptors of the levels of performance. Developmental assessment of participants' performance alerted participants of their weak performance. The scaffolding assessment activity with a set of three competences and assessment criteria engaged participants in a step by step process of demonstrating skills, knowledge, and capabilities in the educational studies course. The first phase examined participating students' abilities to collect information from a variety of written sources employing technology and was also an exhibit of knowledge of educational concepts and principles underpinning curriculum innovations in the context of educational transformation in South Africa and internationally. The performance descriptor for the foundational abilities was assessment criterion 1 (AC1). The second phase focused on practical skills. The shreds of evidence of creative thinking, problem solving, reflective practice, designing, and planning were to be performed by participants in utilizing the abilities developed from the foundational ability. Assessment criterion 2 (AC2) described the level of expected proficiency in the performance of skills.

The third phase examined the proficiency in the performance of reflexive competence, which entailed the ability to express attitudes and feelings, and create arguments and self evaluation, and to give an account of good and bad professional practice in diverse situations and contexts. Assessment criterion 3

criterion 2: the evidence of achievement of this competence will be in the demonstration of cognitive skills such as critical, creative, and analytic

First Foundationalphase

In this study, the focal context was the performance of the integrated competences in the assessment task by the entire participating class group. The quantitative data recorded in the frequency distribution of ratings on each criterion manifested four groupings summarized in the pie chart (Figure 1). The bar chart (Figure 2) data basedonthe ratingscale of theperformance of the three assessment criteria after the reflective task between the lecturer and the participants from the focus group displayed progress and improvement in the specific performance of the three assessment criteria.

presentsquantitative

Scaffolding assessment activity

The study also utilized a social constructivist research paradigm in which the researcher examines the perceptions and views of participants about their performance. The participants in the focus group had diverse learning needs in the respect that opportunities were afforded through the scaffolding assessment and continuous engagement with the lecturer to improve their performance. The first recordings of reflections were from the written template, which indicated the categories: feedback (what existing gaps are?), feed forward (what to attend to?), and feed up (what determines the optimal level of achievement?). Summaries in

1: the achievement of this competence will be evident when participants can: select relevant information or ideas, explain concepts, and connect conceptual knowledge of educational philosophical and theoretical

ReflexiveThirdthinking.phasecompetence: students should demonstrate abilities and skills of independent thinking, give an account of the choices of education philosophical principles and theories they recommend for their professional practice and to create arguments informed by their perspective of theories and philosophies.

Assessment criterion 3: the attainment of this competence will be evident when participants design learning and teaching activities for work integrated learning, and when they conduct demo classes and reflect on their practice.

8. Data Analysis

competence: students should demonstrate abilities to read sources critically, gather information, and to integrate conceptual knowledge across the education Assessmentdiscipline.criterion

PracticalSecondprinciples.phasecompetence: students should demonstrate abilities to relate philosophical and theoretical principles to thecurriculumissues andwork related Assessmentcontexts.

Figure 1. Data showing the grouping of the participants’ levels of performance in percentages in the whole sample

Data gathered from the participants' performance of foundational competence in Learning Outcome 1; AC1 , AC2, & AC3 (n=42)

The first set of data is presented in a pie chart in Figure 1. The figure illustrates the percentages gathered through the analysis of data, and the frequency distribution of the range of ratings of participants' performance indicates the varying levels. Participants in the sample demonstrated either weak, satisfactory, good, excellent, or outstanding performance.

9. Presentation of Data

The percentages reflected on the pie graph indicate that 40% of the participating pre service teachers were not able to demonstrate competent performance of foundational abilities, skills, and knowledge. The satisfactory 20% of participants were of concern because their performance based on the descriptions of the rubrics indicated gaps and weak areas requiring support to improve their performance of critical skills, abilities, and knowledge.

The second set of data was from 25 students, 60% of the entire sample. These were student participants whose performance fell in the range of the weak and satisfactory categories on the rating scale. Participants' reflections on their performance guided by the descriptors on the analytic rubrics were provided to them during the first cycle of qualitative data analysis The qualitative analysis of data focused on the participants' reflections on their abilities and skills to perform activities set to assess foundational competence (Table 1); AC1 of the assessment exercise. The coding of data during analysis was based on views participants expressed under the categories on the template, which were feedback, feed forward, and feed up. outstanding 10% goodexcellent17%13%weaksatisfactory20%40%

9.1 Data gathered from participants in the focus group through reflections

• Knowledge of philosophical principles and theories was not associated with classroom practice

• Lack of understanding of the significance of the theoretical knowledge in the professional application Things considered to improve performance:

• Relate philosophical ideas when preparing demo lessons • Read curriculum policy documents underpinningphilosophicalunderstandtoprinciplesit

328

• Understand the description of the competence and the assessment criteria

Acknowledgment of shortcomings:

• Plan and oftoscenariosorganizethatarerelevantthephilosophicalideassociety

• Cut and pasted sentences with no relevant meaning to the assessment criteria Things considered to improve performance:

• Teachers are curriculumunderpinningphilosophicalunderstandpractitionersprofessionalwhoshouldtheprinciplesthedesign

The value of knowledge in development:professional

Feedback identifying gaps in the previous performance (Where am I?) Feed (WhatRequiredforwardimprovementisnext?)

• Definition of concepts instead of critical reading for comprehension

• Compare philosophical ideas and principles for similarities and contrast

• Information from sources must be understood with insight

Feedback identifying gaps in the previous performance (Where am I?) Feed (WhatRequiredforwardimprovementisnext?) Feed (Whereupam I going?)

• Conduct professional practice underpinned by the relevant philosophical ideas of the society, for example, democracy

• Integrate philosophical and theoretical ideas in classroom practice

Table 1: Summary of participants’ self reflections based on the assessment of abilities, knowledge and skills to performance in foundational competence

Feed (Whereupam I going?)

• Inadequate comprehension of the task • Disregarding the rubrics

The self reflective exercise conducted by the participants highlighted the areas of development, as well as gaps in their knowledge, abilities, and skills that were expected in the previous assessment. Data also indicate that participants realized the levels of complexity of the foundational competence; hence, they listed the abilities, skills, and knowledge they require to achieve the optimal performance under feed forward and feed up. Data from the template which highlighted abilities, skills, and knowledge concerning practical application were classified under practical competence and AC2 during theprocess of data analysis (Table 2).

Table 2: Summary of participants’ self reflections based on the assessment of abilities, skills, and knowledge to performance in practical competence

Acknowledgment of shortcomings:

• The difficulty to link or connect the information to the practice

• Professional teachers should know, understand, and realize theirandphilosophicalthatprinciplestheoriesarecriticalinprofessionalpractice

The value of knowledge in professional development:

• Thinking of teaching methods and teaching approaches as part of philosophical and theoretical principles

educationandphilosophicaloffoundationsprinciplesin

• Evaluate curriculum policy documents to phunderstandilosophical underpinningprinciplesit

The value of knowledge in development:professional

•

The categories of reflections in Table 3 highlighted issues and aspects that participants associated with their abilities and skills to integrate the understanding of knowledge with the application they were required to.

• Relate and give account for the choices of philosophical principles when preparing lessons

• It was not easy to manipulate factual knowledge to provide a solution to the work related context

• Seek approaches to teaching as teachinglessonwhentheoreticalphilosophicalprogressivefromandprinciplesplanningdemointhemicro

• Challenge was to analyze and interpret conceptual knowledge

Feedback identifying gaps in the (WhereperformancepreviousamI?) Feed (WhatRequiredforwardimprovementisnext?) Feed (Whereupam I going?)

• Integrate philosophical and practiceconstructstheoreticalonclassroom

The self reflection statements that indicated views related to awareness of attitudes, motivation, and ability to learn from current performance to effect changes were coded as reflexive statements (Table 3).

• To be openminded when ofandprofessionalinformationreadingaboutpracticephilosophicalideassociety

Table 3: Summary of participants’ self-reflections based on the assessment of abilities, knowledge and skills to performance in reflexive competence

The comments under the feedback category point to the gaps participants declared as difficulties they experienced in applying knowledge in practice. The acknowledgment of the lack of abilities and skills to transfer knowledge to the real life situation is of concern in the education and training of teachers because it could mean that students perceive theoretical and philosophical knowledge as unnecessary in their professional development and preparation for professional practice in the workplace.

• Integrate social change and principlesphilosophical Comprehension of philosophical ideas and theories in education, including pedagogy relevant

Things considered to improve performance:

• Inability to link the theoretical principles to the context of professional practice in the workplace

• Select philosophical ideas that are in my view relevant to improve strategies of teaching or methods

The third set of data gathered from the template focused on reflexive competence

Acknowledgment of shortcomings: • Challenge was to create an argument and present interpretation from the viewpoint of a student

“This approach to assessment is time consuming compared to tests and examinations. I personally prefer a test, as long as I get a mark to pass the course.” (Ralf) “This assessment is for students who are interested in perfecting their knowledge. Some of us do not have such stamina. Multiple choice questions are my favorite because I memorize the factual knowledge and obtain distinction at that is all.” (Sambo)

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9.2 Data gathered from summative assessment after formative assessment

The patterns of thought that emerged from the face to face verbal comments highlighted that participants perceived the scaffolding assessment model of competences to be appropriate for their professional preparation. The selected comments linked to this claim are as follows:

The final step of data gathering was the numerical coding of achievements. The variance between the first performance and the performance demonstrated by the group of 25 participants was evident in the final judgment of individual profiles of the first to the last attempts. Figure 2 illustrates the milestones achieved by participants after the interventions.

Presentation of qualitative data from verbal comments gathered during the post-assessment evaluation

“To be afforded another chance to improve my performance is wonderful to me. I have realized that doing this task step by step made me learn that the knowledge of what is linked with the knowledge of how and why. I find the comments from my lecturer helpful because of the suggestions made for improving AC1, AC2, and AC3.” (Ramallah) “I need to improve my ability to analyze information from sources. I will use the comments given by the lecturer to improve my performance of the assessment criteria 1, 2, and 3.” (Thebius) “This experience is a learning curve. In the beginning, I was confused because I am used to the writing of tests and essays. The assessment with phases, assessment criteria, and competences is a new experience. After understanding what competences and assessment criteria are, I became interested. I now know why my performance was weak.” (Nolita)

“To be honest, I have gained experience and knowledge about the importance of philosophical principles and theories; I have an understanding of the value of this knowledge to my practice of teaching, and it was for the first time that I conducted self reflections on my work. This approach is the best way of learning because it is more developmental than judgmental. The support and opportunity to improve on our errors help us to learn from our mistakes.” (Zizi) Some comments that presented a different view were also considered significant in the evaluation of this model:

ACAC2AC13

Figure 2. Performance of participants after the interventions and scaffolding instructions: Face to face verbal feedback, feed forward, and feed up

76543210

The value of scaffolding assessment in the holistic development of competent professional teachers

The assessment of the three competences in one activity in a scaffolding model enabled the participants to first master foundational competence before engaging at the level of demonstrating the skills and abilities to contextualize the knowledge of principles in practice. The successful mastery of critical reading and reflective presentation indicated that participants attained proficiency in foundational competence. This competence forms the baseline for lifelong learning in the academic and professional development and growth. The skills for the practical application of the disciplinary and theoretical knowledge of principles encompassing professional functions and activities are critical in professional practice. The reflexive competence exposed participants to the zone of participating in knowledge construction. The participants who experienced difficulties in the three levels were identified and afforded opportunities to learn from their mistakes and to continue to improve those abilities and skills to the optimal level. The evidence of the improvement in the performance of the three competences highlighted in the bar chart (Figure 2) proved the efficacy of the scaffolding model in assessing integrated learning outcomes. These positive results in the context of initial (pre service) teacher education and training could imply the necessity of shifting from the fixed timeframe for assessing learning to outstanding excellent good Milestones attained by participants after the interventions (n=25)

The data displayed in figure 1 prove that 40% of the entire sample of 42 students demonstrated performance that was above the expected level of proficiency. In contrast, 60% of the participants performed below the standard in foundational, practical, and reflexive competences. This finding was critical in this study because it informed the lecturer of the kind and the intensity of support needed, and that monitoring was required to assist participants in the focus group.

10. Presentation of the Findings Challenges experienced by students in the assessment of integrated competences

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. a more flexible timeframe. This will allow every student in the training course to attain the optimal level of proficiency in all three essential competences recommended as attributes for the competent teacher (SAQA, 2019).

Experiences of self-regulatory learning and self-assessment

The opportunity to engage in the reflective exercise enabled participants to know and understand the reasons for the rating of their performance on the foundational competence. The statements listed in the grid (Table 1) indicate that participants were able to realize that one of the mistakes they made was out of the attitude of negligence: “Inadequate comprehension of the task”; “Ignoring the performance descriptions on the analytic rubrics.”

“To be honest, I have gained a lot of knowledge about the significance of philosophical principles and theories; I have an understanding of the value of this knowledge to my practice of teaching and it was for the first time that I conducted self reflections on my effort. This is the best way of

The reading and comprehension of instructions in the test and examination is a challenge to some students. Realization of the importance of reading instructions could lead to a change of the attitude of negligence. The interpretation given to the motivation, moreover the responsibility, demonstrated by participants in working independently, in the context of this article, was that competence based assessment could be adopted and implemented to promote quality teachers. In the same breath, the issue that analytic rubrics and performance descriptors is not taken seriously by students proved to be a milestone in this study in discovering that participants realized that ignoring rubrics had a negative impact on their performance. The analytic rubrics and the rating scale were essential in the sense that they serve in describing the levels of performance for each assessment criterion (Killen, 2015). Cutting and pasting is a shortcut for students who do not want to read for comprehension and insight. The reflection that highlighted acknowledgment of plagiarism by participants was a positive finding in this work. The habit of cutting and pasting from sources without comprehension indicated improvement towards proficient professional and academic Thedevelopment.datapresented in Tables 2 and 3 highlight a significant change in participants' perceptions of their education and training. Moreover, the realization of the importance of disciplinary and professional knowledge in the curriculum was associated with the following reflection: “Selection of relevant philosophical ideas to improve the strategies of teaching or methods teaching proved the attainment of the proficiency level of reflexive competence; integrate philosophical and theoretical ideas on classroom practice and relate and give account for the choices of philosophical principles when preparing lessons.”(Thebius) Similarly, the comments coded during face to face verbal interactions with participants substantiated the view held in this work that scaffolding assessment is of value in assessment integrated competences, and also in developing proficiency in the performance of professionals’ practice of teaching students during their pre service education and training.

The perception of the efficacy of scaffolding assessment expressed in the participant’s verbal comment proved that assessment of competences should not be perceived to be an event but rather a process of gradual development and growth in the training of professionals. The attainment of proficiency levels by the cohort of students varied. Therefore, this implies that lecturers should consider multi level abilities when planning and organizing assessment activities to supervise and monitor the development and growth of competent and professional teachers.

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The evidence of responsibility observed from the reflective exercise and initiative to participate in the scaffolding assessment activity was interpreted as a sign of professional growth and development. The commitment to improving skills and abilities required to apply knowledge in different work related situations and contexts was interpreted as the strength of integrating the three competences with teaching, learning, and assessment that lie in the development of a teacher who will be able to perform professional functions in diverse situations and contexts (SAQA, 2019). A sense of commitment and responsibility demonstrated by

The interactive engagement and non judgmental attitudes observed and experienced by participants and the researcher during the process of assessment created an environment conducive to meaningful learning. Recognition and acknowledgment of gaps in knowledge, cognitive abilities, and skills against the expected level of proficiency were the evidence of the outcomes of the process of learning. Teachers in their pre service training should develop these professional skills because they are expected to be reflective practitioners. The process of continuous professional development in the workplace is about innovative practice; therefore, the ability to recognize and acknowledge gaps while studying will enable teachers to be proactive and reflective practitioners.

learning because we were not judged but we received support and opportunity to improve on our errors.” (Zizi)

11. Interpretation and Discussion of Findings

The evidence of responsibility was interpreted as a signal of professional growth and development. According to the DHET (2019), the strength of integrating applied competences with teaching and learning and assessment lies in the development of a teacher who will be able to perform professional functions in diverse situations and contexts. A sense of commitment and responsibility demonstrated by participants indicated that they would be better able to apply skills, abilities, and knowledge competently in the classroom.

The findings of the research presented in this work support the argument of international and local scholars that competence based assessment improves the quality of preparing teachers for quality teaching and learning (Beets, 2009; Barnett, 2018). Furthermore, the findings provided a framework sought out by the researcher to plan and organize competence based assessment activities that complement the policy promulgated in the SAQA (2019) guidelines. The findings enabled the researcher to establish the participating students’ perspectives of the scaffolding model in the planning and organization of assessment activities.

participants indicated that they would be better able to transfer and apply skills, abilities, and knowledge competently in the classroom. For their lifelong learning, participants developed a sense of greater responsibility and commitment to their education and training.

This research proves that the scaffolding assessment activity can assess the abilities of pre service teachers. This study supports the perspective that pre service teachers can work independently and responsibly if they have guidelines. This study also supports the perception of pre service teacher education that promotes the integration of foundational competence (knowledge of factual knowledge), practical competence (knowledge of application), and reflexive competence (skills to reflect and evaluate) (SAQA, 2019). Professional practitioners should be prepared for lifelong learning, and this requires skills and expertise to practice their professional knowledge and doing so under various conditions (Lassnigg, 2018; Boyer & Bucklew, 2019; Van Griethuijsen et al., 2019). As lifelong learners, their abilities and skills to think critically and creatively will enable pre service teachers to comprehend challenges in the workplace and to adjust to the demands of the changing practices in education in the local as well as global Competencecontext.based assessment in pre service teacher education and training provides the holistic evidence for students' abilities to comprehend the theoretical

Boyer and Bucklew (2019) proposed that higher education should prepare students for the world of work, which has diverse demands and challenges. In the same vein, Barnett (2018) suggested that the programs for teacher education and training should consider a competence based approach for equipping pre service teachers with the knowledge of what, how, why and when. This research underscores the potential value of equipping pre service teachers with professional skills and techniques, rather than with discrete pieces of information.

The shift in the perspective of assessment which emphasizes collecting marks from discrete assessment tasks to a consolidated activity with scaffolds was part of the learning experience for participants. In this regard, Nolitah commented: “This is a learning curve. In the beginning, I was confused because I am used to the writing of tests and essays. The assessment with phases, assessment criteria, and competences is a new experience. After understanding what competences and assessment criteria are, I became interested. I now know why my performance was weak.” (Ramalla)

The findings of this research support the notion that competence based education is an appropriate approach for integrating teaching, learning, and assessment.

The perception of assessment as the evidence that comes at the end of the learning process or to generate a summative record has no significant role in quality teaching and learning in the training of teachers to be competent practitioners. The findings of this research point out that students could develop different but related competences in the integrated process of teaching, learning, and assessment. In the process of assessment, the interactive engagement of students and lecturer provide a platform for learning and instruction. It is during this interactive engagement that students conduct the reflective exercise of feedback, feed forward, and feed up.

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The data and the findings show that competence based assessment proves to be an effective mechanism for enabling students to improve their performance of abilities, skills, and knowledge in the teaching discipline. The principles underpinning the transformation of initial (pre service) teacher education and training point out that students in professional education and training should be competent in the general principles of the sound disciplinary knowledge base and application. In addition, they should be competent in the transfer of sound knowledge, and possess the ability to transfer and apply knowledge and skills in the real place of professional practice in different contexts and under diverse conditions (DHET, 2019, p. 51). The knowledge acquired from the scaffolding assessment activity is, firstly, that it is possible to assess more than one competence in a single activity; secondly, that analytic rubrics and the rating scale is the better tool for enabling interactive consultation between students and lecturer; and lastly, that the analytic rubrics can be used by students to profile their performance.

It was also concluded from the study that the principle of scaffolding assessment is to break the task into phases and that each phase should be allocated a flexible timeframe for all students to attain the optimal level of performance at their own pace. It was apparent during the assessment that students become easily discouraged when they experience difficulties to attain higher levels of proficiency in performing foundational competence. However, this attitude changed when the second and the third chance provided sufficient support and supervision. The scaffolding model proved to be efficacious in transforming the

12. Conclusion

Development and growth in the teaching professions require the sound knowledge of theories and a high level of proficiency in critical thinking, logic, and reasoning skills (SAQA, 2019). The data presented in Tables 2 and 3, in the context of this paper, point to the value of competence based assessment, as participants were able to realize that knowledge of philosophies and theories plays an important role in their professional practice in the real workplace. According to SAQA (2019), the pre service teacher qualification curriculum should focus on the development of: foundational competence, practical competence, and reflexive competence, and the assessment should be integrated into high stakes assessment tasks. The integrated assessment of competences through the scaffolding of activities enabled the participating students to understand that education and training are dual processes in teaching and learning and that the focus should shift from memorization and regurgitation of facts to meaningful learning of the what, how, when and why.

Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. knowledge, its application, and to reflect on the changes when they are required (Barnett, 2018). The data in Tables 1, 2, and 3 provide a holistic view of the cognitive abilities and skills demonstrated by participating students at the basic level of proficiency concerning foundational competence. The value of self reflection was the realization of specific areas of inadequacy and underdevelopment in the performance by the participants. According to Lassnigg (2018), self reflection assists students to be aware of the areas of weakness in their performance in the process of professional development.

13. Recommendations

The data and findings reported upon in this article attest to the fact that through scaffolding instruction and alignment of assessment criteria, it is possible to make valid and reliable judgments on the professional growth and development of students in their future teaching careers.

336 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. perception of competition to cooperation among students. The issue of re testing was replaced by a remedial or re engaging approach until achievement of the goal. The attitude in the assessment of attaining distinctions based on the number of ticksfor thecorrect answers inthetestsand exams was replaced bythe profiling of competent performance in the cognitive skills and abilities, and practical and andtrusttheproficientconsistency,Criticalreflexiveskills.Thiscontributestotheholisticallydevelopedandassessedteacher.aspectsintheapplicationofthescaffoldingassessmentare,firstly,meaningthattheremarksorcommentsconcerningtheindicatorsofperformanceshouldbespecificandprecisetoallstudents.Secondly,issueoftransparencyandfairnessplayagreatroleintheestablishmentofandreliability.Transparencyentailsdiscussingthecompetencesexpectedabilities,skills,andknowledgeassessed.Thirdly,theassessmentcriteria, which are the evidence required from students’ performance, should be articulated explicitly. Fourthly, the rating scale and the rubrics describing the levels of proficiency should be discussed in a question and answer section to ensure that clarity prevails about what should be done.

The findings of this article may motivate other researchers in higher education or teacher educators to use competence based assessment as a better means of assessment. The findings reported on in this article are from a particular context that may not be similar in other institutions of higher learning and, therefore, may not be universally accepted. It is recommended that the findings in this article be understood in the context in which the study was conducted. However, this does not mean that these findings are not reliable; they can be used as a springboard for further research to transform traditional approaches to assessment in teacher education and training. The flexibility of timeframes in this study have proven to be of benefit to the development of students' academic abilities and professional skills. Therefore, this study recommends that teacher educators could consider this approach as an alternative means to afford students in teacher education and training opportunity for holistic academic and professional growth and development.

14. References Barnett, R. E. (2018). Assessment in higher education: An impossible mission? In D. Boud & N. Falchikov (Eds.), Rethinkingassessment inhighereducationlearning forthelong term (pp. 29 40). London: Routledge Falmer. Beets, P. (2009). Towards integrated assessment in South African higher education. In E. Blitzer (Ed.), Higher education in South Africa: A scholarly look behind the scenes (Chapter 9, pp. 183 202). Stellenbosch: Sun Media. Betts, L. R., Huntington, B., Lao L., Dillon, G. V., & Baayard, P. (2019). Developing a competency based education and training program for university tutors. The Journal of Competency based Education, 4(4), 1 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1200

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2014). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, 21(1), 5 31 Black, P., & McCormick, R. (2010). Reflections and new directions. Assessment & EvaluationinHigherEducation, 35(5), 493 499 https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.493696 Boyer, N., & Bucklew, K. (2019). Competency based education and higher education enterprise system. The Journal of Competency Based Education, 4(1), 1 20. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1180

Crisp, G. (2012). Integrative assessment: Reframing assessment practice for current and future learning Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 37, 33 44 https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.494234

Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). (2019). Minimum requirements for teacherqualification. Pretoria: Government Printers. Gessler, M., & Peters, S. (2020). Competency based education and training in Namibia: Educational transfer as an imitation. In M. Pilz & J. Li (Eds.), Comparative Vocational Education Research (pp. 113 130). Wiesbaden: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 3 658 29924 8_7 Gulikers, J. T. M., Runhaar P., & Mulder, M. (2018). An assessment innovation as a flywheel for changing teaching and learning. Journal of Vocational Education & Training,70(2), 212 231. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2017.1394353 Killen, R. (2015). Teaching strategies for quality teaching and learning. Cape Town: Juta Publishers. Lassnigg, L. (2018) Competence based education and educational effectiveness. In M. Mulder (Ed.), Competence basedvocationalandprofessionaleducation:Bridgingthe worlds of work and education (pp. 667 693). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. MacMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2018). Research in education: Evidence based inquiry. New York: Pearson Inc. Martinez, L. V., & Hurtado, J. T. (2018). Competency based evaluation in higher education: Design and use of competence rubrics by university educators. InternationalEducation Studies,11(2), 118 131. Misbah, Z., Gulikers, J. T. M., Dharma, S., & Mulder, M. (2019). Evaluating competence based vocationaleducation inIndonesia, JournalofVocationalEducation&Training. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2019.1635634

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338 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. education degrees and students of training teachers master. Journal of New ApproachesinEducationResearch,18(1), 58 65. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2014). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues Harlow: Pearson Publishers. Sayed, Y., & Kanjee, A. (2013). Assessment policy in post apartheid South Africa: Challenges for improving education quality and learning. Principles, Policy and Practice,20(4), 444 469. SouthAfricanQualificationsAuthority(SAQA).

339 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. APPENDIX A High Stake Assessment Activity Foundational Competence: In this activity should have demonstrate conceptual knowledge of traditional and progressive philosophical ideas that influence curriculum development FOCUS • Develop power point presentation in at least 8 slides to discuss the knowledge of philosophies and theories you have read about from sources. • Explain the philosophical concepts, theoriesunderpinningprincipleseducationalandpractices. FIRST PHASE Assessment Criterion (AC1) The indicators of the proficient performance are: • ability to collect information from at least three different sources • Evaluate information for relevance and appropriateness to educational philosophies. • Related information to the theories you have learned about from Psychology of education • Present your discussion slides using PowerPoint. Citation of the sources consulted is important. Practical Competence: In this activity you should apply conceptual knowledge of educational philosophies and educational theories from the field of psychology in the context of professional practice FOCUS • Analyse four scenarios of the classroom practices. • Classify classroom practices on the scenarios under traditional and progressive philosophies • Explain the principles from your knowledge of learning theories ( environment.learningteacherlearnerconnectionsHumanist)Constructivist,CognitiveBehaviourism,,Socialphenomenology,concerningthebetween(i)theandknowledge(ii)theandlearnerand(iii)andlearning SECOND PHASE Assessment Criterion (AC2) The indicators of the proficient performance are The indicators of the proficient performance are: • andAbilitytoanalyseinformationcriticalreflectively • Ability to examine practices displayed in the scenario and skill to contrast and compare practices on the scenario • Skills align identified practices with the principles from theories of learning when reflecting on the observed practices

340 ©2020 Theauthor and IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Reflexive Competence: In this activity you are expected to express your own opinion, experiences and account of what the knowledge of perspective in educational philosophies and theories of learning for psychology influence your thought about professional practice FOCUS • Draw from your experiences accumulated during school based practice to evaluate the value of you classroom practice with specific reference to the (i)following:Strategies to teaching, learning and (ii)managementclassroomRoleoftheteacherin the (iii)classroomplanning and organising learning content • Explain the philosophical ideas and principles from educational psychology which informed your thoughts and opinions THIRD PHASE Assessment Criterions The indicators of the proficient performance are The indicators of the proficient performance are: • Ability to create the convincing argument about the choice of educational philosophies and theories of learning. • Skills in supporting presentation with practical examples or scenario from you previous, general knowledge of experiences from school based practical learning • Defend your opinion by comparing the traditional practices in teaching profession with progressive approaches substantiating your argument with factual knowledge from sources APPENDIXB The Rating Scale for Competences and Assessment Criteria Rating scale performanceOutstanding performanceExcellent performanceGood performanceSatisfactory competenceFoundational AC1 competencePractical AC2 competenceReflexive AC3

341 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 341 362, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.18 Cognitive E-Tools for Diagnosing the State of Medical Knowledge in Students Enrolled for a Second Time in an Anatomy Course Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales-Martinez Cognitive Science Laboratory, IISUE, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4662 229X Alberto Manuel Ángeles Castellanos, Víctor Hugo Ibarra Ramírez and Magaly Iveth Mancera Rangel School of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6496 9465 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4424 8158 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5219 3348 Abstract. This article illustrates the application of the Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model to measure the structural, organizational, and temporal properties of the anatomical knowledge schemata acquired by 52 first year medical students enrolled for a second time in an anatomy course The participants took part in a mental representation experiment as a part of which they carried out a conceptual definition task involving anatomy concepts based on the Natural Semantic Networks (NSN) technique. A computational propertiesconstructiveconsopassingmemory.tostudentsanatomywhichpartsimulationwasperformedontheNSNdata,afterwhichthestudentstookinasemanticprimingexperimentinvolvingalexicaldecisiontaskrequiredthemtoclassifywordsrelatedorunrelatedtotheirschemaasword/nonwordFindingsrevealedthat,althoughstoredtheanatomyinformationintheirmemory,theystruggledstructure,consolidate,andretrievethisinformationfromtheirThesefindingssuggestthatstudentswhodidnotgetthegradeinanatomycoursemaystrugglewithintegratingandlidatingpertinentinformation.Thus,resultsshowedthatthechronometriccognitiveapproachisusefultomeasuretheofschemesmedicalstudentsdevelopedontheanatomytopic. Keywords: learning; cognitive assessment; cognitive science; anatomy; medicine students 1. Introduction As students are frequently subjected to academic evaluations, and these experiences influence strongly their learning, so optimizing the evaluation

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instruments and processes has the potential to enhance the quality of learning (Ferris & O'Flynn, 2015; Jimaa, 2011). However, selecting, creating, or modifying strategies used to evaluate knowledge gained by medical students is not an easy task, as there is a wide variety of ways to conduct such evaluations (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006). Moreover, evaluation instruments can differ considerably in their characteristics according to the knowledge domain and the objective of the evaluation. Indeed, there are no right or wrong assessment strategies, and each instrument measures a specific aspect of students’ ability or knowledge (El Yassin, 2015).

These challenges can be addressed by drawing upon various ways to evaluate medical knowledge at different levels (declarative, procedural, metacognitive) rooted in cognitive psychology, by using advances in computer science technology and human mind science. In this regard, Arieli Attali (2013) argued

However, evaluation of the topics considered as the scientific foundation of medicine (e.g., anatomy, microbiology, pharmacology) presently focuses on testing factual knowledge through summative assessments (Samarasekera et al., 2015). This approach to medical evaluation has received extensive criticism since summative evaluation is generally informative and non formative and typically considers only one learning level (knowledge stored in one’s memory). Thus, it cannot be adopted to assess other skills and types of knowledge (e.g., ability to apply knowledge to a real setting) fundamental to the medical practice.

For example, medical training involves making thoughtful use of communication skills, medical knowledge, technical aptitudes, and clinical reasoning. It also requires adaptive management of emotions as well as application of ethical and human values in daily medical practice to benefit the patients (Epstein, 2007). Measuring all these dimensions of clinical training is important to account for the level of learning and training that medical students have achieved throughout their studies.

In addition, as the medical science is constantly evolving, the knowledge and skills medical students need to master constantly change These conditions point to the need to innovate evaluation methods and reorient and restructure the evaluation system to be able to meet the new demands in all dimensions of medical training (Boulet & Durning, 2019; Ferris & O'Flynn, 2015).

To address the medical learning measurement problem, Miller (1990) proposed assessing four cognitive domains involved in the medical learning process: (1) knowledge necessary to carry out professional medical functions, (2) competence to use the medical knowledge acquired to conduct analyses, interpret findings, and make medical judgments, (3) ability to perform medical procedures, and (4) knowledge transfer concerned with applying the skills and performing procedures in real clinical settings. In sum, adequate evaluation of medical learning requires measurement of cognitive, psychomotor, and communication skills essential to work as a doctor upon graduation (Preston et al., 2020).

Measuring a single aspect of learning is insufficient to capture all the knowledge that students have stored during their medical training (Vantini & Benini, 2008).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. that the incorporation of technological and scientific advances into learning assessment systems is essential to more objectively evaluate learning outcomes and is better aligned with the new reality of the medical profession. The use of new technologies in the learning evaluation can also allow researchers and practitioners to comprehend the learners' cognitive mind, thereby facilitating the identification of the cognitive processes student employ to provide answers during tests 1.1.

Cognitive Assessment of Academic Learning

The way students learn from the cognitive perspective remains insufficiently explored (Pozo, 2006). However, cognitive studies of human memory have made it possible to establish the measurement parameters reflecting the process of incorporation or accommodation of declarative, procedural, and eidetic knowledge in the mental structures of the human brain.

From a cognitive point of view, acquisition of declarative knowledge may involve formationofnewinformation nodes in one’s memory, or the establishmentofnew relationships between the existing information nodes in one’s knowledge structures (Bower, 1975). The process of learning may also involve adjustment of the weights assigned to the relationships between the nodes, restructuring of the knowledge schemas (Lopez et al , 2014; Rumelhart & Norman, 1975), or adding new forms of production or procedures to the existing ones (Anderson, 1976). Hence, approaching the evaluation of academic learning from the cognitive perspective would necessitate measurement of the changes in the organization, structure, temporality, and behavior of the mental schemas that students develop as they gain relevant knowledge in class. In this regard, cognitive psychology offers theoretical and methodological tools to guide the evaluation of cognitive changes in the mental structures of knowledge due to learning over a course of an academic year. A central assumption of the cognitive view is that human beings can store information in cognitive structures called schemas. These structures comprise of information nodes or concepts characterized by configuration, relationships, temporality, and dynamic properties. These characteristics can be measured through different cognitive tools, such as semantic networks, computational simulations, and reaction time instruments.

To illustrate the usefulness of mental representation techniques in the educational field, Morales Martinez et al. (2018) employed Natural Semantic Networks (NSN) to observe the cognitive structure of knowledge that engineering students formed in a computational usability course. Their results revealed that the students who did not passthecoursedeveloped incompleteschemaswith characteristicssimilar to those of schemas developed by students who encountered the subject for the first time (e.g., Urdiales Ibarra et al., 2018). After reviewing the computational usability content again in a corrective course, these students were able to form an integrated schema of the information learned in the course.

Urdiales Ibarra et al. (2018) applied the NSN technique to measure the effect of concept maps on the biology knowledge schemas developed by high school

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yielded by extant studies in this domain suggest that RSNs can provide valuable information on the way in which students incorporate new conceptual nodes in their memory and the way in which they organize and structure them.

On the other hand, cognitive psychologists assume that schemas are dynamic and emergent structures. Gonzalez et al. (2018a) explored this property in the moral schemas of high school students through computational simulations. They observed that, when they activated the most relevant concepts of the NSN of the moral schema (TRUST, RESPECT, LOVE), no other concept of the network was co activated. However, when they activated concepts that did not seem to have a relevant semantic value according to the RSN analysis (e.g., GOD), other concepts without a direct relationship to the activated concept (RIGHTS, TRUTH) were co activated These results suggest that computational simulations can provide implicit information that is retained in knowledge structures and that emerges with the activation of concepts that do not necessarily have the highest semantic weight or the highest frequency of appearance in the natural semantic NSN.

The schematic priming paradigm proposes that, when students integrate information into their long term memory related to the schematic they have

students. The visual analysis of the refined sematic networks (RSNs) revealed that students began the course with fragmented biology knowledge structures. At the end of the course, the students were able to unify their biological knowledge structures, regardless of whether they made use of conceptual maps as learning Findingstools.

Furthermore, when supplemented with computer simulations, this technique provides information on the cognitive tenets underlying the knowledge storage in human memory, and on the cognitive processes that participate in the formation of psychological meanings based on the information nodes they assimilate in their memory. For example, Gonzalez et al. (2018a) and Gonzalez et al. (2018b) explored the learning of moral concepts by high school students and found that,even though the studentsrelatedconcepts that didnothavea semantic relationship (e.g., father police), in schema terms, these concepts seemed to connect through a psychological meaning.

Furthermore, cognitive psychology also postulates that every cognitive process, and thus learning, is typified by time. Lopez and Theios (1992) suggested that, when a knowledge schema is acquired or modified during the human learning process, a cognitive activity is generated that can be identified by its temporary nature (temporary imprint). To explore this principle in the educational field, Lopez et al. (2014) carried out a study as a part of which psychology students were required to master Piaget's theory. Participants were presented with pairs of words that can be related (associatively or schematically) or do not present any relationship. They were instructed to read the first word in the pair before determining whether the second word is correctly or incorrectly written. The researchers reported that the schematic word recognition latencies at the end of the course were significantly lower than the latencies obtained at the beginning of the course—a phenomenon known as schematic priming (Lopez & Theios, 1992)

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. encountered in class, the schematic word recognition latencies decrease as the course progresses. This effect has been observed in different domains, such as psychology, moral development, and engineering (e.g., Gonzales et al., 2013; Morales Martinez et al., 2018; Morales Martinez et al., 2020). For example, in the field of biology, Urdiales Ibarra et al. (2018) measured the effect of concept maps on the recognition of schematic words bylearners.They found that only thegroup that used concept maps as a learning tool exhibited schematic facilitation Studies based on temporal parameters, such as those noted above, can provide information on changes in the knowledge schema due to academic learning, since temporal changes in the way information is processed semantically can give clues about whether new knowledge was incorporated in students’ long term memory. In general, application of the laws and principles of cognitive psychology, as well as the use of the tools that it offers, is useful to understand the way in which students select, store, and retrieve information in their mind In this context, in 1989 Lopez (1989) proposed a failure rate predictor system based on the evaluation techniques derived from the theory of human information processing (PHI) and the theory of parallel information processing (PDP). This system was the basis for designing the Semantic Analyzer of Schemata or SASO—a system capable of exploring the existence of knowledge schemas in human memory (Lopez, 1996; Lopez & Theios, 1992). Lopez et al. (2014), Lopez et al. (2015), and Morales-Martinez et al. (2014) used the SASO model to create the Cognitive Evaluator (known by its acronym EVCOG in Spanish) which is a system that assesses academic learning. This system gave rise to the Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model (C3 LEM) (see Morales, 2020; Morales et al., 2017; Morales Martinez et al., 2020; Morales Martinez & Lopez Ramirez, 2016; Morales Martínez et al., 2015; Morales Martínez et al., 2016; Morales Martinez et al., 2018; Morales Martínez & Santos Alcantara, 2015). In the present study, the C3 LEM was employed to assess the cognitive properties of the anatomical knowledge schemata acquired by students who did not obtain passing grade in anatomy course 1.2. The C3-LEM as a Cognitive Science Tool for Evaluating Medical Knowledge Acquisition

The C3 LEM consists of the interlocking application of three types of cognitive science studies (mental representation studies, mental chronometry studies, and neuro computational simulations) to assess organizational, structural, and dynamic aspects of the knowledge schema a learner develops. This series of studies is also known as the EVCOG procedure. Typically, the EVCOG procedure comprises of two phases, as shown in Figure 1. First, a constructive cognitive evaluation is performed to assess students’ knowledge on a certain topic. In this phase, the participants take part in an NSN study to evaluate their knowledge schema while the researcher performs neuro computational simulations on the gathered NSN data. This if followed by the second phase, comprising of chronometric cognitive evaluation.

When applying the NSN technique, participants are required to define a series of concepts (objectives) through nouns, verbs, adjectives, or pronouns called definers within a predefined time limit, after which they must rate the degree of quality of each definer they provided Figueroa Nazuno (2007) emphasized that this metric facilitates comparison of meanings across groups and over time. The NSN focuses on exploring the knowledge schema's organization and structure. In this regard, Lopez and Theios (1992) stated that the NSN can provide information on the semantic richness that the natural network holds, denoted as J value. The J value is the number of different definers the participants related to the knowledge schema measured. The relevance of each defining concept can also be ascertained according to participants’ perception through the semantic weight (M value) assigned to each definer by the participants. It is also possible to identify groups of concepts with the highest M value, known as SAM group (Semantic Analysis of M value). Other indicators that can be obtained are the occurrence frequency (F value) of the definers across the network, and the semantic distance or G value, which is the difference between the highest and the lowest M value in the SAM group divided by the number of definers in the SAM group minus 1. In addition, Lopez Ramirez (personal communication, August 9th, 2014) proposed including the inter response time or (IRT), which is the time the participant requires to recover the definers from their memory. Further details on this analysis can be found in the article published by Morales Martinez and Santos Alcantara (2015). On the other hand, Lopez and Theios (1992) proposed extracting connectivity indicators using a neural network based on the strategy

Figure 1: The chronometric constructive cognitive learning evaluation model

The NSN technique was proposed by Figueroa et al. (1976), who defined it as a mental representation technique for exploring the formation of meaning. According to Figueroa Nazuno (2007), the NSN technique is underpinned by the memory theory which postulates that the formation of meaning is a constructive and reconstructive process that completely depends on the individual who constructs the meaning. This process of signifying reality or knowledge implies that people cognitively elaborate the interpretation they give to knowledge beyond the free association of concepts.

second phase, chronometric cognitive evaluation, consists of experiments based on the paradigm of semantic facilitation, which are conducted to observe the degree of consolidation of information in memory. The semantic priming paradigm suggests that word recognition can be facilitated or inhibited by the information that precedes it. For example, in lexical decision studies, participants are presented with word pairs, and the time required to recognize the second word is measured. Here, it is assumed that the information networks related semantically to the first word will be activated in the person's memory. This activation of the evaluated schema will have an effect on the speed with which the second word presented will be recognized. Hence, if the two words are related, the recognition time will be shorter than if they are semantically unrelated. Lopez and Theios (1992) proposed that, aside from semantic priming, schematic priming could also exist, whereby two words connected by a specific knowledge schema, rather than by a general semantic relationship, would produce different reaction times than words that have other types of semantic relationships (e.g., associative, categorical).

developed by Rumelhart et al. (1986). Lopez and Theios calculated the association weights between the concepts of the natural semantic network using a Bayesian formula (see method section), thus demonstrating that it is possible to explore the schematic behavior of concepts within the neural network by manipulating their Theactivation.C3LEM´s

In extant studies, the C3-LEM was shown to be useful for assessing learning schemas in various knowledge domains, including psychology, engineering, biology, and physics at different educational levels (see, e.g., Gonzalez et al., 2018a, 2018b; Morales, 2020; Morales Martinez et al., 2020; Lopez Ramirez et al., 2015; Morales Martinez et al., 2018; Urdiales Ibarra et al., 2018). The data obtained from these studies suggest that, when academic learning occurs, it induces changes in the organization and structure of the knowledge schema that is the object of learning. Determining the cognitive properties (structural, organizational, temporal, and dynamic) of medical knowledge acquisition process is important for generating a more detailed map not only of what students learn, but also of how they give meaning to this knowledge, how they establish relationships among concepts, topics, and disciplines that they are learning, and how they integrate this knowledge in the execution of medical skills such as clinical reasoning. Since in medical training the learning of the structure and functions associated with the human body is essential for the diagnosis of structural abnormalities related to a disease, and for appropriate patient management (Samarasekera et al., 2015), in this work, we focus on the cognitive nature of learning complex subject matter, specifically the science of anatomy, by using the C3 LEM to determine the cognitive attributes involved in the anatomical knowledge students acquire. To meet this study objective, we aimed to elucidate the cognitive features of the human anatomy knowledge schema acquired by first year medical students enrolled for a second time in the anatomy course.

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In line with the C3 LEM design, the researchers applied the Morales Martinez’s (2015) protocol to obtain the target concepts and definers used in the first study phase. For this purpose, anatomy teachers provided ten most relevant target concepts that students should learn as a part of theanatomy course (anatomy, head neck, nervous system, upper limb, thorax, abdomen, upper limb, pelvis, organs and systems, and diagnosis) which were used in the metal representation task The EVCOG software was used to design and administer the tasks, capture the data,

First, the NSN technique developed by Figueroa et al. (1976) was adopted to measure the organizational and structural properties of the participants' anatomy knowledge schemata The procedure met the SASO application guidelines (Lopez & Theios, 1992) and followed the EVCOG approach (Lopez & Morales, 2019; Morales Martínez & Lopez Ramirez, 2016). Next, the authors observed the anatomy schemata's behavior through a constraint satisfaction neural network, which involved applying computational simulation to the data in the preceding phase. Finally, the degree of anatomy schema consolidation in the participants' memory was explored through a semantic priming experiment with reaction time and participants’ response as the independent variables 2.4. Instruments and Materials

2.2. Participants

The study sample comprised of 52 first year medical students enrolled for a second time in an anatomy course (43 women and 9 men). The participants’ age ranged from 18 to 27 years (M = 19.7, SD = 1.6). All participants were volunteers and gave their informed consent The participants were chosen for the study through non probability sampling 2.3. Study Design

2. Method 2.1. Study Overview Lopez and Theios (1992) suggested that the knowledge a person has on a specific topic can be measured through representation techniques and mental chronometry, both of which derive from cognitive science. In this context, the knowledge state could bedefined as the semantic richness of a knowledge schema (i.e., the number of conceptual nodes), the schemata behavior's type, the relationships among the nodes, and the time required to activate these information nodes. Transferring these concepts to the educational field, the knowledge state with which a student enters or ends an academic course can be measured through indicators pertaining to the organization and structure of the acquired knowledge schema. The authors adopted this strategy, which involved a series of experiments rooted in cognitive science based on the C3 LEM which were designed to assess the state of medical knowledge students enrolled for a second time in an anatomy course possess.

The cognitive dimension of academic learning pertains to changes in the organization, structure, temporality, and dynamics of the acquired knowledge schema. To measure these schematic properties, the authors adopted a qualitative and quantitative mixed methods research design based on the C3 LEM, which involved use of three cognitive science study techniques or paradigms.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. and analyze the NSN results, while GEPHI software (Bastian et al., 2009) was adopted to conduct visual analysis of the NSN data. The EVCOG system allowed us to extract the connectivity matrix and perform the computational simulation on the NSN data. Finally, to design the semantic priming experiment, the researchers introduced 45 word pairs, 15 of which were relevant to the anatomy course (e.g., supination scoliosis, sphenoid subclavian, prolactin brachial) into the EVCOG system.

The study culminated with the application of the semantic priming experiment requiring students to perform a lexical decision task. After a practice session, provided to allow familiarize the students with the task, they were presented with 45 experimental trials chosen at random. Each experimental trial consisted of an experimental sequence of four stimuli, whereby a dot appeared on a computer screen for 500 ms, followed by the first word (prime) for 250 ms, a blank space for 50 ms, and the last word (target), which remained on the screen until the participant provided an answer (by stating whether the target was or was not a word)

2.5. Procedure As noted earlier, this study comprised of three phases It commenced by extending an open invitation to first year medical students enrolled for a second time in the anatomy course to participate in a cognitive science investigation. The students that voluntarily gave their informed consent attended a group session as a part of which they completed the NSN test (Figueroa et al., 1976) based on the procedure described by Lopez (1996). They were presented with ten target concepts deemed most relevant by anatomy teachers one by one on a computer screen and had 60 seconds to define each target concept using verbs, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns (definers) of their choice Once all ten concepts had been defined, they scored each definer using a 1−10 scale, whereby 1 indicated that the definer was only slightly related to the target concept and 10 meant that the definer was highly related to the target concept In the second study phase, the authors carried out a computer simulation using the thus generated NSN data following the procedure proposed by Lopez and Theios (1992). These authors used a neural network of constraint satisfaction similar to that described by Rumelhart et al. (1986) to emulate the behavior of an emerging schema. In general way, Lopez and Theios calculated the SASO connectivity matrix between the concepts was obtained by applying Equation 1 below:W IJ = 1n{[p(X=0 & Y = 1) p(X=1 & Y = 0)]*[p(X=1 & Y = 1) p(X=0 & Y = 0)] 1}[1] where X and Y represent a pair of concepts that are associated, with p(X = 1 & Y = 0) denoting the joint probability that X appeared but Y did not appear in a SAM. The values for p(X = 0 & Y = 1) and p(X = 0 & Y = 0) were similarly defined and were computed in the same manner. The term p(X = 1 & Y = 1) was calculated considering the hierarchical modulation of M values in SAM groups and their interconnectivity in neural network computations.

Neck F Definer M IRT F Definer M IRT 1 Human body 339 19 3 Brain 188 22 1 Study 231 19 6 Muscles 173 18 2 Organs 159 31 1 Eyes 164 32 1 Systems 130 34 1 Skull 136 16 1 Structure 117 33 1 Mouth 100 25 6 Muscles 112 30 1 Nose 93 42 1 Science 93 21 4 Bones 92 33 4 Bones 84 34 3 Arteries 87 42 1 Dissection 77 31 1 Ears 83 45 1 Regional 77 29 1 Triangles 64 24 J value: 410 G value: 26.20 J value: 436 G value: 12.40 Nervous system Upper limb F Definer M IRT F Definer M IRT 3 Brain 286 18 1 Hands 232 15 1 Neurons 222 20 1 Radius 230 23 1 Nerves 198 25 1 Humerus 229 20 1 Spinal cord 183 26 1 Arms 224 13 1 Cerebellum 173 36 1 Ulna 198 29 1 Ganglia 144 27 1 Phalanges 196 37 1 Pons 105 31 1 Forearm 154 19 1 Central 92 25 6 Muscles 133 31 1 Peripheral 88 27 1 Carpus 115 32 1 Parasympathetic 84 40 1 plexusBrachial 110 36 J value: 468 G value: 20.20 J value: 478 G value: 12.20 Note: J value = semantic richness, G value = semantic density, F = occurrence frequency, M = semantic weight, IRT = inter response time

obtained

Table 1: SAM groups of

The ten definers with the highest semantic relevance (M value) throughout the NSN were ribs, human body, heart, intestines, lungs, hands, study, radius, and humerus. Furthermore, the definers that required less inter response time (IRT) were legs, arms, joints, viscera, hands, cavities, skull, foot, forearm, and human body It is interesting to observe that, in the relation to the thorax concept, the three highest M values and the three lowest IRT definers were the same: heart, lungs, and ribs. A similar observation could apply to the lower limb (legs foot, femur). the schemata from the Head

anatomy

participants Anatomy

350 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. 3. Results 3.1. The First Phase Results: The RSN Study The NSN values were computed using the metric suggested by Lopez and Theios (1992) and a summary of the obtained values is presented in Table 1. It can be observed that the target concept with the highest number of definers (J value) was upper limb, followed by thorax and nervous system. In contrast, the target with the lowest number of definers or smallest semantic richness was pelvis. On the other hand, the definer with the highest occurrence frequency was muscles followed by bones, arteries, brain, organs, heart, lungs, liver, and pancreas

351 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 1: SAM groups of the anatomy schemata obtained from the participants (continued) Thorax Abdomen F Definer M IRT F Definer M IRT 2 Heart 385 21 1 Intestines 249 25 1 Ribs 385 24 1 Stomach 229 19 2 Lungs 357 23 6 Muscles 195 23 1 Breastbone 228 34 2 Liver 193 32 1 Mediastinum 146 28 2 Organs 122 17 1 Protection 142 36 1 Viscera 96 14 1 Diaphragm 98 32 2 Pancreas 82 39 1 Clavicle 93 46 1 Kidneys 66 44 3 Arteries 85 40 1 Gallbladder 59 46 1 Vertebrae 80 33 1 Cavities 58 16 J-value: 453 G-value: 30.50 J-value: 383 G-value: 19.10 Lower limb Pelvis F Definer M IRT F Definer M IRT 1 Femur 176 21 4 Bones 156 21 1 Legs 159 10 6 Muscles 76 31 1 Foot 153 17 1 Sacrum 73 21 6 Muscles 152 23 1 Ilium 61 26 1 Tibia 128 24 1 Lower 58 25 4 Bones 121 24 1 Bladder 54 44 1 Walk 114 23 1 Iliac crest 48 28 1 Movement 107 34 1 Ligaments 43 46 1 Fibula 82 34 3 Arteries 42 54 1 Knees 81 22 1 Articulation 40 28 J-value: 441 G-value: 9.50 J-value: 278 G-value: 11.60 Organs systems Diagnosis F Definer M IRT F Definer M IRT 2 Heart 176 22 1 Disease 159 25 1 Functions 163 22 1 Patient 147 19 1 Respiratory 151 26 1 Laboratory 141 29 2 Lungs 125 30 1 Symptoms 116 31 2 Liver 120 28 1 Treatment 106 30 1 Digestive 119 28 1 Signs 97 29 1 Set 117 13 1 Knowledge 89 35 3 Brain 117 42 1 Doctor 84 35 1 Nervous 86 33 1 Questions 80 30 2 Pancreas 91 33 1 Outcome 73 39 J value: 401 G value: 8.50 J value : 376 G value: 7.40 Note: J value = semantic richness, G value = semantic density, F = occurrence frequency, M = semantic weight, IRT = inter response time

The visual analysis results presented in Figure 2 indicate that the diagnostic node has no connections with any of the other network's target concepts. The nodes related to nervous system and thorax exhibit very low connectivity compared with other conceptual members of the anatomy schema For example, nervous system had only two conceptual links. Moreover, the target concepts such as organs systems, upper limb, and thorax are partially disconnected from the complete anatomy schema With eight conceptual links, the head neck node exhibits the highest degree of connectivity within the schema Figure 2: Connectivity graph of the ten target concepts in the anatomy schema and the degree of connectivity in each one

The GEPHI analysis (Bastian et al., 2009) indicates that the participants organized the anatomy course information into six modules, as shown in Figure 3. The first conceptual module involved 30% (24) of the natural semantic network's main definers, which are connected to the anatomy schema through the muscles concept. This module involved three subgroups, the first of which includes the definers (e.g., legs, walking, movement) linked with muscles through bones. The second group consists of the definers (e.g., human body, kidneys, cavities) that are linked to muscles through organs. The last group included the definers (structures, regional, systems, dissection, science, and study) connected with muscles.

Figure 3: The participants’ structure and organization of the information obtained at the end of the anatomy course

The third conceptual module included 14 definers (17%) connected to the anatomy schema through the arteries concept. This module involves two subsets pertaining to (1) concepts such as protection, vertebrae, ribs, and diaphragm, and (2) definers such as nose, mouth, eyes, skull, and ears. This latter group connects to Module 2 via the brain concept. The fourth conceptual module contained nine definers (11%) related to an upper limb (e.g., phalanges, humerus, ulna, brachial plexus, hands, arms) connected to the schema through the muscle concept. The fifth group consists of nine definers (10%) related to diagnosis (e.g., questions, laboratory studies, knowledge, symptoms). Note that the diagnosis module is independent of the remainder of the semantic network. The sixth group consists of seven definers (9%) associated with the pelvis concept (e.g., sacrum, ligaments, ilium, inferior, bladder, iliac crest), and they connected to the rest of the anatomy schema through arteries, bones, and muscles

The second conceptual module contains 19 definers (23%) connected to the anatomy schema through the brain concept. Three groups formed this module, respectively including concepts related to organs (pancreas, lungs, heart, liver); definers that mostly indicate systems’ functions (functions, respiratory, joint, digestive, nervous); and definers related to brain structures (spinal cord, nerves, peripheral, pons, neurons, cerebellum, parasympathetic, central, ganglion).

The most relevant nodes involved in the semantic network integration were muscles bones organs, brain, and arteries

Figure 4: The number of co activated concepts for each definer concept activated during the computational simulations Table 2 shows the activation of ribs and gallbladder co activated some concepts related to the upper limb (e.g., radius, humerus, arms). Each one of these definers (ribs and gallbladder) in isolation co activated 57% of the definers linked to the anatomy schema through the pelvis concept. On the other hand, activation of ribs co activated the 63% of the definers linked to the anatomy schema through the brain concept, while the activation of gallbladder co activated 42% of this same group.

3.2. The Second Phase Results: A Computer Simulation Study To carry out the computational simulation of the anatomy schema, the concepts were activated considering the IRT, the M value, and the conceptual relevance level derived from the GEPHI analysis (Figure 3). The results indicated that the definers that produced a greater number of co activations were ribs (concept with the highest M value), gallbladder (concept with the highest IRT), joints (concept with the lowest M value), arteries (concept which was central to the third GEPHI module) and brain (central concept in the second GEPHI module). The definers with the lowest number of co activated concepts were leg (concept that obtained the lowest IRT) and muscles (central concept in the first GEPHI module), as shown in Figure 4.

355 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 2: Co activation of definers when ribs and gallbladder were activated Activated Concepts Activated Concepts Definer Ribs Gallbladder Definer Ribs Gallbladder Femur Ribs * * Bones * Breastbone * Muscles * Mediastinum * Legs Protection * Foot * * Diaphragm * * Tibia * Arteries * * Walk * * Clavicle * Movement * Vertebrae * Fibula Eyes * Knees * Skull * * Study * Mouth Systems * Nose Structures * * Ears * Science Triangles * Dissection * Hands * Regional * * Radius * Human body * * Humerus * * Bowels * * Arms * * Stomach * * Ulna * Organs * Phalanges * Viscera Forearm Kidneys * Carpus * * Gallbladder * * Brachial plexus * * Cavities * Diseases Brain * Patient * * Heart Studies * * Lungs Symptoms * Liver Treatment Pancreas * * Signs * Function * Knowledge Respiratory * Doctor Digestive * Questions Set * Sacrum * * Nervous * Ilium * * Neurons * Lower * * Nerves Bladder * Spinal cord * * Iliac crest * Cerebellum * * Ligaments Ganglia * Joints Pons * * Result * * Central * Peripheral * * Parasympathetic * Note: *Co activated Inactive Figure 5 shows the connectivity weights obtained for the semantic network of the anatomy course. Note that a conceptual activation group is characterized across the diagonal, and several small activation groups are scattered across the surface of connectivity weights.

Figure 5: The activation pattern of the anatomy schema developed by students enrolled for a second time in an anatomy course 3.3.The Third Phase Results: Semantic Priming Study

Figure 6: Participants’ word recognition times in a lexical decision task 4. Discussion

A repeated measuresANOVA was carried out on the participants’ data, revealing a statistically significant difference between word pairs depending on the relationship type [F(2,102) = 108.937, p ≤ .001, 2 = .68]. As shown in Figure 6, the participants experienced a greater interference effect in the word recognition task when presented with pairs associated with the anatomy schema compared to pairs with an associative relationship or without a relationship.

The aim of the present study was to determine the characteristics of the anatomy information processing style adopted by first year medical students enrolled for a second time in the anatomy course. In the first study phase (representation of anatomy knowledge), the authors measured the organizational and structural properties of the knowledge schema that students acquired in the anatomy course. As shown in Table 1, the participants developed a rich semantic network

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. characterized by a wide diversity of information nodes. However, the structure and organization of the information presented in the anatomy course was inadequate (Figure 2 and 3) The knowledge schema structure related to anatomy was fractured, as shown in Figure 3, as several targets such as diagnostic, nervous system, organs and systems, and thorax were disconnected from other anatomy concepts Similar information integration patterns have also been observed in students majoring in different fields who have not achieved passing grades (see Morales Martinez et al., 2018) or who are just starting a new course (Urdiales Ibarra et al., 2018).

Therefore, the present study findings suggest that the participants are unable to consider the course content from a broader perspective, that is, they cannot completely infer the configuration of the general course outline. The structure of the knowledge schema can be confusing for these students in the same way that it seems to be blurry for students starting an unfamiliar course. In relation to the difficulties observed in the schema organization, the NSN analysis, GEPHI analysis (see Figure 3), and computer simulation results (Table 2) pointed out that the anatomy schema developed by these students lacks a coherent organization, indicating that students had difficulties to relate the anatomy concepts taught in Toclassexamine these findings further, it is worth considering the concepts characterized by less connectivity in the anatomy NSN For instance, the diagnosis concept had no connectivity with the remaining target concepts, while nervous system was connected with only two of the target concepts (head neck and organs−systems), as shown in Figure 2. In both cases, we conjectured that the importance attributed to the anatomy topics could influence this schema fragmentation, since diagnosis was presented during the course as a general knowledge topic rather than a central part of the anatomy course. Consequently, students perceived this topic separately from the rest of the schema. The anatomy teachers informed us that, during instruction, discussions on diagnosis were not explicitly connected with the remaining anatomy concepts, which is reflected in the schema´s conceptual nodes. It is also possible that the broken schema observed in this study may be the result of an inadequate information integration strategy that makes it difficult for students to retrieve accurate information. In other words, students who did not get the passing grade in anatomy course may struggle to form a coherent and structured schema, as would be the case for novice students (e.g., Urdiales Ibarra et al., 2018). In order to explore this possibility, it is necessary to compare these results with those achieved by students at the beginning of the course, as well as by those that have obtained passing grades in the anatomy course.

In the second study phase, the authors explored the behavior of the anatomy schema In general, the computational simulation results indicated that the activation of some nodes of the anatomy related network seems to be carried out in a dispersed manner, as shown in Figure 5 and Table 2. This finding supports

Although, activation of gallbladder co activated almost as many concepts as ribs (Figure 4), the type of relationship that linked these concepts is not very clear. For example, activation of gallbladder co activated the eye concept, which would suggest that the students used schemas from other knowledge domains, such as pathophysiology. A similar observation was madeby Gonzalez et al. (2018a), who noted that activation of certain concepts in some cases co activates concepts from semantic categories different from the measured schema. This result suggests that computational simulations can be very useful in identifying implicit information embedded within schemas, which is in accordance with the idea that schemata can embed other schemas. On the other hand, as gallbladder was the definer with the highest IRT (see Figure 4 and Table 1), this may suggest that the establishment

recognitionTehios,tendscategoriesMartinezetstudiesnotIal.,asotherrelatedrevealedusThecanofrelationshipsbetweenconceptsthatapparentlydonothaveaclearorganizationdelaytheaccesstorelevantinformation.finalstudyphasecomprisedofamentalchronometryexperiment,allowingtoexplorethetemporalpropertyoftheacquiredanatomyschema.Theresultsthattheparticipantsexperiencedinterferenceintherecognitionofwordstotheanatomyschema(Figure6).Thissamefindingwasreportedforstudentswhodidnotobtainpassinggrades(MoralesMartinezetal.,2020),wellasfornovicestudents(MoralesMartinezetal.,2020;MoralesMartinezet2018;MoralesMartinezetal.,2018;UrdialesIbarraetal.,2018).nterferenceintherecognitionofschematicwordssuggeststhatthestudentsdidstoretheanatomyinformationasanewsemanticcategory.Authorsofotherindifferentdomains(e.g.,Gonzalesetal.,2013;Lopezetal.,2014;Lopezal.,2015;MoralesMartinezetal.,2020;MoralesMartinezetal.,2014;Moralesetal.,2018)similarlyfoundthat,whenstudentsformschemasornewofknowledgeintheirlongtermmemoryduetocourseattendance,thistoresultinaschematicfacilitationeffect(Gonzalezetal.,2018a;Lopez&1992).Fromthisperspective,wecandeducethattheinterferenceintheofanatomyschematicwordssuggeststhatthestudyparticipantsdid

358 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the idea that the participants had difficulties in organizing the concepts learned in the anatomy class An interesting result that emerged from this investigation pertained to the definer with the highest M value (ribs) which co activated the greatest number of concepts in the semantic network (Figure 4). Although, as in the study conducted by Morales Martinez and Santos Alcantara (2015), the concepts with the highest M values did not appear with the lowest IRTs, these tended to appear between the 3rd and 4th position of the NSN. Therefore, we hypothesize that the M value is more closely related to the schema organization than to the ease of access to the information stored in that mental structure. For example, activation of ribs yielded a better organization in the computational simulation than the activation of gallbladder. This result is particularly relevant to the theory of mental representation of knowledge, since the M value remains insufficiently explored in academic research

The findings yielded by the present study are in accordance with the evidence reported by other authors, suggesting that C3 LEM is a useful tool for identifying the state of knowledge students in diverse disciplines possess (see Morales, 2020; Morales Martinez et al., 2020; Morales Martinez et al., 2018; Morales Martinez et al., 2018; Urdiales Ibarra et al., 2018). In other words, cognitive studies involving mental representation tasks, computational simulation, and mental chronometry experiments provide valuable information on the cognitive properties of the mental structures that students construct during training in a specific domain of knowledge. However, to continue exploring the utility of this approach in evaluation of learning, comparison groups should be included in the study design and the measurements should be conducted at different points in time during the course 5. Conclusions

Also, the cognitive tools will be useful to analyze whether the students can integrate all knowledge gained and use it to face the challenges of professional life. For example, since the computational simulation studies seem to provide information on the implicit use of other schemas to build the knowledge acquired in a course, these techniques can be used to ascertain whether students can integrate the knowledge they acquired in other subjects in a single approach.

The study findings indicate that the students enrolled for a second time in the anatomy course had difficulties in the information integration and recognition of concepts studied during the course. The study participants seemed to struggle with perceiving the course’s general organization, despite their ability to recognize links among different concepts. In other words, although participants got the content of the anatomy course, they could not integrate the acquired information in a unified anatomy schema or a new semantic category. These findings suggest that C3 LEM was successful in identifying inappropriate patterns in the learned schematic behavior. These cognitive techniques could be a handy formative tool since they provide some indicators of students’ ability to identify and integrate the conceptual nodes central to the subject, which would allow the implementation of corrective processing strategies before the exams.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. not consolidate the information nodes related to anatomy into a unified knowledge schema

Reaction time studies can identify students who have difficulties in consolidating the information they store in their memory. Thus, these studies’ obtained temporal parameters could indicate the robustness of each student’s learning Inprocess.sum, cognitive studies such as those proposed in the C3 LEM could help to diagnose the regularities and irregularities in the organization and structure of studied schemas. This information will empower teachers and researchers to propose strategies that contribute to making the teaching and learning process more effective in the medical field.

Lopez, R. E.O. (1989, December 1 6). Sistemapredictordeindicereprobatorio(SPIR) [Failure rate predictor system SPIR] [Paper presentation]. IX Coloquio de Investigación. ENEP Iztacala, Mexico city, Mexico.

Bower,G.H.(1975).Cognitivepsychology:Anintroduction.InW.K.Estes(Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes: Vol. 1. Introduction to concepts and issues (pp. 25 80). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. El Yassin., H. D. (2015). Integrated assessment in medical education. Journal of Contemporary Medical Sciences, 1(4), 36 38. Retrieved from http://www.jocms.org/index.php/jcms/article/view/51

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Friedman, C. P., & Wyatt, J. (2006). Evaluation methods in biomedical informatics (2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/0 387 30677 3

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Figueroa Nazuno, J. G. (2007, October 24 25). El significado de las Redes Semánticas Naturales: Y la tradición oral, 20 años después [The meaning of Natural Semantic Networks: And oral tradition, 20 years later] [Paper presentation] Primer Simposium Internacional: Cognición y Representación del Conocimiento Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Figueroa, J. G., Gonzalez, E. G., & Solis, V. M. (1976). An approach to the problem of meaning: Semantic networks. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5(2), 107−115. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067252

Gonzalez, C. J., Lopez, E. O., & Morales, G. E. (2018a, May 26 28). Self organized schemata behavior and meaning formation to evaluate e learning [Paper presentation]. The International Conference on Distance Education and Learning. Beijing, China. https://doi.org/10.1145/3231848.3231877

Gonzalez, C. J., Lopez, E. O., & Morales, G. E. (2018b, Jan 6 8). A cognitive tool to evaluate meaning formation of course contents: A learning oriented assessment [Paper Beijing,presentation].TheInternationalConferenceonDistanceEducationandLearning.China.https://doi.org/10.1145/3231848.3231877

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Keywords: Module; intervention; General Foundation Program; writing skills 1. Introduction Writing is deemed a complicated and taxing cognitive task in which writers need to show mastery of variables simultaneously. These incorporate controls of sentence structure, format, content and vocabulary, and spelling. Additionally, writers have to be able to organize and combine information into a coherent and

Abstract. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a developed writing module on enhancing the General Foundation Program students’ writing skills. The study made use of a pre test and post test quasi experimental design. The study participants incorporated 70 Omani students and 2 EFL teachers. The students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group incorporated 35 students who studied English at the General Foundation Program of Sur Nursing Institute. The control group involved 35 students who took an English course at The General Foundation Program Centre in Muscat. Both institutions function under the auspices of the Omani Ministry of Health. The control group studied the ministry’s writing syllabus, whereas the experimental group studied the writing module. The writing pre test was done before module delivery and the post test was done after the intervention. ANCOVA test was utilized to draw a statistical analogy between the mean scores of tests of both groups. The test findings divulged that there was a statistically significant mean difference between the control and experimental group’s scores in the writing post test. The module significantly enhanced the experimental group’s writing skills

The Development of Writing Module on Enhancing the Writing Skills of Omani General Foundation Program Students

Moustafa Mohamed Abdelmohsen and Rohaya Abdullah School of Educational Studies, University of Science Malaysia, Penang Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0963 4398 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4518 1733 Yasir Azam School of Humanities, University of Science Malaysia, Penang Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9411 4329

363 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 363 381, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.19

2. Theoretical Framework

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The present study is underpinned by the sociocultural theory of human learning (Vygotsky, 1978). The theory deems learning a social procedure. The prime abstraction of this theory is that social interplay significantly contributes to the progress of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) believes that there is an influential connection between learning and culturally organized experiences. The notion is very advantageous in learning and teaching since it addresses how learners’ interaction becomes the most pivotal method by which learning and development take place.

The General Foundation Program of the Omani Ministry of Health is no exception. Writing is introduced as an extension for other English skills and sub skills. The General Foundation Program writing syllabus adopts product and process approaches. These approaches are used at lower levels of English to guide students to mimic diversified model texts, brainstorm and organize ideas, and practice various writing features (Omani Ministry of Health Foundation Program Course Overview, 2019). Despite the great effort that has been exerted by teachers to help the Foundation Program students sharpen their writing ability, the students face many problems in writing such as a lack of vocabulary knowledge, their inability to generate ideas, committing many spelling and grammar errors, and their inability to maintain paragraphs cohesion, coherence, and unity (Thyab, 2016; Abu Faraj, 2015). The foundation program students commit many grammatical errors in their writing such as the wrong use of nouns, prepositions, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, word order, tenses, pronouns, subject verb agreement, auxiliaries, and possessive pronouns (Sabtan & Elsayed, 2019; Nouraey, Cuarteros, & Khemiri, 2016; Alami, 2016) Further, students commit numerous spelling errors and they cannot use vocabulary appropriately (Al Bereiki & Al Mekhlafi, 2015). Moreover, students make many punctuation errors such as the wrong use of question marks and capital letters, and commas (Ancheta & Simagala, 2017). This results in a very poor writing production which negatively affects purpose and meaning and does not meet the foundation program writing criteria (Khalil & Yassin, 2015). Hence, there was a dire need to develop a writing module that teaches to General Foundation Program students’ learning needs and enhances their writing skills The module development in this research was guided by the ADDIE model. ADDIE is a timesaving model and encourages effectual learning. Most importantly, the model helped ensure that learners achieve the module objectives giving room for the evaluation of learners’ needs and also the efficacy of the module using procedures with certain outcomes that can be assessed.

cohesive paragraph and text (Nunan, 2003). Writing is deemed one of the salient skills that learners need to master since it demands a more substantial in depth knowledge of the grammar system and writing conventions than other receptive skills (Mourssi, 2013; Ellis, 2004). Writing is one of the most pivotal skills students must master in Oman (Al Ani, 2017). Consequently, Omani students learn English at private and government colleges where the English syllabus aims to hone students' English language skills with an emphasis on writing (Al Issa, 2014). This is because writing is adjudged a crucial skill that Omani learners have to master to meet the requirements of higher education (Mourssi, 2013).

Writing complements speech, it is, however, more complicated with numerous and long structures of organized sentences. These sentences are built on formal usage of vocabulary and punctuation, a process which is characterized by using alphabetical letters to convey ideas in an organized structure. This can be done utilizing a pen, a typewriter, a mobile phone, or a computer. One can use writing for many purposes such as writing for pleasure, sending personal letters, stimulating audiences’ feelings, and predicting various needs of readers (Rijlaarsdam, Couzijn & Bergh, 2004). According to Ralelon (1992), writing is a very pivotal skill as it forms a part of an individual’s culture and it is done to preserve their ideas and thoughts. The systems of writing can be functional which is pertinent to the way it is used to show symbols of language which mirror people’s way of thinking and culture (Olson, 1992).

2. To find out if there is any significant difference in the mean of the writing pre test and the post test scores of the experimental group.

1. To find out if there is any significant difference in the mean of the writing post test scores of the control and experimental groups.

3. Research Objectives

The study is guided by the following objectives:

4. Literature Review

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4.1 Teaching Writing at Tertiary Level

According to Lea and Street (1998), learning at the tertiary level requires adjusting to new methods of understanding and new techniques of organizing

This theory is pertinent to the current study because it substantiates the fundamental significance of collaboration in the writing classroom where students exchange meaning, knowledge, and learn from peers. Thus, it can be inferred that students learn best when they collaborate with their peers (Saparuddin, Prasetyo & Mahanal, 2018; Jeroen Janssen & Wubbels, 2018; Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016; Dowse & Rensburg, 2015; Khatib, 2015; Nosratinia & Nikpanjeh, 2015; Yeh, 2014). Since the study aimed to improve students’ writing ability by adopting the genre approach, Vygotsky’s theory is relevant to the study. It is relevant because it helps both teachers and students to engage in socially constituted interrelation opportunities to create and exchange knowledge via their social discourse. Writing in this study is a social activity in which students interact with their peers and the teacher to hone their writing ability and acquire new writing skills. The teacher’s role in the writing classroom is to assist students to carry out writing tasks, achieve the aims and objectives of the lesson, and solve problems via teacher’s orientation and guidance (Daniels, 2002; Wertsch, 1991). The current study provided opportunities for peer evaluation. Peer evaluation or peer editing enhances students’ writing skills as they can explicitly or implicitly comment on their peers’ writing production so they can reinforce their writing skills and contribute to developing other students’ writing skills as well (Yüce & Aksu Ataç, 2019; Harutyunyan & Poveda, 2018; Ekmekci, 2017; Min & Xuemei, 2016). The concept of peer editing in this study conforms to Vygotsky's social interaction concept.

Writing practice has many fundamental approaches. The literature review of this study elaborates on the writing approach which was employed by the current study.

4 2.1.1 The Genre Approach Martin (1999) defines the genre as a communication process that incorporates an oriented goal for its members in a specific event of communication which is based on a certain social context. Academically, Harmer (2007) mentions that the genre approach requires learners to analyze and study a written text, and then they need to provide a written production akin to the text they have studied. The genre approach has many good characteristics. To illustrate, writing is considered a social activity by the genre approach. This concept stemmed from the social cultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978). Knowledge according to the theory

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. information, and interpreting knowledge. Tertiary education fundamentally aims attention at honing students’ academic writing competency as written language is substantially used to gauge students’ performance (Hyland, 2006). Knowledge is obtained by students from various sources by going through others’ writings. Hence, students are required to create acceptable academic texts exhibiting their understanding of knowledge and internationalization and also their capabilities to manipulate and synthesize them (Mondrano, 2015). It is argued that higher education practices give academic writing great importance especially in assessing students’ writing skills. Essay writing is deemed the most suitable assessment means of students’ academic accomplishment (Bacha, 2002; Lillis, 2001; Krause, 2001). Thus, academic writing is essential to students’ academic advancement at the tertiary level. To illustrate, Omani EFL learners are required to master content areas in many subjects such as business, social sciences, technical sciences, and mathematics where the language of the majority of the world’s scientific literature in English. Hence, having good writing skills can enable students to successfully satisfy their academic demands and do well in their academic disciplines (Al Badawi, 2011).

Omani learners are expected to produce certain writing productions like summaries, essays, and mini research projects. Nevertheless, experiences have always indicated that the vast majority of Omani learners encounter many difficulties in their writings. They are unable to produce meaningful sentences in isolation and they cannot organize them in texts (Alami, 2016; Al Badi, 2015; Al Seyabi & Tuzlukova, 2014). Further, students encounter many difficulties in essay writing. Students, for instance, are unable to generate and organize ideas, write a sound thesis statement, or use a wide range of vocabulary (Souidi & Uba, 2020).

4.2 Academic Writing Academic writing is distinguished by the organization and cohesion of ideas that allow sound connection between sentences and paragraphs. Effective use of language can help maintain the interest of readers to continue reading the entire text. The tracking of an evolving language, which is diverse, rich, and continuously developing in both meaning and use, is a constant process of experiences (Bailey, 2011).

4.2.1 Approaches to Teaching Academic Writing

• Independent Construction: students in this stage are expected to produce their writing making use of the information obtained from the model text. The genre approach has been commonly used to improve students’ writing performance (Al Azhar & Maolida. 2019; Xu & Li, 2018; Dirgeyasa, 2016; Rusinovci, 2015; Wang, 2013). For this reason, the genre approach has been considerably employed in this study module. The majority of the module chapters provided model texts, paragraphs, and essays for the students to familiarize them with the new writing tasks.

• Modeling: students are given a text and they are required to write a similar one.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. can be best formed when students work together; back each other to promote new ways of learning, to form, create, and reflect on new knowledge. Hence, participation and social interaction of members of the group significantly contribute to knowledge construction and development Students, in the writing classroom, are stimulated to participate in various writing tasks and swap and negotiate meaning with classmates and teachers. Learning writing in this way can help students to have positive reinforcement about content, ideas, and the knowledge of linguistics in composing texts. The teacher’s role in the genre approach is deemed more authoritative than autocratic (Rothery, 1996). Teachers provide students with support and methodical instruction via various writing activities to help them have a good grasp of the written genre. The genre approach can be categorized into three classes (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993):

4.3 Writing Process

According to Fulwiler (1988), there are some fundamental stages of the writing process.

• Construction: teachers and students in this stage work out the new text construction according to the information obtained from the model text.

4.3.2. Drafting Drafting is considered as the preliminary stage of writing. It is the stage of developing the notions that have been arranged and sorted in an outline that is produced during the prewriting stage of the writing process (Hedge, 2000) Drafting can help create an organized piece of writing (Coulmas, 2003).

The prewriting stage, which is commonly called brainstorming, is the initial stage of the process of writing. It comprises all elements that students prepare before embarking upon any type of writing (Gustavsson & Hedlund, 2011). Brainstorming encourages students to generate and organize their ideas logically (Chittooran, 2015) and also improves their writing ability (Abedianpour & Omidvari, 2018; Amoush, 2015).

4.3.1 Prewriting

4.3.3. Revising In any writing process, revising is meant for rearranging the completed elements thoroughly in the writing production so it conforms to the intent and target of

5.1 Research Design

The methodology gives a rigorous and particularized elucidation of the approach used to undertake the present research. It provides information on the research design, research participants, and selection of participants, research instruments, data analysis, and research procedures. The methodology is fostered in search of answers to the present research questions.

368 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the writer. Consecutive revision of notes helps the writer add any necessary ideas or exclude any information which does not serve the purpose of the final draft (Cooper, 1999). During the revising stage, any ambiguous ideas or images become clearer when the writer makes certain corrections at the level of text flow (Folse, & Pugh, 2010).

4.4 Module or Instructional Design (ID) Instructional Design (ID) appertains to the standardized process in which training and educational programs propose to hone students’ skills (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). The process embraces pinpointing the learners’ needs, elucidating the end goal of instruction, and developing some "intervention" to aid in the transition (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Instructional Design is the very heart of influential learning and teaching. Unless teachers organize, plan, and form teaching tasks, coincidental learning will be the outcome, and therefore the teacher might fail to gauge what has been accomplished in the classroom (Seel, 2017). Writing modules were found to be useful in improving students’ writing skills more effectively than using conventional methods (Aswini & Srinivasan, 2016). That is because writing modules help students develop their writing skills via incorporating interesting writing topics and students’ learning needs (Belet Boyaci & Güner, 2018; Al Azri & Al Rashdi, 2014; Arianie, 2017). Writing modules also help students provide significance to the learning process and maximize students’ motivation by connecting the writing materials to their daily life (Chamba & Gavilanes, 2018; Nematollahi & Maghsoudi, 2015).

4.3.4 Editing In the editing stage, the writer checks the piece of writing context for correctness and precision. It entails the correction and identification of errors such as punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling (Harmer, 2004). Peer editing is deemed one of the salient activities in the writing classroom. Peer editing enhances students’ writing skills as it enables them to explicitly or implicitly comment on their peers’ writing production so they can reinforce their writing skills and contribute to developing other students’ writing as well (Siliwangi, 2019; Yüce & Aksu Ataç, 2019; Harutyunyan & Poveda, 2018; Ekmekci, 2017; Min & Xuemei, 2016).

5. Methodology

The current study made use of a quasi-experimental design. According to Marsden and Torgerson (2012), the most common manner in the quasi experimental approach is matching where a control group is assigned amid the non treated population who share identical features as the experimental group.

5.4 Data Analysis

Convenience sampling technique was used to sample the research participants. Convenience sampling technique, which is a non probability of sampling, was employed to select the target respondents primarily due to the ready availability of data. Convenience sampling was the ideal sampling technique applicable to the present study due to the geographical proximity to the researcher (Etikan, Musa & Alkassim, 2016). The total number of students enrolled at both Sur Nursing Institute and The General Foundation Program Centre in Muscat was 160 students. To calculate the participants needed for the research, the researcher used an online sample size calculator. The calculated sample size was 70 students based on a confidence interval of 8.76 and a confidence level of 95% The participants of the current study also incorporated 2 EFL teachers. One teacher taught the experimental group and the other teacher taught the control group. The experimental group participants studied English at Sur Nursing Institute, while the control group studied English at The General Foundation Program Centre in Muscat. Both the control and experimental groups had similar demographic data concerning L1, gender, age, background education, and classroom contact hours in English. Both two groups were Arabic speakers. Each of the two groups involved 35 students, 8 males, and 27 females. The students had the same background education as all of them were secondary school leavers. The 2 EFL teachers had long experience in teaching English. The experimental group teacher worked for Sur Nursing Institute for 11 years, whereas the control group teacher worked for the Foundation Program Centre in Muscat for over 15 years.

5.2 Participants and Selection of Participants

5.3 Research Instrument

This study of quasi experiential design employed two instruments: the pre test and post test. The two tests took the shape of essay writing. The essay was IELTS academic writing task 2 which gauged the writing performance of students in 4 prime criteria: coherence and cohesion, task achievement, grammatical range and accuracy, and lexical resource. Each criterion was assigned a band score between 1.0 and 9.0 (Appendix 1). The students were asked to write 250 words in 40 minutes about the relationship between technology and culture.

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistical test was used to gauge the effectiveness of the writing module on enhancing students’ writing skills. ANCOVA was employed to control the writing pre test scores statistically. Specifically, the pre test aimed to pinpoint the differences that existed among the two groups (experimental and control) before the investigation. ANCOVA then was employed to statistically control the pre test scores (Salkind & Winter, 2017; Salkind, 2016; Jennings & Cribbie, 2016; Delucchi, 2014). The covariate variable can minimize the inconsistency or the variability of the results measures. Hence, ANCOVA was the optimum statistical test to be employed in the current study because the pre test (covariate variable) was controlled.

• Homogeneity of variances was similar via the Levene’s Test after performing the inferential test. F test was utilized to detect the correlation among the covariate and dependent variables

Further, ANCOVA is a robust test that can maximize the power of the statistical tests (Jennings & Cribbie, 2016; Salkind, 2016; Carter, 2010; Delucchi, 2014) as participants of both groups were determined via convenience sampling. Before performing the test, some assumptions were achieved as follows:

• The observation has to be independent. To illustrate, the target participants could only be either males or females, experimental group or control group.

• Homogeneity of regression slopes. The slopes of regression for both the covariate and dependent variables have to be indistinguishable. When the dependent variable intensified, the covariate variable must be intensified too.

• A linear correlation has to be present between the covariate variable and the dependent variable. Therefore, a scatter plot was employed to examine the correlation between the two variables.

The current study was conducted during the second trimester Before module delivery, the writing pre test was administered to the experimental group by the module teacher, while the control group was given the pre test by the writing syllabus teacher. The module in this study incorporated eleven chapters that were delivered abiding by the writing guidelines of The Omani Ministry of Health syllabus. The module ran for 44 hours, 4 hours were allotted for each chapter. The module used the genre approach to teach prewriting, writing, revising and peer editing, topic and controlling ideas, model paragraphs, organization of paragraphs within an essay, concluding sentence, supporting sentences, topic sentence, supporting details, grammar drills, and paragraph unity (Hajeid, 2018; Kamariah et al., 2018; Marulanda & Martínez, 2017; Scholtz, 2016; Purwanto, 2016). Further, the module introduced pivotal grammar structures required for writing such as present simple, subject verb agreement, past simple, relative pronouns, articles, and order of adjectives. The module incorporated a CD ROM. The CD ROM provided supplementary writing materials for students (Cahyaningrum et al. 2015; Thakur, 2015; Dodd et al., 2015; Saragih, 2014). These were designed to help students improve their writing skills. Eventually, the module included many writing activities to arouse students’ interest (Iswati, 2019; Kusumawati, 2017; Kumalasari & Churiyah, 2017) and help them improve their writing performance. The control group studied the ministry’s writing syllabus. The time allotted for the syllabus was 44 hours. The writing syllabus involved 8 units which taught students basic writing elements. The writing post test was done after module delivery.

• Concerning the dependent variable (DV) and covariate variable, the level of measurement had to be ‘scale’. In the present study, the dependent variable was the students’ writing performance after the intervention and the covariate variable was the writing pre test.

• The dependent variable must be normally distributed. The researcher used Shapiro Wilk as a test of normality because the number of participants was less than 50.

5.5 Procedures

6. Results

The results provide a comprehensive rundown of the study findings. The results describe the quantitative data analysis of descriptive statistics mean scores of both the pre test and post test to investigate the impact of the developed module on enhancing General Foundation Program students’ writing skills. The following sections exhibit the results of both the control and experimental groups ’ writing pre test and post test. The initial assumptions for the writing pre test and post test were tested and achieved Descriptive statistics are presented in section 6.1, whereas inferential statistical analysis is displayed in section 6.2.

To investigate the significant differences between the groups’ writing test scores, the researcher made use of ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) As can be seen in Table 1 below, the writing post test scores could be assumed to be normally distributed because the Shapiro Wilk significant value was 0.200. According to the group, the writing post test was normally distributed as well. The Shapiro Wilk value for the two groups was 0.200.

6.1 Descriptive Statistics

Table 1: Test of Normality of the Writing Post test Shapiro-Wilk Statistics d Sig. Writing Post ExperimentalTestgroup .939.095 35 .200.200 Control group .962 35 .200 NB. The significant value was more than 0.05. Figure 1 demonstrates that the two groups had a parallel linear connection between the scores of both the writing pre test and the post test

There were 35 students in the experimental group and 35 students in the control group. Each of the two groups encompassed 8 male students and 27 female students.

Figure 1: Scatter Plot Graph of the two groups’ scores in the writing pre test and post test

6.2 Inferential Statistical Analysis

According to Table 3 above, with an alpha level of .5, the p value of writing post test was 0.077 which was more than .05, hence equal variances were assumed. Thus, the homogeneity of variances assumption for the two groups writing post test was met. As can be seen in Table 4 below, the Independent Samples t test results with the assumption of equal variance confirmed that there was no significant difference in the writing pre test scores between the two groups, (68) = 1.623, p = 0.109. Hence, it was assumed that the writing pre test scores were equal for the two groups before the intervention.

Table 2: Test Between Subjects Effects Writing Post Test as Dependent Variable SS df MS F Sig. Group 619.043 1 206.348 35.659 0.000 Writing Pre Test 1.465 1 1.465 0.157 0.693 Group* Writing Pre Test 14.080 1 14.080 1.512 0.223 Error 614.632 66 9.313 Total 31083.250 70

The homogeneity of variances assumption was checked through Levene’s test of homogeneity of variances. This test was used to test whether the samples had equal distribution. Equal variances across the samples are identified as homogeneity of variances. Homogeneity of variance is assumed when the value of p is greater than .05 (Muijs, 2004).

372 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Homogeneity of regression slopes amid the dependent variable (writing post test) and the covariate variable (writing pre test) for both groups was similar Table 2 confirms that no significant interaction was detected between the writing pre test and the group. The interaction level was 0.233 which was more than .05.

Table 3: Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variancesa F df1 df2 Sig. Writing Post Test 3.231 1 68 0.077

Table 4: T test for Equality of Means of Writing Pre Test as Test Variable t df Sig. Writing Pre Test 1.623 68 .109 NB. Writing Pre Test Scores of the two groups. As Table 5 displays, the results confirmed that students’ writing Pre Test scores (covariate variable) did not have an effect on their Post Test scores (dependent variable) with F (1, 67) = 0.178 and p =0.674. Since the writing pre test scores were controlled, a significant difference was found between the two groups F (1, 67) = 60.618, p < 0.05. A large effect size (partial eta squared = 0.490) was confirmed by the partial Eta Squared According to Cohen (1988), 0.8 is considered a large effect size. Thus, the large effect size (0.490) signified that the variance in writing post test scores of the students could be generally expounded by the writing module which was the independent variable in the study. The group was distinguished by the intervention of the writing module.

The writing performance of the experimental group students improved significantly after the treatment. Statistical findings authenticated the significant difference between the experimental groups’ writing pre test and post test. This underlines the effectiveness of the module in honing students’ writing performance. The writing topics of the developed module were meticulously selected by the researcher based on their appropriateness and relevance to the students to assure optimal personal engagement and to motivate them to drip further into the module This aroused students’ interest and encouraged them to exert an effort to improve their writing skills (Iswati, 2019; Kusumawati, 2017; Kumalasari & Churiyah, 2017). The module helped students to work collaboratively to carry out various writing tasks. Collaborative writing activities helped students share knowledge and learn from their peers (Saparuddin, Prasetyo & Mahanal, 2018; Jeroen Janssen & Wubbels, 2018; Bikowski &

Table 6: Adjusted and Unadjusted Variability and Group Means for Writing Post Test Using Pre Test Scores as UnadjustedCovariate Adjusted Group N M SD M SE Experimental 35 23.585 3.477 23.585 0.199 Control 35 17.714 2.538 17.714 0.204 NB. Scores of Pre Test in the model were gauged at the values of 13.414.

Table 5: ANCOVA for Writing Post Test Using Writing Pre Test as Covariate df MS F Sig. Partial SquaredEta Writing Pre Test 1 1.673 0.178 0.674 0.003 Group 1 568.821 60.618 0.000 0.490 Error 67 2.495 Total 70 NB. Adjusted R Squared = 0.490 computed through alpha value = 0.05.

Table 6 below exhibits the standard deviation and means of the writing post test of the two groups before and after adjusting the Pre Test scores. ANCOVA results below revealed that the experimental group (M = 23.585, SD = 3.477) scored considerably higher mean than the control group (M = 17.714, SD = 2.538). There was a significant difference between the writing post test scores of the two groups.

7. Discussion The statistical results substantiated the significant difference between the control and experimental group’s scores in the writing post test after the intervention. The statistical results confirmed that the experimental group students scored significantly higher than the control group. This finding underlines the effectiveness of the module in improving students’ writing skills. The research finding is in line with previous studies findings which revealed that effectively developed modules helped improve students’ skills in generating ideas, opting for and selecting proper and relevant vocabulary for their writing, and maintaining cohesion, coherence, and paragraph unity (Hajeid, 2018; Kamariah et al., 2018; Marulanda & Martínez, 2017; Scholtz, 2016; Purwanto, 2016).

The study module effectually enhanced students’ writing ability. The rigorous selection of the module topics contributed to honing students’ writing performance. Moreover, the writing approaches which were employed by the module enhanced students’ writing performance. The post test results confirmed that the experimental group’s writing ability was significantly improved. This was validated by the post test results which revealed that the control group scored less than the experimental group. Further, there was a statistical difference between experimental group scores in both the pre test and post test. This underscores the module efficacy in addressing students’ writing problems and increasing their achievement. The study confirms that efficient and systematic planning of modules can result in achieving learning objectives and supporting students’ attainment.

8. Implications

The study has important implications particularly for teachers and educationalists in The Sultanate of Oman. This is because most of the educational institutions in Oman use international student textbooks that do not consider students’ learning needs and thus fail to arouse students’ interests (Ahmed & Abouabdelkader, 2016; Al Ajmi & Holi, 2014; Al Mahrooqi & Tuzlukova, 2014). Hence, developing a learning module that considers students’ learning needs can help improve students’ skills.

The present study has two types of implications: implications for research and implications for practice. To begin with, the current study used some theories to enhance students’ writing skills. The present module was underpinned by the sociocultural theory of human learning (Vygotsky, 1978). The theory deems learning a social procedure. The prime abstraction of this theory is that social interplay significantly contributes to the progress of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) believes that there is an influential connection between learning and culturally organized experiences. The notion is very advantageous in learning and teaching since it addresses how learners’ interplay becomes the most pivotal method by which learning and development take place. Students in this study interacted to carry out various writing tasks. To illustrate, students were encouraged to edit their peers’ writing. Therefore, the theory was suitable for expounding and understanding the development of students’ writing performance in the current study. The study has also implications for practice.

9. Conclusion

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Vithanage, 2016; Dowse & Rensburg, 2015; Khatib, 2015; Nosratinia & Nikpanjeh, 2015; Yeh, 2014). Peer editing was of substantial significance in the module. The current research findings support previous findings which revealed that peer editing enabled students to learn from other students’ writing errors and reinforce their learning as well (Siliwangi, 2019; Yüce, 2019; Harutyunyan & Poveda, 2018; Ekmekci, 2017; Min & Xuemei, 2016). The findings of the present research conform to previous studies' results which addressed the significance of supplementary materials for EFL learners (Cahyaningrum et al. 2015; Thankur, 2015; Dodd et al. 2015; Saragih, 2014). The CD ROM which accompanied the module provided students with supplementary writing activities which helped them to improve their writing skills.

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Appendix 1

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382 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 382 401, September 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.20 COVID 19 and Online Learning: A SWOT Analysis of Users’ Perspectives on Learning Management System of University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Dandy George Dampson, Richardson Addai-Mununkum, Stephen Kwakye Apau and Joseph Bentil University of Education, Winneba, Ghana https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7185 7189 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3144 5005 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9010 8514 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2755 0171

Abstract. This study investigated users’ perceptions of the University of Education, Winneba (UEW) Learning Management Systems (LMS) based on SWOT The study adopted the explanatory sequential mixed methods which sampled 3272 students and 20 lecturers by using the stratified and purposive sampling techniques, respectively. The study used questionnaires and semi structured interview guides to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data were analyzed using Means and Standard Deviations, Independent Samples t test, and ANOVA. The qualitative data was analyzed thematically. The study found that UEW LMS is perceived to have elements of weaknesses and threats as well as strengths and opportunities. The study further found that the users of LMS differ in their perceptions in terms of SWOT based on students’ age. The students, however, did not differ significantly in their perceptions of SWOT based on gender. The study recommended that the management of UEW LMS need to educate both lecturers and students about the benefits that LMS offers to its users. Management of the UEW should make the usage of the LMS compulsory for teaching and learning while taking into consideration the age of the students in the designing and implementation of subsequent online platforms for students and lecturers

Keywords: COVID 19; education; gender; pandemic; pedagogy

1. Introduction Following the outbreak of Corona virus disease (COVID 19) and the subsequent closure of all universities in Ghana, the Government through the Ministry of Education as well as the National Council for Tertiary Education instructed all

Vice Chancellors in Ghana to ensure that there was no disruption in the academic calendar It is in line with this directive that the University of Education, Winneba (UEW) fully deployed its Learning Management System (LMS) for use to its over 85,000 student population. Consequently, UEW has migrated over 2,104 courses and over 54,000 users (as of 18 March 2020) including lecturers and students to this online platform. As a measure to ensure that both teachers and students use the LMS, UEW has discouraged lecturers from holding classes on alternative learning platforms like the Telegram, Zoom, Google Classroom, among others. These initiatives reinforce the premium placed on online learning and for that matter, LMS by UEW in the face of the COVID 19 Studiespandemic.have documented that online learning is one of the surest ways to mitigate the impact of COVID 19 on education. For instance, in his assessment of the impact of COVID 19 on education, Gyamerah (2020) recounted that effective online learning could minimize the disruptions to the academic calendar and impact on girl child education Kituyi and Tusubira (2013) argued that compelling forces such as globalization, technological advancement and demographic forces drive the interest in integrating e learning platforms in teaching environments is becoming more popular in higher learning institutions. In essence, education stakeholders have considered the call for the use of the e learning platform is seen as non negotiable and a significant factor However, empirical studies have revealed that the use of e learning is not immune to challenges. Studies have affirmed that creating remote classrooms can sometimes be problematic for parents, teachers and students (Lwoga, 2012; Ssekakubo, Suleman, & Marsden, 2011; Tedre, Ngumbuke & Kemppainen, 2010) As a result, researchers have investigated factors that either induce students’ successful usage or throttle their desire to use online learning platforms. These included low internet bandwidth, lack of access to computers, poor ICT infrastructure and poor ICT support services. Teachers, on their part, blame the low patronage of e Learning on lack of support and incentives from their institutions (Seaman, 2009). These scholars further adduced these factors to be responsible for the low patronage of e Learning platforms. Gyamerah (2020) observed that many students in Ghana do not participate in e Learning programmes because of the lack of access to internet services, power supply and digital devices like computers, smartphones and tablets. Gyamerah therefore notes that many students from underprivileged and under resourced backgrounds are left behind their peers who have access to digital resources or peers who can receive adequate parental IT learning support The proceeding discussion suggests that many factors influence the successful implementation of eLearning programmes and platforms. Even so, Gyamerah anticipated that the impact of COVID 19 would be critical on education, for countries with low economic resilience, poor technological infrastructure, inadequate education budgets, and high dropout rates. These bring into question the effectiveness of e Learning platforms such as the UEW LMS. Therefore, for a successful implementation of the UEW LMS, factors that induce or arouse users’ interest and their challenges thereof must be unpacked.

In a study assessing blended learning, Ali, Buruga and Habibu (2019) did a SWOT analysis in public universities in Uganda, and reported that the blended learning had strengths in serving multiple students in a short duration, university preparation, connecting students both in and out of class, using basic skills IT and commitment from top management. Weaknesses identified from the study comprised unreliable internet, low/inadequate bandwidth, lack of plagiarism methods, scarce numbers of computers and poor internet access Additionally, Opportunities reported included competency based systems that made monitoring of individual development with respect to the university plans concerning growth easy, ensuring accessibility to way of learning regardless of location and the availability of external support. Finally, threats identified were irregular internet connections, erratic power supply, sharing students’ credential for accessing the internet and the use of internet slangs and shorthands in writing student assignments. By this finding, we are inclined to believe that the users of UEW LMS are likely to encounter similar experiences, albeit no evidence is available to support this claim. This study, therefore, was carried out to gather empirical proofs by identifying the SWOT of using the e Learning Platform, UEW LMS, at the University of Education Winneba. Statement of the Problem

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Extant literature reveals that one surest way of assessing the effectiveness of e Learning Platforms is by the analysis of its Strength, weakness, opportunities and threats. According to Hightower, Murphrey, Coppernoll, Jahedkar and Dooley (2011), a SWOT analysis relates to an in depth, concurrent study of both the internal strengths, weaknesses, and the external opportunities and threats that may affect the success of a system positively or negatively. As a simple but potent tool, SWOT analysis is used for sizing up an organization’s resource capability and deﬁciencies, its market opportunities, and the external threats to its future (Thompson, Strickland & Gamble, 2006). In addition, studies have recognized that when internal factors such as strengths and weaknesses and external factors such as opportunities and threats are identified, could lead to the development of strategies which could lead to improvement in the strengths, elimination of the weaknesses, benefitting from of the opportunities and managing the threats (Parker, Maor, & Herrington, 2013; Dyson, 2004).

The use of Learning Management Systems (LMS) is not new to tertiary institutions in Ghana. Bervell and Umar (2017) opine that LMS has been in existence in tertiary institutions in Sub Saharan Africa since the last decade. Various studies (Elmahadi & Osman 2013; Mtebe & Raisamo, 2014) further indicate that countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa among others have either fully or partially deployed LMS in various institutions in their countries as alternative or complementary to conventional classrooms. To further show the place of LMS in the development of tertiary education in Africa, Adkins (2013) predicted the growth rate of the LMS acquisition in Sub Saharan Africa between 2011 and 2016 to rise by 5% per annum.

Research Questions

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3. What significant difference exists in the UEW LMS users’ perception of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in terms of their age?

2. What significant difference exists in the UEW LMS users’ perception of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in terms of their gender?

1. What are users’ perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the UEW LMS?

Despite the immense benefits of LMS in educational delivery, its usage in UEW has been very limited until the outbreak of the COVID 19 pandemic and the subsequent closure of schools on 16 Marc, 2020. As a new tool in the delivery of education in UEW, studies have not been conducted to ascertain the Strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats from the perspectives of its users (students, lecturers and management). A study of this nature is very crucial because findings from extant literature seem inconclusive as far as the acceptance and rejection rate of LMS is concerned (Bervell & Umar, 2017). For example, Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen and Yeh (2008) as well as Hastie, Hung, Chen and Kinshuk (2010) confirm that there are some features in LMS that promote its acceptance rates. On the other hand, Alkins, Coskuncay and Yildrim (2014) also report that many researchers have found that LMS has been rejected due to some failures. Apart from the dearth of literature concerning Strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats from the perspectives of its users, a meta review by Bervell and Umar (2017) revealed that out of the 31 studies conducted on the subject matter in Sub Saharan Africa, only three (Lwoga & Komba, 2015; Dlalisa, 2017; Tibyampansha et al., 2017) employed the mixed method approach whilst all the studies used the Technology Acceptance Model as a theoretical basis. Though six (Tagoe, 2012; Adjin Tettey, 2014; Boateng, Mbrokoh, Boateng, Senyo & Ansong, 2016; Essel & Wilson, 2017; Okantey & Addo, 2016; Asampana, Akanferi & Ami Narh, 2017) out of these 31 studies were conducted in Ghana, none of these studies was conducted in UEW amid a pandemic. Given the inherent lacuna in the literature, this mixed method study was conducted using the Technology Acceptance Model as a model to fill the identified gaps.

Theoretical Framework: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) The study was situated in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989) and further refined by McFarland and Hamilton (2006). A pictorial presentation of TAM is presented in Figure 1.

The model remains one of the blueprints for testing user perceptions of a technological innovation globally. The model operates on the assumptions that an individual’s intent to use (acceptance of innovation) and usage behaviour (actual use) of technology is influenced primarily by the individual’s perceptions of ease of use and usefulness (benefits of using the technology) and computer efficacy (Portz et al., 2019) as evident from Figure 1, conditions such as task structure, anxiety, prior experience, organizational support, system quality and other’s use determine their perception of usefulness and ease of use. However, the actual usage of technological innovation is further predicated on computer efficacy, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness. Thus, an individual who has control over the use of technology and finds it useful would be motivated to use the technology more often than an individual who finds it difficult to use technology or does not find it useful (Bandura, 1982) As a theoretical lens for this study, it is argued that the actual use of the LMS is based on the user’s perception of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. This means that the users are likely to accept and use the LMS when they realize its strengths and opportunities overrides its weaknesses and threats and vice versa. However, literature has shown that the users’ perceptions of the LMS can be predicted by their gender, age, level of study, and faculty. It is envisaged that both males and females may differ in terms of their perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Extant literature suggests that the acceptance of technology depends on gender with males mostly dominating the acceptance of technology (Zhang, Nyheim & Mattila, 2014). As far as age is concerned, research (Wang, Myers & Sunduram, 2013) has

Figure 1: Adding contextual specificity to the Technology Acceptance Model from McFarland and Hamilton (2006)

The study adopted the pragmatist research paradigm, a mixed methods approach where both quantitative, as well as qualitative data, were collected. Specifically, the study employed the explanatory sequential design. The quantitative data was first collected and analyzed, and subsequently, qualitative data was collected and analyzed to help explain the quantitative results. Population

In this study, 3272 students were sampled for the quantitative phase. Bartlett, Kotrlik and Higgins (2001) recommend a sample size of 397 for a population of about 40,000. To increase the external validity of the findings, the researchers increased the sample to 3272. Again, the researchers increased the sample size with the view that a reduction in the return rate of the questionnaire might not affect the sample size and consequently, the results. The stratified random sampling technique was applied to sample from their gender, age, level of study and the faculties they represented. Based on Guest, Bunce, and Johnson’s (2006) assertion that a minimum of 15 participants is enough for a qualitative study to reach saturation, 20 lecturers were sampled purposively for the interview.

The target population for the study was all students and lecturers at the University of Education, Winneba. The accessible population of 35200 comprising 34,680 regular students and 520 full time lecturers on the Winneba campus (Admission Office and Human Resource Division, 2020)

2. Methodology Research Design

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. shown that ‘digital natives’ are technology savvy. Impliedly, their acceptance of technology is expected to be higher compared to the digital ‘immigrants’. Though the literature on how students’ level of study as well as faculty attached might predict their perception of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, it is assumed that the more advanced students and students from the science related faculties may tend to exhibit favourable responses than their colleagues from the humanities.

Data Collection Instrument

Sample and Sampling Procedures

A researcher designed Likert type questionnaire and semi structured interview guide were used to gather data from the respondents. To ensure the questionnaire was valid, it was given to an expert to check for double, confusing, and leading questions. It was the pilot tested among 100 students in the University of Cape Coast who share similar characteristics to the respondents involved in the study. The pilot test yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.85. The semi structured interview guide was designed based on the findings that emerged from the quantitative analysis. The trustworthiness of the semi structured interview guide was determined through checking for credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability as proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985).

Data Collection Procedures

Data was analyzed using descriptive (Means and Standard Deviations) and Inferential Statistics (Independent Samples t test and ANOVA) with the SPSS software In the second stage, the researchers studied the field notes, transcribed the audio interview data, and analyzed them into themes based on the framework for thematic analysis suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994).

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Variable Sub scale Frequency Percent Sex Male 1807 55.2 Female 1465 44.8 Age Under 20 159 4.9 20 29 3081 94.2 30 39 5 .2 40+ 27 .8

Data Analysis

The demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented This is followed by data analysis and discussion of findings.

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Research Question One: What are the users’ perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the UEW LMS? This research question aimed to investigate the perception of users of UEW LMS on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of UEW LMS. The data

The demographic characteristics of the students are presented in Table 1.

Source: Online Survey Data, 2020 Table 1 shows that 1807(55.2%) of the respondents were males whilst 1465 (44.8%) were females. The male dominance in the study only reinforces the long held notion that most tertiary institutions in Africa especially admit more males than females (Fredua Kwarteng & Effah, 2017; Odaga, 2020) As for ages, Table 1 shows that that 159(4.9%) were below 20 years, 3081(94.2%) were between 20 30 years, 5(.2%) were between 30 39 years whilst 27(.8%) were either 40 years or above. It is clear from their age distribution that about 99.0% of the respondents are digital ‘natives’ (Prensky, 2001). It is, therefore, expected that majority would accept the LMS. The age distribution may also affect their perceptions of the Strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the LMS.

The administration of the questionnaire was done from March 2020 to April 2020. At this period, the COVID 19 was at its peak in Ghana. As a result, a digital version of the questionnaire was created using Google Forms and used to collect data from the students. The digital form (online survey) of the questionnaire was administered first (by the researchers) and collected instantly through the digital mode. Subsequently, a semi structured interview guide was designed based on the findings of the quantitative data to collect in depth data explanation from the lecturers to triangulate the quantitative results.

3. Results and Discussions

data

perspectives on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats

for

The data in Table 2 reveal that users’ of UEW LMS held varied perceptions about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of UEW LMS outlined in this study. However, ranked by means, it could be observed that users’ of UEW LMS have higher perceptions about the weakness (M=3.85, SD=0.66) followed by threats (M=3.82, SD=0.56), strengths (M=2.80, SD=0.83) whiles opportunities (M=2.57, SD=0.93) was rated the least. The overall assessment of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of UEW LMS returned a mean of 3.37 (SD=0.43). Based on the 5 point Likert scale used the where the mean/average is 3.0, it could be noticed that the users' perceptions of UEW LMS on the SWOT scored above average. Impliedly, UEW LMS element the student’s of UEW’s LMS presented UEW

in Table 3. Table 3: Detailed SWOT Analysis of

LMS from the Students Perspectives Constructs Items Min. Max. Mean Dev.Std. Improves IT Skills 1 5 3.39 1.19 Strengths Students complete tasks at their own pace 1 5 3.15 1.23 Univ Commitment 1 5 2.96 1.30 Instant Results 1 5 2.95 1.31 Access to learning materials 1 5 2.79 1.21 Students can learn irrespective of their location 1 5 2.56 1.28 Serves Large numbers 1 5 2.36 1.25 No data cost 1 5 2.21 1.30 Weakness Persons with limited ICT 1 5 4.45 0.89 Time restrictions 1 5 4.39 0.93 Login and enrollment complicated 1 5 3.80 1.26 No App version 1 5 3.72 1.19 Interface no attractive 1 5 3.35 1.23 Opportunities Students can go over lessons severally 1 5 2.87 1.28

389 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. from the five point Likert scale was analysed using means and standard deviation where a mean of 3.50 and above indicated the agreement of the respondents to the statement. A mean between 2.40 and 3.40 meant that the respondents were not certain of the statement whilst a mean below 2.40 meant the respondents disagreed with the statement. The results of the analysis have been presented in Table 2. Table 2: Summary of Students’ Perception of UEW LMS SWOT Analysis Min. Max. Mean Std. Deviation Weakness 1 5 3.85 0.66 Threats 1 5 3.82 0.56 Strengths 1 5 2.80 0.83 Opportunities 1 5 2.57 0.93 Overall SWOT Analysis 1 5 3.37 0.43

of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A detailed description of

has an

Source: Online Survey Data, 2020

Another lecturer who shared a similar sentiment remarked: “For me, the LMS has been a blessing. At the initial stages, when we were asked to teach on the LMS, I struggled due to my limited knowledge and skill in the use of a computer. But now, I can proudly say I do everything on the LMS without external support.” (Participant B)

It is, therefore, evident that the shift in pedagogical practice from the face to face to LMS has enhanced the computer skills of both lecturers and students. This finding is consistent with that of Gunawan, Sahidu, Susilawati, Harjono, and Herayanti (2019) who found that the use of MOODLE over a period enhanced

390 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Make education accessible to more students 1 5 2.82 1.33 Easier to plan and manage to learn 1 5 2.53 1.24 It better serves the needs physically challenged persons 1 5 2.37 1.31 Means of learning regardless of location 1 5 2.27 1.30 Threats Plagiarism (copy work) 1 5 3.40 1.12 Lack of computers 1 5 4.39 0.93 Insufficient training 1 5 4.28 0.95 Size of files 1 5 4.17 1.02 No video conferencing 1 5 4.15 0.98 It is expensive to use LMS 1 5 4.03 1.21 Unstable power supply 1 5 3.98 1.12 Limited competencies in ICT 1 5 3.89 1.10 Lack of commitment 1 5 3.30 1.34 Resistance to adopting change 1 5 3.29 1.35 May deteriorate students’ language 1 5 3.26 1.24 Exchange of username and passwords 1 5 3.22 1.32 Distractions 1 5 3.16 1.18 Source: Field Data, 2020 Even though the Overall SWOT analysis presented a Mean = 3.37 and an Average SD = .43, a cursory look at the details in Table 3 shows that the students expressed various perceptions on the Strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats about UEW LMS. Concerning the Strength of the LMS, an Overall Mean of 2.8 and an Average Deviation of .83 was obtained. This implies that their overall perception of the Strength was moderate. It was, therefore, not surprising that the students agreed (Mean = 3.9, SD = 1.19) that LMS improves their Information Technology skills. The constant use of an innovation is expected to sharpen the user’s skill. Paul (2014) is of the view that the constant use of technology has a multiplier effect on the computer skills of the user. The more the user uses the innovation, the more he becomes adept in its usage. This perception of the students was concurred by the lecturers in the interview. For some of the lecturers even though they had always considered themselves as beginners in the use of technology, they now see themselves at the advanced stage due to the constant usage of the LMS for the teaching and learning activities. One of the lecturers said: “Until this Covid 19 period and the subsequent introduction of LMS in our classroom domains, I have not been this conversant with the laptop and its associated applications.” (Participant C)

Interestingly, the students did not agree that there is no financial cost (Mean = 2.21, SD = 1.25) as well as LMS serving a large number of users at a time. Though the UEW has established collaboration with two telecommunication networks (MTN and Vodafone) to whitelist the UEW LMS website, it appears the students did not seem to know about it and perceive not to be benefitting from this arrangement. It seems to suggest that students cannot access the LMS portal once they do not have an internet connection at all. Unsurprisingly, the students identified expensive internet bandwidth, unstable internet (Mean = 4.62, SD = .84) and lack of computers (Mean = 4.39, SD = .93) as the threats to their use of LMS. This further explains why the students indicated that LMS does not serve a large number of people. Internet demands, as well as the non use of computers and smartphones by students, are likely to reduce the number of students who access LMS. Most lecturers supported the views of the students during the interview. For instance, one of the lecturers said: “Most of my students complain to me that though they want to enrol in the LMS, they do not have either smartphones or data to access the LMS. Though the school says students can browse freely, my students are still complaining.” (Participant A)

391 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the skills and creativity of its users. It is believed that once a user has the skill and dexterity to surf LMS independently, they can manage their lessons at their own pace. As data in Table 3 reveals, the students agreed (Mean = 3.5, SD = 1.23) that they can learn at their own pace on the LMS. Comparatively, the LMS allows students to decide when and where they want to have their lessons, unlike the traditional face to face classrooms where students' learning is mostly managed by teachers. Umek, Kerzic, Tomazevic and Aristovnik (2015) posit that the use of LMS requires students who are highly self regulated and independent to manage their lessons. It also stands to reason, therefore, that the performance of the students on the LMS rests mainly on their ability to manage their learning effectively. In the interview with the lecturers, it came to the fore that management of the students learning is their inalienable right. Should they decide not to learn, their teachers have little control, unlike the traditional face to face classroom. For example, one lecturer said: “Once I upload my materials on the platform, I do not check how many students have accessed it or otherwise. If it were the traditional classroom, the onus would lie on me to ensure that every student has accessed the materials.” (Participant E) Another lecturer also said: “I upload the information on the LMS and allow the students to access whenever they want to. I don’t indicate when they should. It depends on the individual student.” (Participant C) This confirms the findings of Pelet (2013) that the LMS provides the avenue for students to manage their learning. This would give students more control over what they want to learn at their own pace.

Another lecturer also remarked: “The issue of data is not only affecting the students but even we as lecturers. Though the system, we are told, is free, I always have to bundle on my phone before I can access the platform.” (Participant G)

To other lecturers, however, the problems are quite expansive than they are presumed. Most of the students in UEW come from the remotest part of Ghana with internet connectivity in these areas remaining significantly poor, coupled with the problems of unreliable electricity supply. This makes it difficult for the students to access the LMS from their homes. Even when students can connect their phones and computers to the internet, the internet speed remains discouraging. Most of the students have to commute several miles to gain access to the internet. One lecturer lamented: “You have no idea where some of these students are coming from. Some of them come from villages that have no internet or electricity.” (Participant I) Another lecturer supported this assertion from his colleague by saying that: “Though the LMS is good, most of my students come from remote parts of the country. Some of them have to travel several miles just to charge their mobile phones and connect to the internet.” (Participant B) Even though Ghana’s internet connectivity remains one of the best in Africa, Akakpo (2008) indicates that accessibility remains discouraging for most rural communities in Ghana. The lack of internet infrastructure in most villages may not allow the students from these parts of the country to enrol in the LMS. Apuke and Iyendo (2018) posit that learning management systems were generally designed to support students in their learning, lack of available technologies as well as data cost may deprive most users of the full benefits of these systems. This is quite expected because Gyamerah (2020) had earlier predicted that in Ghana many students might not take part in classes on Moodle platforms due to inaccessibility to internet, electricity and digital devices such as smartphones, tablets and computers However, an App version of the LMS could have made it more user friendly for students, many of whom use smartphones instead of computers. It is not surprising that the students agreed (M = 3.72, SD = 1.19) that no App version of the LMS remains one of its biggest Fromchallenges.Table 3, it is evident that UEW LMS has a number of weaknesses. According to the students, it is difficult for persons with limited knowledge in ICT (M = 4.45, SD = .89) to use the LMS. Arguably, people who possess the efficacy in the use of technology would be inclined to use the LMS than persons with limited knowledge in ICT. As found by Nasser, Cherif, and Romanoski (2011), there is a strong correlation between students’ knowledge of ICT and the use of LMS. It is, therefore, that most students might not use the LMS for the purpose that is intended due to limited knowledge in ICT. The novelty of the LMS in the educational landscape of UEW further presupposes that it may take a lot of time before users become conversant with the platform. Students’ lack of

Another lecturer also posited: “My students have been complaining bitterly about how the LMS is working. I think they don’t have adequate knowledge of the use of ICT.”

(Participant H) Amid the students’ lack of knowledge in the use of ICT, it was not surprising that the students agreed to have login and enrolment complications (Mean 3.80, SD = 1.26). The novelty of LMS, coupled with the huge number of students that were migrated unto the LMS platform, was expected to affect the performance rate of the server. With the outbreak of the pandemic, all courses were switched online. As a result, the computer servers were not able to host a large scale of new users forcing the online system too often slow or shut down completely (Bao, 2020). Irrespective, the majority of the users could not log in or had enrolment complications as a result of inadequate training. Most of the lecturers interviewed complained that even though they were given some form of training, it was self tutoring without many practical activities for participants except videos and excerpts from Youtube. For example, one lecturer complained: “You see, I understand why the students are complaining about the LMS, even me, that three times training they did on the LMS did not equip me with all the skills I needed to use the LMS, how much more a student who has not even heard of LMS before?” (Participant A) This argument from the lecturer’s comment suggests that the users would have wished to have more training and orientation before the LMS was implemented on that large scale. Predictably, the students identified insufficient training (Mean = 4.28, SD = .95) as the third highest perceived threat to the use of LMS. Habibu, Al Mamun and Clement (2012) are of the view that lack of proper training skills on the use of online learning platforms in most tertiary institutions is a challenge for both teachers and students. Narh, Boateng, Afful Dadzie and Owusu (2019) found that most students in Ghana have poor computer skills and self efficacy and inadequate knowledge of internet handles. The results show further show that the students agreed that plagiarism (M = 3.40, SD = 1.12) is another weakness of the LMS. Research (King, Guyette, & Piotrowski, 2009) has shown that it is easier for students to cheat or plagiarize in online class than in traditional classes. It is argued that the nature of LMS and other learning management platforms afford students the luxury of using other people’s ideas or information without acknowledging the person as the source. The nature of LMS does not present lecturers with the option to test the assignments presented by students. This is as a result of the lack of in built capacity to test for the authenticity or originality of the information presented by students. As indicated by Michael and Williams (2013), in a traditional classroom, it is easy for administrators of a test to control cheating behaviours such us copying from

393 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. knowledge in the use of ICT was further reinforced by the lecturers who mostly have to offer support to these students. One lecturer, for instance, said: “I have enrolled more than 500 of my students on the LMS manually. Besides, I have to always be on standby to give further instructions and tutorials on how the students can navigate the LMS.” (Participant B)

394 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. a neighbour, taking copies or photos of the exam out of the classroom, or students working to together in other ways unlike in an online platform where students may plagiarize or many students presenting the same write up in a Ascourse.faras

the opportunities are concerned, the students agreed that LMS allows students to go over lessons severally (Mean = 2.87, SD = 1.27). Once the slides are uploaded on the LMS, the students have access to the slides anytime they want. This approach from the perspective of the students allows them to go over lessons at convenient times than they could have done in traditional classrooms Lim (2004) maintains that the mode of teaching online enables students to control their learning path, pace, sequence and contingencies. It was therefore not surprising that the students agreed that it is easier for them to plan and manage their leaning on the LMS (Mean = 2.53, SD = 1.24). Again, the findings in Table reveals that LMS would make education accessible to more students (Mean = 2.82, SD = 1.33). With the completion of the first batch of the Free Senior High School in Ghana, it is envisaged that the LMS provides a complete avenue for educational enrolment in tertiary to be expanded. Though in the traditional face to face teaching, facial expressions, body language as well as the voices of teachers and peers affect the comprehension and formative evaluation of the students (Bao, 2020), a blended pedagogy could enable UEW to expand its admission capacity. Pirani and Sasikumar (2014) posit that the elastic nature of LMS makes it ideal for any type of educational structure. It is, therefore, assumed that the LMS would make education accessible to both the abled and the disabled. Howard, Winkelmes and Shegog (2018) concur with this finding by intimating that the goal of every virtual classroom is to improve access to higher education. Indeed, the lecturers supported the views of the students. For instance, one lecturer posited: “With the upsurge in the number of people seeking tertiary education next year, I think LMS remains the best platform to make education accessible to these students.” (Participant D) Another lecturer also remarked: “I think the LMS has come at a good time. This is an opportunity for UEW to expand its admission capacity for every student that wants to come.” (Participant F) LMS would give management of UEW the opportunity to expand its accessibility rates, especially for students with disabilities, rural students, students with parental responsibilities, and students in the security services (Renes, Furthermore,2015).the students agreed (Mean = 4.17, SD = 1.02) that the size of files that can be uploaded on the LMS is a threat. Currently, the size of files that a user can upload on the LMS is 50megabites. Most users often have to alter the size of their videos and other audio materials in other for it to suit the architectural design of the LMS platform, thereby, reducing the quality of video or audio material. Besides, apart from MPEG 4 (.mp4) and JPEG, the LMS does not support other video formats such Audio Video Interleave (.avi), Windows

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Media Video (.wmv), Flash (.flv or .swf) and QuickTime (.mov). It is argued, therefore, that most videos that are uploaded on the LMS lose its quality due to the limited formats that users have to adopt. The interview with the lecturers confirmed that the limited file size, as well as the file format, often affects the quality of the materials that are uploaded on the LMS. For instance, one lecturer said: “I think the size of files that can be uploaded on the LMS is too small for some of us from the School of Creative Arts where students are required to mostly present their assignments in videos.” (Participant G)

Another lecturer from a different department commented: “I have to mostly alter the videos I upload on the LMS for my students either by reducing the size or the file format before I upload it. This mostly affects the content as well as the quality of the video.” (Participant D) Apart from this, a lecturer from the Special Education Department also revealed that not the videos and audio files suit all students in the classroom. Some of the materials on the LMS are not operable to some of the students with disabilities. She said: “Most of our students are not benefiting enough from the LMS. Enrolling on the platform, for example, it is a challenge for students with hearing and visual impairment. The whole interface is not user friendly for these categories of our students.” (Participant E) Even though the emergence of technology was expected to ameliorate the problem of disability, it has rather heightened the problem (Dobransky & Hargittai, 2006). Arguably, online learning platforms such as the LMS have failed to address the technical and pedagogical aspects of accessibility and inclusion (Guglielman, 2010). Research Question Two: What significant difference exists in the UEW LMS users’ perception of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in terms of their gender? Research question two sought to establish whether the users of LMS differ significantly in their perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in terms of their gender. The t test result is presented in Tables 3.

Table 3: T test Results for Gender and SWOT of UEW LMS Gender Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. tailed)(2 Strengths Male 2.80 0.85 0.030 3270 0.976 Female 2.80 0.81 Weakness Male 3.85 0.67 0.184 3270 0.854 Female 3.84 0.65 Opportunities Male 2.57 0.94 0.395 3270 0.693 Female 2.58 0.91 Threats Male 3.82 0.57 0.759 3270 0.448 Female 3.83 0.55 Overall AnalysisSWOT Male 3.36 0.44 0.798 3270 0.425 Female 3.38 0.41 Source: Online Survey Data, 2020

Results in Table 4 show whether there is a statistically significant difference between the gender of students and their perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the LMS. It is clear from the independent samples t test results in Table 4 that there were no statistically significant differences in the students perception in relation to the strengths [t (3270) = 0.030, p=0.976, 2 tailed], weakness [t (3270) = 0.184, p=0.854, 2 tailed], opportunities t (3270) = 0.395, p=0.693, 2 tailed], threats t (3270) = 0.759, p=0.448, 2 tailed], as well as the overall SWOT [t (3270) = 0.798, p=0.425, 2 tailed] based on gender at 0.05 alpha level. This means that both the men and women did not differ in terms of the perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the LMS This finding of this study is consistent with that of Srichanyachon (2014) and Arenas Gaitan, Rondan Cataluna and Ramirez Correa (2010) who found that there was no statistically significant difference between the gender of the students and their perception towards the use of LMS. Research Question Three: What significant difference exists in the UEW LMS users’ perception of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in terms of their age? To determine whether the users of LMS differ in terms of the strengths, weaknesses, and threats based on the age of the users. An was conducted. The result is displayed in Table 5. SWOT UEW-LMS

Perception of

opportunities,

ANOVA

Table 5: ANOVA Results for Age and

Age Mean Dev.Std. Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. Strengths 20Under 2.83 0.82 8.274 3 2.758 3.989 0.008 20 29 2.79 0.83 2239.563 3269 0.691 30 39 1.81 0.72 40+ 3.19 0.89 Total 2.80 0.83 20Under 3.78 0.57 Weakness 20 29 3.85 0.66 6.096 3 2.032 4.687 0.003 30 39 2.92 1.28 1390.620 3269 0.433 40+ 3.59 0.65 Total 3.85 0.66 20Under 2.67 0.87 Opportunities 20 29 2.57 0.93 2.625 3 0.875 1.021 0.382 30 39 2.47 0.23 2724.987 3269 0.857 40+ 2.78 0.96 Total 2.57 0.93 20Under 3.80 0.55 Threats 20 29 3.83 0.56 1.767 3 0.589 1.878 0.131 30 39 4.03 0.36 1010.289 3269 0.314 40+ 3.59 0.66 Total 3.82 0.56 Under 3.35 0.44

To maintain and sustain the interest of the users on the LMS, it is recommended that Management of UEW LMS need to educate both lecturers and students about the benefits that LMS offers to its users. Such awareness programmes would offer the users the opportunity to understand the importance and benefits of LMS in the pedagogic practices of both students and lecturers in the modern day educational dispensation. Additionally, management needs to conduct comprehensive practical workshops and training for all users of the LMS to equip them with the knowledge and skills needed to use LMS. The Management of the University of Education, Winneba should take into consideration the age, level as well as the programme of study in the design and implementation of subsequent online platforms for students and lecturers.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations for Policy and Practice

The study investigated users’ perceptions of UEW LMS based on Strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The study found that UEW LMS is perceived to have elements of weaknesses, threats, strengths and opportunities. The study further found that the users of LMS differ in their perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats based on the age of the students. The users, however, did not differ significantly in their perceptions of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats based on gender. It is clear from the findings that most of the users of LMS do not see the relevance or have not bought into the use of LMS. Based on the findings of the study, we concluded that most of the users of UEW LMS might not continue to use the platform for their teaching and learning activities after COVID 19 and that the usage of LMS would become abortive whenever users have the opportunity to choose between the LMS and the traditional classroom approach to instruction.

Source: Online Survey Data, 2020 It is evident in Table 5 that except for opportunities [F (3, 3269) = 1.021, p=0.382], and threats [F (3, 3269) = 1.878, p=0.131], where there were no statistically significant differences, there were statistically significant differences in the perception of UEW students’ concerning strengths [F (3, 3269) = 3.989, p=0.008], weakness [F (3, 3269) = 4.687, p=0.003], as well as the overall SWOT analysis [F (3, 3269) = 3.831, p=0. 009] at 0.05 alpha level across the age groups. Based on these results, it could be concluded that people of different age groups may not formulate the same perceptions towards the various elements of the LMS. Extant literature (Lim, Ayesh & Chee, 2013) suggest that even though the users of LMS are provided with the same elements on the LMS, not all of them may have the same perception of tolerance level to surf the internet to their satisfaction. As a result, different age groups may exhibit different perceptions towards the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the LMS.

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The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management

Port RepublicLouisof www.ijlter.orgMauritius

IJLTER.ORG Vol 19 No 9 September 2020

Articles inside

Students

University of Education, Winneba, Ghana

The Value of Competence-based Assessment in Pre-service Teacher Training

Teaching History in Ways C21st Students Learn – A Design-Based Research Perspective

The Attitudes of Tertiary Level Students Towards Cooperative Learning Strategies in Afghan EFL Context

Analysis of Engineering Accreditation Process and Outcomes: Lessons Learned for Successful First Time Application

Applying Agile Learning to Teaching English for Specific Purposes

The Impact of a Mosque-Based Islamic Education to Young British Muslim Professionals

Analysis of the Efficiency of China’s Distance Economic Education in Force Majeure Circumstances

Conditioning Factors in the Integration of Technology in the Teaching of Portuguese Non-Native Language: A Post-COVID 19 Reflection for the Current Training of Teachers

Does Being Gritty Mean Being College-Ready? Investigating the Link between Grit and College Readiness among Filipino K-12 Graduates

Framework

Guide Pedagogical Students to Design and Organize Experience-based Learning Activities in Schools

Novice Teachers’ Challenges and Coping Strategies in Qatari Government Schools

Didactic Aspects of Teachers’ Training for Differentiated Instruction in Modern School Practice in Ukraine

Achievement

Transformation of the Educational Ecosystem in the Singularity Environment

The Efficacy of GeoGebra-Assisted Instruction on Students’ Drawing and Interpretations of Linear Functions

Transformation of Geospatial Technology Knowledge in Pre-service and Experienced Geography Teachers as Pedagogical Tools in the Technological-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge Framework