IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021 Part B

IJLTER.ORG

p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.20 No.11

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 11 (November 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 11

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

Aims and Objectives The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators, teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the world to present the results of their research activities in the following fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment; multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education; knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning; virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education; digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; etutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom management issues, educational case studies, etc.

Indexing and Abstracting The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned a unique DOI number.

Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org.

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue.

We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration.

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers.

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.

Editors of the November 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20

NUMBER 11

November 2021

Table of Contents Turning Windows into Mirrors: Digital Stories as a Teaching Strategy to Explore the Apprenticeship of Observation in Pre-Service Teachers .................................................................................................................................... 1 Carolina S. Botha Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Online Teaching during COVID-19 Pandemic in Qatari Governmental Schools ......... 17 Amani M. Allouh, Saba M. Qadhi, Mahmood A. Hasan, Xiangyun Du The Motivations and Barriers of Teachers’ Professional Development Activities during the Movement Control Order (MCO) – A Preliminary Insight ............................................................................................................................... 42 Asraf Hadzwan Ahmad Safian, Anidah Robani, Muliati Sedek Language Learners’ Willingness to Communicate and Speaking Anxiety in Online versus Face-to-Face Learning Contexts.................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 Nada Alqarni Teacher Perspectives on the Impact of the Cyber Press on the Development of Religious Knowledge among Hearing-Impaired Students ................................................................................................................................................. 78 Ihsan Ghadivan Ali Assaree, Ibrahim Khalaf Suleiman Al-Khalidi Engaging Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers in Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning: Problems and Possibilities ............................................................................................................................................................................ 96 Roland G. Pourdavood, Xuan Song Development of a Problem-Based Learning Management System-Supported Smartphone (PBLMS3) Application Using the ADDIE Model to Improve Digital Literacy ................................................................................................... 115 Rahmat Rizal, Dadi Rusdiana, Wawan Setiawan, Parsaoran Siahaan Character Education in the Pandemic Era: A Religious Ethical Learning Model through Islamic Education ....... 132 Nadri Taja, Encep Syarief Nurdin, Aceng Kosasih, Edi Suresman, Tedi Supriyadi Factors Associated with Student Enrollment, Completion, and Dropout of Massive Open Online Courses in the Sultanate of Oman .............................................................................................................................................................. 154 Vinu Sherimon, P. C. Sherimon, Leena Francis, Disha Devassy, Teresa K. George The Impact of Teacher Feedback Via Google Doc in L2 Learners’ Writing ................................................................ 170 Mohammed Abdullah Alharbi, Abdulrahman Alqefari Factors Inducing Literature Anxiety for Students Studying Literature in English .................................................... 195 Agnes Wei Lin Liau, George Boon Sai Teoh Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom Strategy in Teaching Qur’an Recitation Skills and Attitude Towards It among First Grade Students in Saudi Arabia.................................................................................................................. 215 Ali Tared Aldossari, Munirah Saud Alhamam

“Let Me Enjoy Teaching” Improving Academic Quality Assurance Practices to Attain Teaching Excellence: Case Study of Selected Private Higher Education Institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ..................................... 237 Randa Hariri Toward an Early Start for Head Start Children: Evidence from a Literacy Enrichment Starting at Age Three ..... 255 Haiyan Zhang Fusing the Jigsaw Method and Microsoft Teams: A Promising Online Pedagogy .................................................... 272 Malissa Maria Mahmud, Shiau Foong Wong The Effects of Media Literacy-Based Activities on Writing Skills in the EFL Classroom .......................................... 288 Ji-Hyun Lee Effectiveness of Gender Education in Ukraine as the Implementation of the Principle of Gender Parity ............. 306 Olga Shcholokova, Olena Karpenko, Zhanna Petrochko, Vira Kuzmenko, Tetyana Holubenko Pre-Service Teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy and the Use of Computers ................................................................. 325 Admire Chibisa, Mswazi Gladson Tshabalala, Mncedisi Christian Maphalala Assessing for Learning: Teacher Training in Practice Involving 14 Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) Students................................................................................................................................................................................ 346 Elize (E. C.) Du Plessis Predictors of Behavioural Intentions of Teachers to Adopt and Use Information and Communication Technologies in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe .......................................................................................................... 366 Norman Rudhumbu, Elizabeth Du Plessis, Patience Kelebogile Mudau “I Teach the way I believe”: EFL Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs in Technology Integration and its Relationship to Students’ Motivation and Engagement in the COVID 19 Pandemic Year .................................................................. 387 Russell D’ Souza, Jayashree Premkumar Shet, Joel Alanya-Beltran, Korakod Tongkachok, Geena Hipolito-Pingol, Mohamed Aboobucker Mohamed Sameem Improving Students’ Critical Thinking through Oral Questioning in Mathematics Teaching ................................. 407 Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa, Mohd Syazwan Zainal, Nadia Fasha Mohd Drus The Autonomy of Indonesian EFL Students: A Mixed Method Investigation ........................................................... 422 M. Melvina, Nenden Sri Lengkanawati, Yanty Wirza The Use of Critical Thinking Activities through Workshops to improve EFL Learners' Speaking Skills ............... 444 Eliana Pinza-Tapia, Vanessa Toro, Karina Salcedo-Viteri, Fabian Paredes Recommendations to Improve the Usability of Mobile Learning for Preschool Teachers in Africa: A Systematic Scoping Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 461 Monique De Wit, Nicola Ann Plastow Enhancing Virtual Learning during the Crisis of COVID-19 Lockdown - A Case Study of a Higher Education Institution in Maldives ....................................................................................................................................................... 476 Mariyam Shareefa, Mohamed Muneez, Aaidha Hammad, Mariyam Shihama Do EFL Teachers Reduce the Reading Gap in Qatar? A Study of Strategy Instruction in Government Schools ... 494 Wafaa H. M. Morsy, Michael H. Romanowski, Xiangyun Du

255

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 255-271, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.14 Received Sep 05, 2021; Revised Nov 15, 2021; Accepted Nov 25, 2021

Toward an Early Start for Head Start Children: Evidence from a Literacy Enrichment Starting at Age Three Haiyan Zhang Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Cortland, New York https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6994-5059 Abstract. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the utility of providing comprehensive literacy instruction to preschool children starting at age three. The literacy development in two groups of four-year-old children (N = 1320) was compared during their enrollment in a literacy-enriched Head Start program. The first group entered the program at age four and participated in the program for only one year (Group 4-1); the second group had previously participated in the program at age three and at the time of the study were in their second year of the program (Group 4-2). Multilevel growth modelling procedures were used to compare literacy performance levels and growth rates between the two groups after controlling for relevant child, family, and educational variables. Results showed that Group 4-2 exhibited significantly higher literacy skills than Group 4-1 at both the beginning and end of the program year, although Group 4-2 had a slower growth rate than Group 4-1 over the program year. The theoretical and practical implications of the study were discussed.

Keywords: early literacy; Head Start; multi-level growth models; literacy enrichment; age four; age three

1. Introduction The debate on whether explicit academic instruction in preschool programs, particularly the Head Start program, should be implemented received much attention in past decades and has resulted in changes in performance standards and instructional practices in early childhood settings (NAEYC, 2009; U.S. DDHS ACF, 2016). The central issue in this debate is the nature and substance of what has been called “developmentally appropriate” instruction (Harding et al., 2019; Elkind, 2001; Whitehurst, 2001). Traditional educational philosophies suggest that preschool children benefit most from a child-centered environment that encourages sustained play with concrete objects (Elkind, 2001). According to this view, early academic instruction would interfere with the child’s self-

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

256

regulated engagement with the educational environment. Consequently, the teaching of preacademic skills such as knowledge of letters and numbers has been discouraged in preschool settings.

With the emergence of evidence-based experimental research, scholars began to examine the content-centered approach involving explicit teaching of early literacy skills in lieu of the traditional child-centered approach (Harding et al., 2019; Lonigan et al., 2000; Storch et al., 2001; Vellutino et al., 2000). The findings motivated changes in the definition of developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood settings. It is now considered developmentally appropriate and even necessary to familiarize preschool children with print concepts and conventions, the utility and various uses of printed words, at least a few letter names and letter sounds, and some high-utility sight words (NAEYC, 2009).

1.1 Literacy Performance and Practice in Head Start Despite changes in federal mandates and guidelines, studies show that many early childhood educators still lack a comprehensive awareness of the concept of early literacy for children (Harding et al., 2019; Powell et al., 2008; Wasik & Hindman, 2011). Educators tend to hold on to traditional educational philosophies, believing that children naturally develop literacy and that play alone is a developmentally appropriate practice as opposed to implementing learning through play and engaging activities. These misconceptions translate to weak classroom support for literacy and language development in Head Start settings. Such limited support often targets alphabet knowledge whereas key skills such as phonological awareness skills receive limited attention (Castle et al., 2016; Hawken et al., 2005).

Thus, it is essential to provide professional development training in connection with a comprehensive academic curriculum informed by research that can be readily implemented in Head Start classrooms (Castle et al., 2016; Landry et al., 2017).

1.2 Supplementary Literacy Enrichment in Head Start Several empirical studies have evaluated the utility of incorporating emergent literacy instruction into Head Start programs through curriculum modification and teacher professional development. These studies provide evidence that the explicit teaching of emergent literacy skills can be tailored to the preschool children’s level of emotional, social, and cognitive development. For example, Whitehurst (1994) demonstrated that the introduction of a modest literacy component combining interactive book reading and phonological awareness training with the typical Head Start curriculum produced significant increases in children’s language and emergent literacy skills. Similarly, Wasik and Hindman (2011) employed a variation of Whitehurst’s dialogic reading strategies in the professional development of Head Start teachers using a randomized control design to find that students of teachers in the treatment group performed better on measures of receptive vocabulary and phonological sensitivity than students of teachers in the control group. Bierman (2008) adopted similar strategies in a study using a randomized experimental/control enrichment intervention that

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

257

targeted both emergent literacy skills and social-emotional skills to find that children in the intervention classrooms had higher vocabulary, emergent literacy, and learning engagement skills at the end of the program compared with children in the control classrooms. Moreover, Powell et al. (2010) trained teachers in the use of classroom strategies to improve children’s oral language skills, phonological awareness skills, and letter knowledge. This resulted in positive effects on classroom support for literacy and language development, as well as increased performance seen in the measures of letter knowledge, blending skills, writing, and print concepts of children in those classrooms. In addition, in an enrichment study conducted by Zimmerman et al. (2008), Head Start children were provided with literacy-related materials and resources in their classrooms. Furthermore, classroom teachers were provided with professional development training to facilitate a better understanding of early literacy development along with the acquisition of strategies for the effective use of such materials. The Head Start children who participated in the enrichment program were found to score above children who received the traditional Head Start program at second and fifth grade standardized reading measures.

Finally, results from a dissertation study are relevant (Pietrangelo, 1999) as the study established the use of a comprehensive literacy curriculum at the Head Start site to provide the data for the present study. Pietrangelo (1999) implemented an emergent literacy curriculum that involved the systematic and direct teaching of a full range of literacy skills facilitated by initial teacher training and weekly support for 14 weeks. The training program provided the teachers with a strong rationale for adding a supplementary literacy component to the Head Start curriculum, along with literacy enrichment activities and daily guidance and mentoring to facilitate the development of emergent literacy skills.

Targeted skills included promoting the motivation to read, letter identification, phoneme awareness, at least a rudimentary understanding of the alphabetic principle, print awareness, print conventions, and the ability to identify a few high-frequency words along with the sounds associated with those words. The intervention component of classroom activities consisted of large and small group reading, letter name and letter sound instruction, phoneme awareness activities, and word play activities. The instructional format ranged from formal and explicit instruction to informal games and musical activities. The materials used in the intervention classes consisted of the first 20 books and corresponding component skills and lesson plans provided by the Ready Readers series Stage 0 (Modern Curriculum Press, 1997). Children who received the supplementary literacy instruction were found to perform better on measures of phonological skills than children who received the regular Head Start curriculum at the end of the program.

1.3 Timing of Head Start Participation and Literacy Enrichment Thus far, the empirical evidence suggests that explicit and comprehensive academic instruction can benefit preschool children in ways that address their developmental needs. However, whether there is added benefit associated with the level of exposure to such instruction remains unclear. Some recent findings from longitudinal studies using national Head Start survey data suggested

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

258

additional benefits for academic skills associated with longer exposure to Head Start preschool programs (Zaslow et al., 2010; Zhang & Dobbs-Oates, 2019).

However, less is known about whether the same pattern is present with the use of comprehensive literacy instruction. As the development of adequate literacy skills is crucial for the success of children in early intervention programs, the knowledge of when to implement such instruction is important for policy makers, educational researchers, and practitioners alike.

The only two studies that attempted to address this question were conducted by Leow et al. (2015) and Domitrovich et al. (2013). The first study (Leow et al., 2015) analyzed longitudinal national data from the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES). Propensity score analysis was used to control for selection bias. It was found that children who participated in the Head Start program for two years performed significantly better on literacy and math skills compared with children who attended the program for only one year.

The second study (Domitrovich et al., 2013) introduced a comprehensive supplementary curriculum designed to facilitate the development of socialemotional skills and literacy skills in Head Start children. The researchers assessed the children's literacy and math skills once every year and compared the effects of one versus two years of Head Start on kindergarten literacy and math skills. Hierarchical linear modeling procedures were used to account for children nested in classrooms while propensity scores were computed to create two matched groups for comparison. The researchers found that Head Start children who participated in the program starting from age three scored significantly higher on measures of literacy and math skills administered in the fall of kindergarten year than Head Start children who participated in the program starting from age four. However, because assessments occurred once every year, the authors were not able to compare growth trajectories between the two groups; neither were they able to examine the children’s academic performance closely during preschool time. In addition, the sample was relatively small (n = 116 per group).

1.4 Present Study Thus, it would be useful to focus on the preschool period with data collected between shorter time intervals to model children’s performance more reliably.

Therefore, the question of interest can be formulated: will children who initially entered the Head Start program at age three and received two years of comprehensive literacy instruction perform better on measures of literacy development compared with children who initially entered the program at age four and received only one year of such instruction?

This question was addressed using hierarchical linear modeling procedures (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) after controlling for the effects of language and social skills, as well as the effects of other related child, family, and educational factors.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

259

2. Methods 2.1 Participants Participants in this study included 16 cohorts of children (n = 1320) attending an urban Head Start center-based program between 2005 and 2013. Some of these children entered the program at age four and attended for only one year (Group 4-1; n = 790); others had previously enrolled in the program at age three and were in their second year of the program (Group 4-2; n = 530). The 4-1s and 4-2s were taught in the same classrooms.

Table 1 presents the number of children in each group by year. Cohort analysis identified no significant differences in any of the demographic variables. Table 2 summarizes the results of these variables across the years. The 4-1s and 4-2s had similar demographics (see Table 2). However, because of the selection criteria employed at this Head Start site, the 4-2s came from families that, on average, had lower incomes compared with the 4-1s (t = 2.41, df = 1318, p < .05).

Participants also included 25 teachers. There were 10 classes each year between 2005-08, 2009-10, and 2011-13, and nine classes each year between 2008-09 and 2010-11.

Table 1: Number of participants by age, experience groups and year of assessment Year of Assessment 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Total

Group 4-1

113

110

113

90

107

78

86

93

790

Group 4-2

51

55

44

70

56

82

92

80

530

Table 2: Descriptive statistics for child level demographic variables Group 4-2 N Ethnicity

%

Group 4-1 N

%

Caucasian African American Hispanic Biracial Others

147 271 164 142 39

19.3 35.5 21.5 18.6 5.1

106 179 104 106 18

20.7 34.9 20.3 20.7 3.5

English Spanish Others Primary caregiver is mother Single adult in family More than 2 children in family Female

657 71 38 666 348 385 412

85.8 9.3 4.9 89.3 46.8 51.7 52.2

440 43 33 462 249 264 276

85.3 8.3 6.4 90.1 48.5 51.8 52.1

Language

Mean (N)

Mean (N)

SD

6.68(790) 2.92 7.07(530) Child and Family Risk Annual Family Income 11,347.36 (721) 6726.13 10903.58 (488) Note: The maximum possible score for the Child and Family Risk Status is 30.

2.87 7001.77

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

SD

260

2.2 Measures 2.2.1 Child and Family Risk Measure

The child and family risk measure included nine items denoting risks inherent to the child (e.g., whether the child was born prematurely, had significant injury or illness, was taking regular medication) and 10 items capturing relevant risks related to the family environment (e.g., single-parent home, disability in members of the family). The raw scores of these items were coded according to a rubric created by two early childhood experts. The rubrics assigned weighted scores representing the estimated levels of risk, with higher numbers indicating higher risk status. The weighted scores were then added to calculate the total scores of the risk measure (ranges 0-30).

2.2.2 Literacy Skills Literacy skills were assessed using the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening test (PALS) (Invernizzi et al., 2004) with additional items measuring alphabet knowledge, word identification, and spelling. The Cronbach’s alpha figures for the component measures in PALS were: r = .93 for Beginning Sound Awareness; r = .75 for Print and Word Awareness; r = .84 for Rhyme Awareness; and r = .77 for Nursery Rhyme Awareness.

The additional items were added to enhance the literacy development spectrum, insufficiently addressed by the PALS for this population. The alphabet knowledge subtest (ranges 0-26) assessed the extent to which children could say or sing the 26 letters of the alphabet. The word identification subtest (ranges 020) assessed the children’s knowledge of 20 high-frequency printed words. The spelling subtest (ranges 0-21) assessed the children’s ability to write letters representing the phonemes constituting five words (LAP, SICK, ELEPHANT, PRETTY, and TRAIN). One point was given for each phoneme the child was able to produce.

The reliability coefficients for the combined literacy measure were as follows: for 4-1s, r = .80 for the first and second assessments and r = .92 for the second and third assessments; for 4-2s, r = .83 for the first and second assessments and r = .94 for the second and third assessments.

2.2.3 Language Skills The language skills measure assessed each child’s ability to comprehend and produce spoken English. It included items assessing the ability to follow classroom routines and answer simple Yes/No questions about self and environment (e.g., “Is it raining outside?”, ranges 0-7), follow two- to three-step directions (e.g., “Pick up the pencil. Bounce the ball. Turn over the cup”; ranges 0-12), and answer “wh-questions” (e.g., “What do you wash your hands with?”, ranges 0-5). The measure also included items assessing the child’s knowledge of the appropriate use of objects (e.g., “You use a chair to____”; ranges 0-3), as well as items assessing the child’s ability to communicate with others (e.g., “Does the child start conversations with statements, question, seek attention?”; ranges 0-6).

The language skills measure also included items assessing the length of sentences in terms of words used in spontaneous language (ranges 0-20).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

261

Test-retest reliability coefficients for the 4-1s on the language measure were as follows: r = .77 for the first and second assessments and r =.85 for the second and third assessments; for the 4-2s, r = .74 for the first and second assessments and r = .80 for the second and third assessments.

2.2.4 Social Skills The social skills measure consisted of two components. The first component assessed the child’s concept of self and family by counting the number of nonrepetitive statements he or she was able to make: “Tell me something about you” and “Tell me something about your family” (ranges 0-12). The second component used a five-point scale to measure the frequency of occurrence of a variety of behaviors reflecting specific social-emotional skills. The scale ranged from 0 (“The behavior does not occur”) to 5 (“The behavior occurs most of the time”). The categories of behaviors assessed are as follows: independence in classroom activities (ranges 0-5); pride in one’s own accomplishments (ranges 05); self-control in classroom situations (e.g., “Is able to withhold an angry response and seek help?”; ranges 0-25); cooperation with peers (e.g., “Shows ability to use compromise and discussion in interactions with peers”; ranges 015); appreciation of social relationships (e.g., “Responds sympathetically to those who are hurt/upset”; ranges 0-15); knowledge of oneself and one’s community (e.g., “Growing awareness of different jobs and who does them and what is required”; ranges 0-15); tendency to initiate activities and discussions (e.g., “Shows eagerness to learn and discuss a growing range of topics, ideas, tasks”; ranges 0-15); tendency to persist in completing tasks (e.g., “Is able to develop goals and follow through on plans”; ranges 0-15); and problem-solving skills (e.g., “Is learning to classify, compare, contrast objects, events, and experiences”; ranges 0-15).

Test-retest reliability coefficients for this combined measure were as follows: for the 4-1s, r = .86 for the first and second assessments and r =.87 for the second and third assessment; for the 4-2s, r = .89 for the first and second assessments and r = .83 for the second and third assessments.

2.2.5 Educational Program The educational program denotes the type of Head Start classrooms. The Head Start classrooms that participated in a district-funded Universal PreKindergarten (UPK) program were coded as 1; the regular Head Start classrooms that did not participate in the UPK program were coded as 0. Upon entering the program for four-year-olds, children were randomly assigned to either a UPK classroom or a regular Head Start classroom. The teachers in the UPK classrooms received teacher professional development training and additional materials not available to the teachers in non-UPK classrooms on a yearly basis.

2.3 Procedures Eligibility for participation in the Head Start program was initially assessed based on family income and proof of the child’s age. In addition, a screening inventory developed by Head Start staff was completed by applicants for the program to help identify children and families with the greatest need. Thus, the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

262

three-year-olds identified with the greatest need were accepted into the Head Start program and participated in the program for two consecutive years (4-2s for the second year). Among the four-year-olds who were new to the program (4-1s), those with the greatest need were accepted into the program and placed in the same classrooms with the four-year-olds who had been enrolled in the program the previous year (4-2s).

All parents of enrolled children were interviewed at the beginning of each program year to establish their risk status. All children were assessed by the program consultant with assistance from the classroom teachers at the beginning (mid-October), middle (mid-February), and end (mid-May) of each program year.

2.4 Data Analysis Multilevel individual growth models (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002; Singer & Willett, 2003) were used to analyze the longitudinal data collected from individuals for the purpose of assessing change in outcome variables over time.

Estimation of such a model is implemented in two steps. The first step is to choose the Level-1 or within-person component of the model by comparing different growth structures when other time-varying and time-invariant covariates are not included (referred to as the “unconditional growth model”).

The second step adds theoretically and empirically grounded covariates at different levels, including time-varying covariates at Level 1 and time-invariant covariates at Level 2 (individual level) and Level 3 (classroom level) to determine whether the predictors are able to forecast both the level of performance (the “intercept”) and the rate of growth on the outcome variable (referred to as the “conditional growth model”).

3. Results Results from preliminary analyses (Table 3) showed that the 4-2s performed significantly better than the 4-1s on all three assessments implemented at the beginning (t = 9.92, p < .001), middle (t = 6.14, p < .001), and end of the year (t = 3.75, p < .001). Separate cohort analyses were conducted prior to aggregating the data presented here. No significant differences were identified.

Table 3: Descriptive statistics for the dependent variable (Literacy Skills) and the time-variant covariates (Language and Social Skills) in the growth models separated by experience groups Group 4-1(n=790) Mean SD

Group 4-2 (n=530) Mean SD

t-tests 4-2s vs 4-1s

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

43.35 76.92 99.35

Literacy Skills 26.77 60.07 35.97 89.74 39.89 107.76

32.03 37.97 39.87

9.92*** 6.14*** 3.75***

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

37.10 43.76 47.15

Language Skills 9.64 39.08 7.90 45.10 6.24 47.60

8.86 6.73 5.82

3.78*** 3.20** 1.34

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

263

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

84.21 100.35 114.12

23.29 21.06 19.08

Social Skills 88.83 103.24 115.13

25.04 21.37 18.76

3.38** 2.43* .95

Note. The maximum possible score on the measures of literacy, language, and social skills were 192, 53, and 137 respectively. Times 1, 2, and 3 correspond with the beginning, middle, and end of one program year in Head Start. *** p < .001.

3.1 Fitting the Unconditional Growth Models The unconditional growth models were specified and evaluated to provide baseline measures of literacy skills and literacy growth rates. Results from the unconditional growth models are presented in the first two columns in Tables 5 and 6. First, the mean on the measure of beginning literacy skills was 50.50 (p < .001) and children gained an average of 7.48 points per month (p < .001) on this measure (see Table 5). In addition, children were found to vary significantly in their ability to acquire literacy skills (χ2 = 14247.60; df = 1242, p < .001) and there were substantial differences among their growth rates in acquiring these skills (χ2 = 4440.96; df = 1242, p < .001). Similar results were obtained when time was centered at the end of the year (see Table 6). These results suggested that the effects of Level 2 predictors would be usefully evaluated. At the beginning of the program year, it was found that only 6.6% of the variance on literacy performance was between classrooms, leaving 93.4% of the variance within classrooms. However, during the program year, about one-third (31.7%) of the variance on literacy growth was found between classrooms. At the end of the program year, 15.4% of the variance on literacy performance was found between classrooms. These results confirmed the use of a three-level model and suggested that educational characteristics specific to classrooms such as classroom type and teacher characteristics at Level 3 may be explored by explaining the between-class variance on literacy growth.

3.2 Fitting the Conditional Growth Models Three conditional growth models were examined when time was centered at either the beginning or the end of the program year. The first conditional growth model included two time-varying control variables measuring the child’s language and social skills. This model provides baseline measurements. The second conditional growth model added additional control variables at Level 2 and Level 3 of the model, including a child’s gender and child and family risk measure at Level 2, and educational program type at Level 3. The third conditional growth model added the variable denoting prior program experience. This is the independent variable of special interest and was coded 1 for 4-2s and 0 for 4-1s. Cohort effects across years were tested. No significant differences were identified across years on either of the two intercepts or growth rates.

Results from preliminary analyses (Table 3) showed that the 4-2s scored significantly higher than the 4-1s on entry-level and mid-year language skills (t = 3.78, p < .001 and t = 3.20, p < .01 respectively) as well as entry-level and midyear social skills (t = 3.38, p < .01 and t = 2.43, p < .05 respectively). However, at

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

264

the end of the program year, the two groups had comparable scores on both measures (t = 1.34, p > .05 for language skills; t = .95, p > .05 for social skills). As shown in Table 4, there were slightly more girls than boys in both groups (52.2% in the 4-1 group and 52.1% in the 4-2 group) and relatively more children in classrooms with UPK affiliation (62% in the 4-1 group and 53.6% in the 4-2 group). The 4-2s had significantly higher levels of child and family risk than the 4-1s (t = 2.41, p < .05).

Table 4: Descriptive statistics for the time-invariant child, family, and educational variables included in the conditional growth models

Gender Program

Female Male UPK RHS

Child and Family Risk

Group 4-1 (n=790) N % 412 52.2 378 47.8 490 62.0 300 48.0 Mean 6.68

SD 2.92

Group 4-2 (n=530) N % 276 52.1 254 47.9 284 53.6 246 46.4 Mean 7.07

SD 2.87

Note. UPK = Head Start with Universal Pre-K affiliation; RHS = Regular Head Start

Results from the third (full) conditional models are presented in the last two columns in Tables 5 and 6. Compared with the baseline model, the variables in the conditional model accounted for an additional 10.6% of the variance on the measure evaluating entry-level literacy skills, 5.7% of the variance on the measure evaluating end-of-year literacy skills, and 3.3% of the variance in literacy growth rates.

Compared with the 4-1s, the 4-2s averaged 16.36 points higher (p < .001) on the measure evaluating entry-level literacy skills and 10.53 (p < .001) points higher on the measure evaluating end-of-year literacy skills. In addition, all Level 2 variables explained significant variance on the measure evaluating both beginning- and end-of-year literacy skills, as well as the measure evaluating literacy growth rates. Moreover, the Level 3 variable educational program (UPK vs. regular Head Start) explained the significant variance in individual literacy growth rates and end-of-year literacy skills. Compared with children in regular Head Start programs, those who participated in UPK Head Start programs scored 1.85 points (p < .001) higher on growth rates over the program year and finished 16.68 points (p < .001) higher on end-of-year literacy skills. However, contrary to expectations, the 4-2s had an average literacy growth rate that was 0.83 points per month lower (p < .05) than the score of the 4-1s.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

265

Table 5: Growth parameters for literacy skills examining the effects of prior program experience on beginning-of-year scores and growth rates (time centered at the first assessment) Unconditional Model SE Coefficient Fixed Effects Initial Status Mean Status† Program (UPK=1) Gender (Female=1) Child and Family Risk Group 4-2 vs. 4-1 Time Slope Mean Time Slope Program (UPK=1) Gender (Female=1) Child and Family Risk Group 4-2 vs. 4-1 Language Slope Social Slope

Full Conditional Model Coefficient SE

50.50***

1.19

44.95*** 3.73 6.89*** -4.14*** 16.36***

1.79 2.11 1.35 0.71 1.62

7.48***

0.25

4.68*** 1.85*** 0.49* -0.23* -0.83*** 0.62*** 0.25*** Variance

0.34 0.39 0.21 0.11 0.21 0.13 0.04 χ2 (df)

Variance χ2 (df) Random Effects Level 1 and Level 2 Individual Mean 808.09 14247.60***(1242) 684.06 13001.53***(1239) *** Time Slope 9.17 4440.96 (1242) 8.51 4412.07***(1239) Level 1 Effect 87.82 82.30 Level 3 Class Mean 56.98 162.87***(77) 44.38 155.20***(76) *** Class Time Slope 4.25 519.13 (77) 2.27 333.37***(76) Deviance (df) 35344.46 (9) 34916.92 (19) Note. Program = Universal Pre-Kindergarten (1) vs. Regular Head Start (0) * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

Table 6: Growth parameters for literacy skills examining the effects of prior program experience on end-of-year scores and growth rates (time centered at the third assessment)

Fixed Effects Initial Status Mean Status Program (UPK=1) Gender (Female=1) Child and Family Risk Group 4-2 vs. 4-1 Time Slope Mean Time Slope Program (UPK=1) Gender (Female=1) Child and Family Risk Group 4-2 vs. 4-1 Language Slope

Unconditional Model Coefficient SE

Full Conditional Model Coefficient SE

102.84***

2.08

77.68*** 16.68*** 10.33*** -5.72*** 10.53***

3.14 3.56 2.08 1.07 2.15

7.48***

0.25

4.68*** 1.85*** 0.49* -0.23* -0.83*** 0.62***

0.34 0.39 0.21 0.11 0.21 0.13

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

266

Unconditional Model Coefficient SE Social Slope Variance

χ2 (df)

Random Effects Level 1 and Level 2 Individual Mean 1382.88 26186.44***(1242) Time Slope 9.17 4440.96***(1242) Level 1 Effect 87.82 Level 3 Class Mean 251.07 306.76***(77) Class Time Slope 4.25 519.13***(77) Deviance (df) 35344.46 (9) Note. Program = Universal Pre-K (1) vs. Regular Head Start (0) * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

Full Conditional Model Coefficient SE 0.25*** 0.04 Variance χ2 (df)

1336.50 8.51 82.30

26981.96***(1239) 4412.07***(1239)

161.42 2.27 34916.92 (19)

230.52***(76) 333.37***(76)

4. Discussion The present study investigated the utility of providing comprehensive and explicit literacy instruction for children starting at age three. The effect of program experience on literacy development at age three was evaluated by comparing the literacy performance of two groups of four-year-old Head Start children with and without prior Head Start experience at age three. The beginning and end-of-year performance levels and the growth trajectory of each child during the program year were assessed to obtain these results. Three-level growth models were used, and a set of relevant covariates were controlled, including individual child characteristics, family background, and educational characteristics.

4.1 Summary of Findings Consistent with existing literature indicating additional benefits on academic skills associated with longer exposure to Head Start preschool programs (Zaslow et al., 2010; Zhang & Dobbs-Oates, 2019), the results showed that prior program experience helped promote children’s literacy skills. Specifically, after controlling for relevant covariates, the 4-2s were found to perform significantly better than the 4-1s on the literacy measure at the beginning and end of the program year. In contrast to the expectation that the 4-2s would have similar or higher rates of literacy growth compared with the 4-1s, the 4-1s were found to have higher growth rates than the 4-2s. This finding may be because the two groups were taught by the same teachers in the same classrooms and that the 41s had much more room to grow and possibly received more instructional attention due to lower levels of performance throughout the program year, when compared with the 4-2s.

Among the covariates examined in the study, the child and family risk variable was found to be negatively related to the beginning- and end-of-year literacy performance and literacy growth. These findings indicate that literacy growth in higher-risk children was significantly slower than literacy growth in lower-risk children during their participation. This is consistent with previous research findings that children who experience more risk would likely experience

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

267

increased challenges in early literacy acquisitions (Gerstein et al., 2021; Hooper et al., 2020). Therefore, the variable denoting risk status would serve as a useful control variable in analyses of literacy performance.

Regarding the other variables used to predict literacy performance, it is interesting to note that the measures of language and social skills were found to serve as significant predictors of literacy growth rates over the program year.

Home background and environmental stimulation are factors contributing to the acquisition of language, social, and early literacy skills (Gerstein et al., 2021; Lonigan et al, 2000; Storch et al., 2001; Whitehurst et al, 1994), and it is possible that variability in these factors contributed to the degree of variability and intercorrelation among the language, social, and literacy skills measures that facilitated the prediction of literacy skills.

It is of particular importance to note that the educational program (UPK vs. regular Head Start) explained significant variances in individual literacy growth rates and end-of-year literacy performance. Compared with children in regular Head Start programs, those who participated in UPK programs showed higher growth rates and end-of-year literacy performance. This may be because teachers in the UPK program had higher qualifications and received more technical support in terms of educational materials and teacher training opportunities than teachers in regular Head Start classrooms. This finding is consistent with recent literature highlighting the need for professional development of in-service teachers in Head Start programs (Castle et al., 2016; Landry et al., 2017).

4.2 Theoretical and Practical Implications Results from the present study have both theoretical and practical implications for researchers, educators, and policy makers. First, the findings support the view that early exposure to comprehensive and explicit literacy instruction is pivotal for children from disadvantaged backgrounds (Gerstein et al., 2021; Landry et al., 2017; Whitehurst, 2001). In addition, the finding that the immediate benefits generated by early exposure to the Head Start program are sustained a year later is consistent with findings from previous studies (Domitrovich, 2013; Leow et al., 2015) and can be taken as support for the implementation of Head Start programs for three-year-old children.

Second, the findings support the recruitment of teachers with higher educational degrees and credentials as well as the provision of in-service professional development for teachers in Head Start programs (NAEYC, 2009). It is widely accepted that the competencies of children are dependent on the quality of their experiences in educational settings, which is in turn dependent on the competencies and characteristics of their teachers (Castle et al., 2016; Landry et al., 2017; Pianta et al., 2008). The UPK versus regular Head Start program affiliation variable was found to be positively associated with literacy growth rates and the end-of-year literacy performance. These findings are quite likely because those who participated in the school district-funded UPK programs were taught by more teachers with graduate degrees, the New York State

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

268

certification, and who had received yearly professional development support, compared with the classrooms that did not participate in the UPK program.

Thus, this pattern of results may be taken as evidence in support of in-service professional development training for Head Start teachers.

4.3 Limitations and Future Research Despite the strengths outlined in the preceding sections, the present study has several limitations. First, the study was not designed as an experimental study because it was not possible to assign children randomly to treatment groups for purposes of comparison. Therefore, observed differences between Head Start experience groups can only be generalized to populations of children such as those assessed in the present study. Similarly, there was no data available on measures of relevant control variables for 4-1s at three years of age. The control variables used in the study were measured at the beginning of the 4-1s’ first and only year in the Head Start program and at the beginning of the 4-2s’ second year in the program. Because the scores for the 4-2s were influenced by prior participation in the program, and thus were relatively higher compared with those for the 4-1s, group differences in literacy development, as a function of prior program experience, might have been larger if performance on the control variables had been assessed when the 4-1s and 4-2s were both three years old.

Second, it was necessary to compromise on the control for educational characteristics. More specifically, the UPK versus regular Head Start program affiliation indicator was a useful estimate; however, it did not sufficiently capture variability in teacher effectiveness. Thus, it would be useful to conduct individual teacher interviews in the future to obtain more information about Head Start teachers’ beliefs and willingness to teach early literacy skills explicitly in their classrooms (Powell et al., 2008). Classroom observations could also be conducted using a comprehensive instrument to evaluate classroom climate (e.g., the Classroom Assessment Scoring System, or CLASS- Pre-K) (Pianta et al., 2008) regarding how and to what extent teachers’ beliefs transfer to teaching practices. Such data could be cross-validated with children’s experience in Head Start programs (e.g., second year vs. first year) to evaluate the differential effects of these variables on measures of literacy development.

Finally, all the child, family and educational variables combined accounted for a relatively small portion of the variance in literacy performance and growth rates.

One possible source of this relatively low-level of explained variance is the reduced variability on the risk measures, possibly due to an established health system in this Head Start program. The majority of children who participated in the program had access to regular medical care and their families received quality community services. Thus, it may be reasonable to suggest that in a Head Start program with a less established health system, these risk variables might explain more of the variance among individual children’s literacy growth rates. In addition, other variables not yet identified may also influence the rate of growth at which children acquire early literacy skills. For example, home and background factors, two potentially important contributors to such growth,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

269

were not included in the model and quality of instruction (Gerstein, 2021; Zaslow et al., 2010).

5. Conclusions In summary, the present study assessed the utility of providing comprehensive and explicit literacy instruction to children starting at age three. Consistent with previous research findings (Domitrovich et al., 2013; Leow et al., 2015), the results support the likelihood of additional benefits associated with early exposure to the program. It was found that four-year-olds who had received an additional year of the program at age three exhibited significantly higher literacy skills than their four-year-old age mates who entered the Head Start program at age four. The results also support the view that it is appropriate (NAEYC, 2009) and even necessary to provide explicit and comprehensive literacy instruction to both three- and four-year-old children in Head Start programs. In addition, the study extends previous research on curriculum modifications and teacher professional development in Head Start programs (Landry et al., 2017; Powell et al., 2010; Wasik & Hindman, 2011; Zimmerman et al., 2008) by providing a tested model for the gradual integration of a research-based supplementary curriculum through continued support for teacher professional development that features the explicit and comprehensive teaching of emergent literacy skills to disadvantaged preschool children.

6. References Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., Greenberg, M. T., & Gill, S. (2008). Promoting academic and social-emotional school readiness: The Head Start REDI program.

Child Development, 79, 1802-1817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01227.x Castle, S., Williamson, A. C., Young, E., Stubblefield, J., Laurin, D., & Pearce, N. (2016).

Teacher–child interactions in Early Head Start classrooms: Associations with teacher characteristics. Early Education and Development, 27, 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2016.1102017 Domitrovich, C. E., Morgan, N. R., Moore, J. E., Cooper, B. R., Shah, H. K., Jacobson, L., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). One versus two years: Does length of exposure to an enhanced preschool program impact the academic functioning of disadvantaged children in kindergarten? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 704–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.04.004 Elkind, D. (2001). Much too early. Education Next, 12, 8-14.

Gerstein, E. D., Cherry, K. E., & Diemer, M. C. (2021). Identifying developmental profiles for children in Early Head Start: Associations with early risk and protective factors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 57, 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.06.007 Hawken, L. S., Johnston, S. S., & McDonnell, A. P. (2005). Emerging literacy views and practices: Results from a national survey of Head Start preschool teachers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 25, 232-242. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214050250040401 Hooper, S. R., Costa, L.-J. C., Green, M. B., Catlett, S. R., Barker, A., Fernandez, E., & Faldowski, R. A. (2020). The relationship of teacher ratings of executive functions to emergent literacy in Head Start. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 33, 963–989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-099921

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

270

Invernizzi, M., Sullivan, A., Meier, J. D., & Swank, L. (2004). PALS: Phonological awareness literacy screening. University Printing Services.

Landry, S. H., Zucker, T. A., Williams, J. M., Merz, E. C., Guttentag, C. L., & Taylor, H. B. (2017). Improving school readiness of high-risk preschoolers: Combining high quality instructional strategies with responsive training for teachers and parents. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 40, 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.12.001 Leow, C., Wen, X., & Korfmacher, J. (2015). Two-year versus one-year Head Start program impact: Addressing selection bias by comparing regression modeling with propensity score analysis. Applied Developmental Science, 19, 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2014.977995 Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Anthony, J. L. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study.

Developmental Psychology, 36, 596-613. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.596 Modern Curriculum Press. (1997). Ready readers stage 0. Modern Curriculum Press.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2009).

Developmentally appropriate practice for early childhood program serving children from birth to age 8. NAEYC. Pianta, R. C., La Paro, K., & Hamre, B. K. (2008). Classroom assessment scoring system. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Pietrangelo, D. J. (1999). Outcomes of an enhanced literacy curriculum on the emergent literacy skills of Head Start preschoolers (Doctoral dissertation). University at Albany – SUNY. Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Bojczyk, K. E., & Gerde, H. K. (2008). Head Start teachers' perspectives on early literacy. Journal of Literacy Research, 40, 422-460. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862960802637612 Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 299-312. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017763 Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Sage.

Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford University Press.

Storch, S. A., Whitehurst, G. J., Britto, P. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). The role of family and home in the literacy development of children from low-income backgrounds. In P. R. Britto & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), The role of family literacy environments in promoting young children's emerging literacy skills (pp. 53-71).

Jossey-Bass.

United States Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Childen and Families (US DHHS, ACF). (2016). Head Start program performance standards.

US DHHS, ACF.https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/hsppsappendix.pdf Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Lyon, G. R. (2000). Differentiating between difficult-toremediate and readily remediated poor readers: More evidence against the IQachievement discrepancy definition of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 223-238. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940003300302 Wasik, B. A., & Hindman, A. H. (2011). Improving vocabulary and pre-literacy skills of at-risk preschoolers through teacher professional development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 455-469. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023067

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

271

Whitehurst, G. J. (2001). Much too late. Education Next, 12, 15-21.

Whitehurst, G. J., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Payne, A. C., Crone, D. A., & Fischel, J. E. (1994). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention in Head Start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542-555. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.261 Zaslow, M., Anderson, R., Redd, Z., Wessel, J., Tarullo, L., & Burchinal, M. (2010).

Quality dosage, thresholds, and features in early childhood settings: A review of the literature, OPRE 2011-5. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, US DHHS, ACF. Zhang, C., & Dobbs-Oates, J. (2019). The relations between American children’s Head Start experience and pre-academic skills: A comparison with children from a community group. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 33, 623-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2019.1649769 Zimmerman, S. S., Rodriguez, M. C., Rewey, K. L., & Heidemann, S. L. (2008). The impact of an early literacy initiative on the long-term academic success of diverse students. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 13, 452-481.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

272

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 272-287, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.15 Received Aug 12, 2021; Revised Nov 12, 2021; Accepted Nov 24, 2021

Fusing the Jigsaw Method and Microsoft Teams: A Promising Online Pedagogy Malissa Maria Mahmud Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6702-155X Shiau Foong Wong Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3252-8163

Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic has triggered a universal disruption over the past year, and has caused unforeseen and formidable changes, but simultaneously has also enthused a digital transformation for educational institutions of all levels. With the upsurge in the usage of digital technologies, some potential caveats should be addressed, in particular, the speculative effective methods, course design and structure.

A prodigious deal of reappraising and reimagining the philosophy of what is deemed to be the most familiar is imperative, not only to promote student-centred learning, but also encourage online engagement.

Considering the suspension of all face-to-face classes due to the rapid spread of the global pandemic, the purpose of this study was to assess the usability and adoption of the jigsaw method on the web-based platform, Microsoft (MS) Teams for both synchronous and asynchronous teaching and learning. A pre-experimental research design was utilised with one post-test dataset obtained from the post-experiment learning analytics.

Subsequently, the usability and adoption of the jigsaw method in MS Teams were evaluated based on the reciprocity of students’ responses towards the design. It is postulated that MS Teams stand out as a promising technological tool to facilitate the integration of the jigsaw method into an online learning environment. It advocates better students engagement and collaboration, and thus leads to the positive impact on students’ performance and enhanced comprehension of course content, specifically the availability of customized MS Teams features; channel and synchronous chat, which are recommended to support an engaged learning ecology.

Keywords: online pedagogy; educational technology; jigsaw method; MS Teams; engagement

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

273

1. Introduction Technology is ubiquitous and transformations are inevitable. Various sectors and institutions have witnessed a myriad of revolutions due to technology.

Educational institutions, for instance, have experienced and adapted to the changing pedagogical modalities which modes of delivery are designed to facilitate the current needs. The buzzwords such as ‘online learning’ or ‘blended learning’ are not new. The ideology of integrating technological tools in the teaching and learning setting started way back in the 1980s, and with the arrival of Internet, emerging technological apparatuses became more feasible, and are employed and leveraged to facilitate both asynchronous as well as synchronous approaches. In their study, Dziuban and colleagues (2016) expounded four stages of how online education evolved over the years, primarily in America: the first stage, which occurred in the 1990s, was when the Internet incited distance education. Stage 2, from year 2000 to 2007, saw the increased use of Learning Management Systems (LMS). Next, stage 3 ensued from 2008 to 2012 in which the education sector experienced and witnessed the development of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), and stage 4 ascertained that the advancement of technology has surpassed beyond the traditional pedagogic methods. These four stages offer a lens through which the tremendous and incremental changes in educational technology can be studied. The digitally-rich environment has proffered depth and breadth of opportunity for educational change (Mahmud et al., 2020). While the effectiveness of technology incorporation has been the key issue, new technologies often times necessitate reconceptualization of teaching and learning, for instance, the development of a digital environment that could successfully engage students online. Students’ engagement is synonymous with face-to-face approaches, and are known to be more effective as opposed to online modalities. Czerkawski and Lyman (2016, p. 538) suggested that “research on student engagement is yielding increasingly complex questions and issues, the need for research exploring engagement in the context of online learning is greater than ever”.

Conventional student-centred approaches such as the jigsaw method is one of the go-to activities for many teachers. This is practically when the role of the teacher is eliminated from the equation, while students are highly engaged and take ownership of both their classmates’ learning as well as their own. Despite being one of the common methods, not all teachers are familiar with the implementation or application of jigsaw online. The jigsaw method is a pedagogical approach that has the potential to be the catalyst of interest, and can spark interaction through discussion and/or collaboration. But the question lies in the daunting task to align technology tools with the various pedagogies and design an online environment which can foster and support a sense of engagement in order to translate from the physical or face to face (F2F) to the virtual classroom, even for the most experienced teachers. With the COVID-19 disruption to the traditional face-toface approach, there is a sense of urgency not only to appraise the usability and adoption of the jigsaw method in MS Teams, but also to propose a unified design, combining the familiar aspects of the jigsaw method and tools, function and features on the MS Teams.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

274

2. Literature Review 2.1. Jigsaw Classroom The jigsaw classroom is a common research-based cooperative learning technique invented and developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the University of Texas and California (Aronson, 1978). The main aim of developing the jigsaw method in teaching and learning was to improve intergroup relations and peer-to-peer learning (Aronson, 2002). It was also aimed at cultivating race relations among group members through learning (Williams, 2004), convalescing skills in group work (Lazzari, 2014), and learning in diverse groups (Crone & Portillo, 2013).

It is grounded on students' autonomy, competence, and social relatedness (Hänze & Berger, 2007). It was developed in response to Texas's racial segregation that affected the classroom environment (Aronson, 1978). It aimed at building empathy and compassion in racially diverse peer-learning groups (Aronson, 2002). The jigsaw classroom method was designed to engage the students individually in a group and improve their personal, learning, and thinking skills (Hastie & Casey, 2010). Nusrath et al. (2019) described the jigsaw classroom approach to learning as an alternative to the conventional classroom learning approach. It includes learning through teaching and sharing in the classroom (Norintan, 2008). Rahmat (2017) views jigsaw classrooms as a fun and interactive approach to classroom activity.

The jigsaw classroom approach to learning has been successfully applied in classrooms globally.

The jigsaw classroom can be viewed from the perspectives of the theories on social loafing, social compensation, trait activation, and social-cultural and learnercentred approaches to learning (Wang, 2007) to understand its stress on the importance of interaction between learners in promoting language development.

The jigsaw classroom was designed to improve classroom cohesion and accountability; however, it has been faulted for lacking an applicable structure that could improve college students' collaborative learning and promote accountability (Bratt, 2008). Effendi-Hasibuan et al. (2020) highlighted the lack of an education system that supported jigsaw classrooms. Amador and Mederer (2013) blamed the lack of individualized support in the online learning settings on learning institutions' failure to implement jigsaw classrooms in e-learning. The jigsaw classroom approach to cooperative learning effectively combines content and language teaching (Rahmat, 2017), while providing an opportunity for purposeful communication (Casey & Fernandez-Rio, 2019). Walker and Crogan (1998) noted that applying a jigsaw classroom in learning impacts academic performance, self-esteem, school liking, peers' liking, and racial prejudice.

According to Ab Murat (2008), the jigsaw classroom enhanced students' ability to understand subject topics and recall class content. Crone and Portillo (2013) proved that the jigsaw classroom helped to improve students' confidence and oral communication abilities, and Sopyan et al. (2019) pointed out the significant impact of the jigsaw classroom on students' reading skills.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

275

Figure 1: Active Learning Strategies Alongside Learning Technologies

Figure 1 illustrates the findings of active learning strategies alongside valuable learning technologies. At this juncture, the range of selected active learning is aligned and arranged based on the level of difficulty and time required, and was put together by Chris O'Neal and Tershia Pinder Grover of the Centre for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan (Hasnine et al., 2020).

Here, it can be observed that the jigsaw method is included as an active learning strategy, specifically beneficial in augmenting higher order thinking skills. In a similar vein, creative skills were found to be improved, correlating with the students’ performance (Rahimi & Yadollahi, 2017). The current learning environment is filled with different technologies. In this era of information overload, teachers play a role in shaping students' systematic learning approach (Nusrath et al., 2019). Although the jigsaw is common for face-to-face delivery, modern jigsaw classrooms use different technologies and digital platforms to support learning. Online jigsaw classrooms aim to improve the efficiency of collaborative learning. Balestrini et al. (2014) believe that technology-supported jigsaw classrooms are better than paper-based jigsaw classrooms as significantly less time is spent on activity organization, idea sharing, and class content awareness. The efficiency of online jigsaw classrooms can be credited to the efficiency in learning aided by technologies. Technology-supported study groups improved learners’ test scores and the overall learning experiences.

The jigsaw method is common for face-to-face delivery. It can be used in two basic ways: as (1) a discussion/peer-learning experience as an end in itself, and/or (2) a work team that produces a tangible group product or project. In both cases, the jigsaw group arrangement allows students to help each other understand information about corresponding topics by apportioning a different topic, theory, or reading, and sharing their expertise with others in the group. Jigsaw activities which are recommended by Amador and Mederer (2013) are those in which students are organized into several groups to link various topics together. Each student is asked to complete an individual assignment related to the assigned topic. The first step of the jigsaw group exercise involves students analysing their

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

276

assigned topic in two different ways. In the first step, they strengthen their expertise by participating in an "expert group" where they discuss their assigned topic. Jigsaw activities can be differentiated by giving some of the expert groups easier tasks to do or shorter texts to read. The second step in the jigsaw puzzle is when groups are composed of individuals who have identified themselves as experts on a different topic. They then deliberate similarities and differences during the discussion session. If the experience is organized in a group, instructions are given on how to organize the group process. An outline for the project is provided along with a grading rubric. Although the group assignment can be graded or ungraded, it can be used to evaluate understanding and reward group members. This method is most likely to improve learning when used as a reward. Often times, the first step of the jigsaw process can be omitted, however, it is still very beneficial for students to practise contributing effectively to discussions. This step helps build confidence in their ability to participate. One of the most common issues that arise with the face to face (F2F) classroom is the absence of a student. This issue can be solved by having a brief write-up of the topics for the groups and the missing members.

To migrate the energy that encapsulates the F2F class to the online modalities, a sense of community needs to be emphasized, and that students can discuss topics related to their lives in a socially informed way. In addition, the anatomy of F2F course is emulated online through the governance of the facets suggested by the K. Patricia Cross Academy (2020), such as, small class size, student skills level, and the capacity of the learning management system (LMS). Next, the tools to be employed in the activity are to be identified, such as text documents, videos, webpages, a web-based discussion forum and a video conference, equipped with break-out rooms where students can work collaboratively in smaller groups.

2.2. MS Teams MS Teams is part of the Office 365 ecosystem, and predominantly, MS Teams support collaboration and teamwork. It is increasingly employed by numerous organisations and thus has an increasing influence on how collaborative tasks, in particular, are conducted and organised. Its particular features are that it is userfriendly, for example, it uses the ’general’ and customized channels, which each contains well-known tabs such as ’post, file, class notebook, assignment and grade’. The consolidation of file storage on SharePoint, where all files can be shared via posts or chats, takes place automatically, thus saving the files of each channel. Another positive feature is that online video calls and screen sharing for synchronous meetings and discussions can be done with the ’share screen’ feature to better support teaching activities which can be recorded for post-class reference. The integrated “chat’ feature reinforces a sense of collegiality. As such, collaborative communication among team members and teacher can be easily executed.

Numerous web-based platforms offer break-out rooms as one of the features for students and educators to use. Break-out rooms offer opportunities for active online learning in which functions can be designed to encompass jigsaw activities scaffolded by the break-out room feature. This encourages metacognition and reflection and, most importantly, students are more engaged in the lesson (Riggs

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

277

& Linder, 2016). For example, GoogleMeet, MS Teams, Zoom, Webex and Discord can be used to create jigsaw break-out rooms to conduct online classes with a synchronous delivery mode, while for an asynchronous delivery mode, jigsaw break-out rooms can be created through MS Teams, NowComment and MyBB web-based platforms. The MS Teams break-out rooms can be used in two basic ways. First, it is used as a discussion or peer-learning experience as an end in itself.

Second, it can be used to produce a tangible group product or project of a work team. By leveraging on the jigsaw method, MS Teams provides a platform for students to help each other in understanding the content about one particular topic by distributing the learning work. Every student in a small group is responsible for mastering a different topic and sharing his/her expertise with others in the group.

3. Methodology Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, courses or subjects at the university were mainly taught using the F2F approach. Contact hours primarily were spent on F2F lectures, tutorials, small-group and whole-class discussions. With remote teaching and learning, three strategies such as synchronous, asynchronous and blended learning seem to be the most feasible to facilitate and support online education.

For this study, synchronous and asynchronous feedback and interaction were carefully collated and examined, wherein this approach also serves as a preexperimental or feasibility approach before any experimental research was conducted. This design was used to evaluate the usability and adoption of the jigsaw method in MS Teams, measured by the level of engagement. Stanley (1966) identified the experimental design, which affords an extent of experimental control and, in turn, a higher degree of validity.

3.1. Participants The participants were students and academic staff involved in the following courses:

Figure 2: Courses created on MS Teams

The jigsaw activities were employed in the MS Teams break-out rooms and conducted synchronously (real-time), involving two English for Specific Purposes programmes in March and August, 2020 and April, 2021 semesters (see Fig. 2).

These courses comprise a four-credit course required for students in the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

278

undergraduate programmes, for example Accounting, Business, Finance, Marketing, Actuarial, Statistics, Biology, Medicine, Psychology, Computing, Communication and Creative Arts to complete during their first and second year of studies at the university. The duration of the course is 14 weeks, and it usually is offered twice in an academic year. The teachers are full-time academic staff and are the owners of the team created. The team is created by selecting “Join or Create Team” (refer to Fig. 2). Students can join the team or be added as members using a link or a generated “Team Code” provided by the teachers or administrators. As owners of the team, teachers can assign work, such as tutorials, tasks and practices, share class content, upload files, start meetings, and control who may post in the team. Each class team is also connected to its own OneNote Class Notebook. The name and description of the team can be modified to reflect the courses/ class/ level.

3.2. Jigsaw Method Procedure

Figure 3: Flow of the adoption of the jigsaw break-out rooms

The jigsaw procedure involved eight easy steps as shown in Figure 3. First, students are divided into jigsaw groups that are diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race and ability, which indirectly will build the students’ confidence and communication skills. Secondly, one student from each group is appointed as the leader, which initially, should be a mature student. The group leader can be trained to ensure an appropriate intervention and to assist if a member encounters problems. In the third step, the lesson of the day is divided into segments or topics, which must be equal to the number of groups. Then, each student is assigned one segment of the lesson to learn. It is important to ensure students have direct access only to their own segment, and it is distributed via digital platform, or LMS. In step 5, students are given time to read over their segment at least twice to become familiar with the content of the segment. After that, “expert” groups are formed by having one student from each jigsaw group joining other students to whom the same segment or topic was assigned . Time is given for these students in their respective “expert” groups to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations that they will make to their jigsaw group. This is to strengthen each other’s understanding in preparation for the jigsaw group later. In step 7, the students are brought back to their initial jigsaw groups, and presentations on their segment is done. Other

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

279

students in the group are advised and encouraged to take notes and ask questions for further clarification and better understanding. Lastly, a short quiz on the material is given at the end of the session to assess the understanding of the students. It is essential that these sessions are not just games and for fun, but scores should be really counted individually so that each score can be averaged to obtain the group’s score.

3.3. Instruments

Figure 4: Synchronous and Asynchronous Jigsaw break-out rooms adopted in MS Teams

Figure 4 shows the layout of synchronous and asynchronous jigsaw break-out rooms adopted in MS Teams for one of the classes, BINDS, in the August, 2020 semester. For synchronous mode, both verbal and written communications were conducted via the live session during class time, while for the asynchronous mode, all communication was done via a post created in the respective channels.

All the students were included in the “General” channel as the team members.

Announcement and details of activities can be made known via the “General” channel to convey messages to all the team members. Likewise, it also functions as a public discussion forum where students and teacher can communicate with each other, either synchronously or asynchronously.

The smaller channels which represent different jigsaw groups and “expert” groups were added to the class, where students “break out” into their respective groups in preparation for the implementation of the jigsaw break-out rooms, including Group 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the figure above. Students of each jigsaw group were assigned to one particular group representing the jigsaw break-out room. In “expert” groups, only students with the same segment or topic met for a discussion to enhance their understanding of the segment of which they were “in charge”, and execute the task assigned. Students were brought back to their own jigsaw break-out room to present their individual segment and learn the lesson from each other after they had a discussion in “expert” groups. Private discussion forums can be conducted synchronously or asynchronously in each smaller channel, by posting messages on the channels or through live discussions. For live and real-time communication, the “Meet” feature can be used, and both students and teacher meet virtually so that more focused and independent deliberations can take place. At this juncture, the teacher plays the supporting role to give

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

280

instructions, facilitate learning and group discussions, provide feedback and intervene as necessary in assisting the students to execute the tasks. To execute the jigsaw method in the class, prior planning is important for the lesson which comprises structured and clear instructions that are given to all the students via the “General” channel. For the first class in week 11, on 21 June 2021, which was the experimental session, the details of assigned tasks with the suggested time to spend on each task were provided to students to allow them to start the work in their respective jigsaw break-out rooms: Groups 1, 2, 3 or 4. Instructions on how and when to submit were also provided to the students. The non-experimental session was conducted in the same week, on 23 June 2021, and similar to the experimental session, instructions were provided to all the students through the “General” channel on which a live class was conducted, using the “Meet” feature.

This Time, the jigsaw method was not adopted for the session; instead, the session only consisted of synchronous discussions.

3.4. Analyses The analyses used for this study were divided into two means. The first method of analysis was to probe the usability and adoption of MS Teams, and, in particular, the employment of the jigsaw method in an online modality. At this juncture, both of the synchronous and asynchronous collaborative interaction and feedback on MS Teams were carefully examined to qualify the measurement. The importance of collating the end-user feedback is highlighted in a study conducted

by Preece and colleagues (2007), in which methodical data collection was applied to inform the usage of a tool. Similarly, Chilana et al. (2011) asserted that evaluation as an iterative process was used to understand the users’ perceptions of and behaviours towards a system. The second mean of analysis comprised a post-test dataset attained from the MS Teams learning analytics in which information on the students’ engagement was yielded. Learning analytics has become a common tool to offer informed recommendations and future directions, specifically for learning experiences (Albó et al., 2019; Tsai & Brusilovsky, 2019).

In this context, the dataset directly complemented the students’ feedback to add another layer of understanding to the implementation of MS Teams and the jigsaw method.

4. Findings For this study, a pre-experimental research design was employed to evaluate the usability and adoption of MS Teams, measured against the synchronous and asynchronous collaborative interaction and feedback. To fortify the relevance, the analytics of one post-test dataset, attained from the experimental MS Teams’ learning session, conducted on 21 June, 2021 was also used to compare the level of engagement for the non-experimental session of 23 June, 2021.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

281

Figure 5: Example of Interaction of Synchronous Jigsaw Break-out Room for Tutorial Completion

Figure 5 shows the example of the synchronous and collaborative interaction for one of the jigsaw break-out rooms, Group 4, to complete the assigned Tutorial 4.

It is seen that one of the students shared the details of Tutorial 4 through Group 4, which was the smaller channel representing the jigsaw break-out room. It can be observed that all the students in the group participated in commencing the assigned task at 4.25pm in their jigsaw break-out room. Evidence of collaborative dynamics is clear from the exchange of posts (interactions); for instance, the students worked together and shared options of the correct answers that they obtained for Tutorial 4.

Figure 6: Virtual Meeting Through “Meet” Feature in Synchronous Jigsaw Break-out Room

Figure 6 displays the “Meet” feature via webcam utilized by the students in the jigsaw break-out room. The students in Group 4 decided to complete Tutorial 4 synchronously through a virtual meeting. They took about one hour to discuss and complete the task in Tutorial 4. It can be observed that one of the students asked to double check the answers for question 3 before submitting. The call of the virtual meeting in this jigsaw break-out room ended at around 5.34pm.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

282

Figure 7: Synchronous and Asynchronous Feedback for Tutorial

Figure 7 shows the synchronous and asynchronous feedback provided by the teacher to the students. Each submitted tutorial by each jigsaw group was checked and marked by the teacher. Then, the marked tutorial or feedback was returned to the students through their respective jigsaw channels before the live session/class. Students could review the marked tutorial and further clarifications and discussions were done during the live class. This enhanced the understanding and fostered better interaction and engagement.

Figure 8: Students’ Engagement Analysis

Figure 8 illustrates the level of engagement for the lessons conducted on 21 June as opposed to those of 23 June 2021. The learning analytics tool database was automatically updated with information from the channels. At this juncture, the frequency of logs, chats, posts, replies, mentions and reactions are used to measure the variable of engagement. It is observed that the lesson on 21 June , in which the jigsaw method was employed, yielded significantly higher engagement. Extracted data from the LMS database via the learning analytics tool would be able to offer integral information, in particular, when designing online lessons.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

283

5. Discussion It is evident from this study that the jigsaw method in MS Teams promotes student- centred learning, allowing students to learn and perform better through stronger students engagement and collaboration. The finding is consistent with Karacop’s (2017) view that cooperative learning can lead to better engagement.

Baken et al. (2020) echoed a similar sentiment, namely that the utility of the jigsaw method encourages discoveries without direct facilitation and direction. Thus, students are exposed in a collaborative and active learning mode through jigsaw method, which can eventually lead to better performance and in-depth understanding of the topics at hand.

In addition, the combination of both synchronous and asynchronous jigsaw break-out rooms in this study was found to induce more interaction among the students, which led to an improved engagement. Many researchers have reported that the jigsaw method is an innovative teaching method that has a positive impact on student proactive engagement (Bhandari et al., 2017; Azmin, 2016; Earl, 2009). Compared with face-to-face teaching, few studies have shown higher knowledge retention in three to four weeks delayed post-test scores than the jigsaw method (Kumar et al., 2017; Sagsoz et al., 2017). Besides, Aronson (2000) mentioned that the jigsaw method not only efficiently convinces students to become engaged in their learning, but also allows them to learn the course content quicker through information sharing with other groups, minimizing the listening time while fostering their self-learning ability. It also maximizes the interaction among students and teacher.

This study also yielded positive outcomes on the synchronous and asynchronous interaction. It is a no-brainer that written communication can be boring and poses challenges for students to maintain their focus. In order to make online jigsaw classrooms interesting, it is important to strike a balance between the online synchronous and asynchronous mode of course delivery. For instance, in this study, the teacher or facilitator allowed the students to have one hour of online discussion within the “expert” groups and jigsaw groups, and then only continued with another 30 minutes of real-time discussion to ensure continuous momentum of interaction, especially on the assigned task. In a study conducted

by Lin and Gao (2020), they found that when the students were able to connect with their peers, a sense of belonging could be prompted through the discussion and sharing of ideas in an asynchronous setting.

It is noteworthy to mention that the real-time communication using the “Meet” feature on MS Team has facilitated amplified feedback among the students during the experimental session. In this study, the designed jigsaw activity/ tasks had well- scaffolded knowledge constructions. As such, this would subsequently lead to an enjoyable learning experience (Rehman & Fatima, 2021). Finally, it was also noticeable that feedback and rubrics provided to the students, together with the discussion and further clarification, elicited more transparent communication.

When students are informed about what is expected from them, better engagement exists (Kahu et al., 2017). This is essential because merit points or peer evaluation systems, for example, then can be implemented to motivate the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

284

participation of the students, while reducing the non-participation and late participation which could be very common in group learning activities like the online jigsaw classroom.

6. Conclusion and Recommendation

Figure 9: Proposed Design Using the Jigsaw Method Scaffolded by MS Teams

In this study, the usability and adoption of an online jigsaw method via MS Teams are presented. It is surmised that the availability of various functions and features on MS Teams, in particular the break-out room or customized channel and synchronous chat, are indicative of the likelihood to be recommended for better learning engagement and overall experience. Moreover, the significantly higher engagement frequency obtained from the learning analytics dataset suggests that the proposed design, using the jigsaw method scaffolded by MS Teams as illustrated in Figure 9, is deemed valid and scalable for wide-ranging class sizes and proficiency levels. Nonetheless, there are noticeable drawbacks in this work.

Firstly, the features and functions proffered on MS Teams are not unique. In other words, there are plenty of other web-based applications with similar tools, functions and features, for example Zoom, Google Classroom and NowComment.

Therefore, it is recommended for future researchers to conduct a comparative analysis among the platforms to further identify adoption and usability possibilities. The next drawback is due to the lack of a primary dataset from a survey, which could be collected at the end of each implementation. It is reckoned that a cogent understanding can be gained of what students engagement entails when the jigsaw method is deployed and survey findings are triangulated with the learning analytics dataset. Without a doubt, the use of technology in teaching and learning is here to stay. The current COVID-19 crisis is compelling the stakeholders to rethink, revamp and redesign the whole ecosystem. Likewise, it is also essential for future researchers to focus on the sustainability of learning platforms such as MS Teams to complement and support the face-to-face modalities. As such, broader user experience can be determined.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

285

7. References Ab Murat, N. B. (2008). Learning through teaching and sharing in the jigsaw classroom.

Annals of Dentistry University of Malaya, 15(2), 71-76.

Albó, L., Barria-Pineda, J., Brusilovsky, P. & Hernández-Leo, D. (2019, September).

Concept-level design analytics for blended courses. In European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 541-554). Springer, Cham.

Amador, J. A. & Mederer, H. (2013). Migrating successful student engagement strategies online: Opportunities and challenges using jigsaw groups and problem-based learning. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(1), 89-105.

Aronson, E. (1978). The jigsaw classroom.. Revision World. https://revision world.com/search/site/Aronson%201978.

Aronson, E. (2000). Jigsaw classroom: Overview of the technique. Jigsaw Official Site. https://www.jigsaw-online.com Aronson, E. (2002). Building Empathy, Compassion, and Achievement in the Jigsaw Classroom. In Improving Academic Achievement. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978012064455-1/50013-0 Azmin, N. H. (2016). Effect of the Jigsaw-Based Cooperative Learning Method on Student Performance in the General Certificate of Education Advanced-Level Psychology: An Exploratory Brunei Case Study. International Education Studies, 9(1), 91-106.

Baken, E. K., Adams, D. C. & Rentz, M. S. (2020). Jigsaw method improves learning and retention for observation-based undergraduate biology laboratory activities. Journal of Biological Education, 1-6.

Balestrini, M., Hernández-Leo, D., Nieves, R. & Blat, J. (2014). Technology-supported orchestration matters: Outperforming paper-based scripting in a jigsaw classroom.

IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2013.33 Bhandari, B., Mehta, B., Mavai, M., Singh, Y. R. & Singhal, A. (2017). Medical education/original article jigsaw method: An innovative way of cooperative learning in physiology. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 61(3), 315-321.

Bratt, C. (2008). The Jigsaw classroom under test: No effect on intergroup relations evident.

Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.946 Casey, A. & Fernandez-Rio, J. (2019). Cooperative Learning and the Affective Domain.

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 90(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2019.1559671 Chilana, P. K., Ko, A. J., Wobbrock, J. O., Grossman, T. & Fitzmaurice, G. (2011, May). Postdeployment usability: A survey of current practices. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2243-2246).

Crone, T. S. & Portillo, M. C. (2013). Jigsaw Variations and Attitudes About Learning and the Self in Cognitive Psychology. In Teaching of Psychology (Vol. 40, Issue 3). https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628313487451 Czerkawski, B. C. & Lyman, E. W. (2016). An instructional design framework for fostering student engagement in online learning environments. TechTrends, 60(6), 532-539.

Dziuban, C., Picciano, A. G., Graham, C. R. & Moskal, P.D. (2016). Conducting research in online and blended learning environments. New Pedagogical Frontiers. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Earl, G. L. (2009). Using cooperative learning for a drug information assignment. American journal of pharmaceutical education, 73(7).

Effendi-Hasibuan, M. H., Fuldiaratman, Dewi F., Sulistiyo, U. & Hindarti, S. (2020). Jigsaw learning strategy in a diverse science-classroom setting: Feasibility, challenges,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

286

and adjustment.

Cakrawala Pendidikan, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v39i3.30634 Hasnine, M. N., Ahmed, M. M. H. & Ueda, H. (2020, October). Towards Post-Pandemic Active Learning Design by connecting Strategies with Technologies. In World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (pp. 101-104).

Hänze, M. & Berger, R. (2007). Cooperative learning, motivational effects, and student characteristics: An experimental study comparing cooperative learning and direct instruction in 12th grade physics classes. Learning and Instruction, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.004 Hastie, P. & Casey, A. (2010). Using the Jigsaw Classroom. Physical Education Matters, 5(1).

Kahu, E., Nelson, K. & Picton, C. (2017). Student interest as a key driver of engagement for first year students. Student Success, 8(2), 55-66.

Karacop, A. (2017). The Effects of Using Jigsaw Method Based on Cooperative Learning Model in the Undergraduate Science Laboratory Practices. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(3), 420-434.

Kumar, V. C. S., Kalasuramath, S., Patil, S., Kumar, R. K. G., Taj, S. K. R., Jayasimha, V. L. & Chacko, T. (2017). Effect of jigsaw co-operative learning method in improving cognitive skills among medical students. Int J Curr Microbiol, 6(3), 164-173.

Lazzari, M. (2014). Combinación de aprendizaje cooperativo e individual en una asignatura de química de materiales. Formacion Universitaria, 7(4). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50062014000400005 Lin, X. & Gao, L. (2020). Students' Sense of Community and Perspectives of Taking Synchronous and Asynchronous Online Courses. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 169-179.

Mahmud, M. M., Ubrani, M. B. & Foong, W. S. (2020, January). A Meta-Analysis of Blended Learning Trends. In Proceedings of the 2020 11th International Conference on E-Education, E-Business, E-Management, and E-Learning (pp. 30-36).

Norintan, A. M. (2008). Learning through teaching and sharing in the Jigsaw Classroom.

Annals of Dentistry, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.22452/adum.vol15no2.3 Nusrath, A., Dhananjaya, S. Y., Dyavegowda, N., Arasegowda, R., Ningappa, A. & Begum, R. (2019). Jigsaw Classroom: Is it an Effective Method of Teaching and Learning? Students’ Opinions and Experience. Journal Of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2019/39613.12540 Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. (2007). Interaction design: Beyond human-computer interaction (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Rahimi, M. & Yadollahi, S. (2017). Effects of offline vs. online digital storytelling on the development of EFL learners’ literacy skills. Cogent Education, 4(1), 1285531.

Rahmat, N. H. (2017). Exploring the use of jigsaw writing among esl writers: a classroom research. Indonesian EFL Journal, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v1i2.621 Rehman, R. & Fatima, S. S. (2021). An Innovation in Flipped Class Room: A teaching model to facilitate synchronous and asynchronous learning during a pandemic. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 37(1), 131.

Riggs, S. & Linder, K. (2016). Actively engaging students in asynchronous online classes.

Idea, 64, 1-10.

Sagsoz, O., Karatas, O., Turel, V., Yildiz, M. & Kaya, E. (2017). Effectiveness of Jigsaw learning compared to lecture‐based learning in dental education. European Journal of Dental Education, 21(1), 28-32.

Sopyan, F. M., Hasanah, K. U. & Haryudin, A. (2019). Improving reading skill using jigsaw.

Project (Professional Journal of English Education), 2(5). https://doi.org/10.22460/project.v2i5.p745-751

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

287

Stanley, J. C. (1966). The influence of Fisher’s “The Design of Experiments” on educational research thirty years later. American Educational Research Journal, 3(3), 223-229.

The K. Patricia Cross Academy. (2020, June 27). Online teaching adaptation: Jigsaw [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKXY8DjtMH M Tsai, C. H. & Brusilovsky, P. (2019). Exploring social recommendations with visual diversity-promoting interfaces. ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems (TiiS), 10(1), 1-34.

Walker, I.. & Crogan, M. (1998). Academic performance, prejudice, and the jigsaw classroom: New pieces to the puzzle. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 8(6). https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)10991298(199811/12)8:6<381::aid-casp457>3.0.co;2-6 Wang, L. (2007). Sociocultural learning theories and information literacy teaching activities in higher education. Reference and User Services Quarterly, 47(2). https://doi.org/10.5860/rusq.47n2.149 Williams, D. (2004). Improving race relations in higher education: The jigsaw classroom as a missing piece to the puzzle.

Urban Education, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085904263063

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

288

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 288-305, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.16 Received Aug 29, 2021; Revised Nov 19, 2021; Accepted Nov 23, 2021

The Effects of Media Literacy-Based Activities on Writing Skills in the EFL Classroom Ji-Hyun Lee* Kookmin University, Seoul, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5968-3393

Abstract. This study explores the effectiveness of media literacy-based activities on writing proficiency and affective domains in the EFL setting.

A quasi-experiment was conducted during the 2021 academic year with 148 college EFL students selected as participants from three classes from a private university in Seoul, South Korea. Participants were divided into three groups based on proficiency levels: upper proficiency, intermediate proficiency, and lower proficiency. The assigned activities included four steps: (1) watching video clips made by a teacher, (2) group discussion, (3) individual presentation, and (4) individual writing. For these activities, participants used multimedia like YouTube, Fanfiction.net, Reddit discussion boards, and blogs to understand the topic, evaluate the content, and express their thoughts. Popular franchises, including the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), the Potterverse, and the Twilight saga provided material for the activities. The study’s results reveal that students significantly increased their writing skills, regardless of proficiency level. Moreover, the higher the linguistic ability, the more the writing ability improved. In a survey, students also showed significant changes in all affective domains (anxiety, interest, confidence, and engagement), except for the lower proficiency group’s confidence domain. The study presents a detailed summary of the activities and derives meaningful implications.

Keywords: media literacy; EFL writing; affective domains, pop culture; movie franchises

1. Introduction Writing is one of the most critical skills that second language learners must develop (Hyland, 2019). Owing to rapid globalisation, writing skills have become more important than ever (Guo et al., 2021; Naghdipour, 2016). However, writing is a highly demanding task that requires cognitive processing (Cancino & Panes, 2021; Majidi et al., 2020) and that takes greater time and effort to develop than other language skills (Belkhir & Benyelles, 2017; Myhill, 2008). From a *Corresponding

author: Ji-Hyun Lee, leejihyun@kookmin.ac.kr

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

289

psychological perspective, second language writing is a complex, multifaceted problem-solving process (Cho, 2019; Cumming, 1990). Second language writing requires significant effort and presents a heavier psychological burden than other skills, leading to avoidance and a lack of interest in writing in a target language (Lee, 2019a). These elements cause anxiety and pressure for learners when writing in L2, negatively affecting their writing performance. South Korea emphasises reading and listening skills in English in secondary schools as required for entrance examinations, making writing activities more unfamiliar to learners.

According to Jang and Rha (2014), 53% of Korean university students who participated in their study experienced anxiety symptoms while writing; additionally, the more anxious they felt, the less competently they were able to write. The present study seeks to improve South Korean students' writing proficiency and reduce their anxiety when writing in English. Importantly, this study argues that the traditional focus on grammar, linguistic knowledge, and/or genre is not enough to mitigate students’ anxiety about writing.

Before identifying the most appropriate teaching and learning methods, it is necessary to understand who the students are. Currently, college students who are referred to as “Generation Z” or digital natives (Prensky, 2001) are familiar with numerous media platforms. They post their thoughts, share information, and communicate with others through social media, blogs, and YouTube. They are “very comfortable with collecting and cross-referencing many sources of information and with integrating virtual and offline experiences” (Francis & Hoefel, 2018, para. 1). They actively explore and understand new information about their likes and interests. Of course, not all students engage actively with media in these ways, but clearly media have become deeply embedded in their lives.

This study considers learners’ attitudes toward the media by applying a media literacy perspective to EFL writing. Media literacy can be defined as the ability to access various forms of media: for example, movies, dramas, YouTube, blogs, games, and articles. It also refers to the capacity to analyse and evaluate media content and express one’s thoughts through such media. This research employs a quasi-experiment to investigate the effects of media literacy-based activities on writing skills and on affective domains. While media literacy topics vary widely, the present study focuses on popular culture. The research questions addressed here are: First, how do media literacy-based activities affect writing proficiency in the EFL setting?

Second, how do media literacy-based activities impact affective domains in EFL writing?

2. Literature 2.1. Definition of Media Literacy The term “literacy” usually suggests the ability to read and write. It is true that in the modern era, most people have expressed their thoughts and opinions through texts. However, people are currently using many different forms of media to

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

290

express themselves and communicate with others through various internet-based platforms. Because texts have expanded from print to online spaces, we must consider literacy from a new perspective. Teachers “need to broaden our definitions of texts and recognize that our bias toward written text is a result of our own socialization in a print-dominated world” (Schwartz & Rubinstein-Ávila, 2006, p. 43). Kalantzsis and Cope (2013) argued, “In today's learning environments, we need to supplement traditional reading and writing with these multimodal representations, and particularly those typical of the new, digital media” (p. 3963). Multimedia technologies have led to a fundamental shift in the concept of literacy. A variety of terms describing new perspectives regarding literacy have emerged, including media literacy (Bilosterkovets et al., 2021; Dvorghets & Shaturnaya, 2015), digital literacy (Andriushchenko et al., 2020; The Aspen Institute, 2009; Patti, 2020; Tabieh et al., 2021), visual literacy (Alyahya, 2019; Peña & Dobson, 2021), and multimodal literacy (Camiciottoli & CampoyCubillo, 2018; DePalma & Alexander, 2018; Wawra, 2018). There are slight differences between these terms, but their core impetus is similar. The term media literacy is often “used interchangeably with other terms related to media and media technologies” (The National Association for Media Literacy Education, 2017). Thus, this study uses “media literacy” as an umbrella term containing these other, similar terms.

In 1992, 25 representative leaders of the media literacy movement defined media literacy as “the ability of a citizen to access, analyze, and produce information for specific outcomes” (Aufderheide, 1993, p. 6). According to The National Association for Media Literacy Education (2017), media literacy is “the ability to encode and decode the symbols transmitted via media and synthesize, analyze and produce mediated messages.” The Office of Communication (2008) defines media literacy as “the ability to access, understand and create communications in a variety of contexts” (para. 5). Potter (2008) considers media literacy as “a set of perspectives that we actively use to expose ourselves to the media to interpret the meaning of the messages we encounter” (p. 19). Literacy is related to the ability to read and write as an action in and of itself. Media literacy also involves people’s willingness and ability to understand others and express themselves.

Moreover, media literacy is critical for citizens’ sense of belonging within a society. The Center for Media Literacy asserts that media literacy “builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy” (Jolls & Thoman, 2008, p. 22). Hobbs (2010) stated that media literacy includes “the use of texts, tools and technologies; the skills of critical thinking and analysis; the practice of message composition and creativity; the ability to engage in reflection and ethical thinking; as well as active participation through teamwork and collaboration” (p. 17).

Hobbs and Jensen (2009) also suggested that one’s ability to connect, engage digitally, and communicate within society aligns with the civic qualities necessary for one’s community, country, and even the world. Media literacy is a vital skill for expressing oneself, sharing knowledge and opinions, and communicating effectively. It enables people to socialise within their community and become

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

291

exposed to different sociocultural perspectives. Thus, media literacy affects whether and how people thrive at the community level.

2.2. Media Literacy & Education The concept of literacy has also changed in the educational field. The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) (2019) argued, “As society and technology change, so does literacy. The world demands that a literate person possess and intentionally apply a wide range of skills, competencies, and dispositions. These literacies are interconnected, dynamic, and malleable.” The Knight Commission (The Aspen Institute, 2009) concurred: “Recommendation 6: Integrate digital and media literacy as critical elements for education at all levels through collaboration among federal, state and local education officials” (p. 45). In other studies, Facione (2013) claimed that media-literate students are more likely to evaluate quality and to be more flexible in their opinions when faced with new ideas. Wong and Yunus (2020) have argued that students today need to initiate their own learning, collaborate with others, and acquire knowledge through a range of media.

Dvorghets and Shaturnaya (2015) noted that media-literate students should be able to better understand the information they receive, and Ajayi (2009) stated that multimodal literacy can provide opportunities for ESL students to learn about different text types in ways that enhance interpretation. Media literacy is an indispensable skill, so it is essential to teach and strengthen it. Given that Chvala (2020) and Hornberger (2006) have argued that English education prepares students for their current and future out-of-school lives, we must teach English from media literacy perspectives in L2 as well as L1 education.

2.3. Media Literacy & Language Learning Camiciottoli and Campoy-Cubillo (2018), and O’Halloran et al. (2016) have insisted that media literacy helps students use semiotic modes beyond verbal language to understand and create messages in target languages effectively.

According to Wawra (2018), multimodality is ubiquitous; therefore, media literacy is a crucial skill that must be developed in secondary and higher education. Gaston (2020) has stated that, since EFL and ESL teachers must develop students’ English proficiency, some of the responsibility of media literacy education falls on their shoulders. Bilotserkovets et al. (2021) explored how students’ media literacy improved in the EFL virtual classroom. Their case study included 138 first-year students from a university in Ukraine and employed analysis, synthesis, and generalisation of scientific data to determine a set of requirements. They designed the experimental group’s media literacy education to include activities like social media projects, critical analysis, and the production of social media content. The experimental group’s reflective-evaluative, collaborative, and searching-creative skills advanced, as did their English proficiency. Dvorghets and Shaturnaya (2015) have suggested the practice of integrating mass media into the ELT classroom in Russia, particularly when addressing global and social issues. Their project featured a “pre-viewing” discussion about a topic featured on BBC One’s Hardtalk. “While-viewing” activities taught students to analyse media, clarify the key points, give cultural references, and/or explain behaviours unfamiliar to students. “After-viewing” activities included project work, debates, critical review assignments, and roleplaying. Students reported dramatic progress in their knowledge of English-

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

292

language media format specificity and improvement of their English-language ability. In another study, Black (2009) harnessed the concept of media literacy in writing. The researcher investigated English-language-learning youths’ engagement with popular media by composing and publicly posting stories on facfiction.net. On this website, fans of movies, TV dramas, and books write and post fan fiction stories. The researcher analysed three participants’ fan fiction texts and reader reviews of these texts and then interviewed the participants. The various media enjoyed by the participants, as well as their culture, acted as a scaffold for developing their writing skills. Gruba (2006) used a media literacy perspective of video-mediated listening for L2 and suggested playing a videotext.

Australian students learning Japanese watched digitised news as they talked aloud. A qualitative analysis of their retrospective verbal reports revealed that learners play and replay media texts. The researcher argued that adopting a literacy perspective with digital media can develop L2 listening comprehension.

These studies demonstrate that media literacy-oriented activities provide various forms of language input and improve language skills through language output activities. Lee (2019b) has emphasised that members of Generation Z are digital natives who need a new teaching approach. The researcher used the novel, “Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone”, and its film adaptation in an EFL setting.

Providing Korean college students with the story’s background, key episodes, and main characters enabled them to enjoy and become immersed in the Potterverse.

The students made group presentations on Harry Potter-related topics that displayed their abilities to use multiple media fluidly. Wawra (2018) has also argued that multimodal literacy should be integrated into the curriculum, demonstrating how teachers can use political cartoons in the English language classroom to develop students’ multimodal literacy.

The benefits of teaching a language from a media literacy perspective have drawn significant scholarly attention. However, in South Korea, the effect of using this concept in English writing skills remains under-explored. Given prior studies’ positive results, this study expects to uncover positive findings when English writing and media literacy are employed together to teach South Korean college students.

3. Method 3.1. Participants The study included 148 freshman students enrolled in general English classes at a university in Seoul, South Korea. A 75-minute quasi-experiment was conducted for 15 weeks, twice a week. This general English class is a mandatory course for university freshmen, and students are automatically assigned. Three of the researcher’s classes were used for the study. All participants were Korean and had over 10 years of English-learning experience in Korea. They were attending humanities and social studies colleges, with majors including Korean literature, political diplomacy, education, sociology, law, and journalism. The gender distribution was 80 females and 68 males. At the beginning of the semester, all participants took an online diagnostic evaluation. The first class was conducted through Zoom in real time. The teacher created the test questions using Google Forms and provided the test link to participants through the Zoom chat feature.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

293

Students then had to answer the questions within 30 minutes. Based on the results, the students were divided into upper (Group A), intermediate (Group B), and lower (Group C) groups. The evaluation tested grammar and reading and contained 30 questions, each worth one point. Students who scored 30 to 21 points were allocated to Group A, 20 to 11 points to Group B, and fewer than 10 points to Group C. Ultimately, 52 students were allocated to Group A, 65 to Group B, and 31 to Group C. 3.2. Materials This study adopted Media Matters (Ryu et al., 2021), an English learning textbook that contains 12 units on popular culture, focusing on franchises such as Marvel Comics. Each class studied eight of the 12 units (see Table 1). The textbook introduces 10 vocabulary words necessary to understand each unit and features reading, listening, and writing activities. Four classes were devoted to each unit.

The textbook distinguishes itself by its vocabulary introduction, which presents vocabulary to understand the content. For example, the sentences “Steve Rogers: A young man who wanted to join the army but was not healthy enough. Army scientists tested a super serum on him and changed him into Captain America, also known as Cap” (Ryu et al., 2021) appear in Unit 1, Comic Book Heroes. It is fundamental to know Captain America’s background to understand the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The teacher interpreted the vocabulary in class and showed YouTube videos, movie clips, animation clips, documentaries, comic books, and/or blogs to help students get the gist of the franchises.

Table 1. Contents of the Material Unit Title

Contents

Comic Book Heroes

Introduction of the Marvel Cinematic Universe

The Popularity of K-pop

History of K-pop and its powers

Let the Video Games Begin

Video games and their educational effects

Return to the ‘80s

Effects of 80’s culture on the present

Vampires vs. Werewolves

Origins of vampires and werewolves and their meanings

The World of Harry Potter

Good vs. evil in the Potterverse

The Revival of Disney

The new era of the Disney animation studio

Batman

Characteristics of Batman

3.3. Procedures Students studied each unit four times over a period of two weeks. Each step was covered in real-time Zoom classes, except for the first. The teacher taught the first step using video clips through the university’s learning management system (LMS). She explained the vocabulary and interpreted the reading via multimedia, using YouTube videos, Reddit's discussion rooms, and original novels and comics to provide background information and fans’ opinions. For example, Unit 1’s reading section includes, "Captain America undergoes large personal changes during the storyline and develops as a character." The teacher explained the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

294

sentence by showing scenes in which Steve Rogers was frozen in ice during the war and then found 70 years later. The teacher used English-language media and briefly explained the contents in advance. The second step featured group activities, for which the teacher used Zoom’s meeting rooms to create groups of four to five students, introduced a question, and asked the groups to find interesting information about the topic in the media. The questions were, for instance: “Between Doctor Strange and Scarlet Witch, who has the most powerful ability? Who is the most powerful character in the Twilight saga? Which wizard has the purest talent, Harry Potter or Voldemort?” The students discussed and selected the most thought-provoking answers in their groups and shared them with the other groups. When teaching the vampires vs. werewolves component, the teacher asked students, “Who is the strongest character in the Twilight saga?”

At the time of this experiment, a giant container ship had accidentally blocked the Suez Canal. One group answered the question by submitting a meme in which the character of Emmett Cullen lifts the stranded ship. They said they found the meme in Reddit's Twilight community and that Emmett Cullen was the only character in the saga who would be able to lift the stranded ship from the Suez Canal. For the third step, students individually created three-minute video clips in English about their preferred unit, highlighting their critical thinking. Each student sent their presentation to the teacher by e-mail before class; the teacher then provided feedback and shared the videos with other students in the third class. Students received a rubric to grade the presentation videos. For the fourth step, students were assigned individual English composition activities. The teacher presented various topics related to the class materials and students chose their favourite topics to write about in English. The class then read the compositions that the teacher singled out for excellence.

3.4. Data Collection During the 8th and 15th weeks of the class, two English composition evaluations investigated the effect of media literacy-based activities on students’ writing proficiency. The first evaluation asked students to use English writing to introduce a favourite character from the Marvel franchise, DC Comics, the Potterverse, Twilight saga, or Disney animation. The second evaluation asked them to expand the universes of these franchises. The writing evaluation criteria scored language areas, compositional areas, and content areas. A questionnaire (refer to Appendix 1) explored the effect of media literacy-based activities on affective domains during the 1st and 15th weeks. The evaluations and the survey were conducted through Zoom in real time. Table 2 shows the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient. The questionnaire consisted of four categories with three items each and employed a five-point Likert scale. The numerical value of 5 meant "strongly agree," while 1 denoted "strongly disagree". The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for the 12 questionnaire items was above .750, indicating that the items had adequate internal consistency.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

295

Table 2. Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient Cronbach’s alpha

Domain

Number of questions

Pre-survey

Post-survey

Anxiety

.878

.857

3

Interest

.874

.750

3

Confidence

.887

.847

3

Engagement

.851

.767

3

3.5. Data Analysis The study analysed the data obtained with SPSS statistical software version 18.

Paired sample t-tests were administered to examine whether there were significant mean score changes within each group. One-way ANOVA tests and Scheffe post-hoc tests were also performed to verify significant differences between groups.

4. Results & Discussion 4.1. Effects of Media Literacy-based Activities on Writing Proficiency This study aimed to verify the effects of media literacy-based activities on students’ writing skills. Two writing tests were conducted during the 8th and 15th weeks of the study and scored on a scale of 0-15. Paired sample t-tests determined the changes in writing skills in every group. Table 3 presents the results of the ttests with descriptive data.

Table 3. Paired Sample t-Test on Writing Tests Group

N

A

1st Test

2nd Test

t

p

1.12

-17.118***

.000

10.98

1.77

-.8.362***

.000

8.16

0.82

-2.816**

.009

M

SD

M

SD

52

10.71

1.46

13.60

B

65

8.98

1.21

C

31

7.58

1.09

** p <.01, *** p <.001

Table 3 reveals significant changes in the mean scores of students’ writing skills within each group. Students in Group A significantly improved their writing skills. Their first test score (mean) was 10.71, while their second score was 13.60.

Students in Group B also showed statistically significant mean score changes between the first and second tests, from 8.98 to 10.98. Likewise, students in Group C noticeably increased their writing scores from 7.58 on the first test to 8.16 on the second test. Thus, the three groups substantially improved their writing skills through the study’s media literacy activities. Overall, media literacy-based activities positively affected students’ writing skills, improving them for learners of all levels.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

296

Table 4. One-Way ANOVA on Mean Differences in Writing Tests Group

N

M

SD

A

52

2.89

1.22

B

65

2.00

1.93

C

31

0.58

1.15

F

P

Scheffe

21.187***

.000

C<B<A

*** p <.001

The researcher conducted one-way ANOVA with the group as an independent variable and the two tests’ score changes as a dependent variable to verify which group exhibited the most change in writing skills. Groups A, B, and C exhibited a 2.89, 2.00, and .58 mean score change between the first and second tests, respectively. One-way ANOVA results showed statistically significant group differences (F=21.187, p=.000) and notable group disparities in mean score changes. In other words, participants benefitted differently from the activities.

Thus, the researcher ran Scheffe post-hoc testing to investigate which groups significantly differed. The post-hoc test results revealed that Group A had the largest improvement in writing skills, followed by Group B, and then Group C with the smallest improvement. Therefore, the higher the linguistic ability, the more the media literacy-based activities positively impacted learners’ writing ability.

In sum, the study’s media literacy-based writing activities played a positive role in improving learners' writing skills across all language levels. This finding supports previous studies (Bilotserkovets et al., 2021; Black, 2009; Dvorghets & Shaturnaya, 2015) suggesting that activities based on media literacy have positive effects on English language ability. Activities such as analysing media (Dvorghets & Shaturnaya, 2015), producing social media content (Bilotserkovets et al., 2021), and writing fan fiction (Black, 2009) were effective in increasing English proficiency. The scope of currently available media is wide, and there are various ways to apply the media literacy perspective in the classroom. Depending on teachers’ goals for learning, the media literacy-based methods will vary, but the effects have been shown to be positive overall.

Media literacy-based writing activities were especially effective for learners with higher proficiency. This result coincides with the view that writing in a foreign language involves knowledge of linguistic patterns, vocabulary choices, and syntactic patterns (Hyland, 2019). That is, the more linguistic knowledge learners have, the more likely they are to have competent writing skills. Crucially, though, learners with lower language skills also showed improvements in writing skills.

The students performed different activities, including watching the teacher’s videos, engaging in group discussions, delivering individual presentations, and writing. Media literacy—the ability to access media, evaluate information, and create a voice through media—underpinned each activity. Students received content by watching media and researched collaboratively through group activities. Furthermore, they expressed and shared their thoughts through

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

297

individual presentations and writing assignments. These activities developed learners’ writing skills, regardless of proficiency levels. These findings demonstrate that even learners with lower language skills can improve their writing skills through media literacy-based activities.

4.2. Effects of Media Literacy-based Activities on Affective Domains This study administered surveys at the beginning and end of the experiment to investigate students’ affective writing circumstances. Twelve questionnaire items related to anxiety, interest, confidence, and engagement were employed on a fivepoint Likert scale. Descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA were used to compare students’ attitudes toward writing in English.

Table 5. One-Way ANOVA on Affective Domains in Pre-survey Domain

Group

N

M

SD

A

52

11.88

2.39

B

65

12.09

1.84

C

31

12.35

1.45

A

52

5.81

1.86

B

65

5.26

1.87

C

31

5.52

1.06

A

52

8.88

2.43

B

65

9.20

1.95

C

31

5.32

1.14

A

52

10.83

2.12

B

65

10.08

1.45

C

31

9.77

1.23

Anxiety

Interest

Confidence

Engagement

F

p

Scheffe

0.549

.579

-

1.439

.241

-

42.961***

.000

C<A, B

4.633*

.011

C<A

*p <.05, *** p <.001

Table 5 presents the pre-survey descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA results regarding affective domains. Group A scored 11.88, Group B 12.09, and Group C 12.35 in the area of anxiety. The group differences in this area were not statistically notable. Regardless of their language levels, learners revealed high levels of anxiety toward writing in English. Despite Group A’s higher proficiency level, they had similar anxiety levels to the other groups. Groups A, B, and C scored 5.81, 5.26, and 5.52 in the level of interest, revealing slight variation among the groups. Students at all levels displayed low interest in writing in English and high levels of anxiety. In contrast, the three groups differed significantly in their confidence levels (F=42.961, p=.000). Group A’s mean score was 8.88, while Group B’s was 9.92. Group C was less confident in writing than the other groups, with a mean score of 5.32. It is possible to assume that Group C students had low linguistic proficiency, resulting in low confidence in writing. Finally, Group A had a mean score of 10.83 regarding engagement, while Group B scored 10.08 and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

298

Group C scored 9.77. Group A differed notably from Group C by exhibiting a much higher engagement level.

The pre-survey results are notable in two ways. First, learners’ high anxiety and low interest in writing must be addressed. Waninge, Dörnyei, and De Bot (2014) stated that motivation for L2 development is not a stable individual difference factor. Instead, process-oriented models and a growing understanding of how complex dynamic systems work influence it. In other words, motivation is a changeable factor. Cho and Chung (2014) have argued that teaching methods are the main factor in demotivation. Thus, teaching methods can affect motivation shifts in language learning. Teachers must devise ways to relieve learners’ anxiety and enhance their interest in writing to spark their motivation. Second, Group C’s low confidence and engagement in writing confirms Brown and Lee’s (2015) assertion that there is a correlation between learners’ confidence in a foreign language and their achievement. Thus, it is necessary to implement activities that will encourage learners with low proficiency not to give up writing in English.

Table 6. One-Way ANOVA on Affective Domains in Post-survey Domain

Anxiety

Interest

Confidence

Engagement

Group

N

M

SD

A

52

8.88

1.79

B

65

10.82

1.85

C

31

10.84

1.66

A

52

11.54

2.39

B

65

10.82

1.69

C

31

11.00

2.16

A

52

10.71

1.86

B

65

10.85

2.14

C

31

5.48

1.12

A

52

13.21

1.73

B

65

12.74

2.19

C

31

12.74

1.75

F

p

Scheffe

19.748***

.000

A<B, C

1.835

.163

-

98.629***

.000

C<A, B

.988

.375

-

*** p <.001

The post-survey on affective domains was conducted at the end of the experiment.

Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA results of the post-survey. There were no significant differences between the groups regarding interest and engagement; however, such differences were found in the anxiety and confidence domains. Group A’s mean score of 8.88 demonstrated lower anxiety than the other groups, while Group C’s confidence remained the lowest, with a mean score of 5.48.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

299

Table 7. Paired Sample t-Test on Affective Domains Domain

Anxiety

Interest

Confidence

Engagement

Pre-test

Post-test

t

p

1.79

9.810***

.000

10.82

1.85

4.165***

.000

1.45

10.84

1.65

3.430**

.002

5.81

1.86

11.54

2.39

-14.500***

.000

65

5.26

1.87

10.82

1.69

-17.115***

.000

C

31

5.52

1.06

11

2.16

-11.231***

.000

A

52

8.88

2.43

10.71

1.86

-4.976***

.000

B

65

9.20

1.95

10.85

2.14

-5.091***

.000

C

31

5.32

1.14

5.48

1.12

-1.718

.096

A

52

10.83

2.12

13.21

1.73

-.7.793***

.000

B

65

10.08

1.45

12.74

2.19

-10.475***

.000

C

31

9.77

1.23

12.74

1.75

-9.489***

.000

Group

N

A

M

SD

M

SD

52

11.88

2.39

8.88

B

65

12.09

1.84

C

31

12.35

A

52

B

**p <.01, *** p <.001

Paired sample t-tests were used to verify the changes within each group. Table 7 shows the effects of media literacy-based activities on affective domains in EFL writing. Group A changed its anxiety score significantly from 11.88 on the presurvey to 8.88 on the post-survey (t=9.180, p=.000); in other words, Group A’s anxiety decreased. Likewise, Group B and Group C decreased their scores from 12.09 to 10.82, and 12.35 to 10.84, respectively. The three groups significantly improved their interest in writing: Group A increased its score from 5.81 to 11.54, Group B from 5.26 to 10.82, and Group C from 5.52 to 11. The extent of the score changes was remarkable. All three groups displayed significant mean score changes in their engagement levels. Group A increased from 10.83 to 13.21 (t=7.793, p=.000), Group B from 10.08 to 12.74 (t=-10.475, p=.000), and Group C from 9.77 to 12.74 (t=-9.489, p=.000). Significant improvements were also found in the confidence domain for Groups A and B. Group A’s pre-survey score was 8.88, while their post-survey score was 10.71. Group B also exhibited notable mean score changes between the pre- and post-surveys (t= -5.091, p=.000). However, Group C showed no significant change. Although its score changed from 5.32 to 5.46, the difference was not meaningful. In sum, the study’s media literacy activities positively impacted students’ affective domains, except for Group C’s confidence domain.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

300

Table 8. One-Way ANOVA on Mean Differences in the Affective Domains Domain

Anxiety

Interest

Confidence

Engagement

Group

N

M

SD

A

52

-3.00

2.21

B

65

-1.28

2.47

C

31

-1.52

2.46

A

52

5.73

2.85

B

65

5.55

2.62

C

31

5.48

2.72

A

52

1.83

2.65

B

65

1.65

2.61

C

31

.16

0.52

A

52

2.38

2.21

B

65

2.66

2.05

C

31

2.97

1.74

F

p

Scheffe

8.177

.000***

B,C<A

.098

.907

5.523

.005**

.803

.450

C<B,A

**p <.01, *** p <.001

One-way ANOVA and post-hoc tests were then performed with the survey score changes as a dependent variable to examine which group demonstrated the greatest changes in the affective domains. Table 8 shows the descriptive data and the results of one-way ANOVA. There were no major group differences in the interest and engagement domains. The paired sample t-tests and one-way ANOVA results demonstrate how well the media literacy-based activities increased students’ interest and engagement in writing. That is, these activities positively impacted learners' interest level and writing, regardless of language level. Tables 7 and 8 present statistically significant changes regarding anxiety within each group. Group A decreased its anxiety score more than the other groups (F=8.177, p=000). At the same time, Group A and Group B showed considerably greater improvement in confidence than Group C. Although Group C showed positive changes in anxiety, interest, and engagement levels, as well as an improvement in writing test scores, there was little change in their confidence. Hyland (2019) has claimed that students often report an inadequate grasp of vocabulary and grammar, and frequently express frustration at their inability to convey their thoughts effectively. Hyland’s (2019) argument suggests that Group C’s students were aware of their lack of linguistic proficiency, which adversely affected their English writing confidence. Providing a glossary for the writing topic in advance would help students to write in these cases.

Moreover, teachers should encourage students during group discussions to identify sentences and patterns they want to use when writing. As Pifarré and Fisher (2011) have claimed, moving from a few words to extended and more complex prose supports students. When they are encouraged to witness their

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

301

development process, their confidence is boosted. Therefore, providing regular feedback to learners helps them recognise their improvement in writing.

5. Conclusion Today, college students are digital natives who are familiar with various forms of media. With the aid of diverse media platforms, students may engage in multimodal practice with feedback, practise writing with large amounts of available language data, and produce higher quality essays (Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016; Elola & Oskoz, 2017). The present study proposes wielding media literacy to improve writing in EFL classrooms.

The study’s experiment featured 148 college students from South Korea placed into upper proficiency, intermediate proficiency, and lower proficiency groups.

The teacher made video clips to teach the students, who collaborated through group discussions, expressed their ideas through individual presentations, and practised their writing skills. All three groups showed significant improvement in writing, regardless of proficiency levels; however, the degree of improvement was proportional to their language skills. Through the study’s two surveys, the three groups demonstrated positive changes in the domains of anxiety, interest, and engagement. However, the lower proficiency group’s confidence level did not change noticeably. These results show that media literacy-based activities changed students’ writing proficiency and affective attitudes toward writing.

Moreover, additional help in writing for lower proficiency students is necessary.

This study has some limitations. First, to replicate the study’s conditions, teachers would be required to spend significant time and effort preparing pop cultureoriented classes. Since the study’s researcher (and teacher) is already a fan of pop culture, she was able to produce a variety of up-to-date material. For teachers who might not be interested in the study’s teaching topics, preparing the lessons could be difficult. Second, all participants had majors related to the college of humanities or the college of social sciences. Thus, participants did not find the topics or activities covered in class to be unusually challenging. It is impossible to know whether the subjects and activities covered in the experiment would be positively accepted by students from other majors.

Media-based class activities must be developed for media-literate students who express themselves and understand the world through media. Teachers must shift from “educators’ traditional perceptions of literacy as an autonomous set of skills to be mastered to a view of literacies as a range of social practices affected by social factors” (Schwartz & Rubinstein-Ávila, 2006, p. 42). Writing lessons that reflect learners’ unique characteristics must continue to be developed.

6. References Ajayi, L. (2009). English as a second language learners’ exploration of multimodal texts in a junior high school. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(7), 585–595. https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.52.7.4 Alyahya, D. (2019). Infographics as a learning tool in higher education: The design process and perception of an instructional designer. International Journal of Learning,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

302

Teaching and Educational Research, 18(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.1.1 Andriushchenko, K., Rozhko, O., & Tepliuk, M. (2020). Digital literacy development trends in the professional environment. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(7), 55–79. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.4 The Aspen Institute (2009). Informing communities: Sustaining democracy in the digital age.

Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute.

Retrieved from https://www.aspeninstitute.org/wpcontent/uploads/files/content/docs/pubs/Informing_Communities_Sustainin g_Democracy_in_the_Digital_Age.pdf Aufderheide, P. (1993). Media literacy: A report of the national leadership conference on media literacy.

Aspen, CO: Aspen Institute.

Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED365294.pdf Belkhir, A., & Benyelles, R. (2017). Identifying EFL learners’ essay writing difficulties and sources: A move towards solution, the case of second year EFL learners at Tlemcen University. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(6), 80–88.

Retrieved from https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/915/pdf Bikowski, D., & Vithanage, R. (2016). Effects of web-based collaborative writing on individual L2 writing development. Language, Learning and Technology, 20, 79–99.

Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/february2016/bikowskivithanage.pdf Bilosterkovets, M., Fomenko, T., Gubina, O., Klochkova, T., Lytvynko, O., Boichenko, M., & Lazareva, O. (2021). Fostering media literacy skills in the EFL virtual classroom: A case study in the COVID-19 lockdown period. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(2), 251–269. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.2.14 Black, R. W. (2009). Online fan fiction and critical media literacy. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 26(2), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402454.2009.10784636 Brown, H. D., & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Pearson Education.

Camiciottoli, B. C., & Campoy-Cubillo, M. C. (2018). Introduction: The nexus of multimodality, multimodalliteracy, and English language teaching in research and practice in higher education settings.

System, 77, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.03.005 Cancino, M., & Panes, J. (2021). The impact of Google Translate on L2 writing quality measures: Evidence from Chilean EFL high school learners. System, 98, 102464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102464 Cho, M. (2019). The effects of prompts on L2 writing performance and engagement.

Foreign Language Annals, 52(3), 576–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12411 Cho, Y. A., & Chung, H. Y. (2014). Demotivation and remotivation affecting L2 English learning of Korean college students.

English 21, 27(2), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.35771/engdoi.2014.27.2.018 Chvala, L. (2020). Teacher ideologies of English in 21st century Norway and new directions for locally tailored ELT. System, 94, 102327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102327 Cumming, A. (1990). Metalinguistic and ideational thinking in second language composing.

Written Communication, 7(4), 482–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088390007004003 DePalma, M., & Alexander, K. P. (2018). Harnessing writers’ potential through distributed collaboration: A pedagogical approach for supporting student learning in

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

303

multimodal composition.

System, 77, 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.01.007 Dvorghets, O. S., & Shaturnaya, Y. A. (2015). Developing students’ media literacy in the English language teaching context. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Science, 200, 192– 198. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.051 Elola, I., & Oskoz, A. (2017). Writing with 21st century social tools in the L2 classroom: New literacies, genres, and writing practices. Journal of Second Language Writing, 36, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2017.04.002 Facione, P. A. (2013). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Measured Reasons and the California Academic Press.

Francis, T., & Hoefel, F. (2018). “True Gen”: Generation Z and its Implications for Companies. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/consumerpackaged-goods/our-insights/true-gen-generation-z-and-its-implications-forcompanies Gaston, J. (2020). Teaching media literacy to ESL and EFL students in the age of COVID19.

GATESOL in Action Journal, 30(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.52242/giaj.v30i1.107 Gruba, P. (2006). Playing the videotext: A media literacy perspective on video-mediated L2 listening.

Language Learning & Technology, 10(2), 77–92. http://dx.doi.org/10125/44062 Guo, W., Bai, B., & Song, H. (2021). Influences of process-based instruction on students’ use of self-regulated learning strategies in EFL writing. System, 101, 102578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102 Hobbs, R. (2010). Digital and media literacy: A plan of action. Aspen Institute and Knight Foundation.

Hobbs, R., & Jensen, A. (2009). The past, present, and future of media literacy education.

Journal of Media Literacy Education, 1, 1–11.

Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle/vol1/iss1/1 Hornberger, N. H. (2006). Frameworks and models in language policy and planning. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method (pp. 24–41).

Blackwell Publishing.

Hyland, K. (2019). Second language writing (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Jang, J., & Rha, K. H. (2014). An analysis on the effect on Korean English learners’ anxiety on their writing. Studies in Linguistics, 30, 209–228. Retrieved from http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE02353743 Jolls, T., & Thoman, E. (2008). Literacy for the 21st century: An overview & orientation guide to media literacy education (2nd ed.). Center for Media Literacy.

Kalantzsis, M., & Cope, B. (2013). Multiliteracies in education. In. C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (pp.3963–3969). Blackwell.

Lee, J.-H. (2019a). Using word combination to develop writing ability: Based on business English. Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction, 19(22), 533–553. http://dx.doi.org/10.22251/jlcci.2019.19.22.533 Lee, J.-H. (2019b). Suggestions for transmedia-based classroom activities: Using Harry Potter and the sorcerer’s stone. STEM Journal, 20(3), 91–114. https://doi.org/10.16875/stem.2019.20.3.91 Majidi, A. E., & Graaff, R. D., & Janssen, D. (2020). Debate as L2 pedagogy: The effects of debating on writing development in secondary education. The Modern Language Journal, 104(4), 804–821. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12673

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

304

Myhill, D. (2008). Towards a linguistic model of sentence development in writing.

Language and Education, 22(5), 271–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500780802152655 Naghdipour, B. (2016). English writing instruction in Iran: Implications for second language writing curriculum and pedagogy. Journal of Second Language Writing, 32, 81–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2016.05.001 The National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2017). Media literacy defined.

Retrieved from https://namle.net/resources/media-literacy-defined/ The National Council of Teachers of English. (2019). Definition of literacy in a digital age.

Retrieved from https://ncte.org/statement/nctes-definition-literacy-digitalage/ Office of Communication. (2008). Ofcom’s strategies and priorities for the promotion of media literacy: A statement.

Retrieved from https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacyresearch/adults/review0408 O’Halloran, K. L., Tan, S., & Smith, B. A. (2016). Multimodal approaches to English for academic purposes. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of English for academic purposes (pp.256–269). Routledge.

Patti, E. (2020). Digital literacy and modern languages: How to make a digital video.

Modern Languages Open, 1, 39. http://doi.org/10.3828/mlo.v0i0.296 Peña, E., & Dobson, T. M. (2021). The lost years of visual literacy. Journal of Visual Literacy, 40(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1051144X.2021.1902043 Pifarré, M., & Fisher, R. (2011). Breaking up the writing process: how wikis can support understanding the composition and revision strategies of young writers. Language and Education, 25(5), 451-466. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2011.585240 Potter, W. J. (2008). Media literacy (4th ed.). Sage.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Retrieved from https://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf Ryu, D., Kim, H., Rho, Y., Im, M., Lee, J., Seo, J., Lee, Y., & Koh, S. (2021). Media matters.

Seed Learning.

Schwartz, A., & Rubinstein-Ávila, E. (2006). Understanding the manga hype: Uncovering the multimodality of comic-book literacies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 50(1), 40-49. https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.50.1.5 Tabieh, A. A. S., Hamzeh, M., Abu-Foudeh, B. K. S., Jarrar, N., Al-Manaseer, S., AlShawabkeh, A., & Seikaly, R. (2021). Digital literacy and its acquisition by teachers and principals at educational workplaces. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(5), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.3 Waninge, F., Dörnyei, Z., & De Bot, K. (2014). Motivational dynamics in language learning: Change, stability, and context. The Modern Language Journal, 98(3), 704–723. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12118 Wawra, D. (2018). Multimodal literacy: Meaning negotiations in political cartoons on the refugee crisis. System, 77, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.02.018 Wong, P. M., & Yunus, M. M. (2020). Enhancing writing vocabulary using Mentimeter.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(3), 106–122. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.3.7

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

305

Appendix 1. Survey Questions 1. I feel nervous when I write in English.

2. I get nervous when I write in English.

3. I am worried when I write in English.

4. English writing activities are fun for me.

5. I am interested in English writing activities.

6. I am looking forward to English writing activities.

7. I am confident in writing English.

8. I can write what I want to say in English.

9. I think I am good at writing sentences in English.

10. I try to write in English.

11. I want to be good at writing in English.

12. I actively participate in English writing activities.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

306

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 306-324, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.17 Received Sep 17, 2021; Revised Nov 18, 2021; Accepted Nov 24, 2021

Effectiveness of Gender Education in Ukraine as the Implementation of the Principle of Gender Parity Olga Shcholokova Dragomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9496-828X Olena Karpenko Dragomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6715-2899 Zhanna Petrochko Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4413-1243 Vira Kuzmenko Dragomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4709-6081 Tetyana Holubenko Dragomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3042-888X

Abstract. The purpose of the study was to investigate gender stereotypes and prejudices that negatively affect women and men. It is important that students be aware of gender issues and are able to critically reflect on their own prejudices and gender "matrices" of the education system in the context of ‘gender v sex’. A questionnaire was the main method of data collection. A sociological survey, "Students on the problems of gender equality" was conducted at V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University (Ukraine). The survey was conducted based on a three-level probability sample, which ensures the representativeness of the data. The effectiveness of aspects of gender education in secondary schools and higher education institutions has been assessed. At school, the problems of gender equality are not discussed enough; more than 80% of all respondents did not learn anything at school on this topic. Every third student discussed the issues of gender parity in the university classes. As a rule, this was done in general courses (sociology, philosophy, law), as there are no special

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

307

disciplines on gender parity in society. The study reached the conclusion that respondents were unfamiliar with gender issues, so they might sometimes not see (perceive) certain gender prejudices and oppression in a student body, which encourages more attention to the development of gender-oriented disciplines of Ukrainian universities.

Keywords: gender pedagogy; gender parity; sociological study; values; gender stereotypes

1. Introduction In the modern world there are contradictions between the declared gender parity and the real asymmetry of social and family roles inherent in both genders, as well as between the universalization of gender functions, recognition of the importance of women's social activities and the stability of traditional gender stereotypes. In this situation, the importance of gender education as a necessary component of successful social adaptation of youth is growing (Bailey & Graves, 2016). In the context of the expansion of the European integration space, it is an important factor in the formation of tolerant behaviour of boys and girls and ensuring their full self-realization as individuals in various spheres of public life (Struffolino et al., 2016).

The study of gender aspects in youth education at all levels of education (from secondary to higher education) provides an opportunity to clarify the hierarchy of its subjective values, predict future life practices, and to better understand the age and cultural specifics of young people's understanding of gender priorities. That is why in the European educational space effective crosscultural studies of problems of gender socialization and gender education are carried out (Tetzner & Schuth, 2016).

The defining indicators of today are political, economic, social instability, growth and contradictions in the flow of information through innovative technologies, globalization and expansion of the cross-cultural sphere of interactions among people, and the transformation of management and educational spaces. According to such transformations, the requirements of the social, professional and personal development of a young person are increasing (Setti, 2017). This has contributed to the active attention of scientists to the development of scientific theses for the development of the personal sphere of youth, including gender tolerance in young men and women, in order to improve their gender culture, develop skills to resist stereotyping and reduce propensity for interpersonal conflicts (Karhina et al., 2016).

Therefore, we are most often confronted with certain gender stereotypes, that is, biased ideas, according to which women and men are arbitrarily determined by the characteristics and roles established and limited by their gender. At the same time, gender stereotypes can limit the development of natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experience and life potential in general (Muralidharan & Sheth, 2016). That is why research and analysis of gender issues and stereotypes of the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

308

professional environment understanding.

are

urgent,

relevant

and

require

a

new

In addition, in order to identify additional principles and trends in the development and implementation of the state’s gender policy in Ukraine, there still is an urgent need for open data for empirical analysis of gender issues in the professional environment of public institutions (Dvoriak et al., 2020). The professional environment within the Ukraine may benefit from a thorough analysis of available and ongoing data.

Breaking the traditional system of gender stratification, sudden weakening of the polarization of female and male social roles, changing cultural stereotypes of masculinity and femininity, and profound transformations in marital and family relations have necessitated a new gender approach in the organization of the educational process. In addition, the problem of gender education becomes especially relevant in conditions of modernization of secondary schools, which main task is the formation of students' civic responsibility, initiative, independence, tolerance, and ability to successfully socialize in society (Gibson et al., 2016). However, different methodological approaches, contradictions in the interpretation of certain concepts, and lack of systematic treatment of gender issues in domestic pedagogy create difficulties and delays, especially noticeable in the field of practical implementation of the principles of gender education in Ukrainian educational institutions. In this situation, the relevance of comprehensive coverage of relevant experience, generalized in foreign, especially European, pedagogical science, is growing.

The purpose of the study was to investigate gender stereotypes and prejudices that negatively affect women and men; it is important that students are aware of gender issues and are able to critically reflect on their own prejudices and gender "matrices" of the education system. Quality education is the key to women's and men’s economic independence.

2. Literature review Representatives of various branches of psychological science attach special importance to the above-mentioned issues. Within the general, social and gender psychology, attention is paid to the problem of socialization among the modern young generation, in particular, aspects of tolerance development as a factor in the formation of mature relationships of different genders (Caner et al., 2016; Reimão & Taş, 2017), adequate acceptance of their social role (Bertocchi & Bozzano, 2016), acquisition of ethical principles and value systems of intergender relations (Baker & Whitehead, 2016; Warin & Adriany, 2017; Amado & Diniz, 2017), building of family life and marital relations (Dobson & Ringrose, 2016; Cama et al., 2016). At the same time, the issue of gender parity as one of the conditions for readiness for tolerant interaction in intergender relations (Magnuson et al., 2016; Salavera et al., 2017), and political (Francis & Chiyem, 2017; Molina, 2016), and social life is becoming increasingly important in developmental psychology (Assari, 2017; Baizan et al., 2016.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

309

Psychologists studying intergender interactions, conducted a sub-contracted investigation of gender tolerance as a social norm and value in intergender interactions (Klein, 2016), as a characteristic of the value attitude of the individual to members of different genders (Kim & Park, 2017), and as a process and means of harmonizing intergender relations in society (Kleven & Landais, 2017). Researchers also explored the structural components, types and levels of gender tolerance (Núñez-Peña et al., 2016; Orakci et al., 2016), and touched on elements of its development (Burke, 2017; Van der Vleuten et al., 2016).

Modern psychologists point out that the development of gender tolerance in adolescence is associated with the growth of personal potential, emotional maturity, openness, enrichment of life experience (Leyva, 2017), and maturation of cognitive and emotional-volitional processes (Pampel et al., 2017), resulting in the development of cultural, social and gender identity (Xu, 2016), social, interethnic and personal tolerance (Subbaye & Vithal, 2017), the actualization of their own life position as a result of increased interest in themselves, the development of communicative and personal reflection, and the desire to defend their own position (Colgan, 2017).

As scientists have found, the processes of socialization and mastery of leading activities determine the development of value orientations of a personality in adolescence, with which they do not always agree, and which might serve as a basis for behaviour in representatives of different genders, which causes interpersonal conflict (Kellett & Fitton, 2017). Studying the main causes of conflict in youth’s environments, researchers point out that in the presence of a psychological culture (Eddy & Brownell, 2016), the youths can overcome communication barriers (Hauw et al., 2017), and resolve complex conflict situations, including gender issues, and show tolerance. On the other hand, differences in perception and withholding information from young people (Tansel & Güngör, 2016), unconstructive behaviour of conflicting parties (Cotton et al., 2016), and an imbalance in their social roles and corresponding gender-role behaviour (Addabbo et al., 2016) lead to a decrease in gender tolerance. Thus, the results of these studies show that the ability to resolve conflict situations increases the potential for gender tolerance.

3. Methodology From 30 April to 20 July 2021 the sociological study "Students on the problems of gender equality" was conducted at the V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University (Ukraine). The field stage of the study (survey) took place from 11 May to 29 June 2021. 800 male and female students (n = 800) who are citizens of Ukraine and studied full-time in departments of higher education institutions in the city of Kharkiv were interviewed.

Sample. The survey was conducted based on three-level probability sampling, which ensured the representativeness of the data for students of Kharkiv (fulltime departments, citizens of Ukraine). Initially, a randomized selection of faculties was conducted. At this stage the selection was stratified by types of faculties (socio-humanities, natural and technical). At the next stage, a random

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

310

selection of student groups was conducted. The third stage was the random selection of respondents in groups.

The size of the sample is indicated taking into account the data set based on the results of data consistency control and correction of filling and input errors.

Questionnaires that contained fundamental violations of the rules of the survey were removed from the set and not included in the analysis.

Statistical errors with a probability of 95% do not exceed (data on statistical errors are given without taking into account the design effect of the sample): 3.5% for values close to 50%; 3.0% for values close to 25% or 75%; 2.1% for values close to 10% or 90%; 1.5% for values close to 5% or 95%; 0.7% for values close to 1% or 99%.

The sample consisted of 39% males and 61% females, aged between 16 and 32 (with a mean age of 19.6, standard deviation of 1.8). Fifty-four percent of the respondents did their studies in sociology and the humanities (including law and/or economics), and 46% studied at natural sciences or technical faculties.

The participants in the survey were fairly evenly distributed over the courses: 21% studied in the first course, 27% in the second course, 25% in the third course, and 27% in the fourth and fifth courses.

Before entering the HEI (graduating from secondary school), 68% of the respondents had lived in the Kharkiv region, while 32% came from other regions of the Ukraine. The places of residence of the respondents were distributed as depicted in Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of places of residence of respondents by localities Kharkiv region — 68% The city of Kharkiv District centre Other city or urban settlement (SMT) Village Other regions of Ukraine — 32% Regional centre District centre Other city or SMT Village

38% 15% 8% 6% 6% 14% 10% 3%

The parameters of the sample, in general, reflect the model of the general population and meet the requirements of representativeness, which allows for extending the findings of the study to all students and citizens of the Ukraine, who study full-time at departments of HEIs in Kharkiv. The characteristics of the respondents are given in Appendix A. Input and further processing of primary information obtained from the questionnaires was done using software packages for processing sociological questionnaires, SPSS 11.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

311

4. Results Political changes, the strengthening of European integration orientations, and the signing of the Association Agreement with the European Union (EU) by Ukraine have created an important new impetus for the integration of the gender approach in education after 2014. Among the most important changes of this period, that is, those that have a significant potential for systemic changes in Ukrainian education, we note the main ones. (i) Institutional consolidation of anti-discrimination examination of school textbooks and the creation of a working group on gender equality policy and anti-discrimination in education by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (MES of Ukraine). (ii) Close cooperation of experts and researchers with the education community and the reaching of expert knowledge beyond the academic community and the university audience. (iii) A growing public interest in gender content knowledge, the emergence of critical reflection on the practices of gender education in kindergartens and schools, and the grassroots mobilization of students to combat sexism in universities.

An important indicator of the effectiveness of gender education is lessons in secondary school in which teachers discuss the issue of gender equality with the learners. In general, only 18% of male and female students mentioned that gender issues were discussed in the secondary school. Others either said, "No, they didn't talk about it at school" confidently, or said "no" less confidently because they did not remember such discussions (Figure 1).

18%

22%

Yes, they did No, they did not Do not remember/No answer

60%

Figure 1: "Please, indicate whether your school teachers told you about gender equality" %. Population: all respondents (n = 800)

There were no significant statistical differences in the answers of males and females, in the answers of students from socio-humanities faculties and students from natural sciences and technical faculties, as well as in the answers

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

312

of respondents living in localities of different types. The only significant difference was found in the responses of first-year students, among whom significantly more indicated they had learned about the problem of gender equality in the secondary school (27%), while the responses of second-, third-, fourth- and fifth-year students were identical (Figure 2).

7%

PhD degree

78% 15%

5% Master degree

73%

22% 13% Bachelor degree

60%

27% 0%

20% Do not remember

40%

60%

No, they did not

80%

100%

Yes, they did

Figure 2: "Please, indicate whether your school teachers told you about gender equality." Distribution of answers depending on the level of education of respondents, %. Populations: students with degrees of: «Bachelor’s» (n = 384), «Master’s» (n = 202), «PhD» (n = 214)

This difference is due to students with the degree of "bachelor" still had gender equality lessons in some schools. It is also possible that the retrospective nature of the question had its effect here — the events of the past are better remembered by those who have recently experienced them.

Gender equality lessons were remembered by 1% of all surveyed students (or 6% of those who learned about gender equality from secondary school teachers). This topic was most often discussed in other school lessons (11% of all respondents, or 60% of those who learned about gender equality in school), or teachers talked to former students about gender equality in extra-curricular activities (9% of all respondents, or 40% of those who learned about gender equality in school) (Figure 3).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

313

4%

They did not told about gender equality in school

School teachers told about gender issues during non-school hours

9%

86%

Other lessons

1%

Gender equality lessons

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 3: "In which lessons were the issues of gender equality discussed?", %* Population: all respondents (n = 800). *When answering the question "In which lessons were the issues of gender equality discussed?", respondents could select more than one answer, so the sum of all variants may exceed 100 %.

Responding to the question on during which lessons, apart from the gender equality lesson, students were told about gender issues, 86% responded "other lessons", supplementing their answers with the names of school subjects, such as law, legal science — 14%; history, history of Ukraine — 13%; man and society, man and the world, sociology — 10%; health and safety — 7%; biology, valeology — 6%; Ukrainian literature, Russian literature — 5%; ethics, aesthetics, culturology, family ethics — 5%; psychology — 2%; geography — 1%; English language — 1%; economics — 1%; philosophy — 1%; other subjects — 3%.

Let's consider the issue of gender education in higher education institutions.

Gender issues are discussed much more often in higher education institutions than in secondary schools — about one in three students discussed gender equality issues at a university (Figure 4).

34%

66%

Yes, they were discussed

No, they were not discussed

Figure 4: "Were gender equality issues discussed in your HEI?", %. Population: all respondents (n = 800)

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

314

Gender issues are much more often discussed with students in sociohumanities faculties. This finding is associated with the training programmes and curricula of Ukrainian universities. It can also be said that female students more often are involved in the discussion of gender issues in HEI than male students, but this difference is statistically insignificant and is due to the fact that females are more likely to study at socio-humanities faculties, that is, in subjects such as law, history, social sciences and languages. The comments of respondents in the “other” option column are almost identical — teachers told schoolchildren about gender equality during “klassny chas” (homeroom period), in an open lesson on September 1, or after the “last bell”; thus, these answers complemented the option "teachers talked about gender issues during non-school hours".

There is a dependence of the frequency of discussion of gender equality issues during the classes in HEI on the year of study of students (Figure 5). The higher the year of study, the more often students discussed these topics during classes. In general, this is not surprising as, the higher the year of study of students, the more courses they took, and the more likely it was that the issues under discussion were raised in some of them.

However, these differences are quite small (statistically insignificant, at the level of 5%).

41% 45% 40% 31% 35% 28%

30% 25% 20% 15% 10%

PhD degree

5%

Bachelor degree

0% Yes, they were discussed

Figure 5: "Were gender equality issues discussed in your HEI?" Distribution of answers depending on the level of education of respondents, %. Populations: students with the degrees of “bachelor” (n = 224), “master” (n = 248), and PhD (n = 392)

Let's see at what classes the problems of gender equality were discussed (Figure 6). In this study, we came across only one special course on gender issues, namely "Gender Psychology”, offered at a psychology faculty of one HEI (3% of all respondents and 10% of those students who discussed the issues of gender equality at HEIs).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

315

The issues of gender equality were not discussed in the university

66%

Other option

1%

Gender problems were discussed with teachers during non-school hours

8%

Topics within some other course (courses)

23%

Course on gender problems

3% 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Figure 6: “At what classes were the problems of gender equality discussed?”, %; Population: all respondents (n=800)

When answering the question “At what classes were the problems of gender equality discussed?”, respondents could select more than one answer option, so the sum of all options may exceed 100%.

Most often, gender issues are discussed within some topics of other courses (Table 2). This was reported by 23% of all respondents (73% of those who discussed gender equality in HEIs).

Table 2: Other university courses where gender issues were discussed, % Course name Sociology, sociological disciplines Psychology, psychological disciplines Culturology Philosophy Theory of state and law, constitutional law Demography Political Science

% 41 9 6 5 5 4 3

Ecology, theory of evolution Ethics Rhetoric History

2 2 1 1

Other courses

4

Notes: Population: male and female students who discussed gender equality issues in higher education institutions (n = 274)

Gender issues are discussed with teachers outside the classroom (8% of all respondents and 23% of those who discussed gender equality in HEIs). The item "Other” option remains 1% and 3%, respectively. Among the comments made by male and female students, the following were the most common: "a

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

316

scientific conference on gender equality was held", "gender issues were the topic of the meeting of a scientific group", "this was the topic (related to the topic) of a term paper".

One of the important indicators of the effectiveness of gender education is the ability of students to explain the meaning of the term "gender" in such phrases as "gender policy", "gender equality", and "gender parity". In conclusion, it was deemed important to determine the level of involvement of respondents in gender issues. A direct, formalized question was posed to measure this aspect: "How clear is the meaning of the term ’gender’ to you in phrases such as ’gender policy’, ’gender equality’?”. This question was supplemented by a request to explain in their own words what gender equality is (an open question in the questionnaire).

About understanding of the concept of “gender”, 70% of the respondents answered they understood the concept. Almost a third of all respondents (32%) expressed readiness to define the concept of “gender” and another 38% said they understood the concept, although it is was difficult for them to define it, and 30% of respondents admitted that the concept of “gender” was not familiar to them (Figure 7).

I do not know the meaning of the word “gender”

30%

I understand what “gender” is but it is difficult for me to give the definition of the concept

38%

I know what “gender” is and can explain the meaning of the word

32%

0%

20%

40%

Figure 7: "How clear is the meaning of the term ’gender’ to you in phrases such as ’gender policy’, ’gender equality’?”, %. Population: all respondents (n = 800)

How honest were the respondents answering the direct question about the understanding of the concept of “gender”? To determine this, the content of the responses to the open question, “Explain in your own words what gender equality is?” was analysed. This question was answered by 54% of the respondents, and if one excludes meaningless answers, the number of those who answered, is exactly 50%. The answers of the respondents were classified.

The results of this classification are presented in Table 3.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

317

Table 3: “Explain in your own words what gender equality is” % Typ e

Answe r conten t

Answer % example s Gender equality.

Equality of men and women.

Equality of men and women in society.

A definition is given Equality of men and when a respondent women in the modern І 27 understands who is world. equal Equality of men and women in different spheres of life.

Gender equality in life situations.

Gender equality in social issues.

Equality of rights for men and women.

Equality of rights and opportunities of men and women.

Equality of social role, rights, freedoms and A definition is given opportunities of men when a respondent and women. understands who Men and women and what is equal, ІІ 23 having equal rights to including detailed education, work, answers, the etc. respondent's Equality of men and reasoning women in their rights, non-discrimination of women.

Equal opportunities for men and women in achieving life goals, professional growth.

Equality in rights, Meaningless ІІІ Х 3 opportunities, definitions attitudes, social status Borrowed answers Х 1 IV regardless of gender.

No answer Х 46 V Equal rights of men and women in The level of understanding of what “gender” is, did not depend on the gender choosing a profession, of the respondents — 55% of males andlife46% of females had no idea of the values, etc. meaning of this concept (the relation is weak, the differences are not significant No restrictions on at 5%). It is interesting to note that according to the results social advancement in of the formalized question, the responses of female and male respondents society for men or differed significantly. women.

The level of misunderstanding by respondents of phrases with the word of men and "gender" was 37% among males and 25% Role among females. women in the modern world, the distribution of possible social roles in the family, at work, http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter etc.

318

Significant differences were expected in the answers of "physicists" and "lyricists". But the actual differences were small: 56% of "physicists" and 44% of "lyricists" knew nothing about gender and gender equality (the relation is still weak, but the differences in percentages are statistically significant at 5%). Thus, as a result of the semantic analysis of free answers it may be concluded that there was no distinct difference in the understanding of gender categories by students of different types of faculties.

One can talk about small and quite predictable differences in the answers of respondents of different study years — first- and second-year students were slightly less informed about gender categories than upper-year students — the percentages of those who were not familiar with the concept of "gender" are 54% and 45–47%, respectively. The involvement of students from different localities in gender issues was approximately equal.

5. Discussion The situation is partially saved by teachers and professors of various humanities who draw the attention of schoolchildren and students in their classes to gender issues. Without these initiatives, discussion of gender issues in schools and HEIs would have been catastrophically small.

In our opinion, among the promising areas for further change, the following are the most important: a. Approve the Strategy for the Implementation of Gender Equality in Education (Mardashova et al., 2021). b. Work on the integration of a gender-sensitive approach in the system of preschool education, in particular, training for authors of preschool education programmes and provide them with counselling; provide advanced training for teachers of preschool institutions to increase their gender competence (Dorji, 2020). c. Create a mechanism of anti-discrimination assessment of the entire educational process at all levels as currently this assessment is passed only by school textbooks, which are published at the expense of the budget (Keddie, 2020). d. Review career guidance programmes, which often are based on gender stereotypes (Kellett & Fitton, 2017). e. Strengthen professional research on gender issues in the field of higher education and science, introduce gender optics in the teaching of professional courses in various subjects, especially the humanities (Dvoriak et al., 2020).

6. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions can be drawn.

When asked about the existence and nature of gender discrimination in the Ukraine, almost half of all respondents believed that gender discrimination in Ukraine affects both genders although in different spheres of life.

Unfortunately, a significant proportion of respondents (28%) did not recognise the problem at all, as they believed that in most spheres of life men and women have equal rights and opportunities. Only one in five believed that men have more rights and opportunities.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

319

At school, the problems of gender equality are not discussed enough; more than 80% of all respondents did not learn anything on this topic at school. As for HEIs, special subjects on gender equality are not yet offered to most students.

At best, students discuss these issues as separate topics within the general courses of sociology, psychology, culturology, and other subjects. Students of faculties of sociology, psychology, philosophy, and other human sciences had relatively greater opportunities to become informed about gender issues, as these are included in various special subjects that they studied.

Despite these findings, the level of student involvement in gender issues cannot be considered low, as it is clear that educational institutions are not the only source of information for young people. The level of interest of students in discussing the topic of gender equality also adds some optimism.

Detail of the design of training programmes in accordance with the standards of the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (MESU) posed a limitation to conducting this study. At the social and humanities faculties, for example, there are more subjects related to gender, thus, naturally, these students are more familiar with this issue. In future, it will be necessary to adjust the standards of the Ministry of Education and Science regarding the issue of gender education for all students.

7. References Addabbo, T., Di Tommaso, M. L. & Maccagnan, A. (2016). Education capability: A focus on gender and science. Social Indicators Research, 128(2), 793–812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1057-8 Amado, N. & Diniz, A.M. (2017). Strength of religious faith in the Portuguese Catholic elderly: Effects of aging, gender, education, and religious participation. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 39(1), 82–98.

Assari, S. (2017). Social determinants of depression: The intersections of race, gender, and socioeconomic status.

Brain Sciences, 7(12), 156. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7120156 Bailey, L.E. & Graves, K. (2016). Gender and education. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 682–722. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16680193 Baizan, P., Arpino, B. & Delclós, C.E. (2016). The effect of gender policies on fertility: The moderating role of education and normative context. European Journal of Population, 32(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-015-9356-y Baker, J.O. & Whitehead, A.L. (2016). Gendering (non) religion: Politics, education, and gender gaps in secularity in the United States. Social Forces, 94(4), 1623–1645. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sov119 Bertocchi, G. & Bozzano, M. (2016). Women, medieval commerce, and the education gender gap.

Journal of Comparative Economics, 44(3), 496–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2015.09.002 Burke, P.J. (2017). Difference in higher education pedagogies: Gender, emotion and shame.

Gender and Education, 29(4), 430–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2017.1308471 Cama, M.G., Jorge, M.L. & Peña, F.J.A. (2016). Gender differences between faculty members in higher education: A literature review of selected higher education journals.

Educational Research Review, 18, 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.03.001

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

320

Caner, A., Guven, C., Okten, C. & Sakalli, S.O. (2016). Gender roles and the education gender gap in Turkey. Social Indicators Research, 129(3), 1231–1254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1163-7 Colgan, J. (2017). Gender bias in international relations graduate education? New evidence from syllabi. PS: Political Science & Politics, 50(2), 456–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096516002997 Cotton, D.R., Joyner, M., George, R. & Cotton, P.A. (2016). Understanding the gender and ethnicity attainment gap in UK higher education. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(5), 475–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2015.1013145 Dobson, A.S. & Ringrose, J. (2016). Sex education: Pedagogies of sex, gender and shame in the schoolyards of Tagged and Exposed. Sex Education, 16(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2015.1050486 Dorji, T. (2020). Gender Responsive Pedagogy Awareness and Practices: A Case Study of a Higher Secondary School under Thimphu Thromde, Bhutan. International Journal of Linguistics and Translation Studies, 1(2), 100–111. https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlts.v1i2.21 Dvoriak, S., Karagodina, O. & Semigina, T. (2020). Gender competences of social work students: Do we need a transformative approach? Social Work and Education, 7(3), 279–288.

Eddy, S.L. & Brownell, S.E. (2016). Beneath the numbers: A review of gender disparities in undergraduate education across science, technology, engineering, and math disciplines.

Physical Review Physics Education Research, 12(2), 20106. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.12.020106 Francis, U.C. & Chiyem, N.L. (2017). Gender, education and marital status as determinants of leadership styles among pastoral leaders. International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 2(5), 239213. https://doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.3 Gibson, P.A., Baker, E.H. & Milner, A.N. (2016). The role of sex, gender, and education on depressive symptoms among young adults in the United States. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.067 Hauw, Y. De., Grow, A. & Van Bavel, J. (2017). The reversed gender gap in education and assortative mating in Europe. European Journal of Population, 33(4), 445–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-016-9407-z Karhina, K., Ng., N., Ghazinour, M. & Eriksson, M. (2016). Gender differences in the association between cognitive social capital, self-rated health, and depressive symptoms: A comparative analysis of Sweden and Ukraine. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 10(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0068-4 Keddie, A. (2020). Engaging boys and young men in gender transformation: The possibilities and limits of a pedagogy of empathy. Norma, 15(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2019.1706883 Kellett, P., & Fitton, C. (2017). Supporting trans-visibility and gender diversity in nursing practice and education: Embracing cultural safety. Nursing Inquiry, 24(1), 12146. https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12146 Kim, M., & Park, J. M. (2017). Factors affecting cognitive function according to gender in community-dwelling elderly individuals. Epidemiology and Health, 39. https://doi.org/10.4178/epih.e2017054 Klein, U. (2016). Gender equality and diversity politics in higher education: Conflicts, challenges and requirements for collaboration. Women's Studies International Forum, 54, 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2015.06.017

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

321

Kleven, H. & Landais, C. (2017). Gender inequality and economic development: Fertility, education and norms.

Economica, 84(334), 180–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12230 Leyva, L.A. (2017). Unpacking the male superiority myth and masculinization of mathematics at the intersections: A review of research on gender in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(4), 397–433. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.48.4.0397 Magnuson, K.A., Kelchen, R., Duncan, G.J., Schindler, H.S., Shager, H. & Yoshikawa, H. (2016). Do the effects of early childhood education programs differ by gender? A meta-analysis.

Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 521–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.021 Mardashova, R., Garnysheva, T., Sharafetdinova, Z., Konovalova, E., Khakimova, G. & Khakimova, N. (2021). Issues of gender pedagogy: Teaching boys the masculinity (preschool childhood stage). In E3S Web of Conferences, 258. EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202125810022 Molina, T. (2016). Reporting heterogeneity and health disparities across gender and education levels: Evidence from four countries. Demography, 53(2), 295–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0456-z Muralidharan, K. & Sheth, K. (2016). Bridging education gender gaps in developing countries: The role of female teachers. Journal of Human Resources, 51(2), 269–297. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.2.0813-5901R1 Núñez-Peña, M.I., Suárez-Pellicioni, M. & Bono, R. (2016). Gender differences in test anxiety and their impact on higher education students’ academic achievement.

Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 228, 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.07.023 Orakci, S., Aktan, O., Toraman, Ç. & Çevik, H. (2016). The Influence of Gender and Special Education Training on Attitudes Towards Inclusion. International Journal of Instruction, 9(2), 107–122.

Pampel, F.C., Bricard, D., Khlat, M. & Legleye, S. (2017). Life course changes in smoking by gender and education: A cohort comparison across France and the United States.

Population Research and Policy Review, 36(3), 309–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-016-9424-y Reimão, M.E. & Taş, E.O. (2017). Gender Education Gaps among Indigenous and Non‐Indigenous Groups in Bolivia. Development and Change, 48(2), 228–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12292 Salavera, C., Usan, P. & Jarie, L. (2017). Emotional intelligence and social skills on selfefficacy in secondary education students: Are there gender differences? Journal of Adolescence, 60, 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.07.009 Setti, Z. (2017). Entrepreneurial intentions among youth in MENA countries: Effects of gender, education, occupation and income. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 30(3), 308–324.

Struffolino, E., Studer, M. & Fasang, A.E. (2016 ). Gender, education, and family life courses in East and West Germany: Insights from new sequence analysis techniques.

Advances in Life Course Research, 29, 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2015.12.001 Subbaye, R. & Vithal, R. (2017). Gender, teaching and academic promotions in higher education.

Gender and Education, 29(7), 926–951. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1184237 Tansel, A. & Güngör, N.D. (2016). Gender effects of education on economic development in Turkey. In Women, Work and Welfare in the Middle East and North Africa:

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

322

The Role of Socio-demographics. Entrepreneurship and Public Policies, 57–86. https://doi.org/10.1142/9781783267347_0003 Tetzner, J. & Schuth, M. (2016). Anxiety in late adulthood: Associations with gender, education, and physical and cognitive functioning. Psychology and Aging, 31(5), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000108 Van der Vleuten, M., Jaspers, E., Maas, I. & van der Lippe, T. (2016). Boys’ and girls’ educational choices in secondary education. The role of gender ideology.

Educational Studies, 42(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2016.1160821 Warin, J. & Adriany, V. (2017). Gender flexible pedagogy in early childhood education.

Journal of Gender Studies, 26(4), 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12642 Xu, Y.J. (2016). Aspirations and application for graduate education: Gender differences in low-participation STEM disciplines. Research in Higher Education, 57(8), 913– 942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-016-9411-5

Appendix.

Appendix А. Distribution of survey respondents by corresponding characteristics

39%

61%

Men

Women

Figure A1: Distribution of respondents by gender, %

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

323

25 years and older

2%

24 years

1%

23 years

1%

22 years

9%

21 years

13%

20 years

18%

19 years

26%

18 years

21%

17 years

8%

16 years

1% 0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Figure A2: Distribution of respondents by age, %

Technical

32%

Natural sciences

14%

Law

14%

Economics, management

24%

Social-humanitarian

16% 0%

10%

20%

30%

Figure A3: Distribution of respondents by faculty, %

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

40%

324

5% 10%

85%

Bachelor degree

Master degree

PhD degree

Figure A4: Distribution of respondents by education level, %

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

325

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 325-345, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.18 Received Sep 06, 2021; Revised Nov 14, 2021; Accepted Nov 24, 2021

Pre-Service Teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy and the Use of Computers Admire Chibisa and Mswazi Gladson Tshabalala Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Zululand, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3615-4645 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4060-9529 Mncedisi Christian Maphalala* School of Professional Studies in Education Studies, North-West University, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1078-1985

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of preservice teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their use of computers. The research used a quantitative design whose data were collected by using a structured five-point Likert scale questionnaire with responses ranging from 1(strongly agree) to 5(strongly disagree). Simple random sampling was used to select a representative sample of 400 participants from a population of 4000 pre-service teachers, of which 332 of them were successfully returned, yielding a response rate of 83%. The study employed the Technology-Acceptance Model with eight constructs, namely; demographic influence (DI), social influence (SI), basic computer skills (CS), access to computers (AC), perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), computer self-efficacy (CSE), and actual computer use (AU). Factor analysis was used to analyse the data generated from the survey, with the help of PLS-SEM, using the SmartPLS software version 3.0. The findings of the study indicated that each of the identified factors in the model had a significant effect on CSE. In essence, the identified explanatory variables explained 73.7% of the variance in CSsE. The four independent variables explained 45.4% of the variance in PU of computers and 66.5% of the variance in PEOU of computer use. The CSE model also explained 60.6% of the variance in computer use. In order to develop a strong CSE for pre-service teachers, it is recommended that higher education institutions ensure that all students have access to the necessary computers, proper connectivity, and skilled technicians.

Keywords: pre-service teachers; computer self-efficacy; basic computer skills; access to computers *

Corresponding author: Mncedisi Christian Maphalala; email: 25787810@nwu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

326

1. Background to the Study Developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) affect socio-economic issues, such as medicine, banking, agriculture, transportation, engineering, as well as higher education. This has forced many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to incorporate technology, such as e-learning into the teaching and learning processes, in orderto enhance learning efficiency and to help gain a competitive edge (Saleh, 2008). The e-Learning activities started in 1955 as Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (Aparicio et al., 2016).

The interactions in e-learning settings comprise human–human, called computermediated communication, and the human-computer interaction (Reichert & Hartmann, 2004). E-learning was underutilised in the past, especially in developing countries. However, the current crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic has forced the entire world to rely on it for education( Zalat, Hamed and Bolbol: 2021).

According to Suresh et al. (2018), e-learning facilitates the distribution of content at the same time, to a large number of users; e-learning platforms offer many advantages to learners, such as control over the content, control over the time spent in the learning; and consequently the process can be adapted, according to the learner’s needs and the objectives of learning. The e-learning also prepares students to meet the demands of their eventual workplace through synchronous and asynchronous learning environments, resources, and services (DuFrene et al., 2011; Šumak et al., 2011).

Some of these e-learning resources and services include the uploading of Content, Lessons, Student Administration, Assignments, Forums, Wikis, Student Assessment, and Feedback (Costa et al., 2012; Šumak et al., 2011). However, despite the proliferation of e-learning resources and services in HEIs, students vary in their confidence levels concerning the usage of technology (DuFrene et al., 2011). Furthermore, the confidence levels of using computers are affected by the individual’s computer self-efficacy (Kent & Giles, 2017) to use the technology.

Computer self-efficacy is an individual's belief about his/her ability to complete a particular task when using a computer (Compeau & Higgins, 1995). CSE depends on technological and human factors (Hauser et al., 2012; Hueros et al., 2010). Therefore, this research was interested in understanding the factors affecting an individual’s computer self-efficacy (CSE) to use computers. CSE is a key factor in the adoption of ICTs; there is no wonder why it has been researched extensively (Balogun & Olanrewaju, 2016; Clayton et al., 2017; Hauser et al., 2012; Sarfo et al., 2017).

Unfortunately, very little could be found on the relationship of pre-service teachers’ CSE and their use of computers. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their use of computers.

The study further sought to answer the following research questions: RQ1: What are the determinants of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy?

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

327

RQ2: What is the effect of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their computer use?

RQ3: Is there a relationship between pre-service teachers’ demographics and their use of computers?

2. The Theoretical Framework This study used the Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM); because it is an appropriate theoretical tool to determine the actual computer use, given the external variables affecting pre-service teachers at the research site. TAM has predicted the acceptability of an information system by an individual (Davis, 1993). The theory states that the acceptability and use of an information system is informed by two distinct factors. These two factors are: the perceived ease-of-use (PEOU) and the perceived usefulness (PU) of the technology.

PEOU is the degree to which an individual believes that the use of a system would be easy. PU is the degree to which an individual believes that the use of a system would improve his performance. PEOU and PU (Figure 1) can influence an individual’s attitude towards using technology in their individual capacities.

However, PEOU and PU are also interrelated and the PEOU of information technology can directly affect the PU of the same information system. External factors also influence the PEOU and the PU of an information system. The external factors in turn, influence the attitude towards using an information system, thereby leading to the actual use of the information system, or a decision not to use it.

Perceived Usefulness

Attitude towards Using

Actual System Use

Perceived Ease of Use Figure 1: Technology-Acceptance Model (Davis, 1993, p. 476)

The external factors in Figure 1 refer to the external stimulus, while the perceived usefulness and the ease of use refer to the cognitive response. Attitude towards and actual system use refer to the attitudinal response and the behavioural response, respectively.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

328

3. The Literature Review 3.1 Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) Computer Self-Efficacy refers to a judgment of one's ability to use a computer (Compeau & Higgins, 1995, p. 192), which is founded on Bandura‘s self-efficacy theory of behavioural change (Bandura & Adams, 1977). Self-efficacy is indispensable for success in blended learning contexts (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010).

CSE is the belief a person has that he/she can apply computer skills in performing various computer-related tasks.

According to Compeau and Higgins (1995), a person displaying a high magnitude of CSE perceives that he/she can perform and be able to accomplish demanding computer activities; while a person with a low CSE magnitude perceives that he/she cannot. CSE strength denotes the confidence a person has to perform various activities on the computer. A person with a strong sense of CSE is highly confident, and would never be discouraged by obstacles, but continues to tackle difficult activities. On the other hand, those who display weak CSE are less confident; and they believe that they cannot do difficult activities. Lastly, selfefficacy generally, as a domain, refers to the degree to which a person believes that he/she can perform the same activities under any circumstances, when using any hardware and/or any software (Compeau & Higgins, 1995).

3.2 The Factors affecting computer self-efficacy A host of factors affect an individual’s computer self-efficacy, ranging from social influence to technological influence. This study has identified six of those factors.

These are namely: demographic influence, social influence, basic computer skills, access to computers, perceived usefulness and perceived ease-of-use. It was, therefore, significant for this study to examine the effects of these factors, as they affect CSE and the use of computers in turn (Compeau et al., 1999; Martinko et al., 1996). In agreement with Teo and Koh (2010), this study also considered that computer self-efficacy is a multi-dimensional construct. In this study, CSE has six constructs explained therein, the inertia of which impact computer use.

3.2.1 The Demographic influence There are mixed views on the effect of gender on CSE. Findings from Teo and Koh (2010) indicate that male students demonstrated higher levels of computer selfefficacy than female students – even though the lower level of computer selfefficacy does not negatively impact female students’ learning attitudes and outcome. Females’ lower level of computer self-efficacy indicates positive motivation in their learning (Dang et al., 2016). In most cases, the number of the gender differences is not large (Durndell & Haag, 2002). Therefore, studies on gender and computer self-efficacy seem to have few conclusive results on male or female experience in the use of computers. Many schools in rural and township areas in South Africa do not have any access to computers, the Internet, adequate skills, or relevant computer programs (Galpin et al., 2003; Nkula & Krauss, 2014; Tire & Mlitwa, 2007), which should translate into low levels of CSE. This is not always true. According to Okhakhume and Ogunlude (2016), students who displayed high CSE in their secondary education also have positive attitudes towards the use of computers.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

329

In a study conducted by Alahakoon (2016), involving students from 2nd and 3rdyear levels of study at the Dental Faculty, the students doing third-year level displayed high levels of computer self-efficacy. However, there is no consensus on the effects of gender, age, and computer training on CSE (Cassidy & Eachus, 2002; Sarfo et al., 2017). In the light of the arguments in this section, it is clear that the demographic influence plays a part in pre-service teachers CSE. This study hypothesised that: H1: The demographic influence affects an individual’s perceived usefulness of a computer.

H2: The demographic influence affects an individual’s computer efficacy.

H3: The demographic influence affects an individual’s perceived ease of use on a computer.

3.2.2 The social influence The social influence refers to how other people influence an individual’s perception, beliefs, and attitudes towards using a system (Lee et al., 2021).

According to Al Kurdi et al., (2020), research has shown that social influence strongly affects PU and also PEOU. A study conducted by Pontoh (2017) shows that social factors influence the use of technology, such that if social influence increases, then technology use also increases. The influence that an individual experiences from his/her colleagues motivates an individual to improve the use of technology. Hence, the following hypotheses were derived: H4: The Social influence affects an individual’s perceived usefulness of a computer; H5: The Social influence affects an individual’s computer efficacy; H6: The Social influence affects an individual’s perceived ease-of-using a computer.

3.2.3 Basic computer skills Basic computer skills in this paper refer to one’s ability to perform fundamental tasks on a computer. It is envisaged that these basis skills affect one’s CSE. This is in tandem with the views of Cassidy and Eachus (2002), that experience with basic computer skills and the knowledge of software packages affects CSE. This view was supported by Karsten & Roth (1998) that, there was a substantial increase in CSE for students, who were taught in an introductory computer science course compared to their counterparts, who only received verbal instruction, and who displayed no significant increase in CSE. In support of this opinion, Magliaro and Ezeife (2007) found that computer experience was one of the major factors in predicting the computer self-efficacy scores of pre-service teachers. This study purports to validate these claims, hence the following hypotheses: H7: Basic computer skills affect an individual’s perceived usefulness with a computer; H8: Basic computer skills affect an individual’s computer self-efficacy; H9: Basic computer skills affect an individual’s perceived ease-of-use with a computer.

3.2.4 Access to Computers This study also looked at whether there was a relationship between access to computers and CSE. Access to computers can be referred to as computer experience (John, 2013). Computer experience looks at how frequently the user uses a computer for different purposes, tasks, and activities. While considering

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

330

the antecedents of computer self-efficacy, it was found that computer knowledge and previous computer experience significantly influence one’s CSE (John, 2013).

The more an individual is familiar with using various computer applications, such as social-networking programs, the higher is his/her CSE (Eastin & LaRose, 2000; John, 2013). Individuals with prior computer experience prior to using an application, display higher levels of CSE than individuals without such experience (Torkzadeh & Koufteros, 1994). Based on these studies, the current researchers hypothesise that: H10: Access to computers affects an individual’s perceived usefulness of a computer; H11: Access to computers affects an individual’s computer self-efficacy; H12: Access to computers affects an individual’s perceived ease-of-use of a computer.

3.2.5 Perceived Ease-of-Use Perceived ease-of-use is an indirect determinant of behavioural intention; and it indicates the user-friendliness of systems, which directly affects a system’s usefulness (Davis, 1989). In the theoretical model, TAM, PEOU is the degree to which an individual believes that the use of a system would be free of effort.

PEOU also influences PU; and they both affect CSE. He et al. (2018) stated that the perceived ease-of-use improves computer self-efficacy, which in turn affects the adoption thereof. Similarly, the current study hypothesises that: H13: The perceived Ease-of-Use affects an individual’s Perceived usefulness; H14: The perceived Ease-of-Use affects an individual’s computer self-efficacy.

3.2.6 The perceived usefulness The PU is the degree to which an individual believes that the use of a system would improve his performance. An individual’s feelings and behaviour have a considerable influence on the CSE (Ariff et al. (2012). Therefore, PEOU and PU are directly related to CSE (Ariff et al., 2012; Hasan, 2003; John, 2013). Consequently, the researchers postulate that: H15: The perceived usefulness affects an individual’s computer self-efficacy 3.2.7 Computer self-efficacy Computer self-efficacy refers to an individual’s judgment of his/her competence in operating computer applications (Muslichah, 2018). Other studies claim that computer self-efficacy is positively related to behavioural intention (Muslichah, 2018; Park, 2009). Joo et al. (2018) discovered that teacher self-efficacy has a positive influence on the intention to use technology. In another study conducted

by Lew et al., (2019), the students were required to handle and design a Cloud eLearning application. The students who easily handled the flow and the design of Cloud e-Learning applications were interested in continuing to use it. The current study intends to further investigate the relationship between CSE and actual computer use. Thus, this study proposes that: H16: Computer self-efficacy influences an individual’s actual computer use.

These constructs and their hypotheses are interrelated in the proposed conceptual model in Figure 2. The model variables are: demographic influence (DI), social influence (SI), basic computer skills (CS), access to computers (AC), perceived ease-of-use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), computer self-efficacy (CSE), and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

331

actual computer use (AU), (PU), computer self-efficacy (CSE), and actual

computer use (AU).

Figure 2: Computer Self-Efficacy conceptual model

4. The Research Methodology This research used a quantitative design. A research design is a plan of how the researcher systematically collects and analyses the data that are needed to answer the research questions (Bertram & Christiansen, 2014). The data were collected by using a structured five-point Likert scale questionnaire, with responses ranging from 1(strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). After getting ethical clearance, consent was sought from and granted by the participants, who were informed that they had the right to voluntarily participate or withdraw from the study at any time.

The study sample of 400 participants was derived from a population of 4000 preservice teachers, according to the 10% rule, suggested by Conroy (2015). Simple random sampling was used. The instrument was then distributed to the participants. Of the 400 distributed questionnaires, 332 of them were returned successfully, yielding a respectable response rate of 83%. There were 151 male and 181 female participants. Ethical procedures were observed both during and after the study, in order to honour the rights of the participants. Accordingly, we adhered to the following ethical considerations: Before the data collection, we ensured that we had obtained the participants' informed consent, while, during, and after the data collection; we protected the participants from harm and ensured their confidentiality and anonymity. Ethical clearence was issued by the Ethics Committee of the University, before the study was conducted.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

332

5. Presentation and Analysis of the Results The results of the study are presented herewith. The Demographic profiling of the 0participants is presented first, followed by the measurement model, and finally the structural model. In a nutshell, the model has the following constructs: demographic influence (DI), social influence (SI), basic computer skills (CS), access to computers (AC), perceived ease-of-use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), computer self-efficacy (CSE), and actual computer use (AU).

5.1 The demographic data There were three items measuring the demographic data, as shown in Table 1.

These items were: Gender, high-school location, and, age.

Table 1: Distribution of demographic data (N=332)

Demographic variables Male Gender Female Urban High-School Rural Location Informal settlement Township 17 or less 18-19 Age (in years) 20-21 22-23 24 or more

Frequency 151 181 16 243 7 66 3 98 92 81 58

Percent 45.5 54.5 4.8 73.2 2.1 19.9 0.9 29.5 27.7 24.4 17.5

More females (54.5%) participated in the study than males (45.5%). Most of the participants attended their schooling in rural areas (73.2%). This is because the institution at which the study took place was rurally based. The participants’ ages ranged from younger than 17 years to older than 24 years. The majority of them were between the ages of 18 and 19 years, and rightly so, because these were undergraduate pre-service teachers. The number of those over the age of 24 years was justified; because the institution allows a quarter of the mature entry students to attend and participate.

5.2 The analytical technique To examine the proposed research model, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used, as was done in previous researches (Daragmeh et al., 2021; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020b; Shmueli et al., 2019). PLSSEM is a good strategy for models with many latent variables, items, and hypotheses (Daragmeh et al., 2021). PLS-SEM is founded on explaining the underlying reason, and then forecasting the envisaged future behaviour (Daragmeh et al., 2021; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020a).

Mutambara and Bayaga (2020a) added that the primary goal of PLS-SEM is to predict the endogenous variable, in this case, computer use among pre-service teachers. The PSL-SEM was also used to evaluate the effect of pre-service teachers’ demographics on their use of computers.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

333

The analysis followed a two-stage approach,as suggested by Hair Jr et al. (2016) that the robustness of a model is assessed through the suitability and quality of its measurement model, and then its structural model. The relationships between the latent variables and their indicators is established by the measurement model; while those among the variables are established through the analysis of the structural model (Hair Jr et al., 2016).

In the first stage, the measurement model was evaluated, in order to establish the reliability and the validity of the indicators of its many latent variables. The structural model was tested in the second stage, by examining the significance of the path coefficients, f-squared, q-squared, and, the explained variance of the endogenous variables.

5.3 The Measurement Model To ascertain the measurement model, the indicator reliability, the construct reliability, the convergent validity, and the discriminant validity were assessed.

The outer loadings were used to assess the indicator reliability. The results in Figure 3, show that all the outer loadings were greater than 0.7, except for CS2 (0.684), thereby confirming the indicator reliability (Hair Jr et al., 2016). Although CS2’s (0.684) loading was below 0.7, it was retained, due to the exploratory nature of this study, as well as its massive contribution to content validity (Hair Jr et al., 2016). Cronbach's alpha (CA) and composite reliability (CR) were employed, in order to examine the construct reliability.

Table 2 demonstrates that the CA and the CR values are greater than the cut-off value of 0.70, thereby confirming the construct reliability.

The average variance extracted (AVE) and the outer loadings were used to assess the convergent validity. The convergent validity measures the extent to which there is a high connection between the theoretically identical constructs (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020a). All the outer loadings were significant at the 5% level of significance; since they were all above 0.7 (Hair Jr et al., 2016).

The results in Table 1 show that all the AVEs were greater than the threshold value of 0.5. The results of this study confirmed the measurement model’s convergent validity; as the AVEs were greater than 0.5, and the outer loadings were significant at the 5% level of significance.

According to Hair Jr et al. (2016), discriminant validity measures the extent to which a latent variable differs from other latent variables in the model. The Fornell-Larcker’s criterion was used to assess the discriminant validity. The latent variable should share more variance with its assigned indicators than with any other latent variable (Hair Jr et al., 2016). Therefore, the square root of the average variance extracted should be larger than its correlation with any other latent variable. In Table 1, the numbers in bold are larger than any other value in each column, indicating thereby that each latent variable shared more variance with its indicators. The results confirmed the discriminant validity.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

334

Table 2: The measurement model Construct CA CR AVE AC AU CS CSE DI_ PEOU PU SI AC 0.846 0.897 0.684 0.827 AU 0.863 0.900 0.644 0.577 0.803 CS 0.735 0.829 0.549 0.250 0.436 0.741 CSE 0.899 0.925 0.712 0.439 0.778 0.527 0.844 DI_ 0.830 0.873 0.580 0.091 0.245 0.462 0.370 0.762 PEOU 0.817 0.872 0.578 0.777 0.612 0.389 0.562 0.185 0.760 PU 0.804 0.872 0.631 0.385 0.580 0.583 0.596 0.279 0.486 0.794 SI 0.877 0.915 0.730 0.446 0.788 0.512 0.825 0.252 0.552 0.548 0.855 Note: CA = Cronbach's alpha, CR = convergent reliability, AVE = average variance extracted, while AC = Access to computers, AU = Actual computer use, CS = Basic computer skills, CSE = Computer self-efficacy, DI_ = Demographic influence, PU = perceived usefulness, PEU = perceived ease-of-use, SI = Social influence.

5.4 The Structural Model After confirming the measurement model's reliability and validity, the next stage was to evaluate the structural model. To assess the collinearity issues, the variance inflation-factor values (VIF) were used. The results in Table 2 show that all the VIFs were less than 4, thereby indicating the absence of collinearity among the latent variables. To assess the significance of the standardised path coefficients, representing the hypotheses depicted in Figure 1, a full bootstrapping procedure with (5000 replicate samples) was used (Hair Jr et al., 2016). The R2, f2, Q2 and the path coefficients were used to assess the structural model.

According to Chin (1998), the R2 values of 0.19, 0.33 and 0.67 are considered to be “weak”,” moderate” and “substantial”, respectively. The results in Figure 2 show that the R2 values of PEOU, PU, CSE, and AU were 0.665, 0.454, 0.737, and 0.606, respectively. The results show that the R2 value of CSE is considered substantial, while those of PEOU, PU, and AU are considered moderate. Using the blindfolding method, the results show that the Q2 values for PEOU (0.379), PU (0.279), AU (0.378), and CSE (0.514) are all greater than zero, confirming the predictive validity of the structural model. These results imply that the DI, SI, CS, and AC together explain 66.5% of the variance in PEOU and 45.4% of the variance in PU. A substantial amount of variance of 73.7% is explained in CSE by PU, PEOU, DI, SI, CS, and AC. All the model’s exogenous variables explained 60.6% of the variance in AU. Table 3: Path coefficients, f2, and VIF Path AC -> CSE AC -> PEOU AC -> PU CS -> CSE CS -> PEOU CS -> PU CSE -> AU DI_ -> CSE

Std Beta

T Statistics

P Values

-0,004 0,656 0,059 0,000 0,113 0,380 0,778 0,146

0,069 15,758 0,762 0,007 2,335 6,585 32,875 5,013

0,945 0,000 0,446 0,995 0,020 0,000 0,000 0,000

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Decision

f2

VIF

Rejected Accepted Accepted Rejected Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted

0.000a

2,543 1,251 2,537 1,920 1,617 1,655 1,000 1,276

1.029c 0.003a 0.000a 0.024a 0.160b 1.536c 0.063a

335

DI_ -> PEOU 0,024 0,650 0,516 1,274 Rejected 0.001a a DI_ -> PU 0,009 0,227 0,821 1,276 Rejected 0.000 PEOU -> CSE 0,108 1,911 0,056 3,035 Rejected 0.015a a PEOU -> PU 0,162 2,037 0,042 2,987 Accepted 0.016 a PU -> CSE 0,149 2,965 0,003 1,833 Accepted 0.046 SI -> CSE 0,648 17,231 0,000 1,804 Accepted 0.887c a SI -> PEOU 0,196 3,702 0,000 1,587 Accepted 0.073 a SI -> PU 0,235 3,960 0,000 1,702 Accepted 0.060 Note: AC = Access to computers, AU = Computer use, CS = Computer skills, CSE = Computer self-efficacy, DI_ = Demographic Influence, PU = perceived usefulness, PEOU = perceived ease of use, SI = Social Influence, a = small effect, b= moderate effect, and c= large effect

The empirical model in Figure 3 shows all the latent variables, together with their indicators. All the indicators load well, except CS2 (0.684); but it was retained; since it adds significant positive influence on both PEOU and PU (see the measurement model). None of the four explanatory variables were rejected outright. Hence, they remain in the model.

Figure 3: The empirical model

The results showed that access to computers has a significant effect on the perceived ease-of-use and on the perceived usefulness (β=0.656, t-value 15.758, p<0.05 and β=0.059, t-value 0.762, p>0.05, respectively), but not on CSE (β= -0.004, t-value 0.069, p>0.05). The results also showed that computer skills have a significant effect on the perceived ease-of-use and the perceived usefulness (β=0.113, t-value 2.335, p<0.05, and β=0.380, t-value 6.585, p<0.05, respectively), but not on CSE (β=0.000, t-value 0.007, p>0.05). Computer self-efficacy has a significant effect on the actual use (β=0.778, t-value 32.875, p<0.05).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

336

The demographic influence does not have a statistically significant effect on the perceived usefulness and the perceived ease-of-use (β=0.009, t-value 0.227, p>0.05 and β=0.024, t-value 0.650, p>0.05 respectively), but on computer self-efficacy (β=0.146, t-value 5.013, p<0.05). Perceived ease-of-use does not have a significant effect on computer self-efficacy (β=0.108, t-value 1.911, p>0.05), but rather on perceived usefulness ((β=0.162, t-value 2.037, p<0.05). The results also showed that perceived usefulness has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy (β=0.149, t-value 2.965, p>0.05). Social influence has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy, perceived ease-of-use, and perceived usefulness (β=0.648, t-value 17.231, p<0.05, β=0.196, t-value 3.702, p<0.05, and β=0.235, t-value 3.960, p<0.05, respectively).

The f2 measures the strength of the relationship between the constructs. According to Cohen (1988), the f2 values of 0.35, 0.15, and 0.02 indicate high, medium, and low levels of effect size, respectively. In this study, the results show that three of the sixteen hypotheses had a high effect on CSE; but only one hypothesis had a medium effect; while the rest had a low effect on CSE. 5.5 The moderating effect of demographics The bootstrapping procedure with 5000 subsamples was used to test for the significance of the moderation effect of demographic items, high-school location, age, and gender, on the relationship between computer self-efficacy and computer use. The results are shown in Table 3 and in Figure 2. These results show that age (β = -0.068, t-value = 1.762, p > 0.05), high-school location (β = 0.017, t-value = 0.346, p > 0.05), and gender (β = 0.030, t-value = 0.652, p > 0.05) do not have any significant effect on these relationships Age-CSE-AU -> AU, Gender-CSE-AU -> AU, and High School Location-CSE-AU ->AU. Table 4: The moderating effect

Paths Age -> AU Age-CSE-AU -> AU CSE -> AU Gender -> AU Gender-CSE-AU -> AU High School Location -> AU High School Location-CSE-AU -> AU

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Std Beta -0.015 -0.068 0.781 -0.007 0.030 0.010

T Statistics 0.433 1.762 32.976 0.210 0.652 0.295

P Values 0.665 0.078 0.000 0.834 0.515 0.768

0.017

0.346

0.729

Decision Rejected Rejected Accepted Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

337

Figure 4: Moderation effect of demographic items

6. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their use of computers. The following research questions were asked: RQ1: What are the determinants of pre-service teachers Computer Self-Efficacy?

RQ2: What is the effect of pre-service teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy on their computer use?

RQ3: Is there any relationship between pre-service teachers’ demographics and their use of computers?

In the analysis of this research, there were mixed results. Ten of the hypotheses were accepted, while six of them were rejected. However, this did not result in any of the constructs being rejected outright. Instead, the remaining hypotheses effectively anchored the model.

RQ1: This question aimed to find the determinants of the pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy. The researchers envisaged that there are six factors that seek to determine pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy. These are namely: demographic influence (DI), social influence (SI), basic computer skills (CS), access to computers (AC), perceived ease-of-use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), computer self-efficacy (CSE), and actual computer use (AU). These factors altogether explain 73.5% of the variance in CSE. This means that only 26.5% of the factors affecting CSE are not explained by the model.

It was also interesting to note that the external variables explained 66.5% of the variance in PEOU and 45.4% of the variance in PU, where both PEOU and PU were integral factors affecting CSE. Interestingly, the perceived ease-of-use does not have a significant effect on computer self-efficacy (β=0.108, t-value 1.911, p>0.05), but rather on the perceived usefulness (β=0.162, t-value 2.037, p<0.05).

Contrary to the findings of this study, the perceived ease-of-use improves computer self-efficacy, which in turn affects the adoption (He et al., 2018). The results also showed that perceived usefulness has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy (β=0.149, t-value 2.965, p>0.05).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

338

In support of this finding, Ariff et al., 2012; Hasan, 2003; John, (2013) found that an individual’s perceptions have a great influence on CSE; and consedquently, PEOU and PU are directly related to CSE. The analysis also established that access to computers has a significant effect on perceived ease-of-use (β=0.656, t-value 15.758, p<0.05) and on the perceived usefulness (β=0.059, t-value 0.762, p>0.05). This is supported by the results in a study conducted by John (2013), who found that access to computers has a significant influence one’s computer self-efficacy. This study, however, found that access to computers does not necessarily influence computer self-efficacy (β= 0.004, t-value 0.069, p>0.05).

The results also showed that computer skills have a significant effect on perceived ease-of-use and perceived usefulness (β=0.113, t-value 2.335, p<0.05, and β=0.380, t-value 6.585, p<0.05, respectively). The results also showed that one’s computer skills have no influence on CSE (β=0.000, t-value 0.007, p>0.05). These results are a direct opposite of the results of Magliaro and Ezeife (2007), who found that computer skills (CS) was one of the major factors in predicting the computer selfefficacy scores of pre-service teachers.

However, (Karsten & Roth, 1998) contradicted this notion in that there was a substantial increase in CSE for students, who had been taught in an introductory computer-science course.

The demographic Influence in this study does not have a statistically significant effect on the perceived usefulness and the perceived ease-of-use (β=0.009, t-value 0.227, p>0.05 and β=0.024, t-value 0.650, p>0.05 respectively). The results also show that the demographic influence has a statistically significant effect on computer self-efficacy (β=0.146, t-value 5.013, p<0.05). These results look conclusive, that demographic influence affects computer self-efficacy significantly.

However, there are mixed views on the effect of gender on computer self-efficacy.

The findings of Teo and Koh (2010) indicate that male students demonstrated higher computer self-efficacy than female students. Other studies also claim that there is no consensus on the effects of gender, age, and computer training on computer self-efficacy (Cassidy & Eachus, 2002; Sarfo et al., 2017). Research on gender and computer self-efficacy, therefore, seem not to have any conclusive results on male or female experience and on their use of computers.

Social Influence has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy, perceived easeof-use, and perceived usefulness (β=0.648, t-value 17.231, p<0.05, β=0.196, t-value 3.702, p<0.05, and β=0.235, t-value 3.960, p<0.05, respectively). These findings are consistent with those of the previous studies, which reported that social influence strongly affects PU and also PEOU (Al Kurdi et al., 2020); and that if social influence increases, then technology use also increases (Pontoh, 2017).

RQ2: To measure the effect of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their computer use, H16 was calculated. The results showed that computer self-efficacy

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

339

has a significant impact on actual use (β=0.778, t-value 32.875, p<0.05). Other researchers support these results. Muslichah (2018) found that computer selfefficacy is positively related to behavioural intention; while Joo et al. (2018) discovered that teacher self-efficacy had a positive influence on their intention to use technology. The same support was found from a study conducted by Lew et al. (2019). They concluded that students who easily manipulated flow and design of Cloud e-Learning application, were interested in continuing to use it.

RQ3: To find the relationship between pre-service teachers’ demographics and their use of computers, the moderating effects of demographics were used. All three moderators in Table 4 were rejected, implying that the demographic variables do not have a significant effect on the relationship CSE and AU. This means that pre-service teachers’ background information does not influence their eventual use of computers. These findings were supported by (Sarfo et al., 2017), who found that there were no differences in computer self-efficacy between teachers of 20-30 years and those of 31 years and above. This implies that the age of the teachers does not influence their computer self-efficacy. These findings are contrary to the claim by (Muslichah 2018) that computer self-efficacy is positively related to behavioural intention.

In another study, Simsek (2011) suggested that male and female students are more pragmatic so that there may not be differences between genders in terms of computers. Hence, both males and females have similar computer selfefficacy. The raging debate about the effects of demographics as moderators remains unresolved. Recently, it has been suggested that contemporary male and female students alike are more pragmatic so that there may not be differences between genders and generalisations in terms of computers. The important aspect in the findings is that computer self-efficacy has a significant effect on the actual use. This study proposes that computer self-efficacy influences actual computer use. These findings imply that pre-service teachers with high computer selfefficacy would use a computer more than the those with low computer selfefficacy. Based on this finding, the institution under study must create an environment that enhances pre-service teacher’s computer self-efficacy. It can be suggested that if more pre-service teachers engage with computers; then more of them would interact with e-learning resources and services.

Hence, each of these constructs has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy: access to computers, demographic influence, social influence, and perceived usefulness. Access to computers implies that a student had a prior experience in computer use. A student working with computers over some years, gains experience in the use of computers, which influences his attitude towards computers and ultimately his computer self-efficacy (Hatlevik et al., 2018). Social influence as a predictor of adoption implies that a student’s friends, lecturers, parents, officials can influence him towards the use of computers, and hence positively influence intention to use computers (Joe et al., 2020). It is therefore imperative for the institution to regularly organise computer workshops, presentations, seminars on the use of computers for pre-service teachers.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

340

The study draws a relationship between perceived usefulness and self-efficacy in the use of the computer. If pre-service teachers display a positive perception of computer self-efficacy, they will regard the use of computers as easy to operate (Thongsri et al., 2020). It is therefore incumbent upon administrators, lecturers and programme designers to develop simple computer systems that focus on ease of use, in order to attract pre-service teachers.

7. Conclusions The study employed the Technology-Acceptance Model to examine the effects of pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy on their use of computers. Factor analysis was used to analyse the data generated from the survey with the help of the SmartPLS software. Findings of the study indicated that each of the identified factors in the model has a significant effect on computer self-efficacy. In essence, the identified eight factors explained 73.7% of the variance in computer selfefficacy. The four independent variables explained 45.4% of the variance in the perceived usefulness of computers and 66.5% of the variance in perceived easeof-use of the use of computers.

The computer self-efficacy model also explained an impressive 60.6% of the variance in computer use. The research concludes that the factors identified in the model were highly relevant. It was also established that the model was robust and stable.

Understanding pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy is a complex challenge. This is so true in a university setting, where pre-service teachers are expected to conduct their teaching and learning activities through the use of computers, but with limited resources. The challenge arises because most lecturers are qualified as subject specialists and not as computer practitioners. It is therefore important to understand the factors that affect computer self-efficacy.

8. Recommendations and Limitations 8.1 Implications for Students Pre-service teachers rely on other students, friends, or colleagues when they encounter computer-related problems, which does not help much to improve preservice teachers’ computer self-efficacy. The computer centre administrators should set up a student-assistant team to help those that encounter problems.

8.2 Implications for lecturers All academic and support staff should receive regular computer training relevant to their academic activities, which are expected to enhance pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy.

8.3 Implications for University Administrators It can be recommended that higher education institutions ascertain that all students have access to computers, connectivity, and skilled technicians. This creates a degree of confidence required for students to develop a strong computer self-efficacy.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

341

8.4 Limitations A major limitation of this study was its population, which consisted of the faculty of education students in the institution under study. This included participants from other faculties of the institution and other universities, who could have helped to validate the results of the study.

9. References Al Kurdi, B., Alshurideh, M., Salloum, S., Obeidat, Z., & Al-dweeri, R. (2020). An empirical investigation into examination of factors influencing university students’ behavior towards elearning acceptance using SEM approach. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM), 14(2), 19-41. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v14i02.11115 Alahakoon, C. N. (2016). Impact of computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety: a practical indicator of dental students’ computer competency in Sri Lanka. Journal of the University Librarians Association of Sri Lanka, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.4038/jula.v19i2.7886 Ariff, M. S. M., Yeow, S., Zakuan, N., Jusoh, A., & Bahari, A. Z. (2012). The effects of computer self-efficacy and technology acceptance model on behavioral intention in internet banking systems. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 57, 448-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1210 Bertram, C., & Christiansen, I. (2014). Understanding research: An introduction to reading research. Van Schaik.

Cassidy, S., & Eachus, P. (2002). Developing the computer user self-efficacy (CUSE) scale: Investigating the relationship between computer self-efficacy, gender and experience with computers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 26(2), 133153. https://doi.org/10.2190/JGJR-0KVL-HRF7-GCNV Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling.

Modern methods for business research, 295(2), 295-336. https://scholar.google.co.za/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Chin%2C+W.+ W.+%28Ed.%29.+%281998%29.+The+Partial+Least+Squares+approach+for+stru ctural+equation+modelling.+Hillsdale%2C+New+Jersey%3A+Lawrence+Erlbau m+Associates&btnG= Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale, NJ, 20-26.

Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. (1995). Computer self-efficacy: Development of a measure and initial test. MIS quarterly, 189-211. https://doi.org/10.2307/249688 Dang, Y., Zhang, Y., Ravindran, S., & Osmonbekov, T. (2016). Examining student satisfaction and gender differences in technology-supported, blended learning.

Journal of Information Systems Education, 27(2), 119-130. http://jise.org/volume27/n2/JISEv27n2p119.html Daragmeh, A., Sági, J., & Zéman, Z. (2021). Continuous Intention to Use E-Wallet in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Integrating the Health Belief Model (HBM) and Technology Continuous Theory (TCT). Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(2), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7020132 Davis, F. D. (1993). User acceptance of information technology: system characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International journal of man-machine studies, 38(3), 475-487. https://doi.org/10.1006/imms.1993.1022 Durndell, A., & Haag, Z. (2002). Computer self efficacy, computer anxiety, attitudes towards the Internet and reported experience with the Internet, by gender, in an East European sample. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 521-535. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(02)00006-7

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

342

Galpin, V., Sanders, I., Turner, H., & Venter, B. (2003). Computer self-efficacy, gender, and educational background in South Africa. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 22(3), 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1109/MTAS.2003.1237471 Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage publications.

Hasan, B. (2003). The influence of specific computer experiences on computer self-efficacy beliefs.

Computers in Human Behavior, 19(4), 443-450. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(02)00079-1 Hatlevik, O. E., Throndsen, I., Loi, M., & Gudmundsdottir, G. B. (2018). Students’ ICT selfefficacy and computer and information literacy: Determinants and relationships.

Computers & Education, 118, 107-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.011 Hauser, R., Paul, R., & Bradley, J. (2012). Computer self-efficacy, anxiety, and learning in online versus face to face medium. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 11(1), 141-154. https://doi.org/10.28945/1633 He, Y., Chen, Q., & Kitkuakul, S. (2018). Regulatory focus and technology acceptance: Perceived ease of use and usefulness as efficacy. Cogent Business & Management, 5(1), 1459006. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2018.1459006 Hueros, D., María, A., & Arteaga Sánchez, R. (2010). Motivational factors that influence the acceptance of Moodle using TAM. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2020.1746217 Joe, S., Kim, J., & Zemke, D. M. V. (2020). Effects of social influence and perceived enjoyment on Kiosk acceptance: a moderating role of gender. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2020.1746217 John, S. P. (2013). Influence of computer self-efficacy on information technology adoption.

International Journal of Information Technology, 19(1), 1-13. http://www.intjit.org/cms/journal/volume/19/1/191_2.pdf Joo, Y. J., Park, S., & Lim, E. (2018). Factors influencing preservice teachers’ intention to use technology: TPACK, teacher self-efficacy, and technology acceptance model.

Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 48-59. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458506?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Karsten, R., & Roth, R. M. (1998). Computer self-efficacy: A practical indicator of student computer competency in introductory IS courses. Informing Science, 1(3), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.28945/615 Lee, J., Erdogan, A. N., & Hong, I. B. (2021). Participation in the Sharing Economy Revisited: The Role of Culture and Social Influence on Airbnb. Sustainability, 13(17), 9980. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179980 Lew, S.-L., Lau, S.-H., & Leow, M.-C. (2019). Usability factors predicting continuance of intention to use cloud e-learning application. Heliyon, 5(6), e01788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01788 Magliaro, J., & Ezeife, A. N. (2007). Pre-service teachers' preparedness to integrate computer technology into the curriculum. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 33(3), 95. https://doi.org/10.21432/T2TP4V Muslichah, M. (2018). The effect of self efficacy and information quality on behavioral intention with perceived usefulness as intervening variable. Journal of Accounting, Business and Management (JABM), 25(1), 21-34. https://doi.org/10.31966/jabminternational.v1i25.327 Mutambara, D., & Bayaga, A. (2020a). Rural-based Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics teachers’ and learners’ acceptance of mobile learning. SA Journal of Information Management, 22(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v22i1.1200

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

343

Mutambara, D., & Bayaga, A. (2020b). Understanding Rural Parents’ Behavioral Intention to Allow Their Children to Use Mobile Learning. Conference on e-Business, eServices and e-Society, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44999-5_43 Nkula, K., & Krauss, K. E. (2014). The integration of ICTs in marginalized schools in South Africa: Considerations for understanding the perceptions of in-service teachers and the role of training. International Development Informatics Association (IDIA) conference, https://web.archive.org/web/20180504094930id_/http://www.developmentin formatics.org/conferences/2014/papers/20-Nkula-Kirsten.pdf Okhakhume, A. S., & Ogunlude, F. B. (2016). Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Perceived Computer Self-Efficacy as Determinants of Attitudes Towards Computer Use Among Secondary School Students. Landmark Research Journals of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 3(7), 070-078 Park, S. Y. (2009). An analysis of the technology acceptance model in understanding university students' behavioral intention to use e-learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(3), 150-162. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/jeductechsoci.12.3.150.pdf Pontoh, G. T. (2017). The influence of technology acceptance, social influence, faciliatating condition, and computer self-efficacy on e-office utilization in immigration office class I Makassar. The Business & Management Review, 9(2), 213-218. https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/conference_97448.pdf Sarfo, F. K., Amankwah, F., & Konin, D. (2017). Computer Self-Efficacy among Senior High School Teachers in Ghana and the Functionality of Demographic Variables on Their Computer Self-Efficacy. Turkish Online Journal of Educational TechnologyTOJET, 16(1), 19-31. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1124909.pdf Shmueli, G., Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Cheah, J.-H., Ting, H., Vaithilingam, S., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: guidelines for using PLSpredict. European Journal of Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-20190189 Simsek, A. (2011). The relationship between computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy.

Contemporary educational technology, 2(3), 177-187. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6052 Teo, T., & Koh, J. H. L. (2010). Assessing the dimensionality of computer self-efficacy among pre-service teachers in Singapore: a structural equation modeling approach. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 6(3), 7-18. https://doi.org/10.3860/taper.v18i1.1035 Thongsri, N., Shen, L., & Bao, Y. (2020). Investigating academic major differences in perception of computer self-efficacy and intention toward e-learning adoption in China. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 57(5), 577-589. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2019.1585904 Tire, T., & Mlitwa, N. (2007). ICT access and use in rural schools in South Africa: The Northern Cape Province. Faculty of Informatics and Design, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266176515

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

344

Appendix 1

Pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy and the use of computers Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of preservice teachers’ computer self-efficacy in their use of computers. The data gathered from this survey will be used solely for this purpose. To aid the study, will you please answer the following questions. Participation in this survey is by choice, you can opt out at any time you feel like doing so. Your individual responses to the survey will be strictly confidential.

Section A: Demographic data (Please tick the appropriate box) Gender Male 1

High School Location Female 2

Urban

Rural

Informal settlement

Township

1

2

3

4

Age (in years) ≤17

18-19

20-21

22-23

≥ 24

1

2

3

4

5

Section B: Constructs and indicators Please indicate your level of agreement with each of the following statements by placing an X in the appropriate box where 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=undecided, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree Demographic Influence

DI6 DI7

My gender has influence on my use of a computer My age has an influence on my use of a computer My race has an influence on my use of a computer My home location has influenced my use of a computer Location of the High School I attended has had an influence on my computer use Gap years before varsity enrolment have had influence on my computer use My current level of study has had an influence on my use of a computer

CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5 CS6 CS7 CS8 CS9 CS10

Basic Computer skills I am able to navigate through a computer without assistance I can update my computer profile settings without any assistance I am able to download study materials and course grades I am able to upload files by using a computer I am able to access feedback from lecturers on a computer I am able to respond to online quizzes on a computer I know how to send and access emails I can create documents using Word Processing I can create spreadsheets and charts in Excel I can create presentations using PowerPoint

DI1 DI2 DI3 DI4 DI5

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

345

CS11 PU1 PU2 PU3 PU4 PU5 PEOU1 PEOU2 PEOU3 PEOU4 PEOU5 AC1 AC2 AC3 AC4 AC5 AC6 AC7 AC8 AU1 AU2 AU3 AU4 AU5 AU6 CSE1 CSE2 CSE3 CSE4 CSE5 CSE6 CSE7 CSE8 CSE9 SI1 SI2 SI3 SI4 SI5

I can use Online library resources Perceived usefulness I find a computer useful for learning Using a computer makes my learning more effective Using a computer helps me to improve my academic performance Using a computer enables me to accomplish tasks more quickly Using a computer adds a lot to my development as a teacher Perceived ease-of-use Learning to use a computer was easy for me I found a computer easy to use It was easy to become skilful at using a computer My interaction with a computer is clear and understandable I find it easy to navigate through most of a computer’s tools Access to computers I own a computer (either a desktop, laptop, smartphone, or other) I have access to a computer any time I need one I am able to use a computer any time I need to There are no barriers to my using computers in the computer labs I have access to computers installed at the library I learned by using computers at school I enjoy using computers I chat often on social networks Actual computer use I can login to a computer without assistance On average I spend more than an hour each time I login to a computer Most of my notes are on the computer All my assignments are done on a computer I write most of my tests and examinations on a computer I use a computer in my different learning activities Computer self-efficacy I can use a computer even if there is no one to show me how to do it I can use a computer even if I have never used it before I can use a computer if I have only the online instructions for reference I can use a computer if I have seen someone else use it before I can use a computer if I am given time to familiarise myself with it I can use a computer if someone shows me how to do it I can use a computer if I have used a similar system before I can use a computer if I have the built-in help facility for assistance I believe I have the ability to install the software on a computer Social Influence My friends think that I should use a computer for my studies My lecturers think that I should use a computer for my studies My colleagues at the university think that I should use a computer Important people to me think that I should use a computer My peers think that I should use a computer for my studies

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

1

2

3

4

5

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

346

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 346-365, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.19 Received Aug 25, 2021; Revised Nov 22, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Assessing for Learning: Teacher Training in Practice Involving 14 Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) Students Elize (E. C.) du Plessis University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-4632

Abstract. In this age of answerability, assessment is a dominant factor that can either promote or weaken learners’ education internationally. Yet many of the usual practices followed by institutions show that assessments in the classroom continue to be a challenge for teachers. This signifies that assessment is either not well understood or not done effectively during all stages of education. The study reported in this article attempted firstly to detect how prepared teachers were to perform assessments for learning, and secondly to enhance teachers’ assessment practices. It focused on the qualities of good assessment practices, different methods of assessment, types of assessment, and feedback and assessment to enhance learning in the classroom. A qualitative approach was used, involving 14 participants who had completed a postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE) at a distance teaching institution. Results revealed inter alia a need for longer teaching practice periods, the use of taxonomies on different cognitive levels, and subject-specific workshops.

It is recommended that more practical examples, like lecture videos, taxonomies, and rubrics, should be employed, and assessment processes should embrace technology.

Keywords: assessing for learning; feedback; teacher training; teaching practice; types of assessment

1. Introduction and background Student learning and success depend largely on the critical role of teachers, who need to use thoughtful, distinguished assessment methods, intensive feedback, and pure reporting strategies to support learning. The main purpose of assessment is to improve learners’ learning and teachers’ teaching as both react to the facts made available (Friesen et al., 2015). Assessment, teaching, and learning are intimately related as they support one another. Assessment is a dominant practice that can both improve or constrain learning, depending on how it is initialised (Ministry of Education, 2020).

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

347

Instructional activities may determine assessments categories. The concept classroom assessment is used to express assessments intended or selected by teachers and is given as a vital activity of classroom instruction (Pellegrino, 2014).

Classroom assessment is given throughout the teaching and learning process. This classification of assessments may comprise teacher-learner collaborations in the classroom, opinions, learners’ tasks that result directly from continuing instructional events (called ‘immediate assessments’), and questions that are narrowly interwoven to instructional actions (called ‘close assessments’) (Pellegrino, 2014). Classroom assessment may also consist of official classroom examinations, which contain the content of one or more learning components (called ‘proximal assessments’) (Pellegrino, 2014; Ruiz-Primo et al., 2012). This classification may similarly contain assessments that are formed by curriculum designers and rooted in training resources for teacher use (Andrade & Cizek, 2010). According to De Luca et al. (2019), there has been a global trend towards increased accountability and assessment in schools over the past several decades.

While the researcher asserts the relevance and importance of understanding assessment capability, it must be connected within teacher education programmes.

Assessment for learning is a procedure whereby assessment evidence is used by teachers to change their teaching approaches, and through which learners change their learning tactics. In addition, assessment for learning must be reinforced by providing the greatest assurance that each student can make good progress. It should be focused on the concept “to teach and to learn”. Assessment for learning should empower shared learning, where teachers and learners share and value one another’s contribution (Alberta Education, 2008; McNamee & Chen, 2005).

But how prepared are teachers to provide effective assessment? According to the Department of Basic Education (DBE), the “… matric class of 2019 achieved a pass rate of 81.3%, up from 78.2% in 2018. But the number should be seen in context. In 2017, a total of 1 052 080 learners were enrolled in grade 10, yet only 409 906 learners eventually passed matric last year. The results show that 44.55% of Matrics that [who] passed, passed with a grade high enough for admission to bachelor’s degrees.” (South Africa’s Education Statistics, 2020).

The Council for Quality Assurance in General and Further Education and Training (Umalusi), works closely with the DBE. Umalusi provides accredits of education and training. The key roles of Umalusi are to set assessment standards for qualifications on the General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Framework, and to certify that assessment for accreditation in schools, further education and training colleges and adult education and training centres is of the essential standard.

In the quality assurance report of the DBE November 2019 National Senior Certificate (NSC) Examinations and Assessment, Umalusi pointed out that there was sufficient distribution of cognitive levels across the main stream related to the subjects tested for school-based assessment (SBA) moderation, as prescribed by

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

348

the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (Umalusi, 2020). The bulk of Geography learners did well in the lower- and middle-order questions, but only a few could succeed in the higher-order questions. In most sampled schools, there was very little to no proof that teachers made use of grids to examine the cognitive request and stages of difficulty when setting internal tasks to ensure that they were of the required standard. The assignment tasks used in Accounting concentrated more on lower cognitive levels. Mathematics assessment tasks were confined to questions that promoted higher cognitive level thinking, although learners in some schools struggled with level 1 questions.

Regarding Life Orientation, the examination question paper did not provide for assessing learners’ problem-solving skills (Umalusi, 2020).

Thus, the main research question was: how prepared are teachers to provide assessment for learning? The objectives included determining what types of assessment teachers used and if there was a lack in assessment training.

2. Conceptual framework The conceptual framework addressed interrelated concepts such as qualities of good assessment practices, different methods of assessment, types of assessment and feedback, classroom assessment, and assessment to enhance learning in the classroom.

2.1 Qualities of good assessment practices Research shows that excellence in assessment influences the levels of student learning, student efficiency and learner commitment (NVSD, 2018). The NVSD Curriculum Hub identifies ten main beliefs of assessment that complement and reinforce policies. These beliefs are: 1) evaluation and assessment activities should be in line with crucial curricular concepts, content, expectations and learning outcomes.

2) assessment ways and means must be suitable for and well-matched with the aim and environment of the assessment.

3) formative assessment (aimed at learning) must be continuous, diverse, and dominant to the learning sequence.

4) formative assessment (by way of learning) includes learners in setting individual objectives for learning and observing their improvement by doing self-assessment.

5) learners should receive ongoing comments that are clear, precise, and timely to support their development on the way to accomplishing learning outcomes.

6) summative assessments must be grounded in suitable benchmarks (align to main abilities and learning criteria), and contain a variation of methods for learners to show their learning.

7) assessment procedures should be distinguished to accommodate learners’ various requirements, learning styles and interests.

8) appraisal and rating must mirror accomplishment and growth over time in relation to exact learning criteria or learner objectives; evaluation is not linked to behaviour and attitude, but to learning.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

349

9) feedback to learners must be precise and continuing, with an emphasis on achieving standards-based language and significant explanations and demonstrations of scholarship.

10) reporting and assessment practices and procedures should encourage all learners, including those with special educational needs and those who are learning a second or additional language (NVSD 2018).

Following from these beliefs, good assessment practices include selecting assessment techniques for your subject or programme, and are at the core of curriculum design. Figure 1 illustrates the possibility of assessing learners by means of an integrated course design model, where well-known learning goals are reinforced by suitable learning activities and assessment means (Fink, 2003).

The elementary segments in this framework of integrated course design are similar to those found in other models of instructional design: scrutinising the contextual influences; verbalising the learning objectives; planning the feedback and assessment processes; and choosing teaching/learning activities. What is unique about this model is the interrelatedness of these segments.

Learning goals

Teaching and learning activities

Feedback and assessment

Situational factors Figure 1: The key components of integrated course design (Fink, 2003)

The teaching/learning activities must be aligned with the learning goals. The learners must not only learn from the content or the teacher – they need to practise and be provided with feedback in order to learn how to reason, critically.

2.1.1 Learning goals It is important to formulate learning goals at the start of the course design procedure. The importance of the subject or programme for the learners must be determined. Clear, specific and well-defined goals should be aligned with the aim and the subject methodology (Fink, 2003, Author, 2020).

2.1.2 Teaching and learning activities Activities should include a short-term explanation of teaching strategies, such as the grouping and order of teaching/learning activities. Activities should include creative exercises (Fink, 2003).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

350

2.1.3 Feedback and assessment The following components must be observed when planning a suitable assessment technique that will reproduce the established learning objectives and actions: reliability, standardisation, validity and practicality.

Reliability refers to the degree to which the assessment can be depended upon to be accurate. Standardisation launches a fixed preference, thus increasing the reliability of an assignment, test or project. Validity is described as the degree to which the instrument measures what it sets out to measure. Teachers must detect the expected learning outcomes of the subject or programme in order to assess learners’ work suitably. Practicality states the act of the assessment manner and its application to all the learning objectives of the subject or programme (Miller, in Algonquin College, 2019, Elton, 2002).

2.2 Different methods of assessment Assessment methods must be suitable and exclusive for particular assessment outcomes and for the assessment of different subjects. Possible assessment methods are: concealed examinations; arranged or free, with or without selection of questions; open-book assessments; examinations with complex facts about questions; single-question unknown papers; multiple-choice/objective tests; coursework assessment; oral examination; self-assessment and peer assessment; and group assessment (Elton, 2002). Assessment should be more than merely collecting proof of how well the learners have reached the objectives; it should also facilitate the planning of improved teaching and learning in the next cycle.

2.3 Types of assessment and feedback Learners want regular feedback on exactly how they are doing. If they are deprived of regular feedback, they cannot progress in a concentrated manner to meet the learning outcomes (Algonquin College, 2019, Booyse et al., 2020).

Feedback can take different forms. It can be delivered as a distinct entity, such as informal feedback about a learner’s comprehension of a notion in class, or as a combination of numerous entities, such as formal, formative and peer feedback.

Different types of feedback should be encouraged to improve learning and to create different opportunities for growth (Federation University, 2019, Khan, 2019).

2.3.1 Formative assessment Formative assessment is a crucial part of teaching and learning. It does not contribute to the final marks allocated to a unit; it rather monitors learning to provide ongoing feedback that can help learners identify their strengths and weaknesses and help them to improve; it also prevents them from repeating the same mistakes (Federation University, 2019; Khan, 2019). Booyse et al. (2020, p.

109) describe formative assessment as “a process: one in which information about learning is evoked and then used to modify teaching and learning activities”.

2.3.2 Summative assessment The objective of summative assessment is to assess learning at the conclusion of a task by measuring it against some scale. Consequently, summative feedback contains comprehensive remarks that are linked to precise aspects of the learners’

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

351

work. It clarifies how the mark has been determined based on the measures provided, and it may include supplementary practical remarks on how the work could be amended (Federation University, 2019; Khan, 2019).

2.3.3 Diagnostic assessment Like formative assessment, diagnostic assessments aim to improve learners’ knowledge. Moreover, they work in a recessive manner, rather than looking to the future. A diagnostic assessment determines what the learner knows, and evaluates the learning problems faced by the learner (Khan, 2019; Booyse et al., 2020). Not diagnosing these problems could limit the learner’s contribution to learning.

2.3.4 Dynamic assessment Dynamic assessment evaluates what learners can accomplish when unknown topics are taught. It determines how learners, who do not have any previous knowledge, embrace it (Khan, 2019). Dynamic assessment may be used to evaluate the potential of learners who have a largely disadvantaged background, and generally takes place before the core teaching commences (Khan, 2019).

2.3.5 Synoptic assessment Synoptic assessment contributes to the self-assurance of learners to combine sections of their learning from diverse fragments of a design, and to demonstrate their developed knowledge of the concept (Khan, 2019). Therefore, it supports in determining how to relate knowledge to comprehend a concept (Khan, 2019).

2.3.6 Criterion-referenced assessment Specific criteria are used to evaluate the achievement of every learner. Other learners’ achievements or performance should not be taken into account.

Furthermore, the teacher should evade normative thinking because it can affect their decision. The teacher should also ensure trustworthiness and legitimacy (Khan, 2019).

2.4 Classroom assessment Assessment is crucial in teaching-learning progression. It mediates learning and improves tuition, and can involve different assessment methods. Classroom assessment is usually separated into three categories: assessment for learning; assessment of learning; and assessment as learning.

2.4.1 Assessment for learning (formative assessment) Assessment for learning means that assessment and teaching are combined to form one entity. The strength of this type of assessment derives from identifying the amount of learning that takes place in the mutual academic activities of the school day – and how much comprehension into learning, teachers can pit from this (McNamee & Chen, 2005).

Furthermore, assessment for learning entails continuous assessment that allows teachers to observe learners daily and adapt their tuition based on what the learners need in order to be successful. Subsequently, when teaching a lesson, it should be determined whether the lesson was manageable for all the learners, in

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

352

addition to being challenging for more gifted learners. What the learners have learned and still need to know, must also be established. Decisions are needed on how to improve the lesson to make it more current, and, if needed, what other lesson might be offered as an improved substitute. This frequent valuation is at the core of refining teaching for learning (Burns 2005). This concept is further discussed in section 3 of this article, which deals with the theoretical framework.

2.4.2 Assessment of learning Assessment of learning means to summarise learning, and the subsequent stage of growth after a period of work, by allocating a mark to responses in an assessment or examination. It provides evidence of learner accomplishments.

Since it provides valuable feedback, it has a slight consequence on learning (Alberta Education, 2008).

2.4.3 Assessment as learning Assessment as learning improves learners’ metacognitive skills. This form of assessment assists learners in becoming lifetime pupils. As learners employ peer assessment and self-assessment, they learn to understand information, to revisit previously understood knowledge, and to use it for future learning. Learners grow a common sense of proprietorship and value when they practise teacher, and peer and self-assessment feedback, so as to adjust and improve upon their understanding of subject matter (Alberta Education, 2008).

2.5 Assessment to enhance learning in the classroom As feedback is an important component of many educational programmes, it is important to follow up with interventions (Booyse et al., 2020; Frey, 2018).

Teachers need to pay attention to what individual learners think and know, and construct effective practices in light of these thoughts and knowledge. Teachers must know and understand their content to ensure that they deliver important and suitable feedback, which will assist each individual learner in progressing through the curriculum levels (Friesen et al., 2015).

It is important that classroom assessment should support learning, since learning is the essential action in the teaching-learning setting. (Booyse et al., 2020). More and more research proposes that a critical feature of effective classroom-based (formative) assessment, is the alliance of assessment undertakings with objectives concentrated on learning (Ayala et al., 2008; Van der Nest et al., 2018; Wiley, 2008).

Formative assessment can be seen as an orderly procedure during which proof is collected and feedback about learning is constantly provided during the teaching process (Van der Nest et al., 2018). This feedback sheds light on the gap between a learner’s present level of learning and the desired learning objectives. It is important that teachers should understand the learning objectives and align their classroom activities with these objectives and the assessment standards, and then compare their learners’ development to the set objectives (Shepard, 2000; Van der Nest et al., 2018). Unfortunately, teachers are often poorly prepared for classroom assessment during their teacher training, and in-service teachers often point to the fact that they need additional professional development in classroom-based assessment (DeLuca & Klinger, 2010). Classroom assessment entails considerably more than just assessing learning outcomes.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

353

3. Framing assessment for theoretical learning A theoretical framework is an outline that offers guiding principles for the study.

Ngulube (2018) notes that the theoretical framework is the adhesive that links the research devices, and when the theoretical framework is absent, the research design falls apart. The theoretical framework used in this research is based on the UK’s National Foundation For Educational Research Report (NFER, 2007), which sets out assessment for learning.

Assessment for learning should incorporate and use different methodologies.

These can include everyday activities, such as learning discussions; reflection; learners’ self-assessment and peer assessments; a thorough enquiry of a learner’s work; and assessment techniques, which might be transcribed items, planned interview questions, or items teachers formulate themselves. The form of the assessment is not the most important factor; more important is the way in which the information collected is used to advance teaching and learning (NFER, 2007, Ministry of Education, 2020).

3.1 What is assessment for learning?

Feedback is generated by assessment for learning (AFL) as a teaching and learning methodology that can be used to increase learners’ success. AFL wishes to ‘close the gap’ between a learner’s present situation and where they want to be in their learning and achievement. Expert teachers design academic activities that help learners to do this. AFL involves learners becoming more involved in their learning, gaining confidence, and starting to ‘think like a teacher’ (NFER, 2007).

AFL requires learners to reason more vigorously about their current situation and where they are going and how they can get there (see figure 2).

Figure 2: Assessment for learning (NFER, 2007)

Good teachers incorporate AFL into their instruction as a normal part of teaching, and can decide how often to use the technique to achieve maximum impact. AFL helps to make understanding and knowledge ‘more visible’ (Hattie, 2016) to learners.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

354

3.2 Assessment for learning and the connection with formative and summative assessment AFL has traditionally been regarded as formative assessment, because asking questions and giving feedback can assist learners in adapting or planning their learning. Summative assessment, on the other hand, is typically done to evaluate learner accomplishment at the completion of a period of learning.

Table 1, which is grounded on the UK’s National Foundation For Educational Research Report (NFER, 2007), categorises different types of formative and summative assessment into formal assessments and informal assessments.

Table 1: Types of formative and summative assessment (NFER, 2007)

All the assessment methods in table 1 support AFL because their main aim is to assist learners to improve their learning. In AFL, it is the aim of assessment, rather than the nature of it, that is imperative (Hattie, 2016).

4. Method A constructivist paradigm was relevant to the study as it allowed the researcher to determine the preparedness of teachers to execute assessment effectively. It is clarified by Mertens (2010) that qualitative data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, document reviews and open-ended questionnaires, are leading in the constructivist paradigm, which has the purpose to understand the multifaceted domain of the participants. By undertaking an interpretive enquiry, the researcher aimed to interpret, describe and report on the reflections and lived experiences of those teachers who participated in the research (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2020). These teachers were Intermediate, Senior and Further Education and Training teachers.

Purposive selection was performed to select 14 knowledgeable participants. The criteria were that they had to have a minimum of five years’ teaching experience and must have completed the PGCE programme. Data collection was done by sending questionnaires via e-mail to the participants, which was in line with the distance education mode of delivery of this institution.

An extensive literature study aided the construction of a questionnaire. Ten openended and closed-ended questions were asked; these were restricted for the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

355

purpose of gathering demographic facts and improving the qualitative data. The following questions were asked in the questionnaire (See Appendix A): 1.

Biographic information (see table 2) 2.

What is lacking in your assessment training, for example how to deal with discipline/multigrade classes/diversity/technology?

3.

Give three examples of improper and inappropriate assessment.

4.

Are you aware of the assessment policy and how familiar are you with it?

5.

How is learners’ academic work assessed?

6.

Give one example of how you used assessment to enhance learning in your classroom (at any level or on any topic). Explain how you planned to conduct this assessment and how you intended the session to help children to learn from the assessment. Describe the steps you followed and how the assessment played out in the classroom.

7.

Note in detail your discussions with learners about the assessment and their performance. Describe what you said, how they responded and the discussions about the test in class among the children.

8.

What is assessment for learning about? How should it be used in your subject? (Please give your own views and reflections.)

9.

Are there any other issues you wish to raise or comments and recommendations with regard to assessment you wish to make?

10. Do you have any recommendations regarding university training for student teachers in order to equip and prepare them to enter the teaching profession after they have completed their qualification?

The transcribed data collected from the questionnaires were analysed by means of inductive analysis, which involves a procedure during which qualitative researchers summarise and make sense of the data (McMillan & Schumacher 2014; Oltmann 2016). The researcher first looked at particular data, and then identified categories and patterns. The latter was used to establish the overall themes emerging from the collected data and by making deductions.

Trustworthiness of a study is ensured when findings of the research study provide the desired answers, and contribute to an understanding of, and improve upon, the specific phenomenon. Olivia (2017) posits that trustworthiness exist when the research study’s discoveries are credible, transferable, confirmable and dependable.

Ethical issues were addressed by applying for ethical clearance from the institution. Participants were given the freedom to choose to participate or not, without having to fear that non-participation would have negative consequences.

Anonymity was guaranteed. The biographical data of participants (see question 1 on the questionnaire) are presented in table 2.

Table 2: Biographical data of the participants n=14 AGE MALES FEMALES TOTAL

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

25–30 1 2 3

31–40 2 4 6

41–50 1 3 4

50+ 1 1

356

As shown in table 2, there were five male and nine female participants, ranging in age from 26 to 54 years.

5. Findings and discussion The research findings are in line with the research objectives. Five main themes were identified in the categories emerging from the empirical data. The findings are presented under the identified themes, which first reproduced the expressions of the participants in the form of precise quotations, and thereafter, the data were interpreted and linked to the literature and the theoretical framework.

5.1 Theme 1: Valuation of assessment training Only two of the 14 participants felt that nothing had lacked in their training. 12 participants expressed concerns that their training had been lacking. A 49-yearold female remarked that she needed assistance with the use of Bloom’s taxonomy. According to a 34-year-old female participant, “The time arranged for the CAPS Assessment training is usually not enough and it is only once per term.

As educators we face the challenge of teaching new subjects every year and are expected to cope without formal training in assessment in the new subject.”

A 34-year-old male participant asked for “frameworks to set assessment within different subjects and not only generic frameworks. Especially higher-order thinking and different cognitive reasoning skills”.

A 54-year-old male emphasised the value of technology by stating that “issues lacking in my assessment training has been how to integrate technology in assessments as well as how to deal with issues of diversity”. Training in the use of technology was pointed out by three more participants.

All the participants indicated that they were aware of the assessment policy and familiar with it. They stated that it was in line with the CAPS document and other assessment documents, and that they used it in their teaching.

Based on the views of the majority of participants, it seems that they felt confident about the assessment training they had received. However, it was also clear from the findings that they needed assistance with taxonomies (making use of different cognitive levels), subject-based assessment training, and training in the use of technology.

Literature, such as the Umalusi (2020) report, confirms that assessments do not include all cognitive levels. It is further supported by belief #7 of NVSD Curriculum Hub (2018) that assessment methods should make provision for leaners’ diverse needs. The need for assessment that stimulates critical thinking is reinforced by the integrated course design model (Fink, 2003).

5.2 Theme 2: Improper and inappropriate assessment The participants mentioned, for example, that assessments did not focus on the lesson/topic outcomes; some content/work that had to be assessed was not

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

357

covered in lessons/class; learners were not actively involved; only one type of assessment activity was used in the assessment cycle and requirements were not taken into account when assessment tasks were set. Also that learners were provided with a “scope”, which was basically the examination task (according to a 34-year-old female).

A 46-year-old female remarked that problems included “[assessments that are] above the age and development of learners; assessment that does not cover all cognitive levels and assessment that does not include a variety of skills”.

A 26-year-old male participant pointed out the problem that “assessment … discriminates [against] learners based on gender, race or religious beliefs, and … [does not cater] for learners with barriers to learning”.

According to a 35-year-old female, improper assessment is “when assessment does not address what has been covered in class; or when language used is too difficult for learners to understand”.

Common remarks were that papers were based only on facts; assessment did not cater for all cognitive levels and tested only the academic/cognitive domain at the expense of other domains such as the affective and psychomotor domains; assessment showed no concern for learner diversity; and bias was allowed to influence the way that assessments were marked by the educator. Participants also mentioned lengthy assessments with weak motivation for learners, poor assessment standards, inadequate guidelines and poor instructions.

From the above-mentioned remarks, it is clear that the teachers have a good idea of what improper assessment is. This theme also links with belief #10 (NVSD Curriculum Hub, 2018) that assessment and reporting practices and procedures must be beneficial to all learners, comprising those with special needs and those who are learning an additional language. Furthermore, the findings are in line with Fink’s (2003) model, as well as statements by Shepard (2000) and Van der Nest et al. (2018), who indicate that teaching and learning must be aligned with learning goals, and that classroom tasks must align with learning goals and assessment criteria.

5.3 Theme 3: How assessment is done and types of assessment According to a 34-year-old female participant, “[Assessment] is required to comply with the CAPS … Each school is also expected to have their own assessment policy, based on the school’s nature. Educators are also having to attend moderation sessions to make sure that the assessments are correct.”

A 46-year-old female participant confirmed that “all formal tasks are moderated for quality assurance and are administered in a controlled environment. Postmoderation is done to ensure quality marking and to track learner progress”.

A 34-year-old female stated, “The classes are big and you cannot always implement different assessment strategies/techniques. The use of first additional

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

358

languages in classrooms is also an influential factor in assessment. Some assessment tasks expect learners and educators to use technology and schools do not have the resources (computers, projectors, etc.).”

The types of assessment mentioned by participants included mainly formal assessment, such as written or oral assessments, tests, assignments, class work, homework and projects, and informal assessment, for example quizzes and games.

Two forms of assessment are mainly used to assess learners’ academic work, namely formative (continuous) assessment (based on assignments, projects and short/class tests) and summative assessment (written examinations at the end of a semester).

A 26-year-old male participant indicated that assessment was done “through formative assessment, e.g. tasks, assignments and exams”. It was clear that this participant did not understand the difference between formative and summative assessment.

According to the findings, participants are aware of assessment policies and how moderation takes place. However, the teachers experience challenges, such as language barriers, overcrowded classrooms, a lack of technology, and confusion about the differences between summative and formative assessment.

Challenges are a reality. Assessment proof is used in assessment for learning whereby teachers adapt their teaching methods, and through which learners revise their learning tactics (Alberta Education, 2008; McNamee & Chen, 2005).

The finding that more formative assessment is required, confirms the importance of formative assessments as a necessary part of teaching and learning, as stated

by Khan (2019).

5.4 Theme 4: Assessment to enhance learning in the classroom and feedback A 34-year-old female participant used group work (groups of four) and YouTube videos: “Groups discussed different topics and made a poster with information.

Each group got an opportunity to present their findings with the rest of the class with their poster. While groups are busy presenting they must take notes for themselves. The assessment activity [gave] the learners the opportunity to learn from [one another] and to explore the importance of independence.”

In a reading comprehension, a 46-year-old female participant used the following techniques: “Ask a learner to read the topic; explain the topic to them; ask learners predictive questions; ask learners to underline important words – words which they think are telling them something about the topic; ask learners to circle new vocabulary; teach the meanings of words in context/teach learners to infer meanings of words; ask learners to sequence the events in the story; ask learners to summarise the text orally and later in written form. This helps learners to have a deeper understanding of the text. All learners were involved and the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

359

performance was good. They enjoyed comparing their responses with those of their peers.”

A 34-year-old male Grade 7 Mathematics teacher stated, “I asked learners to design their own pattern. From their pattern they determined the expression and equation. They used their equation to draw a graph. By being actively involved in constructing their own graph and writing a conclusion, they understood how to bridge the concrete and abstract and better understand the concepts. I focus mostly [on] whether I can find a particular concept that most learners did not comprehend. I look for trends when marking. I’ll discuss these with the whole class and learners respond very well because I would explain that concept differently from how I explained it initially to help them understand. More serious concerns I would discuss on a one-to-one base with the learners.”

A 26-year-old male participant stated, “In one of my classes after a discussion lesson I previously had, I grouped the learners in groups of four and they had to prepare a presentation based on the previous lesson. The aim was to improve the learner’s ability to present verbally and on paper what they learnt. We went through the assessment based on what they had presented, they did self-reflection on where they needed to improve and they seemed to be willing to take the feedback positively and to improve.”

A 43-year-old female stated, “After they had written the June examination, I looked at each and every answer sheet of the Matrics to identify their challenges.

I then conducted a diagnostic analysis to identify problem areas. I told them that the mark they had received meant that they knew something; they just needed to add to what they knew because for prelims we would only add two topics, both of which were a revision of Grade 11 work.”

Other comments were that learners did corrections; they responded to things they did not understand; after assessment, adequate feedback was given to learners; and learners were then shown how to approach the questions in future assessments.

From the findings it was clear that teachers use group work, peer assessment, project-based learning, self-reflection and diagnostic analysis. They also alluded to the importance of proper feedback. The participants’ remarks confirm the findings reported in the literature regarding types of assessment and the importance of proper feedback (see sections 2.1, 2.3 and 3). However, more differentiation in types of assessment may be used, as pointed out by Elton (2002).

5.5 Theme 5: Assessment for learning A 34-year-old female participant said, “Through the assessment process, learning takes place and the core should be the development of learners. The objective of assessment is learning and then evaluating the shortcomings in the learning process.”

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

360

A 43-year-old female stated, “Assessment for learning is regarded as summative assessment. It is used to measure what the learners have learned at the end of every topic. In my subject, Accounting, learners are given daily activities after introduction of every topic. Activities are arranged from simple to complex.

Informal assessment will then be given to prepare the learners for formal assessment. At the end of every term, the best learner in the subject is given a certificate.”

A 54-year-old male participant stated that assessment for learning is “about measuring learners’ progress in their learning. It is about systematically appraising learners’ strengths and weaknesses … and guiding them to achieve more. The [focus] is not on grades, but on the learning progress and how it can be enhanced”.

A 33-year-old female said, “The teacher and learner work together to evaluate the learner’s understanding of what she/he needs to learn to increase her/his knowledge… [Feedback is given] to improve a learner’s performance.”

A 26-year-old male stated, “Assessment for learning is about continuously monitoring whether learners are learning and understanding the content being taught. In my subject it needs to be used as a tool to monitor their understanding of theory … .”

Although most of the participants acknowledged that they understand what AFL is, one of the participants describes AFL as summative assessment. According to McNamee and Chen (2005), Burns (2005) and the NFER (2007) report, AFL is continuous (formative) assessment that allows teachers to appraise learners daily and adjust their teaching based on what the learners need in order to be successful.

5.6 Theme 6: Main concerns and recommendations by participants The participants’ general remarks and recommendations focused on three topics, namely school-related issues, university issues and departmental matters.

5.6.1 School-based issues According to the participants, assessment in schools is not always implemented properly and might be rushed in an attempt to complete assessments before the end of the term. Educators should understand the purpose and the process of assessment. Furthermore, assessments should assess different competencies on different cognitive levels and make more use of Bloom’s taxonomy.

Informal assessment must be of a high quality and prepare learners for formal tasks. Therefore, it should be monitored and corrections should be done after each assessment, irrespective of whether it is formal or informal. Assessment should help learners to succeed in their learning. It should promote confidence and motivation, while at the same time, provide opportunities for learners to improve their academic performance and progress well with their learning. Learners’ grades should not be regarded as the most critical element of assessment; it should be aimed at improving learners’ success in all domains of learning. Thus, every

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

361

school management team should investigate, design and implement a proper assessment plan.

5.6.2 University-based issues Participants highlighted that the current teaching practice is not enough to allow teachers to be exposed to what really happens in the school environment. As postPGCE students, they agree that ten weeks are not enough time. According to them, book knowledge can never prepare one for what really happens in the classroom. They stated that teachers definitely need more training in assessment because they struggle to set high-quality tasks or to use assessment tools, such as memoranda or rubrics, effectively. They suggested that more practical examples should be shown to student teachers in the form of lectures and videos. University training should further expose student teachers to the use of technology in the assessment system. Adequate training in the use of technology for assessment and other innovative assessment tools for learning were requested. It was suggested that a centre for such be established.

Universities need to involve schools more when planning the curriculum for teacher training. Universities should fill the gap between theory and practice.

They should also consult and cooperate with the South African Council of Educators.

5.6.3 Departmental matters Participants requested that workshops be arranged per subject and grade (and not in general), and be presented by more competent trainers.

6. Conclusion This research was undertaken to investigate the experiences and knowledge of teachers who have already completed their postgraduate certificate in Education (PGCE) at a distance learning institution, and who have taught for at least five years. It is important for policy-makers and teacher training institutions to obtain a better understanding of the what and how of professional knowledge-building regarding assessment in the classroom. The research aim and objectives were met and the research proved answers to the capability of teacher’s assessment in the classroom. The researcher recognises the limitations of the study, namely, that it reflects only one institution and a limited number of participants.

The picture that the researcher got from the participants was generally positive – 12 of the 14 participants felt prepared to conduct effective assessment.

Unfortunately, if we look at the reality of education in South Africa, there is also another side to this picture. Concerns were raised about the report on quality assurance by Umalusi and the results from the empirical data. The findings indicate inter alia that teachers need more assistance in classroom-based assessment. The need for training regarding assessment tools (for example, rubrics), and the use of technology and taxonomies, were highlighted. Assistance from school management teams in implementing an assessment plan, was also emphasised. Furthermore, an extension of the teaching practice period was indicated to prepare teachers for the reality.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

362

In light of the research results, it is recommended that educational programmes should have clear, explicitly stated purposes, which can guide assessment in the programmes. More practical examples, such as lecture videos, and taxonomies and rubrics should be used, and technology should be incorporated in assessment practices. More collaboration between stakeholders such as the South African Council of Educators, the DBE, universities and schools, is suggested. Teacher training should be holistic if it is to produce all-round reflective practitioners, who can adequately advance learner achievement in schools.

Declaration of conflict of interest The research has no conflict of interest to declare.

7.

References

Alberta

Education.

(2008).

Types of Classroom Assessment. http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/mewa/html/assessment/types.html Algonquin College. (2019). Qualities of Good Assessment Practices. Professor’s Resource. https://www.algonquincollege.com/profres/assessing-learners/qualities-ofgood-assessment-practices/ Andrade, H. L., & Cizek, G. J. (Ed). (2010). Handbook of formative assessment. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Ayala, C. C., Shavelson R. J., Ruiz-Primo, M. A., Brandon, P. R., Yin, Y., Furtak, E. M., Young, D. B., & Tomita, M. K. (2008). From formal embedded assessments to reflective lessons: The development of formative assessment studies. Applied Measurement in Education, 21(4), 315334. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957340802347787 Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2001). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment. https://weaeducation.typepad.co.uk/files/blackbox-1.pdf Booyse, C., Du Plessis, E. C., & Maphalala, M. (2020). Curriculum studies in context. 4th edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Burns, M. (2005). Looking at how students reason. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 26-31.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Research design: Educational research – planning, conducting and evaluating qualitative and quantitative research (4th ed.) New York: Pearson.

DeLuca, C., & Klinger, D. A. (2010). Assessment literacy development: Identifying gaps in teacher candidates’ learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 17(4), 419-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2010.516643 DeLuca, C., Willis, J., Cowie, B., Harrison, C., Coombs, A., Gibson, A., & Trask, S. (2019).

Exploring the Complex Dynamics of Assessment Education in Teacher Education Across Four Countries. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2019.00132/full Elton, L. (2002). Good assessment practice. Society for Research into Higher Education, 6, 106135.

Federation University.

(2019).

Types of feedback. https://federation.edu.au/staff/learning-and-teaching/teachingpractice/feedback/types-of-feedback Fink, D. L. (2003). A Self-Directed Guide to Designing Courses for Significant Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. https://inside.southernct.edu/sites/default/files/a/inside-southern/facultydevelopment/Self-Directed_Guide_to_Course_Design_-_Sept_10.pdf

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

363

Frey, B. B. (2018). Feedback Intervention Theory. The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/ 9781506326139.n261 Friesen, S., Saar, C., Park, A., Marcotte, C., Hampshire, T., Martin, B., Brown, B., & Martin, J. (2015). Focus on Inquiry. https://inquiry.galileo.org/ch3/assessment-withindiscipline-based-inquiry/ Hattie, J. (2016). Visible learning. http://visible-learning.org/john-hattie/ Khan, A. (2019). Meaning and Types of Assessment. Retrieved from https://www.toppr.com/bytes/types-of-assessment/ McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, M. (2014). Research in education: evidence-based inquiry. 7th ed. Pearson New International Edition. Boston: Pearson.

McNamee, G. D., & Chen, J. (2005). Dissolving the Line between Assessment and Teaching. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 72-76.

Measom, C. (2019). How to Be a Confident Teacher. http://work.chron.com/confidentteacher-1707.html Mertens, D. M. (2010). Transformative Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research. New York: Sage Journals.

Ministry of Education.

(2020).

What is assessment for learning? http://assessment.tki.org.nz/Assessment-for-learning/Underlying-principlesof-assessment-for-learning/What-is-assessment-for-learning National Foundation For Educational Research (NFER) Report. (2007). Getting started with Assessment for Learning. https://cambridge-community.org.uk/professionaldevelopment/gswafl/index.html NFER. (2007). NFER position paper on assessment. https://www.nfer.ac.uk/nferposition-paper-on-assessment-2007 Ngulube, P. (2018). Overcoming the Difficulties Associated with Using Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks in Heritage Studies. https://www.google.com/search?q=Ngulube%2C+P.+2018.+Overcoming+the+ Difficulties+Associated+with+Using+Conceptual+and+Theoretical+Framework s+in+Heritage+Studies&rlz=1C1CHZL_enZA778ZA778&oq=Ngulube%2C+P NVSD Curriculum Hub. (2018).

10 Principles of Assessment. https://www.sd44.ca/District/Communicating/Assessment%20Handbook/As sessment%20Handbook%202018.pdf Olivia, N. (2017).

What is Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research? https://www.coursehero.com/file/p46d3mf/2017-EstablishingTrustworthiness-in-Qualitative-Research Oltmann, S. M. (2016). Qualitative interview: a methodological discussion of the interviewer and respondent contexts. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 17(2), Art. 15. http://nbnresolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1602156 Pellegrino, J. W. (Ed). (2014). Developing Assessments for the Next Generation Science Standards Washington. The National Academies Press (NAP) publishes the reports of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

Ruiz-Primo, M. A., Li, M., Wills, K., & Sands, D. I. (2012). Developing and Evaluating Instructionally Sensitive Assessments in Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(6), 691-712. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258670010_Developing_and_Evalu ating_Instructionally_Sensitive_Assessments in_Science Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of classroom assessment in teaching and learning (CSE Technical Report 517). Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, Graduate School of Education & Information

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

364

Studies, University of California. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.588.4254&rep=rep1 &type=pdf South Africa’s Education Statistics. (2020). https://www.southafricanmi.com/educationstatistics.html Schwartz-Shea, P., & Yanow, D. (2020).

Interpretivism. https://methods.sagepub.com/foundations/interpretivism Umalusi. (2020). Quality assurance report. https://www.umalusi.org.za/wpcontent/uploads/2020/03/Nov-2019-DBE-QAA-Report-FINAL.pdf Van der Nest, A., Long, C., & Engelbrecht, J. (2018). South African Journal of Education, 38(1), 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v38n1a1382 Wiley, C. R. H. (2008). Traditional teacher tests. In TL Good (ed). 21st Century education: A reference handbook (Vol. 1). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

365

Appendix A Dear student/teacher/HOD May I kindly request you to complete this questionnaire and send it back to me by the end of August.

The purpose is to understand teacher views/beliefs in relation to assessment practices.

Please answer the following open ended questions on ASSESSMENT in the classroom. Please write as much as you can to share with us your views about assessment methods, how well they work in your class, and what children gain from doing assessment. Your answers will be confidential and they will help us improve our teaching in our courses on curriculum studies.

1.

Biographical information COUNTRY: AGE: YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE: GENDER: 2.

M

F

What is lacking in your assessment training, for example how to deal with discipline/multi-grade classes/diversity/technology/classmanagement?

3. Give 3 examples of improper and inappropriate assessment 4. Are you aware of the Assessment Policy and how familiar are you with it?

5. How is assessment of academic work of learners done?

6. Describe one opportunity where you used assessment to enhance learning in your classroom. This can be any level, any topic – note the plan you had to conduct this assessment, and how you intended the session to help children learn from the assessment. Describe the steps you followed and the detail of what transpired.

7. Note in detail your discussions with learners about the assessment, their performance – what you said, how they responded, and the discussions about the test in class among children.

8. Note here your reflections and views – what is assessment for learning about, and how should it be used in your subject?

9. Any other issues/comments/recommendations with regards to assessment?

10. Do you have any recommendations regarding university training for student teachers in order to equip and prepare them to enter the teaching profession after they have completed their qualification?

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

366

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 366-386, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.20 Received Sep 09, 2021; Revised Nov 22, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Predictors of Behavioural Intentions of Teachers to Adopt and Use Information and Communication Technologies in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe Norman Rudhumbu* College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2536-5511 Elizabeth Du Plessis College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-4632 Patience Kelebogile Mudau College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5389-6942

Abstract. The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) also known as educational technology in the teaching and learning context, has become a new normal in all sectors of education world-wide. The most important driver of the use of ICT in education has been the rapid advances in technology and to some extent, natural disasters such as COVID-19 that has affected access to education across all sectors of the education system. As a result, it has become very important that teachers in secondary schools adopt ICT for their teaching. This study therefore seeks to establish factors influencing the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT in Zimbabwe. A sample of 251 teachers were selected using stratified random sampling strategy from 10 secondary schools to participate in the study. A structured questionnaire adapted from the Oscarson Scale for Measuring Adoption-proneness (OSMA) was used for data collection. Results of the study showed that the use of technology in teaching, professional development, attitudes toward ICT, gender and ICT support services have a significant influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT. A number of challenges that affected the adoption of ICT in secondary schools were also identified. The study has implications

*

Corresponding author: Norman Rudhumbu; Email: nrudhumbu@buse.ac.zw

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

367

on both policy and practice with regard to the adoption of ICT in secondary schools.

Keywords: attitudes towards ICT; behavioural intention; ICT adoption; information communication technology; Technology Adoption Model

1. Introduction The introduction of ICT in schools has become critical in facilitating e-learning and enhancing access to education. Critically, the use of ICT in schools has been found to promote the use of innovative teaching approaches, ensure collaboration among students and develop technological skills of both teachers and students (Christopoulos & Sprangers, 2021). Also, the advent of pandemics such as COVD19 has made it even more imperative that teachers adopt ICT in schools (UNESCO, 2020). De-Graft (2018) also argues that technology-mediated teaching is now a universally accepted mode of teaching in today’s classrooms, hence it is critical that teachers adopt ICT and also demonstrate technology self-efficacy to be able to effectively integrate technology in teaching. Studies by Christopoulos et al. (2018), Mayer (2019) and Zhu and Urhahne (2018) found that while advances in ICT have forced schools to integrate technology in teaching and learning, a great deal still needs to be done to establish while the integration of ICT in secondary schools is still not effective. This is also supported by Reich (2020) who in his study argued that while technology use in schools has become ubiquitous, the use of technology in the teaching and learning processes has failed to disrupt how teachers teach and students learn as teachers continue to use traditional methods of teaching. While some studies show that limited staff and student motivation to use ICT in the teaching and learning process (Christopoulos et al., 2018; Scherer et al., 2019; Tondeur et al., 2017), the absence of a structured way of integrating technology in the teaching and learning process (Vongkulluksn et al., 2018 ), and a lack of funding and resources in schools (Francom, 2020; Nikolopoulou & Gialamas, 2015) are some of the factors affecting the integration of ICT in schools, more research is still needed for a wholesome identification of more factors. The need for more research on factors influencing the integration of ICT in secondary is also confirmed in the results of a study by OECD (2019), which found that slightly above half (57%) of secondary school teachers feel prepared to use ICT for teaching, around 59% of secondary school teachers let their students use ICT for learning, and also that about half (50%) need professional development and of these, 18% need urgent professional development in ICT. The adoption of technology in Zimbabwe has become a common phenomenon especially due to both advances in ICT and the advent of COVID-19 (UNESCO, 2020). A number of studies (OECD, 2019; Reich, 2020; UNESCO, 2020) have alluded to its wide adoption and also pointed to the fact that the adoption process has not been smooth due to a number of challenges. In the context of Zimbabwe, despite the wide adoption of ICT in schools, there is no study that has been conducted to establish factors that influence behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT in secondary school. This study therefore is an

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

368

attempt to bridge this research gap. The research objectives guiding the study are to: 1. Establish factors that influence the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT, 2. Identify barriers to ICT adoption by male and female teachers in secondary schools in Zimbabwe 3. Determine whether gender has a significant influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT.

2. Literature review 2.1. The concept of Information and communication technology Modern societies that include educational systems are increasingly relying on ICTs as the main drivers of knowledge generation (UNESCO, 2017). In the context of education systems, the rapid advances in ICTs the world over has enhanced the teaching/learning process by improving the quality of learning, transforming conventional delivery systems, and sustaining lifelong learning for all (UNESCO, 2017; Musarurwa, 2018; Dzinotyiweyi & Taddese, 2020). These rapid advances in ICTs have challenged teachers to be more creative and innovative in the way they deliver instruction to today’s technology-savvy learners in schools (Odhiambo, 2013). This is also confirmed by Baishakhi and Kamal (2016) who argued that the digital age has enabled huge flows of information for both teachers and learners, hence the need for teachers to have both the knowledge and skills to apply the new digital tools has become more persuasive than ever before. ICTs have been understood and defined variously.

One of the widely used definitions is that ICTs relate to a wide range of technological tools and resources that are used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information (Mishra, Sharma & Tripathi, 2008).

ICT is also defined as a set of digital tools that are used for facilitating the processing, transmission and display of information (Hamadin, 2017). When used in the context of teaching and learning, ICT is referred to as educational technology, which specifically relates to a combination of telephones, computers, software, modems, internet, e-mails, CD-ROMs, televisions and radios that facilitate teaching and learning (Gebre et al., 2014; Hamadin, 2017; Kong, 2019; Reyna, 2016). Among some of the benefits of ICTs in education include the expanding of access to learning as learners can now access information from anywhere and at any time, improvement of the quality of learning, and improvement in learners’ performance (Ghavifekr & Rosdy, 2015; Machivenyika, 2018; Odhiambo, 2013).

2.2. Contextual framework: Information and communication technology use in Zimbabwe schools In the context of Zimbabwe, the history of the integration of ICT in the education system in general and in secondary schools in particular dates back to 2005 when the Zimbabwean government introduced the National ICT policy, which was later reviewed in 2016 and re-launched in 2018 (Manhibi, 2019; Musarurwa, 2018; Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2019; Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, 2017). The main gist of this policy with regard to the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

369

education system was to capacitate schools and teachers with technological gadgets, knowledge and skills to be able to successfully integrate ICTs in their teaching. To this extent, the government of Zimbabwe donated computers to many of the urban and rural schools and also mandated colleges and universities to provide computer training to teachers (Musarurwa, 2018; Manhibi, 2019; Konyana & Konyana, 2013).

Furthermore, in Zimbabwe, like in many of the African countries, a number of challenges continue to affect the adoption of ICTs by teachers. The reviewed 2005 National ICT policy in Zimbabwe alluded to the following challenges as affecting the adoption of ICT in the education system: (i) inadequate ICT infrastructure, (ii) inadequate or unreliable electricity supplies, and (iii) the low digital literacy levels of teachers (Manhibi, 2019; Musarurwa, 2018). A number of studies also alluded to these challenges. Machivenyika (2018), Mandina (2015) and UNESCO (2017) argue that the main challenges affecting ICT adoption in schools in Zimbabwe include (i) capacity-related challenges where teachers lacked the necessary skills and knowledge to confidently integrate ICTs in their teaching, (ii) policy/planning-related challenges where inadequate mapping of ICT initiatives, a lack of coordination among key ICT stakeholders, and a lack of resources were critical challenges, and (iii) inadequate ICT infrastructure and prohibitive costs of internet connectivity, maintenance equipment, power, and assistive technologies.

3. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks informing hypotheses formulation This study is informed by the Technology Adoption Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989). The model is premised on the belief that four factors namely attitudes towards ICT, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and behavioural intention to use ICT help us understand why people adopt or fail to adopt and use ICT (Teo et al., 2015; Hamadin, 2017; Orser et al., 2019). Separate studies by Broos (2005), Teo et al. (2015), Kong (2019) and Gebre et al. (2014) found that attitudes towards ICT significantly influenced behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT. Behavioural intention (BI) is defined as an expression or measure of a person’s intention to act in a particular way or to perform a specific task (Rudhumbu, 2020). Perceived ease of use is defined as the degree to which users feel that using an ICT tool is going to be effortless (Kong, 2019; Teo et al., 2015). With regard to perceived ease of use, studies by Mutisya and Makokha (2016), Teo (2019) and Wong, Teo and Russo (2012) found that behavioural intention to adopt and use ICT develops in people who feel that it is going to be ease for them to use an ICT gadget to perform their tasks. Perceived usefulness is also defined as the degree to which users feel that by using a particular ICT gadget, the performance of their tasks is going to be more productive than without the gadget (Wong et al., 2012; Attis, 2014). In the context of the current study, a research model (Figure 1), adapted from the TAM model, was developed.

3.1. Use of ICT in teaching Anecdotal evidence with regard to the benefits of using ICT for teaching abound (Tondeur et al., 2017). Use of ICT in teaching refers to the use of digital resources, digital communication tools and the collection of data to effectively support

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

370

teaching and learning, promote interaction and facilitate pedagogical decision making in classrooms (Kong, 2019; Gebre et al., 2014; Orser et al., 2019). A study

by Perrotta (2013) found that ICT use in education assists teachers in carrying out various tasks, namely searching for information and preparing learning materials; presenting information (e.g. using Power Point presentations, interactive whiteboards and data projectors); collecting and managing data about learners’ activities; collaborating with colleagues; communicating with learners and parents; and sharing resources to the wider education community (Kong, 2019).

Studies by Teo et al. (2015), Kong (2019), Orser et al. (2019) and Wong et al (2012) found that teachers who believe that the use of ICT for teaching will make the performance of their tasks easier and more productive, develop behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. This is also confirmed in a study by Tri Anni et al. (2018) which established that teachers who perceived ICT as being useful to the performance of their tasks tended to develop behavioural intentions to adopt the ICT. Use of ICT in teaching (UIT)

Professional development in ICT of teaching staff (PD) Behavioural intention to adopt ICT (BII)

ICT support services (ISS)

H5

Attitudes toward ICT (AT)

Gender (GE)

Figure 1: Research model 3.2. Professional development in ICT of teaching staff The role of professional development of teaching staff in ICT is to enable them to effectively use ICT in the performance of their duties. Professional development in ICT is key to enabling and supporting teachers to use ICT in classrooms (Williams et al., 2000). This is also confirmed by Dlamini and Mbata (2018) who argued that the implementation of effective and meaningful teacher professional development is critical for the development of digital fluency and innovative pedagogies by teachers. Studies by Abuhmaid (2011), Binglimas (2009), Buckenmeyer (2010) and Welch (2012) found that by allowing teachers to deepen their ICT knowledge and skills through professional development, schools help change teachers’ beliefs towards ICT thereby promoting their behavioural intentions to adopt ICT in classrooms. Separate studies by Marios (2020) and De Clercq and Shalem (2014) also found that teacher professional development in ICT helps teachers acquire particular ICT knowledge and skills sets that help in the development of confidence and behavioural intentions by the teachers to adopt ICT for teaching. In their study Mansour et al. (2011) also found that empowering teachers through professional development in ICT improves their behavioural

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

371

intentions to use technology for teaching. Another study by Thatcher and Perrewé (2012) found that professional development reduces ICT anxiety and boosts confidence in teachers thus improving behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. Schoonenboom (2014) in his study also found that abilities, skills and competences developed in teachers as a result of training significantly contribute to their behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. 3.3. ICT support services Having adequate ICT support infrastructure through a well-trained team of ICT support team as well as a supportive institutional leadership motivates teachers to adopt technology. According to Rudhumbu (2020), the successful adoption and use of ICT requires a supportive environment as demonstrated through the availability of ICT tools, systems and support teams capable of promoting and sustaining the behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt and use ICT. Studies by Baturay et al. (2017) and Teeroovengadum et al. (2017) also found that a supportive institutional environment that has adequate ICT systems maintenance and update tools, adequately trained support personnel, and a supportive leadership, is a vehicle for promoting behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt ICT in schools.

3.4. Attitude towards ICT and adoption of ICT Attitudes represent a person’s disposition to something. Various studies that include studies by Venkatesh and Bala (2008) and Teo et al. (2008) found that the success of technology adoption and actual use by teachers in schools depends to a large extent on their attitudes towards ICT, since attitudes, whether negative or positive, define how a person responds to ICT. Confirming the importance of attitudes on the behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt and actually use ICT, a study by De-Graft (2018) found that positive attitudes towards ICT are critical to the successful adoption and use of ICT by teachers in their teaching.

3.5. Gender and ICT adoption The issue of the influence of gender on ICT adoption in educational institutions has been widely discussed and researched. Studies on gender differences on ICT adoption and use in educational settings have shown mixed results (Orser et al., 2019; Dosaya et al., 2020). This is confirmed by Teo et al. (2015, p.236) who argued that, “the issue of gender differences in the use of technology in the classroom has emerged with mixed findings in a number of research investigations”. Studies by Aung and Khaing (2016), Kay (2006), Mutuku (2018), Dosaya, et al. (2020) and Teo et al. (2015) found that the gender of a teacher was a critical factor in technology adoption in schools as female teachers tended to use ICT less when teaching due to their limited access to ICT tools as well as their limited ICT skills levels.

A number of studies have shown that male teachers adopt and use technology more than female teachers when teaching (Ardies et al., 2015) because they are more confident and technologically active than female teachers. Studies by Hayes (2007), Rudhumbu (2020) and Wang (2010) found that male teachers use technology more in their teaching because they are overall more confident and task-oriented than female teachers. As Dosaya, et al. (2020) found in their study,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

372

female teachers are more likely to use technology for teaching only when they perceive the technology to be easy to use. Orji (2010) argues that differences between men and women with regards to behavioural intentions to use ICT have been widely studied and results tended to be more favourable to men. A study by Pham et al. (2020) also found that there are significant differences between male and female teachers with regard to behavioural intentions to adopt and use technology due to the fact that male teachers hold the belief that using technology helps them perform their tasks better and also that female teachers mostly use technology when they believe the effort required to use technology is minimum.

These results were also confirmed in studies by Attis (2014) and Pham et al. (2020) whose results showed that male teachers are more likely to integrate technology in their teaching than female teachers because of their positive attitudes.

Hypotheses H1: Use of ICT in teaching has a significant and positive influence on the attitudes of secondary school teachers towards ICT. H2: Professional development of teaching staff in ICT has a significant and positive influence on the attitudes of secondary school towards ICT. H3: ICT support services have a significant and positive influence on the attitudes of secondary school teachers towards ICT. H4: Attitudes towards ICT have a significant and positive influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT. H5: Gender has a significant and positive influence on the attitudes of secondary school teachers towards ICT.

4. Methods and materials 4.1 Research design and instrument development The study employed a descriptive research design. A descriptive research design is a design in which researchers aim to establish characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories of a phenomenon by answering the questions: what, how, where and when (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017; McCombes, 2020). A 47-item structured questionnaire (shown in Appendix) adapted from the Oscarson Scale for Measuring Adoption-proneness (OSMA) was used for data collection. The OSMA was developed by Oscarson (1976) and comprises of 81 items spread across 5 different factors as follows: attitudes towards ICT - 19 items; use of ICT in teaching - 21 items; professional development of teaching staff - 6 items; ICT support services - 6 items; and barriers to adoption and use of ICT - 29 items. The OSMA used a 6 - point Likert scale from No, never (1) to Yes, always (6). The structured questionnaire for the current study has 47 items as follows: attitudes towards ICT - 8 items; use of ICT in teaching - 10 items; professional development of teaching staff-6 items; ICT support services - 5 items; gender - 4 items; behavioural intentions to adopt ICT - 4 items, and barriers to adoption and use of ICT - 10 items. In the current study, the questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale from Strongly disagree (SDA - 1), Disagree (A - 2), Neutral (N - 3), Agree (A - 4) to Strongly agree (SA - 5). The new instrument was different from the OSMA in that it also assessed the moderating influence of gender in the adoption of ICT by secondary school teachers. Confirmatory factor Analysis (CFA) was used for assessing the data structure, that is, to measure the validity and reliability of the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

373

data collected using the self-developed structured questionnaire. For ease of analysis, a criterion mean (CM) calculated as the mean of the scale items was calculated as follows: CM = (5+4+3+2+1)/5 = 3.0. Based on the CM, a response with a mean score of less than 3.0 shows disagreement with a given assertion, while a response with a mean score of above 3.0 shows agreement with a given assertion.

4.2 Population and sampling strategies The population for the study comprised of secondary school teachers in the Mashonaland Central urban region of Zimbabwe. Ten secondary schools were purposively selected based on the fact that they have computer laboratories and their curricula include courses in computer studies hence such schools were considered rich sources of data for the study on ICT adoption. Purposive sampling strategy is defined as a sampling strategy in which individuals or units that are considered information rich are targeted and selected for a study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). With regard to the respondents to the study, stratified random sampling strategy was used for selecting 251 teachers from a population of 320 teachers from the 10 schools. The sample size was determined using the Research Advisors’ (2006) online sample size table at 95% degree of confidence and 2.5% margin of error. Stratified random sampling strategy is defined as a probability sampling procedure that is used primarily on quantitative-oriented studies in which various subgroups (strata) in a population of interest are proportionately represented in the study sample (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). The selected teachers teach from Form one to four in the following areas of specialization: Sciences, Commerce, Creative Arts, as well as Arts and Social Sciences. Based on stratified random sampling, each of the 10 participating institutions were represented in the study sample as follows: X1= 24; X2=26; X3=44; X4=31; X5=27; X6=27; X8=18; X9=20; X10=32. A total of 251 questionnaires were delivered to the teachers through the offices of Headmasters and 166 were returned giving a return rate of 66.3%.

4.3 Data analysis The Software Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24 was used for data analysis. Measurement model analysis was done using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and the Bartlett Bartlett’s test of Sphericity to demonstrate the suitability of the data structure for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Regression analysis was used to test hypothesized relationships.

5. Results 5.1. Analysis of demographic data Table 1: Demographic factors of teachers Demographic factor Age

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Factor items 20 - 30 years 31 - 40 years 41 - 50 years > 50 years

Frequency % 28 35 26 11

374

Gender Educational level

Teaching experience

Level taught

Area of specialization

Male Female Certificate in Education Diploma in Education Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree < 5 years 5 - 10 years 11 - 20 years > 20 years Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Sciences Arts and Social Sciences Commerce Creative Arts ICT

59 41 5 39 52 4 25 37 25 13 35 29 19 17 31 45 14 4 6

Results in Table 1 represent the analysis of demographic data of secondary school teachers who participated in the study. It is shown from the results that most of the teachers (63%) are aged 40 years and younger and the rest (37%) were older than 40. This shows that secondary schools are populated by relatively young teachers. With regard to gender, most of secondary school teachers (59%) are male while 41% are female teachers. Gender balance is still an issue in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. 56% of secondary school teachers have either a bachelor’s or a master’s degree qualification while 44% have either a certificate or diploma qualification. This shows that most of the secondary school teachers in Zimbabwe have a degree qualification. With regard to years of teaching experience, 62% of teachers have 10 years and less of teaching experience which resonates with the fact that most of the teachers are 40 years and younger. With regard to levels taught, most of the teachers (64%) teach either Form one or Form two levels and this resonates with the fact that Form one and two classes are always the largest in secondary schools hence most of the teachers are found in these lower levels.

With regard to areas of specialization of teachers, results show that the majority of the teachers (45%) are found in the Arts and Social Sciences areas while the lowest number (4%) is found in Creative Arts.

5.2. Measurement model analysis Table 2: KMO and Bartlett test on independent variables KMO and Bartlett test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy Bartlett’s test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square Df. Sig.

.859 305.209 158 .000

Results in Table 2 demonstrate the suitability of the data structure for factor analysis to be conducted. Two tests, namely the KMO and Bartlett’s tests were

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

375

conducted to confirm the above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of sampling adequacy was .859, demonstrating that the data satisfied the benchmark of KMO ≥ .05 (Hair et al., 2017), hence showing that a factor analysis could be conducted.

Results of the Bartlett’s test of Sphericity (BS) of 305.209, which were significant (p = .000) also satisfied the benchmark of p < .05 (Hair et al., 2017) further confirming that factor analysis could be performed to validate the data.

Table 3: Convergent validity and reliability measurement of the model Model Constructs UIT

PD

ISS

AT

GE

BII

BA

Measurement Items

λ (λ>.6)

UIT2 UIT3 UIT4 UIT6 UIT9 PD1 PD2 PD3 PD5 ISS1 ISS2 ISS3 ISS4 ISS5 AT1 AT2 AT3 AT4 AT5 GE1 GE3 GE4 BII1 BII2 BII3 BII4 BA1 BA2 BA3 BA4 BA5 BA6 BA7 BA8 BA9 BA10

.720 .805 .715 .724 .801 .727 .811 .745 .826 .817 .804 .742 .902 .751 .715 .839 .651 .826 .805 .749 .815 .741 .833 749 .910 .701 .812 .759 .815 .704 .837 .746 .810 .761 .744 .769

IIR (IRR >.6) .681 .847 .702 .713 .749 .910 .739 .646 .829 .751 .855 .631 .772 .810 .801 .772 .749 .813 .829 .805 .933 .748 .683 .759 .843 .810 .761 .812 .741 .673 .775 .826 .819 .783 .803 .661

CA (CA>.7)

CR (CR>.7)

AVE (AVE>.5)

.843

.910

739

.901

.949

.613

.783

.804

.619

.814

.827

.651

.827

.914

.742

.735

.761

.603

.801

.841

.644

Notes: λ – Standardised factor loadings; IIR – Individual item reliability; CA – Cronbach’s alpha; CR – Composite reliability, AVE – Average variance extracted.

Table 3 shows a test of reliability and convergent validity of data items. Internal consistency reliability was tested through Cronbach’s alpha (α) of each of the constructs. The results in Table 3 show that α values ranged between .735 and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

376

.901, which satisfied the minimum requirement of α ≥ .7 for adequate internal consistence reliability of scale items (Hair et al., 2017). Results in Table 3 also confirmed convergent validity through standardized factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and average variance extracted (Hair et al., 2014).

Standardized factor loadings ranged between .651 and .910, individual item reliability values ranged between .631 and .933, Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from .735 and .901, composite reliability values ranged between .761 and .949, and average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from .603 and .742, confirming the presence of convergent validity in the scale items (Hair et al., 2017).

Table 4: Discriminant validity measurement Constructs BII UIT PD ISS AT GE BA

BII .777 .419*** .631*** .547*** .601*** .133*** -.408***

UIT

PD

ISS

AT

GE

BA

.860 .319*** .261* .227* .436*** -.517**

.783 .539* .317** .421** -.298**

.787 .355*** .641** -.447**

.807 .301* .268**

.861 -.305*

.802

Notes: Bold values represent the square roots of AVE; Significant: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001 Table 4 shows a test of discriminant validity of scale items. A comparison of the values of the square roots of AVE (bold diagonal values) and the vertical interconstruct correlations for each of the constructs show that all the diagonal values were greater than the corresponding vertical values for each construct thus satisfying requirements of discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2017). Except for BA, all independent factors have a significant and positive association with BII with PD having the strongest association with BII (r = .631; p < .001) and GE having the weakest association with BII (r = .133; p < .001). Except for BA, all factors have positive associations with each other with GE and ISS having the strongest association (r = .641; p < .01), showing that more ICT support is required according to the gender of teachers. AT and UIT have the weakest positive association among the factors (r = .227; p < 05), demonstrating that attitudes of teachers does not affect the use of ICT for teaching by teachers much.

5.3. Barriers to ICT adoption and use in secondary schools This section analyses barriers to ICT adoption in secondary schools in Zimbabwe as a means of demonstrating why the adoption of ICT assumes a very slow pace in these schools.

Table 5: Barriers to ICT adoption by male and female teachers 1

Nature of challenge Lack of ICT training

2

Inadequate ICT resources

3

Inadequate ICT support

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Gender Male Female Male Female Male Female

Mean 3.19 4.26 3.71 3.74 3.41 4.06

SD .615 .672 .803 .636 .715 .609

377

4

High internet costs

5

Slow internet connectivity

6

High costs of ICT gadgets

7

Techno-phobia

8

High workloads

9

Negative perceptions towards ICT

10

Lack of confidence

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

4.07 4.10 4.33 4.29 2.62 2.65 1.92 4.15 3.98 3.85 2.19

.613 .723 .819 .741 .682 .705 .622 .718 .657 .711 .827

Female Male Female

3.84 1.08 3.91

.801 .652 .618

Results in Table 5 show that secondary school teachers face a number of challenges that affect their adoption and use of ICT in classrooms. While in many cases both male and female teachers agree on the nature and type of challenges they face, results show gendered differences on the extent to which each of the two groups feel that each of the given challenges affects them. Results show that a lack of ICT training, which contributes to limited competences affects female teachers (M=4.26; SD=.672) more that male teachers (M=3.19; SD=.615). Both male and female teachers believe that inadequate ICT resources are a challenge in their adoption and use of ICT in classrooms and this slightly affects female teachers (M=3.74; SD=.636) more than male teachers (M=3.71; SD=.803). High internet costs have also been identified as a challenge in ICT adoption and affects female teachers (M=4.10; SD=.723) more than male teachers (M=4.07; SD=.613). Slow internet connectivity is viewed as the single biggest challenge affecting the adoption and use of ICT by both male teachers (M=4.33; SD=.819) and female teachers (M=4.29; SD=.741), with male teachers being affected more than female teachers.

The cost of ICT gadgets is not a challenge to both male (M=2.62; SD=.682) and female (M=2.65; SD=.705) teachers and hence does not affect their adoption and use of ICT in classrooms. Techno-phobia is not viewed as a challenge by male teachers (M=1.92; SD=.622) but is viewed as a serious challenge by female teachers (M=4.15; SD=.718). This shows that the fear of technology is seriously affecting female teachers’ behavioural intention to adopt and use technology in classrooms.

High workloads are challenges affecting both female teachers (M=3.85; SD=.711) and male teachers (M=3.98; SD=.657), with male teachers being affected more than female teachers. A negative perception towards ICT is a challenge affecting the adoption and use of ICT by female teachers (M=3.84; SD=.801) and not a challenge for male teachers (M=2.19; SD=.857). Female teachers also face the challenge of lack of a confidence (M=3.91; SD=.618) to use ICT and this affects their behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT while male teachers do not have the challenge of a lack of confidence (M=1.08; SD=.652) when using ICT in classrooms.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

378

5.4. Test of multicollinearity This section tests assumptions of multicollinearity using tolerance levels (TL) and Variance inflation factor (VIF) to determine whether or not assumptions of multicollinearity were violated.

Table 6: Tolerance Test and Variance Inflation Factor Variance

Collinearity statistics Tolerance Level (TL) Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) .725 2.033 .803 1.917 .668 1.958 .551 2.447 .715 3.725 .649 2.692 .739 4.019

UIT PD ISS AT GE BII BA

The results in Table 6 show that TL < 1.0 and VIF < 10 demonstrating that the assumptions of multicollinearity were satisfied in the study hence to show inference in the study would not be affected (Hair et al., 2017).

5.5. Hypotheses testing This section tested hypothesized relationship between independent variables (use of ICT in teaching, professional development in ICT of teaching staff, ICT support services, attitude toward ICT and gender) and the dependent variable (behavioural intention to adopt ICT).

Table 7: Model summary and regression coefficients of independent variables Model

Unstandardized coefficients

Standard Error

Standardized coefficients

B

SE

β

t

95% confidence interval for B Sig. Lower Upper bound bound

1 (Constant) .300 .475 .092 .817 .295 UIT .213 .022 .483 5.701 .003 .205 PD .127 .037 .365 3.664 .007 .105 ISS .091 .014 .329 7.382 .000 .075 AT .341 .045 .301 13.266 .000 .326 GE .118 .033 .103 4.825 .010 .115 Notes: Significant: p < .05; Dependent variable: Behavioural intention to adopt Coefficient of determination

.320 .230 .47 .131 .58 .105 .51 .350 .49 .130 .62 ICT; R2:

The results in Table 7 show that the five variables have a positive and significant influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT, demonstrating that H1, H2, H3, H3, H4 and H5 were all valid. The use of ICT (UIT) for teaching has the highest standardized coefficient value (β = .483; t = 5.701; p = 003; p < .05), showing that it has the highest influence towards ICT adoption and use by secondary school teachers. Professional development in ICT

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

R2

379

(PD) has the second highest standardized coefficient (β = .365; t = 3.664; p = .007; p < .05), showing that it is the second most influential factor on the adoption and use of ICT by secondary school teachers. Institutional support services (ISS) have the third highest standardized coefficient (β = .329; t = 7.382; p = .000; p < .05), indicating that it is the third most influential factor on the adoption and use of ICT by secondary school teachers. Attitudes toward ICT has the fourth highest influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT (β = .301; t = 13.266; p = .000; p < .05). Results further show that of the five factors, gender (GE) has the lowest standardized coefficient (β = .103; t = 4.825; p = .010; p < .05), which was an indication that gender of secondary school teachers had the least influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT. With regard to the contribution of each of the variables to the variation in the adoption of ICT by secondary school teachers, the results in Table 7 show that gender contributes the highest variation of 62% to the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT, followed by professional development (58%), institutional support services (51%), attitudes toward ICT (49%), and finally, the use of ICT for teaching, which contributes the least variation of 47% to the behavioural intention of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT. The whole model contributes 68% of the variation to the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT in their classrooms.

6. Discussion The purpose of the study was to establish determinants of behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers in Zimbabwe to adopt and use technology. The TAM was used as a theoretical framework that informed the study. Factors that include the use of ICT for teaching (UIT), professional development in ICT (PDI), ICT support services, attitudes toward ICT and gender (GE) were tested to determine whether they influenced teachers’ behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT in secondary schools.

It was established in the study that teaching using ICT has a significant and positive influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT. These results suggest that teachers who frequently teach using technology in their classes tend to find the technology useful and eventually are highly likely to develop behavioural intentions to adopt and use it. These results are consistent with findings of earlier studies. In their study also, Tri Anni et al.

(2018) established that teachers who use ICT for teaching perceive ICT as useful to the performance of their tasks and tend to develop behavioural intentions to adopt and use it. Kong (2019), Orser et al. (2019) and Wong et al. (2012) also established that teachers who use ICT in teaching believing that the use of such ICT in their teaching will make the performance of their tasks easier and more productive, tend to eventually develop behavioural intentions to adopt the technology in their classrooms.

It also emerged in the current study that professional development of teachers in ICT has a significant and positive influence on their behavioural intentions to

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

380

adopt and use it. This suggests that teachers who receive professional development training in ICT develop behavioural intentions to adopt and use the ICT because of the knowledge and skills they would have acquired. A study by Tri Anni et al (2018) found that teachers who undergo periodic training in ICT develop confidence in the use of ICT and are more likely to develop behavioural intentions to adopt it when compared to those who do not undergo periodic training. Separate studies by Marios (2020) and De Clercq and Shalem (2014) also found that teacher professional development in ICT helps teachers acquire particular ICT knowledge, skills and attitudes that help in the development confidence in the teachers as well as behavioural intentions to adopt the ICT for teaching.

Results of this study indicated that ICT support services have a significant and positive effect on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT. These results suggest that for teachers to develop behavioural intentions to adopt ICT, schools must have an ICT support infrastructure that include a team of qualified ICT support staff that are capable of offering timely and effective support to the teachers. The results also suggest that schools should also have supportive institutional management, which ensures that all necessary ICT resources are available as needed by students and their teachers. Such support will give the teachers the much-needed confidence and motivation to use ICT leading to the development of positive attitudes toward as well as behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. These results confirm findings of earlier studies. Separate studies by Baturay et al. (2017) and Teeroovengadum et al. (2017) established that a supportive institutional environment that has adequate ICT systems maintenance and update tools, adequately trained ICT support personnel, and a supportive leadership, is a vehicle for promoting behavioural intentions by teachers to adopt ICT. It also emerged from the study that attitudes of teachers towards ICT have a significant influence on their behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. These results suggest that the nature of attitudes, whether positive or negative, have a significant effect on whether or not teachers adopt ICT. This means that teachers with positive attitudes towards ICT are more likely to adopt ICT while those with negative attitudes are also less likely to adopt ICT. This is in line with findings of earlier studies. De-Graft (2018) in his study found that teachers who have positive attitudes towards ICT, more often than not, develop behavioural intentions to adopt that technology.

It further emerged from the study that gender has a significant and positive influence on the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt ICT. The issue of gender differences in the adoption of technology has been widely studied with conclusions showing mixed results with regard to whether gender significantly affects behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt technology. In the context of the current study, the results suggest that there are gender differences in the behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt technology. These results are consistent with findings of earlier studies. As Dosaya, et al. (2020) found in their study, female teachers are more likely to use technology for teaching only when

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

381

they perceive the technology to be easy to use. A study by Pham et al., (2020) also found that there are significant differences between male and female teachers with regard to behavioural intentions to adopt and use technology due to the fact that male teachers hold the belief that using technology helps them perform their tasks better while female teachers mostly use technology when they believe the effort required to use technology is minimum.

The findings of the study were that the behavioural intentions to adopt technology by teachers are affected by a number of challenges. Such challenges include inadequate ICT infrastructure, high costs of data bundles, high costs of ICT support technologies and maintenance, as well as unreliable power supplies among others. These challenges have slowed the speed by which ICT is integrated into the education system. A number of studies alluded to these challenges.

Separate studies by UNESCO (2017), Machivenyika (2018), Mandina (2015) and Manhibi (2019) found that the above challenges were among some of the main challenges that are affecting the adoption of ICTs in schools.

7. Limitations of the study The study used a quantitative approach only to establish factors influencing the behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT and this may have potentially limited the breadth and depth of the study. Future studies can also use a qualitative or mixed methods approach on the same topic.

8. Conclusion The purpose of the study was to establish factors that act as predictors of behavioural intentions of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT in their classrooms. The study was informed by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) from which a research model was designed. Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that teachers who view technology as being easy to use, useful to their tasks, who receive adequate technical support from ICT support teams, and undergo professional development training in the use of ICT, are highly likely to develop behavioural intentions to adopt ICT. This means that the following factors: the use of ICT for teaching, professional development of staff, institutional support services, attitudes toward ICT significantly influenced the likelihood of secondary school teachers to adopt and use ICT in their classrooms. It was also concluded that gender has a significant influence on the likelihood of secondary school teachers adopting ICT in their classrooms with male teachers showing greater propensity to adopt and use technology compared to female teachers.

9. Recommendations and Practical Implications A number of recommendations were made based on the results of the study. It was recommended that since technology has become a requirement for teaching and learning in schools in this digital era and also due to pandemics such as COVID-19, it is important that teachers develop positive attitudes towards and behavioural intentions to adopt and use technology. It was also recommended that secondary schools needed to recruit qualified ICT support staff who are able to offer timely and effective technical support to teachers. Due to high internet costs, it was also recommended that schools needed to enter into partnerships

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

382

with industry for some forms of collaborations, which could lead to sponsorships.

Continuous and periodic training of teachers in ICT was also recommended as a critical process for re-skilling and up-skilling teachers with necessary ICT knowledge and skills for them to continue having positive attitudes towards ICT and develop behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT. The adoption and use of ICT in teaching in secondary schools is critical not only for ensuring innovative teaching, but most importantly for enhancing access to education by students. This study therefore provides practical implications for the effective adoption and use of technology in schools. Firstly, the study demonstrates that professional development is important for confidence building and motivation of teachers to be able to develop behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT. Secondly, the study highlights the importance of ICT support infrastructure, supportive institutional leadership, as well as the development of positive attitudes in teachers as strategies for ensuring the development of behavioural intentions to adopt and use ICT by teachers. Finally, the study has implications on both policy and practice on enhancing the adoption of ICT by teachers in secondary schools.

Acknowledgements The researchers wish to thank all teachers and their institutional management for the successful completion of this study.

10. References Abuhmaid, A. (2011). ICT training courses for teacher professional development in Jordan. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 10(4), 195–210.

Ardies, J., De Maeyer, S., Gijbels, D., & van Keulen, H. (2015). Learners’ attitudes towards technology. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25(1), 43-65.

Attis, J. (2014). An investigation of the variables that predict teacher e-learning acceptance.

[Doctoral thesis, Libert University, Lynchburg, VA].

Aung T. N., & Khaing S. S. (2016) Challenges of implementing e-Learning in developing countries: A Review. In T. Zin, J.W. Lin, J. S. Pan, P. Tin, M. Yokota (Eds.) Genetic and Evolutionary Computing. GEC 2015. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 388. Springer, Cham.

Baishakhi, B., & Kamal, D. (2016). Role of ICT in 21st century’s teacher education.

International Journal of Education and Information Studies, 6(1), 1-6.

Baturay, M. H., Gökçearslan, Ş., & Ke, F. (2017). The relationship among pre-service teachers’ computer competence, attitude towards computer-assisted education, and intention of technology acceptance. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 9(1), 1–13.

Binglimas, K. (2009). Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning environments: A review of the literature. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 5(3), 235–245.

Broos, A. (2005). Gender and information and communication technologies (IT) anxiety: Male self-assurance and female hesitation. Cyber Psychology & Behaviour, 8(1), 21– 31.

Buckenmeyer, J. A. (2010). Beyond computers in the classroom: Factors related to technology adoption to enhance teaching and learning. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 3(4), 27.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

383

Christopouloshttps, A. & Sprangers, P. (2021). Integration of educational technology during the Covid-19 pandemic: An analysis of teacher and student receptions.

Cogent Education, 8(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021.1964690 Christopoulos, A., Conrad, M., & Shukla, M. (2018). Increasing student engagement through virtual interactions: How? Virtual Reality, 22(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-017-0330-3.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease Of Use, And User Acceptance.

MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-340.

De Clercq, F., & Shalem, Y. (2014). Teacher knowledge and employer-driven professional development: A critical analysis of the Gauteng Department of Education programmes. Southern African Review of Education with Education with Production, 20(1), 129–147.

Dlamini, R., & Mbatha, K. (2018). The discourse on ICT teacher professional development needs: The case of a South African teachers’ union. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 14 (2), 17-37.

Dosaya, D., Shukla, T., & Nirban, V.S. (2020). Transformation of Academic Ecology through Information Communication Technology adoption. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(5), 372-377.

Dzinotyiweyi, M., & Taddese, A. (2020). EdTech in Zimbabwe: A rapid scan (EdTech Hub 2, country scan No. 4). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3903838 De-Graft, J. D. (2018). Assessing the use of Information and Communication Technology in teaching and learning in secondary schools. Library Philosophy and Practice. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328931869_The_Adoption_and_use _of_Ict_in_Teaching_and_Learning_in_Secondary_Schools Francom, G. M. (2020). Barriers to technology integration: A time-series survey study.

Journal of Research in Technology Education, 52(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2019.1679055 Gebre, E., Saroyan, A., & Bracewell, R. (2014). Learners’ engagement in technology rich classrooms and its relationship to professors’ conceptions of effective teaching.

British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(1), 83-96.

Ghavifekr, S., & Rosdy, W. A. W. (2015). Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in Education and Science (IJRES), 1(2), 175-191.

Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hamadin, K. (2017). Implementation e-learning among Jordanian School’s Management.

Journal of Education and Practice, 8(11), 79-87.

Hayes, D. N. A. (2007). ICT and learning: Lessons from Australian classrooms. Computers & Education, 49(2), 385-395.

Kay, R. (2006). Addressing gender differences in computer ability, attitudes and use: The laptop effect. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(2), 187–211.

Kong, S. C. (2019). Partnership among schools in e-Learning implementation: Implications on elements for sustainable development. Educational Technology & Society, 22(1), 28–43.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

384

Konyana, S., & Konyana, E. G. (2013). Computerization of rural schools in Zimbabwe: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development: the case of Chipinge District, South-East Zimbabwe. African Journal of Teacher Education, 2(3), 1-13.

Machivenyika, F. (2018, March 15). President launches national ICT policy. The Herald. https://www.herald.co.zw/just-in-president-launches-ict-policyframework/ Mandina, S. (2015). Integrating ICTs into the environmental science primary school classroom in Chegutu district, Zimbabwe: problems and solutions. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 3(1), 90–96.

Manhibi, R, (2019). Information and Communication Technologies integration into early childhood development education in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe: A Critical Analysis.

PhD Dissertation submitted to the University of Kwazulu-Natal, SA. Mansour, N., Alshamrani, S., Aldahmash, A., & Alqudah, B. (2011). Perceived professional development needs for Saudi Arabian science teachers. https://www.esera.orh/media/ Mario, C. (2020, February 20). Complementary Hypotheses for Technology Analyses and Innovation Management. Working Paper CocciaLab n. 46/2020, CNR -- National Research Council of Italy, 2020. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3541596.

Mayer, R. E. (2019). Computer games in education. Annual Review of Psychology, 70(1), 531– 549. https://doi.org/ 10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102744.

McCombes, S. (2020).

Descriptive research. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/ Mishra, M. P., Sharma, V. K., & Tripathi, R. C. (2008). ICT as a tool for teaching and Learning in Respect of learner with disability. http://wikieducator.org/images/7/7b/SJ%7B_%7DM.P.Mishra.pdf Musarurwa, T. (2018). Constant review vital for National ICT Policy. The Sunday Mail (Zimbabwe). https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/constant-review-vital-fornational-ict-policy Mutisya, D. N., & Makokha, G. L. (2016). Challenges affecting adoption of e-learning in public universities in Kenya. E-Learning and Digital Media, 13(3–4), 140–157.

Mutuku, M. N. (2018). An investigation of the factors influencing the integration of ICT in teaching and learning process in public secondary schools in Machakos county, Kenya. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, VI(4), 418441.

Nikolopoulou, K., & Gialamas, V. (2015). Barriers to the integration of computers in early childhood settings: Teachers’ perceptions. EAIT, 20(2), 285–301. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10639-013-9281-9 Odhiambo, O. S. (2013). Use of information communication technology in teaching and learning processes in secondary schools in Rachuonyo South District, Homa-bay County, Kenya.

Masters Dissertation, University of Nairobi.

OECD. (2019). TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and school leaders as lifelong Learners.

TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en Orji, R. (2010) Impact of gender and nationality on acceptance of a digital library: An empirical validation of nationality based UTAUT using SEM. Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences, 1, 68-79.

Orser, B., Riding, A., & Li, Y. (2019). Technology adoption and gender-inclusive entrepreneurship education and training. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 11(3), 273-298.

Oscarson, D. J. (1976). Factors associated with vocational teacher proneness toward the adoption of innovations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

385

Perrotta, C. (2013). Do school-level factors influence the educational benefits of digital technology? A critical analysis of teachers’ perceptions. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(2), 314-327.

Pham, T. B. T., Danga, L. A., Lea, T. M. H., & Lea, T. H. (2020). Factors affecting teachers’ behavioral intention of using information technology in lecturing economic universities. Management Science Letters, 10, 2665-2672.

Reich, J. (2020). Failure to Disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press.

Reyna, J. (2016). Bringing Knowledge to Life: Implementing e-learning across the School of Education. International Journal on E-Learning, 15(1), 101-120.

Rudhumbu, N. (2020). Antecedents of university lecturers’ intentions to adopt information and communication technology in Zimbabwe. Education and Information Technologies, 6, 127-143.

Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. Computers & Education, 128, 13–35. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009 Schoonenboom, J. (2014). Using an adapted, task-level technology acceptance model to explain why instructors in higher education intend to use some learning management system tools more than others. Computers & Education, 71, 247–256.

Teeroovengadum, V., Heeraman, N., & Jugurnath, B. (2017). Examining the antecedents of ICT adoption in education using an extended technology acceptance model (TAM). International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 13(3), 4–23.

Teo, T., Fan, X., & Du, J. (2015). Technology acceptance among pre-service teachers: Does gender matter? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 235–251.

Teo, T., & Huang, F. (2018). Investigating the influence of individually espoused cultural values on teachers’ intentions to use educational technologies in Chinese universities.

Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1489856 Teo, T., Huang, F., & Hoi, C. K. W. (2018). Explicating the influences that explain intention to use technology among English teachers in China. Interactive Learning Environments, 26(4), 460–475.

Teo, T., Lee, C. B., & Chai, C. S. (2008). Understanding pre-service teachers' computer attitudes: Applying and extending the Technology Acceptance Model. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(2), 128–143.

Teo, T. (2019). Learners and teachers’ intention to use technology: Assessing their measurement equivalence and structural invariance. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(1), 201-225.

Thatcher, J. B., & Perrewé, P. L. (2012). An empirical examination of individual traits as antecedents to computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy. MIS Quarterly, 26(4), 381–396.

The Research Advisors. (2006). Sample size table. https://www.researchadvisors.com/tools/SampleSize.htm Tondeur, J., Aesaert, K., Pynoo, B., Braak, J., Fraeyman, N., & Erstad, O. (2017). Developing a validated instrument to measure preservice teachers’ ICT competencies: Meeting the demands of the 21st century. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 462- 472.

Tri Anni, C., Sunawan, S., & Haryono, H. (2018). School counselors’ intention to use technology: The technology acceptance model.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

386

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324438702_School_Counselors’_Int ention_to_Use_Technology_The_Technology_Acceptance_Model.

UNESCO. (2017). Report of the Southern Africa Regional Meeting on ICTs in Education. http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/multimedia/field/Harare/pdf/ICTs EDZIM.pdf UNESCO. (2020). The Global Risk Report. New York: Henslin Press.

Venkatesh, V., & Bala, H. (2008). Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a research agenda on interventions. Decision Science, 39(2), 273-312.

Vongkulluksn, V. W., Xie, K., & Bowman, M. A. (2018). The role of value on teachers’ internalization of external barriers and externalization of personal beliefs for classroom technology integration. Computers & Education, 118(3), 70–81.

Wang, H. Y., & Wang, S. H. (2010). User acceptance of mobile Internet based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology: Investigating the determinants and gender differences. Social Behavior and Personality, 38(3), 415.

Welch, T. (2012). Teacher Development: What works and how can we learn from this and maximise the benefits? Presentation at the Teachers’ Upfront meeting. Johannesburg: Wits School of Education.

Williams, D., Coles, L., Richardson, A., Wilson, K., & Tuson, J. (2000). Integrating Information and Communications Technology in Professional Practice: An analysis of teachers’ needs based on a survey of primary and secondary teachers in Scottish schools. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 9, 167182.

Wong, K., Teo, T., & Russo, S. (2012). Influence of gender and computer teaching efficacy on computer acceptance among Malaysian student teachers: An extended technology acceptance model. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28(7), 1190-1207.

Zhu, C., & Urhahne, D. (2018). The use of learner response systems in the classroom enhances teachers‘ judgment accuracy. Learning and Instruction, 58, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018. 07.011 Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. (2019). ICT Policy for Primary and Secondary Education (2019 2023). https://docs.edtechhub.org/lib/ZK7M3DZ9 Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. (2017). Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Census. https://docs.edtechhub.org/lib/TWM5YZVL

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Appendix QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS RESEARCH TITLE: Predictors of behavioural intentions of teachers to adopt and use information and communication technologies in secondary schools INSTRUCTIONS: You are requested to take about 20 minutes to answer the following questionnaire. Kindly use X in the box bearing your choice of response to each of the given statements.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES 1. Age: 21-30 yrs.

31-40 yrs.

2. Gender: Male

Female

3. Educational level: C.E

Dip.Ed.

Master’s degree

50+ yrs.

Bachelor’s degree

Other…………

4. Teaching experience: < 5 yrs.

5. Level taught: Form 1

41-50 yrs.

Form 2

6. Area of specialization: Sciences Creative arts

5-10 yrs.

Form 3

11-20 yrs.

20+ yrs.

Form 4

Arts and social sciences

Commerce

ICT

SECTION B: FACTORS INFLUENCING ICT ADOPTION Use of ICT for teaching SN ITEM SDA DA N 1.

I use technology for teaching most of the 1 2 3 time.

2.

I am confident of teaching using technology.

3.

Teaching using technology helps in facilitating collaborative teaching.

4.

I enjoy teaching using technology.

5.

The academic performance of my students improves when I teach using technology.

6.

My ability to teach improves when I teach using technology.

7.

My communication with both students and their parents improves when I teach using technology.

8.

My lesson planning has improved as a result of teaching using technology.

9.

Teaching using technology makes my lesson interactive and interesting.

10. Teaching using technology has improved the motivation levels of my students.

A 4

SA 5

Professional development in ICT SN ITEM

SDA DA N 1 2 3

Professional development in ICT helps develop confidence in me to use technology for teaching.

12. I find professional development in ICT very meaningful at my institutions.

13. Professional development in ICT is frequently done at my institution.

14. Professional development in ICT has helped teaching staff at my institution gain confidence in using technology for teaching.

15. Teachers at my institution now frequently use technology for teaching because of the professional development trainings in ICT they frequently receive.

16. Professional development in ICT has helped me to be able to use a multimedia approach to teaching.

ICT support services SN SDA DA N 17. I have happy with the support given to ICT 1 2 3 by institutional management.

18. We have state of the art ICT infrastructure to support our teaching at y institution.

19. We have well trained technical staff to assist us in the use of technology at our institution.

20. I am happy with the state of ICT systems support and maintenance at our institution.

21. There is adequate budget to support ICT needs at our institution.

Attitudes toward ICT SDA D N A 1 2 3 22. I feel apprehensive about using technology for teaching.

23. I sometimes get nervous just thinking about technology.

24. Teaching using technology is boring to me.

25. I feel that technology isolate teachers by inhibiting normal social interactions among users.

26. I do not like using technology for teaching because I feel it has the potential to control our lives in terms of how we think and act.

27. I do not have time to waste learning a lot about technology.

A 4

SA 5

A 4

SA 5

A

SA

4

5

11.

28. Knowing how to use technology is a worthwhile skill.

29. I like working with technology every time.

Gender SDA 1

D A 2

N

A

SA

3

4

5

D A 2

N

A

SA

3

4

5

D A 2

N

A

SA

30. There is a significant difference in the way male and female teachers use technology for teaching.

31. Female teachers are not very confident to use technology in general.

32. Male teachers use technology because they find it more useful for their performance.

33. Female teachers use technology only when they feel it is easy to use.

Behavioural intentions (BI) SDA 1 34. I like using technology for teaching.

35. I would recommend other teachers to use technology for teaching.

36. I find teaching using technology flexible that I will continue with it for as long as I am able.

37. Teaching using technology helps in building my teaching confidence.

Barriers to ICT adoption SDA

The following affect my adoption of technology 1 3 4 5 for teaching: 38. Lack of ICT training 39. Inadequate ICT resources 40. Inadequate ICT support 41. High internet costs 42. Slow internet connectivity 43. High costs of ICT gadgets 44. Techno-phobia 45. High workloads 46. Negative perceptions towards ICT 46. Lack of confidence THANK YOU FOR TAKING YOUR TIME TO RESPOND TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE

387

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 387-406, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.21 Received Aug 14, 2021; Revised Nov 14, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

“I Teach the way I believe”: EFL Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs in Technology Integration and its Relationship to Students’ Motivation and Engagement in the COVID 19 Pandemic Year Russell D’ Souza Department of Education, Nirmala Institute of Education, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1500-5686 Jayashree Premkumar Shet College of Science and Arts, An Nabhanya, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6943-9706 Joel Alanya-Beltran Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Peru https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8058-6229 Korakod Tongkachok Faculty of Law, Thaksin University, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2381-9161 Geena Hipolito-Pingol Pampanga State Agricultural University, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1346-7553 Mohamed Aboobucker Mohamed Sameem South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5164-5277

Abstract. This study aimed to investigate language teachers' pedagogical concepts and attitudes and the effect of these on students' motivation and engagement levels. Its results were based on a cross-sectional correlational research survey which was conducted online. The participants in the study were chosen at random from among 205 language teachers (n= 205) and 317 language students (n= 317) from various higher educational institutions in Asian countries. Results of the study of language teachers revealed that the respondents' pedagogical ideas and orientations were positive when it came to using technologybased teaching in their language classroom. Results of gender differences

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

388

indicated that female language teachers showed a firmer belief in studentcentered online language learning than their male counterparts. On the other hand, males are more likely than females to utilize technology in the language classroom, and their attitudes relating to it are more favorable than those of their female counterparts. The levels of language learning motivation and engagement among students were also investigated. The findings also showed a high level of language learning engagement among both male and female students. Furthermore, the test of relationship showed that the firmer the instructors' belief in the importance of student-centered teaching and the incorporation of technology in the language classroom, the more driven and engaged the students are in language learning. Students' motivation and involvement in online language learning are not related to their views about the significance of instructors in their life, which is contrary to what many people believe. When it comes to incorporating technology into language courses, there are several pedagogical assumptions that enable EFL teachers to do so effectively. More broadly stated, this study has implications for increasing language instructors' digital literacy to develop more motivating, productive, and engaging language courses for 21st-century learning to improve language students' digital literacy.

Keywords: teachers’ pedagogical orientation; technology; language learning; online classrooms

1. Introduction The effect of technological advancements on education has been extensively documented in the literature. In recent years, the use of technology in education as a teaching tool has gained popularity. Unfortunately, not all EFL instructors are using contemporary technology advances to improve learning in the classroom, which is a major problem (Ding et al., 2019, Martin et al., 2020). The views of the instructor are one of the most significant elements that influence variables such as the usage of technology. Pedagogical principles significantly affect teaching methods, and instructors would select an English learning style that best represents their own views and beliefs as a consequence of this effect (Chen & Kent, 2020). EFL pedagogical views (whether official or informal) include a wide variety of topics, from the planning, implementation, and evaluation of a language program to the evaluation of instructional materials. Unlike a studentcentered belief, a teacher-centered belief is concerned with the knowledge and understanding of the instructor, while a student-centered belief is concerned with the participation and success of the students (Tondeur et al., 2017). According to a prior study, students prefer instructors who have a student-centered pedagogical perspective and utilize technology in their courses over instructors who have a teacher-centered pedagogical perspective and use technology in their courses (Lo & Hew, 2020; Zhou & Wei, 2018). An investigation of the relationship between instructors' pedagogical values and student learning interest when technology is utilized in the classroom has not been conducted, and none of the prior research has taken pedagogical values into consideration (Alley, 2019; Burke et al., 2018; Jeong, 2019; Yimaz, 2017). Consequently, in this present study the researchers investigated the pedagogical concepts followed by EFL teachers in more depth as well as their learning commitment to using technology. With

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

389

respect to learner engagement, the researchers are particularly interested in identifying which elements of pedagogy have the most impact on students' participation.

Teacher Pedagogical Belief The development of a belief system by an individual is indicative of the development of personal confidence. A belief system is defined as a mental representation that anticipates or indicates a reality or state of validity. As defined

by Tondeur et al. (2017), conviction is the belief that a collection of ideas is true, while intelligence is characterized as empirical propositions or concepts. An individual's belief is usually regarded as accurate in the sense that it serves as a filter through which the individual's experience is filtered (Lo & Hew, 2020). A pedagogical belief is one that may be implemented based on the teachers' confidence in teaching and knowledge of educational theory. Teachers' views are influenced by their past experiences, which serve as the basis for planned activity and classroom behavior in the classroom (Magulod Jr, 2017a, 2017b, 2017c). For the sake of this study, pedagogical beliefs may be defined as the assumptions maintained by EFL teachers while teaching in their classes (Chen & Kent, 2020; Yilmaz, 2017). There are two types of beliefs held by teachers: the teacher-centered belief and the student-centered belief, both of which are discussed here. The behaviorist principles that underpin the teacher-centered worldview are often invoked (Alley, 2019; Burke et al., 2018). The results of the students' evaluations serve as proof of the effectiveness of the teachers’ lessons. Students are being provided with information as though they are just receptacles for fact-checked material, which is incorrect (Lai et al., 2018). Their viewpoints are often regarded negatively, and teachers are charged with promoting students' meaning and interpretation of events they witness and experience in the classroom (Hinostroza et al., 2021). Thus, pedagogical beliefs represent the teaching methods used by ESL teachers in their classes as a response to the methodological ideas held by their students (Olelewe et al., 2021).

The Role of Pedagogical Belief in Technology Integration Many online technological devices are intended to assist in the learning of foreign languages. Numerous elements of language learning have been shown to be improved via the use of technology, including increasing the desire to study English, extending vocabulary capacity, and applying other innovations that language teachers have not made use of to their maximum potential (Jaafar et al., 2021, Magulod Jr, 2017a, 2017b; Polat & Harabatak, 2021). Technology in their classes is not adequately supported, and this is a major problem. According to recent research, teachers utilize technology in the classroom regardless of their pedagogical ideas or beliefs (Bouchey et al., 2021; Tai & Chen, 2021; Abou-Khalil et al., 2021). As a result of its ability to filter everything that is good and helpful into the teacher's values, the technology significantly impacts education.

According to the results of a study conducted by Polat and Karabatak (2021), teachers who have pedagogical attitudes that are focused on EFL showed lower levels of engagement while utilizing technology to educate in their courses.

Teachers who place a strong focus on the pedagogical value of student-centered instruction have been shown to be more hesitant to utilize technology in lesson preparation (Wang et al., 2021). Student-centered values encourage teachers to

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

390

utilize and integrate technology into their courses, which results in increased productivity in the classroom. Pedagogical belief-based instructors use instructional technology to assist students' development of higher-order thinking, increase learning, improve students' capacity to utilize knowledge and skills, and offer students a platform for practice and reflection (Akongoh, 2021; Machisi, 2021; Tadesse et al., 2021).

According to their preferences, language instructors may distinguish between teacher-centered and student-centered educational methods in the context of a community of teachers and students (Tadesse et al., 2021). A community environment has been created in order to better understand the teacher-centered and student-centered community environments in which EFL instructors work.

In previous studies (Barrett et al., 2021; Divekar et al., 2021), the factors affecting technology incorporation in the EFL learning environment were teachers' pedagogical approaches based on skills and rules as well as their application clustered on skill-based, rule-based, and application; and possible implementations. In the case of foreign language instruction, the concept established by Johnson (2006) may be used. A skill-based activity could be described as one in which the instructor employs a digital timer and sound or phrase patterns on a regular basis, for example, since consistency and memory are important components of technology integration in the classroom. If a teacher provides reference books and dictionaries to students to aid them in increasing their vocabulary, this might be considered an example of rule-based education, as described above. The use of a function-based approach to participation by an instructor is referred to as a "task-based exercise"; however, this is not always the case (Karaseva et al., 2018).

Learning Engagement, Performance, and Motivation The development of learning engagement is required in order to have active participation and motivation to learn as well as increasing students’ learning performance (Bakker et al., 2012; Magulod Jr, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c; Magulod Jr et al., 2020, Wu et al., 2020). Making a full commitment to a certain position within the educational process means investing in learning. When it comes to student participation in classroom teaching and learning, both mental and physical attention are essential aspects to take into consideration (Koh et al., 2017; Mei et al., 2018). As a consequence, engagement should be defined as the active participation or participation of students in their learning in this context. Student performance, on the other hand, is assessed according to the majority of projections. Around 80% of English teachers, according to estimates, assess success only on the basis of production, rather than on the premise of making it possible for students to learn (Johnson, 2006; Kawinkoonlasate, 2019; Sadaf & Johnson, 2017). The involvement of the school community has been shown to enhance overall student performance (Lai et al., 2017; Tsai et al., 2019). When students are present and actively engaged in the learning process, they will often have the chance to discover their own potential. In order to inspire students, teachers must spend a significant amount of time providing high-quality teaching to the students. It is anticipated that boosting student enthusiasm for studying

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

391

will have a positive impact on learning outcomes and learning efficiency in the long run (Gong & Lai, 2018, Tavakoli et al., 2019).

Research Objectives Despite the fact that many studies evaluated student involvement in technologybased learning, the perspectives of instructors on pedagogy have not been thoroughly investigated. In general, this research aims to identify the pedagogical orientations of language instructors when it comes to integrating technology in the online classroom and the impact of this integration on students' motivation and engagement. To be more specific, it aspires to offer responses to the following objectives: 1. Identifying the pedagogical orientations of language teachers toward the use of technology-based teaching; 2. Determining the level of online language learning engagement among students; 3. Assessing the differences in the pedagogical styles of instructors when they are grouped according to their profile variables; and 4. Examining the relationship between teachers' pedagogical orientations toward integrating technology in the online language learning environment.

2. Methodology To examine language teachers' pedagogical views on online learning as well as the relationship between student motivation and engagement in the online language classroom, a descriptive correlational survey technique was utilized in conjunction with an online language classroom. As a consequence, this investigation is similarly cross-sectional in nature. In this way, the relationship between the variables that were found throughout the study could be established, with the ultimate aim of producing an engaging language lesson online as the end result. According to Qaranta (2017), a descriptive correlational survey research design is a kind of study in which the investigators are interested in identifying the relationship between a number of variables. In the research, the participants comprised 205 randomly selected language teachers (n= 205) and 317 randomly selected language students (n= 1800). The sampling representations were taken from Asian universities, in particular those from the countries of India, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Philippines and Sri Lanka. The researchers collaborated online to obtain data from the students in their respective universities. Proper coordination and constant communication among the participating authors were ensured. The researchers employed a technique known as systematic random sampling for their investigation. A written request was made to the universities’ administration, seeking the official lists of teachers and students, which was promptly fulfilled. Using the free online Raosoft sampling calculator, the sample was computed with a 5% margin of error, a 95% confidence level, and a 50% distribution rate. While this was happening, the systematic sampling technique was utilized to choose the research samples, with three being the random start number for instructor responses and five being the random start number for student responses. To begin with, the institution granted authorization for the study to be conducted in the first place, which addresses ethical issues. Before

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

392

taking part in the research, both groups of participants provided their informed consent to participate.

Table 1: Participants’ profile

Male Female Total

Teacher Respondents 110 207 317

Percentage Distribution 35 % 65 % 100%

Student Respondents 89 116 205

Percentage Distribution 43 % 57 % 100%

Male and female respondents are represented in Table 1, indicating that females outnumber males in terms of the percentage of respondents in the survey. The information and data privacy forms for the participants were distributed to each of them prior to the start of the study. Apart from that, the respondents' identities, confidentiality, and privacy were all monitored both before and after the data was accessible. To them, it was critical that they were completely aware of the research's only aim and that any information gathered about them was strictly confidential and intended only for the purposes of this study.

Both qualitative and quantitative research tools were utilized in this study, and they were split into two groups. A modified version of the survey tool created by Palak (2004) to evaluate teachers' pedagogical ideas and orientations in integrating technology in the online classroom is provided below (Table 2). This instrument was created in order to obtain teachers' opinions on the use of technology in the classroom. Teacher educational philosophy was divided into five categories: teacher preparation for computer use, confidence in using technology, computer integration in the classroom, and attitude toward computer utilization. Five dimensions were incorporated in the tool. A questionnaire developed by Saheb (2015) was utilized to gather information from the student responders; this was altered and adjusted to meet the needs of this study. It may be divided into three categories: intrinsic engagement and motivation, integrative involvement and motivation, and extrinsic involvement and motivation. Neither of the research instruments was utilized until it had been thoroughly pre-tested by the researcher with the help of industry experts before being used. In order to collect the information, a Google Survey form was created and utilized to conduct the survey online. Several weeks before the study's implementation, researchers contacted the respondents by phone and email, requesting them to answer the instruments that had been sent to their email account by the researcher. Several security measures were included in the survey, such as the need for respondents to enter their passwords before being able to access the survey results file. This was done in order to avoid the duplication of information on the Internet.

The researchers used the following data analysis methods in order to determine the variables that contributed to student performance: Frequency distributions and percentages were employed to evaluate respondents' attributes, while the mean, as well as the weighted mean and standard deviation, were used to quantify the variables' values. Inferential statistics such as T-test and ANOVA were used to ascertain the differences in the students' responses when grouped according to selected profile variables. The scale employed was 4.20-5.00:

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

393

Always/Strongly agree; 3.40-4.19: Very often/Agree; 2.60-3.39: Sometimes/Undecided; 1.80-2.59: Rarely/ Disagree; and 1.79: Never/Strongly disagree. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software version 20 was used.

3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Language teachers’ pedagogical orientations on the use of technology-based teaching Table 2 depicts the pedagogical orientations of language instructors in relation to the utilization of technology-based teaching methods. It is worth noting that the language teachers who answered the survey have a high degree of evaluation of their pedagogical orientation when it comes to the use of technology. Studentcentered belief (x=3.46, sd=0.34) and teacher-centered belief (x=3.50, sd=0.25) were high on their list of priorities in language instruction, according to their own assessment. This indicates that the respondents believe that a diversified approach of educational philosophies should be used in language instruction.

They demonstrated a high level of computer preparation (x=3.44, sd=0.23), as well as a high level of computer integration in their language lessons (x=3.50, sd=0.21) in the same way, implying that they have a high level of competence in utilizing technology devices for their online classroom.

Furthermore, the language instructors had a very favorable attitude toward computer use (x=3.43, sd=0.31), which was consistent with the results of the study.

Indeed, the teachers' pedagogical views and dispositions toward the use of technology-based instruction in their language classes are overwhelmingly favorable. This result of the research indicates that language instructors have a positive attitude about the use of technology in their classrooms. As a result, they are progressive in their outlook. Teachers' pedagogical perspectives on integrating technology into the classroom have been the subject of a number of studies in the past. As Chien and Wu (2020) observed, teachers' perceptions of classroom practice had a part in determining their technology priorities as well as the significance they gave to various technical barriers in their classrooms. Every teacher, regardless of the reason, claimed that they required sufficient technological tools in the classroom and that they were each affected differently by a lack of readily accessible technologies because each had their own ideas about what should be done in school, as pointed out by Tondeur (2020). Similar to the findings of Ifinedo et al. (2020), it has been shown that teachers' educational viewpoints are strongly linked to their use of technology in the classroom.

When it comes to integrating technology into the classroom, teachers' pedagogical views may both help and hinder their efforts. Beliefs about what children should be able to accomplish provide a barrier to the use of technology in the classroom.

A lack of resources and equipment, as well as a lack of preparation, guidance, and assistance are just a few of the external hurdles to overcome. Some examples of second-order inhibitors include, among others, personal beliefs, technological perspectives, and the ability to adjust to new circumstances with ease. In earlier investigations, researchers looked at instructors' information literacy and instructional attitudes following the introduction of CCOVID 19 and found that

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

394

they had improved. During the course of instruction, it was found that teachers' attitudes about information technology were related to their levels of IT literacy (Anderson & Putman, 2020; Backfisch et al., 2021; Nelson & Hawk, 2020; Top et al., 2021).

Table 2: Language teachers’ pedagogical orientations Dimensions Mean SD Interpretation Student-centered belief 3.46 0.34 High Teacher-centered belief 3.50 0.25 High Teacher preparation for computer 3.33 0.23 High utilization Integration of computer in the 3.50 0.21 High classroom Attitude towards computer 3.43 0.31 High utilization Legend: 4.20-5.00: Very high/Strongly agree; 3.40-4.19: High/Agree; 2.60-3.39: Sometimes/Undecided; 1.80-2.59: Low/Disagree; 1.79: Very low/ Strongly disagree

3.2. Students’ level of online language learning engagement and motivation Table 3 provides a response to the research question about the level of engagement and motivation of students who were taking part in online language learning. The computed grand mean (x=3.39) shows that the students' levels of involvement and motivation in online language learning are appropriate for their age and gender. Many of the learning tasks given by the teacher in their online classroom have been attributed with helping to achieve such a high level of student engagement. Each student's listening, speaking, reading, and writing assignments should be reviewed by the teacher in order to verify that they are actively engaged in the language learning process. According to the data in Table 3 (x=3.41, sd=0.14), students have a high level of intrinsic motivation and engagement in their language learning, which suggests that they are motivated and interested in their language learning. According to the findings of this study, students' motivation for online English courses is influenced by the teaching techniques and personalities of their online English teachers. Apart from that, the students showed a reasonable level of intrinsic motivation and engagement. The ability of students to be motivated to learn a new language is important in the process of learning a new language. Students' linguistic skills are developed in large part as a result of their drive, according to research on the role of motivation in language learning. The application of motivation is required for the development of language competence (Harvey, 2017; Lai & Tai, 2021; Man et al., 2021; Schiller & Dorner, 2021). In order for students to achieve their second or foreign language goals, teachers must play an important part in their success.

A variety of factors may affect one's level of motivation. The consequence is that students are more likely to enjoy the process of learning a new language when language teachers place emphasis on stimulation in their courses. The explanation gives learners a focal point of attention as well as a goal to strive towards in their learning. Therefore it plays an essential role in language learning. It is conceivable for students to have problems as a result of a lack of adequate motivation. If learners are not actively involved in the process of learning new abilities, it will

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

395

be difficult for them to enhance their performance. It has been shown that paying attention to the value of language increases encouragement even when there is no intrinsic incentive present in the circumstance, according to Oga-Baldwin and Fryer (2020). Teachers should be aware of the many different methods by which students learn to be motivated in order to best assist them.

Table 3: Level of engagement of the students in online learning Dimensions Mean SD Interpretation Intrinsic engagement and motivation 3.37 0.23 Fair (student-focused) Extrinsic engagement and motivation 3.41 0.14 High (teacher-focused) Grand Mean 3.39 Undecided Legend: 4.20-5.00: Very high/Strongly agree; 3.40-4.19: High/Agree; 2.60-3.39: Fair/Undecided; 1.80-2.59: Low/Disagree; 1.79: Very low/Strongly disagree

Researchers found that students in classes where their objectives were identical learned to proceed at their own pace, which made them feel more comfortable (Huang et al., 2020; Yang et al. 2020). Additionally, other significant findings from the test results showed that motivation has an effect on language ability (Chen & Kent, 2020; Zainuddin et al., 2020). When it comes to learning a second language, the research of Hoi (2020) found that instrumental drive is more crucial than social motivation in most cases. Another finding of Hoi (2020) revealed that integrative encouragement is more important when learning English as a second language than when learning English as a first language. In the opinion of Reiterer et al.

(2020), motivated learners exert more effort toward improving their language learning skills and, as a consequence, toward attaining their goals. According to the evidence now accessible to academics, learning a foreign language quickly may result in high levels of fluency in that language. Using this concept, the a pleasant and tranquil classroom environment is essential for motivating students and aiding their language acquisition. As Danesh and Shanazari (2020) point out, it is difficult to cultivate motivation in the setting of a challenging educational environment. Perhaps most importantly, language acquisition should take place in an environment that is both casual and informal, which is ideal for learning.

According to Oga-Baldwin and Fryer (2020), there seems to be a connection between extrinsic incentives and language learning techniques.

3.3. Difference in the pedagogical styles of instructors when grouped according to gender variable Table 4 presents the significant differences in the pedagogical styles of instructors when grouped according to gender variables. When the instructors were divided into groups based on their gender, the results revealed a statistically significant difference in their pedagogical methods and attitudes about technology integration. For example, student-centered belief (p-value = 0.034), teacher preparation for computer utilization (p-value = 0.012), integration of computers in the classroom (p-value = 0.029), and attitude towards computer utilization (pvalue = 0.043) are among the dimensions that showed differences, whereas there was no difference found for teachers' belief in teacher-centered online language teaching. This indicates that there is a statistically significant difference in the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

396

educational styles of the instructors when they are classified according to the gender variable.

According to the results of this study, female language teachers exhibited a firmer belief in student-centered online language learning than their male counterparts in the field of language instruction. This outcome is associated with the personality of female teachers, who are well-known for exhibiting maternal and caring conduct. According to the results of the previous study, it was concluded that women make better teachers than males, owing to their mothering experiences and caring attitude (Carrell et al., 2010: Carrington et al., 2008: ElEmadi et al., 2019; Slavich & Zimbardo, 2012). That females are more interested in teaching and feel that it is a rewarding career for the vast majority of them is supported by research. Women are more vocal and emotional than men, and they are more ready to express their feelings about what they enjoy and hate. For a woman, the capacity to be multi-talented is the most admirable trait she has. Skills in facilitating student interaction, paying attention in class, keeping track of each student, and dealing with issues that occur among students are just a few examples. Nowadays, gendering in the classroom has grown to be more casual and informal as a result of the changing times.

In a similar vein, this study found that male language teachers had a higher level of preparation, integration, and positive attitude about using computers in their courses than their female counterparts. This suggests that male instructors are more likely than female instructors to show a greater willingness to accept technology. Female language teachers were shown to have lower levels of confidence in their capacity to utilize technology in language teaching, according to the results of the study. The ability of male teachers to teach STEM topics is much greater than the capacity of their female counterparts, according to previous studies (Jatiningsih et al., 2020; Sibgatullina et al., 2019; Woodcock, 2021; Xu & Williams, 2019). Ibe et al. (2013) found a substantial difference between men's and women's perceptions of STEM ability and familiarity, which serves to underline their argument. They assessed 454 male and female instructors from 227 secondary schools in the study group. The study revealed that male teachers had a more in-depth understanding of the subject matter than their female colleagues.

Table 4: Difference in the pedagogical styles of instructors when grouped according to gender variable Dimensions Student-centered belief

Gender Male Female Teacher-centered belief Male Female Teacher preparation for computer utilization Male Female Integration of computer in the classroom Male Female Attitude towards computer utilization Male Female *= significant at 0.05 level ns= not significant at 0.05 level

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Mean 3.48 4.34 3.45 3.49 4.21 3.52 4.18 3.41 4.32 4.16

P-value 0.034* 0.374 ns 0.012* 0.029* 0.043*

397

3.4. The difference in the students’ level of online language learning engagement and motivation Looking at the differences of the students’ level of online language learning engagement and motivation when grouped according to gender as profile variable, the results show that there is no significant difference in the level of engagement of the students. It shows that the gender of the students is not a factor of difference in the online language learning engagement and motivation among the students. Hence, the null hypothesis of the study is accepted. This implies that both male and female students have high intrinsic and extrinsic language learning engagement and motivation.

Table 5: Difference in the students’ level of online language learning engagement and motivation Dimensions Gender Mean Intrinsic engagement and motivation Male 3.45 Female 3.54 Extrinsic engagement and motivation Male 4.13 Female 4.18 *= significant at 0.05 level ns= not significant at 0.05 level

P-value 0.34 ns 0.14 ns

In addition, both groups of students had a positive attitude about online language learning in the setting of this investigation. This research supports the findings of Abu-Radia (1997), who found that there was no statistically significant difference in the attitudes of male and female students toward language acquisition in the Canadian environment. As a result, this also runs counter to other research that has shown that female students are more motivated and engaged in language acquisition than male students because they are more naturally linguisticallyinclined than males (Yashima et al., 2017, Torres & Alieto, 2019). Previous studies have found that gender is a significant factor in second language motivation (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; Namaziandost & Akmak, 2020). They have also found that females are more motivated than males in language learning. In this study, we found that females were more motivated than males. Therefore,, the current findings of this research demonstrate that gender does not play a part in language learning motivation, as both male and female respondents are capable of understanding the importance of online learning in their language learning efforts. Furthermore, the study's findings revealed that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn a language via online mode are strongly linked to the appreciation of both male and female students regarding the importance of learning a language as part of their professional preparation. Previous selected studies also concur with this finding that online learning motivation and engagement showed no differences when gender is taken as a variable (Alqahtani, 2021; Halverson & Graham, 2019; Richardson & Newby, 2006).

3.5. Relationship between teachers' pedagogical orientations in integrating technology in the online classroom and its effect on students' motivation and engagement Table 6 shows that there is a significant relationship between the teachers' pedagogical orientations in integrating technology in the online classroom to students' motivation and engagement. Hence, the study's null hypothesis stating

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

398

no significant relationship between pedagogical orientation and student motivation is rejected. It can be seen that student-centered belief (r value= 0.778, p-value = 0.043), teacher preparation for computer utilization (r-value = 0.698, p value= 0.012), integration of computer in the classroom (r value= 0.723, p value= 0.011), and attitude towards computer utilization) r value= 0.863, p value= 0.023) are positively related to the student's level of engagement. This suggests that the greater teachers' belief in utilizing student-centered teaching to integrate technology in the language classroom, the more the students are motivated and engaged in learning. In like manner, it was also revealed that teacher-centered belief (r value= -0.531, p value= 0.032) is negatively correlated to students’ motivation and engagement in online language learning. This signifies that teacher-directed learning, such as the use of one-way directed learning, is found to be unappealing to the motivating of the language students.

Table 6: Relationship between teachers' pedagogical orientations in integrating technology in the online classroom and its effect on students' motivation and engagement Students’ motivation and engagement on online learning (r value) 0.778 -0.531 0.698

Student-centered belief Teacher-centered belief Teacher preparation for computer utilization Integration of computer 0.723 in the classroom Attitude towards 0.863 computer utilization *= significant at 0.05 level ns= not significant at 0.05 level

P value 0.043 * 0.032 * 0.012 * 0.011 * 0.023 *

This implies that the greater the degree to which the instructor conformed to teacher-centered views, the lower the level of motivation and engagement felt by the students. The grounds for this finding are that when students are given the opportunity to explore and acquire language courses via the use of studentcentered teaching methods in online learning, the results are positive. This suggests that higher levels of motivation and engagement of students would also increase their academic performance. To be clear, instructors' views about the incorporation of technology into the classroom had a substantial impact on students' desire to study. It may be stated that when instructors have a favorable attitude towards using technology in the classroom, they are more likely to demonstrate a student-centered teaching style, which in turn has an impact on students' learning behavior. Since the students are provided with learning opportunities to learn at their own pace and develop their linguistic competence using the technologies that are common to their generation in online learning environments such as digital games, blogging, podcasting, Facebook, WhatsApp, Viber, and learning management networks, the teachers’ language learning tasks in online learning are taken into consideration by the students. This research also indicates that language instructors should stick to student-centered language learning methods and strategies to ensure that students enjoy language learning

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

399

activities and that students' language learning anxiety is reduced as shown in the findings.

The findings of this research corroborate with earlier findings that instructors' pedagogical views about technology integration affect students' desire to learn new skills (Chamorro & Rey, 2013, Cheng et al., 2020, Cullen & Greene, B2011, Fryer & Bovee, H2016, Ottenbreit-Leftwich, et al., 2020). However, there is no widely accepted notion of principles that are important to the integration of teaching technology. Further research is required to validate this discovery in order to arrive at definitive conclusions. In order to examine this connection with views related to technology among language instructors on online learning, the current researchers have focused on their own perceptions and ideas, which limits the scope of this current study. Immersive technologies for learning are important, according to research, since they encourage students to participate more actively in their learning. For a pedagogical knowledge of what is important in comprehending student learning and teaching, it is necessary to be familiar with the various philosophies of learning and teaching that instructors have about technological advancements and applications. Teachers will be better equipped to fulfill their responsibilities as 21st-century facilitators if schools are encouraged to review teachers' attitudes and technology integration methods. As a result, teachers' digital literacy as well as their views on student-centered activities will aid in the development of language instructors' abilities.

4. Conclusion To evaluate student involvement in technology-based learning as well as instructors' pedagogical perspectives, the current study used a cross-sectional correlational research survey to collect data. The participants in the aforementioned research were randomly selected from a pool of 205 language instructors (n= 205) and 317 language students (n= 1800, n= 317) from higher educational institutions in Asia. The study's findings revealed that respondents had favorable pedagogical attitudes and orientations about the use of technologybased instruction in their language classes. A test of difference revealed that female instructors had stronger beliefs in student-centered online language instruction than their male colleagues, according to the results of the study.

The employment of technology in the language classroom, on the other hand, is more positively linked with male instructors. Students' levels of language learning motivation and engagement were examined, and the results revealed that male and female students had similar levels of language learning drive and engagement. The test of relationship also revealed that the more confidence the instructors have in the value of student-centered teaching in the integration of technology in the language classroom, the more motivated and involved the students are in the process of learning the language.

Furthermore, it was shown that students' motivation and engagement in online language learning are adversely associated with their teacher-centered beliefs, according to the findings. The rationale for this discovery is that when students are enabled to explore language courses via the use of student-centered teaching

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

400

methods in online education, the results are positive. These are the pedagogical ideas that encourage EFL instructors to incorporate technology positively into their language classrooms in this regard. As a result, instructors must be able to review their beliefs regarding the use of technology in EFL classrooms and how it affects students' involvement and motivation in their language study.

5. Recommendations, Implications, and Future Research Direction Based on the results, this concept may be implemented by other schools' administrations in order to enhance EFL instructors' pedagogical ideas and values regarding the use of technology as a method of learning and development.

Technologies may be utilized to engage EFL learners in group discussions on language structures and ideas such as the various types in order to foster collaboration among them and encourage them to work together in order to engage students in learning experiences and ensure that learning objectives are achieved.

In terms of practical and administrative implications, the research has the following recommendations: First and foremost, school administrators must reconsider the pedagogical advantages of technology integration for their language instructors since school leadership has an effect on teachers' acceptance and implementation of innovation. Second, instructors should become more effective and efficient 21st-century language educators as a result of ongoing capacity development in the area of technological integration.

To conclude, the provision of adequate technology resources for teachers is required due to the language instruction support curriculum, particularly for female teachers who have demonstrated a lower level of attitude toward the use of technology integration in the language classroom than male educators. The findings of the study on the beneficial connection between instructors' pedagogical views and student involvement may be further confirmed via mixedmethod research in the future, which is one of the study's research directions.

Furthermore, additional personal profile factors such as rank, age, and the teachers’ degree of experience to technological tools may be included for future studies in a similar way. It is necessary to do further research on the students' academic performance in order to determine their degree of achievement. It is possible to undertake research on the actual link between their exposure to teaching methods and the beliefs of the instructors. Furthermore, the use of real experimental study design and structural equation modeling (SEM) regarding the issue of inquiry linked to this may allow for more accurate conclusions about the results of the problem of inquiry.

6. References Abou-Khalil, V., Helou, S., Khalifé, E., Chen, M. A., Majumdar, R., & Ogata, H. (2021).

Emergency online learning in low-resource settings: Effective student engagement strategies. Education Sciences, 11(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11010024 Akongoh, R. N. (2021). Teacher-based assessment of speaking in Cameroonian secondary schools: The impact of teacher training. Journal of English Language Teaching and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

401

Applied Linguistics, 3(2), 01-11. https://alkindipublisher.com/index.php/jeltal/article/view/1316 Alley, K. M. (2019). Fostering middle school students’ autonomy to support motivation and engagement. Middle School Journal, 50(3), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2019.1603801 Alqahtani, K. M. (2021). The role of online student engagement on students’ academic achievement (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas). https://www.proquest.com/openview/2b3cd9f7f3914cb681705f99d7ccc9bc/1? pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Anderson, S. E., & Putman, R. S. (2020). Special education teachers’ experience, confidence, beliefs, and knowledge about integrating technology. Journal of Special Education Technology, 35(1), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643419836409 Backfisch, I., Lachner, A., Stürmer, K., & Scheiter, K. (2021). Variability of teachers’ technology integration in the classroom: A matter of utility! Computers & Education, 166, 104159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104159 Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language learning, 50(2), 311341.

Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Lieke, L. (2012). Work engagement, performance, and active learning: The role of conscientiousness. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(2), 555-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.08.008 Barrett, N. E., Liu, G. Z., & Wang, H. C. (2021). Student perceptions of a mobile learning application for English oral presentations: The case of EOPA. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1881975 Bouchey, B., Castek, J., & Thygeson, J. (2021). Multimodal learning. Innovative Learning Environments in STEM Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Looking Forward, 35-54. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/47325 Burke, P. F., Schuck, S., Aubusson, P., Kearney, M., & Frischknecht, B. (2018). Exploring teacher pedagogy, stages of concern and accessibility as determinants of technology adoption. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 27(2), 149-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2017.1387602 Carrell, S. E., Page, M. E., & West, J. E. (2010). Sex and science: How professor gender perpetuates the gender gap. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3), 1101-1144. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2010.125.3.1101 Carrington, B., Tymms, P., & Merrell, C. (2008). Role models, school improvement and the ‘gender gap’—do men bring out the best in boys and women the best in girls?

British Educational Research Journal, 34(3), 315-327. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411920701532202 Chen, J. C., & Kent, S. (2020). Task engagement, learner motivation and avatar identities of struggling English language learners in the 3D virtual world. System, 88, 102168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102168 Chen, W., Tan, J. S., & Pi, Z. (2021). The spiral model of collaborative knowledge improvement: An exploratory study of a networked collaborative classroom. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1-29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11412-021-09338-6 Chien, S. P., & Wu, H. K. (2020). Examining influences of science teachers' practices and beliefs about technology-based assessment on students’ performances: A hierarchical linear modeling approach. Computers & Education, 157, 103986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103986

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

402

Danesh, J., & Shahnaazari, M. (2020). A structural relationship model for resilience, L2 learning motivation, and L2 proficiency at different proficiency levels. Learning and Motivation, 72, 101636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2020.101636 Ding, A. C. E., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., Lu, Y. H., & Glazewski, K. (2019). EFL teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices with regard to using technology. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 35(1), 20-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2018.1537816 Divekar, R. R., Drozdal, J., Chabot, S., Zhou, Y., Su, H., Chen, Y., ... & Braasch, J. (2021).

Foreign language acquisition via artificial intelligence and extended reality: Design and evaluation. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-29. https://doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i10.5268 El-Emadi, A. A., Said, Z., & Friesen, H. L. (2019). Teaching style differences between male and female science teachers in qatari schools: Possible impact on student achievement. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(12), em1800. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109236 Gong, Y., & Lai, C. (2018). Technology integration into the language classroom: Developmental trajectory of beginning teachers. Frontiers of Education in China, 13(1), 1-27. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11516-0180001-5 Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2019). Learner engagement in blended learning environments: A conceptual framework. Online Learning, 23(2), 145-178. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1218398 Harvey, L. (2017). Language learning motivation as ideological becoming. System, 65, 6977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2016.12.009 Hinostroza, J. E., Ibieta, A., & Labbé, C. (2021). Using information problem-solving activities to teach: An exploratory study designed to improve teacher competencies related to internet use in the classroom. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2021.1883105 Hoi, V. N. (2020). Understanding higher education learners' acceptance and use of mobile devices for language learning: A Rasch-based path modeling approach. Computers & Education, 146, 103761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103761 Huang, S. Y., Kuo, Y. H., & Chen, H. C. (2020). Applying digital escape rooms infused with science teaching in elementary school: Learning performance, learning motivation, and problem-solving ability. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37, 100681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100681 Ibe, J. O., Adah, S. A., & Ihejiamaizu, C. C. (2013). Assessment of secondary school chemistry teachers’ quality through identification and use of laboratory apparatus in Cross River State, Nigeria. Assessment, 4(5).

Ifinedo, E., Rikala, J., & Hämäläinen, T. (2020). Factors affecting Nigerian teacher educators’ technology integration: Considering characteristics, knowledge constructs, ICT practices and beliefs. Computers & Education, 146, 103760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103760 Jaafar, I., Statti, A., Torres, K. M., & Pedersen, J. M. (2021). Technology integration and the teacher-student relationship. In D. Kloridou, E. Doukanari & N. Eteokleous.

Fostering meaningful learning experiences through student engagement (pp. 196-213).

IGI Global.

Jatiningsih, O., & Sari, M. M. K. (2020, March). Gender and education: Preparing teacher candidates of Civics to build egalitarian society in industry 4.0 era. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Civic Education Conference (ACEC 2019) (pp. 227-232). Atlantis Press.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

403

Jeong, K. O. (2019). Online collaborative language learning for enhancing learner motivation and classroom engagement. International Journal of Contents, 15(4), 8996. https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO201900937426560.page Johnson, K. E. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 235-257. https://doi.org/10.2307/40264518 Karaseva, A., Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt, P., &Siibak, A. (2018). Relationships between inservice teacher achievement motivation and use of educational technology: Case study with Latvian and Estonian teachers. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 27(1), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2017.1339633 Kawinkoonlasate, P. (2019). Integration in flipped classroom technology approach to develop English language skills of Thai EFL learners. English Language Teaching, 12(11), 23-34. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1232443 Koh, J. H. L., Chai, C. S., & Lim, W. Y. (2017). Teacher professional development for TPACK-21CL: Effects on teacher ICT integration and student outcomes. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 55(2), 172-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633116656848 Lai, C., & Tai, C. P. (2021). Types of social media activities and Hong Kong South and Southeast Asians Youth’s Chinese language learning motivation. System, 97, 102432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102432 Lai, C., Hu, X., & Lyu, B. (2018). Understanding the nature of learners’ out-of-class language learning experience with technology. Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 31(1-2), 114-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1391293 Lai, C., Li, X., & Wang, Q. (2017). Students’ perceptions of teacher impact on their selfdirected language learning with technology beyond the classroom: Cases of Hong Kong and US. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(4), 1105-1133. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-017-9523-4 Lo, C. K., & Hew, K. F. (2020). A comparison of flipped learning with gamification, traditional learning, and online independent study: The effects on students’ mathematics achievement and cognitive engagement. Interactive Learning Environments, 28(4), 464-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1541910 Machisi, E. (2021). Grade 11 students’ reflections on their Euclidean geometry learning experiences. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 17(2), em1938. https://www.ejmste.com/article/grade-11-studentsreflections-on-their-euclidean-geometry-learning-experiences-9672 Magulod Jr, G. C. (2017a). Educational philosophies adhered by Filipino preservice teachers: Basis for proposing initiatives for 21st century teacher education preparation program. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(1), 185192.

Magulod Jr, G. C. (2017b). Personal epistemologies and teaching Styles of Filipino preservice elementary teachers: Implications to teacher education preparation program. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(1), 31-40.

Magulod Jr, G. C. (2017c). Factors of school effectiveness and performance of selected public and private elementary schools: implications on educational planning in the Philippines. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(1), 73-83.

Magulod Jr, G. C. (2018a). Cognitive and attitudinal effects of movie poster making method in college classroom. Journal of Educational and Human Resource Development, 6, 42-58.

Magulod Jr, G. C. (2018b). Innovative learning tasks in enhancing the literary appreciation skills of students. SAGE Open, 8(4), 2158244018820382. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018820382

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

404

Magulod Jr, G. C. (2018c). Use of innovative prewriting techniques in enhancing the writing performance and attitude of second year information technology students. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 6(2), 1-9.

Magulod Jr, G. C., Capulso, L. B., Tabiolo, C. D. L., Luza, M. N., & Ramada, M. G. C. (2020).

Use of technology-based tools in ensuring quality of publishable journal articles. International Journal of Learning & Teaching Education Research, 19(11), 145162. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.11.9 Man, C. F., Sharif, S., May, A. L. J., Talin, R., & Singh, S. S. B. (2021). The effects of dramabased activities as a language learning tool on learners’ motivation in non-Malaymedium national schools in Malaysia. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(3). https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/31742 Martin, A. J., Mansour, M., & Malmberg, L. E. (2020). What factors influence students’ realtime motivation and engagement? An experience sampling study of high school students using mobile technology. Educational Psychology, 40(9), 1113-1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1545997 Mei, B., Brown, G. T., & Teo, T. (2018). Toward an understanding of preservice English as a foreign language teachers’ acceptance of computer-assisted language learning 2.0 in the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(1), 74-104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117700144 Namaziandost, E., & Çakmak, F. (2020). An account of EFL learners’ self-efficacy and gender in the Flipped Classroom Model. Education and Information Technologies, 115.

Nelson, M. J., & Hawk, N. A. (2020). The impact of field experiences on prospective preservice teachers’ technology integration beliefs and intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 89, 103006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.103006 Oga-Baldwin, W. Q., & Fryer, L. K. (2020). Profiles of language learning motivation: Are new and own languages different?. Learning and Individual Differences, 79, 101852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101852 Olelewe, C. J., Doherty, F. V., Orji, C. T., & Aneyo, I. (2021). Effects of innovative pedagogy integration in electrical installation and maintenance works in Enugu and Lagos states technical colleges. The International Journal of Electrical Engineering & Education, 0020720921997051.

Palak, D. (2004). Teachers' beliefs in relation to their instructional technology practices. https://www.proquest.com/openview/63a944db0551a4747cea945564ee6425/1? pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Polat, H., & Karabatak, S. (2021). Effect of flipped classroom model on academic achievement, academic satisfaction and general belongingness. Learning Environments Research, 1-24. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10984021-09355-0 Reiterer, S. M., Kogan, V., Seither-Preisler, A., & Pesek, G. (2020). Foreign language learning motivation: Phonetic chill or Latin lover effect? Does sound structure or social stereotyping drive FLL?. In K.D. Federmeier & H.-W. Huang (Eds.).

Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 72, pp. 165-205. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2020.02.003 Richardson, J. C., & Newby, T. (2006). The role of students' cognitive engagement in online learning. American Journal of Distance Education, 20(1), 23-37. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15389286ajde2001_3 Sadaf, A., & Johnson, B. L. (2017). Teachers' beliefs about integrating digital literacy into classroom practice: An investigation based on the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 33(4), 129-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2017.1347534

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

405

Saheb, V. (2015). Motivation in English as a foreign language learning: A study of motivation toward English language learning in Stockholm's upper secondary schools for adults (KOMVUX). https://www.divaportal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A782288&dswid=8895 Schiller, E., & Dorner, H. (2021). Factors influencing senior learners’ language learning motivation. A Hungarian perspective. Journal of Adult Learning, Knowledge and Innovation. https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2059/aop/article-10.15562059.2020.00003/article-10.1556-2059.2020.00003.xml Sibgatullina, T. V., Utemov, V. V., Galushkin, A. A., & Zaitseva, N. A. (2019). Age heterogeneity of STEM educators. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(7), em1730. https://www.ejmste.com/article/ageheterogeneity-of-stem-educators-7683 Slavich, G. M., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2012). Transformational teaching: Theoretical underpinnings, basic principles, and core methods. Educational Psychology Review, 24(4), 569-608. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-0129199-6?null Tadesse, A., Walter, A., & Mitchell-Kernan, C. (2021). Integrating educational technology in East Africa: One size does not fit all. Monitoring of Public Opinion: Economic and Social Changes Journal (Public Opinion Monitoring), (1). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/integrating-educational-technology-in-eastafrica-one-size-does-not-fit-all Tai, T. Y., & Chen, H. H. J. (2021). The impact of immersive virtual reality on EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 0735633121994291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633121994291 Tavakoli, H., Lotfi, A. R., Biria, R., & Wang, S. (2019). Effects of CALL-mediated TBLT on motivation for L2 reading. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1580916. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1580916 Tondeur, J. (2020). Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use. In M. Peters.

Encyclopedia of Teacher Education. Springer. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-981-131179-6_111-1.

Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2017). Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use in education: A systematic review of qualitative evidence. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(3), 555-575. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-016-9481-2 Top, E., Baser, D., Akkus, R., Akayoglu, S., & Gurer, M. D. (2021). Secondary school teachers’ preferences in the process of individual technology mentoring. Computers & Education, 160, 104030.

Torres, J. M., & Alieto, E. O. (2019). Acceptability of Philippine English Grammatical and Lexical Items among Pre-Service Teachers. Online Submission, 21, 158-181.

Tsai, M. C., Shen, P. D., Chen, W. Y., Hsu, L. C., & Tsai, C. W. (2019). Exploring the effects of web-mediated activity-based learning and meaningful learning on improving students’ learning effects, learning engagement, and academic motivation. Universal Access in the Information Society, 1-16. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10209-019-00690-x Wang, Z., Pang, H., Zhou, J., Ma, Y., & Wang, Z. (2021). “What if… it never ends?”: Examining challenges in primary teachers' experience during the wholly online teaching. The Journal of Educational Research, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2021.1884823

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

406

Washington, J. E., Shahrokni, S. A., Abobaker, R., & Borysenko, N. (2021). “It’s a chance to make mistakes”: Processes and outcomes of coding in 2nd grade classrooms. Computers & Education, 104173.

Woodcock, S. (2021). Teachers' beliefs in inclusive education and the attributional responses toward students with and without specific learning difficulties. Dyslexia, 27(1), 110-125. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1651 Wu, H., Li, S., Zheng, J., & Guo, J. (2020). Medical students’ motivation and academic performance: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement. Medical Education Online, 25(1), 1742964. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1742964 Wu, J. F., & Ching, G. (2020, October). A study on the elementary school teachers’ information technology literacy and teaching beliefs in Taiwan. In Proceedings of the SITE Interactive Conference (pp. 323-329). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).

Xu, M., & Williams, P. J. (2019). Technology teachers’ attitude towards technology: An investigation of Chinese high school general technology teachers. PATT 37, 445. https://research.edgehill.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/20775897/PATT_37_Mal ta2019_Proceedings.pdf#page=445 Yang, Q. F., Chang, S. C., Hwang, G. J., & Zou, D. (2020). Balancing cognitive complexity and gaming level: Effects of a cognitive complexity-based competition game on EFL students' English vocabulary learning performance, anxiety and behaviors. Computers & Education, 148, 103808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103808 Yashima, T., Nishida, R., & Mizumoto, A. (2017). Influence of learner beliefs and gender on the motivating power of L2 selves. The Modern Language Journal, 101(4), 691711.

Yilmaz, R. (2017). Exploring the role of e-learning readiness on student satisfaction and motivation in flipped classroom. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.085 Zainuddin, Z., Chu, S. K. W., Shujahat, M., & Perera, C. J. (2020). The impact of gamification on learning and instruction: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Educational Research Review, 30, 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100326 Zhou, Y., & Wei, M. (2018). Strategies in technology-enhanced language learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(2), 471-495. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=675397

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

407

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 407-421, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.22 Received Aug 23, 2021; Revised Nov 15, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Improving Students’ Critical Thinking through Oral Questioning in Mathematics Teaching Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa*, Mohd Syazwan Zainal and Nadia Fasha Mohd Drus Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0504-4622 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6218-4376 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1450-2760 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4669-3821

Abstract. The use of effective oral questioning in the teaching of mathematics can stimulate students' thinking and encourage them to think critically. As a result, this study was carried out to identify the oral questions used by teachers when teaching mathematics. This can encourage students' critical thinking. This was a qualitative study in the form of a case study conducted in six schools in a Malaysian state with a total of six study participants. They were chosen on purpose based on the specific criteria set by the researcher. The data was collected using observation methods, interviews, and field notes to gain an in-depth picture of the phenomena studied. The study findings were analyzed using the continuous comparison method to identify the themes and subthemes involved. The researchers used several methods to improve the validity and reliability of this study, including triangulation, the consent of the study participants, peer reviews, audit trails, researcher bias, and a long period in the field. According to the study findings, mathematics teachers frequently use three types of oral questions to encourage their students to think critically: prompting questions, reflective questions, and clarification questions. These types of oral questions are effective at encouraging students to think critically when trying to solve mathematical problems. This study implies that teachers should use caution when asking oral questions so that the students' thinking is stimulated, rather than focusing on memorizing important mathematical algorithms and procedures.

Keywords: critical thinking; oral questioning; teaching mathematics

1. Introduction Encouraging students to think critically when teaching and learning mathematics is a significant challenge for teachers (Mahmud, 2019). This is due to the changes *

Corresponding author: Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa; Email: munsif@ukm.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

408

in contemporary education policy, which emphasizes thinking skills. This makes thinking skills a priority for every teacher when teaching mathematics, as opposed to the traditional teaching styles that only emphasize the memorization of the critical formulas and procedures necessary to solve mathematical problems (Alhassora et al., 2017). However well intentioned, encouraging and fostering this form of thinking in students is not an easy task as it requires teachers to use various approaches in their mathematics teaching. This study was conducted to identify the type of questions that mathematics teachers use to enhance students' critical thinking in mathematics teaching.

Oral questioning can help in the development of higher order thinking skills, including stimulating students' thinking, increasing their inquiry into and exploration of mathematics, and piquing their interest in the subject taught (Hassan et al., 2016). Oral questioning can also assist teachers in determining the extent to which the students understand the content of their lessons, helping them to better plan any interventions required (Çelik & Güzel, 2016). By selecting the most appropriate type of oral question to use during the teaching process, teachers can accomplish their teaching objectives more efficiently and stimulate their students' thinking. It is necessary to ensure that teachers consistently use oral questioning given the importance of teaching students how to think critically. It is an art that every teacher must master and practice (Curriculum Development Division, 2013).

With that in mind, the use of oral questioning techniques in mathematics teaching also improves students’ conceptual and contextual understanding of what is being learned (Kassim & Zakaria, 2013). The students' understanding and thinking will be developed further because they are continuously stimulated by the questioning of the activities with which they are busy (Wong, 2015). Moreover, Wong (2015) also stated that oral questioning allows teachers to pry out their students’ thoughts to get more accurate answers when teachers are not satisfied with the initial answers. In this context, the students' thinking should be explored by increasing the number of open-ended questions.

To this end, the students’ ideas and knowledge can be developed to help them understand the new content they are learning (Desli & Galanopoulou, 2017).

Additionally, it also creates more active students and a more enjoyable teaching process. The students can share their ideas and thoughts, and this encourages effective communication between teachers and students, which is one the key standards of 21st century education (Institut Aminuddin Baki, 2017). The knowledge obtained through oral questioning can also promote the assimilation of knowledge that the students may already have. Their new knowledge can be adapted to the existing scheme, as described in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Mahmud et al., 2020a).

Combs et al. (2009) created a conceptual model of both critical and creative thinking processes (Figure 1). They defined critical and creative thinking as an integrated process that involves the production and refinement of ideas around a knowledge core. Self-regulatory behaviour is used to monitor and manage idea

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

409

production and the refining processes. This behaviour includes goal setting and the monitoring of the achievement of those goals, all while preserving the essential attitudes and dispositions. The processes of idea generation and refinement are monitored and controlled by self-regulation. All the components discussed in the framework can be linked to the role of oral questioning in instilling critical and creative thinking in learning mathematics. Creating ideas can be improved through effective oral questioning activities in which the teachers can stimulate their students' existing knowledge to develop new ideas and information. However, when teaching mathematics, the interaction with knowledgeable peers is essential to help students develop self-regulation as a scaffolding to gain and adapt new knowledge alongside their preexisting knowledge.

In the reflective judgment component of critical and creative thinking, oral questioning serves as a thinking tool. Oral questioning can stimulate students to develop plans and solutions to mathematical problems that arise in a structured manner based on the ideas generated previously. In this environment, students analyze and pick out the ideas developed from their personal knowledge and experience. This is received through the analysis and review of the ideas and resources of others when they engage in reflective evaluation (Combs et al., 2009).

By combining these ideas, students can identify the most effective and appropriate course of action. Using appropriate oral questions such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation can also help develop critical and creative thinking in mathematics and indirectly enable the reflective aspect of judgment to be strengthened among the students. This indirectly encourages the students to think in a manner that is more convergent to solve various mathematical problems (Mahmud & Yunus, 2018).

Figure 1: Conceptual model of critical and creative thinking processes (Combs et al., 2009)

Shahrill and Clarke (2014) stated that the reason for the decline in the students’ performance in Malaysia in the global assessment of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is the lack of oral questioning activities

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

410

that can stimulate the students' thinking. The students found the questions used in the TIMSS test challenging, which focuses more on exploratory questions. This is where students need to remember and understand select mathematical facts.

However, they need to connect their knowledge and make explicit judgments when solving these mathematical problems.

The use of oral questions by teachers may be less appropriate. Understanding mathematical concepts can be difficult to master, and teachers cannot improve their students' level mathematics learning in isolation (Kaya et al., 2014).

Moreover, the types of questions posed by mathematics teachers also explore the students' existing knowledge in association with the topics discussed to a lesser extent, especially abstract concepts. Studies by Belcher (2016) and (Mahmud & Yunus, 2018) showed that teachers prefer to ask convergent rather than divergent questions that can elicit the students’ thinking in the teaching of mathematics. The use of convergent questions cause the students not to diverge and consequently not to develop (Shahrill, 2013).

In addition, mathematics teachers generally prefer to use low or medium cognitive level questions only and pay less attention to high cognitive level questions. This results in mathematics teaching activities that implement less stimulation of the students' thinking (Alhassora et al., 2017). Huang and Li (2009) stated that the lack of knowledge and skills in oral questioning among mathematics teachers make it difficult for them to construct high-level questions in mathematics teaching. Also, the poor pedagogical knowledge possessed by mathematics teachers also makes them unable to diversify the types of oral questioning to improve the students' mathematical thinking (Mahmud et al., 2020b). This causes mathematics teachers not to blend the content of mathematics lessons that are presented to the students into questions that encourage the students to think actively.

There is a need for an in-depth study to understand how appropriate mathematical questions can be used by mathematics teachers to stimulate and improve students' thinking skills (Mahmud et al., 2020c). The lack of in-depth studies toward understanding the types of oral questions hinder the encouragement of students' thinking in mathematics. This also explains the importance of the implementation of this study. Studies that seek to identify and explain the types of oral questions that can improve the students' thinking skills can help gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon and close the research gap.

2. Methodology This study used qualitative research that employed multiple case study techniques (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The chosen approach satisfied the needs of the research topic because it enabled the building of a comprehensive image and a thorough understanding of the implementation of oral questioning among mathematics teachers in primary schools. A total of six primary schools in a district in the Malaysian state of Selangor were chosen as the study sites to examine and understand the practice of the teachers' oral questioning during

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

411

mathematics lessons. The district was chosen as the study location based on Marshall and Rossman’s (2014) criteria, which holds that the study location should be easy to access, have no barriers to conducting the study, provide a high probability of collecting in-depth data, provide the freedom to conduct the research, and be accessible to the study participants.

Purposive sampling was used in this study to determine and select the study participants by defining some of the criteria determined by the researcher (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). The criteria used to select the participants were designed to ensure that those chosen had substantial information about the issues studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The study participants were teachers who taught mathematics in primary schools and were willing to participate in the study. A total of six primary school mathematics teachers from six different schools were chosen.

The researcher divided the data collection process into two phases. The first phase concerned obtaining consent from the parties involved, planning the work, inventorying the equipment, refining the interview protocols, and conducting an observation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The second phase consisted of the data collection. The researchers made observations, conducted interviews, analyzed documents, and took field notes. The diverse data collection methods helped the researchers triangulate the data in the analysis stage, bolstering the conclusions reached (Miles et al., 2014).

The researchers used a constant comparative analysis method to deduce the patterns and themes from the data collected for this study, which served as the primary data (Kolb, 2012). The researcher inductively constructed a model through continuous comparison by categorizing, coding, refining, and connecting the data categories (Miles et al., 2014). Constant comparison is critical in qualitative research because it enables the researcher to examine the similarities and differences between the individual themes. In this method of data encoding, the data are broken down to be screened and then interpreted meaningfully to generate a theme. This method is critical for assisting the researchers in reorganizing the data into classifiable 'chunks', followed by grouping together the portions associated with specific research questions and themes.

The researcher used three types of coding to organize the qualitative data: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Similar themes were grouped into a single category, and the comparison process was repeated until the data reached saturation (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). All the coding processes were carried out using Atlas Ti. 8 software to simplify the management and accelerate analysis.

Numerous strategies were used to increase the study's validity and reliability, including triangulation, participant consent, peer review, an audit trail, researcher bias, and a prolonged stay in the field.

3. Findings The study participants ranged between 27 and 50 years old (Table 1). To protect the participants' confidentiality, the researcher used a pseudonym to represent

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

412

each participant in this study. Teacher Ana, Teacher Nadia, and Teacher Ada were all in their twenties and had a combined teaching experience of less than four years. Teacher Raha, Teacher Azah, and Teacher Roza were over 40 years old and had an average of over 20 years’ teaching experience. Each participant had earned a bachelor's degree in mathematics education. As a result, the participants were deemed to possess the necessary credibility, knowledge, and abilities to teach mathematics.

Table 1. Educational Background and the Teaching Experience of the Research Participants Age Mathematics Teaching Experience Academic Qualification

Ana Nadia Ada Raha Azah Roza 28 27 28 46 50 44 4 3 4 20 23 23 Bachelor’s Degree in Mathematics with Education

The study found that the participants used oral questions to drive the students to think more critically and actively in each mathematics activity. These questions are used to help students understand the topic better and to reinforce the concepts being taught. This is important to encourage the students to generate new ideas based on their reasoning and existing knowledge. There are different categories of questions used to drive and stimulate the students to think, such as motivational questions, reflective questions, and questions asking for clarification. a) Prompting Questions Teachers generally use prompting questions as an alternative to encourage the students to provide more information on the topic being discussed. In this context, the teacher guides the students' thinking through questions that encourage the proliferation of thinking. This allows the student to provide a continuous response during the teaching process. Teachers often use questions like this to encourage communication between the teachers and students while also increasing the level of students’ involvement.

The following are examples of how prompting questions are used in mathematics teaching: Teacher Do we have another method? Other methods? Can anyone answer?

Student (All students silent without giving any answer) Teacher Can we parse the numbers? Can it or not?

Student Yes we can.

Teacher Okay, but how?

[Roza, P1/8352-8875]

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

413

Teacher Student Teacher Student Teacher Student

Today we will learn about perimeter.

Measure the circumference.

How to measure the circumference?

The sum of all the sides.

Okay good. Which sides? Do we have to add all the sides?

Yes. All the sides.

[Ada, P1/5843-5877]

The passage is an example of how Teacher Roza and Teacher Ada use prompting questions to guide the students' thinking and to encourage the students to provide more information while interacting with their teachers. In addition, the questions also encourage the students to give more continuous responses to the matters discussed [Roza, NL/17082018].

Teacher Roza explained this in the following passage: “Besides that, question after question should be given as an encouragement for students to increase communication with teachers on an ongoing basis. Students will provide more information on the topic being discussed." [Roza, SRI 3/594-905] Moreover, Teacher Azah stated that prompting questions are important to maintain the momentum of the mathematics teaching process. This is because students are usually lazy or negligent in class due to the lack of interaction between teachers and students. The students will also always think to answer the questions asked by the teacher on an ongoing basis. This will indirectly create more active students.

The passage illustrates the description: “These students, if we just teach without asking them questions, they will start to be lazy or careless. That is why they should always ask them so that the teaching momentum can be maintained. Apart from that, we want them to talk and have a two-way interaction with the teacher. We want the student to be active, to encourage him to speak and dare to give answers." [Azah, SRI3/367-740] The question was also found to encourage the students' interest. It helped them to share their thoughts and to make the class activities more meaningful.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

414

The following are excerpts from Teacher Ada's teaching: Teacher Okay, what kind of cube is this? (teacher draws a cube shape on the whiteboard). Well, the cube shape has the same side size of length.

What is the shape of the cube that you can find in this class?

Student

(A students point his finger at something)

Teacher

That is not a cube. What are the things that have cube shapes that you have ever seen in your daily life?

Student

The shape of a cake?

Teacher

Okay good... Other than that?

Student

Box of cake?

Teacher

Yes, a box of cakes. Some more?

Student

Milk carton.

Teacher

Okay. What object has a dot on it? One dot, two dots, three dots

Student

It is a dice.

[Ada, P3/1464-2221]

b) Reflective Questions Teachers also ask reflective questions in mathematics teaching. Reflective questions are questions given by the teachers in response to the answers given by the students. This type of question requires the students to rethink the response they gave. The following are examples of how reflective questions are used: Teacher Okay, who remembers the formula of the area?

Student Length times width times height.

Teacher Haaa! Length times width times height? Is it true?

Student Length times width times base times height.

Teacher Haha, how much do you multiply?

Student Length times width.

Teacher Yes, length times width. Very good, Isya.

[Ada, P2/2055-2192] Teacher Ada uses reflective questions to help the students clarify their thinking and to explore the origins of their thoughts in turn. Teacher Ada asked a question about the general rectangular formula in which the students gave incorrect answers to the questions posed. Teacher Ada asked reflective questions as a way for the students to think about and correct the mistakes they had made. This indirectly encourages the students to reflect on their answers if the answers given are incorrect. In this context, reflective questions are used to stimulate the students’ thinking rather than providing direct corrective feedback. Reflective questions were also used by other teachers, including Teacher Ana [Ana, P3/16167-16246], Teacher Roza [Roza, P3/9313-9467], and Teacher Azah [Azah, P3/1173-1189].

Reflective questions were also found to increase the students' confidence in the answers given and to help them rethink the answers given to the questions posed.

This was explained by Teacher Azah "… so that they are confident with their answers and so that they rethink and calculate correctly…" [Azah, SRI1/4740-

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

415

4970]. Teacher Ada noted that it was “For him to rethink whether it is correct or not that answer…” [Ada, SRI1/8558-8625].

Teacher Raha thought that the practice of asking reflective questions of the students can indirectly train them to always be careful when answering the questions asked. Indirectly, the probability of the teachers receiving the correct answer from the students will be increased: "We ask students again so that they are not in a hurry to answer the question, think correctly and carefully so that the answer given will be more accurate and less wrong” [Raha, SRI2/]. Usually, the students' answers will be repeated by the teacher in the form of a question.

The following is an example of how the question is applied in the teaching of mathematics: Teacher What is the name of this shape?

Student Cuboid.

Teacher Cuboid? is it right?

Student Yes. It is a cuboid Teacher Yes, right, it is a cuboid. This cuboid is made from a combination of rectangles.

[Raha, P1/3368-3384] The passage shows that the teacher uses the student’s answers to re-question the answers given. The question is given as a form of feedback to confirm the answers given by the students and to cultivate confidence in them when answering a question, as stated by Teacher Azah in the interview excerpt: "We want to test them. For example, if they answer four and we ask them back, "is the answer four correct?", We want to see whether they are confident or not with their decision. If they are convinced, they will answer "Yes four". They will not change the answer to another."

[Azah, SRI 1/4085-4367] The teachers also directed reflective questions to other students to encourage them to think about and confirm the answers given by their peers. This indirectly encourages more student involvement in the mathematics teaching process that is implemented.

Teacher All right, student, is that correct the way your friend wrote it?

Student Wrong.

Teacher Wrong? Right or wrong? Why is it wrong?

Student Right.

Teacher Just now, you said wrong? Well, I want to ask you, why is it wrong?

Student No meter units.

Teacher Yes… excellent, No meter units. There should be a unit here.

[Ana, P1/17180-17580] Based on that example passage, Teacher Ana openly asked other students about their friends’ answers. This was intended to help the other students reflect on the answers to the question. Reflective questions play an important role in guiding the students to reflect and think about the answers given to the teacher. Through this method, the students would be trained to be more careful and confident when

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

416

answering the questions posed to them, and thus training them to evaluate the answers given. c) Clarification Questions The results also indicated that the study participants used questions to ask for explanations to clarify the students’ thinking and to explore the origin of their thought on the content of the lessons.

The following is an example of how the teachers use questions to ask for explanations in mathematics teaching: Teacher 15 meters (student answer question from teachers).

Student How do you get 15 meters?

Teacher 1.5 meters times 10, then I get 15 meters.

Student Okay, so the answer is 15 meters.

[Roza, P2/3049-3422] Teacher How to find the length of MR, RS, SN? Student We have to divide the total length by 3.

Teacher How do you know it has to be divided by 3?

Student Because it has three equal parts.

[Nadia, P1/9672-9831] The researchers found that the teachers used explanatory questions to ask the students to explain how they obtained their answers. In turn, they helped the students strengthen their understanding and thinking on the topic that was being discussed. Teacher Roza stated that by asking the students to explain their answers, the students could better understand the content of the discussion, thereby also helping the teachers assess the level of learning that the students have achieved: "When we ask students to explain their answers, they will remember and understand what they are students. In addition, it can provide an opportunity for teachers to assess students' levels of understanding."

[Roza, SRI3/1166-1400] In addition, the questions asking for clarification also played a role in helping the teachers obtain information and to understand the extent of the development and level of understanding of the students of the content discussed [Azah, NL/18102018]. This information was used by the teachers as assessment-related information to help them to make decisions regarding the teaching process implemented. Teacher Azah explained that it was "… so we can assess students' knowledge, and from there we can decide to continue or want to repeat" [Azah, SRI 1/2570-2953].

Teacher Raha believed that asking for explanations allows other students to benefit from the explanations given by their peers. This indirectly helps the other students understand the content of the lesson. He explained: "Other students will also benefit and can help strengthen their understanding of the topic being studied" [Raha, SRI3/1438-1846]. Teacher Ada also expressed the same opinion as Teacher Raha. The questions asking for clarification would help improve the other

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

417

students' understanding of the lesson content being discussed [Ada, SRI 2/1612916272]. That implies that mathematics teachers ask questions to help the students clarify their understanding and thinking on the content of the lesson discussed.

The students are allowed to think more deeply and to clarify their understanding of the topic being discussed. The questions asking for clarification also help teachers assess the student’s learning. This helps teachers make decisions on the teaching process implemented.

4. Discussion This study's findings show that mathematics teachers ask guiding questions, prompting questions, reflective questions, and clarification questions. This form of questioning aims to ensure that the students' thinking is directed towards the topic being discussed. It encourages more information to be provided by the students themselves in the oral questioning activities carried out. Chin (2007) also used prompting questions to get more responses from the students. In this context, the prompting questions given by the teacher allow the students to provide more responses about the topic being discussed. This allows the teachers to build a more active communication environment while increasing the level of student engagement. Iksan and Daniel (2015) mentioned that getting a response during the teaching process can be overcome by always asking oral questions that encourage students to think together. This includes instructing students to provide more information on the topics discussed.

In addition, the use of prompting questions was also found to coincide with one of the basic standards of 21st century education practices, which emphasizes that mathematics teaching should encourage students to jointly participate in the teaching process (Institut Aminuddin Baki, 2017). In this context, the teacher does not limit the views and ideas of the students but provides an open opportunity to voice their ideas. This is done in a structured manner since the teacher guides it.

This is important to ensure that the discussion focuses on the actual scope of the content and allows more information to be provided by the students. In addition, prompting questions posed by the teachers can indirectly help maintain the momentum of the teaching process. This ensures that an active learning environment can be created that is more fun for everyone involved (Curriculum Development Division, 2014).

Furthermore, this study also found that teachers use reflective questions to help students rethink the answers given to the teacher. This is to make the answers given more accurate. In this context, reflective questions are used by teachers to help the students clarify their thinking and to explore the origin of their thoughts regarding the response given. Not only that, but this also plays a role in increasing the students' confidence when answering the questions posed by the teacher. This is because they are given ample opportunity to think though the problem and answer it better. Reflective questions are repeatedly given to indirectly train students to constantly question themselves as to whether the answers they gave are correct or not. In this way, the students’ thinking can be guided towards a better understanding of concepts, while improving their metacognitive ability.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

418

From another aspect, the reflective questions used by teachers to guide the students' thinking serve to promote waiting time or 'wait time'. This is where the teachers give the students time to rethink the answers given to the teachers without the teacher stating whether the answer given is right or wrong. This can help improve the quality of the student’s answers and to increase the number of students who are willing to answer the question if the question is spread throughout the class (Larson & Lovelace, 2013).

This study also found that the participants asked questions for clarification.

Teachers use clarification questions by asking them to explain more about the answers that students gave. In this context, the teacher asks the students to think again and to justify the answers given. This is to ensure that the students understand the responses that they give to the questions posed. It also prevents the students from answering the questions casually without thinking or just guessing. This means that asking questions to clarify the student’s knowledge can encourage high-level thinking and communicative competence. This includes explaining argumentation and justification, which is a requirement for students to participate in meaningful and genuine conversational exchanges in the classroom (Gaspard, 2013).

By incorporating clarification questions into their lessons, teachers can assist their students in developing their reasoning and problem-solving abilities. This is as well as engaging them in meaningful conversations that stimulate and accelerate their learning acquisition (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2017). The NCTM (2014) proposed adding Fermi questions into mathematics instructions to encourage a range of approaches, to emphasize process over product, and to encourage non-traditional problem-solving strategies.

Mathematics teachers must also provide opportunities for the students to demonstrate their mathematical knowledge and abilities through tasks with a high cognitive demand, requiring problem-solving and reasoning, as well as the exploration of alternative strategies and solution paths (NCTM 2017).

In addition, the study also shows that teachers use questions for clarification to help the teachers obtain information. This includes understanding the extent of development and the level of understanding of the students on the topics discussed. In this context, questions asking for explanation serve as formative assessments because the teachers can gather information about the students’ learning and thus implement interventions and improvements in the future (Henning et al., 2012; Veon, 2016). This is something that is emphasized by the ministry where all aspects are considered when helping teachers decide on the results of the formative assessments implemented. This is so that the lessons provided improve the student’s holistic learning (Malaysian Examinations Board, 2014)

5. Conclusion The implementation of effective oral questioning is shown to play a significant role in ensuring that students’ thinking skills can be developed during mathematics classes. Using the correct type of oral questions can help train

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

419

students to diversify aspects of their thinking when it comes to understanding the content of the lessons presented (Mahmud et al., 2020c). Students can expand their abilities by engaging in dynamic reasoning and heuristics to solve various mathematical problems. This includes training them to look at various issues in their mathematics learning from various angles.

This study has significant implications, especially on teachers' teaching practice.

It is argued that oral questioning in mathematics teaching should be expanded to improve the students' critical thinking skills rather than focusing on procedural questioning only. Although procedural questioning is a type of questioning that is commonly used in the teaching of mathematics, the questioning methodology should be optimized. It should also focus on questioning to train students to think in a more divergent manner (Kira et al., 2013). Moreover, this study also expands our understanding of how oral questioning helps encourage students to think in relation to improving the pedagogical practice in mathematics teaching. The results of this study also show a need for more studies on the construction of modules that emphasize the implementation of high-level oral questioning. The module can also be used by the students at the Institute of Teacher Education and by new teachers as a learning reference and practical guide. Finally, the outcomes of this study generated a large amount of data on the phenomena of oral questioning when teaching mathematics. This was used to develop the students' thinking skills. As a result, and since this is a qualitative study focused on a small number of cases, a quantitative follow-up study is recommended to see whether the findings can be generalized to other groups.

6. References Alhassora, N. S. A., Abu, M. S., & Abdullah, A. H. (2017). Inculcating higher-order thinking skills in mathematics: Why is it so hard? Man in India, 97(13).

Belcher, J. O. (2016). Effectiveness Of A Formative Assessment Initiative On Student Achievement In Eighth Grade Math (Issue January). Missisippi College. Çelik, A. Ö., & Güzel, E. B. (2016). A Mathematics Teacher’s Questioning Approaches for Revealing Students’ Thinking during Lesson Study. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 7(2), 365–392.

Chin, C. (2007). Teacher questioning in science classrooms: Approaches that stimulate productive thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(6), 815–843.

Combs, L. B., Cennamo, K. S., & Newbill, P. L. (2009). Toward A Conceptual Model Of Creative And Critical Thinking Processes. Developing Critical and Creative Thinkers, 49(5), 3–14.

Curriculum Development Division. (2013). Bahan Sumber Peningkatan Kemahiran Berfikir Aras Tinggi Matematik: Panduan Penggunaan Soalan Programme For International Student Assessment (PISA) [Mathematics High Thinking Skills Improvement Resource Materials: Guide to Using Program Questions For Inter. Ministry of Education Malaysia.

Curriculum Development Division. (2014). Elemen KBAT Dalam Pentaksiran [HOTS Element in Assessment]. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.

Desli, D., & Galanopoulou, E. (2017). Questioning in Primary School Mathematics: An Analysis of Questions Teachers Ask in Mathematics Lessons. 3rd International Symposium on New Issues on Teacher Education, 97.

Gaspard, C. (2013). Secondary Mathematics Student Teachers’ Questions and Responses in

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

420

Whole Class Discussion: Influences on Instructional Decisions. Tesis Doktor Falsafah yang tidak diterbitkan, University Of California.

Hassan, S. R., Rosli, R., & Zakaria, E. (2016). The Use of i-Think Map and Questioning to Promote Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Mathematics. Creative Education, 07(07), 1069–1078.

Henning, J. E., McKeny, T., Foley, G. D., & Balong, M. (2012). Mathematics discussions by design: Creating opportunities for purposeful participation. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 15(6), 453–479.

Huang, R., & Li, Y. (2009). What matters most : A comparison of expert and novice teachers’ noticing of mathematics classroom events. School Science and Mathematics, 112(7), 420–432.

Iksan, Z., & Daniel, E. (2015). Types of Wait Time during Verbal Questioning in the Science Classroom. International Research in Higher Education, 1(1), 72–80.

Institut Aminuddin Baki. (2017). Panduan Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Abad ke-21. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.

Kassim, N., & Zakaria, E. (2013). Integrasi Kemahiran Berfikir Aras Tinggi dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Matematik: Analisis Keperluan Guru [Integration of High-Level Thinking Skills in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics: An Analysis of Teacher Needs]. Jurnal Pendidikan Matematik [Journal of Mathematics Education], 3(1), 1–12.

Kaya, S., Kablan, Z., & Rice, D. (2014). Examining question type and the timing of IRE pattern in elementary science classrooms. International Journal of Human Sciences, 11(1), 621–640.

Kira, E. S., Komba, S., Morogoro, Eugenia Kafanabo, & Tilya, F. (2013). Teachers’ Questioning Techniques in Advanced Level Chemistry Lessons: A Tanzanian Perspective. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(12), 66–79.

Kolb, S. M. (2012). Grounded Theory and the Constant Comparative Method : Valid Research Strategies for Educators. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 3(1), 83–86.

Larson, L. R., & Lovelace, M. D. (2013). Evaluating the Efficacy of Questioning Strategies in Lecture-Based Classroom Environments: Are we asking the right questions?

Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 24(1), 105–122.

Mahmud, M. S. (2019). The Role of Wait Time in the Process of Oral Questioning in the Teaching and Learning Process of Mathematics. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol., 28(16), 691–697.

Mahmud, M. S., & Yunus, A. S. M. (2018). The Practice Of Giving Feedback Of Primary School Mathematics Teachers In Oral Questioning Activities. Journal of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems, 10(12), 1336–1343.

Mahmud, M. S., Yunus, A. S. M., Ayub, A. F. M., & Sulaiman, T. (2020a). Enhancing Mathematical Language Through Oral Questioning in Primary School.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(5), 395–410.

Mahmud, M. S., Yunus, A. S. M., Ayub, A. F. M., & Sulaiman, T. (2020b). The use of oral questioning in inculcating values in mathematics for primary school students.

Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(3), 1–8.

Mahmud, M. S., Yunus, A. S. M., Ayub, A. F. M., & Sulaiman, T. (2020c). Types of Oral Questions Used by Teachers in Mathematical Problem Solving Teaching in Primary School Mathematics Teaching. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(06), 2278–2292.

Malaysian Examinations Board. (2014). Buku Panduan Pengurusan dan Pengendalian Pentaksiran Berasaskan Sekolah [School-Based Assessment Management and Handbook].

Ministry of Education Malaysia.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

421

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing Qualitative Research. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative Research A Guide to Design and Implementation. Jossey-Bass Inc Pub. Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Shahrill, M. (2013). Review of Effective Teacher Questioning in Mathematics Classrooms.

International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(17), 224–231.

Shahrill, M., & Clarke, D. J. (2014). Brunei Teachers’ Perspectives on Questioning: Investigating the Opportunities to “Talk” in Mathematics Lessons. International Education Studies, 7(7).

Veon, K. E. (2016). A Case Study of Teachers’ Practices using Formative Assessment for Fifth Grade Mathematics Students (Issue February). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University.

Wong, K. Y. (2015). Use of Student Mathematics Questioning to Promote Active Learning and Metacognition. In S. J. Cho (Ed.), Selected Regular Lectures from the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education (pp. 877–895). Springer International Publishing.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

422

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 422-443, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.23 Received Aug 23, 2021; Revised Nov 15, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

The Autonomy of Indonesian EFL Students: A Mixed Method Investigation M. Melvina, Nenden Sri Lengkanawati and Yanty Wirza Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3687-2295 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9903-6198 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9417-9686

Abstract. The present study sought to scrutinize undergraduate EFL students’ learning autonomy in a state university in Indonesia. This study employed a triangulation study of mixed-method design by distributing questionnaires and conducting interviews to get quantitative and qualitative data. The questionnaire was distributed to 40 second year participants enrolled in listening, speaking, reading, and writing for academic purposes classes, whereas 15 participants were selected for the interview Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were used to analyse the data collected from the questionnaire and the interview. Findings revealed that the level of students’ learner autonomy was classified as moderate level of autonomy. This indicated that Indonesian undergraduate students were considered somewhat autonomous learners. In addition, the Indonesian undergraduate students defined learner autonomy as independent learning with or without the teacher’s assistance, students responsible for their own learning, and learner autonomy was the student’s self-awareness and self-initiated to learn outside the classroom to find ways of learning and collaborate with others. The study recommended that teachers should consistently develop learner autonomy in their teaching practice.

Keywords: autonomy undergraduate students

behaviour;

autonomy

levels;

motivation;

1. Introduction The industrial revolution has brought changes in implementing education (Gleason, 2018). In response to the demands of the Industry 4.0 era, teaching methods need to be adapted to the changing nature of learning (Suherdi, 2019).

This makes teachers tend to serve as mentors or facilitators instead of educators.

Specifically, Education 4.0 requires teachers and students to utilize more digital technology tools in language learning. Considering the requirement of the Education 4.0, language learners are required to be active and independent in ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

423

learning due to plenty of information and resources for learning that can be obtained from the internet. They can discuss or solve their learning problems through social media or online messages. Moreover, they do not have to be dependent on their teachers in learning. This emphasizes that language learners need to take the responsibilities for deciding the aspect of learning, the capacity to take control of their learning, the ability and willingness to take responsibility for their learning, and work together with teachers and other learners to achieve shared goals (Benson & Voller, 2014).

In this connection, learner autonomy is highly needed to prepare learners to be independent and to exercise control over their own learning. Learner autonomy is considered an important notion in language learning and research and a desirable goal in the teaching and learning of second and foreign languages (Benson, 2013). Learner autonomy leads the learner to learn independently, take responsibility for their own learning, and help learners to be effective in learning(Borg & Alshumaimeri, 2019; Hsu et al., 2019). It can be said that autonomous language learners know how and when to learn or have learning management skills. Therefore, they can learn effectively and efficiently. In addition, learner autonomy prepares learners for lifelong learning (Mynard, 2019). In this case, autonomous learners have autonomy skills to help them fulfil the demand of education 4.0 after graduating from university.

Despite many empirical studies that have been conducted in terms of learner autonomy in ESL and EFL context by many researchers (Abdel Razeq, 2014; Alrabai, 2017; Borg & Alshumaimeri, 2019; Kobayashi, 2020; Lin & Reinders, 2019; Sönmez, 2016; Tayjasanant & Suraratdecha, 2016), the topic of learner autonomy is still a new research area in Indonesia. In Indonesian EFL context, learner autonomy has been introduced by some experts and researchers. The majority of the studies had focused on teachers’ beliefs and practices in developing learner autonomy(Agustina, 2017; Lengkanawati, 2017; Meisani & Rambet, 2017; Melvina & Suherdi, 2019), teachers’ and students’ perception and practices towards autonomous learning (Khotimah et al., 2019; Ramadhiyah & Lengkanawati, 2019), autonomous learning activities (Khulaifiyah et al., 2021),learner autonomy and gender (Mardjuki, 2018), learner autonomy and digital literacy (Andina et al., 2020; Muhammad, 2020), learner autonomy and language proficiency (Melvina & Julia, 2021; Myartawan et al., 2013), students’ readiness of learner autonomy (Cirocki et al., 2019; Fauzi et al., 2020). However, the theme focusing on the level of learner autonomy is still rare. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the level of autonomy of the students, because knowing their level of autonomy helps teachers better plan their teaching to promote the learners to become autonomous. The 2013 curriculum requested teachers to promote learner autonomy, particularly in the higher education level.

Specifically, this study is carried out to investigate the level of undergraduate students' autonomy in learning English based on the four aspects of learner autonomy (technical, psychological, political-philosophical, and sociocultural dimensions) that have been re-conceptualized by Murase (2015) from the

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

424

already existing theory (Benson, 1997; Oxford, 2003), and how they understand the definition of learner autonomy.

2. Theoretical Framework 2.1. The Dimension of Learner Autonomy Learner autonomy is classified by Benson (1997) into technical, psychological, and political dimensions. Oxford (2003) has the social culture dimension. Then, Murase (2015) tried to re-conceptualize the construct to measure learner autonomy based on the version of autonomy of Benson (1997) and Oxford (2003). These four dimensions were used as a conceptual framework of this study.

2.1.1. Technical Dimension Technical autonomy is defined as students learning a language on their own, out of the classroom, and without the help of a teacher. It is also defined as a situation where students must control their own learning (Benson, 1997). It relates to the skills that they need to learn autonomously. Technical autonomy consists of behavioral and situational sub-dimensions. Behavioral autonomy is related to the learners' capacity utilizing a number of learning strategies or tactics for taking control of their learning, such as setting goals, selecting learning materials and activities, planning, checking learning progress, and assessing or evaluating the learning progress (Cotterall, 1995b). Those are all frequently labeled as metacognitive strategies (Wenden, 1998). Then, situational autonomy is described as ‘situations in which learners are obliged to take charge of their own learning’ (Benson, 1997, p19).

2.1.2. Psychological Dimension Psychological autonomy relates to individual learners' capacity that enables learners to take more responsibility for their own learning” (Benson, 1997, p. 19).

Psychological autonomy is divided into three sub-dimensions: metacognitive, motivational, and affective (Murase, 2015). The metacognitive sub-dimension refers to metacognitive knowledge that supports students' capability to practice metacognitive strategies effectually. The motivational sub-dimension includes learner desires, responsibility, willingness, and feel of agency (Breen & Mann, 1997; Little, 1990; Oxford, 2003) As far as the third sub-dimension is concerned, anxiety, self-esteem, and emotions are the affective factors that arise from individual learners.

2.1.3. Political-philosophical Dimension Political-philosophical autonomy consists of group and individual autonomy (Murase, 2015). Group autonomy is a perspective of awareness of the teacher as the authority and the parents or government policy as other kinds of authorities.

Individual autonomy is the ability of the learners to make decisions about some aspects of learning, such as content, goals, and objectives in learning English. In addition, the political-philosophical dimension is associated with the idea of freedom to learn. Negative freedom is defined as where students have the freedom to study based on their preferences. Positive freedom is a situation where students can control their learning freely with the approval and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

425

cooperation of teachers or other authorities. Therefore, it is suggested to provide learners freedom in determining the learning content (Benson, 2013).

2.1.4. Socio-cultural Dimension Socio-cultural autonomy has two main sub-dimensions, namely socialinteractive and cultural. The social-interactive sub-dimension is influenced by Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Murase, 2015). Social interaction plays important role developing learner autonomy. Through social interaction with other people, such as teachers and their friends, students develop their autonomy in language learning. The cultural sub-dimension focuses more on the social aspects of learner autonomy, also known as national or ethnic culture (Palfreyman, 2003).

2.2. Autonomous Language Learners Autonomous language learners are considered efficient because they have the important skill to manage their learning (Benson, 2011). In addition, autonomous learners are active and critical to think about what knowledge they need. They apply effective learning strategies and check the progress of their own learning (Benson, 1997; Lengkanawati, 2017; Nunan, 2003; Oxford, 2008).In addition, Little and Dam (1998) asserted that autonomous learners are successful learners because they have intrinsic motivation. This intrinsic motivation encourages them to accept responsibility for their own learning and commit to developing self-reflective management skills in learning. Little and Dam (1998) further emphasized that autonomous learners are motivated and reflective learners. Therefore, their learning becomes effective and efficient. Also, they could practice knowledge and skills in independent learning outside the classroom.

According to Cotterall (1995a), autonomous learners can evaluate the quality of their learning, and appreciate their abilities, progress, and accomplishment.

Besides, they can solve the obstacles that may arise from educational backgrounds, cultural norms, and previous experiences. Meanwhile, Dickinson (1993) proposed that autonomous learners can collaborate with the teacher to create their own learning goals.

2.3. The Level of Learner Autonomy The degree of learner autonomy can be seen from a lower to a higher level (Benson, 2011). Learners with a high level of autonomy can control their learning activity as well as determine its directions. Meanwhile, learners with a low level of autonomy can only perform some specific activities of learner autonomy.

Littlewood (1996) elucidated three levels of autonomy. At the communicative level, students can make choices about the practice of language and appropriate strategies when communicating in certain situations and tasks. At the level of learning, students are expected to be able to use appropriate learning strategies independently. At the personal level, students can make choices about their language learning in a wider context. Then, in 1999, Littlewood introduced proactive and reactive autonomy. Proactive autonomy shows that students have full autonomy, while reactive autonomy denotes that students work after receiving learning directions from the teachers.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

426

3. Methods 3.1. Research Design This research was completed using a mixed-methods approach by combining quantitative and qualitative research. In this research, a triangulation or convergent study of mixed methods design was opted to gather different data (Creswell & Clark, 2017).To collect data, there are two stages (see figure.1). The first stage is to collect quantitative data by distributing questionnaires to the participants. Then, the second stage is to obtain qualitative data through a semistructured interview. Data gained from the questionnaires and interviews were analysed separately. The results of the qualitative analysis were used to triangulate the quantitative findings.

Figure 1: Flowchart of the research

3.2. Participants There were 40 undergraduate students of one state university in Indonesia involved in this research as the participants. They were enrolled in semester four the English education program. The fourth-semester students were selected as the participants because they had already taken the prerequisite course and practiced some student-cantered learning approach. To select the participants of the study, the researchers used the convenience sampling technique. It is a type of non-probability sampling where subjects of the research meet certain practical criteria. For example, easy accessibility, geographical proximity, availability at a given time, or the willingness to participate in the study (Dörnyei, 2007). The selected participants consisted of 12 male students (30%) and 28 female students (70%). Their age ranged from 18 to 20 years old.

3.3. Research Instruments Two instruments were used to collect the data. The first was a questionnaire, Measuring Instrument for Language Learner Autonomy (MILLA), adapted from Murase (2015) to collect quantitative data. MILLA comprises of four dimensions of learner autonomy: technical, psychological, political-philosophical, and sociocultural dimensions. After consulting a professor who is an expert in

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

427

learner autonomy, several items that were not closely related to the Indonesian context were omitted. The questionnaire was then translated into the Indonesian language. The four-point Likert Scale questionnaire consisted of 87 items, and was splitted into four dimensions of learner autonomy. Cronbach’s alpha was measured to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. The results confirmed that the overall items have high degree of reliability with the value of 0.98. The value ≥ 0.8 signifies that the items have good internal consistency (Vaske et al., 2017). The second instrument was a semi-structured interview. 15 students were selected purposively for an interview after the questionnaire analysis. Four follow-up questions were adopted from Le Thanh Nguyet (2019) to explore students' knowledge regarding learner autonomy, students’ level of autonomy, and students’ autonomy behaviour.

3.4. Procedures The questionnaire was distributed after getting the participant's consent by signing the consent form. The participants completed the questionnaire in a week. Furthermore, after analysing the questionnaire results, a follow-up interview was carried out. The researchers made appointment to the students before interviewed.

Figure 2: Research procedure

3.5. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, percentages, and index scores, were conducted to analyse students’ degree of learner autonomy. The degree of students’ autonomy was categorized into three. The index score above 80 indicates a high level of learner autonomy, the index score between 60 and 80 indicates a mediate level of learner autonomy, and the index score below 60 indicates a low level of learner autonomy (Elizondo & Garita, 2013).

Furthermore, thematic analysis was used to analyse the data collected through the interview.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

428

4. Results 4.1. Quantitative Findings Undergraduate students level of autonomy in English language learning In this study, learners’ level of autonomy was based on four dimensions of learner autonomy consisting of technical dimension, psychological dimension, political-philosophical dimension, and sociocultural dimension. The results of the quantitative analysis showed that undergraduate students’ overall degree of autonomy was categorized in the mediate level of learner autonomy with an index score of 74%. This indicated that Indonesian undergraduate students were considered autonomous learners. They had implemented some behaviours of learner autonomy.

Table 1: Students’ overall degree of learner autonomy Dimensions of Learner Autonomy Technical

Index Score 66%

Category Mediate-level

Psychological

81%

High-level

Political-Philosophical

71%

Mediate-level

Sociocultural

76%

Mediate-level

74%

Mediate-level

Students’ overall degree of autonomy

learner

Table 1 above shows that the technical dimension had an index score of 66%, indicating that it was in a mediate level of learner autonomy, whereas psychological dimension had an index score of 81%, indicating that it was in a high level of learner autonomy. The political-philosophical dimension and sociocultural dimension had an index score of 71% and 76%, respectively, indicating that they were both in a mediate level of learner autonomy. These results concluded that the psychological dimension had the highest index score and the technical dimension had the lowest index score.

4.1.1. Technical Dimension The findings in the technical dimension confirmed that most students could set learning goals and make a study plan. In setting long-term goals in learning English, 45% of students answered often. Similarly, 45% of students answered frequently in making long-term plans to learn English. Half of the students (50%) frequently made realistic plans for studying English. However, they rarely assessed their learning goals and study plans. Interestingly, they often evaluated the improvement of their English ability. Besides, they rarely reflected on their studies, but they frequently reflected on their learning after finishing studying English. The students also reported that they were able to create favourable times to practice English outside the classroom and manage their learning in the situation where they self-study. Half of the students confirmed that they could study English without teachers in the library or on the internet. However, they rarely attended a self-study centre to develop their English skills and joined an English club where they were allowed to practice English.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

429

4.1.2. Psychological Dimension The findings in the psychological dimension confirmed that the undergraduate students could control their learning autonomously. They had a high motivation in learning English, knew how to motivate themselves, and were responsible for their best achievement in learning English. For instance, the majority of the students (85%) aspired to continue their studies abroad after graduation; 65% of them aspired to work overseas in the future; 62.5% of them liked the English language. Meanwhile, 50% of the students liked studying English; 37.5% of them gave the highest priority to learning English over studying other academic subjects. In addition, 70% of students viewed that English language skills can help them get a better job.

Furthermore, the findings showed that undergraduate students could use metacognitive strategies effectively. For example, most of them concurred that they should set their learning goals (70%), create a long-term plan for learning English (62.5%), choose materials that are appropriate to their learning goals (62.5%), make a study plan that meets their learning goals (65%) and make a realistic plan for learning English (50%). Half of the students strongly agreed that students must create conditions so that they can learn English well (55%).

More than half of the participants (67.5%) agreed that they should evaluate their ability to use English effectively. The majority of participants (72.5%) agreed that the effectiveness of their English study plan should be assessed.

In this study, the students agreed that they recognized their learning needs to improve their English (47.65%); a half of the students (57.5%) agreed that they were good at learning English; 60.0 % of them agreed that the teacher was able to help them study English; 50 % of them agreed that the conditions in which they can study English well; 40% of them agreed that the reason they did not feel like studying English; a half of them (52.5 %) agreed that they were able to motivate themselves when they did not feel like studying English.

4.1.3. Political-philosophical Dimension The sub-dimension of group autonomy showed that the majority of the participants answered that they realized the goals of the English classes they were taking, knew their teacher’s expectation towards them in the classroom, and they also agreed that students should do the instructions of their teacher.

The findings of individual autonomy sub-dimension showed that the students agreed that they were allowed to tell the teacher what they wanted to study (57.5%); make decisions about their learning (65%); determine the learning materials (45%);and determine their learning goals (65%). Besides, 55% of them confidently answered that they have the capability to determine learning resources when they have complete freedom to do so.; more than half of the students (70%) confirmed that they have the ability in determining their learning objectives if given the freedom to do so. Furthermore, the results of the freedom sub-dimension showed that 62.5%, 67.5%, and 57.5% of participants agreed that teachers and students should negotiate about the objectives of learning English, plans and materials for learning English, and topics discussed in learning in the classroom, respectively.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

430

4.1.4. Sociocultural Dimension Furthermore, the results of the social-interactive sub-dimension showed that the students wanted the teacher to explain everything they did not understand (85%); to tell them the habit of learning English (67.5%); to tell them how to study English (62.5%); and to give learning materials (60%). Moreover, 97.5% of them wanted to ask their friends for advice about their English learning; 92.5% of them wanted to know how other students learned English; 90.0% of them sometimes compared themselves with other students; 65% of them stated they felt worried if they were doing not the same with their friends; 75% of them stated that they sometimes follow what their peers are doing into their learning.

Surprisingly, 100% of the participants agreed that students were able to help each other learn English; 97.5% of them agreed that studying English with other students was useful; similar to the previous one, 97.5 % of them stated that they learned many things when they studied English with their friends.

Regarding the cultural sub-dimension, 72.5% of Indonesian students agreed that students in western countries have a high initiative in their learning; 70% of them agreed that students in western countries tend to make conversation actively during class.; more than half of the participants (80%) agreed that Western students are expected to take the initiative in studying. Findings of Indonesian culture reflected that only a minority of the participants (25%) agreed that Indonesian students tend to take the initiative. In terms of the ability for autonomous learning, 45% of Indonesian students agreed that they can learn autonomously. Meanwhile, in terms of their experience of autonomous learning, 45% of Indonesian students agreed that they have the experience of learning autonomously.

4.2. Qualitative Findings After conducting interview with the students, the coding process is done. The selected excerpts were coded and analyzed thematically and then categorized into themes and sub-themes. Sn is attached at the end of every excerpt, where n signifies the interviewee.

Table 2: The details of qualitative findings Theme Students’ conception of learner autonomy

Sub-themes Independent learning.

Learning independently outside the classroom minus the assistance of the teacher.

Independent learning with the teacher’s assistance or friends collaboratively.

Students should take charge of the process of their learning.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Selected excerpts In my opinion, learner autonomy is independent learning without the help of lecturers. Learner autonomy makes learners responsible for their learning.

(S1) Learner autonomy is independent learning by finding out what is needed or what will be studied on the internet or reading books, but it still needs guidance from lecturers, friends, and parents. (S3) I think that independent learning is

431

Student’s self-awareness and self-initiated to learn outside the classroom in order to find ways of learning and collaborate with others.

Learning English anywhere and anytime.

not always alone. It can be shared with friends. So, the students have the initiative to learn collaboratively with friends. (S6) Learner autonomy means independent learning in which the students take full responsibility for the process of learning. (S14) We as students do not only depend on the material or instructions given by the lecturer. We can take the initiative on our own to find and learn other material by ourselves. (S14) Students can learn from the internet because there are so many learning resources on the internet. (S7)

The advantages of learner autonomy

Improving English skills

students’

Improving their weaknesses and to develop their potentials Learning can be more creative and innovative Developing knowledge.

students’

Compensating for limited time and learning material in the classroom Learning can personalized

be

more

In learning English, we learn speaking, listening, writing and reading. We have to practice them to be familiar.

Thus, we must find the material by ourselves. For example, I watch English films with subtitles. It teaches me listening and reading. By watching English films, I automatically learn independently. That is one of the advantages of learner autonomy. (S12) In my point of view, learner autonomy plays an important role. Learning in the classroom is limited. Learning independently outside the class can give a deeper knowledge of the subject. (S1) Learner autonomy is important because when we learn independently and search for learning material by ourselves, we can understand it well.

(S8)

The undergraduate students’ autonomy level

Students were not fully autonomous in learning English and confidently stated that they wanted to be more autonomous.

I feel that I am still far from autonomous. Maybe I am at level average. (S7) I feel I was not a fully autonomous learner because I still need guidance to study. But I am able to learn new words and phrases through watching a lot of TV shows or movies, listening to the song, and reading books. (S11) Yes, I have loved to learn independently since elementary school

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

432

to find out what I wanted to know in English. I learn independently at home and sometimes study together with my friend at home. (S14) Yes, I want to be a more autonomous learner. I could not always rely on the lecturer. (S12) Students’ practices learner autonomy

of

The majority of students had set their learning goals both for the short and long term goals.

They had set their learning goals in the earlier first semester and after goat all the score Students made a study plan in learning English They revised their study plan when it did not work well.

Yes, I have set my goals. I want to be able to speak fluently. Furthermore, in writing, I want to be able to write properly. (S10) I want to continue my master’s degree abroad (S14).

Yes, I set my goals in every early semester (S6).

I set the goals at the end of the semester (S5).

I make a study plan to face a quiz, progress test or post-test (S14).

I have study plans at the beginning of the semester.

Unfortunately, they didn't run well, so I have to rearrange the planning (S1).

Table 2 presents the results of the interview data analysis. These include four themes: 1) students’ conception of learner autonomy; 2) the advantages of learner autonomy; 3) the undergraduate students’ autonomy level; and 4) students’ practices of learner autonomy. The results suggested that the students acknowledge the concept of learner autonomy as independent learning with or without others help. The students in the present study agreed that learner autonomy could improve their English skills. They also claimed that they had set their learning goals and made study plans. Despite the fact they have some skills of learner autonomy, they confirmed that they were not totally autonomous in learning English.

5. Discussion The quantitative findings revealed that the undergraduate students’ autonomy in English language learning was at a mediate level. For technical dimension, long-term goal and the ability to create opportunities to learn contributed to the students’ level autonomy. Setting goals made learners more motivated, autonomous, and self-regulated. The psychological dimension obtained the highest score. It implies that undergraduate students have intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in learning English. They also pay attention to their cognitive process and they can control their affective in the learning process. The political-

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

433

philosophical dimension shows the necessity of the negotiation process between teachers and students on the goals in learning and the freedom to decide the learning content and activities. Related to the sociocultural dimension, the most important point was collaborative learning. Students develop their autonomy through social interactions with their friends. It suggests that social interactions are crucial to constructing learner autonomy.

The findings of this research are in line with Iamudom and Tangkiengsirisin (2020), in which Thai EFL students’ autonomy was at a high level. They used several strategies in learning, such as compensation, metacognitive, and cognitive strategies. However, this finding differs from Cirocki et al. (2019) and Fauzi et al. (2020) wherein Indonesian students seemed not ready to be autonomous learners. They argued that motivation of their participants in learning English was fairly low, the students were still accustomed to the teacher-centered learning approach, and they had misconceptions of learner autonomy. In the current research, the motivational sub-dimension showed the highest score. Moreover, the interview findings explained that the students have intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in learning English and they like studying it.

Besides, their motivation is related to their forthcoming wishes, such as to be a professional English teacher, study and work overseas, and get a good job.

Oxford (2015) argued that autonomous learners in psychological perspectives have intrinsic motivation in learning. In this study and in addition to having intrinsic motivation, the students also have extrinsic motivation. Their extrinsic motivation encourages their intrinsic motivation to study hard. Hence, it concludes that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are equally important for learning, as well as motivation is essential in developing learner autonomy (Jianfeng et al., 2018).

Learner autonomy helps the students to learn independently, control and manage their learning and be effective in learning. The quantitative findings showed that they were able to act as autonomous learners. They can set longterm and short-term goals, make a realistic study plan for learning English, and use some metacognitive skills. All these skills are needed by undergraduate students to make them effective in learning (Lengkanawati, 2017). Thus, students who have metacognitive strategies are effective learners or are also categorized as autonomous learners.

The qualitative findings revealed that although most students claimed that they are autonomous learners, they sometimes still need motivation, direction, and guidance from the teacher to practice autonomous learning outside the classroom. They need their teachers’ assistance to build up their self-confidence and capability to perform autonomous learning. This reflects on the important part of the teacher to guide and assist the students to gain sufficient knowledge of independent learning out of the classroom. It can be said that the teacher’s presence in the process of developing autonomy is crucial (Swatevacharkul & Boonma, 2021).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

434

Surprisingly, the findings from the interview showed that the undergraduate students generally have the basic conception of autonomy in language learning as learning independently outside the classroom with teachers’ help or working together with others. Learner autonomy cannot be defined as learning without a teacher (Lengkanawati, 2017). Students still need teachers’ support on their learning process. Learner autonomy is also defined as independent learning in which the students take full responsibility for the process of learning, and take initiative to find and learn other material. Besides, learner autonomy is students' awareness to deepen their knowledge and have learning goals. It has been concluded that the undergraduate students have background knowledge about learner autonomy.

Moreover, the findings showed the students were not too dependent on their teacher in learning. They could manage their own learning in the circumstances where they study independently. For example, they could learn English independently in the library or at home, and on the internet. In addition, the students also could study English with other students. They enjoyed learning collaboratively with their friends because they were able to learn from their friends. They also confidently said working together with friends their autonomy could be improved. In other words, the schooling system has succeeded to promote learner autonomy to create autonomous learners who are willing to take control of their learning or some aspects of learning. The recent curriculum in Indonesia demanded teachers to shift their instruction from focus on teacher to learner to respond to the industrial revolution and the disruption.

It makes learner autonomy crucial to be promoted in the process of teaching and learning. Moreover, learner autonomy could help learners in learning and prepare them for lifelong learning (Tran & Duong, 2018). It emphasized that the teachers should take an important part in developing a conducive learning atmosphere to promote autonomous learning. Besides, the teacher needs to alter students’ viewpoint about the traditional role of the teachers and the learners in the classroom, assist students to find out their learning styles, select the appropriate learning strategies, and know the advantages of autonomous learning.

The findings showed that undergraduate students were allowed to decide the learning process, such as deciding the materials and activities for learning with the teacher’s approval. It explains that the teacher is needed as a partner in negotiating the learning process (Swatevacharkul & Boonma, 2021). Negotiation in the learning process helps students in controlling their learning. Besides, this also informs the importance of teachers to nourish student autonomy. In addition, they agreed that the teacher has the authority to assist, guide, and support students to do some aspects of learning management. Therefore, these results suggest that teachers must involve their students in the decision-making process, and encourage students to set up learning goals based on the evaluation (Çakici, 2015).

Learning autonomously gives students some benefits, such as improving their English skills, developing their potential, increasing their knowledge, and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

435

compensating for a limited time in the classroom and inadequate learning material. In addition, learner autonomy makes students learn more, personalize their learning, and promote creativity. According to Cotterall (1995a), a teacher is not always there to assist students. Therefore, learners should have the capability to learn independently in learning the language. These findings also confirmed the literature regarding the benefits of learner autonomy. Dam (2008) suggested that learning the language can be implemented well and personalized if students are responsible for their learning.

6. Conclusion The findings showed the Indonesian undergraduate students' learner autonomy in terms of technical, psychological, political-philosophical, and socio-cultural dimensions was categorized as mediate level autonomy. The technical dimension indicated that students can set goals, make a study plan, reflect on, monitor, and evaluate the learning process. The psychological dimension showed high motivation. Specifically, the undergraduate students have intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for autonomous learning, thus they have the ability to control their affective in learning English and employed metacognitive skills.

The political-philosophical dimensions revealed that the students were allowed to make a decision in their learning based on the results of the negotiation with teachers. In addition, they perceived that teachers have the authority to help and guide students in learning. The results of social-interactive sub-dimensions revealed that the students prefer to work collaboratively with their peers to reach the learning goal. However, they still need the teacher's contribution to developing learner autonomy. Dealing with cultural sub-dimension, they agreed that learner autonomy is also appropriate for Indonesian learners. Furthermore, the study concluded that the undergraduate students are autonomous learners because they have sufficient knowledge about the concepts and the advantages of learner autonomy that make them ready to act autonomously and have autonomous skills. This study suggests that the teachers need to continuously increase the students' knowledge of the significance of learner autonomy in language learning and consistently implementing this approach in teaching. A limitation of this research is that the participants only involved EFL learners from a university in Indonesia. It is suggested that the future research should cover a larger participants from many universities to get more comprehensive information of the learners’ level of autonomy.

7. References Abdel Razeq, A. A. (2014). University EFL learners’ perceptions of their autonomous learning responsibilities and abilities. RELC Journal, 45(3), 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214547035 Agustina, D. (2017). Teachers’ understanding of learner autonomy in Indonesian context: Findings from high school and their implications. LLT Journal: A Journal on Language and Language Teaching, 20(2), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.2017.200206 Alrabai, F. (2017). Exploring the unknown: The autonomy of Saudi EFL learners. English Language Teaching, 10(5), 222. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n5p222 Andina, D. M., Cahyono, B. Y., & Widiati, U. (2020). How English foreign language students’ autonomy and digital competence relate to their writing achievement.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

436

Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan Dan Ilmu Tarbiyah, 5(1), 77–86. https://doi.org/10.24042/tadris.v5i1.5760 Benson, P. (1997). The philosophy and politics of learner autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. 18–34).

Longman. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172 Benson, P. (2011). What’s new in autonomy. The Language Teacher, 35(4), 15–18. https://jalt-publications.org/files/pdf-article/plen3.pdf Benson, P. (2013). Teaching and researching: Autonomy in language learning (2nd ed.).

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833767 Benson, P., & Voller, P. (2014). Autonomy and independence in language learning (1st ed.).

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172 Borg, S., & Alshumaimeri, Y. (2019). Language learner autonomy in a tertiary context: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Language Teaching Research, 23(1), 9–38. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362168817725759 Breen, P., & Mann, S. (1997). Shooting around at the sun: Perspectives on a pedagogy for autonomy in Benson. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp.

132–149).

Longman. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172 Çakici, D. (2015). Autonomy in language teaching and learning process. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.17679/iuefd.16168538 Cirocki, A., Anam, S., & Retnaningdyah, P. (2019). Readiness for autonomy in English language learning: The case of Indonesian high school students. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 7(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.30466/ijltr.2019.120695 Cotterall, S. (1995a). Developing a course strategy for learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 49(3), 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/49.3.219 Cotterall, S. (1995b). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00008-8 Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.

Sage publications.

Dam, L. (2008). In-service teacher education for learner autonomy. IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG, 11(6), 20–28.

Dickinson, L. (1993). Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning. ELT Journal, 47(4), 330–336. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.4.330 Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford university press.

Fauzi, C., Basikin, D. S., & Kassymova, G. (2020). Exploring EFL student teachers readiness and gender differences of learner autonomy. Bulletin of National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan ,1 (383), 288-299. . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32014/2020.2518-1467.34 Gleason, N. W. (2018). Singapore’s higher education systems in the era of the fourth industrial revolution: Preparing lifelong learners. In N. Gleason (Ed.), Higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution (pp. 145–169). Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0_7 Hsu, W.-C., Ling, X., & Xuelian, X. (2019). An investigation of responsibility and learner autonomy in a Sino-British EAP program in China. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(1), 220. https://doi.org/DOI:10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.1.14.220 Iamudom, T., & Tangkiengsirisin, S. (2020). A comparison study of learner autonomy and language learning strategies among Thai EFL learners. International Journal of Instruction, 13(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13214a

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

437

Jianfeng, C., Raj, S. G., & Tan Tjin Ai, J. (2018). The correlations among learning motivation , autonomy and language proficiency in Chinese EFL context.

LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 11(1), 1–14. https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/LEARN/article/view/135861/101464 Khotimah, K., Widiati, U., Mustofa, M., & Faruq Ubaidillah, M. (2019). Autonomous English learning: Teachers’ and students’ perceptions. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 371–381. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20234 Khulaifiyah, K., Widati, U., Anugerahwati, M., & Suryati, N. (2021). Autonomous learning activities: The perceptions of English language students in Indonesia.

Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 11(3), 34–49. https://mail.pegegog.net/index.php/pegegog/article/view/1362 Kobayashi, A. (2020). Fostering learner autonomy in an EFL classroom through an action research by adapting extensive listening activities. Language Education & Technology, 57, 91–120. https://doi.org/10.24539/let.57.0_91 Le Thanh Nguyet, A. N. H. (2019). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices regarding learner autonomy: An exploratory study at a Viatnamese University in the Mekong Delta. HUE University.

Lengkanawati, N. S. (2017). Learner autonomy in the Indonesian EFL settings. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v6i2.4847 Lin, L., & Reinders, H. (2019). Students’ and teachers’ readiness for autonomy: Beliefs and practices in developing autonomy in the Chinese context. Asia Pacific Education Review, 20(1), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-018-9564-3 Little, D. (1990). Autonomy in language learning. In A. Swarbrick (Ed.), Teaching modern languages. The Open university.

Little, D., & Dam, L. (1998). Learner autonomy: What and why? JALT, 22, 7–8.

Littlewood, W. (1996). “Autonomy”: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), 427– 435. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(96)00039-5 Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts.

Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.1.71 Mardjuki, M. S. (2018). Learner autonomy: Gender-based perception among EFL Indonesian students. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 3(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefll.v3i1.46 Meisani, D. R., & Rambet, R. D. B. (2017). Teachers’ beliefs regarding language learner autonomy and practices of project-based education: A case study of an Indonesian EFL teacher. NOBEL: Journal of Literature and Language Teaching, 8(2), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.15642/NOBEL.2017.8.2.141-149 Melvina, M, & Julia, J. (2021). Learner autonomy and English proficiency of Indonesian undergraduate students. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 16(2), 803–818. https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v16i2.5677 Melvina, M., & Suherdi, D. (2019). Indonesian ELT teachers’ beliefs toward language learner autonomy. Paper presented at the Second Conference on Language, Literature, Education, and Culture (ICOLLITE 2018), 239–242. https://doi.org/10.2991/icollite-18.2019.53 Muhammad, M. (2020). Promoting students’ autonomy through online learning media in EFL class. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(4), 320–331. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n4p320 Murase, F. (2015). Measuring language learner autonomy: Problems and possibilities. In C.J. Everhard & L. Murphy (Eds.), Assessment and autonomy in language learning (pp.

35–63).

Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414380_3

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

438

Myartawan, I. P. N. W., Latief, M. A., & Suharmanto. (2013). The corelation between learner autonomy and English proficiency of Indonesian EFL college learners.

TEFLIN Journal, 24(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v24i1/63-81 Mynard, J. (2019). Self-access learning and advising: Promoting language learner autonomy beyond the classroom. In H. Reinders, S. Ryan & S. Sakammura (Eds.), Innovation in language teaching and learnin. New language learning and teaching envirnments (pp.

185–209).Palgrave Mcmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12567-7_10 Nunan, D. (2003). Nine steps to learner autonomy. Symposium, 2003, 193–204. http://www.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.84007.1333707257!/menu/standard/file/2003 _11_Nunan_eng.pdf Oxford, R. L. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In D .Palfreyman & R.C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures (pp. 75–91).

Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230504684_5 Oxford, R. L. (2008). Hero with a thousand faces: Learner autonomy, learning strategies and learning tactics in independent language learning. In S. Hurd & T. Lewis (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings ( p. 41). Multilingual Matters Bristol. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847690999-005 Oxford, R. L. (2015). Expanded perspectives on autonomous learners. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 9(1), 58–71. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2014.995765 Palfreyman, D. (2003). Introduction: Culture and learner autonomy. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures (pp. 1–19). Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230504684_1 Ramadhiyah, S., & Lengkanawati, N. S. (2019). Exploring EFL learner autonomy in the 2013 curriculum implementation. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(1), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i1.15626 Sönmez, G. (2016). How ready are your students for autonomous language learning.

Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching (TOJELT), 1(3), 126–134.

Suherdi, D. (2019). Teaching English in the industry 4.0 and disruption era: Early lessons from the implementation of SMELT I 4.0 DE in a senior high lab school class.

Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(1), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i1.16418 Swatevacharkul, R., & Boonma, N. (2021). Learner autonomy assessment of English language teaching students in an international program in Thailand. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 749–759. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v10i3.31764 Tayjasanant, C., & Suraratdecha, S. (2016). Thai EFL teachers and learners’ beliefs and readiness for autonomous learning. 3L: Language, Linguistics, Literature®, 22(3). https://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2016-2203-11 Tran, T. Q., & Duong, T. M. (2018). EFL learners’ perceptions of factors influencing learner autonomy development. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.009 Vaske, J. J., Beaman, J., & Sponarski, C. C. (2017). Rethinking internal consistency in Cronbach’s alpha.

Leisure Sciences, 39(2), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2015.1127189 Wenden, A. L. (1998). Metacognitive knowledge and language learning1. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 515–537. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/19.4.515

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

439

Appendices Appendix 1. Technical Dimension No

Technical

Never %

f

%

f

%

f

%

Index score %

0

13

32.5

18

45.0

9

22.5

73

0

15

37.5

18

45.0

7

17.5

70

3

7.5

19

47.5

15

37.5

3

7.5

61

3

7.5

16

40.0

19

47.5

2

5.0

63

1

2.5

17

42.5

20

50.0

2

5.0

64

1

2.5

8

20.0

20

50.0

11

27.5

76

1

2.5

11

27.5

16

40.0

12

30.0

74

0

2

5.0

15

37.5

23

57.5

88

2.5

17

42.5

15

37.5

7

17.5

68

0

11

27.5

16

40.0

13

32.5

76

2.5

4

10

24

60

11

27.5

78

0

15

37.5

19

47.5

6

15.0

69

2

5.0

8

20.0

20

50.0

10

25.0

74

4

10

13

32.5

16

40

7

17.5

66

3

7.5

18

45.0

15

37.5

4

10

63

19

47.5

16

40.0

4

10.0

1

2.5

42

10

25.0

21

52.5

7

17.5

2

5.0

51

6

15.0

12

30.0

16

40.0

6

15.0

64

2

5.0

8

20.0

22

55.0

8

20.0

73

21

52.5

10

25.0

6

15.0

3

7.5

44

1

2.5

11

27.5

21

52.5

7

17.5

71

11

27.5

17

42.5

11

27.5

1

2.5

51

F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9

10

11

12

13

14 15 16

17

18

19

20

21

22

I set long-term goals in learning English.

I make long-term plans for studying English.

I set goals for the day before I start studying English.

I make study plans for the day before I start studying English.

I make study plans that match my goals in learning English.

I make realistic plans for studying English.

I revise my English study plans if they don’t work well.

If I have a limited amount of time available for study, I decide in what order the things need to be done.

I reflect upon how I studied after I finish studying English for the day.

I try to create opportunities to use English outside the classroom.

I try to create the conditions under which I can study English best.

I reflect upon what I learned after I finish studying English for the day.

I evaluate the improvement in my ability to use English effectively.

I assess how much of my goal I have achieved.

I assess the effectiveness of my English study plans.

I take notes about how much time I spent on my English study.

I keep records of what kind of methods I used for my English study.

I write down what kinds of materials I used for my English study.

I keep records of what I learned from my English study.

I take notes of my feelings while I am studying English.

I am able to study English without teachers in the campus library or on the internet provided by the library.

I attend a self-study center to develop my English skills.

1

1

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Rarely

Frequently

Always

440

23

I join English club where I can practice my English

17

42.5

13

32.5

7

17.5

3

7.5

48

Appendix 2. Psychological Dimension No

Psychological

Strongly Disagree f

38

39

40

41

42

43

44 45 46

47 48 49

50

51

I know what I need to study to improve my English.

I know what I am good at in learning English. (e.g., ‘I am good at memorizing vocabulary.’)

If I ask my teacher for help in learning English, I know how I want him/her to help me.

I know the conditions under which I can study English best.

If I don’t feel like studying English, I know the reason.

If I don’t feel like studying English, I know how I can motivate myself.

I want to study overseas in the future.

I want to work overseas in the future.

I want to get a job where I use English in the future.

I like the English language.

I like studying English.

I give a higher priority to studying English than studying other academic subjects.

The reason why I study English is to pass English qualifying exams (e.g.,TOEIC, TOEFL) It is because I think English skills will help me get a job.

%

Disagree

f

%

Agree

f

Strongly agree %

F

%

Inde x score %

0

4

10.0

26

65.0

10

25.0

79

0

5

12.5

23

57.5

12

30.0

79

0

10

25.0

24

60.0

6

15.0

73

2

5.0

3

7.5

20

50.0

15

37.5

80

2

5.0

7

17.5

16

40.0

15

37.5

78

0

9

22.5

21

52.5

10

25.0

76

0

2

5.0

4

10.0

34

85.0

95

5.0

1

2.5

11

27.5

26

65.0

88

0

0

10

25.0

30

75.0

94

2.5

0

14

35.0

25

62.5

89

2

1

0

1

2.5

20

50.0

19

47.5

86

1

2.5

9

22.5

15

37.5

15

37.5

78

2

5.0

17

42.5

14

35.0

7

17.5

66

0

12

30.0

28

70.0

93

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

0

441

Appendix 3. Political Philosophical Dimension No

52

53

54

55

56

57

58 59

60

61

62

63

Political

All university regulations must be obeyed.

We should fulfill the expectations of our society.

I am aware of the Indonesian government’s policy on English language education.

I am aware of the goals of the English class (es) I am taking.

I know what my teacher expects me to do in the classroom.

Students should always follow their teacher’s instructions.

What a teacher says is always correct.

A teacher should know everything about the subject he/she teaches.

I have the right to freely tell the teacher what I want to learn in listening/ speaking/ reading/ writing for academic purposes class.

I have the right to freely make decisions about my own learning in listening/ speaking/ reading/ writing for academic purposes class.

I have the right to freely decide the materials for studying English in listening/ speaking/ reading/ writing for academic purposes class.

I have the right to freely decide my own goals in listening/ speaking/ reading/

Strongly Disagree f %

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree f %

Index score %

f

%

f

%

0

5

12.5

25

62.5

10

25.0

78

3

7.5

13

32.5

15

37.5

9

22.5

69

3

7.5

17

42.5

19

47.5

1

2.5

61

0

31

77.5

9

22.5

81

0

0

2

5.0

29

72.5

9

22.5

79

2

5.0

10

25.0

21

52.5

7

17.5

71

8

20.0

31

77.5

1

2.5

0

46

1

2.5

3

7.5

20

50.0

16

40.0

82

1

2.5

12

30.0

23

57.5

4

10.0

69

1

2.5

8

20.0

26

65.0

5

12.5

72

2

5.0

16

40.0

18

45.0

4

10.0

65

1

2.5

5

12.5

26

65.0

8

20.0

76

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

442

64

65

66

67

68

69

writing for academic purposes class.

I am able to decide the materials for studying English if given the freedom to do so.

I am able to decide my own goals in learning English if given the freedom to do so.

The teacher and students should negotiate on the goals in learning English.

The teacher and students should negotiate on the plans for studying English.

The teacher and students should negotiate on the materials for studying English.

The teacher and students should negotiate on the topics covered in the class.

0

9

22.5

22

55.0

9

22.5

75

0

3

7.5

28

70.0

9

22.5

79

1

2.5

5

12.5

25

62.5

9

22.5

76

5

0

27

12.5

8

67.5

20.0

52

0

11

27.5

22

55.0

7

17.5

73

0

10

25.0

23

57.5

7

17.5

73

Appendix 4. Sociocultural Dimension No

70

71

72 73

74

75

76 77

78

79 80

Social-culture

I want my teacher to explain everything I don’t understand.

I want my teacher to tell me all I should do to learn English.

I want my teacher to tell me how I should study English.

I want my teacher to give me all the materials for studying English I sometimes want to ask other students for advice about my English learning.

I want to know how other students are learning English.

I sometimes compare myself with other students If I am doing something different from other students, I feel worried.

I sometimes adopt what other students are doing into my own learning.

Students can help each other learn English.

I find it useful to study English with other students.

Strongly Disagree f %

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree f %

Index score %

f

%

F

%

0

6

15.0

20

50.0

14

35.0

80

0

13

32.5

19

47.5

8

20.0

72

2.5

14

35.0

16

40.0

9

22.5

71

0

16

40.0

17

42.5

7

17.5

69

0

1

2.5

29

72.5

10

25.0

81

0

3

7.5

21

52.5

16

40.0

83

2

5.0

2

5.0

20

50.0

16

40.0

81

3

7.5

11

27.5

14

35.0

12

30.0

72

3

7.5

7

17.5

20

50.0

10

25.0

73

0

21

52.5

19

47.5

87

2.5

22

55.0

17

42.5

85

1

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

0 0

1

443

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

If I study English with other students, I also learn from them.

Western students tend to take the initiative in their learning.

Western students tend to speak out actively during class.

In Western cultures, students are expected to take the initiative in their learning.

Indonesian students tend to take the initiative in their learning.

Indonesian students have the ability to learn autonomously.

Indonesian students have the experience of learning autonomously.

0

1

2.5

22

55.0

17

42.5

85

0

4

10.0

29

72.5

7

17.5

77

0

5

12.5

28

70.0

7

17.5

76

0

32

80.0

8

20.0

80

0

5

12.5

23

57.5

10

25.0

2

5.0

56

1

2.5

16

40.0

18

45.0

5

12.5

67

3

7.5

15

37.5

18

45.0

4

10.0

64

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

444

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 444-460, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.24 Received Aug 31, 2021; Revised Nov 15, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

The Use of Critical Thinking Activities through Workshops to improve EFL Learners' Speaking Skills Eliana Pinza-Tapia, Vanessa Toro, Karina Salcedo-Viteri and Fabian Paredes Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9717-0721 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5928-4285 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0272-3475 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9219-4284

Abstract. Speaking is considered to be the most complex skill to master

by EFL (English as a foreign language) learners. Unfortunately, Ecuadorian students do not reach the desired speaking level. To address this issue, this mixed-method study aims at identifying the impact of critical thinking activities through workshops, in order to improve learners’ speaking skills. This study was conducted at public high schools in the different provinces of Ecuador. The sample consisted of 635 students from the tenth grade of elementary school and the first and second grades of senior high school. The data-collection instruments were a pre-test, and a post-test, to find out the students´ CEFR speaking level, and an observation grid to discover students’ attitude and performance concerning oral communication skills. Additionally, five different workshops, based on the use of critical thinking activities were carried out. The results led us to the conclusion that critical thinking workshops have a positive impact on students’ speaking skills. They allowed students to use accurate grammar, vocabulary, and to improve their fluency and pronunciation, in order to communicate their ideas orally.

Keywords: critical thinking Activities; EFL learners; speaking skill; workshops

1. Introduction The educational community makes great efforts to improve students’ speaking skills. These efforts are evidenced through the application of the different methods and strategies to reach successful oral communication with students.

One example of the previous statement is observed in the study carried out

by Vellayan et al. (2021), who conclude that Cooperative Learning allows for the ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

445

improvement of the speaking competency in students. Unfortunately, in Ecuador, speaking is not given the attention it deserves, and teachers continue to use traditional methods that do not provide the desired results. Villafuerte (2019) claims that in Ecuadorian public institutions, the grammar-translation method is largely used during EFL classes, despite the mandate to apply up-to-date approaches, such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), thereby making learning authentic and more meaningful.

By the same token, Met (1998), as cited in the English language curriculum of Ecuador (2016), claims that there is an increase in the quality of students' learning when they use higher order thinking skills and participate and interact more.

As stated, the development of critical thinking skills benefits students in the improvement of their speaking skills. Worrell and Profetto-McGrath (2007) explain that critical thinking provides students with tools that will allow them to communicate in a more effective way, and to decide when to use their oral skills, which should improve with practice. Also, the same author states that students who develop their critical thinking abilities are better learners; because they are able to acquire knowledge by correctly inquiring to obtain essential information. Finally, when students use critical thinking, they can analyze and conclude about what is said by others, which might later be used in their own utterances.

By the same token, critical thinking benefits from practice. by using a variety of different real-life scenarios, which entail deep thinking when making complex decisions. There are several ways that the real-world application of critical thinking is encouraged in the classroom. These ways are: homework assignments, class exercises, class debates, or tests (Bensley & Murtagh, 2012).

Several studies have shown evidence of the relationship between critical thinking and speaking skills. In relation to this, Iman (2017) carried out a study on the use of debates to improve the students´ critical thinking and speaking skills. The author ascertained that the use of this technique makes a significant improvement in critical thinking and speaking skills and concluded that there is a significant contribution of the debate to the various aspects of critical thinking.

Arfae (2019) carried out a study, which focused on investigating the impact of teaching critical thinking on EFL learners’ speaking skills by applying debate, media analysis, and problem-solving. In this study, the author concluded that there is an important relationship between the development of critical thinking and EFL learners’ speaking skills.

Finally, Akatsuka (2019) aimed to investigate Japanese students´ perceptions that related to critical thinking (CT) attitudes and their intention to improve their speaking skills, and to discover effective CT approaches.

The author used various higher cognitive level questions for students to answer, as well as some academic presentations and discussion questions after each

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

446

presentation. The author concluded that regardless of the students' English proficiency levels, there was a significant improvement in their speaking skills.

The present study focuses on the use of critical thinking workshops, and the impact they have on the improvement of students’ speaking skills. Workshops represent an advantage in education; since they assist training students and teachers with the best academic alternatives, which involve different activities and tasks organized, in order to encourage students to think in a more critical way.

This training is necessary for students to have clear ideas before communicating these orally. The findings should provide the educational community, especially teachers, with a better understanding of the most appropriate strategies to be applied in classes, in order to improve English oral communication, which should provide an alternative way to deal with the stated problem.

On this basis, this study aims to identify the impact that critical thinking activities through workshops have on learners’ speaking skills. To meet this aim, the following research questions have been formulated: • RQ1 – What is the speaking proficiency level in students from public high schools, before using critical thinking activities through workshops?

• RQ2 - What is the impact of using critical thinking activities on the speaking proficiency level in students from public high schools?

2. The Literature Review 2.1 Critical Thinking Development According to Cottrell (2005), critical thinking is a cognitive activity that concentrates on the issue of argumentation; and it involves using the mind. Facione (2000) believed that critical thinking is a self-adjusting process that involves using cognitive skills for making judgments. Critical thinking is important in the various fields that involve communicating ideas, making decisions, analyzing, and solving problems (Lau, 2011).

Moseley et al. (2005) remarked that critical thinking is a crucial component of quality education across all age groups and disciplines. The authors also confirmed that empirical evidence demonstrates that thinking can be improved with courses that are explicitly designed to teach thinking skills, and with thinking-skill instructions. Moreover, Muhammadiyeva et al. (2020) state that critical thinking helps foreign language learners to develop speaking skills by bringing different perspectives into learning environments and classroom settings. They also mention that teachers need to select activities and tasks that promote critical thinking skills.

Regarding the teaching field, different studies have been developed to determine the impact that critical thinking has on the improvement of speaking skills. In this vein, Malmir and Shoorcheh (2012) studied the effect of critical thinking on Iranian EFL learners’ speaking ability. The results showed that students who used critical thinking strategies had better results on the oral interview post-test, as opposed to the results of the pre-test. The results demonstrated that students

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

447

who received instruction in using critical thinking strategies had better results in the oral interview post-test, as opposed to those of the pre-test. Therefore, the authors concluded that critical thinking training has a great impact on the improvement of speaking skills.

Additionally, Changwon et al. (2018) conducted a study to develop a new instructional model to enhance high school students' critical thinking. Moreover, they proposed to measure and compare the experimental group’s critical thinking skills and academic achievement to those of the control group. They also aimed to measure and analyze the experimental group students’ satisfaction regarding the use of the instructional model, as a learning-management tool.

The findings revealed that the instructional model is an effective tool to be used in the educational setting. Furthermore, the experimental group achieved higher scores than the control group in respect of critical thinking and academic achievement. Finally, students from the experimental group demonstrated a high level of satisfaction with the applied learning activities.

Gandimathi and Zarei (2018) investigated the use of critical thinking in English language learning. For this purpose, a qualitative method was used as an instrument to collect the data. A semi-structured interview was applied to 30 postgraduate students in Selangor. They analyzed the information, by using content analysis. As a conclusion, it was determined that critical thinking allows students to learn in a better way, and that students were able to learn better by using critical thinking; since it helped them to solve problems in learning when they used their reflective and independent thinking, which enabled the improvement of their English-language skills.

Paul (1985) stated that one of the primary objectives of schooling and education is the ability to think critically. Likewise, Malmir and Schoorcheh (2012) mentioned that those learners who are more effective in their speaking performances are much more successful and effective in school, as well as in the other areas of their lives. Regarding these statements, a study was conducted in the area of critical thinking to determine its connection with speaking skills. Ramezani et al. (2015) selected 100 English university students, in Rasht, Iran, in order to apply the IELTS Speaking test and the Lauren Starkey Critical Thinking Test. This study revealed a significant correlation coefficient between speaking performance and critical thinking; and the main result was that those students, who were recognized as critical thinkers performed better in their speaking.

Furthermore, Vahdani and Tarighat (2014) carried out a study to find the impact that critical thinking skills have on speaking proficiency. For this purpose, the authors chose a mixed-method approach; and they selected two groups of female students as the experimental and the control group. The authors concluded that creating an understanding of critical thinking could improve English proficiency.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

448

Consequently, it is relevant to include critical thinking activities in schools and universities. Additionally, the authors explained that teachers must have critical thinking skills, in order to be able to teach students.

Xu (2013) conducted a study on critical thinking in College English learning, with the objective to ascertain whether the students’ behavior changes after the instruction in critical thinking in oral discussions, and to provide some strategies for encouraging critical-thinking ability. The participants of this study were students and teachers from three different majors. Questionnaires and interviews, self-evaluation, and the instructor’s field notes were used as the data-collection tools. The author concluded that classroom instruction could facilitate the advancement of students’ critical thinking skills, increase their initiatives, and improve their comprehensive ability. In relation to these strategies, the author established that self-directed learning improves students’ critical thinking ability.

Finally, Kaviani and Mashhadi (2020) investigated the effectiveness of critical thinking to improve EFL learners´ productive skills in an English Language Institute in the city of Babol. The IELTS intermediate speaking and writing test was applied to 80 pre-intermediate students, as the pre-test. The whole group of students was divided into four categories: two control and two experimental groups, each one with 20 students. In the two experimental groups, some critical thinking activities were used to learn speaking and writing skills. After the intervention, the same IELTS test was applied, as that in the post-test. The findings revealed that critical thinking significantly contributes to the acquisition of productive skills.

2.2 Developing speaking skills Brown and Lee (2015) proposed intrinsically motivating techniques that focus on students’ ultimate goals, interests, and needs. Such techniques allow students to develop competencies and to achieve autonomy as well. In this regard, some authors have researched different techniques, which could help English-speaking learners to develop their speaking skills. Muhammadiyeva, et al. (2020) highlighted that involving students in speaking activities that require the use of critical thinking skills helps students to express their thoughts orally, and also to become fluent in another language. For this purpose, these authors concluded that teachers need to select various activities that provide a positive environment for discussion.

Dewi et al. (2016) proposed communication games, in order to promote students’ interaction in the classroom and to provide opportunities for them to actively participate in speaking and writing. Additionally, Harmer (2015) argued that communication games to help students to speak as quickly and fluently as possible. By the same token, Sevy-Biloon (2017) explained that using games in English-speaking classes promotes a relaxing environment that enhances communication among peers.

In line with the above information, Hernandez et. al. (2021) conducted a study to boost EFL learners’ speaking skills through communication games. The findings of this study revealed that communication games are an effective way to increase

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

449

students' self-confidence, participation, and interaction. They perform spontaneously, thereby improving their accuracy and fluency of speech, and their use of vocabulary, as well. Additionally, the use of communication games helps to overcome the students' fear of making mistakes.

It is well-known that the use of videos for educational purposes brings benefits, such as the improvement of the ability to process and retain information. In this respect, June et al. (2014) argued that the use of YouTube videos encourages students to be more expressive; and it offers the benefit of a longer attention span. The authors also suggest that YouTube videos promote students’ participation and commitment; similarly, the use of these videos helps to develop their critical thinking skills. Additionally, the use of YouTube videos engages students in the teaching and learning process (Kabooha & Elyas, 2015).

Similarly, Gunada (2017) claimed that YouTube videos can improve students’ speaking skills; since they contain authentic English. The students are thereby provided with better exposure to speaking issues, such as pronunciation, structure, vocabulary, and intonation, all of which can contribute to the improvement of students’ speaking, comprehension, and fluency.

Pardede (2011) suggested that applying short stories in the EFL classroom allows one to involve various other activities in the reading, listening, writing, and speaking classes. Learning activities, such as oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, roleplaying, re-enactment, and discussion, based on stories may enhance students’ speaking and listening skills. Bretz (1990, as cited in Pardede, 2011) claimed that the use of short stories in the ESL/EFL classroom helps to develop students’ communicative competence and critical-thinking skills.

Additionally, Arias (2017) suggested that short stories allow students to understand the function of the language; thereby they can improve their use of grammar, cohesion, and coherence.

Consequently, students can be involved in group-work activities, in order to share their ideas, and to practice writing, and oral skills. The author also claims that since students acquire vocabulary and expressions, this strengthens their communication and increases their self-confidence to communicate in the spoken language.

Hismanoglu and Colak (2019) conducted a study to identify Turkish K-12 EFL teachers’ views and knowledge about the use and effectiveness of drama-based speaking activities in the development of students’ speaking skills. The results showed that the drama techniques K-12 EFL teachers know the most are role play, dramatization, role-changing, storytelling, phone conversations, flashback, and role cards. The drama techniques that K-12 EFL teachers use the most are role playing, dramatization, phone conversations, storytelling, role cards, and role changing. The findings also suggest that K-12 EFL teachers, who have received drama education, have higher levels of perspectives than those who have not received any drama education.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

450

Being conscious of research on Turkish K-12 EFL teachers’ views about the use of drama to improve students’ speaking skills is crucial, when seeking to set up a stress-free, non-threatening and entertaining procedure in the classroom environment. Additionally, the use of drama-based speaking activities involves students in active learning through an environment that supports the development of speaking skills (Hismanoglu & Colak, 2019). Likewise, Kaiafa et. al., (2020) argued that educational drama is a creative approach to education that promotes autonomous learning and provides students with opportunities to express themselves freely, to develop their critical thinking skills, and to foster teamwork.

The results of researchers also show that applying storytelling allows students to better recall new vocabulary, have more opportunities to practice speaking, to develop their competence in speaking the target language, and to boost their learning (Hwang et al., 2016). These issues are supported by Zuhriyah (2017), who conducted a collaborative action research to determine whether storytelling could improve students' speaking skill in an intensive English program. The study’s findings showed that the use of storytelling improves students’ speaking skills because of the good progress students achieve in the speaking test. The author claimed that storytelling is useful to improve students' comprehension, fluency, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, as well.

Focusing on role-play activities, Altun (2015) conducted a study to determine the impact these activities have on students' oral communication skills. The results revealed that through role-play activities, students develop their self-confidence and increase their motivation favoring the improvement of oral communicative competence.

Karsono (2014) carried out a study based on the use of pictures to improve the speaking ability of eighth grade students. The findings demonstrated that using pictures helps students to improve their speaking skills and their participation; since thereby they improve their fluency, pronunciation, and grammar. Another study was conducted by Lavalle and Briesmaster (2017) with the purpose of using strategies, such as picture descriptions to motivate students to improve their communication skills.

Eighth-grade students from a private school were considered as the participants of this study; and they demonstrated an improvement in their communication skills in terms of their pronunciation, motivation, and competence. The use of debates represents another instructional strategy that contributes significantly to the improvement of students’ critical thinking and speaking skills. Snider and Schnurer (2002) consider that in-class debates promote active participation; because they give students the responsibility of comprehension. Anchalee (2015) developed a study with the purpose of investigating the effectiveness of using the debating technique to develop the English-speaking skill of 10th -grade high school students and determining the students’ perceptions on the use of debates in the classroom. The instruments used to collect the data were pre- and post-tests and a questionnaire. Considering the results obtained from the pre-test and the post-

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

451

test, the students showed a significant improvement in their speaking competence. Regarding the students’ perceptions, the results demonstrated that they are satisfied with the use of debates because these debates help them to think critically.

Another study, which focused on debates, was carried out by Zare and Othman (2015), who aimed at identifying the students’ perceptions on the use of classroom debates to improve their critical thinking and oral communication ability. For this purpose, sixteen undergraduate students were randomly selected to take part in debates for nine sessions during one semester. The students’ perceptions were gathered through surveys and semi-structured interviews. The results showed that students were very satisfied with the debate experience; because it helped them improve their critical thinking skills, confidence level, and speaking ability.

The authors highlight that careful attention must be paid to the debate topics; since all the students mentioned that they influence their participation and their motivation.

3. The Method 3.1. The participants The study was conducted at public high schools in 28 cities in different provinces of Ecuador. The provinces are part of the three Ecuadorian regions: Amazon, Coast, and Highlands.

For selecting the participants, the convenient sampling method was applied. The sample consisted of 635 students, 340 females and 295 males, from the 10th grade of elementary school and 1st and 2nd grades of senior high schools. These learners, whose ages ranged from 14 to 16 years, belonged to different socio-economic categories. Additionally, 60 pre-service teachers and eight university teachers participated in this study. The following Table presents the demographic information regarding the selected sample.

Table 1. Demographic information of the participants Ecuadorian Region

Number of students

Amazon Region

20

1st grade BGU

10

2nd grade BGU

10

Coast Region

111

10mo grade EGB

49

2nd grade BGU

62

Highlands Region

504

10mo grade EGB

205

1st grade BGU

158

2nd grade BGU

141

General

635

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

452

3.2. The procedures To carry out this study, a mixed-method research design that combines qualitative and quantitative methods was applied. The instruments (see Appendices) used to collect the data from the field research were a pre-test, a post-test, and an observation grid. The pre-test and the post-test included 24 open-ended questions used to determine the students’ level of speaking ability, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) – both before and after attending the established workshops. The observation sheet included open-ended and close-ended questions. The aim of the observation sheet was to collect information on the activities carried out during the workshops, as well as the students’ performance and attitude regarding the use of different strategies to develop the students’ oral communication skills.

To provide valid and reliable instruments, the pre-test and the post-test included validated questions taken from the Face2Face oral placement test from Cambridge University Press (Question banks 1 and 2). The observation grid was delivered to the English teacher’s colleagues for the corresponding validation process.

This study was conducted in six months; and it involved different stages. The first one was to train pre-service teachers regarding the use of different critical thinking activities and resources, in order to help learners to improve their oral skills. This training was carried out by the eight university lecturers within a period of four weeks.

The second stage involved pre-service teachers administering the pre-test, in order to know the students’ oral proficiency level, which allowed pre-service teachers and researchers to become aware of the students’ weaknesses and strengths regarding their English oral communication skills. With this purpose, each pre-service teacher held a face-to-face meeting to apply the test to each student; and this took approximately 40 minutes per student. The students’ answers to each question were recorded and transcribed. Then, they were registered on a mark sheet, in order to record the corresponding scores. The scores obtained in this test were used to place students, according to their oral proficiency level, which was based on the following table: Table 2. Oral English Proficiency Levels A1 Beginner

Oral English Proficiency Levels A2 B1 Elementary Pre-intermediate

B1+ Intermediate

From questions 1 to From questions 7 to From questions 13 to From questions 19 to 6 12 18 24

Once the results of the pre-test were obtained, the next stage took place. It required pre-service teachers to design five different workshop plans, as well as the corresponding materials to be used in the five workshops. These workshop plans were carefully reviewed by the university teachers, in order to ensure a highquality work.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

453

The workshops were carried out to help the students to improve their oral communication skills through the development of critical thinking activities. Preservice teachers were responsible for conducting these workshops. Each workshop was carried out once a week; and it focused on a specific topic and strategy. Short stories were used first as the main strategy, then educational videos, followed by games and pictures. Finally, the use of role plays was required to encourage the students to develop their critical thinking ability. During the execution of the last workshop that focused on the use of role plays, the oral production of students was recorded as a final product, which was evidence of the improvement of the students’ oral performance.

At the end of the workshops, the last stage took place. It implied the application of the post-test to ascertain whether there had been any improvement in the results obtained through the pre-test. University teachers, who participated as researchers of the study, observed the execution of the workshops, in order to ensure the quality of the contents, the activities and the materials being used.

Also, they took notes on the students’ reactions and performance regarding the applied activities.

For the data tabulation, the number of students who maintained the same speaking proficiency level and those who had increased their level of performance was clearly established. This information was classified, according to the high school grades to which the students belonged. To carry out this tabulation process, the SPSS statistics software was used.

The analysis procedure contrasted the data from the grades, regarding the students who maintained their initial speaking proficiency level with those ones who had improved them. This information was supported by the data obtained from the observation grid. For showing the level of significance of the obtained results, the ANOVA analysis was applied.

4. Results and the discussion thereof Table 3. EFL learners’ speaking proficiency during the pre-test Speaking Proficiency Level / School grades Number of students Percentage A1

451

71.1

10th grade EGB

184

29.0

1st grade BGU

115

18.1

2nd grade BGU

152

24.0

A2

98

15.4

10th grade EGB

38

5.9

1st grade BGU

17

2.6

2nd grade BGU

44

6.9

B1

73

11.5

10th grade EGB

27

4.3

1st grade BGU

28

4.4

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

454

2nd grade BGU

18

2.8

B1+

13

2.0

10th grade EGB

5

0.8

1st grade BGU

8

1.2

Total

635

100

As can be observed in Table 3, the results obtained through the pre-test showed that 70.9% of the students were placed in the A1 speaking proficiency level; while 15.6% were placed in the A2 proficiency level. In relation to the B1 and B1+ levels, only 11.5% and 2% of the students respectively were at these levels.

Table 4. Improvement of EFL learners’ speaking proficiency School grades

Speaking proficiency levels A1

A2

B1

B1+

Total

Maintain proficiency level

60.2

9.6

10.1

2.0

81.9

10th grade of elementary school

24.7

3.9

3.8

0.8

33.2

1st grade of senior high school 2nd grade of senior high school

16.2

1.6

3.9

1.2

23.0

19.2

4.1

2.4

0.0

25.7

Increase in proficiency level

0.0

10.9

5.8

1.4

18.1

10th grade of elementary school

0.0

4.3

2.0

0.4

6.8

1st grade of senior high school

0.0

1.9

1.1

0.5

3.5

2nd grade of senior high school

0.0

4.4

2.7

0.5

7.9

Total

60.2

20.5

15.9

3.4

100.0

Table 4 presents the results obtained through the post-test application, which shows an improvement in the EFL learners’ speaking proficiency. As it is observed, after carrying out the five workshops, 81.9% of the students who participated in this study maintained the same proficiency level that they had obtained in the pre-test; while 18.1% increased their speaking proficiency level.

The results show that workshops, which help to develop critical thinking affect positively the improvement of EFL learners’ speaking skills.

These results are similar to those obtained by Malmir and Shoorcheh (2012), who also found that students who had received instruction by using critical thinking strategies had better results on the oral interview post-test as opposed to the pretest.

Focusing specifically on students, who maintain the same speaking proficiency level, the results show that 60.2% are placed in the A1 level. Considering the high school grade, we have that 24.7% of the students belong to the 10th grade of elementary school, followed by the 2nd grade of senior high school (19.2%) and the 1st grade of senior high school (16.2%). In addition, 10.1% of students maintained the B1 level; and they correspond to the following high school grades: 1st grade of senior high school (3.9%), 10th grade of elementary school (3.8%) and the 2nd grade of senior high school (2.4).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

455

Similarly, 9.6% of the students maintained the A2 level. These students belong to the 2nd grade of senior high school (4.1%), 10th grade of elementary school (3.9%) and 1st grade of senior high school (1.6%). Regarding level B1+, only 2% of the students maintain this level, 1.2% correspond to 1st grade of senior high school and 0.8% correspond to 10th grade of elementary school.

According to the results, it is evident that even though students did not reach a higher speaking proficiency level after participating in the workshops, they strengthened their knowledge at the level they placed in the pre-test. For example, in the pre-test, some students did not answer correctly all the questions related to levels A1, A2, B1, and B1+; but in the post-test, in some cases, most of them used more vocabulary expressions in their responses and they also expressed their ideas on properly using the correct grammar rules In this study, one major explanation for these findings is that during the workshops, the students participated in more interactive activities, such as communication games and role-plays. These activities are part of intrinsically motivating techniques, which according to Brown and Lee (2015), help to appeal to students’ ultimate goals, interests, need for knowledge, and for achieving competence and autonomy. The data also suggest that the use of critical thinking activities had a positive impact on students’ attitudes, similar to that of Changwon et al. (2018), who concluded in their study that students showed gratification with the use of activities that facilitated learning. During the observations, it was found that students showed good predisposition and strong interests in participating. In addition, they were highly engaged in the speaking activities.

In relation to the results obtained from the students, who increased their proficiency level, it could be observed that 10.9% of them, who were in A1, reached the A2 level. Most of these students belonged to the 2nd grade of senior high school with 4.4% followed by the 10th grade of elementary school, with 4.3% and 1st- grade BGU with 1.9%. 5.8% of the participants who were in A2 reached the B1 level. These students correspond to the 2nd grade of senior high school, and the 10th grade of elementary school and the 1st grade of senior high school (2.7%, 2%, 11% correspondingly).

Finally, 1.4% of the students who were placed in B1 reached the B1+ level. These students belonged to the 1st grade of senior high school and the 2nd grade of senior high school (0.5% each) and the 10th grade of elementary school with 0.4%.

The results demonstrate that only 18.1% of the students increased their oral proficiency level. Although this percentage is low; and it does not represent all the students, it is a good result, because of the number of workshops who applied.

It reveals that getting students involved in similar critical-thinking workshops focused on role-playing, short stories, and communication games will frequently render them to successfully improve their speaking skills. In this regard, the results provided by Changwon et al. (2018) demonstrate that each student benefits from the critical-thinking activities applied during instruction. Students can solve problems effectively; and this develops their self-confidence (lves).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

456

Therefore, we may conclude that critical thinking training impacts the improvement of speaking skills. It has been found that students improve their speaking skills when they carry out activities that require them to think critically (Kaviani and Mashhadi, 2020).

Based on the results obtained from the three school grades, the 2nd grade of senior high school presented the highest percentage of students (7.9%), who had improved their level of speaking skills. Most of them, who had been placed in A1 in the pre-test, changed to A2 (4.4%).

Moreover, the workshops conducted for the students of the 1st grade of senior high school and the 2nd grade of senior high school had a positive impact on the improvement of students’ speaking skills. Based on these observations carried out by the university lecturers, this improvement is the result of giving equal opportunities to all the students to participate during the workshops. In addition, pre-service teachers applied appropriate classroom materials, based on the students’ age and level.

They provided clear instructions and supported their learning through teaching activities, such as educational games, pictures, communication games, role-plays, and short stories. The workshops increased critical thinking and improved students’ speaking skills; since they had sufficient opportunities to interact with their classmates, to analyze information, to convey ideas, to solve problems, and to make conclusions. It is important to emphasise that the improvement showed by students during the last workshop focused on a role-playing activity that was recorded as evidence of progress.

Table 5. ANOVA Statistics analysis of the post-test results Sum of squares

gl

Root mean square

F

Sig.

1,851

3

0,617

0,842

0,471

Inside groups

462,502

631

0,733

Total

464,353

634

School grades Among groups

Table 5 shows that the statistical significance of the obtained results is 0,471, which is higher than the standard significance level (0.05). This statistically demonstrates that the implementation of critical thinking activities helps to improve students’ speaking skills.

Table 6. ANOVA Statistics analysis of the post-test results considering gender Students´gender Among groups

Sum of squares 0,256

3

Root mean square 0,085 0,250

gl

Inside groups

157,697

631

Total

157,953

634

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

F 0,341

Sig. 0,796

457

Table 6 shows that the results vary, depending on gender. The statistical significance is 0,796, in which the females got better results than the males.

5. Conclusion The findings demonstrate that critical-thinking workshops have a positive impact on the improvement of students’ speaking skills; since they allow them to put into practice the English language by promoting interaction and creativity. Allowing students to create dialogues or stories in activities, such as role-plays, storytelling, or communication games more frequently provides valuable opportunities to make them think critically, to analyze information, to solve problems, to convey ideas, and to draw conclusions. The improvement of the students’ speaking proficiency level obtained after the intervention is clear evidence of the advantages of using these activities.

Additionally, the previously mentioned activities provide opportunities to improve grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency, which are important linguistic aspects that need to be reinforced, in order to make students feel confident when using the language orally. This confidence increases students’ oral participation in class, which is very necessary, in order to help them to improve their speaking proficiency level; because the more they use the language in class, the more readily will they learn it. It is important to mention that a positive impact was also noticed regarding students’ attitudes. Hence, the importance of learning more about strategies for critical thinking development to be applied in the English teaching-learning process; providing thereby, the proper material to students, which would also contribute to the improvement of their speaking skills.

6. Suggestions for further research Despite the positive findings of this study, it is suggested to increase the number of workshops and cover additional instructional strategies, in order to give students more opportunities to obtain better academic results. Also, as this study mainly focused on adolescents, further research on children should be appropriate to help them to become involved at an early stage in critical-thinking activities that enhance their oral communication in English.

Acknowledgement The authors of this research show special gratitude to Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja for their support in the research field and the EFL Learning, Teaching, and Technology Research Group.

7. References Altun, M. (2015). Using role-play activities to develop speaking skills: A case study in the language classroom. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 1(4), 27-33.

Akatsuka, Y. (2019). Awareness of critical thinking attitudes and English language skills: The effects of questions involving higher-order thinking. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 23(2), 59-84. https://doi.org/10.25256/PAAL.23.2.4

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

458

Anchalee, S. (2015). The use of debate technique to develop the speaking ability of grade ten students at Bodindecha (Sing Singhaseni) school. International Journal of Technical Research and Applications, (13), 27-31.

Arfae, A. (2019). The impact of teaching critical thinking on EFL learner´ speaking skill: A case study of an Iranian context. English Language Teaching , 13(1), https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n1p112 Arias, G. (2017). Students’ language skills development through short stories. Íkala, Revista de Lenguaje y Cultura, 22(1), 103-118. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.ikala.v22n01a07 Brown, H., D., & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Pearson Education Changwong, K., Sukkamart, A., & Sisan, B. (2018). Critical thinking skill development: Analysis of a new learning management model for Thai high schools. Journal of International Studies, 11(2), 37-48. http://doi.org/10.14254/2071-8330.2018/112/3 Cottrell, S. (2005). Critical Thinking Skills. Palgrave Macmillan Dewi, R., Kultsum, U., & Armadi, A. (2016). Using communicative games in improving students’ speaking skills. English Language Teaching, 10(1), 63-71 http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n1p63 Facione, P. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking skills, 20(1), https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v20i1.2254 Gandimathi, A., & Zarei, N. (2018). The impact of critical thinking on learning English language. Asian Journal of Social Science Research, 1(2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344487381_the_impact_of_criti cal_thinking_on_learning_the English_language Gunada, W. (2017). Using YouTube videos: An IT-based media to improve students’ speaking skills. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326082917 Harmer, J. (2015) The practice of English language teaching. Pearson Longman Hernandez-Cherrez, E., Hidalgo-Camacho, C., & Escobar, P. (2021). Communication games: Their contribution to developing speaking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 14(4), 643-658. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14437a Hismanoglu, M., & Colak, R. (2019). A Study on Turkish EFL Teachers’ Perspectives on Using Drama to Develop Students’ Speaking Skills in the EFL Classroom. Research on Youth and Language, 13(2), 187-205 Hwang, W. Y., Shadiev, R., Hsu, J. L., Huang, Y. M., Hsu, G. L., & Lin, Y. C. (2016). Effects of storytelling to facilitate EFL speaking using Web-based multimedia system. Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 29(2), 215- 241. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.927367 Iman, J. (2017). Debate instruction in EFL classroom: Impacts on the critical thinking and speaking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4), 87-108. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.1046a June, S., Yaacob, A., & Kheng, Y. (2014) Assessing the use of YouTube videos and interactive activities as a critical thinking stimulator for tertiary students: An action research. International Education Studies, 7(8). http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n8p56 Kaiafa, E., Dima, A., & Tsiaras A. (2020). The use of drama-education techniques in cultivating the critical thinking skills of students in primary schools. Journal of International Scientific Publications, 18, 139-148.

Kabooha, R., & Elyas, T. (2015). The impacts of using YouTube videos on learning vocabulary in Saudi EFL classrooms. Paper presented at the ICERI2015 Conference.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

459

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Raniah_Kabooha/ publication/2831535 82_the_impacts_of_using_youtube_videos_on_learning_vocabulary_in_Saudi_E FL_classroom/links/5843c13408ae2d2175638692/the-impacts-of-using-youtubevideos-on-learning-vocabulary-in-Saudi-EFL-classroom.pdf Karsono, P. (2014). Using pictures in improving the speaking ability of the grade eight-A students of SMP Negeri 1 Anggana. Dinamika Ilmu, 14(2), 1-24.

Kaviani, M., & Mashhadi Heidar, D. (2020). The Effectiveness of critical thinking on enhancing productive skills among Iranian EFL pre-intermediate learners. Applied Research on English Language, 9(3), 303-324.

Lau, J. (2011). An introduction to critical thinking and creativity: Think more, think better. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Lavalle, P. & Briesmaster, M. (2017). The study of the use of picture descriptions in enhancing communication skills among the 8th-grade students—learners of English as a foreign language. i.e.: Inquiry in education, 9(1), 1-18. http://digitalcommons.nl.edu/ie/vol9/iss1/4 Malmir, A., & Shoorcheh, S. (2012). An investigation of the impact of teaching critical thinking on the Iranian EFL learners’ speaking skills. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), http:// doi.org/10.4304/jltr.3.4.608-617 Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador. (2016). Curriculum nacional lingua extranjera: English as a Foreign Language. https://educacion.gob.ec/curriculo-lengua-extranjera/ Moseley, D., Baumfield, V., Elliott, J., Gregson, M., Higgins, S., Miller, J., & Newton, D. P. (2005). Frameworks for thinking: A handbook for teaching and learning. Cambridge University Press.

Muhammadiyeva, H., Mahkamova, D., Valiyeva, Sh., & Tojiboyev. I. (2020). The role of critical thinking in developing speaking skills. International Journal on Integrated Education, 3(1), 62 – 64. https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i1.41 Paul, R. (1985). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Pardede, P. (2011). Using short stories to teach language skills. Journal of English Teaching, 1(1), 14-27.

Ramezani, R., Ezzati Larsari, E., & Aghajanzadeh Kiasi, M. (2015). The relationship between critical thinking and EFL learners´ speaking ability. English Language Teaching, 9(6), http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n6p189 Sevy-Biloon, J. (2017). Different reasons to play games in an English language class. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(1), 84-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v5il.1967 Snider, A., & Schnurer, M. (2002). Many sides: Debate across the curriculum. New York: International Debate Education Association.

Vahdani, R., & Tarighat, S. (2014). Critical thinking and speaking proficiency: A mixedmethod Study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(1), 79-87. http://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.1.79-87 Vellayan, G., Swaran, C. K., Tek, O. E., Yunus, M., Masa, T. S., & Mulyadi, D. (2021). A review of studies on cooperative learning strategy to improve ESL students’ speaking skills. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12(3), 6368, https://doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i3.466 Villafuerte, J. (2019). Tecnología de la información y comunicación y el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa en inglés de los futuros docentes de lengua extranjera de Ecuador: Propuesta de intervención educativa [Information and communication technology and the development of communicative competence in the English of future foreign language teachers in Ecuador: A proposal for educational intervention] [Thesis

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

460

doctoral. Programa de Psicodidáctica y didácticas específicas, Universidad del País Vasco].

Worrell, J. A., & Profetto-McGrath, J. (2007). Critical thinking as an outcome of contextbased learning among post RN students: A literature review. Nurse Education Today, 27, 420–426.

Xu, Q. (2013). Fostering critical thinking competence in EFL classroom. Studies in Literature and Language, 7(1), 6-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/j.sll.1923156320130701.2717 Zare, P., & Othman, M. (2015). Students’ perceptions toward using classroom debate to develop critical thinking and oral communication ability. Asian Social Science, 11(9), https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n9p158 Zuhriyah, M. (2017). Storytelling to improve students’ speaking skill. English Education: Jurnal Tradis Bahasa Inggris, 10(1), 119-134.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Appendices STUDENTS’ ORAL PRE-TEST Name of the institution: Age of the student: Gender:

Female Male 10th grade EGB 1st grade BGU 2nd grade BGU

Grade:

City:

Questions

Level and lesson Beginner (B)

Elementary (E)

1

What’s your name? How do you spell your surname?

B

E

2

Where are you from?

B

E

3

Did you learn English at school? For how many years?

B

E

4

What do you do in your free time?

B

E

5

What do you do every day? What time do you get up/go to high school?

B

E

6

What did you do on your last vacation?

7

Tell me something you could do well at school. And something you can do well now.

8

Tell me about the weather in the your country.

9

What are you going to do at the weekend?

10

Have you been to an English-speaking country (before)?

E B

E

E B

E E

Pre-intermediate (PI) 11

Let’s talk about your friends. How often do you normally see them?

PI

12

Tell me about your best friend. What is he or she like?

PI

Intermediate (I)

13

Let’s talk about your house or home.

How would you describe it?

14

How do you think your country/town will change in the next 20 years?

I

15

What advice would you give to someone visiting your country/town?

I

16

Tell me about the main news stories in your country at the moment.

I

PI

Taken from Cambridge University Press (2013). face2face: Oral Placement Test Questions.

OBSERVATION SHEET WORKSHOP # ___ A. INFORMATIVE DATA Name of the institution: Grade:

10th grade EGB 1st grade BGU 2nd grade BGU

City:

B. PLANNING STATEMENTS

YES

NO

COMMENTS

The objectives are clear, and they are related to the improvement of the speaking skill through the use of critical thinking activities.

The contents of the workshop are clearly stated.

The contents are related to the students’ level and age.

The resources to be applied are described in detail.

The critical thinking activities are presented in detail.

The assessment procedure is stated.

C. DIDACTIC PROCEDURE

STATEMENTS The topic of the workshop is clearly explained.

YES

NO

COMMENTS

The critical thinking activities are presented in a logical sequence.

The activities presented in the workshop promote students critical thinking to improve their speaking skills.

The pre-service teacher is proficient in the subject matter.

Strategies such as short stories, educational videos, games, pictures, and role-plays are used.

The material is designed to support the workshop development.

Appropriate assessment techniques applied to monitor students’ progress.

Feedback is provided to reinforce

are

knowledge.

D. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

STATEMENTS Students have a positive attitude towards the use of critical thinking activities.

Students actively participate in each one of the established activities.

Students are highly motivated to participate in the workshop.

Communication among students is promoted.

YES

NO

COMMENTS

461

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 461-475, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.25 Received Aug 31, 2021; Revised Nov 19, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Recommendations to Improve the Usability of Mobile Learning for Preschool Teachers in Africa: A Systematic Scoping Review Monique de Wit* and Nicola Ann Plastow Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8299-5707 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3536-9129 Abstract. Poor quality preschool teacher training is a significant contributor to children not achieving school readiness. With technological development, electronic and mobile learning offer accessible and affordable options for this training, however, there is a lack of design evidence for the African context. This interdisciplinary education- and computer-science study aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for improving the usability of mLearning modules for preschool teachers in Africa. A scoping review guided by Arksey and O’Malley’s framework, the PRISMA reporting guidelines for scoping reviews, and Levac et al. guidelines, was conducted. Databases searched included Africa Wide Information, ERIC, CIHNAL, and Academic Search Premier. Two researchers completed a blind-review process for article inclusion and framework analysis, using 10 usability attributes with inductive grouping of data under each attribute to form sub-categories.

Overlapping themes were coded to formulate usability recommendations within WeftQDA. The search yielded 909 articles and, after title and abstract screening, 123 were selected for full text review. Seventeen articles (n=17) met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final review. All studies included an African partner, and largely included part-time learning for degree purposes and professional development using mLearning, eLearning, and videos. Nineteen recommendations were developed to improve the usability of mLearning training applications for preschool teachers in Africa, with contextual relevance emerging as a new usability attribute. Development of mLearning training modules for preschool teachers in Africa should include user centred design, heuristic evaluation and usability assessment, to ensure the sustainability of both mLearning and change in classroom teaching practices.

Keywords: usability; mobile learning; design; teacher training; Africa

___________________________ *

Corresponding author: Monique de Wit, moniquedw@sun.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

462

1. Introduction School readiness is a pivotal point in predicting later success in life (Heckman & Karapakula, 2019; Mashburn et al., 2008; Ramey & Ramey, 2004). While many factors contribute to school readiness, poor or absent teacher training is a key reason why children do not have the necessary foundation knowledge and skills for entering primary school, even though they attend some form of early childhood development or preschool program (Atmore et al., 2012; Manning et al., 2017; Ramey & Ramey, 2004). Only 20% of Kindergarten/grade R teachers in South Africa are well qualified, whereas roughly a third have not successfully completed grade 12, the final year of high school (Department of Basic Education, 2018; Hannaway et al., 2018). In Zimbabwe, only 28.3 % of early childhood teachers are qualified teachers (Chikwiri & Musiyiwa, 2017). There is a need within the African context to provide guidelines and training to teachers, who themselves may have low levels of education, that is affordable, accessible and user-friendly. This may improve the quality of the programs offered to young children preparing to start their schooling.

Although there was a need for improved teacher training before the COVID-19 pandemic, one consequence of the pandemic is the shift to online learning for professional development. According to Smit et al. (2021), the most commonly reported needs of preschool teachers in low-resource settings were related to training and access to knowledge. Mobile learning, or mLearning, is a potential tool for addressing the challenge of making quality teacher training more widely accessible. Learning online, or eLearning, refers to a learning method that uses information and communication technologies to support learning ubiquitously and promotes the acquisition and use of knowledge. mLearning includes learning on mobile devices, wirelessly and on the move (Park, 2011). When considering the development of accessible teaching modules, mobile penetration of the region must be considered. According to the GMSA (2020) Mobile Economy Sub-Saharan Africa 2020 Report, there were 477 million unique mobile subscribers in SubSaharan Africa at the end of 2020, equivalent to a penetration rate of 45% of the total population. This means that most adults in Africa have access to a mobile device within their household.

An increasing number of institutions are developing eLearning options. However, these need to be properly designed and tested. When assessing eLearning or mLearning resources, it is important to evaluate the effectiveness of these resources in reaching learning outcomes, through heuristic evaluation and usability testing (Davids et al., 2013). Heuristic evaluation refers to experts reviewing the application against a predetermined set of generally accepted principles, to identify usability issues (Dumas & Salzman, 2006). Similarly, a study conducted in Malaysia (Taat & Francis, 2020), identified usability as one of the factors that influence student-teachers’ acceptance of eLearning. A usability study is the assessment of the collective usability of an application through various assessment methods, by experts or by end-users, and is especially suggested for eLearning (Davids et al., 2015). Usability studies are one step in the design cycle of designing, testing, implementing results, and repeating the cycle until design and usability goals are met (Davids et al., 2011).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

463

Usability refers to the extent to which a product can be used, by the intended enduser, to achieve predetermined goals with effectiveness, within his or her context (International Organization for Standardization [ISO], 2011). Various attributes collectively refer to the usability of an application or program. Zhang and Adipat (2005) suggested a framework of attributes based on those most frequently assessed during usability studies of mobile applications. The ISO standards for systems and software quality (ISO, 2011) also includes various attributes, like accessibility, when referring to usability. The predetermined framework used in this study, when referring to usability, collectively consists of learnability, efficiency, memorability, errors, satisfaction, effectiveness, simplicity, comprehensibility, learning performance and accessibility (ISO, 2011; Zhang & Adipat, 2005).

The aim of this research was to establish design and usability recommendations specifically for mLearning modules, to train preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa, through a scoping review of the current literature. The objectives of this study, guided by Arksey & O’Malley (2005), were to: 1. Summarize and map the available peer reviewed literature on the usability of electronic and mLearning for preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa in the last 10 years, 2. Identify research gaps in the field, and, 3. Make recommendations for future usability studies for mLearning of preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa.

2. Method The methodological framework for completing the systematic scoping review used for this study was guided Arksey and O’Malley (2005), and supplemented

by Levac et al. (2015). The PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation (Tricco et al., 2018), was used to complete the reporting of the protocol and results. The protocol for this scoping review was published in the South African Journal of Occupational Therapy (De Wit & Plastow, 2021).

The research question for this systematic scoping review was ‘What is known about the usability of eLearning and mLearning interventions, that improve the knowledge, skills and attitudes among day care providers in Africa, to promote early childhood development of 3-6-year-olds?’ A search was conducted in serval databases, including ERIC, CIHNAL, Africa-Wide Information, and Academic Search Premier using the predetermined keywords, developed in consultation with a librarian. These keywords included (in order of inclusion importance): 1. "early childhood development" OR preschool OR teacher OR day care 2. train* OR teach* OR learn* 3. e-learning OR mLearning OR online OR mobile 4. Africa OR LMIC The initial search string included the term “usability”, however, no articles were found using usability in combination with the above search terms. The absence of any previously published usability studies for online learning for teachers or day care providers in Africa or in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) points to a significant gap. Focus was, therefore, shifted to identifying ways to improve the usability of mLearning applications for preschool teachers and day care providers

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

464

in Africa, based on existing studies of online training of teachers in Africa.

Literature from peer reviewed journals, published in English from January 2009 to November 2019, was included. Articles were included if they reported on an online learning component and the training of teachers in Africa. Title screening of the articles was conducted by one reviewer, then abstract and full text screening was completed by two reviewers. Technology journals were hand searched using the same parameters and keywords, and additional articles were selected for abstract screening. Only those that met the inclusion criteria were included.

Disagreements on inclusion were resolved through discussion.

Once articles were selected, data was extracted on article characteristics, study population, and methodology. Article characteristics included the date of publication and source of publication. Study population was summarised to included geographical area, teaching context, number of participants, training program, age of children they are teaching, level of previous teacher training and type of program that participants are currently engaging in. Methodology characteristics considered included method (qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods), methodology (research design), level of evidence (Merlin et al., 2009), and whether eLearning, mLearning or video were the predominant teaching method.

Data on publication metrics, participants, and methodology were charted using predetermined categories, which were modified when required during data capture. Analysis was completed dependant on the type of variable. Scale variables were analysed using mean and standard deviations, ordinal variables using the median and range and categorical variables using frequencies. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Designation of Levels of Evidence (Merlin et al., 2009), a revised common standard against which an initial quality assessment of a research study can be done, was used to identify current gaps and strengths in the body of research.

Framework analysis is a highly structured approach for analysing and organising qualitative data and is largely a deductive approach. However, it allows for the flexibility to add any themes as they emerge from the data (Barnett-Page & Thomas, 2009). During the framework analysis, each of the 17 articles were read in full to familiarise the researchers with the content. Any findings or recommendations related to usability in each article were extracted verbatim and imported into a separate MS Word document for each article. This data was then coded using a predetermined framework of 10 attributes of usability. The nine attributes of usability suggested in Zhang and Adipat’s (2005) framework, including learnability, effectiveness, efficiency, comprehensibility, satisfaction, learning performance, simplicity, errors and memorability, were included in the predetermined framework for this study. The final attribute included in this framework was accessibility, which the current ISO standards for usability (ISO, 2011) also described as an important aspect of usability. All 10 attributes of usability in the framework are considered from the user’s perspective when using an application.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

465

The extracted recommendations were then coded using these 10 attributes as a predetermined framework using Weft QDA, a qualitative data analysis package.

During the analysis, one additional attributes, namely contextual relevance, emerged and was added to the framework, and thus, collectively formed 11 attributes of usability. All 11 attributes were represented, with substantial overlap in the recommendations across categories. Similar recommendations were then inductively grouped together from different studies into subcategories to formulate recommendation statements for usability, rather than each attribute separately. These recommendations may inform the design of mLearning applications for preschool teachers and day care providers.

3. Results The keywords search generated 909 titles, which were screened for inclusion. As illustrated in Figure 1, after title screening, 236 abstracts, plus 4 additional articles from a search of the technology journals, were uploaded to Covidence, an online tool for managing scoping and systematic reviews. From the abstract review, 123 full text articles were selected. Following full text review, 17 articles, which met all the inclusion criteria for this scoping review, were included for data extraction.

The reference lists of each included article were then used to complete a title screen against the same inclusion/exclusion criteria, as generated for this review.

No new articles were added for abstract screening.

Databases: ERIC, CIHNAL, AfricaWide Information and Academic Search Premier

Records identified through hand search of technology journals and added for abstract screening (n=4)

Records identified through database search for title screen with duplicates removed (n=909)

Records excluded (n=673)

Records for abstract screen (n=236)

Records excluded (n=117)

Records identified for full text screen for eligibility (n=123)

Sources identified for data extraction (n=17)

Qualitative Methods (n=8)

Quantitative Methods (n=7)

Mixed Methods (n=2)

Full text records excluded, with reasons (n=106)

Reasons for exclusion: • Not the training of ECD or foundation phase teachers (n=73) • No eLearning element (n=22) • Using technology to teach children (n=1) • Training for skills other than skill and knowledge of ECD curriculum (n=1) • Not research (n=9)

Figure 1: PRISMA diagram for the scoping review process

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

466

Seventeen articles, which met all inclusion criteria, were identified for this review and are summarised in Table 1. Articles were published between January 2009 to November 2019 with over 70 % (n=12) published 2016 or later. About half of the studies were conducted in South Africa (n=9), four studies were conducted in other African countries only (Uganda, n=1, Nigeria, n=1 and Kenya, n=2). One study included a review and data gathered from Ghana and other non-African LMICs. All studies included at least one African partner.

Almost 18% (n=3) of the studies were conducted explicitly in resourced constrained settings, while the remainder (n=14) were unreported. The number of participants ranged from 11 to 332, with a median of 48.5 participants. As with professional development programs, 82% (n=14) of the training programs were part-time participation, while 12% (n=2) were full-time and the rest (n=1) were unreported. The available research on eLearning of teachers of 3-6-year-olds was found to be very limited. Only one article included teachers of 3-6-year-olds exclusively, while the remainder (n=16) included the teaching of 6-year-olds, however, had age ranges of up to 18 years. Teacher qualification included student teachers (n=3; 18%), novice teachers (n=1; 6%), mixed qualification group (n=4; 24%), qualified teachers (n=2; 12%), and the remainder (n=7; 41%) of participants had unspecified or unclear teacher qualifications. About 53% (n=9) of the programs were for degree purposes and the remainder (n=8) for professional development.

Study designs varied, using quantitative (n=7, 41%), qualitative (n=8, 47%), and mixed methods designs (n=2, 12%). Analysis using the NHMRC levels (Merlin et al., 2009) of evidence found predominantly low quality of research designs. One study (6%) was on level III-1, one (6%) on level III-3, and seven (41%) on level IV. mLearning was the focus of 29% (n=5) of the included studies, while 65% (n=11) reported on eLearning and 6% (n=1) on video learning. All the reports were in English, as per the search criteria, however, one reported that their research was conducted in various dialects in India and reported in English.

Table 1: Data extraction worksheet Source: Article and reference Population Country

Teaching Context

Participants

Training Program

Age of Children

Teacher Trainin g

Type of Program

Type of Learning

1. A Teacher Tablet Toolkit to meet the challenges posed by 21st century rural teaching and learning environments (Botha & Herselman, 2015) South Africa

Resource constrained

225

Part Time

6-18 yo

Teacher (qualification unclear)

Professional Development

mLearning

2. e-Portfolio as reflective tool during teaching practice: The interplay between contextual and dispositional variables (Carl & Strydom, 2017) South Africa

Not reported

11

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Part Time

6-18 yo

Student teachers

For degree purposes

mLearning

467

3. Digital storytelling to engage postgraduates in reflective practice in an emerging economy (Dreyer, 2017) South Africa

Not reported

47

Full Time

6-18 yo

Novice teachers

For degree purposes

eLearning

4. ODL students' perceived computer literacy competencies, expectations of support, intention to use and perseverance (Esterhuizen et al., 2012) South Africa

Not reported

332

Part Time

6-18 yo

Mixed group

For degree purposes

eLearning

5. Using Self-Efficacy to measure primary school teachers' perception of ICT: results from two studies (Fanni et al., 2013) South Africa, Brazil

Resource constrained

110

Part Time

6-13 yo

Teacher (qualification unclear)

Professional Development

eLearning

6. Influence of mobile learning training on pre-service social studies teachers' technology and mobile phone self efficacies (Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016) Nigeria

Not reported

103

Full Time

6-18 yo

Student teachers

For degree purposes

mLearning

7. App-supported promotion of child growth and development by community health workers in Kenya: Feasibility and acceptability study (van Heerden et al., 2017) Kenya

Resource constrained

26

Part Time

3-6 yo

Not specifie d

Professional Development

mLearning

8. Workload and interaction: Unisa's signature courses - A design template for transitioning to online DE? (Hülsmann & Shabalala, 2016) South Africa

Not reported

N/A

Part Time

6-18 yo

Not specifie d

For degree purposes

eLearning

9. Meeting teacher expectations in a DL professional development programme - a case study for the sustained applied competence as programme outcome (Kruger et al., 2016) South Africa

Not reported

50

Part Time

6-18 yo

Teacher (qualification unclear)

Professional Development

eLearning

10. Learning design in diverse institutional and cultural context: suggestions from a participatory workshop with higher education professionals in Africa (Mittelmeier et al., 2018) Kenya, Uganda, Ghana, Mozambiq ue, South Africa

Not reported

34

Not Reported

6-18 yo

Mixed group

Professional Development

eLearning

11. Implications of the University of South Africa's (UNISA) shift to open distance eLearning on teacher education (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017) South Africa

Not reported

N/A

Part Time

6-18 yo

Mixed group

For degree purposes

eLearning

12. Assessment of the problems postgraduate students face in accessing e-resources at Makerere University, Uganda: A comparison between education and LIS students (Okello-Obura, 2011) Uganda

Not reported

25

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Part Time

6-18 yo

Qualifie d teachers

For degree purposes

eLearning

468

13. Using the mTSES to evaluate and optimize mLearning professional development (Power et al., 2016) Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Europe, North America

Not reported

37

Part Time

6-18 yo

Mixed group

Professional Development

mLearning

14. Mediated authentic video: A flexible tool supporting a developmental approach to teacher education (Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017) India, Bangladesh , Peru, Ghana

Not reported

N/A

Part Time

6-18 yo

Teacher (qualification unclear)

Professional Development

Video

15. Development of ODL in a newly industrialized country according to face-to-face contact, ICT, and e-Readiness (van Zyl et al., 2013) South Africa

Not reported

87

Part Time

6-13 yo

Qualifie d teachers

For degree purposes

eLearning

16. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for professional teacher and teacher educator development: a case of TESSA MOOC in Kenya (Wambugu, 2018) Kenya

Not reported

47

Part Time

6-18 yo

Teacher (qualification unclear)

Professional Development

eLearning

17. Assessing the utilization level of e-Learning resources among ODL based preservice teacher trainees (Olaniran et al., 2017) South Africa

Not reported

144

Part Time

6-13 yo

Student teachers

For degree purposes

eLearning

3.1. Recommendations for Usability Nineteen recommendations for usability were identified while inductively grouping together the categories identified under each of the usability criteria presented below. These recommendations are summarised in in Table 2. Each of the recommendations were found to potentially be informed by multiple aspects of usability. The 19 unique recommendations were each supported by three or more of the 17 sources and, therefore, confirms the trustworthiness of the analysis.

It also suggests that usability must be viewed as a single concept.

Table 2: Recommendations for usability Design recommendations for usability of mLearning modules for preschool teachers in LMIC’s 1.

The design of mLearning modules should incorporate the enhancement of digital literacy skills through participation in the module. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Fanni et al., 2013; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; van Heerden et al., 2017; Hülsmann & Shabalala, 2016; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011; Olaniran et al., 2017; Power et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

2.

The design should encourage participation in mLearning and computer literacy should be included as part of the curriculum for all teacher training (Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; van Heerden et al., 2017; Hülsmann & Shabalala,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

469

2016; Kruger et al., 2016; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011; Power et al., 2016; Wambugu, 2018) 3.

The design should encourage participation in mLearning, through factors like gamification and positive feedback. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Power et al., 2016)

4.

Continuous and scaffolded training of digital literacy should be incorporated in mLearning modules to encourage the effective adoption of technology in teaching in the classroom. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011; Olaniran et al., 2017; Power et al., 2016; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

5.

mLearning modules should carefully scaffold the teaching of skills to accommodate all levels of competency, to improve motivation and skill to ultimately use devices for teaching. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Olaniran et al., 2017; Power et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

6.

It should promote the use of smart phones as personal devices, professional devices and collaborative tools to improve the competency and perception of the teacher to ultimately use technology as a teaching aid. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; Hülsmann & Shabalala, 2016; Olaniran et al., 2017; Power et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

7.

mLearning should carefully scaffold both the knowledge content and literacy skills, to ensure success in achieving learning outcomes. (Mittelmeier et al., 2018; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

8.

mLearning modules should acknowledge achieved competencies and individual growth through use of the programme. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Power et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

9.

Continuous support through online guides should be incorporated in the design of mLearning modules. (Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; van Heerden et al., 2017; Hülsmann & Shabalala, 2016; NgubaneMokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011)

10. Continuous support through instant feedback should be part of the mLearning design to encourage perseverance in achieving digital literacy. (Carl & Strydom, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; Hülsmann & Shabalala, 2016; Kruger et al., 2016; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011; Power et al., 2016) 11. mLearning modules should incorporate visual cues and visually orientated instruction aids, to promote intuitive use. (Carl & Strydom, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Okello-Obura, 2011) 12. Cognitive load should be considered with the design of a mLearning module.

(Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; Kruger et al., 2016; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Okello-Obura, 2011; Olaniran et al., 2017; Power et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018)

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

470

13. Content should add value to classroom practices within user context as well as be usable within their context (Esterhuizen et al., 2012; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017) 14. mLearning modules, especially with video content, should be customizable for different regions. (Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Kruger et al., 2016; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Stutchbury & Woodward, 2017) 15. Design should be for mobile devices and thus mLearning specifically. (Carl & Strydom, 2017; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Fanni et al., 2013; Gloria & Oluwadara, 2016; Kruger et al., 2016; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Okello-Obura, 2011; Power et al., 2016; van Zyl et al., 2013; Wambugu, 2018) 16. The design should consider access to smartphones and tablets, which includes aspects like screen size and it’s ubiquitous nature (Carl & Strydom, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; van Zyl et al., 2013) 17. The design should consider infrastructure constraints like access to data, the cost of data and access to consistent and reliable electricity as well as any other constraints (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; van Heerden et al., 2017; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Olaniran et al., 2017) 18. End users’ context and constraints need to be considered for sustainability through heuristic and usability testing of mLearning modules. (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Carl & Strydom, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Wambugu, 2018) 19. Usability and heuristic evaluation should be part of the design process (Botha & Herselman, 2015; Dreyer, 2017; Esterhuizen et al., 2012; van Heerden et al., 2017; Kruger et al., 2016; Mittelmeier et al., 2018; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017; Power et al., 2016; Wambugu, 2018)

4. Discussion This project mapped and summarized the peer reviewed literature on eLearning and mLearning of preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa, in order to develop recommendations for future mobile teacher training. No usability studies were identified. In addition, although 236 studies appeared appropriate when we completed the title screening, application of the inclusion criteria in abstract and then full-text screening yielded only 17 studies. Only these 17 studies included all four elements of (i) training of (ii) preschool teachers using (iii) any form of electronic learning (iv) in Africa. The literature included for this review was published in the last 10 years. However, over 70 % of these research articles were published between 2016 and 2019, which is consistent with eLearning and mLearning being emerging fields in higher education (Kaliisa & Picard, 2017). The design recommendations in Table 2, collectively inform the design of mLearning modules for preschool teacher training, specifically to improve usability. The 19 unique recommendations that collectively inform all aspects of usability are in agreement with current research which points to individual attributes not being factors of usability, but in fact, usability being a single concept (Lewis & Sauro, 2017).

Regarding the quality of the nine studies in this review that employed mixed methods and quantitative methods, almost 80% were on level IV, which indicates

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

471

that there is a lack of high quality, rigorous quantitative studies within eLearning and mLearning of teachers and day care providers in Africa. The research on the eLearning and mLearning of teachers of 3-6-year-olds exclusively, was limited to one included study. Teachers in Africa across all qualification levels from undergraduate to postgraduate, engage in eLearning and mLearning. This is largely on a part-time basis, however, was found to be for both professional development and for degree purposes. However, no studies were found that explicitly included day care providers solely with secondary education or no formal training.

Teachers within the African context expressed a need for contextual relevance in order to have a more sustainable impact on classroom practices through skill acquisition. This is consistent with a study done by Ackerman (2017) in the USA that investigated the characteristics of participants in online training for day care providers. In that study, online training met the needs of participants who desired the affordability, geographical accessibility, and ubiquitous nature of mLearning.

The current study’s results differed from Ackerman’s (2017) in that their online courses were mostly on a beginner level and focused on knowledge acquisition, whereas the participants in the included studies indicated a need for courses that also bring about sustainable changes in classroom practices.

Teachers expressed a need for contextual relevance, not only in using training applications within their own context, but also in being able to change the content, like videos, to suit each region, and be of value and applicability within their classrooms. They also voiced their need for contextual relevance through sustainability of training and sustainability of change in classroom practice.

Lavoie (2006) concludes that there is a lack of conceptual models to develop more context-aware mobile applications and that one way of ensuring contextual relevance is through user centred design. Thus, contextual relevance must be included as an attribute when developing a framework for usability within the African context for the assessment of mobile training applications. Usability testing is one step in the design cycle of mLearning training modules for teachers.

Various studies indicated the need for heuristic and usability evaluation to ensure user centred design and usefulness.

Resource constraints of teachers and student teachers in Africa include inconsistent access to data, high cost of data, unreliable electricity supply, and limited access to computers. Therefore, mobile devices are preferred over eLearning or computer-based learning. Teachers in this review were motivated to learn how to use their cell phones better, progressing from use as personal device only to professional device, collaborative device, and finally as a teaching tool.

This is consistent with the finding of Baran (2014) who concluded that among student teachers, mLearning holds the greatest possibility for collaborative, contextualized, customized, and personalized opportunities for learning.

Teachers in Baran’s (2014) study were also motivated to use mobile phones as both professional devices and teaching tools.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

472

Practical Implications This scoping review has confirmed the limited available peer reviewed literature on mLearning for preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa in the last 10 years. Gaps within the research are two-fold, namely the lack of high-quality quantitative studies, as well as studies on mLearning for preschool teachers and day care providers specifically. This suggests a need for further research in both areas. From the limited data available it was clear that, in order to achieve user centred design and contextual value, heuristic evaluation and usability testing must be part of the design process for mLearning modules for preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa.

It is suggested that the integrated set of 19 unique usability recommendations developed from this review are included in the design process of future mLearning modules for preschool teachers and day care providers in Africa.

Enhancing usability is important to maximise the impact of training programs on teachers’ knowledge and skills, as well as to ensure the quality of these training modules and to reach the intended learning outcomes. This research also emphasises the importance of contextual relevance in the content of training programs, and the adaptation of learning materials for the local environment where learning will be applied. Contextually relevant learning increases the likelihood of mLearning being transferred to classroom practices.

6. Limitations Two limitations were identified during this review process. Firstly, it was difficult to determine the level of consistency of key terms such as day care provider, since it is a term that varies from region to region and is also inconsistently used within the literature. The intent was to refer to someone who takes care of preschoolers (3-6-year-olds), on a formal or informal basis, and who is not required to be trained. This could then also include grandparents, neighbours, or untrained teachers. Secondly, knowledge users such as policy makers, preschool teachers and day care providers were not included in the development of the scoping review protocol, as suggested by the PRISMA-ScR reporting guidelines (Tricco et al., 2018).

7. References Ackerman, D. J. (2017). Online child care training in the United States: A preliminary investigation of who participates, what is offered, and on which topics the workforce is focusing. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 11(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-017-0037-7 Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework.

International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616 Atmore, E., van Niekerk, L. J., & Ashley-Cooper, M. (2012). Challenges Facing the Early Childhood Development Sector in South Africa. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 2(2), 120-139. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v2i1.25 Baran, E. (2014). A Review of Research on Mobile Learning in Teacher Education. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 17–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.17.4.17 Barnett-Page, E., & Thomas, J. (2009). Methods for the synthesis of qualitative research: A

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

473

critical review.

BMC Medical Research Methodology, 9(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-9-59 Botha, A., & Herselman, M. (2015). A Teacher Tablet Toolkit to meet the challenges posed by 21st century rural teaching and learning environments. South African Journal of Education, 35(4), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v35n4a1218 Carl, A., & Strydom, S. (2017). e-Portfolio as reflection tool during teaching practice: The interplay between contextual and dispositional variables. South African Journal of Education, 37(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n1a1250 Chikwiri, E., & Musiyiwa, J. (2017). Challenges and gaps in children’s transition from early childhood development to grade one in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, 9(7), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJEAPS2017.0510 Davids, M. R., Chikte, U. M. E., & Halperin, M. L. (2011). Development and evaluation of a multimedia e-learning resource for electrolyte and acid-base disorders. Advances in Physiology Education, 35(3), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00127.2010 Davids, M. R., Chikte, U. M. E., & Halperin, M. L. (2013). An efficient approach to improve the usability of e-learning resources: The role of heuristic evaluation. Advances in Physiology Education, 37(3), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00043.2013 Davids, M. R., Halperin, M. L., & Chikte, U. M. E. (2015). Optimising cognitive load and usability to improve the impact of e-learning in medical education. African Journal of Health Professions Education, 7(2), 147. https://doi.org/10.7196/ajhpe.659 De Wit, M., & Plastow, N. A. (2021). Usability of eLearning interventions for teachers and day care workers in Africa: A scoping review protocol. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 50(3), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.17159/23103833/2020/vol50no3a7 Department of Basic Education. (2018). Human Resources Development Strategy for Early Childhood Development. https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/4.pdf?ver =2020-03-09-141936-040 Dreyer, L. M. (2017). Digital storytelling to engage postgraduates in reflective practice in an emerging economy. South African Journal of Education, 37(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n4a1475 Dumas, J. S., & Salzman, M. C. (2006). Usability assessment methods. Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2(1), 109–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557234x0600200105 Esterhuizen, H. D., Ellis, S. M., & Els, C. J. (2012). ODL students’ perceived computer literacy competencies, expectations of support intention to use and perseverance.

Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 13(4), 76–94. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/155967 Fanni, F., Rega, I., & Cantoni, L. (2013). Using self-efficacy to measure primary school teachers’ perception of ICT: Results from two studies. International Journal of Education and Development Using ITC, 9(1), 100–111. http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu//viewarticle.php?id=1528 Gloria, A., & Oluwadara, A. (2016). Influence of mobile learning training on pre-service social studies teachers’ technology and mobile phone self-efficacies. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(2), 74–79. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1089740 GMSA. (2020).

The mobile economy: Sub-Saharan Africa 2020. https://www.gsma.com/mobileeconomy/wpcontent/uploads/2020/09/GSMA_MobileEconomy2020_SSA_Eng.pdf Hannaway, D., Govender, P., Marais, P., & Meier, C. (2018). Growing early childhood

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

474

education teachers in rural areas. Africa Education Review, 16(3), 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2018.1445974 Heckman, J. J., & Karapakula, G. (2019). Intergenerational and intragenerational externalities of the Perry Preschool Project. NBER Working Paper No. 25889, 53(9), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.3386/w25889 Hülsmann, T., & Shabalala, L. (2016). Workload and interaction: Unisa’s signature courses – a design template for transitioning to online DE? Distance Education, 37(2), 224– 236. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2016.1191408 International Organization for Standardization (2011). ISO/IEC 25010:2011, Systems and software engeneering – Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) System and Software Quality Models. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/57a5/b99eceff9da205e244337c9f4678b5b23d25 .pdf Kaliisa, R., & Picard, M. (2017). A systematic review on mobile learning in higher education: The African perspective. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1), 1–18. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1124918.pdf Kruger, C., Janse Van Rensburg, O., & de Witt, M. (2016). Meeting teacher expectations in a DL professional development programme - A case study for sustained applied competence as programme outcome. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(4). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2458 Lavoie, M. C. (2006). I, MLearning: Identifying design recommendations for a contextaware mobile learning system. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning, 265– 269. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.95.1167 Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O’Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology. Implementation Science, 5(69), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/17485908-5-69 Lewis, J. R., & Sauro, J. (2017). Revisiting the factor structure of the system usability scale.

Journal of Usability Studies, 12(4), 183–192. https://uxpajournal.org/revisit-factorstructure-system-usability-scale/ Manning, M., Garvis, S., Fleming, C., & Wong, G. T. W. (2017). The relationship between teacher qualification and the quality of the early childhood education and care environment. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 13(1), 1–82. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.1 Mashburn, A. J., Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., Downer, J. T., Barbarin, O. A., Bryant, D., Burchinal, M., Early, D. M., & Howes, C. (2008). Measures of classroom quality in prekindergarten and children’s development of academic, language, and social skills. Child Development, 79(3), 732–749. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678624.2008.01154.x Merlin, T., Weston, A., & Tooher, R. (2009). Extending an evidence hierarchy to include topics other than treatment: revising the Australian ‘levels of evidence’. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 9(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-9-34 Mittelmeier, J., Long, D., Cin, F. M., Reedy, K., Gunter, A., Raghuram, P., & Rienties, B. (2018). Learning design in diverse institutional and cultural contexts: Suggestions from a participatory workshop with higher education professionals in Africa. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 33(3), 250–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2018.1486185 Ngubane-Mokiwa, S. A. (2017). Implications of the University of South Africa’s (UNISA) shift to open distance e-learning on teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(9), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2017v42n9.7 Okello-Obura, C. (2011). Assessment of the problems LIS postgraduate students face in accessing e-resources in Makerere University, Uganda. Collection Building, 29(3),

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

475

98-105. https://doi.org/10.1108/01604951011060385 Olaniran, S. O., Duma, M. A. N., & Nzima, D. R. (2017). Assessing the utilization level of e-learning resources among ODL based pre-service teacher trainees. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 15(5), 384–394. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1157949.pdf Park, Y. (2011). A pedagogical framework for mobile learning: Categorizing educational applications of mobile technologies into four types. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(2), 78-102. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i2.791 Power, R. L., Cristol, D., Gimbert, B., Bartoletti, R., & Kilgore, W. (2016). Using the mTSES to evaluate and optimize mLearning professional development. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(4), 350-385. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2459 Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. L. (2004). Early learning and school readiness: Can early intervention make a difference? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50(4), 471–491. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2004.0034 Smit, N. A., van der Linde, J., Eccles, R., Swanepoel, D. W., & Graham, M. A. (2020).

Exploring the knowledge and needs of early childhood development practitioners from a low-resource community. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49(2), 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01063-3 Stutchbury, K., & Woodward, C. (2017). Mediated authentic video: A flexible tool supporting a developmental approach to teacher education. Journal of Learning for Development, 4(2), 229–240. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1149176.pdf Taat, M. S., & Francis, A. (2020). Factors influencing the students’ acceptance of e-learning at teacher education institute: An exploratory study in Malaysia. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(1), 133–141. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n1p133 Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., Moher, D., Peters, M. D., Horsley, T., Weeks, L., Hempel, S., Akl, E. A., Chang, C., McGowan, J., Stewart, L., Hartling, L., Aldcroft, A., Wilson, M. G., Garritty, C., . . . Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467–473. https://doi.org/10.7326/m18-0850 van Heerden, A., Sen, D., Desmond, C., Louw, J., & Richter, L. (2017). App-supported promotion of child growth and development by community health workers in Kenya: Feasibility and acceptability study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 5(12), e182. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.6911 van Zyl, J. M., Els, C. J., & Blignaut, A. S. (2013). Development of ODL in a Newly Industrialized Country According to Face-to-Face Contact, ICT, and E-Readiness.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 14(1), 84–105. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v14i1.1342 Wambugu, P. W. (2018). Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for professional teacher and teacher educator development: A case of TESSA MOOC in Kenya. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(6), 1153–1157. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2018.060604 Zhang, D., & Adipat, B. (2005). Challenges, methodologies, and issues in the usability testing of mobile applications. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 18(3), 293–308. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327590ijhc1803_3

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

476

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 476-493, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.26 Received Aug 28, 2021; Revised Nov 15, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Enhancing Virtual Learning during the Crisis of COVID-19 Lockdown - A Case Study of a Higher Education Institution in Maldives Mariyam Shareefa* Islamic University of Maldives, Male, Maldives https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4023-6651 Mohamed Muneez Cyryx College, Male, Maldives https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2912-1485 Aaidha Hammad The Maldives National University, Male, Maldives https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-2710 Mariyam Shihama Islamic University of Maldives, Male, Maldives https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8637-1520

Abstract. Regardless of whether educational institutions had experience of using online teaching, the COVID-19 pandemic forced a sudden switch to fully virtual delivery mode, which presented challenges at both institutional and instructional levels. At the time, not much information about these experiences was available to guide education during lockdown. This study, therefore, explored the virtual learning experiences of a Maldivian higher education institution that had practiced virtual learning before and during the pandemic. Data was collected from 52 participants – a senior management member, four lecturers, and 47 students - through conducting semistructured interviews, studying students’ reflection journals, doing lesson observations, and reviewing documents. Thematic analysis of the data revealed several changes had occurred in the teaching process of the college. Significant modification of the instructional setup, structural arrangements, and the psychological readiness of students had both positive and negative impacts. This study endeavors to be of value to other higher education institutions who adopt virtual learning.

*Corresponding

author: Mariyam Shareefaa; email: mariyam.shareefa@ium.edu.mv

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

477

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; higher education institution; teaching and learning; virtual learning

1. Introduction The discovery of the novel coronavirus SARS-Cov2 in January 2020 caused the world to experience a new reality. UNESCO describes the event as a major crisis for education, as the pandemic affected 1.2 billion students and youth all over the world (Giannini & Brandolino, 2020). Social distancing disrupted higher education; to continue teaching institutions had to switch to virtual learning (VL) within a short period of time, thereby adding to the challenges facing higher education institutions and students. The availability of technical infrastructure, instructor competencies, and the extent of disaster preparedness of higher education institutions determined the success of education during this ‘new normal’. The effectiveness of teaching and learning by higher education institutions was challenged further by institutions’ own ill-preparedness, and by students and lecturers having to adjust to VL while having limited internet access from home.

Regardless of the readiness of some institutions to institute a full-fledged digital teaching and learning approach, students worldwide were dramatically affected by the crisis, due to travel bans, isolation, and social distancing caused by physical distancing and quarantine regulations. This sudden change in their way of life instigated emotional distress and negative attitudes towards VL, caused them to procrastinate, and ultimately weakened their learning skills (Duraku & Hoxha, 2020). For many students, the rapid changes to their lifestyles were difficult to cope with, and affected their focus in online classes, reduced their attention span, diminished information retention capabilities and, hence, lead to a decline in motivation to engage in any type of learning activity. Furthermore, lecturers faced entirely different struggles relating to their readiness and aptitude for online teaching, the flexibility of assessment, providing timely feedback and, most importantly, keeping the momentum going for students while fighting their own battles. While some lecturers hid behind the curtains to work privately, others had to go on a ‘full hunt’ for a quiet spot in the home.

COVID-19 is playing out as a major experiment for higher education institutions worldwide, and has provided opportunities to explore distance learning using various methods, while paving the way for applying more flexible learning opportunities in the future. Educators were left with the ‘do and learn’ option – an unforeseen event that led to capacity building and the allocation of resources, while opening doors for research and innovation in the higher education sector.

Higher education institutions are expected to invest in technical infrastructure, move from using learning management systems, to cloud services, and to digitalize all its business affairs (Marinoni et al., 2020).

Given the current emphasis on virtual learning environments, several research studies have been conducted on the topic of VL; evaluating the impact of VL (Means et al., 2009; Morrice & Demian, 2012); student attitudes towards VL (Liaw, 2008; Šumak et al., 2011) student perceptions of VL (Love & Fry, 2006), the potential of VL to enhance cognitive skills (Songkram & Puthaseranee, 2015), and

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

478

acceptance and use of a VL environment between countries (Kurt & Tingöy, 2017).

Even though these studies have their merits and contribute to the knowledge base, there are deficiencies in the literature about understanding how VL was instituted by higher education institutions in extraordinary circumstances – in this case, a global pandemic. Notwithstanding the potential of VL in many situation, designing and implementing VL have been left largely to teachers and academics, resulting in inconsistencies in the virtual environment (Cassidy, 2016). Hence, there remains a need to broaden the knowledge base on educators’ experiences of virtual learning in any situation.

It is noteworthy that, in recent years, some institutions in various countries have been preparing for an unexpected disaster, such as Covid-19 – perhaps they did this inadvertently. These institutions include the University of Tasmania and the University of Peking, which had incorporated a blended mode of teaching and learning (Bao, 2020; Crawford et al., 2020). With the outbreak of the pandemic, institutions optimized their teaching and learning by distributing gadgets, such as tablets, smartphones, dongles and other wireless-enabled devices.

The author believed it would be interesting to discover how institutions that had been optimizing the virtual teaching and learning long before the current pandemic, experienced VL in the pandemic. Therefore, this study examined the experiences of VL of a higher education institution in the Maldives during the pandemic, and investigated the various changes that took place in the existing VL setup of the institution. Consequently, the study was guided by the following two research questions.

1. What changes occurred in relation to the virtual learning environment during the pandemic?

2. How can the institution improve delivery of its VL programs?

2. Literature The World Health Organization declared COVID–19 as a pandemic on 11 March 2020 (WHO, 2020). As a result of the global pandemic, institutions of higher education worldwide were faced with the dire need to move their activities online (Knysh & Dudziak, 2020), thereby creating significant challenges for higher education institutions everywhere (Crawford et al., 2020). It became imperative that teaching and learning switched from traditional face-to-face to online interaction. This increased the stress and workload of lecturers and other staff of education institutions, who were already facing their fair share of struggles to balance teaching and service obligations, on top of their work-life balance (Houston et al., 2006; Houlden & Veletsianos, 2020).

Teaching staff in all disciplines have had to prepare and deliver their classes from home, with all the practical and technical challenges this entails (Anderson, 2018).

Higher education institutions met the new challenges while facing substantial gaps regarding online education expertise (Knysh & Dudziak, 2020). Some lecturers recorded and uploaded lectures to give students access, others were far more innovative (Fox, 2004) and used websites, such as WebQuest and Google Classrooms. In some countries, the majority of academics were ill-prepared for online education (Sarma, 2020; Toquero, 2020), though some universities had

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

479

already established some blended, or even fully online, delivery of some of their programs.

COVID-19 forced the unexpected requirement of offering all the teaching programs of universities by online delivery in a matter of days. This massive undertaking resulted in some academics experiencing difficulties regarding early preparation, and due to a lack of online teaching experience, or inadequate support from technical teams (Bao, 2020). The migration from conventional teaching to a fully online or virtual delivery strategy was wracked with challenges, such as a lack of infrastructure for the home-office environment (e.g. difficulty obtaining the required bandwidth and appropriate recording equipment), the infrastructure of students (e.g. issues regarding access to virtual or online content by students in remote locations), and academics not possessing the skills required to design and deliver virtual or online education professionally (Crawford et al., 2020).

Gonzalez et al. (2020) claim that a substantial positive effect of the pandemic lockdown was improved performance of students in modules that increased their number of assessments, and those that did not alter the workload for students.

The researchers explain that, before lockdown, the learning strategies of students involved them not being engaged in their studies continuously; however, home confinement due to COVID-19 altered the learning habits of students. Their engagement was more continuous, which improved their effectiveness, and students were expected to score better grades, due to the improvement in their learning strategies (Gonzalez et al., 2020).

Research has examined e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in China (Bao, 2020), Philippines (Toquero, 2020), Australia (Ebner et al., 2020), the United States (Houlden & Veletsianos, 2020), Ukraine (Knysh & Dudziak, 2020), and other countries (Crawford et al., 2020). Some of these studies investigated the overall experience of online teaching, to identify its challenges and opportunities, while others explored readiness for e-learning or the impact of the pandemic on education in general. However, an extensive review of the publicly available literature revealed a lack of exploration of the experiences of higher education institutions that has used VL before the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, this study addressed this critical gap in the literature and explored the experiences of VL at an institution where VL was being practiced before the global epidemic.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design To bridge the gap in the literature, this investigation used a case study approach that focused on the experiences of a higher education institution in the Maldives.

The aim of the research was to examine the changes that occurred in the delivery of the institution’s programs during the COVID-19 pandemic. The case study approach enabled the researchers to gather rich data from a variety of sources, thereby they elicited the different perspectives held by staff and students of the institution.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

480

3.2 Context of the Study The institution under study was established in 1998 and was the second higher education institution registered in the Maldives when it was inaugurated as a college in December 2009. The vision of the college was to provide opportunities for secondary-school leavers who lacked access to further education due to financial reasons, the lack of places at government-sponsored institutions, or due to their poor performance in secondary school examinations. Now well into its 22nd year, the college offers programs ranging from foundation for degree studies, to Bachelor degrees, up to Master’s degrees, which are approved by the Maldives Qualification Authority. The institution developed and launched a VL platform for higher education – its very own virtual campus – in 2013. This virtual campus – the only such learning platform in the country – has given students across the nation access to higher education, and it serves a population scattered across 200 remote islands.

3.3 Data Sources To ensure the validity and accuracy of the findings of this case study, data were collected through multiple data collection methods: (1) Semistructured interviews, (2) Students’ reflection journals, (3) Lesson observations, and (4) Review of documents, and the data was triangulated. Semistructured interviews were conducted with lecturers, students, and a member of the management of the institution. In addition, 35 reflection journals of students were mined for data for this study. Furthermore, the virtual teaching sessions of four lecturers were observed, and anecdotal notes were collected. Moreover, an experience report that had been compiled by the college management was studied, and email communication between college management and lecturers regarding VL during the pandemic, was examined.

3.4 Participants This study required data from multiple sources, and a variety of participants contributed to the data collection. Table 1 illustrates the methods of data collection, the categories of participants, and number of participants in each category.

Table 1. Details about participants Type of data

Participant categories

Number of participants

Semistructured interviews

Management member

1

Lecturers

4

Students

11

Reflection journals

Students

36

Lesson observations

Lecturers

4

The researchers selected participants through purposive sampling. Participants in this research were selected due to their experiences of teaching and learning through the virtual platform of the institution during the pandemic. Participation in the study was voluntary, and no compensation was offered to the participants.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

481

Table 2 provides demographic information of the lecturers who participated in this study.

Table 2. Demographic details of the lecturers Lecturer

Gender

L.1

Female

Years of experience at the institution 6 years

L.2

Female

3 years

Master’s degree

Diploma, associate degree and degree Foundation and diploma

L.3

Female

4 years

Master’s degree

Master’s degree

L.4

Male

3 years

Master’s degree

Diploma, associate degree and degree

Qualification level Master’s degree

Current teaching level

Table 3 summarizes demographic details of the students who participated in the semistructured interviews. The details include gender, the level of the programs the students were enrolled in, and the number of semesters they had completed at the time of data collection.

Table 3: Demographic details of the students No. of semesters completed

Student

Gender

Name of the course enrolled in

St.1

Female

Bachelor of Education (Secondary)

4

St.2 St.3 St.4

Male Male Male

1 0 1

St.5

Male

Bachelor of Education (Secondary) Advanced Diploma in IT Bachelor of Teaching (Primary and Middle School) Associated Degree of Teaching (Primary and Middle School)

St.6

Female

Bachelor of Education (Primary and Middle school)

2

St.7

Female

Foundation for Degree Studies

1

St.8 St.9

Female Male

Foundation for Degree Advanced Diploma in IT

1 2

St.10

Female

Foundation for Degree Studies

2

St.11

Female

Associate Degree in Teaching (Primary and Middle School)

1

3

As indicated in Table 3, almost equal numbers of male and female students were selected for the interviews. These students were enrolled at different levels of the educational programs offered by the institution. The duration of each of the interview was approximately 20 minutes.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

482

3.5 Data Analysis The purpose of data analysis is to convert data into a story that describes the issue under investigation. Data obtained for this study were analyzed qualitatively using the process of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2016). To increase the rigor and trustworthiness of the findings, the themes that emerged from the interviews with the participants were cross-checked and triangulated with information provided by the reflection journals of the students, observations of the lecturers’ lessons, and the review of documents that were obtained from college management. Figure 1 conceptualizes the data triangulation process, and how the final themes were derived at from the corroborated data sources.

Figure 1. Process of data analysis

4. Results This section will present the themes derived from the analysis of the data. To align with the research questions, themes were divided into two categories. The first category includes themes relating to information about the changes that were made to the VL system of the college in response to the stay-at-home situation.

The second category includes themes pertaining to various ways to improve delivery of instruction. A list of the categories, themes, and subthemes are presented in Table 4.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

483

Table 4: Categories, themes, and subthemes Categories Changes made to VL during the pandemic

Themes Lesson delivery

Student and lecturer interaction Support system

Examination Students’ psychological status and readiness Ways to improve program delivery

Use of effective teaching strategies

Network and connectivity issues

Improving communication

Subthemes Lecturers and students - home stationed Internet connectivity issues Fewer glitches Better lecturer–student interaction Better student–student interaction Lecturers’ high responsiveness Support for exam preparation Flexibility of schedules Calls not returned by admin/Delay in attending to queries/IT personnel not responsive Virtual exam Delay in getting the results High anxiety due to pandemic status Difficulties at home Frustrations due to class timing and class cancellation Using effective strategies to enhance student engagement and learning Accommodation of students’ interests and needs Improving the speed of connection Using students’ personal Wi-Fi during session time Answering students’ calls/attending to students’ queries without delay

4.1 Changes that were made to virtual learning during the pandemic The data reveals that significant changes had to be made to the instructional setup, to the structural arrangements, and to improve the psychological readiness of students. Detailed explanations of these specific changes will be presented in the following subsections.

4.1.1. Lesson Delivery One of the most common themes identified from the interviews, student journals, and documents is about the modifications that were required for the VL system in response to the lockdown of the country’s capital city. Participants indicated that, even though the institution had been presenting virtual lectures before the pandemic, lecturers had to go to the college physically to present the lectures from classrooms on campus. During that time, some students who resided in the vicinity attended the classes physically, while the lectures were conducted virtually for students in other locations. When lecturers presented virtual lectures on campus, they could easily approach the admin desk and seek technical assistance for issues that arose. However, during the lockdown, the college had to present all the lectures in fully virtual mode, so that staff and students could teach and learn from home. To establish a fully virtual work-from-home setup, college

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

484

management had to conduct staff training, and change certain setups to facilitate continuation of lectures.

The interview data and the college report on the pandemic lockdown experience revealed that a contingency plan was developed and executed towards the end of February and early March 2020, and the work-from-home setup was initiated immediately. Following a briefing session that familiarized staff s with the system and helped them to gain confidence in using it, all staff were allowed to work from home. From the beginning of lockdown, all technical staff were on standby during office hours. The lockdown experience report and email communication provide details about the monitoring mechanism established at the institution.

Staff representing admin or management attended lectures to monitor and record the attendance of students for every virtual class. The monitoring system helped to identify and attend to technical difficulties experienced by lecturers and students during the lectures.

However, despite these preparations, during work-from-home both students and lecturers encountered many internet connectivity issues. “Conducting classes at their [lecturers’] home and the delivery of classes on air is sometimes interrupted […] we were not able to concentrate in the class due to lecturers getting disconnected,” St.4 reported. Connectivity issues were also mentioned in the lockdown experience report, which claimed that connectivity was a problem caused by the network provider’s low range of coverage. The report mentions that connectivity problems were related to the population density of Male, the city where the campus is located, and also to nearby high-rise buildings.

Except for connectivity issues, the analysis revealed that lecturers and students experienced very few glitches, as they were already accustomed to the VL setup, as they had been using it long before the pandemic made itself felt in the local community. One of the lecturers (L.1) expressed her view: “we have been used to online system, and we become better with practice. […] students are also familiar with these techniques and programs.” Lecturers and students appreciated the smooth running of the programs of the college during the crisis. Similar sentiments were echoed by the management member. He explained the situation as follows: “Lecturers were quite happy, and they were very cooperative. No lecturer objected to anything [...] overall the college was functioning fully just like they worked before. All students’ services were available to students; classes were going on as scheduled […] all our staff were at home […] and we regularly meet in our virtual campus […] so we were able to make that shift very quickly.”

The findings reveal that the transition of lesson delivery to fully virtual mode was not much of an issue, except for connectivity problems that were encountered by some lecturers and students. In fact, it was noticed that staff were more satisfied with the lesson delivery than in the time before the pandemic, as they could present lectures from the comfort of their homes.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

485

4.1.2. Student and Lecturer Interaction The second theme that emerged from the data relates to the interaction between students and lecturers during and before the pandemic. Analysis of the interviews with students and lecturers indicated positive changes in two types of interactions: interaction between lecturers and students, and interaction between the students themselves. In terms of the interaction between lecturer and students, it was reported that students had better interactive opportunities with their lecturers during the pandemic. St.4 explained that “the level of interaction between the lecturers is less before the pandemic […] during the pandemic the interaction is little bit more.” It was also revealed that, during the lockdown, private communication took place between students and lecturers on Viber groups. “The lecturers even gave their contact numbers to create Viber groups, so that we can ask our doubts to them. They do reply to me as soon as they see my message which is super nice of them,” St.11 elaborated. Furthermore, it was noted during the classroom observations and interviews that students were provided with opportunities to participate in discussions and group activities during lectures.

As the findings indicate, interaction increased, not only between lecturers and students, but between the students themselves. St.1 said, “fortunately, during the pandemic it was much easier to meet up all, because other works are being paused, and college was on, so we got time for studies during pandemic.” These statements confirm that the transition to fully virtual mode created avenues for interaction between students and lecturers.

4.1.3. Examination Online examination during the pandemic was another major theme that was derived from the data. According to data obtained from the participants and documents, before the pandemic, in spite of classes being conducted virtually, exams required students’ physical presence at the regional centers established in the atolls. Prior to the pandemic, students on remote islands travelled to regional centers to write (normal) examinations physically. However, during the pandemic, the college designed a virtual examination system and conducted open-book examinations. Students stayed at home, wrote the exams on physical paper, scanned their scripts and submitted it to the portal in real time. Procedures to be followed during this novel virtual examination were laid out and shared among staff, invigilators, and students. In preparation for the examination, staff were trained to invigilate a virtual examination, monitoring mechanisms were established, and mock exams were conducted with the students before the examination took place.

With regard to feedback given to students, some of the students reported that there was a delay in receiving lecturers’ feedback after the online examination.

Students were concerned about having to wait for feedback during the pandemic.

One of the lecturers (L.4) confirmed the delay, by stating that, “I tried my best to provide feedback as it is necessary, but sometimes we had to deal with the internet issues”.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

486

4.1.4. Support System Many of the students and lecturers referred to the increase in support provided to students during the pandemic. According to the students, lecturers provided much better support. St.9 reported, “every student in our batch is full time working, and lecturers understand that, so [lecturers] provide us full support and flexibility.” The senior management member confirmed that adequate support was provided to not only students, but to lecturers too. Interview data confirmed that lecturers extended the deadlines for assignments extensively. Students expressed that lecturers took students’ requests into consideration, and granted them if at all possible. The email communication of the college also provided evidence of the flexibility of lecturers in their consideration of the critical situation facing students, before the lecturers determined deadlines for submitting assignments.

In contrast to the positive feedback received on the support received from lecturers, the lack of response and/or delays in attending to student enquiries by administrative staff of the college caused much distress to many students.

Students expressed disappointment, as their phone calls or text messages elicited no response. It is important to highlight the misalignment between student statements and the claims made by the management staff’s justification that all services were available to students, and that admin staff monitored the lectures.

Therefore, owing to the disparity, it is assumed that, for whatever reasons, some of the staff did not provide the required services.

4.1.5. Students’ Psychological Status and Readiness The final theme of this category pertains to the psychological status of students and their readiness to study during the COVID-19 crisis. It is likely that a global crisis could impact negatively on people’s lives. A pandemic could pose unique challenges, such as higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. Students explained that anxiety during the pandemic made them unable to concentrate on their lessons. It was found that students were not emotionally stable, especially during the initial days of the lockdown.

Many students who participated in this study worked full time while studying at the college full time. Students had to juggle working and studying remotely from home. One of the students enrolled for a teaching course explained the difficulties she faced in studying from home while looking after her children: “during the pandemic, I had to stay at home and [continue] studying […] it was very difficult for me. Also, the news and all about Covid-19, I can’t even concentrate more on studying.” The struggles of students were confirmed by lecturers. It was perceived that students were not that comfortable studying in their home environment, as other family members also stayed at home during the lockdown.

In addition to the struggles students faced at home, the analysis of the data revealed that students experienced frustration due to the timing of lectures, and lecture cancellations. According to the students, before the pandemic they had regular schedules without much interruption, as lecturers presented lectures from the college campus. Before the pandemic, students had greater access to the college front desk and information centers. Extra classes were arranged if they had doubts or questions. However, during the pandemic, “classes started getting

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

487

cancelled more often and we couldn't contact information centers most of the times”, St.11 reported. Such incidents contributed to students’ tension and disappointment, which, in turn, affected their readiness to study during the pandemic.

4.2 Ways to Improve Delivery of VL Programs The second category of findings relates to ways to improve delivery of instructional programs by the institution. Details about the themes in this category are provided in the following subsections.

4.2.1. Effective Teaching Strategies Interviews with the students revealed that they believed that lecturers should use effective strategies that increase student engagement and learning in online classes. Many of the students emphasized the importance of adopting better learning strategies in virtual classes, so that lectures are more interesting and engaging. Even though some lecturers explained that cooperative learning strategies were incorporated in their teaching, lesson observations revealed that student participation in lectures declined. Students’ reflection journals also referred to the importance of group activities and learner engagement in lectures.

One of the students wrote, “I feel that it would be something good if the lecturer could include a few group activities based on the content […] to make us understand the content better.” Lack of variation in the lectures was also mentioned by lecturers, and some of them acknowledged it in their interviews.

Aligned with teaching strategies, accommodation of students’ interests and learning needs was identified as a subtheme of this category. Both lesson observations and student journals showed that not much attention was given to individual students during the lectures, and when attention was given, it was sporadic. Lecturers admitted that they were unable to carry out differentiated instruction in the little time that was available. “Catering to individual students’ needs is very difficult in virtual classes. We have very few assessment tasks, and it’s difficult to identify their levels,” L.3 reported. In contrast, another lecturer described explicitly how she catered for individual students, by stating that, “in some of my language classes, we normally have pictures which we have discussions on. We talk about them. We do the brainstorm. When we come to the writing, I get them to do individually as well. The aim is to develop from where they are.”

Although lecturers’ instruction addressed individual students’ abilities to some extent, it should be provided more consistently across all the lecturers’ instruction.

4.2.2. Network and Connectivity Issues Solving problems related to connectivity was a major request referenced by almost all the participants in the study. Students’ disappointment was apparent when they explained their current status. “I had issues with the portal but it was not resolved even when the semester was over. Also, when I use a dongle, I was not able to use [personal] internet, and it caused a lot of difficulties”, St.4 elucidated. It was obvious that students encounter connectivity problems during virtual sessions, with audio and video feed being interrupted. However,

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

488

participants believed that connectivity issues could be resolved completely if the lectures were conducted on fully virtual mode.

At the time of data collection, the college was providing connections through a portable dongle that could be used anywhere in the country where the internet service provider’s network was available. However, when students and lecturers use dongles for connectivity, they cannot access to their home Wi-Fi simultaneously. When the dongle is used, accessibility is restricted to the college portal. Students cannot search using Google, nor access the internet at all at the same time as using the dongle. Moreover, the dongle also experienced relatively more downtime than normal home WIFI systems; participants confirmed that bad weather affected the network. Hence, students believed that if they could connect to the portal with their own Wi-Fi at home, their connectivity may be improved.

The management member confirmed that the college was exploring alternatives to the dongles. He stated that “we are developing a solution where we can try and give the network to each student without using dongles but through a Wi-Fi system”. The requirement was that such a system had to provide better internet bandwidth than what was offered at that time. Hence, management needed to attempt to provide this improvement sooner rather than later.

4.2.3. Improving Communication The final theme of this category is improving communication within the institution. This includes communication that takes place between the management and staff, between lecturers and students, and between administration and students. Most importantly, the college admin officers need to answer students’ calls more responsively, and attend to their queries without delay. When students experience connectivity issues during lectures, they normally approach someone at the admin office or IT department. When the calls and messages of students are not answered promptly, students feel helpless, frustrated, and disappointed.

Another sub-area of this theme relates to clarifying standard operating procedures. As revealed by the document analysis, the institution has documented adequate policies and guidelines. However, the findings suggest that sharing such information with stakeholders requires greater emphasis. The main purpose of increasing understanding of standard operating procedures would be to ensure that staff and students operate according to a formalized and coordinated process, to help reduce miscommunication and errors. One such example relates to the ‘inquiry forms’ students use to inquire about various issues.

The document analysis found that students were not given clear information about the form and its purpose. Likewise, procedures for conducting classes, the monitoring mechanism, assessment and evaluation, student feedback, and student enrolment and attendance are among the areas that need to be communicated better to both staff and students.

5. Discussion Findings of this study reveal that, during the pandemic, a number of changes, positive and negative, were made to the VL process of this particular institution.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

489

These changes include those that were made to the instructional setup, structural arrangements, and regarding the psychological readiness of students.

One of the most significant changes observed in the teaching and learning process of the institution during the pandemic was that the college had to shift the instructional setup to a fully virtual mode, thereby enabling not only students, but also lecturers and other staff, to work from home. Literature reports that many higher education institutions worldwide had to undertake similar changes during the pandemic (see Houlden & Veletsianos, 2020; Knysh & Dudziak, 2020). Unlike the situation at other institutions, a fully virtual mode of learning was not much of an issue for this institution, as the college had implemented VL long before the pandemic struck. Accordingly, we believe that, in a crisis such as the one caused by the pandemic, institutions should enrich their teaching and learning setup, as VL is the only educational prospect for disadvantaged students, like those on the remote islands of the Maldives. We also took note of the barriers that make it difficult to implement VL successfully.

Literature reports that the sudden and unexpected changes required for lesson delivery, which involved switching from conventional face-to-face mode to fully online mode, lead to higher education institutions experiencing significant challenges – like the institution in this study did. Some of these challenges include internet issues, being unprepared for online teaching and learning, the closure of education institutions, the lack of technical support, and the shortage of professional skills needed for online lesson design and delivery (Bao, 2020, Crawford et al., 2020, Sepulveda-Escobar & Morrison, 2020; Gohiya & Gohiya, 2020). Similar to many of these studies, at the institution selected for this study, students and lecturers experience frequent and serious internet connectivity issues. According to Hamid et al. (2020), one of the “main supporting factors for the effectiveness of online learning in the Covid-19 period were the carrying capacity of network access and the ability of devices to access the internet” (p. 85).

Hence, we believe that, especially during the pandemic, it is essential for an institution to pay extra and immediate attention to upgrading internet availability, as it is one of the most basic requirements for the smooth and effective continuation of online classes.

The findings also indicate that, in spite of the pandemic, improvements were reported for some aspects of fully virtual lecture delivery at this institution. One of the very significant improvements was interaction between lecturers and students. Transition to fully online mode had created more avenues for interaction between lecturers and students, which is a necessary condition for establishing good rapport between the two parties, particularly in a situation where students are psychologically affected to a serious extent (Roddy et al., 2017). This study also found that, in addition to better student–lecturer interaction, a good connection and interaction between students and the other support staff – such as those in administration and IT – is essential. These staff members should be extraresponsive and easily approachable, as most communication occurs online during the crisis.

To improve delivery of instructional programs, effective teaching strategies was discovered to be one of the main areas that requires special attention. It was

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

490

reported that lecturers need to use effective teaching and learning strategies to increase student engagement and learning, particularly when classes are held fully online in this kind of a critical situation. Lecturers can present the curriculum in various formats, and complement it by video chats, hold virtual meetings that make immediate feedback possible, and maintain a personal connection with students (Dhawan, 2020). As a matter of fact, effective strategies are not only important for online teaching and learning platforms, but in general, in any situation that involves teaching and learning (Pentimonti et al., 2017). As researchers such as Crawford et al. (2020) found at other institutions, that one of the reasons for lecturers’ inability to apply effective learning strategies could be time constraints and because they lack the skills required to design and deliver fully virtual classes. As the pandemic spread across the globe, academics did not seem to be fully ready and equipped with the tools and knowledge required for a rapid switch in the nature of delivery, from face-to-ace to fully virtual mode, which was forced by the crisis of full lockdown that confined people to their homes (Rapanta et al., 2020).

6. Conclusion and Implications This paper provided an account of the experiences of the students and staff of a higher education institution in the Maldives during the lockdown due to the COVID 19 pandemic. The study found that several changes had occurred to the teaching process of this particular institution, even though VL had been practiced at the institution long before the pandemic.

The study uncovered that some significant changes were made to the instructional setup and structural arrangements at the institution; these changes had both positive and negative impacts. Interaction between students and lecturers improved as they became more open to each other, which was beneficial for the psychological well-being of the students. However, due to internet connectivity issues, and in the absence of the required responsiveness of some administrative and IT staff at the institution, students experienced a great deal of difficulty, specifically during lecture delivery. Hence, improving communication between students and staff, and upgrading internet connectivity were found to be essential for improving the institution. Use of effective teaching and learning strategies is another aspect to be improved in the institution as a whole. Without a doubt, it is imperative for the institution to train and familiarize its staff for the fully VL era, so that they possess the necessary skills, knowledge, tools, and equipment to implement it effectively.

As this is a case study, the findings of this study are limited to the context of the higher education institution selected for this research. Therefore, research is required to identify and determine whether the situation is similar at other higher education providers in the Maldives, and in other countries. Research can be done at other institutions where VL had been practiced prior to the pandemic, so that they may be compared with these findings. Likewise, research could compare the changes that took place at institutions that did and did not practice VL prior to the pandemic.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

491

7. References Anderson, K. S. (2018, July 17-19). Charting new territories: Wading in the e–learning waters at a prominent university in Jamaica – Case study exploring the first fully online programme for the period 2013–2017. 12th International Conference on e– Learning. Madrid, Spain. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED590274 Bao, W. (2020). COVID‐19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(2), 113-115. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2016). (Mis)conceptualising themes, thematic analysis, and other problems with Fugard and Potts’ (2015) sample-size tool for thematic analysis.

International. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 19(6), 1407–1408. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2016.1195588 Cassidy, S. (2016). Virtual learning environments as mediating factors in student satisfaction with teaching and learning in higher education. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 5(1), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v5n1p113 Crawford J., Butler-Henderson K., Rudolph J., Malkawi B., Glowatz M., Burton R., Magni P., & Lam S. (2020). COVID-19: 20 countries’ higher education intra-period digital pedagogy responses. Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, 3(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.1.7 Dhawan, S. (2020). Online learning: A panacea in the time of COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018 Duraku, Z. H., & Hoxha, L. (2020). The impact of Covid-19 on higher education: A study of interaction among Kosovar students' mental health, attitudes toward online learning, study skills and changes in students' life. In Z. H. Duraku. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education and wellbeing.

Ebner, M., Schön, S., Braun, C., Ebner, M., Grigoriadis, Y., Haas, M., Leitner, P., & Taraghi, B. (2020). COVID-19 epidemic as e-learning boost? Chronological development and effects at an Austrian University against the background of the concept of “elearning readiness”. Future Internet, 12(6). https://www.mdpi.com/19995903/12/6/94 Sepulveda-Escobar, P., & Morrision, A. (2020). Online teaching placement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile: challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 587–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1820981 Fox, R. (2004, December 5-8). SARS epidemic: Teachers’ experiences using ICTs. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer & R. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 319-327). Perth. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/fox.html Giannini, S., & Brandolino, J. (2020). COVID-19 – Education is the bedrock of a just society in the post-COVID world. https://en.unesco.org/news/covid-19-educationbedrock-just-society-post-covid-world Gohiya, P., & Gohiya, A. (2020). E-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educational Philosophy and Theory. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-29575/v1 Gonzalez, T., de la Rubia, M. A., Hincz, K. P., Comas-Lopez, M., Subirats, L, Fort, S., & Sacha, G. M. (2020). Influence of COVID-19 confinement on students’ performance in higher education.

PLoS ONE, 15(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239490 Hamid, R., Sentryo, I., & Hasan, S. (2020). Online learning and its problems in the Covid19 emergency period.

Jurnal Prima Edukasia, 8(1), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.21831/jpe.v8i1.32165

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

492

Houlden S., & Veletsianos G. (2020, March 12). Coronavirus pushes universities to switch to online classes – but are they ready?

The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/coronaviruspushes-universities-to-switch-toonline-classes-but-arethey-ready-132728 Houston, D., Meyer, L. H., & Paewai, S. (2006). Academic staff workloads and job satisfaction: expectations and values in academe. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 28(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600800500283734 Knysh, O., & Dudziak, O. (2020). Overcoming the challenges - the impact of COVID-19 on agricultural higher education in Ukraine. Roman Journal for Multidimensional Education, 12(2), 162–167. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/12.2Sup1/302 Kurt, Ö. E., & Tingöy, Ö. (2017). The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in higher education: an empirical study in Turkey, and the UK. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0064-z Liaw, S. (2008). Investigating students’ perceived satisfaction, behavioral intention, and effectiveness of e-learning: A case study of the Blackboard system. Computers and Education, 51, 864–873. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.09.005 Love, N., & Fry, N. (2006). Accounting students’ perceptions of a virtual learning environments: Springboard or safety net? Accounting Education, 15(2), 151-166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/06939280600609201 Marinoni, G., Van’t Land, H., & Jensen, T. (2020, May). The impact of Covid-19 on higher education around the world. IAU Global Survey Report. International Association of Universities.

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy. R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of evidencebased practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online-learning studies.

U.S. Department of Education.

Morrice, J., & Demian, P. (2012). The use of virtual learning environments and their impact on academic performance.

Engineering Education, 7(1), 11-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.11120/ened.2012.07010011 Pentimonti, J. M., Justice, L. M., Yeomans-Maldonado, G., McGinty, A. S., Slocum, L., & O’Connell, A. (2017). Teachers’ use of high- and low-support scaffolding strategies to differentiate language instruction in high-risk/economically disadvantaged settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815117700865 Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online university teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y Roddy, C., Amiet, D. L., Chung, J., Holt, C., Shaw, L., McKenzie, S., Garivaldis, F., Lodge, J. M., & Mundy, M. E. (2017). Applying best practice online learning, teaching, and support to intensive online environments: An integrative review. Frontiers in Education, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2017.00059 Sarma, A. (2020). Challenges in teaching English language and literature in virtual space during COVID 19 pandemic: A study with special reference to the select UG colleges in Western Assam. Journal of Interdisciplinary Cycle Research, 12(9), 19221926. http://www.jicrjournal.com/gallery/208-jicr-september-3270.pdf Songkram, N., & Puthaseranee, B. (2015). E-learning system in virtual learning environment to enhance cognitive skills for learners in higher education. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 776–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.614

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

493

Šumak, B., Hericko, M., Pušnik, M., & Polančič, G. (2011). Factors affecting acceptance and use of Moodle: An empirical study based on TAM. Informatica, 35, 91–100.

Toquero, C. M. (2020). Challenges and opportunities for higher education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: the Philippine context. Pedagogical Research, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7947 WHO (2020, June 29). Timeline of WHO’s response to COVID-19. World Health Organization Newsroom. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

494

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 494-515, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.27 Received Aug 31, 2021; Revised Nov 19, 2021; Accepted Nov 30, 2021

Do EFL Teachers Reduce the Reading Gap in Qatar? A Study of Strategy Instruction in Government Schools Wafaa H. M. Morsy, Michael H. Romanowski and Xiangyun Du Qatar University, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0102-8665 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2454-3571 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9527-6795

Abstract. Teachers’ instructional practices are crucial to students’ achievement in reading comprehension. Students’ low English reading competence in Qatar’s government schools raises concerns about not only reading comprehension strategy instruction, but also, subsequently, learning as a natural outcome of teachers’ praxis. This quantitative survey investigated English as a foreign language (EFL) reading comprehension strategy instruction of a broad cross-sectional sample of (1-12) EFL teachers (n=754) of government schools in Qatar. The study examines teachers’ most frequently used strategies and explicit strategy instruction. To relate the findings of an exploratory data analysis, descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies, were calculated for each 5point Likert scale questionnaire item using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS-Version 24) statistics software. Results revealed that participant teachers reported a generally moderate and high frequency of using comprehension strategies (lowest mean 3.56 and highest mean 4.52).

The seven most used strategies (mean score ≥4) were: Identify main ideas, set purpose for reading, predictions, preview text, monitor comprehension, prior knowledge activation, and handle unfamiliar words. Conversely, the five strategies reported a comparatively lower use frequency (mean score ˂4) were: Text structure, questioning, visualizing, summarizing, and think aloud. The major findings on explicit strategy instruction indicated that teachers ignored the gradual release of responsibility to students. The implications of these findings suggest that EFL teachers demonstrate moderate use of reading comprehension strategy instruction. Further recommendations for the Ministry of Education, school principals, and teachers are offered.

Keywords: education; comprehension instruction; EFL reading; reading comprehension; reading comprehension strategies; schools in Qatar; strategy instruction

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

495

1. Introduction “Reading well is at the heart of all learning” (US Department of Education, 2005).

When teachers provide appropriate reading-strategy instruction, students are expected to develop effective reading abilities (Bruen, 2020; Damber et al., 2012; Hall & Piazza, 2008; Zipoli, 2017). Research suggests that reading learning strategies can be taught to foreign language learners to promote their comprehension skills (Grabe, 2009; Quigley, 2020). Hence, the teacher is a critical role player in the reading-strategy instruction, and their instructional practices are crucial to students’ achievement in comprehension (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Willingham, 2015). Subsequently, investigating teachers’ instructional practices of English as a foreign language (EFL) supports students’ learning as a natural outcome of teachers’ praxis.

In the case of the State of Qatar, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) undertook massive educational reform initiatives over the past two decades in fulfilment of the aim of the Qatar National Development Strategy (QNDS), which sets the framework for growth and development, to improve students’ “underachievement in math, science and English language at all levels” (GSDP, 2011, p. 13). Nevertheless, Qatar’s reading performance on standardized assessments, such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), remains low, compared to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) average (OECD 2009; 2014; 2020), suggesting that the quality of education was not up to international standards (Koç & Fadlelmula, 2016). Further, results of the Qatar Comprehensive Educational Assessment (QCEA), implemented annually to students in grades 4 to 11, showed low academic achievement of students in English. More than 85% of the students could not meet the curriculum standards benchmarked level in English for most of the grade levels (GSDP, 2011). Also, Qatari students studying abroad were reported struggling with English due to their lack of reading and writing abilities (Golkowska, 2013). Furthermore, employers in Qatar showed concerns about Qatari graduates’ poor English skills (Ahmed, 2019). Students’ low reading achievement indicates problems with the reading comprehension-strategy instruction and, consequently, the learning of reading in English (Nasser, 2017).

Several studies asserted the ineffective comprehension instruction in Qatar government schools over the past few decades (Ahmed, 2019; Al-Khwaiter, 2001; Brewer et al., 2007; Golkowska, 2013; Nasser, 2013; Palmer et al., 2016).

The MOEHE has embraced the communicative approach for teaching English in Qatar since the 1970s to improve students’ achievement in English. Nevertheless, teachers’ negative attitudes towards the communicative approach contributed to a great extent to the failure of this method to develop students’ reading and writing skills (Al-Khwaiter, 2001). Teachers’ instructional practices were not related to the communicative approach principles. Reading focused mainly on copying, memorizing, and grammar exercises (Abbara, 1991; Galalah, 1992). More recent studies reported that teachers continued to demonstrate insufficient comprehension instruction. According to Nasser (2013), reading teachers contributed little to students' language acquisition, reading-comprehension strategies, and word knowledge during an extracurricular reading intervention conducted in Qatar governmental schools. Besides, Golkowska (2013) reported

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

496

that Qatari university students studying abroad had not received effective reading-comprehension strategy instruction during secondary education and, thus, became struggling readers at the university level. Though one of the main objectives of the education reform in Qatar is to change teachers’ instructional practices into student-centred learning (Brewer et al., 2007), which is at the heart of effective reading comprehension instruction (McLaughlin, 2012), skills needed to implement this approach may not have been acquired yet by teachers and students (Palmer et al., 2016).

This study aims to provide insight into reading-instruction strategies used by EFL teachers in Qatar government schools to teach comprehension and bridge the existing research gap in the field by providing empirical data from the context of Qatar. Research supports the view that teaching reading comprehension strategies enhances students’ comprehension (Ballou, 2012; Day, 2020; Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2017; McLaughlin, 2012). Exploring EFL teachers’ comprehension of instructional practices should allow teacher educators and professional development providers to gain insight from this study as to what inservice teachers believe and practise in their reading classrooms. It is hoped that this knowledge will provide information sources for planning effective future professional development programmes and teacher education courses, both of which are of fundamental importance to any educational reform to succeed (Sahlberg, 2021). Such programmes should target reading comprehension strategies and the systematic conduct of explicit strategy instruction that have been proved crucial to students’ comprehension and automaticity (Fogarty et al., 2020). Eventually, findings should support students’ reading ability as a natural outcome of teachers’ practices (Darling-Hammond & Baratz-Snowden, 2007).

When teachers provide appropriate strategy instruction, they are more likely to succeed in developing the reading abilities of their students (Damber et al., 2012; Hall & Piazza, 2008). It is imperative that teachers recognize what good readers do and what it takes to become a good reader to assist struggling readers (Cárdenas-Hagan, 2020; Grabe, 2009). In other words, teachers should model how good readers read (Lai, 2006) and promote students’ good reading behaviour (Hernandez-Laboy, 2009; Lai, 2006). Skilled teachers have a deep knowledge of both subject and teaching methods that interact to form effective teaching competence. They can effectively and flexibly adapt content and methods to students’ needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999; Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2017).

Therefore, this study aimed to answer the following research questions: 1) What are the reading comprehension strategies employed most frequently by EFL teachers in Qatar government schools? and, 2) How often do EFL teachers in Qatar government schools provide explicit strategy instruction?

2. Literature Review Reading Comprehension Defined This study utilizes the definition of reading by Grabe (2009, p. 74) as “a combination of text input, appropriate cognitive processes, and the information that we already know”. He further states that this definition should address the characteristics of fluent readers, the cognitive processes used, and how they work together to comprehend a text (Grabe, 2009). This definition is agreed on by a list

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

497

of researchers who identified reading as a mental process which the readers use to comprehend a written text (Grabe, 2009; McLaughlin, 2012; McMunn Dooley & Matthews, 2009; Pressley, 2001).

Various perspectives exist from which reading comprehension can be viewed, including sociocultural, affective, physiological, philosophical, educational, and cognitive. This study assumed a cognitive learning theory aligned with social constructivism and Vygotsky’s seminal zone of proximal development. Hence, it followed the definition of reading involving mental processes readers utilize in comprehending different texts. This view emerged from the claim that understanding reading as a cognitive process is a prerequisite for understanding other approaches (Azar, 2019; Barber et al., 2020). In addition, Vygotsky (1978) influenced the literacy researchers by his well-applied formulation of the zone of proximal development (Au, 1998). Vygotsky argued that a child’s mental functions have social origins as they are mediated by the collaboration with adults (Au, 1998) supporting the gradual release of responsibility until the individuals can independently learn something new and successfully perform the task (Grabe, 2009; Iwai, 2011). Therefore, the role of teachers, peers, and classroom instruction received major emphasis in research on literacy learning (Au, 1998).

Skilled Reading Comprehension Comprehension strategies refer to the procedures or methods proficient readers employ to ensure their comprehension (Quigley, 2020; Treiman, 2018).

Researchers sought to describe the skilled reading comprehension of ‘good readers’ or ‘strategic readers’ (Duke & Pearson, 2008; Grabe, 2009; Grabe & Stoller, 2013; Neufeld, 2005; Pressley & Allington, 2014; Pressley & Hilden, 2006).

Grabe (2009) describes strategic readers as being able to use strategies effectively in various contexts, to actively engage in reading, read extensively, identify relevant information and read for more extended periods. They also build automaticity in strategy use for routine situations they encounter (Grabe, 2009).

Besides, good readers plan before they read. They set a purpose for their reading, preview the text, activate prior knowledge, and make predictions about the text.

During and after reading, good readers mainly monitor their comprehension, identify main ideas and use context clues to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. They also use text structure to guide comprehension, summarize, evaluate, and reflect on the text (Day, 2020; Neufeld, 2005; Pressley & Hilden, 2002).

Teachers’ Implementation of Comprehension Strategies A considerable number of L1 and L2 language researchers investigated English language teachers’ implementation of reading strategies in an attempt to determine the most frequently used by teachers to enhance comprehension in students (Alsamadani, 2012; Althewini, 2016; Hernandez-Laboy, 2009; Kadah, 2005; Kuzborska, 2010; Reyna-Barron, 2016). Alsamadani (2012) explored EFL Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards reading-comprehension strategy instruction in the EFL classroom. Results revealed the positive attitudes Saudi teachers had towards nine? strategies, among which: previewing, questioning, and visualization. Conversely, teachers were uncertain about or unaware of the other strategies' importance, such as setting a purpose for reading, and thinking aloud.

Reyna-Barron (2016) investigated teachers’ lack of knowledge of comprehension

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

498

strategy instruction and found that they did not show awareness of the strategies that research proved to be effective in developing comprehension. Moreover, though research states that teachers are aware of the importance of reading strategies in comprehending a written text, some teachers seem to be reluctant to intervene with the student-centred learning classroom, and maintain their role as facilitators, but with no direct instruction (Hernandez-Laboy, 2009). In recent years, teachers are hesitant to deliver direct instruction, including explicit teaching of reading strategies, although research proved that students benefit from the systematic conduction of the process (Hernandez-Laboy, 2009; ReynaBarron, 2016).

Explicit Instruction of Strategies Comprehension strategy instruction is the direct and explicit teaching of readingcomprehension strategies to help students become strategic and proficient readers. Increasing students’ self-regulation in using strategies is a significant component of comprehension instruction. Students should be taught how, when, and why to use a strategy to increase automaticity (Baker, 2002; Spencer et al., 2019). According to Grabe (2009), reading strategies can be taught effectively, ultimately improving reading comprehension. Explicit strategy instruction has become strongly recommended to teach strategies for students by many researchers (Duffy, 2002; Duke & Pearson, 2008; Hamouda, 2021; Hayes, 2012; Pressley & Hilden, 2002). Pressley and Woloshyn (1995, p. 11) state that, “Strategy instruction should be explicit, intensive, and extensive … [and] strategies should be taught to students directly over an extended period of time as part of the existing curriculum”. However, despite automaticity and efficient use of strategies having been proven by research as evidently critical to reading success, little attention has been devoted to developing instructional methods that promote automaticity in comprehension (Sinatra et al., 2002).

Characteristics of an Effective Teacher of Reading It has been highlighted in the literature that the teacher is a critical component in reading- strategy instruction. Chamot and O’Malley (1994) assert the importance of teachers of reading as having “an important role in conveying to students the importance of using strategies, defining various strategies and their use with academic tasks, and supporting the students in their efforts to become more strategic, independent, and self-regulated” (p. 58). In other words, teachers are responsible for providing students with an explanation of strategy use. According to Winograd and Hare (1988), the teacher’s role is to teach students what the strategy is, how to use it, and when. Though it is generally accepted that teaching children how to read is a demanding task that requires great effort (Duke et al., 2021; Treiman, 2018), Blair et al. (2007) maintain that exerting much effort alone is not enough. Effective teachers know precisely what to focus their effort on to make a difference.

Ruddell (2008) investigated highly effective teachers’ practices in reading classes and concluded that effective teachers possess specific characteristics. Effective teachers can activate students’ prior knowledge and relate the learning experience and information to their personal beliefs. In addition, effective teachers are vitally important in designing an active learning environment with clear, meaningful

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

499

objectives and constructive feedback. Furthermore, effective teachers are aware of their students’ different needs, potential, and motives (Ruddell, 2008).

3. Research Methods Research Design A quantitative method design was employed in this descriptive study utilizing a questionnaire survey, which is typically used to gather data at a particular point in time to describe an existing phenomenon (Cohen et al., 2013). In this study it was used to gain insight into the current conditions of reading comprehension strategies instruction in the EFL reading classes. A questionnaire-based survey was used as the method for data generation. According to Cohen et al. (2013), using a survey is useful in educational research in that it usually gathers data over a short period of time, and hence is economical and efficient, represents a broad target population through large-scale data gathering to enable drawing generalizations, and provides descriptive, inferential information (Cohen et al., 2013). In addition, surveys also are used to explore the relationships between variables (McMillan, 1996). Survey research is an appropriate approach to answer the research questions of this study. Surveys collect the required quantitative data (usage frequency of reading instructional strategies) from a broad population (EFL teachers in all government schools in Qatar), allowing for the researchers to draw conclusions and make possible generalizations (see Appendix 1 for the survey questions).

Participants and Data Collection Participants in the study were EFL teachers from Qatari government (public) schools, which make up nearly 9% of the total number of teachers working at all levels in government schools in Qatar (MDPS, 2015). The questionnaire survey was administered online via Survey Monkey. The link was sent to all EFL teachers working in governmental elementary, preparatory, and secondary schools via an invitation email from the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) official platform. The total population of EFL teachers is 1815 (72% female, n= 1313; 28% male, n= 502), distributed among 103, 58, and 55 elementary, preparatory, and secondary government schools respectively (MDPS, 2015). The number of contacted teachers was 1815, out of which 871 responded to the questionnaire. Completed responses were 754 with a response rate of 41.5%, as 117 respondents withdrew without submitting their responses. A total of 754 EFL teachers responded and completed the questionnaire voluntarily and anonymously, of which 479 (63.5%) were females, while 275 (36.5%) were males.

This sample is a fair and representative sample of the population, that is, EFL teachers in Qatar’s government schools. Both the MOEHE and Qatar University approved the study as ethical. Table 1 shows the demographic data of participants.

Table 1: Demographical Data of Participants Characteristic Gender Teaching-Level

Level Female Male Elementary Preparatory Secondary

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Frequency 479 275 338 189 227

Percent 63.5% 36.5% 44.8% 25.1% 30.1%

500

Years of Experience

5 years or less Between 6-11 years Between 12-17 years 18 years or more

88 264 200 202

11.7 35.0% 26.5% 26.8%

Instrument, Validity and Reliability This study utilized The Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction survey instrument, initially developed by Hernandez-Laboy (2009), based on the cognitive/social constructivist approach (Ballou, 2012; Hernandez-Laboy, 2009; Negari & Askani, 2014) and Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Ballou, 2012; Grabe, 2009). Teachers responded to 12 close-ended questions by rating their frequency of instruction of the reading strategy described in each of the statements, and six close-ended questions by rating the frequency of implementing explicit strategy instructional practices on a five-point Likert scale ranging from never=1 to always=5.

A panel of three experts evaluated the instrument: one in the field of ESL curriculum, an ESL methodology and reading expert in the learning and reading processes of ESL, and an evaluation and assessment expert. The panel used a validation instrument prepared by the researcher, who initially developed this instrument, to evaluate pertinence, wording, and adequacy. Statistically, the questionnaire generated a Cronbach’s Alpha of .880, indicating high reliability.

For validity, the mean score of each expert was as follows: 3.00, 3.00, and 2.97 (maximum score was 3). Experts’ feedback on the survey construction items was collected through cognitive interviews. These interviews helped to evaluate and prepare a reliable and valid questionnaire (see Hernandez-Laboy, 2009).

A pilot study was conducted in the new context Qatar government schools, to ensure the validity of the questionnaire with the selected sample. According to Cohen et al. (2013), a pilot study is conducted to check the clarity of the questionnaire items, the time it takes to complete the questionnaire, and to gain feedback on the questionnaire's appearance, layout, and instructions. Based on the feedback from the pre-test group, no modifications were applied to the survey instrument.

To ensure instrument reliability, internal consistency of the instrument was measured using the Cronbach-alpha coefficient. The result shows that with 754 participants (N=754) the Cronbach-alpha coefficient computed for the 18 items of the questionnaire was .901, which indicated high reliability.

Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies, were calculated for each questionnaire item using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS-Version 24) statistics software to obtain exploratory data analysis. Data gathered were analysed using a survey scale that varied from always to never. The alternatives were scored as: always=5; frequently=4; sometimes=3; rarely=2; and never=1.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

501

4. Results Question One To answer research question one, “What are the reading comprehension strategies employed most frequently by EFL teachers in Qatar government schools?”, data were obtained from responses to 12 items of the instrument dealing with the reading strategies teachers used in the reading-instruction process and how frequently they engaged students in strategic reading. The data were tabulated and the frequency, percentage and mean scores were generated for each item and the overall number of items for this part.

Teachers’ responses converged on always (5) and frequently (4) for most items with a total mean score of 4.16. The think-aloud strategy dealt with in item #5, which is considered essential in developing the reading skills in EFL learners, seemed to be not habitually utilized by most teachers. Only 22.8% of the participants chose ‘always’ as their response, while 77.2% of their responses concentrated on frequently, sometimes, rarely, and never. The generated mean score for this strategy (3.56) is remarkably low regarding other items such as #1 (Identify their purpose of reading) and #3 (Make predictions before and during reading), which obtained (4.5).

As for items #7 and #9, which dealt with visualizing and summarizing respectively to aid comprehension, approximately 35% of participants’ answers centred on always, while the rest, ~66%, were distributed around frequently (~30%), sometimes (~28%), rarely (~6%) and never (~1%). These strategies were expected to be more frequently used in the reading classes by EFL teachers, but they were found to be less preferred with mean scores of 3.92 and 3.93, respectively. Though item #10 (generating questions) generated almost the same low mean score (3.93), participants’ answers focused more on always (~42%), whereas the remaining 58% of the responses ranged from frequently to never. Generating questions is one of the most effective protocols in reciprocal reading, a strategy that primarily demands of students to read and comprehend a text. Participants in this study seemed to prefer traditional teaching methods, which were always less demanding for themselves in terms of planning, instruction time, and individualized activities.

These findings correspond with the relatively low total mean score of the complete sample (4.16) for this part of the questionnaire. A higher score was expected, which would have indicated extensive use of strategic reading in the EFL reading process. These findings also were congruent with the high mean scores ranging from 4.52 to 4.29, which is notably higher than the total mean score of the complete sample (4.16), obtained for items 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 12, which dealt with less demanding instructional strategies based mainly on traditional oral practices, and requiring less effort in planning and instruction, namely purpose of reading, text preview, prediction, prior knowledge, main ideas, and monitoring comprehension. Table 2 below presents a summary of question one results dealing with strategic reading.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

502

Table 2: Total Mean Scores in a Descending Order for Reading Comprehension Strategy Use in the Reading Process # 8 1 3 2 12 4 11 6 10 7 9 5

Strategy Identify the important ideas in a text Identify their purpose of reading Make predictions before and during reading Preview text before reading Monitor their comprehension during reading Activate relevant background knowledge for reading Handle unfamiliar words using context clues Use text structure to support comprehension Generate questions for the text Create visual representation to aid comprehension and recall (visualizing) Summarize what they read Think aloud while reading Total Mean Score

Mean 4.52 4.5 4.5 4.34 4.3 4.29 4.12 3.99 3.93 3.92 3.9 3.56 4.16

Question Two To answer question two, “How often do EFL teachers in Qatar government schools provide explicit strategy instruction?”, data obtained from the six items measuring the frequency of including each explicit instruction practice in the reading class were tabulated, and the frequency, percentage and mean scores were calculated for each, as well as for the overall number of items for this part.

For items #1, 2, 3, and 4 (strategy-explicit instruction, modelling, cooperative learning, and guided practice), the majority of the respondents’ answers (N=754) centred on always (5) and frequently (4), with 77.6%, 78.5%, 82.8%, and 81.4%, respectively.

Items #5 and #6 were different since only 63.7% and 57.6% of the responses centred on always and frequently, respectively, which indicated that participants were not confident enough about their practice of these two strategies dealing with the independent practice of the strategy (item #5) and using a combination of multiple strategies (item #6).

As for items #5 and #6, an analysis was determined due to the significant differences compared to the other items in the same part. For item #5, which dealt with the independent practice of the reading strategy in the classroom, teachers’ answers conveyed a doubtful knowledge of this strategy. Only 26.3% of teachers selected ‘always’ as a response to the question, while the responses of the remaining 73.7% were distributed over frequently (37.4%), sometimes (32.2%), rarely (3.8%), and never (.3%).

Item #6, which dealt with combining multiple reading strategies in the classroom, showed inconsistent responses. Several (23.9%) of the responses centred on always, while the remaining 76.2% were distributed over frequently (33.7%), sometimes (32.8%), rarely (8.4%), and never (1.3%).

The data analysis of this part of the instrument, with a mean score of 4.06, suggests that participants in this study knew about explicit teaching using reading strategies. However, two out of six items showed inconsistency and limited use

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

503

of these strategies. This might imply that teachers had difficulty in practising specific strategies which demand more time and differentiated instructional strategies. For an insightful view of the findings for this part of the questionnaire, Table 3 below summarizes the results, including frequency, percentage, and mean score for each item in this part in descending order.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for Explicit Reading Comprehension Strategies used in Instruction in a Descending Order #

Items

3

Collaborative use of the strategy (cooperative learning) 4 Guided practice using the strategy 2 Modelling of the strategy in action 1 Explicit instruction of the strategy in action 5 Independent practice using the strategy 6 Combination of multiple reading strategies (orchestration) Total Mean Score

Always

Frequently

Rarely

Never

Mean

288 38.2%

Sometimes 121 16.0%

F %

336 44.6%

8 1.1%

1 0.1%

4.26

F %

317 42.0%

297 39.4%

131 17.4%

7 0.9%

2 0.3%

4.22

F %

325 43.1%

267 35.4%

148 19.6%

10 1.3%

4 0.5%

4.19

F %

303 40.2%

282 37.4%

148 19.6%

19 2.5%

2 0.3%

4.15

F %

198 26.3%

282 37.4%

243 32.2%

29 3.8%

2 0.3%

3.86

F P

180 23.9%

254 33.7%

247 32.8%

63 8.4%

10 1.3%

3.7

4.06

5. Discussion Use of Reading Comprehension Strategies by EFL Teachers in Qatar Government Schools In response to research question one, dealing with the comprehension strategies used by EFL teachers, results of this study asserted frequent implementation of reading comprehension strategy instruction in the reading classes to enhance students’ comprehension. This result reported by language researchers stressed the crucial role of teaching comprehension strategies in building strategic readers.

Pressley (2000) and Duke et al. (2021) contended that explicit comprehension strategies should be implemented to develop strategic readers. Similarly, Quigley (2020) and Cárdenas-Hagan (2020) highlighted the importance of being a strategic reader in enhancing reading comprehension. Furthermore, Koda (2005) and Bruen (2020) determined that strategic reading improved comprehension in students and developed their critical thinking skills. Teachers in their studies indicated positive attitudes towards comprehension strategy instruction.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

504

The following results summarize the top seven reading-comprehension strategies the respondents used in their teaching most often (mean score ≥ 4). These strategies, in descending order of frequency of instruction, are: identify main ideas (4.52), set purpose for reading (4.5), predictions (4.5), preview text (4.34), monitor comprehension (4.3), prior knowledge activation (4.29), and handle unfamiliar words (4.12).

Teachers reported highly frequent use of identifying the purpose of reading a text in their classes. These results are congruent with Reyna-Barron’s study (2016) that reported that teachers had strong beliefs and attitudes towards teaching readingcomprehension strategies to students – teachers implemented the strategy of identifying a goal or a purpose for reading and explained to students how to apply it through direct instruction and modelling (Reyna-Barron, 2016). In addition, this finding implies teachers have strong attitudes towards routinely implementing the strategy of setting a purpose for reading in the reading classes. Teaching students the concept of developing a clear goal for reading a text is of fundamental importance in building strategic readers (Conner & Farr, 2009; Pressley & Hilden, 2002; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001).

This result also indicates that teachers demonstrate a belief that good readers should set a goal for reading. The current study's finding was consistent with research suggesting that utilizing the strategy of setting a goal for reading is beneficial in developing students’ comprehension. According to Neufeld’s (2005) overview of expert readers’ characteristics, expert readers can set a purpose for reading. To become strong readers, devoted to comprehending texts, students should have a compelling purpose in mind when reading a text (Duke & Pearson, 2008). Reading with no purpose in mind leads to a lack of necessary inputs to deal with the text and understand the information presented (Conner & Farr, 2009).

On the other hand, the current study was incongruent with findings from Hernandez-Laboy (2009) and Kuzborska (2010). Hernandez-Laboy (2009) conducted a study investigating the reading strategies ESL teachers utilized to enhance comprehension in students. The majority of the teachers did not teach students how to establish a clear goal for reading. Almost similarly, Kuzborska (2010) found that setting a goal for reading was rarely practised by teachers in the observed classes. In relation to the current study, this could highlight the importance of observing instructional practices of EFL teachers in the reading classes to explore how teachers implement the strategy and whether their reported belief is consistent with their practices. As Cummins et al. (2004) contend, to create an effective learning environment, it is vital to determine the congruence between what teachers believe about reading comprehension instruction and the actual practices in the classroom.

In this study, the majority of teachers indicated their frequent use of teaching students the strategy of identifying the main ideas in a text. It seems that the majority of the teachers upheld the importance of this strategy to comprehend a text. This finding confirms Grabe’s (2009) claim that in teaching and planning reading activities, emphasizing comprehension as the main idea should be the teachers’ priority instructional practice. Consequently, this practice will ensure that students understand why effective main-idea comprehension activities are

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

505

important. Post-reading questions then will help teachers assess their students’ abilities to grasp the critical ideas in a text and differentiate these from minor details. To achieve the goal of this strategy, teachers should facilitate class discussions, including negotiations and assessment of peers’ answers, asking for evidence-based answers supported by the text, sharing ideas, and evaluating responses (Anderson, 2009; Grabe, 2009; Quigley, 2020). In this respect, it is essential to emphasise teachers’ abilities to plan such activities and implement these in the reading class. Previous research outlined teachers’ lack of the ability and required attitude to teach main-idea comprehension activities. Examining a similar EFL context in Saudi Arabia, significant similarities can be observed.

Altheweni (2016), in accordance with this study's findings, reported that Saudi EFL teachers demonstrated a strong tendency toward utilizing the main-idea strategy. However, Alsamadani (2012) concluded that Saudi EFL teachers were doubtful about implementing comprehension activities that foster the main-idea comprehension, such as writing summaries to reflect on key ideas in a text, discussing and evaluating students’ answers, providing feedback on what a student has read, or analysing the given information. Results from the present study and previous research accentuate the need for guided professional development that supports teachers’ performance in designing and planning main-idea comprehension activities.

In the study reported here, teachers displayed irregularity in implementing the strategies of prior knowledge activation and text previewing. Findings indicated that 48.8% and 55.3% of teachers selected ’always’ using these strategies. This finding suggests teachers’ lack of awareness of the crucial role these two strategies play in comprehension. Activating students’ knowledge about a topic and previewing a text before reading serve as the basis of reading comprehension, especially for struggling readers (Mathes et al., 2007, Fogarty, 2020). According to DarlingHammond and Baratz-Snowden (2007), activating students’ prior knowledge through well-designed activities is an overarching characteristic of an effective reading teacher. However, unlike what the present study reveals, previous studies reported teachers’ strong attitudes towards activating students’ prior knowledge (Alsamadani, 2012) and teachers spending the largest proportion of instruction time on activating prior knowledge of students and/or previewing texts (Reyna-Barron, 2016). It is worth noting that teachers’ attitudes and beliefs do not necessarily reflect the actual classroom practices (Fang, 1996). ReynaBarron (2016), who analysed the implementation of reading comprehension instructional activities in 7th grade classrooms found that all 12 participants observed spent 65 percent of comprehension activities on activating students’ prior knowledge and/or previewing the text. Teachers focused mainly on prereading activities while neglecting the importance of the other activities to be conducted during and after the reading. Results from previous research and the current study suggest that teachers may lack an awareness of the essential principles of comprehension strategy instruction. This indicates that teachers should be able to plan effectively for the reading comprehension instruction period to achieve the maximum benefit of strategy instruction.

Results of this study indicate a list of the top five reading comprehension strategies that were employed least by the participant teachers (mean score ˂4).

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

506

These strategies in descending order of frequency of instruction are text structure (3.99), questioning (3.93), visualizing (3.92), summarizing (3.9), and thinking aloud (3.56). Although these strategies were reported as the least frequently used, the teachers reported usage of these strategies as moderate.

Teachers asserted moderate use of text structure to support comprehension strategy. This finding contradicts research findings regarding the importance of teaching students text structure for comprehension. According to Duke & Pearson (2008), Grabe (2009), and Arabmofrad et al. (2021), promoting students’ awareness of discourse signalling markers and organization through explicit instruction are fundamental for comprehending a text successfully, locating the main ideas, and even organizing information within a certain discourse structure to fit the purpose of their piece of writing in a writing exercise (Grabe, 2009; Pearson, 2009). It can be implied that teachers in the current study lacked basic knowledge about teaching text structure and how essential it is for comprehension. This result was congruent with recent studies (HernandezLaboy, 2009; Kuzborska, 2010; Reyna-Barron, 2016) investigating reading comprehension strategy instruction. Hernandez-Laboy (2009) found that teachers who participated in her study did not use text structure strategy to support comprehension with the regularity anticipated. In addition, Kuzborska (2010) concluded that teachers were dubious about the need of their students to learn text structure. Based on classroom observations, Kuzborska (2010) and ReynaBarron (2016) found teaching text structure to support comprehension was not practised by teachers. In accordance with previous research findings, the expectation with the present study was that teachers would take responsibility for implementing text structure strategy in the EFL reading classes. To achieve the goal of text structure strategy, teachers ought to design activities that engage students in pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading active learning exercises to develop students’ awareness of text structure (Duke & Pearson, 2008; Grabe, 2009; Grabe & Stoller, 2013).

The think-aloud strategy scored the lowest frequency of use among all strategies. It could be argued that teachers did not consider using the ‘think aloud’ protocol as a comprehension strategy. This result contradicts Oster’s (2001) conclusion that “thinking aloud leads students to improved discussions, better understandings and more enjoyment of literature” (p. 64). The finding of the present study could imply teachers’ lack of knowledge and proficiency necessary for implementing the think-aloud strategy demonstrated to be crucial in students’ comprehension.

Besides, students seemed to miss the research-supported benefits of using the think-aloud strategy in the reading classes. Empirical research studies assert that think-aloud strategies are effective at improving student comprehension (Baumann et al., 1993; Bereiter & Bird, 1985). Often cited is a research study conducted by Bereiter and Bird (1985) that concluded students who were taught to think aloud while reading comprehended better than those who were not taught the same, based on the results of a comprehension test as the instrument of assessment.

Moreover, the think-aloud strategy was found to be beneficial for 4th grade students (Baumann et al., 1993; Chien, 2019). The researchers asked the children to read a story aloud and stopped them intermittently to ask about what they were doing

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

507

or thinking about while reading a certain part of the story. Students’ responses showed great awareness of monitoring comprehension and critical thinking (Baumann et al., 1993). Scored the lowest among the other strategies selected by teachers in the present study, the limited use of the read-aloud strategy concedes the ineffective use of an essential group of strategies, namely prediction, monitoring, questioning, summarizing, and visualizing. According to Keene (2009), the thinkaloud strategy is one of the fundamental ways teachers deploy to share these strategies with their students. This group of strategies is being shared in all grade levels and is meant to become skills used by all students effortlessly and automatically (Duke & Pearson, 2009). These conclusions agree with the results from the present study that reported low-use frequency of summarizing, questioning and visualizing strategies. This result is also aligned with that of Hernandez-Laboy (2009), asserting that the majority of teachers who participated in her study had not considered the think-aloud strategy as a comprehension instructional practice.

Use of Explicit Strategy Instruction as Reading Comprehension Strategies In response to research question 2, results of this study reported that participant teachers asserted their frequent use of direct explicit instructional practices of reading-comprehension strategies. However, it was concluded that teachers did not teach students how to independently practise and implement comprehension strategies in the reading process with the regularity anticipated. This result is inconsistent with the crucial role direct explicit instruction of strategies plays in the comprehension process. Metacognition, the awareness of one’s cognitive processes, is found to develop through the use of explicit instruction (Barber et al.

2020; Duke & Pearson, 2008; Oster, 2001; Pressley & Hilden, 2002). Teachers in the present study seemed to ignore the gradual release of responsibility to students; albeit such release of responsibility ultimately leads to independent practice. Explicit comprehension strategy instruction must include a direct explanation to students of the goal and application of the strategy, as well as direct practise using the strategy, collaborative use of the strategy, guided practise with gradual release of responsibility, and then independent use of the strategy by students (Duke & Pearson, 2008; McLaughlin, 2012). Teachers may be constrained in doing this by the limited instruction time and the extensive curriculum they need to cover.

Other factors may contribute to this result, such as lack of professional knowledge and efficiency.

6. Recommendations and Conclusion Based on the data analysis of the present investigation, findings, discussion, and recommendations are offered to the MOEHE to provide in-service teachers with meaningful professional development targeting reading-comprehension strategy instruction, including mentoring and coaching, in order to promote positive change in EFL classrooms. In addition, EFL teachers should critically examine and evaluate their reading classroom practices and measure the impact of their instruction on students’ performance. Furthermore, students should be involved in guided practice activities followed by independent practice of the strategy to implement gradual release of responsibility. Students thus will become competent users of the strategy.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

508

The MOEHE and school principals are strongly encouraged to adopt reading strategies in all disciplines, since strategic reading is generalizable to different content areas. Hence, in-service training on reading strategies should be provided to all subject teachers. Pre-service education programmes are urged to comprise courses on comprehension strategy instruction and practical teaching practices of these strategies. This would provide student-teachers with great opportunities to reflect on their practice and administer a deep understanding of the strategy instruction process.

However, this study also had several limitations. First, empirically this study merely relied on a self-reported questionnaire survey. Although it provides an overall picture of the government school EFL teachers’ instructional practices in the reading classes, the reasons for these patterns might have been better explained through in-depth qualitative interviews. In addition, surveying teachers presenting self-reported data may not necessarily represent classroom realities. Therefore, future studies comprising on-site observations to determine the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and classroom realities should be conducted. Finally, students’ practices in reading classes should be investigated to determine the quality and effectiveness of the reading-comprehension instruction they receive in EFL classrooms. Such investigations could help to identify strategies and instructional practices that are effective in developing reading comprehension.

In conclusion, reading in a foreign language is a challenge for both students and teachers. EFL teachers lack the awareness and skills needed to equip their students with the strategies required through effective strategy instruction and gradual release of responsibility in the classroom. Consequently, comprehension has become problematic as the language barrier hinders understanding of a text.

The MOEHE, supervisors, and teachers should consider that performing strategy instruction solely cannot improve student comprehension. Still, collaborative work and commitment of all the educational process stakeholders should contribute to the development of reading comprehension in EFL students. The goals of educational reform initiatives in Qatar, QNV, and QNDP are aimed at implementing a student-centred approach in education and, subsequently, at improving students’ achievement in reading as would be indicated by international student standardized tests (e.g., PISA). Therefore, ongoing assessment of both classroom practices and students’ outcomes is highly recommended for the development process of reading-strategy instruction to meet these educational goals.

7. References Abbara, T. M. (1991). Testing English as a foreign language: a case study of classroom tests in Qatar (Doctoral dissertation, Durham University).

Ahmed, F. B. J. (2019). Foreign Universities in Qatar: A Critical Review of Policy and Sustainability Issues. Global Economic Observer, 7(1), 50-59.

Al-Khwaiter, J. (2001). Communicative language teaching and curriculum innovation in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language in Qatar: A study of the classroom and its socio-cultural context. (Publication No. DXN062494) [Doctoral dissertation, De Montfort University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

509

Alsamadani, H. A. (2012). Reading Strategy Instruction in Saudi Schools. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(5), 829-837. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.3.5.829-837 Althewini, A. M. A. (2016). Saudi teachers' beliefs about reading instruction in English as a foreign language (EFL) [Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University].

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Anderson, N. J. (2009). ACTIVE reading: The research base for a pedagogical approach in the reading classroom. In Z. H. Han & N. J. Anderson (Eds), Second language reading research and instruction: Crossing the boundaries (pp. 117-143). University of Michigan Press.

Arabmofrad, Badi, M., & Rajaee Pitehnoee, M. (2021). The Relationship among Elementary English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Hemispheric Dominance, Metacognitive Reading Strategies Preferences, and Reading Comprehension. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 37(5), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2020.1846005 Au, K. H. (1998). Social constructivism and the school literacy learning of students of diverse backgrounds. Journal of Literacy Research, 30(2), 297-319.

Azar, M. (2019). Reading Minds: A Cognitive-digital Approach to the Study of Literature (Publication Number 27605841) [Doctoral dissertation, Freie Universitaet Berlin].

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://refubium.fuberlin.de/handle/fub188/24382 Baker, L. (2002). Metacognition in comprehension instruction. In C. C. Block & S. R. Parris (Eds), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 77-95). Guilford.

Ballou, A. K. (2012). Using explicit strategy instruction to improve reading comprehension [Master's thesis, St. John Fisher College]. Fisher Digital Publications. https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/education_ETD_masters/221 Barber, A. T., Klauda, S. L., & Stapleton, L. M. (2020). Cognition, engagement, and motivation as factors in the reading comprehension of Dual Language Learners and English Speakers: Unified or distinctive models? Reading and Writing, 33(9), 2249-2279.

Baumann, J. F., Jones, L. A., & Seifert-Kessell, N. (1993). Using think alouds to enhance children's comprehension monitoring abilities. The Reading Teacher, 47(3), 184-193.

Bereiter, C., & Bird, M. (1985). Use of thinking aloud in identification and teaching of reading comprehension strategies. Cognition and instruction, 2(2), 131-156.

Blair, T. R., Rupley, W. H., & Nichols, W. D. (2007). The effective teacher of reading: Considering the “what” and “how” of instruction. The Reading Teacher, 60(5), 432438.

Brewer, D. J., Augustine, C. H., Zellman, G. L., Ryan, G., Goldman, C. A., Stasz, C., & Constant, L. (2007). Education for a New Era: Design and implementation of K-12 education reform in Qatar. RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/MG548 Bruen, J. (2020). Language learning strategies for reading comprehension: Assessing the strategy use of young adults at beginners’ level taking Chinese, German, Japanese or Spanish as foreign languages at university. Language Learning Journal, 48(2), 170–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2017.1370606 Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2020). Literacy foundations for English learners: A comprehensive guide to evidence-based instruction. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Chamot, A. U., & O'Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Addison-Wesley.

Chien, H. Y. (2019). Effects of Two Teaching Strategies on Pre-schoolers’ Oral Language Skills: Repeated Read-Aloud With Question- and-Answer Teaching Embedded and Repeated Read-Aloud With Executive Function Activities

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

510

Embedded. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2932–2932. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02932 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. Routledge.

Conner, J. M., & Farr, R. (2009). Purposeful Reading at the Middle Level. Principal, 88(4), 56-57.

Cummins, C., Cheek, E. H., & Lindsey, J. D. (2004). The relationship between teachers’ literacy beliefs and their instructional practices: A brief review of the literature for teacher educators. E-Journal of Teaching & Learning in Diverse Settings, 1(2), 175188.

Damber, U., Samuelsson, S., & Taube, K. (2012). Differences between overachieving and underachieving classes in reading: Teacher, classroom and student characteristics.

Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 12(4), 339-366. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798411417376 Darling-Hammond, L., & Baratz-Snowden, J. (2007). A good teacher in every classroom: Preparing the highly qualified teachers our children deserve. Educational Horizons, 85(2), 111-132. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42926597 Darling-Hammond, L., Klein, S. P., & Wise, A. E. (1999). A license to teach: Raising standards for teaching. Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Day, R. (2020). Teaching Reading, Revised Edition. ELT Development Series. TESOL Press. https://doi.org/info:doi/ Duffy, G. G. (2002). The case for direct explanation of strategies. In C.C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 28-41).

Guilford.

Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2008). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension.

The Journal of Education, 189(1/2), 107-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022057409189001-208 Duke, N. K., Ward, A. E., & Pearson, P. D. (2021). The science of reading comprehension instruction. The Reading Teacher, 74(6), 663-672. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1993 Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38(1), 47-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013188960380104 Fogarty, R., Kerns, G. M., Pete, B. M., Bryan, J., & Ballou, C. (2020). Literacy reframed: How a focus on decoding, vocabulary, and background knowledge improves reading comprehension. Solution Tree Press.

Galalah, A. (1992). English language in the State of Qatar: An analysis of perceptions and attitudes as a basis for syllabus design (Publication No. U041012) [Doctoral dissertation, Durham University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.314426 GSDP. (2011). Qatar national development strategy 2011–2016. Towards Qatar National Vision 2030.

Golkowska, K. U. (2013). Voice and dialogue in teaching reading/writing to Qatari students. Journal of International Education Research, 9(4), 339-344. https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v9i4.8085 Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Ernst Klett Sprachen.

Grabe, W. P., & Stoller, F. L. (2013). Teaching and researching: Reading. Routledge.

Hall, L. A. & Piazza, S. V. (2008). Critically Reading Texts: What Students Do and How Teachers Can Help.

Reading Teacher, 62(1), 32-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.1.4

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

511

Hamouda, A. (2021). The Effect of Lexical Inference Strategy Instruction on Saudi EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension.

Education Quarterly Reviews, 4(1). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3791100 Hayes, S. S. (2012). The effect of multiple strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of first-grade students. Trevecca Nazarene University.

Hernandez-Laboy, O. I. (2009). Reading strategies ESL teachers utilize to enhance comprehension in students: Implications for classroom practices [Doctoral dissertation, University of Puerto Rico]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.

Hollingsworth, J. R., & Ybarra, S. E. (2017). Explicit direct instruction (EDI): The power of the well-crafted, well-taught lesson. Corwin Press.

Iwai, Y. (2011). The effects of metacognitive reading strategies: Pedagogical implications for EFL/ESL teachers. The Reading Matrix 11(2), 150,159.

Kadah, R. B. (2005). Learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom: An exploratory study of strategy instruction for reading comprehension in Arabic in the United States [Master's thesis, The George Washington University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Keene, E. O. (2009). To understand. In K. Ganske & D. Fisher (Eds), Comprehension across the curriculum: Perspectives and practices K-12 (pp. 7-22). Guilford.

Koç, M., & Fadlelmula, F. K. (2016), Overall review of education system in Qatar. Lambert Academic Publishing.

Koda K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press.

Kuzborska, I. (2010). The relationship between EFL teachers' beliefs and practices in reading instruction to advanced learners of English in a Lithuanian university context (Publication No. U510300) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Essex].

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Lai, Y.-L. (2006). Using comprehension strategy instruction with English language learners: Insights from three elementary school classrooms (Publication No. 3274287) [Ed.D., University of Northern Colorado]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Mathes, P. G., Pollard-Durodola, S. D., Cárdenas-Hagan, E., Linan-Thompson, S., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Teaching struggling readers who are native Spanish speakers: What do we know? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38(3), 260-271. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2007/027) MDPS. (2015).

Education Statistics.

Retrieved from http://www.arabdevelopmentportal.com/sites/default/files/publication/873. qatar-education_statistics_2014.pdf McLaughlin, M. (2012). Reading Comprehension: What Every Teacher Needs to Know.

The Reading Teacher, 65(7), 432-440. https://doi.org/10.1002/TRTR.01064 McMillan, J. H. (1996). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer. HarperCollins College Publishers.

McMunn Dooley, C., & Matthews, M. W. (2009). Emergent comprehension: Understanding comprehension development among young literacy learners.

Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 9(3), 269-294. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1468798409345110 Nasser, R. (2013). A Literacy Exercise: An extracurricular reading program as an intervention to enrich student reading habits in Qatar. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 1(1), 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.1n.1p.61 Nasser, R. (2017). Qatar’s educational reform past and future: Challenges in teacher development.

Open Review of Educational Research, 4(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/23265507.2016.1266693

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

512

Negari, G. M., & Askani, S. (2014). The effect of explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension among Iranian high school students. Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods, 4(3), 19-29.

Neufeld, P. (2005). Comprehension instruction in content area classes. The Reading Teacher, 59(4), 302-312. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.4.1 OECD. (2020). PISA 2018 Data. https://doi.org/10.1787/7d34d111-en OECD, PISA. (2014). Results: What students know and can do: Student Performance in Mathematics. Reading, and Science, 1. Programme for International Student Assessment.

Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55(1), 64-69.

Palmer, D. J., Sadiq, H. M., Lynch, P., Parker, D., Viruru, R., Knight, S., Waxman, H., Alford, B., Brown, D. B., & Rollins, K. (2016). A classroom observational study of Qatar's independent schools: Instruction and school reform. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(4), 413-423. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2014.979908 Pressley, M. (2001). Comprehension instruction: What makes sense now, what might make sense soon. Reading online, 5(2), 1-14.

Pressley, M., & Allington, R. L. (2014). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. Guilford Publications.

Pressley, M., & Hilden, K. (2002). How can children be taught to comprehend text better.

Successful reading instruction: Research in educational productivity, 33-51.

Pressley, M., & Hilden, K. (2006). Cognitive Strategies. In D. Kuhn, R. S. Siegler, W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds), Handbook of child psychology: Cognition, perception, and language (pp. 511–556). John Wiley & Sons Inc. Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction. Cambridge: MA Brooklynn Books.

Quigley, A. (2020). Closing the reading gap. London: Routledge.

Reyna-Barron, E. Y. (2016). An analysis of the comprehension instruction and reading comprehension and vocabulary strategies used by teachers to facilitate students' ability to understand text [Ph.D., Texas A&M University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Ruddell, R. B. (2008). How to teach reading to elementary and middle school students: Practical ideas from highly effective teachers. Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Sahlberg, P. (2021). Finnish Lessons 3. 0: What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? Teachers College Press.

Sheorey, R., & Mokhtari, K. (2001). Differences in the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among native and non-native readers. System, 29(4), 431-449.

Sinatra, G. M., Brown, K. J., & Reynolds, R. E. (2002). Implications of cognitive resource allocation for comprehension strategies instruction. Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices, 62-76.

Spencer, M., Wagner, R. K., & Petscher, Y. (2019). The reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge of children with poor reading comprehension despite adequate decoding: Evidence from a regression-based matching approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000274 Treiman, R. (2018). What Research Tells Us About Reading Instruction. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772272

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

513

US Department of Education. (2005). Simple Strategies for Creating Strong Readers. Helping Your Child Become a Reader. U.S. Department of Education. https://www2.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/reader/partx4.html Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Willingham, D. T. (2015). Raising kids who read: What parents and teachers can do. John Wiley & Sons.

Winograd, P., & Hare, V. C. (1988). Direct instruction of reading comprehension strategies: The nature of teacher explanation. In Claire E. Weinstein, Ernest T. Goetz, Patricia A. Alexander (Eds), Learning and study strategies (pp. 121-139). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-742460-6.50014-1 Zipoli. (2017). Unravelling Difficult Sentences: Strategies to Support Reading Comprehension. Intervention in School and Clinic, 52(4), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451216659465

Appendix 1: Survey Questions: Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction I. Demographic Information 1. What is your gender? a) Female b) Male 2. What is your latest academic preparation? a) Bachelor’s Degree b) Bachelor’s Degree plus credit towards Master’s Degree c) Master’s Degree d) Master’s Degree plus credits towards Doctoral degree e) Doctoral Degree 3. What level do you teach? a) Elementary b) Preparatory c) Secondary 4. Are you certified at that level? a) Yes b) No 5. How many years of experience do you have as an English teacher? a) 0-5 b) 6-11 c) 12-17 d) 18 or more 6. Did you take any courses on the teaching of reading comprehension during your bachelor’s degree studies? a) Yes b) No

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

514

II: Instructional Strategies in Classroom A. How frequently are students taught the following reading comprehension strategies in your class?

Strategy 1. Identify their purpose of reading 2. Preview text before reading 3. Make predictions before and during reading 4. Think aloud while reading 5. Activate relevant background knowledge for reading 6. Use text structure to support comprehension 7. Create visual representation to aid comprehension and recall (visualizing) 8. Identify the important ideas in a text 9. Summarize what they read 10. Generate questions for text 11. Handle unfamiliar words using context clues 12. Monitor their comprehension during reading

Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Never

515

B. How often do you include the following teaching practices in your reading classes?

Practice Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely 1. Explicit instruction of the strategy 2. Modelling of the strategy in action 3. Collaborative use of the strategy (cooperative learning) 4. Guided practice using the strategy 5. Independent practice using the strategy 6. Combination of multiple reading strategies (orchestration)

http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

Never

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management Port Louis Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionDr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir-Benmostefa ers on all aspects of education to publish high Dr. Giorgio Poletti quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiDr. Chi Man Tsui cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr. Abu Bakar readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr. Eglantina Hysa to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati and case studies that describe significant adDr. Selma Kara vances in the fields of education, training, eDr. Michael B. Cahapay learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr. Vassiliki Pliogou sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr. Meera Subramanian should not have been published previously or Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan be under consideration for publication while Dr. Wahyu Widada being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu-Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela